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 GREAT EVENTS 
 
 IN 
 
 MODERN HISTORY: 
 
 
 COMPRISDJO THE MOST REMARKABLE 
 
 DISCOVERIES, CONQUESTS, REVOLUTIONS, GREAT BATTLES, 
 
 AND OTHER 
 
 THRILLING INCIDENTS, 
 
 CHIEFLY IN EUROPE AND AMERICA, 
 
 jFrom tit <&t>mmmttmmt of tit gixtttntl dfanturs to tfje -l^xtstnt ©tnu. 
 
 BY JOHN FROST, LL.D. 
 
 PROFUSELY EMBELLISHED WITH ENGRAVINGS, 
 FROM DESIGNS OF W. CROOME, 
 
 AND OTHER EMINENT ARTISTS. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 PUBLISHED BY J. W. BRADLEY, 
 
 No. 48 NORTH FOURTH STREET 
 
 1851.
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by L. Johnson & Co., in the 
 Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
 
 PEEFACE. 
 
 The object of the present work is to present, in a 
 striking point of view, the most remarkable and influen- 
 tial events of modern times. The author has not at- 
 tempted a regular and continuous history, as that had 
 already been given in the volume of his Pictorial His- 
 tory of the World, devoted to modern history. But he 
 has in this volume brought together a series of narra- 
 tives, of such a character as he considered likely to 
 interest the reader strongly, and to leave a lasting im- 
 pression on the memory, at the same time that they 
 exhibit the salient points of history.
 
 4 PREFACE. 
 
 It has been very justly remarked, that to be really 
 and extensively useful, a book must be entertaining. 
 Those which lack this characteristic, however laudable 
 may be their design, and however able, accurate, and 
 minute their execution, cannot be generally useful, be- 
 cause the mass of readers will not read them through. 
 They may buy them from a sense of duty, because they 
 are said to be good books ; they may place them on a 
 shelf and make a resolute attempt to read them occa- 
 sionally ; but if the books are dry and repulsive, they 
 are laid aside after the perusal of a few pages, and when 
 repeated attempts to accomplish the heavy task have 
 failed, the undertaking is given up in despair. The 
 volume is spoken of with great respect, and permitted 
 to enjoy a dignified repose on the upper shelf. 
 
 This is a consummation which the author of this 
 work has earnestly endeavoured to avoid. It will be 
 seen, by a glance at the table of contents, that the events 
 selected for narration are important and worthy of 
 notice — interesting in themselves, in the characters 
 they exhibit, and the bearing they have exerted on the 
 destiny of mankind. The authorities cited are reliable ; 
 and the authors quoted are among the most eminent 
 classics in history, such as Robertson, Hume, Gold- 
 smith, Macauley, Bonnechose, and others 1 of equal repu- 
 tation. It is humbly hoped, therefore, that the volume 
 may prove an entertaining one, so that readers who 
 once take it up will require no inducement but its 
 interesting and entertaining character to insure their
 
 PREFACE. 5 
 
 reading it through. If read through, it cannot fail to 
 be useful. Its facts, and the great historical personages 
 it exhibits will be remembered. They cannot be for- 
 gotten. 
 
 In order the better to insure the recollection of inci- 
 dents and characters presented in this volume, the 
 author has embellished it profusely with engravings. 
 These graphic helps to the memory exert much influ- 
 ence in extending and popularizing the knowledge of 
 history. They make the reader familiar with the sub- 
 ject, at the same time that they afford pleasure to the 
 cultivated eye, and serve to diffuse among all classes of 
 readers a certain degree of knowledge and taste in the 
 fine arts. 
 
 The author is sensible to the high degree of indul- 
 gence with which his very humble efforts in the cause 
 of national education have been regarded by his coun- 
 trymen. The publishers' returns of copies sold afford 
 a tolerably satisfactory proof that his works are very 
 widely diffused among the people; and as this has been 
 the case for many years, he has reason to believe that 
 they are also approved. For this he is deeply grateful, 
 and he will always endeavour to evince the sincerity 
 of his gratitude by studiously aiming at real utility in 
 whatever he may offer to the notice of the public.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction 15 
 
 Accession of Francis 1 17 
 
 Accession of Charles V 19 
 
 Commencement of the Reformation 22 
 
 Discoveries of the Portuguese in Africa 25 
 
 Voyage of Vasco de Gama 28 
 
 Voyage of Cabral 32 
 
 Astonishing Conquests of Albuquerque in India 34 
 
 Discovery of America 42 
 
 Conquest of Mexico 50 
 
 Conquest of Peru 60 
 
 Charles V. chosen Emperor 64 
 
 7
 
 8 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Luther summoned before the Emperor 67 
 
 The Fall of Rhodes 71 
 
 Conspiracy of Bourbon and Death of Bayard 75 
 
 Battle of Pavia, and Capture of Francis 1 78 
 
 Liberation of Francis 82 
 
 Death of Bourbon and Sacking of Rome 84 
 
 Expeditions of Charles V. against the States of Barbary 87 
 
 The Reformation in England 92 
 
 Accession of Edward VI 107 
 
 Persecutions of the Protestants in Queen Mary's Reign Ill 
 
 Resignation of Charles V 118 
 
 Accession of Queen Elizabeth 123 
 
 Death of Mary Queen of Scots 126 
 
 Destruction of the Spanish Armada 127 
 
 Death of Queen Elizabeth 131 
 
 Commencement of the Civil War in France 133 
 
 Battle of Dreux, Siege of Orleans, and Battle of St. Denis 136 
 
 Battles of Jarnac and Montcontour 141 
 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew 143 
 
 Formation of the Catholic League 150 
 
 Assassination of the Duke of Guise 153 
 
 Assassination of Henry III , 160 
 
 Battle of Ivri 167 
 
 Siege of Paris * 169 
 
 Assassination of Henry IV 174 
 
 Accession of James 1 183 
 
 The Gunpowder Plot 185 
 
 Discovery and Exploration of North America 189 
 
 Settlement of Virginia 202 
 
 Settlement of New England 208 
 
 Rise of Wallenstein 222 
 
 Events of the Thirty Years' War — Gustavus Adolphus — Battle of 
 
 Leipsic 226 
 
 Death of Tilly— Battle of Lutzen — Death of Gustavus Adolphus 235 
 
 Death of Wallenstein 243 
 
 Death of Ferdinand II. and Bernard of Saxe Weimar — End of the Thirty 
 
 Years' War 247
 
 CONTENTS. 9 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Accession of Louis XIII. of France 253 
 
 Rise of Cardinal Richelieu 258 
 
 Death of Richelieu and Louis XIII., and Accession of Louis XIV 2G0 
 
 The War of the Fronde 265 
 
 Accession of Charles I. and Death of the Duke of Buckingham 273 
 
 Charles's War with Scotland— Fall of Strafford 276 
 
 Commencement of the Civil War in England 279 
 
 Capture of Charles 1 282 
 
 Trial and Execution of Charles 1 284 
 
 Accession and Government of Cromwell 287 
 
 Restoration of Charles II 299 
 
 Attempt of James II. to re-establish the Catholic Religion in England.... 309 
 
 War between France and Holland — Death of Turenne 315 
 
 War between France and Germany 322 
 
 Accession of Philip V. of Spain 324 
 
 Siege of Vienna 328 
 
 King Philip's War 331 
 
 Accession of William III. of England — Battles of the Boyne and of Au- 
 
 ghrim 338 
 
 Accession of Queen Anne of England 347 
 
 Exploits of the Buccaneers 352 
 
 Accession of George I. of England 363 
 
 Accession of George II. — Rebellion of 1745 368 
 
 Fall of Calcutta, and Death of the Prisoners in the Black-hole 374 
 
 Recovery of Calcutta — Brilliant Success of Colonel Clive in India 385 
 
 Conquest of Canada by the British 390 
 
 The First Silesian War 403 
 
 The Seven Years' War in Germany 415 
 
 Opening of the American Revolution ; 436 
 
 Campaign of 1776 449 
 
 Campaign of 1777 464 
 
 Campaigns of 1778 and 1789 478 
 
 Campaigns of 1780 and 1781, and Close of the War 487 
 
 Commencement of the First French Revolution 501 
 
 Capture of the Bastile 506 
 
 The First Emigration 509 
 
 The Royal Family brought from Versailles to Paris 512 
 
 2
 
 10 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Death of Mirabeau — Flight of the King — Dissolution of the National As- 
 sembly 515 
 
 The Legislative Assembly — The Girondists 519 
 
 Insurrection of the 10th of August — Flight of La Fayette 526 
 
 Commencement of the Reign of Terror — September Massacres — Battle 
 
 ofValmy 532 
 
 The National Convention 535 
 
 Trial and Execution of Louis XVI 538 
 
 Vendean War — Desertion of Dumouriez 542 
 
 Fall of the Girondins 545 
 
 Fall of Danton 548 
 
 Fall of Robespierre 550 
 
 Bonaparte's First Campaign in Italy 555 
 
 Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt 564 
 
 Revolution of the 18th Brumaire 572 
 
 Campaign of Austerlitz 577 
 
 Invasion of Spain 582 
 
 The War in Spain and Germany 589 
 
 Napoleon's Russian Campaign 594 
 
 Capture of the Insurgente and Vengeance 598 
 
 The Tripolitan War 604 
 
 Bombardment of Tripoli 610 
 
 Capture of Derne and Close of the War 616 
 
 Commencement of the War of 1812 619 
 
 Capture of the Guerriere 629 
 
 Capture of the Frolic and the Macedonian 631 
 
 Capture of the Java 639 
 
 Massacre of the River Raisin, and Siege of Fort Meigs 643 
 
 Capture of York, and Defence of Sackett's Harbour 647 
 
 Defence of Fort Stephenson 651 
 
 Commodore Perry's Victory on Lake Erie — Battle of the Thames 655 
 
 Battle between the Hornet and Peacock 665 
 
 Battle between the Enterprise and Boxer 671 
 
 Operations on the Northern Frontier in 1814 675 
 
 Attack on Washington and Baltimore 683 
 
 Cruise of the Essex 687 
 
 Capture of the Epervier and Reindeer 691
 
 CONTENTS. 11 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Capture of the Penguin 696 
 
 Expedition of the British against New Orleans — Return of Peace 700 
 
 The Greek Revolution 706 
 
 French Conquest of Algiers — French Revolution of 1830 709 
 
 The Opium War between England and China 716 
 
 The War between the United States and Mexico 723 
 
 French Revolution of 1848 and '49 755 
 
 The Insurrections in Germany 773 
 
 Insurrections in Italy 788 
 
 Acquisition of California and its Gold Mines 795 
 
 ■
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ODERN history may be regarded as 
 commencing with the discovery of 
 America, which took place in 1492. 
 The century following (16th century) 
 is one of the most remarkable in the 
 history of the world, both with respect 
 to its extraordinary events and its dis- 
 tinguished men. It witnessed the great reformation in religion ; 
 the extended conquests of the Spaniards in America, and of 
 the Portuguese in India ; the civil wars of France, the various 
 contests of Charles V. and Francis I. ; the successful resist- 
 ance of the Turkish power, threatening the conquest of the 
 whole west bf Europe ; the momentous reigns of Henry VIII. 
 and Elizabeth, in England ; and the general diffusion of learn- 
 ing and science throughout Europe by means of the recently 
 
 discovered art of printing. 
 
 B 13
 
 14 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Nor was this period less remarkable for its great men. With- 
 out attempting to enumerate those of inferior rank, its sovereigns 
 alone would serve to characterize the era. " It was the peculiar 
 glory of that period," says Robertson, "to produce the most 
 illustrious monarchs, who have at any one time appeared in 
 Europe. Leo, Charles, Francis, Henry, and Solyman, were 
 each of them possessed of talents which might have rendered 
 any age, wherein they happened to flourish, conspicuous. But 
 such a constellation of great princes shed uncommon lustre on 
 the sixteenth century. In every contest, great power as well 
 as great abilities were set in opposition ; the efforts of valour 
 and conduct on one side, counterbalanced by an ecpial exertion 
 of the same qualities on the other, not only occasioned such a 
 variety of events as renders the history of that period interest- 
 ing, but served to check the exorbitant progress of any of those 
 princes, and to prevent their attaining such pre-eminence in 
 power as would have been fatal to the liberty, and happiness of 
 mankind." 
 
 Our notices of the remarkable incidents of modern history 
 will commence with those of the sixteenth century ; commencing 
 with the accession of two of its most remarkable sovereigns, 
 Francis I. of France, and Charles of Spain, afterwards elected 
 emperor of Germany with the title of Charles V.
 
 FRANCIS I.
 
 ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. 
 
 EWIS XII. was succeeded on the 
 throne of France by his son-in-law 
 Francis, count of Angouleme, first 
 prince of the blood, whose military 
 genius, it was foreseen, would soon 
 disturb the peace of Europe, (a. d. 
 1515.) Young, brave, ambitious, 
 and enterprising, he immediately 
 turned his eyes towards Italy, as the scene of glory and of con- 
 quest. His first object was the recovery of Milan. But before 
 he set out on that expedition, he renewed the treaty which his 
 predecessor had concluded with England ; and having nothing 
 to fear from Spain, where Ferdinand was on the verge of the 
 grave, he marched his army towards the Alps, under pretence 
 of defending his kingdom against the incursions of the Swiss. 
 Informed of his hostile intentions, that warlike people had taken 
 up arms, at the instigation of the pope, in order to protect Maxi- 
 milian Sforza, duke of Milan, whom they had restored to his 
 dominions, and thought themselves bound in honour to support. 
 These hardy mountaineers took possession of all those passes 
 in the Alps through which they thought the French must enter 
 Italy ; and when informed that Francis had made his way into 
 Piedmont by a secret route, they descended undismayed into 
 the plain, and gallantly opposed themselves on foot to the heavy- 
 armed cavalry of France. The two armies met at Marignan, 
 near Milan, (Sept. 13 ;) where was fought one of the most furious 
 and obstinate battles mentioned in the history of modern times. 
 The action began towards evening : night parted the combatants : 
 but next morning the Swiss renewed the attack with unabated 
 ardour, and it required all the heroic valour of Francis to in- 
 spire his troops with courage sufficient to resist the shock. The 
 3 b2 17
 
 18 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Swiss, though broken at last by the cavalry, and galled by the 
 cannon, long kept their ground ; and did not retire till they had 
 lost upwards of twelve thousand of their best troops, about one- 
 half of their whole number. The loss of the French was very 
 considerable ; twenty thousand men fell on both sides ; and the 
 old Marshal Trivulzio, who had been present at eighteen pitched 
 battles, used to declare, that in comparison of the battle of Ma- 
 rignan, every other engagement he had seen was but the play 
 of children, but this was a combat of heroes. 
 
 The surrender of the city of Milan, and the conquest of the 
 whole duchy, were the consequences of this victory. Maximi- 
 lian Sforza resigned his claim in consideration of a pension; 
 and Francis, having concluded a treaty with the pope and with 
 the Swiss, returned into France, leaving to Charles, duke of 
 Bourbon, the government of his Italian dominions. 
 
 In the mean time, the success and glory of the French monarch 
 began to excite jealousy in the breast of the old Emperor Maxi- 
 milian : nor was the rapid progress of Francis, though in so 
 distant a country, regarded with indifference even by the king 
 of England. Henry despatched a minister to the court of 
 Vienna, with secret orders to propose certain payments to the 
 emperor : and Maximilian, who was ever ready to embrace any 
 overture to excite fresh troubles, and always necessitous, imme- 
 diately invaded Italy with a considerable army. But that prince, 
 being repulsed before Milan by the French garrison, and hear- 
 ing that twelve thousand Swiss were advancing to its relief, re- 
 tired hastily into Germany ; made peace with France and with 
 Venice, (a. d. 1516,) ceded Verona to that republic for a sum 
 of money, and thus excluded himself, in some measure, from all 
 future access into Italy.
 
 ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 
 
 19 
 
 CHARLES V. 
 
 ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 
 
 |HE next remarkable and influential 
 event of the sixteenth century was 
 the death of Ferdinand the Cath- 
 olic, (Jan. 23, 1516,) and the suc- 
 cession of his grandson Charles to 
 his extensive dominions; an event 
 which had long been looked for, and 
 from which the most important con- 
 sequences were expected. Charles, 
 who had hitherto resided in the Low 
 Countries, which he inherited as heir of the house of Burgundy, 
 was now near the full age of sixteen, and possessed a recollec- 
 tion and sedateness much above his years ; but his genius had 
 yet given no indications of that superiority which its maturer 
 state displayed. That capacious and decisive judgment, which 
 afterwards directed so ably the affairs of a vast empire, was left 
 to be discovered by those great events to which it gave birth,
 
 20 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 and those occasions which made it necessary. At present there 
 was little call for it. 
 
 Cardinal Xiruenes, archbishop of Toledo, a person of equal 
 virtue and sagacity, had prudently been appointed, by the will 
 of Ferdinand, sole regent of Castile, till the arrival of his grand- 
 son. This man, whose character is no less singular than illus- 
 trious; who united the abilities of a great statesman with the 
 abject devotion of a superstitious monk; and the magnificence 
 of a prime minister with the austerity of a mendicant; main- 
 tained order and tranquillity in Spain, notwithstanding the dis- 
 contents of a turbulent and high-spirited nobility. When they 
 disputed his right to the regency, he coolly showed them the 
 testament of Ferdinand, and the ratification of that deed by 
 Charles ; but these not satisfying them, and arguments proving 
 ineffectual, he led them insensibly towards a balcony, whence 
 they had a view of a large body of troops under arms, and a 
 formidable train of artillery. "Behold," said the cardinal, 
 raising his voice, and extending his arm, " the powers which I 
 have received from his Catholic majesty: by these I govern 
 Castile ! and will govern it, till the king, your master and mine, 
 shall come to take possession of his kingdom." (a. d. 1517.) 
 A declaration so bold and determined silenced all opposition, 
 and Ximenes maintained his authority till the arrival of Charles. 
 
 The fate of this minister merits attention, though not imme- 
 diately connected with the line of general history. The young 
 king was received with universal acclamations of joy ; but 
 Ximenes found little cause to rejoice. He was seized with a 
 violent disorder, supposed to be the effect of poison ; and when 
 he recovered, Charles, prejudiced against him by the Spanish 
 grandees and his Flemish courtiers, slighted his advice, and 
 allowed him every day to sink into neglect. The cardinal did 
 not bear this treatment with his usual firmness of spirit. He 
 expected a more grateful return from a prince, to whom he de- 
 livered a kingdom far more flourishing than it had been in any 
 former age, and authority more extensive and better established 
 than the most illustrious of his ancestors had ever possessed. 
 Conscious of his own integrity and merit, he could not therefore 
 refrain from giving vent, at times, to indignation and complaint. 
 He lamented the fate of his country, and foretold the calamities 
 to which it would be exposed from the insolence, the rapacious-
 
 ACCESSION OP CHARLES V. 
 
 21 
 
 ness, and the ignorance of strangers. These feelings agitated 
 the soul of Ximenes, when he received a letter from the king, 
 genteelly dismissing him from his counsels, under pretence of 
 easing his age of that burden, which he had so long and so ably 
 sustained. This letter proved fatal to the minister. His 
 haughty mind could not endure disgrace, nor his generous 
 heart the stings of ingratitude : he expired a few hours after 
 reading it. 
 
 CARDINAL XIMENE
 
 22 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 REFORM ER8 PREACHING. 
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE REFORMATION. 
 
 HILE Charles was taking possession of 
 the throne of Spain, in consequence of 
 the death of one grandfather, another was 
 endeavouring to obtain for him the impe- 
 rial crown. With this view Maximilian 
 assembled a diet at Augsburg, (a. d. 
 1518,) where he strove to gain the favour of the electors by 
 many acts of beneficence, in order to engage them to choose that 
 young prince as his successor. But Maximilian himself having 
 never been crowned by the pope, a ceremony deemed essential 
 in that age, as well as the preceding, he was considered only as 
 king of the Romans, or emperor elect ; and no example occur- 
 ring in history of any person being chosen successor to a king 
 of the Romans, the Germans, ever tenacious of their forms, 
 obstinately refused to confer upon Charles a dignity for which 
 their constitution knew no name. 
 
 But the diet of Augsburg had other business. Thither was 
 summoned Martin Luther, for " propagating new and dangerous
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE REFORMATION. 23 
 
 opinions." These opinions were no other than the first prin- 
 ciples of the Reformation, which soon diffused themselves through 
 Germany, which were afterwards embraced by so many nations, 
 and which separated one-half of Europe from the Romish church. 
 
 After that enormous privilege which the Roman pontiffs as- 
 sumed of disposing of crowns, and of releasing nations from 
 their oath of allegiance, the most pernicious to society was that 
 of absolving individuals from the ties of moral duty. This dan- 
 gerous power, or one equivalent to it, the pope claimed as the 
 successor of St. Peter, and the keeper of the spiritual treasury 
 of the church, supposed to contain the superabounding good 
 works of the saints, together with the infinite merits of Jesus 
 Christ. Out of this inexhaustible storehouse of superabundant 
 merit, his holiness might retail, at pleasure, particular portions 
 to those who were deficient. He assumed, in short, and directly 
 exercised the right of pardoning sins ; which was, in other words, 
 granting a permission to commit them ; for if it is known, as 
 had long been the case in the Romish church, at what price the 
 punishment of any crime may be bought off, the encouragement 
 to vice is the same as if a dispensation had been granted before- 
 hand. And even that was frequently indulged. 
 
 The influence of such indulgences upon morals may easily be 
 imagined ; especially in ages when superstition had silenced 
 the voice of conscience, and reason was bewildered in Gothic 
 darkness ; when the church had everywhere provided sanctuaries, 
 which not only screened from the arm of the civil magistrate 
 persons guilty of the greatest enormities, but often enabled them 
 to live in affluence. 
 
 The abuse of the sale of indulgences in Germany, where they 
 were publicly retailed in alehouses, and where the produce of 
 particular districts was farmed out, in the manner of a toll or cus- 
 tom, awakened the indignation of Martin Luther, an Augustine 
 friar, and professor of theology in the university of Wittemberg. 
 Luther was also incensed, it is said, that the privilege of vend- 
 ing this spiritual merchandise had been taken from his order, 
 and given to the Dominicans. But be that as it may, he wrote 
 and he preached against indulgences. His writings were read 
 with avidity, and his discourses were listened to with admiration. 
 He appealed to reason and Scripture for the truth of his argu- 
 ments, not to the decisions of councils or of popes. A corner
 
 24 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of the veil was now happily lifted. The people, ever fond of 
 judging for themselves, (and in matters which concern them- 
 selves only they have an undoubted right,) flattered by this ap- 
 peal, began to call in question that authority which they had 
 formerly reverenced, which they had blindly adored ; and Luther, 
 emboldened by success, extended his views, and ventured to 
 declaim against other abuses. From abuses he proceeded to 
 usurpations; from usurpations to errors; and from one error 
 to another, till the whole fabric of the Romish church began 
 to totter. 
 
 Leo, in the mean time, alarmed at the progress of this daring 
 innovator, had summoned him to answer for his doctrines at 
 Rome. But that citation was remitted at the intercession of 
 Frederick, surnamed the Wise, elector of Saxony, who had hith- 
 erto protected Luther ; and his cause was ordered to be tried in 
 Germany, by Cardinal Cajetan, a Dominican, eminent for scho- 
 lastic learning, and the pope's legate at the imperial court. For 
 this end, among others, Cajetan attended the diet at Augsburg ; 
 and thither Luther repaired without hesitation, after having 
 obtained the emperor's safe-conduct, though he had good 
 reason to decline a judge chosen from among his avowed adver- 
 saries. The cardinal received him with decent respect, and en- 
 deavoured at first to gain him by gentle treatment ; but finding 
 him firm in his principles, and thinking it beneath the dignity 
 of his station to enter into any formal dispute, he required him, 
 by virtue of the apostolic powers with which he was vested, to 
 retract his errors, (without showing that they were such,) and to 
 abstain, for the future, from the publication of new and danger- 
 ous opinions. Luther, who had flattered himself with a hearing, 
 and hoped to distinguish himself in a dispute with a prelate of 
 such eminent abilities, was much mortified at this arbitrary mode 
 of proceeding. His native intrepidity of mind, however, did 
 not forsake him: he boldly replied, that he could not, with a 
 safe conscience, renounce opinions which he believed to be true ; 
 but offered to submit the whole controversy to the judgment of 
 the learned, naming certain universities. This offer was rejected 
 by Cajetan, who still insisted on a simple recantation ; and Lu- 
 ther, by the advice of his friends, after appealing to a general 
 council, secretly withdrew from Augsburg, and returned to his 
 own country.
 
 DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN AFRICA. 
 
 25 
 
 WAR SHIP OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN 
 AFRICA. 
 
 HE navigation of Europe, at the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century, 
 though much improved since the 
 age of Charlemagne, was chiefly 
 confined to the Mediterranean and 
 Baltic seas, and was still little more 
 than what is now called coasting. 
 Flanders was the great theatre of 
 commerce. Thither, the Italian 
 states conveyed from the ports of 
 Egypt the precious commodities of 
 the East ; and thither the Hanseatic merchants carried from 
 the shores of the Baltic the naval stores and other rude mer- 
 chandise of the North. To this common mart, all European 
 nations resorted. Here they sold or exchanged the produce of 
 their several countries, and supplied themselves with what they 
 wanted, without dreaming of new ports, or suspecting that the 
 system of commerce could be altered. Dantzic, Lisbon, and 
 4 C
 
 26 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Alexandria, continued to mark the limits of practical navigation ; 
 when the enlightened and enterprising genius of Don Henry of 
 Portugal extended the views of the mariner, and emboldened 
 him to pilot the Atlantic, or Great Western Ocean. But before 
 we speak of that prince, and the discoveries which he accom- 
 plished, we must say a few words of his country, hitherto 
 considered only as an appendage of Spain. 
 
 Portugal, which forms the western coast of the southern penin- 
 sula of Europe, had no existence as a separate state till towards 
 the close of the eleventh century. About that time Alphonso 
 VI., king of Castile and Leon, having conquered from the Moors 
 the northern provinces of the present kingdom of Portugal, 
 bestowed them,together with his natural daughter, upon Henry 
 of Burgundy, a noble volunteer, who had assisted him in his 
 wars. Henry took only the title of count ; but his son Alphonso, 
 having recovered other provinces from the Moors, assumed the 
 regal dignity in 1139. The kings of Portugal, like those of 
 Spain, long spent their force in combating the Moors, and had 
 no connection with the rest of Europe. The succession con- 
 tinued uninterrupted in the line of Burgundy, till the death of 
 Ferdinand in 1383 ; when John of Castile, who had married the 
 infanta of Portugal, claimed the crown, as the king had left no 
 male issue, (a. d. 1385.) But the states of Portugal, after an 
 interregnum of eighteen months, gave it to John, natural brother 
 of their deceased sovereign, and at that time regent of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 This John, surnamed the Bastard, no less politic than enter- 
 prising, proved worthy of his new dignity. He was the first 
 European prince who formed a respectable navy ; which he em- 
 ployed, with equal success, in annoying his enemies and in 
 protecting his subjects. He took Ceuta from the Moors, (a. d. 
 1414,) and overawed the states of Barbary during his whole 
 reign. He had several sons, who all signalized themselves by 
 their valour and abilities ; but more especially the third, Don 
 Henry, whose bold and enlightened genius, assisted by the re- 
 ports of travellers, led him to project discoveries in the Western 
 Ocean. 
 
 This amiable prince, who joined the virtues of a hero and a 
 patriot to the knowledge of a philosopher, turned to use that 
 astronomy which the Arabs had preserved. He had a considera-
 
 DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN AFRICA. 
 
 27 
 
 ble share in the invention of the astrolabe, and first perceived 
 the advantage that might be drawn from the direction of the 
 magnetic needle to the north ; which, though already known in 
 Europe, had not hitherto been employed with any success in 
 navigation. He established an observatory at -Sagres, near 
 Cape St. Vincent, where many persons were instructed in as- 
 tronomy and the art of sailing. The pilots formed under his 
 eye not only doubled Cape Non, long supposed an insurmountable 
 barrier, but advanced as far as Cape Bajadore, and in their re- 
 turn discovered the island of Madeira, (a. d. 1420.) Other 
 pilots, yet more bold, were sent out. They doubled Cape Ba- 
 jadore, Cape Blanco, Cape Verd, and at last Cape Sierra Leona, 
 within eight degrees of the line, before the death of Don Henry, 
 (a. d. 1463.) In the course of these voyages, the Azores and 
 Cape de Verd islands had been discovered, and the vine and the 
 sugar-cane introduced into the island of Madeira, and there cul- 
 tivated with success. 
 
 Under the reign of John II., a prince of the most profound 
 sagacity and most extensive views, who first made Lisbon a free 
 port, the Portuguese prosecuted their discoveries with equal ar- 
 dour and success. The river Zara, on the other side of the line, 
 conducted them to the kingdom of Congo, in the interior part 
 of Africa, where they made easy conquests, and established an 
 advantageous commerce, (a. d. 1484.) Captain Diaz passed the 
 extreme point of Africa, to which he gave the name of the 
 Stormy Cape, (a. d. 1486 ;) but the king, who saw more fully 
 the importance of that discovery, styled it the Cape of Grood 
 Hope.
 
 28 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 VOYAGE OF VASCO DE GAMA. 
 
 MANUEL I. pursued the great projects 
 of his predecessors, (a. d. 1497.) He 
 sent out a fleet of four ships, under the 
 command of Vasco de Gama, a noble 
 Portuguese, in order to complete the 
 passage to India by sea. This admiral 
 possessed all the knowledge and talents 
 necessary for such an expedition, (a. d. 1498.) After being 
 assailed by tempests, encircling the eastern coast of Africa, and 
 ranging through unknown seas, he happily arrived at the city 
 of Calicut, on the coast of Malabar, or the higher part of the 
 western side of the great peninsula of India. 
 
 Calicut was at that time the emporium of Indostan. Thither 
 the Arabs resorted for all the rich products and precious manu- 
 factures of the East. These they carried in ships to the ports 
 of the Red Sea, and sold to the Italian merchants from Alex- 
 andria. This information Gama received at Melinda, on the 
 coast of Zanguebar, the most eastern part of Africa, where he 
 had touched, and engaged a pilot who conducted him into the 
 harbour of Calicut, when the trade was at its height. Here he 
 fortunately met with a native of Barbary, named Monzaida, 
 who understood the Portuguese language, and whose admiration 
 of that people overbalanced the prejudices of religion and 
 country. This admiration determined Monzaida to do every 
 thing in his power to serve strangers, who unbosomed themselves
 
 YABCO DE QAM A.
 
 VOYAGE OF VASCO DE GAMA. 31 
 
 to hini without reserve. He procured Gama an audience of the 
 Samorin or emperor, who received him very favourably ; and a 
 treaty of commerce was set on foot in the name of the king of 
 Portugal. But this negotiation, when almost completed, was 
 broken off by the insinuations of the Arabs. Jealous of their 
 lucrative trade, they represented so strongly the danger of such 
 an alliance, and the ambition of the Portuguese, that Samorin 
 took the ungenerous resolution of putting to death those bold 
 navigators, whom he had lately treated with kindness, and 
 whose friendship he seemed to desire. 
 
 Informed of his danger by the faithful Monzaida, Gama sent 
 his brother on board the fleet. " Should you hear," said he, 
 "of my death or imprisonment, I prohibit you, as your com- 
 mander, either to attempt to release me or to avenge my fate. 
 Set sail immediately and inform the king of the success of our 
 voyage. I am happy in having performed his orders, and dis- 
 covered a passage to India for Portugal." 
 
 Fortunately, however, matters were not pushed to that ex- 
 tremity. Gama lived to carry to Portugal the news of his own 
 success. The Samorin permitted him to join his fleet, and he 
 departed soon after for Europe. 
 
 No language can express the joy of the Portuguese on the 
 return of Gama to Lisbon, (a. d. 1499.) They saw themselves, 
 by one daring enterprise, in possession of the richest commerce 
 in the world ; and no less superstitious than avaricious, they 
 flattered themselves with the project of extending their religion 
 along with their dominion.
 
 32 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 VOYAGE OF CABRAL. 
 
 HE pope farther encouraged the Portu- 
 guese. Glad of an occasion of asserting 
 his universal sovereignty, he granted to 
 them all the countries which they had 
 discovered, or should discover, in the 
 East, on condition that they should 
 there plant the Catholic faith. The 
 whole nation was seized with the en- 
 thusiasm of conversion and of conquest. 
 They presented themselves in crowds 
 to man the new fleet destined for India, 
 (a. d. 1500 :) and thirteen ships sailed, 
 as soon as the season would permit, 
 from the Tagus to Calicut, under the 
 command of Alvarez de Cabral. 
 
 This admiral, in his passage keeping out to sea, in order to 
 avoid the calms on the coast of Africa, and the storms which 
 had been met with in doubling the Cape of Good Hope, dis- 
 covered the rich country now called Brazil, to which he gave 
 the name of the Land of the Holy Cross. He took possession
 
 VOYAGE OF CABRAL. 33 
 
 of it in the name of the king his master, and proceeded on his 
 voyage. When he arrived at the coast of Malabar, the Samorin 
 made him an offer of friendship, and invited him to Calicut, 
 where he had an audience of that Indian prince, and was per- 
 mitted to open a magazine of commerce. But this good 
 understanding was of short duration. The Arabs again found 
 means to poison the mind of the Samorin : the admiral did 
 not behave with the greatest discretion: mutual jealousies 
 took place, mutual fears, and mutual injuries. At last the in- 
 habitants of Calicut rose, murdered fifty Portuguese, and burnt 
 their magazine. This act of hostility did not escape unpunished. 
 Cabral, in revenge of such a breach of faith and such under- 
 mining perfidy, destroyed all the Arabian vessels in the port, 
 beat down great part of the city, and left it in flames. 
 
 After this second rupture with the Samorin, the measures of 
 the Portuguese in India were totally changed. The peaceful 
 system of Gama was laid aside : the maxims of mutual advan- 
 tage gave place to those of violence, of force, and of fear ; and 
 commerce was established by the sword. Cabral, on leaving 
 Calicut, entered into a negotiation with the kings of Cochin, 
 Cananor, Onor, Culan, and other Indian princes, who were tri- 
 butaries of the Samorin, and desirous of independency, (a. d. 
 1501.) This love of freedom procured the Portuguese the sove- 
 reignty of Malabar and the trade of India. Cabral promised 
 those deluded princes support, and carried their ambassadors to 
 the court of Lisbon, where such political steps were taken as 
 rendered success infallible. A force was sent out sufficient to 
 combat the Samorin. (a. d. 1502.) But no prince could obtain 
 the protection of Portugal without first acknowledging himself 
 its vassal, permitting a fortress to be erected in his capital, and 
 selling his commoditities to his subjects at their own price. No 
 strange merchant might load a cargo, till the Portuguese were 
 served : nor any mariner ravage those seas, but with their pass- 
 ports. They were the terror and admiration of the East, the 
 wonder and envy of the West. All European merchants soon 
 resorted to Lisbon for Indian commodities ; because they could 
 there purchase them much cheaper than at Venice, or any other 
 mart to which they were brought by the way of Egypt, (a. d. 
 1508.) And happily for Portugal, the Venetians were then 
 sinking under the pressure of the league of Cambray. 
 5
 
 34 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTOR1. 
 
 ASTONISHING CONQUESTS OF ALBUQUERQUE 
 IN INDIA. 
 
 N order to secure and render 
 perpetual the commercial ad- 
 vantages of the Portuguese, 
 the chief command in India 
 was given to Alphonso Albu- 
 querque, a man of singular 
 sagacity and penetration, and 
 equally distinguished by his 
 military and political talents. 
 Albuquerque was no sooner invested with the government, than 
 he began to form the most extensive projects ; many of which 
 he executed, and with a facility that is altogether incredible. 
 The Arabs settled in India, and their associates, he had long 
 been sensible, were the only power in the East that the Portu- 
 guese had to fear. These traders had secretly entered into a 
 league with the Samorin, the Sultan of Egypt, and the Venetians, 
 who were gainers by their commerce, and whose interest it was 
 to destroy the trade of Portugal. The furnishers of the cara- 
 vans and navigators of the Red Sea were the natural enemies
 
 ALBUQUERQUE.
 
 CONQUESTS OF ALBUQUERQUE IN INDIA. 37 
 
 of the circumnavigators of the Cape. Albuquerque saw it 
 early, while a private commander. He had therefore done 
 every thing in his power to ruin their settlements on the coast 
 of Arabia, and their united naval force had received a signal 
 overthrow in the Indian Ocean. He now extended his views: 
 he projected nothing less than the conquest of Ormus in the Per- 
 sian Gulf, and of Aden at the mouth of the Red Sea ; where 
 Portuguese squadrons, stationed, might command the trade of 
 Persia and of Egypt. 
 
 The immediate execution of these projects would at once have 
 proved fatal to the commerce of the Arabs and their allies ; but 
 Albuquerque, upon mature deliberation, perceived the necessity 
 of establishing the Portuguese more fully on the coast of Mala- 
 bar before he divided his forces, (a. d. 1509.) He accordingly 
 burnt Calicut, which had long been a thorn in the side of his 
 countrymen ; and observing that the Portuguese had yet no good 
 port in a wholesome air, where they might refit their ships and 
 recruit their seamen, after the fatigues of the European voyage, 
 he resolved to procure one. He found that Lisbon had need 
 of Goa. 
 
 Goa, which rises to view in the form of an amphitheatre, is 
 situated toward the middle of the coast of Malabar, in an island 
 detached from the continent by two branches of a river, that 
 throws itself into the sea at some distance from the city, after 
 having formed beneath its walls one of the finest harbours in the 
 world. It properly belonged to the king of Decan; but a 
 Moor, named Idalcan, to whom the government of it had been 
 intrusted, had rendered himself its sovereign. While this 
 usurper was occupied on the continent, Albuquerque appeared 
 before the city and carried it by assault, (a. d. 1510.) It was 
 afterwards recovered, but soon retaken : and Goa became the 
 capital of the Portuguese empire in India. 
 
 Albuquerque, whose ambition was boundless, attempted next 
 to establish the Portuguese on the coast of Coromandel, (a. d. 
 1511.) With this view he made an attack upon Malacca, 
 situated near the straits of Singapore, one of the richest cities 
 in India, and the best adapted for commerce. It was the centre 
 of the trade between Japan, China, the Spice Islands, and the 
 other Indian ports. When Albuquerque appeared before Ma- 
 lacca, he found it in a posture of defence : and a new obstacle 
 
 D
 
 33 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 conspired to retard his progress. His friend Araujo was there 
 a prisoner, and threatened with death the moment the city 
 should be besieged. Deliberating how to act, while the senti- 
 ments of friendship and ambition, perhaps of duty, struggled 
 in his breast, he received the following billet from Araujo : 
 " Think only of the glory and advantage of Portugal : if I 
 cannot be an instrument of your victory, let me not retard it." 
 The place was carried by storm after an obstinate defence and 
 several changes of fortune. The Portuguese found in it an 
 immense booty, both in treasure and precious commodities. 
 Albuquerque, whose heart was superior to the charms of gold, 
 erected a citadel to secure his conquest, and returned to Goa. 
 
 The friendship of the Portuguese was now courted by the sa- 
 morin, Idalcan, and all the most formidable Indian princes, who 
 offered to permit fortresses to be built and factories to be es- 
 tablished in any part of their dominions. Albuquerque did not 
 fail to profit by these offers ; and judging that the season was 
 now arrived for giving the final blow to the Arabian commerce 
 in the East, he embarked in his original projects, the conquests 
 of Aden and Ormus. 
 
 In his attempt upon Aden, which was then the key of Egypt, 
 Albuquerque miscarried : but he committed so many ravages on 
 the coasts of the Red Sea, and in the straits of Babelmandel, 
 as entirely ruined the commerce of the Arabs and Egyptians. 
 (a. d. 1513.) He was more successful in his expedition against 
 Ormus, at that time the most opulent and splendid city in the 
 East. It appears to have been nothing inferior to what we 
 are told of ancient Tyre, either in wealth or in splendour, in 
 industry or in pleasure : and, like Tyre, it was seated in a bar- 
 ren isle. Like Tyre, it seemed only to have been disjoined from 
 the land that it might become queen of the sea. It was one of 
 the greatest marts in the universe. But its voluptuous inhabi- 
 tants were little able to withstand the impetuous and hardy 
 valour of the Portuguese, (a. d. 1515.) Albuquerque soon 
 made himself master of the place, and had the honour of there 
 receiving an embassy from the king of Persia. 
 
 The reduction of Ormus, which was the latest enterprise of 
 this truly great man, together with the possession of Goa and 
 Malacca, gave perfect security to the Portuguese commerce in 
 India. His successors afterwards extended it into China and
 
 ALBUQUERQUE RAVAGING THE C0A8T OF THE RED 8EA.
 
 CONQUESTS OF ALBUQUERQUE IN INDIA. 
 
 41 
 
 Japan ; but it was never more respectable than under Albu- 
 querque. Yet this founder of his country's greatness died in 
 disgrace, and of a broken heart, if ever any man may be said 
 to have done so. That dauntless spirit which had encountered 
 so many enemies, and surmounted so many dangers, could not 
 support the frown of his prince. Emanuel, become jealous of 
 his glory, had listened to the insinuations of his enemies ; had 
 appointed another governor in his stead, and promoted those 
 whom he sent home as criminals. When Albuquerque received 
 this intelligence, he sighed and said, "Can these things.be so? 
 — I incurred the hatred of men by my love for the king, and 
 am disgraced by him through his prepossession for other men. 
 To the grave, unhappy old man ! to the grave ! — thy actions will 
 speak for themselves and for thee." 
 
 d2
 
 42 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 THE SAILING OF COLUMBUS. 
 
 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 HILE the Portuguese were employed 
 in making acquisitions 
 in the East, and appro- 
 priating to themselves 
 the most lucrative com- 
 merce in the known 
 world, the Spaniards 
 had discovered a new 
 continent toward the 
 West. They had called into existence, as it were, another 
 world ; had opened new sources of trade, expanded new theatres 
 of dominion, and displayed new scenes of ambition, of avarice, 
 and of blood. 
 
 Christopher Columbus, a Genoese navigator, who resided at 
 Lisbon, and who had devoted himself to the study of astronomy, 
 first conceived the idea of this new continent. Perfectly ac- 
 quainted with the figure of the earth, the notion of the anti-
 
 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 43 
 
 podes, considered by reason as a chimera, and by religion as 
 impiety, appeared to him an incontestable fact. But if Cohnn- 
 bus had not added the stout heart of a hero to the enlightened 
 mind and persevering spirit of a philosopher, the world might 
 still have been ignorant of his discoveries. The Genoese, his 
 countrymen, whom he proposed to put in possession of another 
 hemisphere, treated him as a visionary. He also unfolded his 
 project, the grandest that human genius ever formed, in 1484, 
 to the court of Portugal without success. He next laid it before 
 the court of Spain ; where he long suffered all that supercilious 
 neglect which unsupported merit so often meets with from men 
 in office, who are too apt to despise what they do not understand. 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella were then engaged in the conquest of 
 Granada. The Spanish treasury was exhausted. But no sooner 
 were the Moors subdued, than the ambitious mind of Isabella 
 seemed to sympathize with the bold spirit of Columbus. She 
 offered to pledge her jewels, in order to furnish him with a fleet. 
 Three small vessels were fitted out by other means ; and Colum- 
 bus set sail from the port of Palos, in Andalusia, on the third 
 of August, in the year 1492, in quest of a Western continent, 
 with the title of Admiral and Viceroy of the Isles and Lands 
 which he should discover. 
 
 Transcendent genius and superlative courage experience 
 almost equal difficulty in carrying their designs into execution, 
 when they depend on the assistance of others. Columbus pos- 
 sessed both, he exerted both; and the concurrence of other 
 heads and other hearts were necessary to give success to either : 
 he had indolence and cowardice to encounter, as well as ignorance 
 and prejudice. He had formerly been ridiculed as a visionary, 
 he was now pitied as a desperado. The Portuguese navigators, 
 in accomplishing their first discoveries, had always some refer- 
 ence to the coast : cape had pointed them to cape ; but Colum- 
 bus, with no landmark but the heavens, nor any guide but the 
 compass, boldly launched into the ocean, without knowing what 
 shore should receive him, or where he could find rest for the 
 sole of his foot. His crew murmured, they mutinied ; they pro- 
 posed to commit him to those waves with which he so wantonly 
 sported, and return to Spain. 
 
 This was a severe trial to the courage of Columbus, and Co- 
 lumbus only, perhaps, could have supported it. The enthusiasm
 
 44 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of genius added strength to his natural fortitude. Cool and un- 
 concerned himself about every thing but his great object, he had 
 recourse to the softest language. He encouraged his men by fair 
 promises, he deceived his officers by false reckonings. But all 
 these expedients proved at last ineffectual : he demanded three 
 days' indulgence ; at the end of which, if he did not discover land, 
 he promised to abandon his project. His request was granted ; 
 and on the morning of the second day, being the 12th of Octo- 
 ber, to his inexpressible joy, he got sight of one of the Bahama 
 islands, to which he gave the name of San Salvador. He took 
 possession of it in the name of their Catholic majesties, and 
 proceeded on his course. 
 
 THE LANDING OP COLUMBUS. 
 
 After leaving San Salvador, now better known by the name 
 of Guanahani, given to it by the natives, Columbus fell in with 
 several other small islands ; to one of which he gave the name 
 of Isabella, in honour of his patroness, and to another that of 
 Ferdinand, in compliment to the Catholic king. These he
 
 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 45 
 
 rightly judged to belong to that Western continent which he 
 sought, and which he conjectured must reach to the Portuguese 
 settlements in India : hence -the name of West Indies. At 
 length he arrived at the island of Cuba, where he entered into 
 some correspondence with the natives, and particularly with the 
 women, from whom he learned that the gold ornaments which 
 they wore came from Bohio, a large island to the south-east. 
 Thither Columbus steered : what heart does not pant after gold ! 
 He soon reached Bohio, or Hayti, as it was called by the natives, 
 to which he gave the name of Espagnola, altered by us into 
 Hispaniola. Here Columbus built a fort, and planted a little 
 colony ; after which, having taken a general survey of the island, 
 and settled a friendly intercourse with the natives, he set out on 
 his return to Spain, carrying along with him a sufficient quan- 
 tity of gold to evince the importance of his discoveries, and 
 some of those new people, to complete the astonishment of 
 Europe. 
 
 The natives of Hispaniola, and indeed of all the islands which 
 Columbus had visited* were an easy, indolent, harmless race. 
 They were of a copper colour. The men and the girls went 
 entirely naked ; the women had a mat of cotton wrapt about 
 their loins. They had no hair on any part of the body but the 
 head; a distinction which also is common to the natives of the 
 American continent. They considered the Spaniards as divini- 
 ties, and the discharge of the artillery as their thunder: they 
 fell on their faces at the sound. 
 
 Columbus again entered the port of Palos on the 15th of 
 March, 1493, after a voyage of seven months and eleven days, 
 and was received with universal acclamations of joy. Those who 
 had ridiculed his project were the readiest to pay court to him. 
 He was ordered into the presence of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 and desired to sit covered like a grandee of Spain. Royal 
 favour beamed upon him with unremitting brightness, and the 
 church loaded him with its benedictions. Superstition lent its 
 sanction to those discoveries which had been made in its defiance. 
 Pope Alexander VI. issued a bull, granting to the sovereigns of 
 Spain all the countries which they had discovered, or should 
 discover, a hundred leagues to the westward of the Azores. 
 A fleet of seventeen sail was fitted out in a few months ; and 
 Columbus, vested with yet more extensive powers, and furnished
 
 46 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 with every thing necessary for discovery, for colonization, or 
 for conquest, again committed himself to the waves in quest of 
 a Western Continent. 
 
 Great things were expected from this second voyage ; and 
 many new islands were discovered ; yet it ended in general dis- 
 appointment, misfortune, and disgust. When Columbus arrived 
 at Hispaniola, with a multitude of missionaries, soldiers, and 
 settlers, he found the fortress utterly ruined and the garrison 
 all massacred. They had drawn upon themselves this untimely 
 fate by their arrogance, licentiousness, and tyranny. These 
 particulars he learned from the natives, accompanied with such 
 marking circumstances as left him no room to disbelieve them. 
 He therefore entered once more into friendly correspondence 
 with those artless people, established a new colony, and built the 
 town of Isabella ; afterwards abandoned for that of St. Domin- 
 go, which became the capital of the island. His next care was 
 to discover the mines ; near which he erected forts and left gar- 
 risons to protect the labourers. But neither the wisdom nor 
 humanity of this great man was sufficient to preserve order 
 among his followers, or to teach them fellow-feeling. They 
 roused anew, by their barbarities, the gentle spirit of the natives ; 
 they quarrelled among themselves, they rose against their com- 
 mander. Mortified by so many untoward circumstances, Colum- 
 bus committed the government of the island to his brother 
 Bartholomew, and returned to Spain in 1496, with some samples 
 of gold dust and gold ore, pearls and other precious products, 
 after having a second time attempted in vain to discover a 
 Western Continent. 
 
 Bartholomew Columbus suffered many hardships, and was on 
 the point of sinking under the mutineers, before he received any 
 assistance from the court of Spain; and although the great 
 Christopher was able to clear himself of all the aspersions of 
 his enemies, some years elapsed before he could obtain a third 
 appointment for the prosecution of his favourite project. At 
 last a small fleet was granted to him, and he discovered the con- 
 tinent of America, near the mouth of the river Orinoco, on the 
 first day of August, in the year 1498. He carried off six of 
 the natives, and returned to Hispaniola, convinced that he had 
 now reached the great object of his ambition. 
 
 But while Columbus was employed in reducing to obedience
 
 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 47 
 
 mi 
 
 VESPUCIUB. 
 
 the mutineers in that island, another navigator unjustly took 
 from him the honour of the discovery of the western continent. 
 The merchants of Seville having obtained permission to attempt 
 discoveries, as private adventurers, sent out four ships in 1499, 
 under the command of Alonzo de Ojeda, who had accompanied 
 Columbus in his second voyage, assisted by Americus Vespucius, 
 a Florentine gentleman, deeply skilled in the science of naviga- 
 tion. This fleet touched on that part of the western continent 
 already discovered by Columbus, whose tract Ojeda followed ; 
 and Americus, who was a man of much address, as well as pos- 
 sessed of considerable literary talents, by publishing the first 
 voyages on the subject, and other artful means, gave his name 
 to the New World, in prejudice to the illustrious Genoese. Man- 
 kind are now become sensible of the imposture, but time has 
 sanctified the error ; and the great western continent, or fourth 
 division of the globe, so long unknown to the inhabitants of 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa, still continues to be distinguished by 
 the name of America. 
 
 This, however, was but a small misfortune in comparison of 
 what Columbus was doomed to suffer. His enemies having pre- 
 vailed at the court of Madrid, a new governor was sent out to 
 Hispaniola. The great discoverer and his brother were loaded 
 with irons, and sent home in that condition, in different ships. 
 Touched with sentiments of veneration and pity, Vallejo, cap-
 
 48 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 COLUMBUS IX CHAINS. 
 
 tain of the vessel on board of which the admiral was confined, 
 approached his prisoner with profound respect, as soon as he was 
 clear of the island, and offered to strike off the fetters with 
 which he was unjustly bound. "No, Vallejo !" replied Colum- 
 bus, with a generous indignation, "I wear these fetters in con- 
 sequence of an order from my sovereigns. They shall find me 
 as obedient to this as to all their other injunctions. By their 
 command I have been confined, and their command alone shall 
 set me at liberty." 
 
 The Spanish ministry were ashamed of the severity of their 
 creature, Bovadilla: Columbus was set at liberty on his arrival, 
 and a fourth command granted to him in 1502, for the prosecu- 
 tion of farther discoveries. But this expedition did not prove 
 more fortunate than the former ; for although Columbus touched 
 at several parts of the American continent, where he exchanged 
 trinkets for gold and pearls, to a considerable amount, he failed 
 in an attempt to establish a colony on the river Yebra or Belem, 
 in the province of Veragua, and lost every thing in his course 
 home. He was shipwrecked on the island of Jamaica : his fol- 
 lowers mutinied ; and after being alternately in danger of perish-
 
 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 49 
 
 ing by hunger, or by violence, he arrived in Spain, in 1505, to 
 experience a more severe fate than either. Queen Isabella was 
 dead at his return. With her, all his hopes of future favour 
 perished. The court received him coldly. His services were 
 too great for humility ; his proud heart disdained to sue, and his 
 aspiring spirit could not submit to neglect. He retired to Vala- 
 dolid, where he was suffered to fall a martyr to the ingratitude 
 of that monarch, to whom he had given the West Indies, and 
 for whom he had opened a passage into a richer and more ex- 
 tensive empire than was ever subdued by the Roman arms. 
 He died with firmness and composure, on the 20th of May, 
 1506, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. 
 
 There is something in true genius which seems to be essen- 
 tially connected with humanity. Don Henry, Gama, and Colum- 
 bus, prosecuted their discoveries upon the most liberal principles, 
 those of mutual advantage : they sought to benefit, not to 
 destroy their species. After the death of Columbus, the maxims 
 of Spain, like those of Portugal, became altogether bloody. 
 Religion, avarice, and violence, walked hand in hand. The cross 
 was held up as an object of worship, to those who had never 
 heard of the name of Jesus ; and millions were deliberately 
 butchered, for not embracing tenets which they could not under- 
 stand, not delivering treasures which they did not possess, or 
 not suffering oppressions which man was never born to bear, and 
 which his nature cannot sustain.
 
 50 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 LANDING OF CORTEZ IN MEXICO. 
 
 CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 
 
 HE leader who pursued the career of 
 arms in Spanish America, with least 
 violence to humanity, and most ad- 
 vantage to his country, was Fernando 
 Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico. 
 Before the discovery of that rich and 
 powerful empire, the Spanish colonies 
 of Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica, and 
 Porto Rico, were in a flourishing con- 
 dition : frequent expeditions had been 
 made to the continent, the settlements established in Castello del 
 Oro and the Isthmus of Darien. At last a descent was made in 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and information received of the opulence 
 and grandeur of the Emperor Montezuma and his capital, (a. D. 
 1518.) Velasquez, governor of Cuba, to whom this intelligence 
 was communicated, immediately resolved upon the conquest of 
 Mexico, and committed to Cortez, an officer hitherto more dis- 
 tinguished by his merit than his rank, the execution of the en- 
 terprise: and that gallant soldier accomplished, what appears
 
 CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 51 
 
 MONTEZUMA. 
 
 too bold even for fiction, the overthrow of an empire that could 
 send millions into the field, with so small a force as five hundred 
 men. 
 
 A success so unexampled, in an unknown country, must have 
 been accompanied with many favourable circumstances, inde- 
 pendent of the ability of the general, the courage of the troops, 
 and even the superiority of weapons. Some of these we know. 
 When Cortez landed with his little army on the coast of Mexico, 
 (a. d. 1519,) he met with a Spanish captive, who understood the 
 dialect of the country, and whose ransom he obtained. He also 
 formed an intimacy with a fair American named Marina, who 
 soon learned the Castilian language, and became both his mis- 
 tress and his counsellor. 
 
 To these fortunate occurrences may be added, the arrival of 
 the ambassadors of Montezuma, who endeavoured, by presents, 
 to engage the invaders to re-embark. The delay which this 
 negotiation produced was of infinite service to Cortez. An 
 army, instead of an embassy, on his first landing, might have 
 ruined him. He replied, by his female interpreter, who best 
 understood the Mexican tongue, that he was only an ambassador 
 himself, and, as such, could not depart without an audience of 
 the emperor. This answer put the ambassadors of Montezuma 
 to a stand. They reported it to the emperor. He was alarmed
 
 52 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 at the request. They redoubled their presents : they employed 
 persuasions, but to no purpose. Cortez was inflexible. At last 
 they had recourse to threats, according to their instructions, and 
 talked loudly of the forces and treasures of their country. 
 "These," said Cortez, turning to his companions, "these are 
 what we seek ; great perils and great riches." Stronger motives 
 could not have been offered to needy adventurers, burning with 
 the spirit of chivalry and the lust of plunder. Their leader 
 saw conquest in their looks ; and having now received the neces- 
 sary information, and prepared himself against all hazards, he 
 boldly marched toward the seat of empire. 
 
 The Spanish general, however, though so little diffident of his 
 own strength, prudently negotiated with such princes and states 
 as he found to be enemies of the Mexicans. Among these the 
 most powerful was the republic of Tlascala. Cortez proposed 
 an alliance to the senate. It divided upon the subject : but at 
 last came to a resolution, not only to deny assistance to the 
 Spaniards, but to oppose them. This resolution had almost 
 proved fatal to Cortez and his enterprise. The Tlascalans were 
 a brave people, and brought a formidable army into the field ; 
 but by the help of fire-arms, artillery, and cavalry, to those re- 
 publicans above all things tremendous, the Spaniards, after 
 repeated struggles, were enabled to humble them. They saw 
 their mistake ; entered into a treaty with Cortez, and were 
 highly serviceable in his future operations. 
 
 The invaders now advanced without interruption to the gates 
 of Mexico. Montezuma was all irresolution and terror. That 
 mighty emperor, whose treasures were immense, and whose sway 
 was absolute ; who was lord over thirty princes, each of whom 
 could bring a numerous army into the field, was so intimidated 
 by the defeat of the Tlascalans, that he wanted resolution to 
 strike a blow in defence of his dignity. The haughty potentate 
 who had ordered Cortez to depart his coasts, introduced him into 
 his capital. Instead of making use of force, he had recourse 
 to perfidy. While he professed friendship to the Spanish 
 general, he sent an army to attack the Spanish colony, newly 
 settled at Vera Cruz, and yet in a feeble condition. Cortez re- 
 ceived intelligence of this breach of faith, and took one of the 
 boldest resolutions ever formed by man. He immediately pro- 
 ceeded to the imperial palace, accompanied by five of his prin-
 
 THE DEFEAT OF NARVAEZ.
 
 CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 
 
 55 
 
 MONTEZUMA CHAINED. 
 
 cipal officers, and arrested Montezuma as his prisoner; carried 
 him off to the Spanish quarters ; made him deliver to punish- 
 ment the officer who had acted by his orders, and publicly 
 acknowledge himself, in the seat of his power, the vassal of the 
 king of Spain. 
 
 In the height of these successes, Cortez was informed that a 
 new general, Pamphilo de Narvaez, sent by the governor of 
 Cuba, was arrived with a superior force to supplant him in the 
 command, and reap the fruits of his victory, (a. d. 1520.) He 
 marched against his rival : he defeated him ; he took him pri- 
 soner ; and the vanquished army, gained by the magnanimity 
 and confidence of the victor, ranged themselves under his 
 standard. Thus reinforced, by an occurrence which threatened 
 the extinction of his hopes, he returned with rapidity to the 
 city of Mexico, where he found full occasion for this accession 
 of strength. 
 
 The Mexicans were all in arms, and had surrounded the party 
 which Cortez had left to guard the emperor. This insurrection 
 was occasioned by the avarice and intemperate zeal of the 
 Spaniards; who, on a solemn festival in honour of the gods of 
 the country, had massacred two thousand of the Mexican nobles, 
 under pretence of a secret conspiracy, and stripped them of their
 
 56 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 precious ornaments. The spirit of the people was roused : they 
 were incensed at the confinement of their prince ; they were 
 filled with holy indignation at the insult offered to the gods, and 
 they longed to revenge the fate of their nobility. Cortez found 
 it difficult to resist their fury. They permitted him, however, 
 to join his detachment, though not from motives of friendship 
 or generosity : they hoped to involve the whole body of Spaniards 
 in one undistinguished ruin. "We have discovered," said they, 
 " that you are not immortal ; and although the death of every 
 Spaniard should cost us a thousand lives, we are determined to 
 complete your destruction. After so great a slaughter there 
 will still remain a sufficient number to celebrate the victory." 
 
 In consequence of this resolution, the Mexicans attacked the 
 Spanish quarters with incredible bravery. They were several 
 times repulsed, and as often returned to the charge with undi- 
 minished ardour. They devoted themselves cheerfully to death ; 
 boldly advanced in the face of the artillery, threw themselves 
 in crowds upon the musketry, and fearlessly grappled the mouths 
 of the guns in attempting to ascend the fortifications. Monte- 
 zuma judged this a favourable opportunity for obtaining his 
 freedom and the departure of the Spaniards. On those condi- 
 tions he consented to employ his good offices with his people.
 
 tJONQL'EST OF MEXICO. 
 
 57 
 
 CORTEZ OVERLOOKING THE PLAIN OF OTUMBA. 
 
 He showed himself on the ramparts, clad in his royal robes, and 
 endeavoured to induce the multitude to retire. They at first 
 seemed overawed by the presence of their sovereign, and ready 
 to obey his commands ; but suddenly recollecting the pusillani- 
 mity of his behaviour, their love was changed into hate, their 
 veneration into contempt, and a stone, launched by an indignant 
 arm, at once deprived Montezuma of the empire and his life. 
 
 That accident gave sincere concern to Cortez, and was a real 
 misfortune to the Spaniards. The successor of Montezuma was 
 a fierce and warlike prince, and resolutely determined to support 
 the independency of his country. Cortez, after several ineffec- 
 tual struggles, found himself under the necessity of quitting the 
 city. The Mexicans harassed him in his retreat ; they took from 
 him all his baggage and treasure ; and they engaged him in the 
 field, before he had time to recruit his forces, with an army of 
 two hundred thousand men. The ensigns of various nations 
 waved in the air, and the imperial standard of massy gold was 
 displayed. Now was the time of heroism ; and stronger proofs 
 of it were never exhibited than in the valley of Otumba. 
 "Death or victory !" was the charge, and the resolution of every 
 Spaniard. The Mexicans were soon broken, and a terrible 
 slaughter ensued; but fresh crowds still pressing on, supplied
 
 58 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GLADIATORIAL SACRIFICES OF THE MEXICANS. 
 
 the place of the slain, and the Spaniards must have sunk under 
 the fatigue of continual fighting, had not Cortez, by a happy 
 presence of mind, put an end to the dispute and rendered the 
 victory decisive. He rushed, at the head of his cavalry, towards 
 the imperial standard, closed with the Mexican general who 
 guarded it, and at one stroke of his lance tumbled him out of his 
 litter. The standard was seized, and the consequence proved, 
 as Cortez had expected : the Mexicans threw down their arms, 
 and fled with precipitation and terror. 
 
 This victory, and the assistance of the Tlascalans, encouraged 
 Cortez to undertake the siege of Mexico : and another fortunate 
 circumstance enabled him to complete his conquest. The new 
 emperor, Guatimozin, was taken prisoner in attempting to make 
 his escape out of his capital, in order to rouse to arms the dis- 
 tant provinces of his dominions, (a. d. 1521.) The metropolis 
 surrendered, and the whole empire submitted to the Spaniards. 
 
 The city of Mexico is represented as one of the most striking
 
 CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 59 
 
 monuments of human grandeur. Its spacious squares, its sump- 
 tuous palaces, its magnificent temples, are pompously displayed 
 by the Spanish historians ; but we must not give entire credit 
 to those splendid descriptions. The mechanical arts could not 
 be carried to great perfection in a country where the use of iron 
 was unknown ; nor could the sciences or liberal arts be culti- 
 vated with success among a people ignorant of letters. The 
 hieroglyphics, which the Mexicans are said to have made use 
 of for communicating their ideas, could but imperfectly answer 
 that end, in comparison of general symbols or signs ; and with- 
 out a facile method of recording past transactions, and of pre- 
 serving our own thoughts and those of others, society can never 
 make any considerable progress. The ferocious religion of the 
 Mexicans is another proof of their barbarity ; for although we 
 frequently find absurd ceremonies prevail among polished na- 
 tions, we seldom or ever meet with those that are cruel. Civil- 
 ized man has a feeling for man. Human blood was profusely 
 spilled upon the altars of the Mexican gods : and, if we believe 
 the most respectable Spanish historians, human flesh (though 
 only that of enemies) was greedily devoured both by the priests 
 and the people. Enormous superstition and excessive despotism 
 always go hand in hand. When the mind is enslaved, it is easy 
 to enslave the body. Montezuma was the most absolute sove- 
 reign upon earth, and his subjects the most abject slaves.
 
 60 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 RUINS OF THE PALACE OF THE INCAS. 
 
 CONQUEST OF PERU. 
 
 HE conquest of Mexico was followed by 
 that of Peru, another country in the 
 New World, abounding yet more in 
 precious metals. 
 
 Peru had long been governed by a 
 race of emperors, under the name of 
 Incas, who were supposed to be the 
 descendants of the sun. (a. d. 1532.) 
 The name of the Spanish invader was 
 Pizarro, assisted by Almagro andLuque, 
 and that of the Inca in possession of 
 the crown, Atahualpa. Alarmed at the ravages of the Spaniards, 
 this prince agreed to an interview with their general, in order to 
 settle the conditions of a peace. Though Pizarro solicited the 
 conference, he had no thoughts but of war. The Inca, it is said, 
 was not more sincere in his professions. He came to the place 
 of meeting carried upon a throne of gold, and attended by up-
 
 CONQUEST OF PERU. 
 
 6) 
 
 PI Z ARRO. 
 
 wards of ten thousand men : twenty thousand more are reported 
 to have waited his signal ; but for this report, or the insincerity 
 of the Inca, there seems to have been no foundation in fact. 
 All the Peruvians were richly dressed, and their arms glittered 
 with gold and precious stones. The avarice of the Spaniards 
 was inflamed. Pizarro disposed his followers, who did not ex- 
 ceed two hundred, in the most advantageous order, while Vin- 
 centi Valverde, a Dominican friar, advanced towards Atahualpa, 
 with a crucifix in one hand and a breviary in the other. He 
 addressed to the Inca, by the help of an interpreter, a long dis- 
 course, unfolding the principles of the Christian faith, and press- 
 ing him to embrace that religion, and submit himself to the king 
 of Spain, to whom the pope had given Peru. Atahualpa, who 
 had listened with a good deal of patience, replied thus to his 
 pious admonisher : " How extravagant is it in the pope, to give 
 away so liberally that which does not belong to him ! — He is 
 inferior, you own, to God the Father, to God the Son, and to 
 God the Holy Ghost : these are all your gods : and the gods 
 only can dispose of kingdoms. I should like to be a friend to 
 
 F
 
 62 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A L M A O E O. 
 
 the king of Spain, who has sufficiently displayed his power by 
 sending armies to such distant countries ; but I will not be his 
 vassal. I owe tribute to no mortal prince : I know no superior 
 upon earth. The religion of my ancestors I venerate : and to 
 renounce it would be equally absurd and impious, until you have 
 convinced me it is false, and that yours, which you would have 
 me embrace, is true. You adore a god, who died upon a gibbet ; 
 I worship the sun, who never dies." 
 
 "Vengeance!" — cried Valverde, turning towards the Spa- 
 niards ; — " vengeance ! my friends ; — kill these dogs, who de- 
 spise the religion of the cross." 
 
 The word of command was given ; the artillery played ; the 
 musketry fired ; the cavalry spread confusion and terror, while 
 Pizarro advanced, at the head of a chosen band, and seized the 
 person of the Inca. The slaughter was dreadful, and the pillage 
 immense. The blow was final : Peru ceased to be an empire. 
 The descendants of the Sun, who united in their person both 
 the regal and pontifical dignity, sunk under a set of banditti
 
 CONQUEST OF PERU. 
 
 63 
 
 that knew not their birth. After draining Atahualpa of his 
 treasure, under pretence of a ransom for his liberty, Pizarro 
 condemned him to be burnt alive, as an obstinate idolater, (a. d. 
 1533.) But through the mediation of Father Valverde, (blessed 
 intercessor !) the Inca's sentence was changed into strangling, 
 on condition that he should die in the Christian faith ! 
 
 The conquest of Mexico and Peru put the Spaniards at once 
 in possession of more specie than all the other nations of Europe. 
 Yet Spain from that era has continued to decline. It has de- 
 clined in population, industry, and vigour. The vices attendant 
 upon riches have corrupted all ranks of men, and enervated the 
 national spirit. From being the first kingdom in Europe, it is 
 become one of the less considerable. Portugal has experienced 
 a like fate, since the discovery of the passage to India by the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and the settlement of Brazil : and from 
 the same cause, a too great and sudden influx of wealth.
 
 64 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODKUN HISTORY. 
 
 CHARLES V. CHOSEN EMPEROR. 
 
 HOUGH Maximilian could not 
 
 C~r-^\ -— »^^|\>^^ h prevail upon the German 
 ■ x M m50( W§K"^ ^ta** 7 electors to choose his grand- 
 &\J ^ ffi\ son of Spain king of the Romans, 
 he had disposed their minds in favour 
 of that prince : and other circum- 
 stances, on the death of the emperor, 
 conspired to the exaltation of Charles. 
 (a. d. 1519.) The imperial crown had so 
 long continued in the Austrian line, that 
 it began to be considered as hereditary in that family ; and 
 Germany, torn by religious disputes, stood in need of a power- 
 ful emperor, not only to preserve its own internal tranquillity, 
 but also to protect it against the victorious arms of the Turks, 
 who, under Selim I., threatened the liberties of Europe. This 
 fierce and rapid conqueror had already subdued the Mamalukes, 
 a barbarous militia that had dismembered the empire of the 
 Arabs, and made themselves masters of Egypt and Syria. The 
 power of Charles appeared necessary to oppose that of Selim. 
 The extensive dominions of the house of Austria, which gave 
 him an interest in the preservation of Germany; the rich so- 
 vereignty of the Netherlands and Franche-Comte ; the entire 
 possession of the great and warlike kingdom of Spain, together 
 with that of Naples and Sicily, all united to hold him up to the 
 first dignity among Christian princes : and the New World
 
 CHARLES V. CHOSEN EMPEROR. 65 
 
 seemed only to be called into existence, that its treasures might 
 enable him to defend Christendom against the infidels. Such 
 was the language of his partisans. 
 
 Francis I., however, no sooner received intelligence of the 
 death of Maximilian, than he declared himself a candidate for 
 the empire, and with no less confidence of success than Charles. 
 He trusted to his superior years and experience, with his great 
 reputation in arms, acquired by the victory at Marignan, and 
 the conquest of Milan. And it was further urged in his favour, 
 that the impetuosity of the French cavalry, added to the 
 firmness of the German infantry, would prove irresistible ; and 
 not only be sufficient, under a warlike emperor, to set limits to 
 the ambition of Selim, but to break entirely the Ottoman 
 power, and prevent it from ever becoming dangerous again to 
 Germany. 
 
 Both claims were plausible. The dominions of Francis were 
 less extensive, but more united than those of Charles. His 
 subjects were numerous, active, brave, lovers of glory and lovers 
 of their king. These were strong arguments in favour of his 
 power, so necessary at this juncture ; but he had no natural 
 interest in the Germanic body : and the electors, hearing so 
 much of military force on each side, became more alarmed for 
 their own privileges than the common safety. They determined 
 to reject both candidates, and offered the imperial crown to 
 Frederic, surnamed the Wise, duke of Saxony. But he, undaz- 
 zled by the splendour of an object courted with so much eager- 
 ness by two mighty monarchs, rejected it with a magnanimity 
 no less singular than great. 
 
 " In times of tranquillity," said Frederic, « we wish for an 
 emperor who has no power to invade our liberties ; times of 
 danger demand one who is able to secure our safety. The 
 Turkish armies, led by a warlike and victorious monarch, are 
 now assembling : they are ready to pour in upon Germany with 
 a violence unknown in former ages. New conjunctures call for 
 new expedients. The imperial sceptre must be committed to 
 some hand more powerful than mine, or that of any other Ger- 
 man prince. We possess neither dominions, nor revenues, nor 
 authority, which enable us to encounter such a formidable 
 enemy. Recourse must be had, in this exigency, to one of the 
 rival monarchs. Each of them can bring into the field forces 
 9 f2
 
 66 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 sufficient for our defence. But, as the king of Spain is of Ger- 
 man extraction, as he is a member and prince of the empire by 
 the territories which descend to him from his grandfather, and 
 as his dominions stretch along that frontier which lies most ex- 
 posed to the enemy, his claim, in my opinion, is preferable to 
 that of a stranger to our language, to our blood, and to our 
 country." Charles was elected in consequence of this speech. 
 The two candidates had hitherto conducted their rivalship 
 with emulation, but without enmity. They had even softened 
 their competition by many expressions of friendship and regard. 
 Francis in particular declared, with his usual vivacity, that his 
 brother Charles and he were fairly and openly suitors to the 
 same mistress : " The most assiduous and 1 fortunate," added 
 he, "will win her ; and the other must rest contented." But, 
 although a generous and high-minded prince, while animated by 
 the hope of success, might be capable of forming such a philo- 
 sophic resolution, it soon appeared that he had promised a 
 moderation too refined for humanity, and which he was little 
 able to practise. Charles was elected emperor on the 28th of 
 June, 1520. The preference was no sooner given to his rival 
 than Francis discovered all the passions natural to disappointed 
 ambition. He could not suppress his chagrin and indignation 
 at being baulked in his favourite purpose, and rejected in the 
 face of all Europe, for a youth yet unknown to fame. The 
 spirit of Charles resented such contempt : and from this jea- 
 lousy, as much as from opposition of interests, arose that emu- 
 lation between those two great monarchs, which involved them 
 in almost perpetual hostilities, and kept their whole age in 
 agitation.
 
 LUTHER SUMMONED BEFORE THE EMPEROR. 
 
 67 
 
 $ 
 
 1 
 
 LUTHER SUMMONED BEFORE THE EMPEROR. 
 
 HE first act of Charles's administra- 
 tion was the appointing a diet to 
 be held at Worms, in order to con- 
 cert with the princes of the empire 
 proper measures for checking the 
 progress of "those new and dan- 
 gerous opinions which threatened 
 , to disturb the peace of Germany, 
 and to overturn the religion of 
 their ancestors." The opinions 
 propagated by Luther and his fol- 
 That bold innovator, after the diet at 
 Augsburg and the death of Maximilian, had freely promulgated 
 his opinions, under the protection of the elector of Saxony, to 
 whom the vicariate of that part of Germany which is governed 
 by the Saxon laws was committed, during the interregnum that 
 preceded the election of Charles V. And these opinions were 
 
 lowers were here meant.
 
 68 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 suffered to take root in different places, and to grow up to some 
 degree of strength and firmness. But Leo X., though little skilled 
 in such controversies, came at last to be alarmed at Luther's 
 progress ; and convinced that all hopes of reclaiming him by for- 
 bearance were in vain, issued a bull of excommunication against 
 him. His books were ordered to be burnt, and he himself was 
 delivered over to Satan as an obstinate heretic, if he did not, 
 within sixty days, publicly recant his errors. 
 
 This sentence neither disconcerted nor intimidated Luther. 
 After renewing his appeal to a general council, he published 
 remarks upon the bull of excommunication, and boldly declared 
 the pope to be the man of sin, or Antichrist, whose appearance 
 is foretold in the Revelation of St. John ; declaimed against the 
 tyranny and usurpations of the court of Rome with greater vehe- 
 mence than ever, exhorted all Christian princes to shake off 
 such an ignominious yoke, and boasted of his own happiness in 
 being marked out as the object of ecclesiastical indignation, 
 because he had ventured to assert the rights of religion and the 
 mental liberty of mankind. Nor did he confine his contempt of 
 the papal power to words alone. He assembled all the profes- 
 sors and students of the university of Wittemberg, and with great 
 pomp, and before a vast multitude of spectators, cast the volumes 
 of the canon law, together with the bull of excommunication, into 
 the flames : and his example was imitated in several other cities. 
 
 While the credit and authority of the Roman pontiff were 
 thus furiously shaken in Germany, an attack no less violent, 
 and occasioned by the same causes, was made upon them in 
 Switzerland. The Franciscans, being intrusted with the sale 
 of indulgences in that country, executed their commission with 
 the same unblushing rapaciousness which had rendered the Do- 
 minicans so odious in Saxony. They proceeded, however, with 
 uninterrupted success till they arrived at Zurich ; where they 
 received a mortal blow from Zuinglius, canon of that place, a 
 man of extensive learning, uncommon sagacity, and heroic intre- 
 pidity of spirit. Animated with a republican boldness, and free 
 from those restraints which subjection to the will of a prince, 
 and perhaps a remnant of original prejudice, imposed upon the 
 German reformer, he advanced with more daring and rapid 
 steps to overturn the whole fabric of the established religion ;
 
 LUTHER SUMMONED BEFORE THE EMPEROR. 69 
 
 and the pope's supremacy was soon denied in the greater part 
 of Switzerland. 
 
 Such was the state of the Reformation, when Charles V. 
 arrived in Germany. No secular prince had yet embraced the 
 new opinions ; no change in the established forms of worship had 
 been introduced, nor any encroachments made upon the pos- 
 sessions or jurisdiction of the clergy : a deep impression, how- 
 ever, was made upon the minds of the people ; their reverence 
 for ancient institutions and doctrines was shaken; and the 
 materials were already scattered, which produced the conflagra- 
 tion that afterwards spread over all Europe. Charles saw the 
 flames gathering ; and, as he found it necessary to secure the 
 friendship of Leo X., he cited Luther to appear before the diet 
 at Worms, (a. d. 1521.) Luther did not hesitate a moment 
 about yielding obedience : he accompanied the herald who brought 
 the emperor's letter and safe-conduct. " I am lawfully called to 
 appear in that city," said he to some of his friends, who were 
 anxious for his safety : « and thither I will go in the name of 
 the Lord, though as many devils as tiles upon the houses were 
 there assembled against me." 
 
 Had vanity and the love of applause, from which no human heart 
 is free, been the sole principles by which Luther was influenced, 
 his reception at "Worms was such as he might have reckoned a 
 full reward for all his labours. Vast crowds assembled to see 
 him whenever he walked abroad ; and his apartments were daily 
 filled with princes and personages of the highest rank, who treated 
 him with all the respect that is due to superior merit, but which 
 is more particularly commanded by those who possess the power 
 of directing the understanding and the sentiments of others. 
 Rank or birth can receive no homage so flattering ; for they 
 can receive none so sincere, or which has. so immediate a refer- 
 ence to those qualities which men call their own. Luther was 
 not, however, intoxicated : he behaved before the diet with equal 
 decency and firmness. He readily acknowledged an excess of 
 vehemence and acrimony in his controversial writings ; but he 
 refused to retract his opinions, till convinced of their falsehood, 
 or consent to their being tried by any other standard than the 
 Scripture. Neither threats nor entreaties could prevail on him to 
 depart from this resolution. Some of the fathers therefore pro- 
 posed to imitate the example of the council of Constance, in its
 
 70 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 proceedings relative to John Huss ; to commit to the flames the 
 author of this pestilent heresy, now in their power, and deliver 
 the church at once from so dangerous an enemy : but the members 
 of the diet refusing to expose the German integrity to fresh re- 
 proach by a second violation of public faith, and Charles being 
 no less unwilling to bring a stain upon the beginning of his ad- 
 ministration by such an ignominious measure, Luther was per- 
 mitted to depart in safety. A few days after he left the city, 
 a severe edict was issued in the emperor's name, and by author- 
 ity of the diet, forbidding any prince to harbour him, and re- 
 quiring all to concur in seizing his person as soon as his safe- 
 conduct was expired. But the elector of Saxony, his faithful 
 patron, took him again, though secretly, under protection. Lu- 
 ther, in solitude, propagated his opinions ; and Charles, for a 
 time, found other matters to engage his attention. 
 
 COSTUME OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
 
 THE FALL OF RHODES. 
 
 71 
 
 THE FALL OF RHODES. 
 
 HILE the Christian princes were wast- 
 ing each other's strength, Solyman the 
 Magnificent entered Hungary with a 
 numerous army, and investing Bel- 
 grade, which was deemed the chief bar- 
 rier of that kingdom against the Turk- 
 ish arms, soon forced it to surrender. 
 Encouraged by this success, he turned 
 his victorious arms against the island 
 of Rhodes, the seat, at that time, of the knights of St. John 
 of Jerusalem. This small state he attacked with such a nu- 
 merous army as the lords of Asia have been accustomed in 
 every age to bring into the field. Two hundred thousand men, 
 and a fleet of four hundred sail, appeared against a town de- 
 fended by a garrison consisting of five thousand soldiers, and 
 six hundred knights, under the command of Villiers de L'Isle 
 Adam, the grand master, whose wisdom and valour rendered 
 him worthy of that station at such a dangerous juncture. No 
 sooner did he begin to suspect the destination of Solyman's 
 vast armaments, than he despatched messengers to all the Chris- 
 tian courts, imploring their aid against the common enemy.
 
 72 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 But though every prince in that age acknowledged Rhodes to 
 be the great bulwark of Christendom in the east, and trusted 
 to the gallantry of its knights as the best security against the 
 progress of the Ottoman arms ; though Adrian, with a zeal 
 which became the head and father of the church, exhorted the 
 contending powers to forget their private quarrels, and, by 
 uniting their arms, to prevent the Infidels from destroying a 
 society which did honour to the Christian name ; yet so violent 
 and implacable was the animosity of both parties, that, regard- 
 less of the danger to which they exposed all Europe, and un- 
 moved by the entreaties of the grand master or the admonitions 
 of the pope, they suffered Solyman to carry on his operations 
 against Rhodes without disturbance. The grand master, after 
 incredible efforts of courage, of patience, and of military con- 
 duct during a siege of six months ; after sustaining many as- 
 saults, and disputing every post with amazing obstinacy, was 
 obliged at last to yield to numbers ; and having obtained an 
 honourable capitulation from the sultan, who admired and re- 
 spected his virtue, he surrendered the town, which was reduced 
 to a heap of rubbish, and destitute of every resource. Charles 
 V. and Francis I., ashamed of having occasioned such a loss to 
 Christendom by their ambitious contests, endeavoured to throw 
 the blame of it on each other, while all Europe, with greater 
 justice, imputed it equally to both. The emperor, by way of 
 reparation, granted the knights of St. John the small island of 
 Malta, in which they fixed their residence, retaining, though 
 with less power and splendour, their ancient spirit and implaca- 
 ble enmity to the Infidels.
 
 DEATH OF CHEVALIER BAYARD.
 
 CONSPIRACY OF BOURBON AND DEATH OF BAYARD. 75 
 
 CONSPIRACY OF BOURBON AND DEATH OF 
 BAYARD. 
 
 T has already been intimated that Charles V. 
 and Francis I. were often at war. During 
 one of their wars, of which Italy was the 
 theatre, Francis on his march to that coun- 
 try was obliged to stop short at Lyons, in 
 consequence of the discovery of a plot which 
 threatened the destruction of his kingdom. 
 Charles, duke of Bourbon, high constable 
 of France, was a prince of the most shining talents. His great 
 abilities equally fitted him for the council or the field, while his 
 eminent services to the crown entitled him to its first favour. 
 But unhappily Louisa, duchess of Angouleme, the king's mother, 
 had contracted a violent aversion against the house of Bourbon, 
 and had taught her son, over whom she had acquired an abso- 
 lute ascendant, to view all the constable's actions with a jealous 
 eye. After repeated affronts he retired from court, and began 
 to listen to the advances of the emperor's ministers. Mean- 
 time the duchess of Bourbon happened to die ; and as the con- 
 stable was no less handsome than accomplished, the duchess of 
 Angouleme, still susceptible of the tender passions, formed the 
 scheme of marrying him. But Bourbon, who might have ex- 
 pected every thing to which an ambitious mind can aspire, from 
 the doating fondness of a woman who governed her son and the 
 kingdom, incapable of imitating Louisa in her sudden transition 
 from hate to love, or of meanly counterfeiting a passion for one 
 who had so long pursued him with unprovoked malice, treated 
 the proposal with disdain, and even turned it into ridicule. At 
 once refused and insulted by the man whom love only could 
 have made her cease to persecute, Louisa was filled with all the 
 rage of disappointed woman : she resolved to ruin, since she 
 could not marry Bourbon. For this purpose she commenced
 
 76 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 an iniquitous suit against him ; and by the chicanery of Chan- 
 cellor Du Prat, the constable was stript of his whole family 
 estate. Driven to despair by so many injuries, he had recourse 
 to measures which despair only could have dictated. He en- 
 tered into a secret correspondence with the emperor and the 
 king of England ; and he proposed, as soon as Francis should 
 have crossed the Alps, to raise an insurrection among his nu- 
 merous vassals, and to introduce foreign troops into the heart 
 of France. 
 
 Happily Francis got intimation of this conspiracy before he 
 left the kingdom. But, not being sufficiently convinced of the 
 constable's guilt, he suffered so dangerous an enemy to escape ; 
 and Bourbon, entering into the emperor's service, employed all 
 the resources of his enterprising genius, and his military skill, 
 to the prejudice of his sovereign and his native country. He 
 took a severe revenge for all his wrongs. 
 
 In consequence of the discovery of this plot, and the escape 
 of the powerful conspirator, Francis relinquished his intention 
 of leading his army in person into Italy. He was ignorant 
 how far the infection had spread among his subjects, and afraid 
 that his absence might encourage them to make some desperate 
 attack in favour of a man so much beloved. He did not, how- 
 ever, abandon his design on the duchy of Milan ; but sent for- 
 ward, in order to subdue it, an army of thirty thousand men, 
 under the command of Admiral Bonnivet. Collona, who was in- 
 trusted with the defence of that duchy, was in no condition to 
 resist such a force ; and the city of Milan, on which the whole 
 territory depends, must have fallen into the hands of the French, 
 had not Bonnivet, who possessed none of the talents of a gene- 
 ral, wasted his time in frivolous enterprises, till the inhabitants 
 recovered from their consternation. The imperial army was 
 reinforced, Colonna died, and Lannoy, viceroy of Naples, suc- 
 ceeded him in the command, (a. d. 1524.) But the military 
 operations were chiefly conducted by the duke of Bourbon and 
 the marquis de Pescara, the two greatest generals of their age. 
 Bonnivet, destitute of the talents necessary to oppose such able 
 commanders, was reduced, after various movements and en- 
 counters, to the necessity of attempting a retreat into France. 
 He was pursued by the imperial generals, and routed at Bia- 
 grassa.
 
 CONSPIRACY OF BOURBON AND DEATH OF BAYARD. 77 
 
 Here fell the chevalier Bayard, whose contempt of the arts 
 of courts prevented him from ever rising to the chief command, 
 but who was always called, in times of real danger, to the posts 
 of difficulty and importance. Bonnivet being wounded, the 
 conduct of the rear was committed to Bayard. He put himself 
 at the head of the heavy-armed cavalry, and animating them by 
 his presence and example, to sustain the whole shock of the Im- 
 perial army, he gained time for the body of his countrymen to 
 make good their retreat. But in that service he received a 
 mortal wound ; and being unable any longer to continue on 
 horseback, he ordered one of his attendants to place him under 
 a tree, where he calmly waited the approach of death. In this 
 situation he was found by Bourbon, who led the van of the Im- 
 perialists, and expressed much sorrow for his fate. " Pity not 
 me !" cried the high-minded chevalier : " I die, as a man of 
 honour ought, in the discharge of my duty ; but pity those 
 who fight against their king, their country, and their oath." 
 
 q 2
 
 78 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SDERENDER OF FRANCIS I. 
 
 BATTLE OF PA VIA, AND CAPTURE OF 
 FRANCIS I. 
 
 HE emperor and his allies were less 
 successful in their operations on the 
 frontiers of France. They were 
 baffled on all sides. And Francis, 
 though stripped of his Italian do- 
 minions, might still have enjoyed, 
 in safety, the glory of having de- 
 fended his native kingdom against 
 one-half of Europe, and have bid 
 defiance to all his enemies, could he 
 have moderated his military ardour. 
 But understanding that the king of England, discouraged 
 by his former fruitless enterprises, and disgusted with the 
 emperor, was making no preparations for invading Picardy, 
 his rage for the conquest of Milan returned; and he deter-
 
 BATTLE OF PAVIA, AND CAPTURE OF FRANCIS I. 79 
 
 mined, notwithstanding the approach of winter, to march into 
 Italy. 
 
 The French army no sooner appeared in Piedmont, than the 
 whole duchy of Milan was thrown into consternation. The 
 capital opened its gates. The forces of the emperor and Sforza 
 retired to Lodi : and had Francis been so fortunate as to pursue 
 them, they must have abandoned that post, and been totally 
 dispersed. But his evil genius led him to besiege Pavia, (Oct. 
 28,) a town of considerable strength, well garrisoned, and de- 
 fended by Antonio de Leyva, one of the bravest officers in the 
 Spanish service. Every thing known to the engineers of that 
 age, or which could be effected by the valour of his troops, was 
 attempted in vain by the French monarch against this important 
 place, during a siege of three months. In the mean time, con- 
 fident of success, he had detached a considerable part of his 
 army to invade the kingdom of Naples : and the main body was 
 much wasted by the fatigues of the siege and the rigour of the 
 season. The imperial generals had not hitherto molested him, 
 but they were not idle. Pescara and Lannoy had assembled 
 forces from all quarters ; and Bourbon, having pawned his jewels, 
 had gone into Germany, and levied at his own expense a body 
 of twelve thousand Lansquenets, (a. d. 1525.) The united army 
 advanced to the relief of Pavia, now reduced to extremity for 
 want of ammunition and provisions. Prudence, and the advice 
 of his most experienced officers, dictated to Francis the pro- 
 priety of a retreat ; but his own romantic notions of honour, 
 and the opinion of Bonnivet, unhappily determined him to 
 keep his post. Having said that he would take Pavia or 
 perish in the attempt, he thought it ignominious to depart from 
 that resolution; and he anxiously waited the approach of the 
 enemy. 
 
 The imperial generals found the French so strongly intrenched 
 that they hesitated long before they ventured to attack them. 
 But the necessities of the besieged, and the murmurs of their own 
 troops, obliged them at last to put every thing to hazard. Never 
 did armies engage with greater ardour, or with a higher opinion 
 of the battle they were going to fight, (Feb. 24 ;) never were men 
 more strongly animated with personal emulation, national antipa- 
 thy, mutual resentment, and all the passions which inspire obsti- 
 nate bravery. The first efforts of the French valour made the
 
 80 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 firmest battalions of the Imperialists give ground; but the fortune 
 of the day was soon changed. The Swiss troops, in the service 
 of France, unmindful of their national honour, shamefully de- 
 serted their post. Pescara fell upon the French cavalry with 
 the Imperial horse, intermingled with a considerable number of 
 Spanish foot, armed with the heavy muskets then in use, and 
 broke that formidable body ; while Leyva, sallying out with his 
 garrison, during the heat of action, made a furious assault on 
 the enemy's rear, and threw every thing into confusion. The 
 rout became general. But Francis himself, surrounded by a 
 brave nobility, many of whom fell by his side, long sustained the 
 combat. His horse being killed under him, he fought on foot, 
 undistinguished but by his valour, and killed seven men with his 
 own hand. At last he was observed by Pomperant, a French 
 gentleman, who had followed the fortunes of Bourbon, and who 
 now saved the life of his sovereign, ready to sink beneath an 
 enraged soldiery. By his persuasion, Francis was prevailed 
 upon to surrender ; yet he obstinately refused, imminent as the 
 danger was, to deliver up his sword to Bourbon. Lannoy re- 
 ceived it. But Bourbon had the cruel satisfaction of exulting 
 over his sovereign's distress, and of repaying, from revenge, the 
 insults offered by jealousy. 
 
 This victory and the captivity of Francis filled all Europe 
 with alarm. Almost the whole French army was cut off: Milan 
 was immediately abandoned ; and in a few weeks not a French- 
 man was left in Italy. The power of the emperor, and still 
 more his ambition, became the object of universal terror : and 
 resolutions were everywhere taken to set bounds to it. Mean- 
 while Francis, deeply impressed with a sense of his misfortune, 
 wrote to his mother Louisa, whom he had left regent of the king- 
 dom, the following short but expressive letter: "All is lost but 
 honour!" 
 
 The same courier that delivered this letter carried also de- 
 spatches to Charles, who received the news of the signal and 
 unexpected success which had crowned his arms with the most 
 hypocritical moderation. He would not suffer any public re- 
 joicings to be made on account of it ; and said he only valued 
 it, as it would prove the occasion of restoring peace to Chris- 
 tendom. Louisa, however, did not trust to those appearances. 
 Instead of giving herself up to such lamentations as were natural
 
 BATTLE OF PAVIA, AND CAPTURE OF FRANCIS I. 
 
 81 
 
 to a woman remarkable for maternal tenderness, she discovered 
 all the foresight and exerted all the activity of a consummate 
 politician. She took every possible measure for putting the 
 kingdom in a posture of defence, while she employed all her 
 address to appease the resentment and to gain the friendship of 
 England ; and a ray of comfort from that quarter soon broke 
 in upon the French affairs.
 
 82 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 LIBERATION OF FRANCIS. 
 
 E AN WHILE Francis was rigorously con- 
 fined; and hard conditions being proposed to 
 him as the price of his liberty, he drew his 
 dagger, and pointing it at his breast, cried, 
 " 'Twere better that a king should die thus !" 
 But flattering himself, when he grew cool, that 
 such propositions could not come directly from 
 Charles, he desired that he might be removed to Spain, where 
 the emperor then resided. His request was complied with ; but 
 he languished long before he could obtain a sight of his con-
 
 LIBERATION OF FRANCIS. 83 
 
 queror. At last lie was favoured with a visit ; and the emperor, 
 dreading a general combination against him, or that Francis, if 
 driven to despair, might, as he threatened, resign his crown 
 to the dauphin, agreed to abate somewhat of his former de- 
 mands. A treaty was accordingly concluded at Madrid, (a. d. 
 1526,) in consequence of which Francis obtained his liberty. 
 The chief article in this treaty was, that Burgundy should be 
 restored to Charles as the rightful inheritance of his ancestors, 
 and that Francis's two eldest sons should be immediately delivered 
 up as hostages for the performance of the conditions stipulated. 
 The exchange of the captive monarch for his children was made 
 on the frontiers of France and Spain. And the moment that 
 Francis entered his own dominions, he mounted a Turkish horse, 
 and putting it to its speed, waved his hand, and cried aloud 
 several times, "I am yet a king ! I am yet a king !" 
 
 The reputation of the French monarch, however, would have 
 stood in a fairer light had he died a captive ; for the unhappy 
 situation of his affairs, delicate as his notions of honour appear 
 to have been, led him henceforth to act a part very disadvan- 
 tageous to his moral character. He never meant to execute 
 the treaty of Madrid : he had even left a protest in the hands 
 of notaries, before he signed it, that his consent should be con- 
 sidered as an involuntary deed, and be deemed null and void. 
 Accordingly, as soon as he arrived in France, he assembled the 
 states of Burgundy, who protested against the article relative 
 to their province ; and when the imperial ambassadors urged 
 the immediate execution of the treaty, the king replied that he 
 would rigorously perform the articles relative to himself, but in 
 those affecting the French monarchy he must be directed by the 
 sense of the nation. He made the highest acknowledgments 
 to the king of England for his friendly interposition, and 
 offered to be entirely guided by his counsels.
 
 84 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 DEATH OF BOURBON AND SACKING OF ROME. 
 
 y 
 A HARLES and his ministers now saw 
 
 *j\ that they were overreached in those 
 very arts of negotiation in which 
 they so much excelled, while the Italian 
 states observed with pleasure that Francis 
 was resolved to evade the execution of a 
 treaty which they considered as dangerous 
 to the liberties of Europe. Clement VII. absolved him from 
 the oath which he had taken at Madrid; and the kings of 
 France and England, the Pope, the Swiss, the Venetians, the 
 Florentines, and the Milanese, entered into an alliance, to 
 which they gave the name of the Holy League, because his 
 holiness was at the head of it, in order to oblige the emperor to 
 deliver up Francis's two sons on the payment of a reasonable 
 ransom, and to re-establish Sforza in the quiet possession of the 
 duchy of Milan. 
 
 In consequence of this league, the confederate army took 
 the field, and Italy became once more the scene of war. But 
 Francis, who it was expected would infuse spirit and vigour 
 into the whole body, had gone through such a scene of distress 
 that he was become diffident of his talents and distrustful of 
 his fortune. He had flattered himself that the dread alone of 
 such a confederacy would induce Charles to listen to what was 
 equitable, and therefore neglected to send sufficient reinforce- 
 ments to his allies in Italy. Meantime the duke of Bourbon, 
 who commanded the Imperialists, overran the whole duchy of 
 Milan, of which the emperor had promised him the investiture ; 
 and his troops beginning to mutiny for want of pay, he boldly 
 led them to Rome, (a. d. 1527,) in spite of every obstacle, by 
 offering to their avidity the rich spoils of that ancient capital. 
 Nor did he deceive them : for although he himself was slain
 
 DEATH OF BOURBON AND SACKING OF ROME. 85 
 
 while encouraging their efforts by his brave example, in plant- 
 ing with his own hands a scaling-ladder against the walls, they, 
 more enraged than discouraged by that misfortune, mounted to 
 the assault with the greatest ardour ; and, entering the city 
 sword in hand, pillaged it for many days, and made it a scene 
 of horrid carnage and abominable lust. 
 
 Never did Rome experience in any age so many calamities, 
 not even from the barbarians, by whom she was successively 
 subdued — from the followers of Alaric, Genseric, or Odoacer, 
 as now from the subjects of a Christian and Catholic monarch. 
 Whatever was respectable in modesty or sacred in religion 
 seemed only the more to provoke the rage of the soldiery. 
 Virgins suffered violation in the arms of their mothers, and 
 upon those altars to which they had fled for safety. Venerable 
 prelates, after being exposed to every indignity, and enduring • 
 every torture, were thrown into dungeons, and menaced with 
 the most cruel deaths, in order to make them reveal their se- 
 cret treasures. Clement himself, who had taken refuge in the 
 castle of St. Angelo, was obliged to surrender at discretion, 
 and found that his sacred character could neither procure him 
 liberty nor respect. He was doomed to close confinement until 
 he should pay an enormous ransom, imposed by the victorious 
 army, and surrender to the emperor all the places of strength 
 belonging to the apostolic see. 
 
 Charles received the news of this extraordinary event with 
 equal surprise and pleasure ; but, in order to conceal his joy 
 from his Spanish subjects, who were filled with horror at the 
 insult offered to the sovereign pontiff, and to lessen the indig- 
 nation of the other powers of Europe, he expressed the deepest 
 sorrow for the success of his arms. He put himself and his 
 whole court into mourning, stopped the rejoicings for the birth 
 of his son Philip, and ordered prayers to be put up in all the 
 churches of Spain for the liberation of the pope, which he 
 could immediately have procured by a letter to his generals. 
 
 The concern expressed by Henry and Francis, for the ca- 
 lamity of their ally, was more sincere. Alarmed at the progress 
 of the Imperial arms, they had, even before the sacking of 
 Rome, entered into a closer alliance, and proposed to invade 
 the Low Countries with a powerful army ; but no sooner did 
 they hear of Clement's captivity than they changed, by a new 
 
 H
 
 86 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 treaty, the scene of the projected war from the Netherlands to 
 Italy, and resolved to take the most vigorous measures for re- 
 storing his holiness to liberty. Henry, however, contributed 
 only money. A French army crossed the Alps, under the com- 
 mand of Mareschal Lautrec ; Clement obtained his freedom, 
 and war was, for a time, carried on by the confederates with 
 success, (a. d. 1528.) But the death of Lautrec, and the re- 
 volt of Andrew Doria, a celebrated Genoese admiral, at that 
 time in the service of France, totally changed the face of af- 
 fairs. He obliged the French garrison in Genoa to surrender, 
 and restore the liberties of his country. The French army 
 was utterly ruined before Naples ; and Francis, discouraged, 
 and almost exhausted by so many unsuccessful enterprises, 
 began at length to think of peace, and of obtaining the release 
 of his sons by concessions, instead of the terror of his arms.
 
 EXPEDITIONS AGAINST THE STATES OF BARBARY. 87 
 
 EXPEDITIONS OF CHARLES V. AGAINST THE 
 STATES OF BARBARY. 
 
 HILE these things were transacting, Charles 
 undertook an expedition against the pirati- 
 cal states of Africa. Barbary, or that part 
 of the African continent which lies along 
 the coast of the Mediterranean sea, was 
 then nearly in the same condition it is at 
 present. Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis were its principal go- 
 vernments ; and the last two were nests of pirates. Barbarossa, 
 a famous corsair, had succeeded his brother in the kingdom of 
 Algiers, which he formerly assisted him to usurp. He regu- 
 lated with much prudence the interior police of his kingdom, 
 carried on his piracies with great vigour, and extended his con- 
 quests on the continent of Africa; but perceiving that the natives 
 submitted to his government with impatience, and fearing that 
 his continual depredations might draw upon him a general com- 
 bination of the Christian powers, he put his dominions under 
 the protection of the Turkish emperor. Solyman, flattered by 
 such an act of submission, and charmed by the boldness of the 
 man, offered him the command of the Ottoman fleet. Proud of 
 this distinction, Barbarossa repaired to Constantinople, and 
 made use of his influence with his sultan to extend his own do- 
 minions. Partly by force, partly by treachery, he usurped the 
 kingdom of Tunis ; and being now possessed of greater power, 
 he carried on his depredations against the Christian states with 
 more destructive violence than ever. 
 
 Daily complaints of the piracies and ravages committed by 
 the galleys of Barbarossa were brought to the emperor by his 
 subjects, both in Spain and Italy ; and all Christendom seemed 
 to look up to Charles, as its greatest and most fortunate prince, 
 for relief from this new and odious species of oppression. At
 
 88 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the same time Muley Hascen, the exiled king of Tunis, finding 
 none of the African princes able or willing to support him in 
 recovering his throne, applied to the victorious Charles for as- 
 sistance against the usurper. Equally desirous of delivering 
 his dominions from the dangerous neighbourhood of Barbarossa, 
 of appearing as the protector of an unfortunate prince, and of 
 acquiring the glory annexed in that age to every expedition 
 against the Mohammedans, the emperor readily concluded a treaty 
 with Muley Hascen, and set sail for Tunis with a formidable 
 armament. 
 
 The Goletta, a strong fortress on an island in the bay of 
 Tunis, and the key of the capital, planted with three hundred 
 pieces of cannon, was taken by storm, (July 25, 1535,) together 
 with all Barbarossa's fleet. He was defeated in a pitched battle ; 
 and ten thousand Christian slaves having knocked off their fet- 
 ters, and made themselves masters of the citadel, Tunis offered 
 to surrender at discretion. But while Charles was deliberating 
 on the means of preserving the lives of the inhabitants, his 
 troops, fearing that they would be deprived of the booty which 
 they had expected, broke suddenly into the town and pillaged 
 and massacred without distinction. Thirty thousand persons 
 perished by the sword, and ten thousand were made prisoners. 
 The sceptre, drenched in blood, was restored to Muley Hascen, 
 on condition that he should acknowledge himself a vassal of the 
 crown of Spain, put into the emperor's hands all the fortified 
 seaports in the kingdom of Tunis, and pay annually twelve 
 thousand crowns for the subsistence of a Spanish garrison in 
 the Goletta. These points being settled, and twenty thousand 
 Christian slaves freed from bondage, either by arms or by treaty, 
 Charles returned to Europe, where his presence was become 
 necessary ; while Barbarossa, who had retired to Bona, reco- 
 vered new strength, and again became the tyrant of the ocean. 
 
 Algiers, after the taking of Tunis, became the common recep- 
 tacle of all the Barbary corsairs ; and from the time that Barba- 
 rossa, as captain-basha, commanded the Turkish fleet, it had 
 been governed by Hascen Aga, a renegado eunuch, who outdid, 
 if possible, his master in boldness and cruelty. The commerce 
 of the> Mediterranean was greatly interrupted by his galleys ; 
 and such frequent alarms were given to the coasts of Spain, 
 that there was a necessity for erecting watch-towers at certain
 
 EXPEDITIONS AGAINST THE STATES OF BARBARY. 91 
 
 distances, and of keeping a guard constantly employed in order 
 to descry the approach of his squadrons, and to protect the in- 
 habitants from the depredations of the rapacious ruffians with 
 which they were manned. 
 
 Charles, before he left Spain, had resolved to humble this 
 daring corsair, and to exterminate the lawless crew who had so 
 long infested the ocean. With this view he had ordered a fleet 
 and army to assemble on the coast of Italy ; and although the 
 autumn was now far advanced, he obstinately persisted in his 
 purpose, notwithstanding the remonstrances of Andrew Doria, 
 who conjured him not to expose so noble an armament to almost 
 inevitable destruction, by venturing at so late a season to ap- 
 proach the stormy coast of Algiers. Doria's words proved pro- 
 phetical. 
 
 No sooner had the emperor landed in Barbary, (1541,) than a 
 frightful hurricane arose, scattered his fleet, and dashed great 
 part of it in pieces ; while he and his land forces were exposed 
 to all the fury of the elements, in an enemy's country, without 
 a hut or a tent to shelter them, or so much as a spot of firm 
 ground on which they could rest their wearied bodies. In this 
 calamitous situation, cold and wet, they continued during seve- 
 ral days, harassed at the same time by the attacks of the Alge- 
 rines. At last, Doria happily being able to assemble the remains 
 of the fleet, Charles was glad to re-embark, after having lost the 
 greater part of his army, by the inclemency of the weather, 
 famine, or the sword of the enemy. And the men who yet sur- 
 vived were doomed to encounter new miseries in their return ; 
 the fleet being scattered by a fresh storm, and the ships obliged 
 to take shelter, separately, in those parts of Spain or Italy they 
 could first reach.
 
 92 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 HENRY VIII. 
 
 THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 
 
 prince had ever ascended the throne of 
 England with more advantages than Henry 
 VIII. (a. d. 1509.) His title to the crown 
 was undisputed ; his treasury was full ; his 
 subjects were in tranquillity; and the vigour 
 _ and comeliness of his person, his freedom of 
 manner, his love of show, and his dexterity 
 in every manly exercise, rendered his accession highly popular, 
 while his proficiency in literature and his reputation for talents 
 made his character respectable. Every thing seemed to prog- 
 nosticate a happy and prosperous reign. 
 
 He had been affianced during his father's lifetime to the 
 Infanta Catharine, his brother's widow ; and, notwithstanding 
 some scruples on that step, he now agreed that their nuptials 
 should be celebrated. We shall afterwards have occasion to 
 observe the extraordinary effects of this marriage, and of the 
 king's remorse, either real or pretended.
 
 THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 93 
 
 Some princes have been their own ministers, but almost every- 
 one has had either a minister or a favourite : Wolsey was both 
 to Henry. Being admitted to the youthful monarch's plea- 
 sures, he took the lead in every jovial conversation, and pro- 
 moted, notwithstanding his religious habit, all that frolic and 
 gayety which he found to be agreeable to the age and inclina- 
 tions of the king. During the intervals of amusement, he in- 
 troduced business and state affairs, and insinuated those max- 
 ims of conduct which he was desirous his master should pursue. 
 By these means he insensibly acquired that absolute ascendant 
 over Henry which distinguished his administration ; and the 
 people saw, with concern, every day new instances of his uncon- 
 trolled authority. 
 
 The duke of Buckingham, lord high constable of England, the 
 first nobleman in the kingdom both in family and fortune, hav- 
 ing wantonly given disgust to Wolsey, soon found reason to 
 repent his imprudence. He was descended by a female from 
 the duke of Gloucester, youngest son of Edward III., and being 
 infatuated with judicial astrology, he consulted with a Carthu- 
 sian friar, named Hopkins, who flattered him with the hope of 
 ascending one day the English throne. He had even been so 
 unguarded as to utter some expressions against the king's life. 
 The cardinal made these the grounds of an impeachment ; and 
 although Buckingham's threats seem to have proceeded more 
 from indiscretion than deliberate malice, he was brought to 
 trial, condemned, and executed, (a. d. 1521.) The office of 
 high constable, which this nobleman inherited from the Bohuns, 
 earls of Hereford, being forfeited by his attainder, was never 
 afterward revived in England. 
 
 The next memorable event in the domestic history of this 
 reign, is the divorce of Queen Catharine. The king's scruples 
 in regard to the lawfulness of his marriage increased with the 
 decay of the queen's beauty. She had borne him several chil- 
 dren, but they were all dead except the princess Mary ; and 
 Henry was passionately fond of male issue. He consulted his 
 confessor, the bishop of Lincoln, on the legality of marrying a 
 brother's widow, and found that prelate possessed with some 
 doubts and difficulties. He next proceeded to examine the 
 question by his own learning and study, being himself a great 
 divine and casuist ; and having had recourse to the works of
 
 94 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 his oracle, Thomas Aquinas, he discovered that this celebrated 
 doctor had expressly declared against the lawfulness of such 
 marriages. The archbishop of Canterbury was now applied to, 
 and desired to consult his brethren. All the prelates in Eng- 
 land, except Fisher, bishop of Rochester, unanimously declared 
 under their hand and seal, that they deemed the king's marriage 
 unlawful, (a. d. 1527.) Wolsey also fortified his master's 
 scruples, and the bright eyes of Anne Boleyn, maid of ho- 
 nour to the queen, carried home every argument to the heart of 
 Henry more forcibly than even the suggestions of that powerful 
 favourite. 
 
 This young lady was daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, who had 
 been employed by Henry in several embassies, and was allied 
 to all the chief nobility in the kingdom. She had been carried 
 over to Paris in early youth, by the king's sister, when espoused 
 to Louis XII. of France; and the graces of her mind, no less 
 than the beauty of her person, had distinguished her even in 
 that polished court. The time at which she returned to Eng- 
 land is not certainly known ; but it appears to have been after 
 the king had entertained doubts concerning the lawfulness of 
 his marriage. She immediately caught the roving and amorous 
 eye of Henry ; and as her virtue and modesty left him no hope 
 of licentious indulgences, he resolved to raise her to the throne, 
 which her accomplishments, both natural and acquired, seemed 
 equally fitted to adorn. 
 
 But many bars were yet in the way of Henry's wishes. It 
 was not only necessary to obtain a divorce from the pope, but a 
 revocation of the bull which had been granted for his marriage 
 with Catharine, before he could marry Anne : and he had to 
 combat all the interest of the emperor, whose aunt he was going 
 to degrade. The king of England, however, did not despair of 
 success. He was in high favour with the court of Rome, and 
 he deserved to be so. He had not only opposed the progress 
 of the Lutheran tenets, by all the influence which his extensive 
 and almost absolute authority conferred upon him, but he had 
 even written a book against them : a performance in itself not 
 contemptible, and which gave so much pleasure to Leo X. that 
 he conferred upon Henry the title of Defender of the Faith. 
 Sensible, therefore, of his importance, as the chief pillar of the 
 church, at a time when it stood in much need of support, he
 
 THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 97 
 
 confidently applied to Clement VII., the reigning pontiff, for a 
 dissolution of his marriage with Catharine. 
 
 The pope seemed at first favourable to Henry's inclinations ; 
 but his dread of displeasing the emperor, whose prisoner he had 
 lately been, prevented him from coming to any fixed determina- 
 tion, (a. d. 1529.) He at last, however, empowered Campeggio 
 and Wolsey, his two legates in England, to try the validity of 
 the king's marriage. They accordingly opened their court at 
 London, and proceeded to the examination of the matter. The 
 first point which came before them, and that which Henry 
 wanted chiefly to establish, was Arthur's consummation of his 
 marriage with Catharine ; and although the queen protested 
 that her virgin honour was yet untainted when the king received 
 her into his bed, and even appealed to his grace (the title then 
 taken by English kings) for the truth of her asseveration, stronger 
 proofs than were produced could not be expected of such a fact, 
 after so long an interval. But when the business seemed draw- 
 ing to a close, and while Henry was in anxious expectation of 
 a sentence in his favour, all his hopes were suddenly blasted. 
 Campeggio, on the most frivolous pretences, prorogued the 
 court ; and Clement, at the intercession of the emperor, revoked 
 the cause soon after to Rome. 
 
 This finesse occasioned the fall of Wolsey. Anne Boleyn 
 imputed to him the failure of her expectations, and Henry, who 
 entertained the highest opinion of the cardinal's capacity, 
 ascribed his miscarriage in the present undertaking, not to 
 misfortune or mistake, but to the malignity or infidelity of that 
 minister. The great seal was taken from him, and given to Sir 
 Thomas More, a man of learning, virtue, and capacity. He 
 was indicted in the Star-Chamber ; his lands and goods were 
 declared forfeited ; his houses and furniture were seized ; he 
 was pronounced without the protection of the laws, and his per- 
 son liable to be committed to custody. The king's heart, how- 
 ever, relented, and the prosecution was carried no farther ; but 
 the cardinal was ordered to remove from court, and his final 
 ruin was hanging over him. 
 
 The parliament laid hold of the present opportunity to pass 
 several bills, restraining the impositions of the clergy ; and 
 Henry was not displeased that the pope and his whole militia 
 should be- made sensible of their dependence upon him, and of 
 
 13 I
 
 98 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the willingness of his subjects, if he was so disposed, to reduce 
 the power and privileges of ecclesiastics. Amid the anxieties 
 with which he was agitated, he was often tempted to break off 
 all connection with Rome : and Anne Boleyn used every in- 
 sinuation, in order to make him proceed to extremities with 
 Clement ; both as the readiest and surest means of her exalta- 
 tion to the royal dignity, and of spreading the new doctrines, 
 in which she had been initiated under the duchess of Alenc,on, 
 a warm friend to the Reformation. But Henry, notwithstand- 
 ing these inducements, had still many reasons to desire a good 
 agreement with the sovereign pontiff. Having been educated 
 in a superstitious veneration for the holy see, he dreaded the 
 reproach of heresy ; and he abhorred all alliance with the Lu- 
 therans, the chief opponents of the papal power, because 
 Luther, their apostle, had handled him roughly, in an answei 
 to his book in defence of the Romish communion. 
 
 While Henry was fluctuating between these contrary opi- 
 nions, two of his courtiers fell accidentally, one evening, into 
 company with Dr. Thomas Cranmer, fellow of Jesus College, in 
 Cambridge, a man distinguished by his learning, but still more 
 by his candour ; and, as the affair of the divorce became the 
 subject of conversation, he observed, that the best way, either 
 to quiet the king's conscience or obtain the pope's consent, 
 would be to consult all the universities in Europe with regard 
 to that controverted point, (a. d. 1530.) When Henry was 
 informed of this proposal, he was delighted with it, and swore 
 with great violence, " By God ! Cranmer has got the right sow 
 by the ear." The doctor was immediately sent for, and taken 
 into favour, the universities were consulted, according to his 
 advice, and all of them declared the king's marriage invalid. 
 
 Clement, however, lying still under the influence of the em- 
 peror, continued inflexible ; and, as Henry was sensible that 
 the extremities to which he was pushed, both against the pope 
 and the ecclesiastical order, must be disagreeable to Wolsey, 
 whose opposition he dreaded, he renewed the prosecution against 
 his ancient favourite. 
 
 The cardinal, after his disgrace, had remained for some time 
 at Richmond ; but, being ordered to remove to his see of York, 
 he took up his residence at Cawood, in Yorkshire, where he 
 rendered himself extremely popular in the neighbourhood by
 
 THE REFORMATION UN ENGLAND. 99 
 
 his affability and hospitality. In this retreat he lived, when 
 the earl of Northumberland received orders to arrest him for 
 high treason, and conduct him to London as a prelude to his 
 trial. On his journey he was seized with a disorder, which 
 turned into a dysentery ; and it was with much difficulty that 
 he was able to reach Leicester abbey. « I am come to lay my 
 bones among you," said Wolsey to the abbot and' monks, who 
 came out to receive him : and he immediately took to his bed, 
 whence he never rose more. « Oh ! had I but served my 
 God," cried he, a little before he expired, "as diligently as I 
 have served my king, he would not have deserted me in my 
 gray hairs." His treason, indeed, seems rather to have been 
 against the people than the prince, or even the state ; for al- 
 though the violence and obstinacy of Henry's character ought 
 perhaps to apologize for many of the cardinal's public measures, 
 his continued extortions upon the subject, by the most iniqui- 
 tous methods, in what he called his Legantine court, admit of 
 no alleviation. 
 
 Thus freed from a person whom he considered as an obstacle 
 in the way of his inclinations, and supported by the opinion 
 of the learned in the step which he intended to take, Henry 
 ordered a parliament, together with a convocation, to meet ; in 
 which he was acknowledged " the Protector and supreme Head 
 of the Church and Clergy of England." (a. d. 1531.) And 
 being now fully determined in his own mind relative to a matter 
 which had long engaged his thoughts, and resolved to adminis- 
 ter ecclesiastical affairs without having farther recourse to 
 Rome, (a. d. 1532,) as well as to abide all consequences, he 
 privately celebrated his marriage with Anne Boleyn, whom he 
 had previously created marchioness of Pembroke. 
 
 Cranmer, now become archbishop of Canterbury, annulled 
 soon after the king's marriage with Catharine, (a step which 
 ought to have preceded his second nuptials,) and ratified that 
 with Anne, who was publicly crowned queen, with all the pomp 
 and dignity suited to such a ceremony. And, to complete the 
 satisfaction of Henry on the conclusion of this troublesome 
 business, the queen was safely delivered of a daughter, (a. d. 
 1533,) who received the name of Elizabeth, and whom we shall 
 afterwards see swaying the English sceptre with equal glory to 
 herself and happiness to her people.
 
 100 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 When intelligence was conveyed to Rome of these transac- 
 tions, the conclave was all in a rage, and the pope was urged 
 by the cardinals of the imperial faction to dart his spiritual 
 thunders against Henry. But Clement was still unwilling to 
 proceed to extremities : he only declared Cranmer's sentence 
 null, and threatened the king with excommunication, if he did 
 not put things in their former condition, before a day named. 
 In the mean time Henry was prevailed upon, by the mediation 
 of the king of France, to submit his cause to the Roman con- 
 sistory, provided the cardinals of the Imperial faction were ex- 
 cluded from it. The pope consented, and promised that, if the 
 king would sign a written agreement to this purpose, his de- 
 mands should be fully complied with. But on what slight inci- 
 dents often depend the greatest events ! The courier appointed 
 to carry the king's written promise was detained beyond the 
 day fixed ; news arrived at Rome that a libel had been pub- 
 lished in London against the holy see, and a farce acted before 
 the king in derision of the apostolic body. The pope and cardinals 
 entered into the consistory inflamed with rage ; the marriage 
 between Henry and Catharine was pronounced valid ; the king 
 was declared excommunicated if he refused to adhere to it, and 
 the rupture with England was rendered final. 
 
 The English parliament, assembled soon after this decision 
 of the court of Rome, (a. d. 1534,) conferred on the king the 
 title of " The only supreme Head of the Church of England 
 upon Earth," as they had already invested him with all the 
 real power belonging to it ; a measure of the utmost conse- 
 quence to the kingdom, whether considered in a civil or eccle- 
 siastical view, and which forms a memorable era in their consti- 
 tution. The legislature, by thus acknowledging the king's 
 supremacy in ecclesiastical matters, and uniting the spiritual 
 with the civil power, introduced greater simplicity into govern- 
 ment, and prevented all future disputes about the limits of con- 
 tending jurisdictions. A door was also opened for checking 
 the exorbitances of superstition, and breaking those shackles 
 by which human reason, policy, and industry had so long been 
 circumscribed ; for, as a profound historian has justly observed, 
 the prince, being head of the religious as well as of the tem- 
 poral jurisdiction of the kingdom, though he might sometimes 
 be tempted to employ the former as an engine of government,
 
 101 
 
 12
 
 THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 103 
 
 could have no interest, like the Roman pontiff, in encouraging 
 its usurpations. 
 
 But England, though thus happily released from the oppres- 
 sive jurisdiction of the pope, was far from enjoying religious 
 freedom. Liberty of conscience was, if possible, more confined 
 than ever. Henry not only retained his aversion against Lu- 
 ther and his doctrines, but so many of his early prejudices 
 hung about him, that the idea of heresy still filled him with 
 horror. Separate as he stood from the Catholic church, he 
 continued to value himself on maintaining its dogmas, and on 
 guarding with fire and sword the imaginary purity of his specu- 
 lative opinions. All who denied the king's supremacy, the 
 legitimacy of his daughter Elizabeth, or who embraced the 
 tenets of the reformers, were equally the objects of his ven- 
 geance. Among the latter were many unhappy persons, who 
 had greedily imbibed the Lutheran doctrines, during Henry's 
 quarrel with Rome, in hopes of a total change of worship, and 
 who, having gone too far to recede, fell martyrs to their npw 
 faith. Among the former were Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 
 and Sir Thomas More, late chancellor, who refused to acknow- 
 ledge the king's supremacy, and died upon the scaffold with 
 heroic constancy, (a. d. 1535.) More, who was a man of a 
 gay humour, retained even his facetiousness to the last. When 
 he laid his head on the block, and saw the executioner ready 
 with his weapon, " Stay, friend," said he, " till I put aside my 
 beard; for," added he, "it never committed treason." What 
 pity, and what an instance of the inconsistency of human na- 
 ture, that the man who could make a jest of death, should 
 make a matter of conscience of the pope's supremacy ! 
 
 Although Henry thus punished both Protestants and Catho- 
 lics, his most dangerous enemies, he was sensible, were the 
 zealous adherents to the ancient religion, and more especially 
 the monks, who, having their immediate dependence on the 
 Roman pontiff, apprehended their own ruin to be the certain 
 consequence of abolishing his authority in England. The king 
 therefore determined to suppress the monasteries, as so many 
 nurseries of rebellion, as well as of idleness, superstition, and 
 folly, and to put himself in possession of their ample revenues. 
 In order to effectuate this robbery with some colour of justice, 
 he appointed commissioners to visit all religious houses ; and
 
 104 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 these men, acquainted with the king's design, brought reports, 
 whether true or false, of such frightful disorders, lewdness, 
 ignorance, priestcraft, and unnatural lusts, as filled the nation 
 with horror against institutions held sacred by their ancestors, 
 and lately objects of the most profound veneration. The lesser 
 monasteries, said to have been the most corrupted, to the num- 
 ber of three hundred and seventy-six, were at once suppressed 
 by parliament, (a. d. 1536 ;) and their revenues, goods, chat- 
 tels, and plate were granted to the king.
 
 LADY JANE GREY. 
 
 14
 
 ACCESSION OF EDWARD VI. 
 
 107 
 
 THE CROWN OFFERED TO LADY JANE GREY. 
 
 ACCESSION OF EDWARD VI. 
 
 ENRY VIII. died January 28, 1547, leav- 
 ing the throne to his only son, a boy of 
 ten years of age, who was immediately 
 proclaimed king under the title of Ed- 
 ward VI. The duke of Somerset, ma- 
 ternal uncle to the young king, became 
 supreme ruler, under the title of Protector, and continued to 
 maintain the Protestant doctrines. Under this reign, the church 
 of England assumed its present form, and the Book of Common 
 Prayer was composed nearly as it now exists. Somerset being 
 resolved to effect, if possible, the match between Edward VI. 
 and Mary of Scotland, invaded that country in autumn 1547, 
 and met was at Musselburgh by a large army under the gover- 
 nor, the earl of Arran. Though the Scotch were animated by 
 bitter animosity against the English, against their religion, and 
 against the object of their expedition, they did not fight with 
 their usual resolution, but were defeated, and pursued with great 
 slaughter. Finding them still obstinate in refusing to give up 
 their queen, Somerset laid waste a great part of the country, 
 and then retired. Previous to this period, Cardinal Beaton had 
 been assassinated by private enemies : but the Scotch were en- 
 couraged to persevere by the court of France, to which they 
 now sent the young queen for protection.
 
 108 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 In the reign of Edward VI. the government was conducted 
 mildly, until the protector Somerset was degraded from his 
 authority by the rising influence of Dudley, duke of Northum- 
 berland, who caused him soon after to be tried and executed. 
 Northumberland, who was secretly a Roman Catholic, was not 
 so mild or popular a ruler. Yet throughout the whole reign of 
 Edward VI., which was terminated by his death on the 6th of 
 July, 1553, at the early age of sixteen, no religious party was 
 persecuted, except those who denied the fundamental doctrines 
 of the Christian religion. It would have been well for the ho- 
 nour of a church which has produced many great men, and to 
 which the modern world is indebted for the very existence of 
 Christianity, if it had not been tempted after this period to com- 
 mence a very different course of action. The crown now be- 
 longed by birthright to Mary, the eldest daughter of Henry 
 VIII., who was a zealous Catholic. Northumberland, however, 
 assuming the illegitimacy of that princess and her sister Eliza- 
 beth, set up as queen the Lady Jane Grey, who was descended 
 from a younger sister of king Henry, and who had been mar- 
 ried to a son of the duke of Northumberland. Lady Jane was 
 the most beautiful, most intelligent, and most amiable of all the 
 females who appear in the history of England. Though only 
 seventeen, she was deeply learned, and yet preserved all the 
 unaffected graces of character proper to her interesting age. 
 Unfortunately, her father-in-law Northumberland was so much 
 disliked that the Catholics were enabled to displace her from 
 the throne in eight days, and set up in her stead the princess 
 Mary. Northumberland, Lady Jane, and her husband, Guilford 
 Lord Dudley, were all beheaded by that savage princess, who 
 soon after took steps for restoring the Catholic religion, and 
 married Philip II., king of Spain, in order to strengthen her- 
 self against the Protestant interest. Mary experienced some 
 resistance from her Protestant subjects, and being under great 
 suspicion of her sister Elizabeth, who professed the reformed 
 faith, but took no part against her, was almost on the point of 
 ordering her to execution also. As soon as she had replaced the 
 Catholic system, and found herself in possession of sufficient 
 power, she began that career of persecution which has rendered 
 her name so infamous.
 
 GARDINER.
 
 PERSECUTIONS IN QUEEN MARY'S REIGN. 
 
 Ill 
 
 PERSECUTIONS OF THE PROTESTANTS IN 
 QUEEN MARY'S REIGN. 
 
 N consequence of her reconciliation with 
 the see of Rome, Mary had recourse to 
 the punishment by fire, that frightful 
 expedient of superstition, for extend- 
 ing her empire, and preserving her do- 
 minion. The mild counsels of Cardinal 
 Pole, who was inclined to toleration, 
 were overruled by Gardiner and Bon- 
 ner, and many persons of all conditions, 
 ages, and sexes were committed to the 
 flaines. The persecutors made their first attack upon Rogers, 
 prebendary of St. Paul's ; a man equally distinguished by his 
 piety and learning, but whose domestic situation, it was hoped, 
 would bring him to compliance. He had a wife, whom he ten- 
 derly loved, and ten children ; yet did he continue firm in his 
 principles, and such was his serenity after condemnation, that 
 the jailers, it is said, waked him from a sound sleep, when the 
 hour of his execution approached. He suffered in Smithfield, 
 (a. d. 1555.) Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, was condemned at 
 the same time with Rogers, but sent to his own diocese to be 
 punished, in order to strike the greater terror into his flock. 
 The constancy of his death, however, had a very contrary effect. 
 It was a scene of consolation to Hooper to die in their sight, 
 bearing testimony to that doctrine which he had formerly taught 
 among them. He continued to exhort them, till his tongue, 
 swollen by the violence of his agony, denied him utterance : and 
 his words were long remembered. 
 
 Ferrar, bishop of St. David's, also suffered this terrible pun- 
 ishment in his own diocese. And Ridley, bishop of London, 
 and Latimer, formerly bishop of Worcester, two prelates, vene-
 
 112 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 rable by their years, their learning, and their piety, perished 
 together in the same fire at Oxford, supporting each other's 
 constancy by their mutual exhortations. Latimer, when tied to 
 the stake, called to his companion, "Be of good cheer, my 
 brother ! we shall this day kindle such a flame in England, as, 
 I trust in God, will never be extinguished." 
 
 Sanders, a respectable clergyman, was committed to the flames 
 at Coventry. A pardon was offered him if he would recant ; 
 but he rejected it with disdain, and embraced the stake, saying, 
 "Welcome, cross of Christ! welcome, everlasting life !" Cran- 
 mer had less courage at first. Overawed by the prospect of 
 those tortures which awaited him, or overcome by the fond love 
 of life, and by the flattery of artful men, who p.ompously repre- 
 sented the dignities to which his character still entitled him, if 
 he would merit them by a recantation, lie agreed, in an unguarded 
 hour, to subscribe to the doctrines of the papal supremacy and 
 the real presence. But Mary and her council, no less perfidious 
 than cruel, determined that this recantation should avail him 
 nothing ; that he should acknowledge his errors in the church 
 before the people, and afterward be led to execution. Whether 
 Cranmer received secret intelligence of their design, or repented 
 of his weakness, or both, is uncertain ; but he surprised the 
 audience by a declaration very- different from that which was 
 expected from him. After explaining his sense of what he 
 owed to God and his sovereign, "There is one miscarriage in 
 my life," said he, "of which, above all others, I severely repent 
 — the insincere declaration of faith to which I had the weakness 
 to subscribe; but I take this opportunity of atoning for my 
 error by a sincere and open recantation, and am willing to seal 
 with my blood that doctrine which I firmly believe to have been 
 communicated from Heaven." (a. d. 1556.) 
 
 As his hand, he added, had erred, by betraying his heart, it 
 should first be punished by a severe but just doom. He accord- 
 ingly stretched out his arm, as soon as he came to the stake, to 
 which he was instantly led, and without discovering, either by 
 his looks or motions, the least sign of compunction, or even of 
 feeling, he held his right hand in the flames till it was utterly 
 consumed. His thoughts appeared to be totally occupied in re- 
 flecting on his former fault ; and he called aloud several times, 
 "This hand has offended !" When it dropped off he discovered
 
 queen maey. From a Painting by Holbein. 
 
 IS 
 
 K2
 
 PERSECUTIONS IN QUEEN MARY'S REIGN. H7 
 
 a serenity in his countenance, as if satisfied with sacrificing to 
 divine justice the instrument of his crime ; and when the fire 
 attacked his body, his soul, wholly collected within itself, seemed 
 fortified against every external accident, and altogether inacces- 
 sible to pain. 
 
 It would be endless to enumerate all the cruelties practised 
 in England during this bigoted reign, near three hundred per- 
 sons having been brought to the stake in the first rage of per- 
 secution. Besides, the savage barbarity on the one hand, and 
 the patient constancy on the other, are so similar in all those 
 martyrdoms, that a narration, very little agreeable in itself, 
 would become altogether disgusting by its uniformity. It is 
 sufficient to have mentioned the sufferings of the most eminent re- 
 formers, whose character and condition make such notice neces- 
 sary. We shall therefore conclude this subject with observing, 
 that human nature appears on no occasion so detestable, and at 
 the same time so absurd, as in these religious horrors, which sink 
 mankind below infernal spirits in wickedness, and beneath the 
 brutes in folly. Bishop Bonner seemed to rejoice in the tor- 
 ments of the victims of persecution. He sometimes whipped 
 the Protestant prisoners with his own hands, till he was tired 
 with the violence of the exercise : he tore out the beard of a 
 weaver, who refused to relinquish his religion ; and, in order to 
 give the obstinate heretic a more sensible idea of burning, he 
 held his finger to the candle, till the sinews and veins shrunk and 
 burst. All these examples prove that no human depravity can 
 equal revenge and cruelty, inflamed by theological hate.
 
 118 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CHARLES V. AND TUREIANO SURPRISING THE MONKS WITH THEIR CURIOUS PUPPETS. 
 
 RESIGNATION OF CHARLES V. 
 
 IN the year 1556, an event happened which asto- 
 nished all Europe, and confounded the reasonings 
 of the wisest politicians. The emperor Charles V., 
 though no more than fifty-six, an age when ob- 
 jects of ambition operate with full force on the 
 mind, and are generally pursued with the great- 
 est ardour, had for some time formed the resolu- 
 tion of resigning his hereditary dominions to his 
 son Philip. He now determined to put it in execution. Va- 
 rious have been the opinions of historians concerning a resolu- 
 tion so singular and unexpected ; but the most probable seem to 
 be, the disappointments which Charles had met with in his am- 
 bitious hopes, and the daily decline of his health. He had 
 early in life been attacked with the gout ; and the fits were 
 now become so frequent and severe, that not only the vigour 
 of his constitution was broken, but the faculties of his mind
 
 RESIGNATION OF CHARLES V. H9 
 
 were sensibly impaired. He, therefore, judged it more decent 
 to conceal his infirmities in some solitude, than to expose them 
 any longer to the public eye : and, as he was unwilling to for- 
 feit the fame or lose the acquisitions of his better years, by 
 attempting to guide the reins of government when he was no 
 longer able to hold them with steadiness, he prudently deter- 
 mined to seek, in the tranquillity of retirement, that happiness 
 which he had in vain pursued amid the tumults of war and the 
 intrigues of state. 
 
 In consequence of this resolution, Charles, who had already 
 ceded to his son Philip the kingdom of Naples and the duchy 
 of Milan, assembled the states of the Low Countries at Brus- 
 sels; and seating himself, for the last time, in the chair of 
 state, he explained to his subjects the reasons of his resigna- 
 tion, and solemnly devolved his authority upon Philip. He re- 
 counted with dignity, but without ostentation, all the great things 
 which he had undertaken and performed since the commencement 
 of his administration : and that enumeration gives us the highest 
 idea of his activity and industry. " I have dedicated," observed 
 he, " from the seventeenth year of my age, all my thoughts and 
 attention to public objects, reserving no portion of my time for 
 the indulgence of ease, and very little for the enjoyment of 
 private pleasure. Either in a pacific or hostile manner, I have 
 visited Germany nine times ; Spain six times ; France four 
 times ; Italy seven times ; the Low Countries ten times ; Eng- 
 land twice ; Africa as often ; and, while my health permitted 
 me to discharge the duties of a sovereign, and the vigour of my 
 constitution was equal in any degree to the arduous office of 
 governing such extensive dominions, I never shunned labour, 
 nor repined under fatigue ; but now, when my health is broken, 
 and my vigour exhausted by the rage of an incurable distem- 
 per, my growing infirmities admonish me to retire ; nor am I 
 so fond of reigning as to retain the sceptre in an impotent hand, 
 which is no longer able to protect my subjects. 
 
 " Instead of a sovereign worn out with diseases," continued 
 he, « and scarce half alive, I give you one in the prime of life, 
 already accustomed to govern, and who adds to the vigour of 
 youth all the attention and sagacity of maturer years." Then 
 turning towards Philip, who fell on his knees and kissed his 
 father's hand, "It is in your power," said Charles, "by a wise
 
 120 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 and virtuous administration, to justify the extraordinary proof 
 which I give this day of my paternal affection, and to demon- 
 strate that you are worthy of the confidence which I repose in 
 you. Preserve," added he, "an inviolable regard for religion; 
 maintain the Catholic faith in its purity ; let the laws of your 
 country be sacred in your eyes ; encroach not on the rights of 
 your people ; and, if the time should ever come when you 
 shall wish to enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you 
 have a son to whom you can resign your sceptre with as much 
 satisfaction as I give mine to you." A few weeks after, the 
 emperor also resigned to Philip the Spanish crown, with all the 
 dominions depending upon it, in the Old as well as in the New 
 World ; reserving nothing to himself, out of all those vast pos- 
 sessions, but an annual pension of one hundred thousand 
 ducats. 
 
 Soon after his abdication, he desired father Johanne de 
 Regla to be his confessor. The good father some time refused : 
 Charles said to him, " Holy father, do not be alarmed at hav- 
 ing the care of the conscience of an emperor, which, for this 
 last year past, five doctors of canon law and of divinity have 
 undertaken to relieve." 
 
 In his retirement at St. Just, he and Turriano amused them- 
 selves with making collections of clocks and watches, and au- 
 tomaton images, and in observing their different motions, and 
 used to observe, with a sigh, how ill he had spent his time in 
 endeavouring to make mankind think alike in religious matters, 
 when he had never been able to make two watches go perfectly 
 together.
 
 QUEEN ELIZABETH.
 
 ACCESSION OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 123 
 
 ACCESSION OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 i HEN Queen Mary's death was announced 
 to the parliament, which happened to be 
 assembled at the time, the members all 
 sprang from their seats ; and shouts of 
 joy, and the words " God save Queen 
 Elizabeth!" were heard to resound on 
 every side. When the news was spread abroad, the transport 
 of the people was so great that they hurried in crowds towards 
 Hatfield, where Elizabeth was then residing, and escorted her 
 into London. Elizabeth was then twenty-five years old. 
 
 The new queen, from her first coming to the throne, seemed 
 anxious to show an entire forgetfulness of all her former suffer- 
 ings, and never testified any resentment towards those who had 
 been instrumental to them. Even Sir Henry Benefield, in whose 
 custody she had been for a time, and whom she had found a 
 severe jailer, experienced from her no other punishment or re- 
 buke, but that of her telling him that he should have the custody 
 of any state prisoner whom she wished to be treated with pecu- 
 liar severity. The cruel Bonner was the only one of her sister's 
 ministers to whom she showed a marked dislike. She turned 
 from him with horror, and would never speak to him nor look at 
 him. 
 
 The first great anxiety of all the Protestant part of the nation 
 was to have a settlement of the affairs of the church. In this 
 important business Elizabeth proceeded with great prudence and 
 caution, and yet with so much determination and steadiness 
 that she soon replaced every thing in the state it had been at 
 her brother's death ; and all without one drop of blood being 
 spilt, or a single estate confiscated. Bonner alone, for refusing 
 to acknowledge her supremacy, was punished by being im- 
 prisoned for life. 
 
 Philip, as soon as he heard of Queen Mary's death, proposed
 
 124 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 himself to her sister in marriage. Elizabeth never for a mo- 
 ment thought of consenting to such a union ; but, perhaps, for 
 fear of making him her enemy, or perhaps from her accustomed 
 caution, she delayed to give a decisive answer as long as she 
 could ; and when she sent her refusal, she took the opportunity 
 of declaring to the parliament a determination to lead a single 
 life. 
 
 Notwithstanding this declaration, Elizabeth some years after- 
 wards admitted the addresses of the duke of Anjou, the brother 
 of the king of France. But partly through her fear of lessening 
 her own authority, if she admitted another to share it, and partly, 
 perhaps, from love to her people, which made her unwilling to 
 give them a foreign king, she broke off the match, after keeping 
 the duke long in suspense. 
 
 The pretensions of Mary, the young queen of Scotland, were 
 an early source of disquiet to Elizabeth. Mary was great-niece 
 of Henry VIII., and on the plea that Elizabeth had been de- 
 clared illegitimate, she asserted her own right to the crown, and 
 took upon her the arms and title of qeeen of England. And 
 though this empty boast was not followed by any active attempt, 
 it yet laid the foundation in Elizabeth's mind of a deadly hatred 
 towards her. 
 
 Mary had been married to the dauphin, who, on his father's 
 death, became king of France, by the title of Francis II. ; and 
 she had thus been, for a brief season, the queen of the most 
 splendid court in Europe, into all the dissipations of which she 
 entered eagerly. When, on the early death of Francis, she was 
 obliged to return to Scotland, the contrast between the country 
 she left and that which she was now come to inhabit struck her 
 with melancholy ; and the rude manners of the Scots filled her 
 with disgust. 
 
 This disgust was increased by difference of religion. Mary 
 had been brought up a bigoted Catholic ; and the Reformation, 
 which had now made great progress in Scotland, was not marked 
 there with a mild and conciliatory spirit. The Scotch reformers 
 were men of rigid zeal, and condemned all gayety and amuse- 
 ments as sinful. They were as much shocked at the queen's 
 levities, as she was displeased by their austerity. 
 
 While these discontents were growing in Scotland, the queen 
 of England was busily employed in putting the affairs of her
 
 ACCESSION OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 125 
 
 LORD BURLEIGH. 
 
 kingdom in order. She called in the old coin, which had been 
 shamefully debased in the last three reigns, and replaced it by 
 a coinage of the standard weight. She filled her arsenals with 
 arms ; she introduced the manufacturing of gunpowder into Eng- 
 land ; she frequently reviewed her militia, and put the country 
 into a complete state of defence ; she encouraged agriculture, 
 trade, and navigation, and increased her navy so much that she 
 has been called " the queen of the northern seas." 
 
 Elizabeth's wise government was respected abroad and pros- 
 perous at home. She was exceedingly fortunate in the choice 
 of her ministers ; particularly in her treasurer, Lord Burleigh, 
 and her secretary Walsingham, who were men of extraordinary 
 abilities and integrity. While affairs were managed with so 
 much vigour and success, her people were scarcely aware in how 
 great a degree their queen kept gradually enlarging her pre- 
 rogative, nor how much their own liberties were infringed.
 
 126 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 DEATH OF MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. 
 
 HE Catholic powers of the continent formed 
 many schemes for annoying or dethroning 
 Elizabeth ; and the imprisoned Scottish 
 queen, or her adherents, were generally 
 concerned in them. The king of Spain, 
 determined at length to make a decisive 
 effort, commenced the preparation of a 
 vast fleet, which he termed the Invincible 
 Armada, and with which he designed to invade the English 
 shores. Elizabeth, her ministers, and people beheld the pre- 
 parations with much concern, and their fears were increased by 
 the plots which were incessantly forming among her Catholic 
 subjects in behalf of the queen of Scots. An act was passed 
 declaring that any person by or for whom any plot should be 
 made against the queen of England should be guilty of treason. 
 When, soon after, a gentleman named Babington formed a con- 
 spiracy for assassinating Elizabeth and placing Mary on the 
 throne, the latter queen became of course liable to the punish- 
 ment for treason, although herself innocent. She was subjected 
 to a formal trial in her prison of Fotheringay Castle, and found 
 guilty. Elizabeth hesitated for some time to strike an unof- 
 fending and unfortunate person, related to her in blood and her 
 equal in rank. But at length fears for herself got the better of 
 her sense of justice, and it may be added of her good sense, and 
 she gave her sanction to an act which leaves an ineffaceable stain 
 upon her memory. On the 7th of February, 1587, Mary queen 
 of Scots was beheaded in the hall of the castle, after a confine- 
 ment of more than eighteen years.
 
 DESTRUCTION OF THE SPANISH ARMADA. 
 
 127 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF THE SPANISH ARMADA. 
 
 N 1588, the Spanish Armada, consisting of a 
 hundred and thirty great vessels, with twenty 
 thousand land forces on board, set sail against 
 England, while thirty-four thousand more land 
 forces prepared to join from the Netherlands. 
 Amidst the consternation which prevailed in 
 England, active measures were taken to de- 
 fend the country; thirty vessels prepared to 
 meet the Armada, and another fleet endea- 
 voured to block up the Netherlands forces in 
 port. The command was taken by Lord Howard of Effingham. 
 Troops were also mustered on land to repel the invaders. The 
 English fleet attacked the Armada in the channel, and was
 
 128 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 found to have a considerable advantage in the lightness and 
 manageableness of the vessels. As the Armada sailed along, it 
 was infested by the English in the rear, and, by a series of de- 
 sultory attacks, so damaged as to be obliged to take refuge on 
 the coast of Zealand. The duke of Parma now declined to em- 
 bark the Netherlands forces, and it was resolved by the admi- 
 ral that they should return to Spain by sailing round the Ork- 
 neys, as the winds were contrary to their passage directly back. 
 Accordingly, they proceeded northward, and were followed by 
 the English fleet as far as Flamborough head, where they were 
 terribly shattered by a storm. Seventeen of the ships, having 
 5000 men on board, were cast away on the Western Isles and 
 the coast of Ireland. Of the whole Armada, fifty-three ships 
 only returned to Spain, and these in a wretched condition. The 
 seamen, as well as the soldiers who remained, were so overcome 
 with hardships and fatigue, and so dispirited by their discom- 
 fiture, that they filled all Spain with accounts of the desperate 
 valour of the English, and of the tempestuous violence of that 
 ocean by which they were surrounded.
 
 DEATH OF THE EARL OF ESSEX.
 
 DEATH OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 131 
 
 DEATH OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 T is remarkable, that while Elizabeth in- 
 creased in power and resources, she be- 
 came more noted for feminine weaknesses. 
 In her early years she had shown a stoi- 
 cism and a superiority to natural affections 
 not usually observed in women. But in 
 her old age, she became both volatile and 
 susceptible to an extraordinary degree ; so that the hand which 
 she had withheld, in her younger days, from the noblest princes 
 of Europe, seemed likely to be bestowed, in her old age, upon 
 some mere court minion. Her favourite in middle life was 
 Robert, earl of Leicester, a profligate and a trifler. In her latter 
 days she listened to the addresses of the earl of Essex, a young 
 man of greater courage and better principle, but also headstrong 
 and weak. Essex, who had acquired popularity by several bril- 
 liant military enterprises, began at length to assume an insolent 
 superiority over the queen, who was on one occasion so much pro- 
 voked by his rudeness as to give him a hearty box on the ear. 
 Notwithstanding all his caprices and insults, the queen still 
 dotingly forgave him, until he at length attempted to raise an 
 insurrection against her in the streets of London, when he was 
 seized, condemned, and after much hesitation executed, (February 
 25, 1601.) 
 
 Elizabeth, in at last ordering the execution of Essex, had 
 acted upon her usual principle of sacrificing her feelings to what 
 was necessary for the public cause ; but in this effort, made in 
 the sixty-eighth year of her age, she had miscalculated the real 
 strength of her nature. She was seen from that time to decline 
 gradually in health and spirits. 
 
 About the close of 1601, she fell into a deep hypochondria or 
 melancholy. She could scarcely be induced to have herself
 
 132 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 dressed, and at length became so much absorbed by her sorrow 
 as to refuse sustenance, and sat for days and nights on the 
 floor, supported by a few cushions brought to her by her attend- 
 ants. On the 24th of March, 1603, she expired, after a reign 
 of nearly forty-five years, during which England advanced from 
 the condition of a second-rate to that of a first-rate power, 
 and the Protestant religion was established on a basis from 
 which it could never afterwards be shaken.
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR IN FRANCE. 133 
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR IN 
 FRANCE. 
 
 RANCIS I. died on the 31st of March, 
 1547, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Henry II., who was married to the 
 Italian princess, Catherine de Medicis, 
 so conspicuous in French history. His 
 reign was chiefly signalized by the bat- 
 tle of St. Quentin, fought May 10, 
 1557, in which the French sustained 
 from the Spaniards the greatest defeat 
 they had suffered since the days of Cres- 
 sy and Poictiers; and the capture of Calais from the English, 
 which was effected by the duke of Guise, Jan. 8, 1558. Henry 
 II. was accidentally killed by the Count de Montgomeri, at a 
 tournament, June 29, 1559. His successor, Francis II., who 
 married Mary queen of Scots, reigned but one year and five 
 months. To counteract the ascendency of the Guise family, 
 and to gain religious liberty, the Huguenots, under the direc- 
 tion of the Prince of Conde and the king of Navarre, formed 
 the famous conspiracy of Amboise, which was discovered, 
 and the princes seized and imprisoned. Cond^ was condemned 
 
 M
 
 134 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 to die, but his life was saved by the death of Francis. Cathe- 
 rine de Medicis, wishing to oppose their influence to that of the 
 Guise's, spared and liberated them. 
 
 Francis II. was succeeded by Charles IX., (a. d. 1560,) in 
 whose reign the civil wars between the Huguenots and Catholics 
 raged almost incessantly. The events of the late king's short 
 reign had tended to place the affairs of the country in even a 
 worse condition than they were in at the death of Henry II. 
 The evils of faction were severely felt, and the violence of reli- 
 gious differences was increased. 
 
 It was in vain that the chancellor l'Hopital, in a speech on 
 the opening of the first assembly of the states in the new reign, 
 exhorted to patriotism and religious toleration. These virtues 
 were at that time but little known in France. Catherine and 
 the duke of Guise were solely intent on the possession of power. 
 The duke, although he could not pretend to rule the present 
 king, as he had ruled his brother, was yet very unwilling to give 
 up the authority which he had been of late accustomed to exer- 
 cise. To strengthen his hands, he entered into a close confe- 
 deracy with the constable Montmorenci. The mare'chal St. 
 Andre' was another member of this confederacy, which was 
 called the triumvirate. The prince of Condd regained his liberty 
 on the late king's death, and placed himself at the head of the 
 Huguenots. His brother, the king of Navarre, soon after 
 deserted the Huguenots, and went over to the party of the 
 triumvirs. 
 
 Catherine, to balance the power of this confederacy, and be- 
 lieving that the grand secret of politics was to govern all parties 
 by dividing them against each other, now affected to entertain 
 a great regard for the Huguenots, and granted them several 
 privileges. But these concessions to the Huguenots only added 
 strength to the triumvirate ; for the Catholics, becoming alarmed, 
 and believing their own church in danger, relied for protection 
 chiefly on the princes of Lorraine. The two parties became 
 every day more inflamed, and mutual insults, and retaliations 
 took place. A civil war was ready to burst forth, and nothing 
 was wanting but a pretext to begin. 
 
 It was not long before this was found. Several Huguenots, 
 while at their devotions in a barn at Vassy, were insulted by 
 the servants of the duke of Guise, who was travelling through
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR IN FRANCE. 135 
 
 the place. An affray ensued, in which the duke, while endea- 
 vouring to quell the tumult, received a blow in the face from a 
 stone. His servants, exasperated at seeing their master thus 
 wounded, attacked the Huguenots, and killed several of them. 
 The Huguenots interpreted the massacre of these peasants as a 
 premeditated commencement of hostilities, and as a signal to 
 arm. The prince of Conde* seized on the town of Orleans, and 
 there established the chief seat of his party, and published, a 
 manifesto calling on all good Protestants to assist him in the 
 common cause. The Huguenots possessed themselves also of 
 many other towns in different parts of the kingdom. They 
 applied for assistance to the English queen, and put the town of 
 Havre into her hands, as a requital for the succours which she 
 engaged to send them. This was the commencement of those 
 dreadful religious wars, to which all France was to become a 
 prey for many years ; wars which were carried on with the 
 greatest animosity, tearing asunder all family and social ties, 
 and exposing the wretched inhabitants to all the horrors of fire 
 and of the sword. Mezerai says, " If any one were to relate 
 all that passed at this time in different parts of France, all the 
 taking and retaking of towns, — the infinity of little combats, — 
 the furies, — the massacres, it would take up a great many 
 volumes." We pass over all but the leading events. 
 
 In 1562, Rouen, which was in possession of the Huguenots, 
 was besieged by the Catholics. During this siege, the king of 
 Navarre received a wound, of which he soon after died, at 
 Andelys, in his way to Paris. When he found himself dying, 
 he sent an express to his queen, exhorting her to keep on her 
 guard, and on no account to trust herself at court. 
 
 The garrison of Rouen was commanded by the count de 
 Montgomeri. He defended the town with great spirit, but it 
 was at last taken by assault, and was given up to pillage. When 
 Rouen was taken, Montgomeri saved himself from falling into 
 the enemy's hands by hurrying on board a galley. He promised 
 liberty to the crew if they got him off. The crew rowed so 
 vigorously that they broke through the chains which were placed 
 across the Seine at Caudebec, and landed him in safety at 
 Havre.
 
 136 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CHARLES IX. 
 
 BATTLE OF DREUX, SIEGE OF ORLEANS, 
 AND BATTLE OF ST. DENIS. 
 
 N the same year, a battle was fought at Dreux. 
 in Normandy. At the first onset, St. Andre* 
 was killed, and Montmorenci was taken pri- 
 soner. Some persons who fled hastened to 
 Paris with the intelligence that the Catholics 
 were overthrown. The queen, who perhaps 
 thought that the victory of the Huguenots 
 was more to her advantage than any event which might increase 
 the power of the house of Guise, only observed, with the utmost 
 levity, " Well then {He Men) we must now say our prayers in 
 French." But the fortune of the battle had in the mean time 
 changed. The prince of Cond£ was taken prisoner, and Coligny, 
 who then took the command of the Huguenots, was obliged to
 
 BATTLE OF DREUX. 137 
 
 retire from the field. Conde' was immediately conveyed to the 
 tent of the duke of Guise, who, seeming to forget that any 
 causes of animosity had subsisted between them, received him 
 more as a guest than as a prisoner, and as a mark of his confi- 
 dence and friendship, made him sleep in the same bed with him- 
 self. Cond^ afterwards declared that Guise slept as soundly as 
 if his best friend, instead of his greatest enemy, was lying by 
 his side ; but that, as for himself, he had not closed his eyes all 
 night. 
 
 In February, 1563, the Catholic army, under the command 
 of the duke of Guise, laid siege to Orleans. The town was on 
 the point of being taken, when one evening, as the duke was 
 returning to the camp from a visit to his family, he received a 
 mortal wound in the shoulder by a pistol-shot, fired at him by a 
 man named Poltrot. The duke instantly fell, and the assassin, 
 putting spurs to his horse, galloped off. After having ridden 
 full speed the whole of the night, which was extremely dark, 
 Poltrot supposed himself to be many miles from Orleans. But 
 when daylight broke, he found himself only about a mile from 
 the spot from which he had first set out. His horse was unable 
 to go a step farther, and he was constrained to seek shelter in a 
 house, where, throwing himself on a bed, he soon fell asleep. In 
 this state he was discovered, and being put to the torture, he 
 accused several persons of having been his instigators, and 
 amongst others, the admiral Coligny. Coligny protested his 
 innocence, and demanded to be confronted with his accuser; 
 but this favour was denied him. Poltrot was put to death with 
 savage cruelty. Guise lived only six days after his wound ; but 
 before he died, he exhorted Catherine to make peace with the 
 Huguenots. He left three sons, Henry, who succeeded him in 
 his dukedom, the cardinal de Guise, and Charles, due de Mayenne. 
 He had one daughter, married to the due de Montpensier. 
 The queen, in compliance with the dying advice of the duke of 
 Guise, made peace with the Huguenots, and granted them very 
 favourable conditions. These conditions were never fulfilled, 
 but hostilities did not break out again for above four years. 
 
 Catherine made use of this interval to conduct the king on a 
 
 royal progress to different parts of his kingdom, with a view to 
 
 ascertain, if possible, the real strength of the Huguenots. At 
 
 Bayonne, the royal party was met by Elizabeth, or, as she was 
 
 18 m2
 
 138 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 called by the Spaniards, Isabella, queen of Spain, to whom 
 Philip II. allowed the indulgence of a visit to her mother and 
 brother. She was escorted by the duke of Alva, Philip's proud 
 and cruel minister ; and Catherine, who often concealed under 
 the cloak of festivities the most bloody and relentless purposes, 
 is believed to have held with him secret conferences, which had 
 for their object the extirpation of the Protestants. But with all 
 Catherine's art, she could not avert the suspicion which justly 
 attached both to her measures and her character. The Protest- 
 ants had long observed that, though she had often made them 
 flattering promises, yet these promises were never performed. 
 Perpetual outrages were committed Ly the Catholics both on 
 their persons and their property. The duke of Alva, after the 
 meeting at Bayonne, was appointed to the command of a nume- 
 rous army in the Low Countries, now in a state of revolt against 
 Philip's authority. He was the known enemy of their religion: 
 he might easily enter France and further the designs of the 
 queen-mother against them. 
 
 Thus goaded by past, and apprehensive of future injuries, 
 the Huguenots flew to arms in 1567. Their first enterprise was 
 an unsuccessful attempt to possess themselves of the person of 
 the young king, who was then at Meaux. They next proceeded 
 to Paris, which they held in blockade during eight days. The 
 constable Montmorenci had the command of the city ; and the 
 Parisians, impatient under the restraints of a blockade, obliged 
 him, contrary to his judgment, to march out and attack the 
 enemy, who were exceedingly inferior in numbers. The two 
 armies encountered in the plain of St. Denis, and the Hugue- 
 nots were worsted ; but the victory was dearly bought by the 
 death of the constable, who, although in the 75th year of his 
 age, fought with the courage and activity of youth. Even 
 when at last he fell covered with wounds, he had so much vigour 
 left, that, by a blow with the pommel of his sword, he beat out 
 some of the teeth and broke the jawbone of Robert Stuart, a 
 Scotsman, who had given him his last and mortal wound.
 
 THE DUKE OF ALVA.
 
 BATTLES OF JARNAC AND MONTCONTOUR. 
 
 141 
 
 BATTLES OF JARNAC AND MONTCONTOUR. 
 
 FTER the battle of St. Denis, a peace was 
 patched up with the Huguenots, but it was 
 ill kept, and in a few months the war broke 
 out more furiously than ever. On March 
 13, 1569, the two parties met on the banks 
 of the river Charente, near the town of 
 Jarnac. The royal army was nearly four 
 times stronger than that of the adversary. Conde' entered the 
 field of battle with his arm in a sling, from the effects of a 
 former wound. Before the engagement commenced, a kick 
 from a restive horse broke his leg ; but, undaunted by this 
 accident, he made a short and animated harangue to his soldiers, 
 and rushed forward against the enemy. The Huguenots fought 
 with desperate courage, but, overpowered by superior numbers, 
 were at length obliged to fly. Conde', as you may well sup- 
 pose, was now unable to move, and was compelled to allow him- 
 self to be taken prisoner. He was lifted from his horse, and 
 placed on the ground, under the shade of a tree. Here one of 
 the captains of the duke of Anjou's guard basely came behind 
 him, and shot him dead. He left three young sons, Henry, 
 who succeeded as prince of Conde', the count of Soissons, and 
 the prince of Conti. 
 
 Henry, prince of Beam, now about sixteen years of age, the
 
 142 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 son of Anthony, late king of Navarre, was, on Condi's death, 
 declared the head of the Protestants ; but, on account of his 
 youth, the command of their forces was given to Coligny. Ro- 
 chelle was at this time one of their chief bulwarks, and here 
 the queen of Navarre resided with her family, together with 
 many of the principal leaders of the Huguenot cause. 
 
 In the following October, the Catholics obtained another vic- 
 tory at Montcontour ; but their opponents, though often beaten, 
 were far from being subdued. In 1570, Coligny transferred the 
 war into Burgundy, where he obtained the advantage. Peace 
 was again made, and Coligny was sent for to court. He went 
 reluctantly, and with hesitation, but the apparently cordial and 
 sincere manner of the king soon effaced all unpleasant suspi- 
 cions and lulled him into security. Some authors say, and we 
 may, I hope, incline to believe them, that Charles was really 
 sincere, and actually meant at the time to fulfil his professions. 
 But the common notion is, that the whole of the shocking per- 
 fidy which I have here to relate, was a deep laid plot of his and 
 his mother's contriving. Catherine, to calm the suspicions of 
 the Protestants, proposed and concluded a marriage between 
 the prince of Beam and her daughter Margaret. The queen 
 of Navarre was invited to Paris to be present at the nuptials. 
 It would, perhaps, have been better for her if she had adhered 
 to her husband's injunctions, and had not ventured to court. 
 She, however, came, and was apparently received by Charles 
 with the open-hearted affection due to a relative; but it is 
 said, that when their interview was over, he boasted to his 
 mother "how well he had acted his part." The pope had op- 
 posed with all his power the marriage of Margaret with a Hu- 
 guenot prince ; but it is said that Charles assured the pope's 
 legate of his own entire devotion to the holy see, and, pressing 
 his hand, added these remarkable words: 01 s'il metoit per- 
 mit cle m'expliquer d'avantage.
 
 MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 143 
 
 MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 
 
 ,N the midst of the preparations for the 
 marriage of the young prince and 
 princess, the queen of Navarre died 
 suddenly. Her death is now generally 
 attributed to some constitutional dis- 
 ease ; but at the time the Protestants 
 naturally took alarm at it, and many 
 of them believed it to have been pro- 
 cured by means of a poisoned pair of 
 gloves, which she had purchased of Catherine's Italian per- 
 fumer. The marriage of Henry, now by his mother's death 
 king of Navarre, with Margaret of Valois, took place August 
 18, 1572. It is said that the bride was extremely averse to it; 
 that the being united to a Huguenot filled her with repugnance 
 and horror ; and that her affections had been previously fixed 
 on the duke of Guise. But Catherine was not accustomed to 
 let the feelings of others stand in the way of her own schemes. 
 The court was now, to all appearance, fully occupied with 
 banquets, masquerades, and other splendid entertainments. The 
 Huguenots were treated with the greatest attention. The inha- 
 bitants of Rochelle repeatedly sent entreaties to Coligny to quit 
 Paris, and " not trust himself in the power of a king whose 
 passions were uncontrollable, and of an Italian woman whose 
 dissimulation was unfathomable." But Coligny would not 
 hearken to their cautions, and declared himself ready to abide 
 all hazards rather than show a distrust which might plunge the 
 country again into a civil war. 
 
 On August 22, as Coligny was returning from the Louvre to 
 his hotel, and walking slowly, perusing some papers, he was 
 fired at by a man stationed behind a grated window. He was 
 wounded in two places, but it was thought not dangerously. On 
 being conveyed home, he was instantly surrounded by the
 
 144 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 alarmed and agitated Huguenots. It was discovered that the 
 assassin was a servant of the duke of Guise, and that he had 
 been stationed for two days behind the window to wait for his 
 victim. The king and Catherine, on hearing of this outrage, 
 visited Coligny in his bed-chamber, expressed the greatest con- 
 cern at the accident, and sent him a guard of their own soldiers, 
 as if for his protection. They professed great anxiety lest the 
 Parisians should commit any act of hostility against the Pro- 
 testants : they gave orders to close all the city gates except 
 two, under colour of preventing the escape of the assassin ; 
 and had an account laid before them of the names and places 
 of abode of all the Huguenots in Paris, on the pretence of tak- 
 ing them under their immediate protection. Every thing re- 
 mained quiet during two days. It was like the calm before a 
 thunder-storm. 
 
 The transactions of the bloody day of St. Bartholomew are 
 involved in great obscurity. Some assert that the massacre 
 had been planned two years before it was executed. Others, 
 that the death of Coligny alone was the main object of Cathe- 
 rine's machinations, and that the slaughter which followed was 
 an after-thought on the part of the court, and resorted to as an 
 act of self-defence against the Huguenots, who might be ex- 
 pected to revenge the death of the admiral. On Saturday, 
 August the 23d, it was finally determined that the massacre 
 should begin that night, and that the signal should be the strik- 
 ing of the tocsin, or great bell of the palace. The Swiss guards 
 and the city militia were ordered to be in readiness, wearing a 
 white cross on their hats, and a scarf on their left arms. 
 
 As the hour approached, the king, less hardened than his 
 mother, was in the greatest agitation : he trembled from head 
 to foot, and the perspiration ran down his forehead. His 
 mother and the duke of Anjou had great difficulty in keeping 
 him steady to his purpose. The queen at length forced a com- 
 mand from him to commence the slaughter, and then, to pre- 
 vent the possibility of his retracting, she hastened, as it is said, 
 the fatal signal, which was given at half-past one o'clock in the 
 morning by the great bell of the palace. On the first sound, 
 the implacable Guise flew to the house of Coligny, and there 
 completed his bloody purpose ; not indeed by his own hands, 
 for he remained below and sent up his people to the admiral's
 
 C L I a N Y.
 
 MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 147 
 
 chamber. The venerable old man, disabled by his late wounds, 
 had no other defence than his calm, intrepid countenance. La 
 Besme, a German servant of the duke of Guise, approached 
 him with his drawn sword in his hand. " Young man," said 
 Coligny, " you ought to reverence these gray hairs ; but do what 
 you think proper; my life can be shortened but a very little." 
 La Besme made no answer, but plunged the sword into the ad- 
 miral's body, while the other assassins despatched him with 
 their daggers : they then threw the body out of the window. 
 The head was cut off and carried as a trophy to the queen, who, 
 it is said, caused it to be embalmed, and sent it as a present to 
 the pope. The headless trunk was dragged about the streets 
 by the frantic mob, who afterwards hung it on a gibbet at 
 Montfaugon, where it remained some days scorched, though not 
 consumed, by a fire which was lighted under it. The king and 
 his mother came to view it. At last, it was secretly conveyed 
 away by orders of the mare'chal Montmorenci, who gave it 
 honourable burial in his chapel at Chantilly. 
 
 I must now return to the other events of this horrid massacre. 
 When morning dawned, the king, who had got rid of his tremors, 
 called for his long fowling-piece, and placed himself at one of 
 the windows of the palace which looked on the Seine, and em- 
 ployed himself in firing on the wretched Huguenots, who were 
 endeavouring to secure themselves by crossing the river. He 
 continually exclaimed, as he aimed at the fugitives, Tue, tue, 
 tirons : mon Dieu ! Us s'enfuient. 
 
 Henry of Navarre, and the young prince of Conde, and 
 several other Huguenots, were, by the king's particular desire, 
 lodged in the Louvre. All were sacrificed with the exception of 
 the two princes. The queen-mother even looked from her win- 
 dow at the slaughtered bodies as they were brought out and 
 thrown into the court of the palace. In the city, also, the work 
 of death was going on with equal ferocity, and did not entirely 
 cease during seven days. More than five thousand persons of 
 all ranks are supposed to have perished in Paris alone. Some 
 few had been so fortunate as to save themselves by flight at the 
 first alarm. Others were preserved by the humanity of some of 
 the Catholics. The marechal Biron, who was in the post of 
 master of the artillery, gave to some a secure refuge at the 
 arsenal ; and the duke of Guise himself gave protection in his
 
 148 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 own house to many whom he was desirous to attach to his ser- 
 vice. One poor boy saved his life by concealing himself under 
 the murdered bodies of his father and brother, and afterwards 
 lived to be a mare'chal of France. The massacre was not con- 
 fined to Paris ; orders were also sent into the provinces to put 
 the Huguenots to the sword. In many places these orders were 
 too well obeyed, but not in all. The governor of Bayonne, we 
 are told, in answer to the king's mandate, wrote as follows : 
 " Your majesty has many faithful servants in Bayonne, but not 
 one executioner." 
 
 The court for a time exulted in its victory. Charles was 
 heard to declare, that now he had got rid of the rebels, he should 
 live in peace. Alas ! he had murdered for ever all his own 
 peace. His and Catherine's punishment soon began. Instead 
 of living in peace, they were a prey to constant disquietude. At 
 one time the king denied all participation in the massacre, and 
 threw the whole blame of it on the duke of Guise. The very 
 next day he avowed the deed publicly, and gloried in it, and had 
 a solemn mass performed to celebrate what he called the victory 
 over the Protestants, and had medals struck in commemoration 
 of it. 
 
 The authors of the massacre, to throw the more odium on the 
 Protestants, and, as they hoped, to justify themselves, pretended 
 that Coligny had formed a plot to kill the king. They insti- 
 tuted a mock trial against him for treason : they sentenced him 
 to be hung in effigy : they commanded every portrait of him to 
 be destroyed and trampled on by the common hangman. His 
 property was confiscated, his house at Chatillon levelled with 
 the ground, and his children degraded from their rank. To 
 give more colour to this imaginary plot, they accused two inno- 
 cent men as being accessory to it, and caused them to be hung 
 on the same gibbet, from which was suspended also the effigy of 
 the admiral. 
 
 Conde' and the king of Navarre were for a time kept prison- 
 ers in the Louvre. Both persuasions and threats were resorted 
 to, to make them renounce the Protestant principles ; and at last 
 these princes, young, without friends and advisers, and overcome 
 with grief, dismay, and horror at the scenes which were passing 
 around them, yielded to the pressure of their circumstances, and 
 consented to profess themselves Catholics ; but they retracted
 
 MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 149 
 
 this profession as soon as they had regained their liberty. The 
 natural consequence of these shocking transactions was, that 
 Charles and Catherine were universally held up to execration, 
 excepting, indeed, in the courts of Madrid and Rome. In the 
 latter a jubilee was proclaimed by Gregory XIII. to celebrate 
 what he termed " the triumph over heresy." 
 
 The Huguenots, who were at first paralyzed with horror, soon 
 regained their activity and flew to arms, and their persecutors 
 found that, instead of extirpating heresy, they had made the 
 heretics desperate. Rochelle was besieged by the royal army, 
 but was defended with so much vigour during a protracted siege, 
 that the duke of Anjou, who commanded the assailants, found it 
 expedient to negotiate. A treaty, bearing date July 6, 1573, 
 was concluded with the whole of the Huguenot party. 
 
 Charles IX. died soon after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 
 a prey to remorse. His death is thus described by Markham : 
 
 " The king's health now rapidly declined, and he was visibly 
 hastening to the grave. He had never been quite himself since 
 the day of St. Bartholomew. His complexion, which before 
 was pale, was now often flushed ; his eyes acquired an unnatural 
 fierceness, his nights were restless and disturbed, and his sleep 
 unrefreshing. As his disorder increased, every symptom was ag- 
 gravated. He was seldom still for an instant. His limbs would 
 at one moment be distorted by convulsive twitches, and the next 
 so stiff that he could not bend them ; and the blood would ooze 
 from the pores of his skin. His physicians, unable to compre- 
 hend his disorder, affirmed that it was the effect of poison, or of 
 sorcery. Nor was his mind less agitated than his bodily frame. 
 The recollection of the massacre continually haunted him, and 
 he was frequently overheard bewailing his crime with bitter 
 tears and groans. Catherine, who thought more of securing 
 her own power than of his sufferings, disturbed his dying mo- 
 ments by making him give her a commission of regency for the 
 interval which must ensue between his death and the return of 
 his brother the king of Poland into France." 
 
 »2
 
 150 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 DISCI III. 
 
 FORMATION OF THE CATHOLIC LEAGUE. 
 
 [j—] r"\J HE death of Charles without heirs gave 
 the throne of France to Henry III., 
 the favourite son of Catherine, (a. d. 
 1574.) He had joined in all her plots 
 i and persecutions, had been the com- 
 mander of forces against the Huguenots 
 .ut in the field of battle, and their virulent 
 T=hP^' persecutor in the time of peace. But 
 \fe(k in his progress to Poland, the coolness 
 with which he was treated by the princes 
 of Germany had served to show him 
 '' A the horror with which the massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew was viewed by all but the slaves of Rome, and 
 he never after, amidst his many crimes and follies, showed him- 
 self a persecutor. On learning the news of his brother's death,
 
 FORMATION OF THE CATHOLIC LEAGUE. 151 
 
 fearing to be detained by the Polish nobles, he abandoned his 
 kingdom secretly ; some of the nobility followed him beyond 
 the boundaries, and to them he gave an indefinite promise of re- 
 turning at some future period, which he had no intention to per- 
 form. The Poles eventually elected another king, and Henry 
 and his former subjects seemed speedily to have forgotten the 
 existence of each other. 
 
 In his earlier years, Henry had shown some traits of a manly 
 and energetic spirit, but all traces of it seemed to have dis- 
 appeared at his accession. He showed from the very beginning 
 a dislike of serious occupations, a devotion to trifles and de- 
 bauchery, and a total abandonment of all the cares of govern- 
 ment to his mother and his favourites. Catherine encouraged 
 these dispositions, which allowed her to gratify her insatiable 
 thirst of dominion. The two great parties by which the king- 
 dom was divided had now acquired so much strength and con- 
 sistency, that impartiality was scarcely possible , the royal 
 council was similarly divided ; the president, De Thou, treading 
 in the steps of the chancellor De l'Hopital, recommended that 
 peace should be established on the basis of an amnesty for the 
 past, and a toleration of the Protestants for the future ; the 
 partisans of the duke of Guise would be contented with nothing 
 short of a total extirpation of heresy. The queen, as usual, 
 endeavoured to make both parties subservient to her purposes ; 
 but her arts had been too often practised to be any longer 
 available, and both parties prepared to recommence the war, if 
 indeed they can be said ever to have laid it aside. 
 
 The duke of Alencon, who afterwards obtained the title of 
 duke of Anjou, and the king of Navarre, had been restored to 
 liberty by Henry immediately after his arrival in France ; but 
 finding themselves exposed to suspicion, and deprived of all in- 
 terest in the state, they quitted the court to place themselves at 
 the head of the politicians and the Protestants. The war was 
 distinguished by no great exploit on either side, and was termi- 
 nated by a peace, in which more favourable conditions were 
 granted to the Huguenots than they had hitherto obtained. 
 (a. d. 1578.) The violent Catholics, headed by the duke of Guise, 
 loudly protested against this treaty, which they deemed subver- 
 sive of the established religion, and entered into an alliance 
 called the Holy League, in defence of what they called true
 
 152 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Catholicity. The declared objects of this union were to defend 
 the church, the king, and the state; its effects were the dis- 
 honouring of religion, the murder of the king, and almost the 
 utter ruin of the nation. As soon as the Huguenots had learned 
 the news of this powerful combination for their destruction, they 
 prepared to defend themselves, and stood to their arms in every 
 part of the provinces. Henry III., after some vain attempts 
 to remain neutral, embraced the party of the league, and re- 
 called the edicts of toleration which he had lately issued ; but 
 there is some reason to doubt his sincerity in this transaction ; 
 in fact, he seems to have placed himself at the head of the 
 league, merely to exclude the duke of Guise from being ap- 
 pointed its leader. 
 
 ■.V&
 
 ASSASSINATION OF THE DUKE OF GUISE. 153 
 
 ASSASSINATION OF THE DUKE OF GUISE. 
 
 HE death of the duke of An- 
 jou, and the improbability of 
 Henry's ever having any chil- 
 dren, soon made the members 
 of the league develop their real 
 designs, (a. d. 1584.) Henry 
 of Navarre, according to the 
 fundamental laws of the king- 
 dom, was the next heir to the 
 crown ; but as he was only related to the king in the fourteenth de- 
 gree, and was besides a Protestant, Catherine and the duke of 
 Guise severally laboured to prevent his succession. Catherine 
 resolved, in defiance of the Salic law, to procure the crown for the 
 descendants of her favourite daughter, the duchess of Lorraine ; 
 the duke of Guise, with duplicity equal to her own, pretended to 
 join in her design, but strenuously laboured to procure the rich 
 inheritance for himself. The clergy were the foremost in exciting 
 a new war ; every pulpit resounded with declamations on the 
 dangers of the church if the throne were possessed by a Pro- 
 testant ; every confession-box became the means of secretly whis- 
 pering treason into the ears of the populace ; and the press, which 
 was almost totally in the hands of the ecclesiastics, produced daily 
 the most inflammatory appeals to the prejudices and bigotry of 
 the nation. In these invectives the king was not spared ; his 
 severe edicts for raising new taxes, his lavish profusion to un- 
 worthy favourites, his disgraceful debaucheries, and the hypo- 
 critical grimace which he substituted for devotion, furnished 
 ample scope for satire ; and it was said in addition, that he had 
 formed a secret alliance with the king of Navarre for the pro- 
 tection of the Huguenots. The duke of Guise was the main- 
 spring of all these complicated movements ; as he could not 
 openly claim the crown for himself, he persuaded the old cardi- 
 nal of Bourbon, uncle to the king of Navarre, that he was the 
 20
 
 154 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 right heir to the crown, in consequence of his nephew's heresy. 
 The cardinal, whom contemporary historians briefly but em- 
 phatically designate an old fool, was easily persuaded to assert 
 his chimerical claim, and published a manifesto declaring himself 
 chief of the league. Henry, however, could not be persuaded 
 to set aside the claims of his cousin, the king of Navarre, even 
 though that prince had refused to come near the court after he 
 had been frequently invited, and had firmly resisted every at- 
 tempt made to persuade him to change his religion. 
 
 The accession of the king of Spain to the league became the 
 signal for renewing the war, (a. d. 1585 ;) the Protestants 
 fought no longer for their privileges, but for their existence ; 
 the duke of Guise scarcely concealed his designs upon the 
 throne, the king of France was exposed to the attacks of both 
 factions, and was in equal danger from the success of either. 
 This is generally called the war of the three Henrys, viz. the 
 king of France, the king of Navarre, and the duke of Guise. 
 The most extraordinary of all the matters connected with this 
 tedious conflict was the conduct of the pope ; though the league 
 was professedly intended to exalt the power of the holy see, 
 Sextus V. looked upon it as a rebellious alliance, equally dan- 
 gerous to the interests of royalty and religion. Possessed of 
 as proud and ambitious a spirit as any pontiff that had ever held 
 the papal throne, he reverenced in others any manifestations 
 of that courage and vigour which formed so conspicuous a part 
 of his own character. He excommunicated Henry of Navarre 
 and Queen Elizabeth ; the former made a spirited appeal to a 
 general council, and had his defiance posted on the gates of the 
 Vatican ; Elizabeth excommunicated the pope in her turn. 
 When Sextus heard of those instances of intrepidity, he de- 
 clared, that, though heretics, these were the only sovereigns in 
 Europe that deserved to wear a crown. 
 
 But whatever may have been the private sentiments of the 
 pope, his bull afforded a pretext to the leaguers, of which the 
 duke of Guise was not slow in availing himself. The leaders of 
 the sixteen departments into which Paris was divided, the entire 
 mob of that city, all the clergy, regular and secular, were on 
 his side ; and the deposition of Henry III. was an object openly 
 avowed by his partisans. The duke's brother, the cardinal of 
 Guise, declared publicly that the king should be sent into a
 
 ASSASSINATION OF THE DUKE OF GUISE. 155 
 
 monastery : his sister the duchess of Montpensier, whom Henry 
 had insulted by some remarks on her want of personal beauty, 
 exhibited the scissors which were to give him the clerical tonsure. 
 
 Henry of Navarre began now to show some proofs of those 
 noble qualities, which have since deservedly procured for him 
 the title of Great. The weakness and indecision of his father 
 had shaken the confidence of the Protestants in the house of 
 Bourbon ; but his mother had redeemed the errors of her hus- 
 band ; she was adored by her subjects, with whom she loved to 
 reside, far from the intrigues and vices of the court. In the re- 
 mote and wild districts of Bearne, Henry received the education 
 of a hardy mountaineer, and was early taught to encounter 
 difficulties and dangers. When brought to court, he was not 
 proof against the seductive arts by which Catherine de Medicis 
 endeavoured to bring him over to her party. Indifferent as to 
 the means by which her ends were accomplished, Catherine la- 
 boured with some success to lead the young prince into habits 
 of debauchery, in order that she might rule his actions by 
 means of the artful mistresses with which she had supplied him. 
 But the impending dangers of the league woke him from his 
 dream of guilty pleasure ; he placed himself at the head of the 
 Protestant party when its fortunes were at the lowest ebb ; often 
 defeated but never conquered, he maintained his ground amidst 
 the violence of enemies and the insincerity of friends, until he 
 finally triumphed, as much by the admiration inspired by his 
 moral character as by the terror of his arms. 
 
 Catherine made some ineffectual efforts to prevent this 
 war by negotiation, (a. d. 1587,) but being distrusted by both 
 parties, she completely failed. The royal army, under the 
 duke of Joyeuse, an unworthy favourite of Henry's, was totally 
 defeated at Contras by the king of Navarre. On the other 
 hand, the duke of Guise cut to pieces an army of Germans, 
 who had invaded France to make a diversion in favour of the 
 Huguenots. The populace of Paris were so intoxicated with 
 joy at the news of the victory obtained by their idol, that 
 Henry, who had appeared for some time to have resigned all 
 care of the state, was roused from his lethargy by the imminent 
 peril that threatened his crown and life. He sent an express 
 to Guise, forbidding him to approach Paris ; but the duke, pre- 
 tending not to have received the royal mandate, hastened his
 
 156 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 approach to the city, and was received there with all the ho- 
 nours of a triumph, (a. d. 1588.) In order to reduce the 
 power of the Sixteen, Henry introduced a body of his Swiss 
 guards into Paris, but the citizens, instigated by the partisans 
 of Guise, immediately took up arms ; the shops were shut, the 
 alarm bells rung, barricades and chains were drawn across the 
 streets, and the soldiers driven back from post to post, until 
 the king found himself and his attendants closely penned up in 
 the Louvre. Henry escaped during the night, leaving the duke 
 of Guise in full possession of the capital, but Catherine re- 
 mained behind to exert her arts of intrigue in bringing about 
 an accommodation. A treaty was concluded, which neither 
 party intended to observe, and in consequence of one of its 
 stipulations, an assembly of the states was ordered to be held 
 at Blois. The debates and votes in this assembly sufficiently 
 showed the dangerous designs entertained by the duke of Guise, 
 and the great resources that he possessed for their accomplish- 
 ment. To proceed against him for high treason would have 
 been absurd, when all the states of the realm were in his fa- 
 vour ; open war would certainly terminate in the king's defeat ; 
 nothing then remained but the detestable means of assassina- 
 tion, and this Henry determined to adopt. A letter from pope 
 Sextus greatly contributed to confirm his resolution ; his holi- 
 ness advised the king " to render himself master of his rebel- 
 lious subjects by any means in his power." Having armed nine 
 of his most trusty followers with daggers, Henry sent to invite 
 the duke of Guise to a speedy conference on matters of the 
 utmost importance. The duke hastened to obey ; but just as 
 he was about to enter the room in which the king was, the as- 
 sassins fell on him altogether, and he was instantly slain. His 
 brother, the cardinal, shared the same fate on the following 
 day. Thus fell, in the prime of life, two men whom nature 
 had endowed with abilities that might have made them the 
 brightest ornaments of France, but which bigotry and ambition 
 had rendered useless to themselves and pernicious to the nation. 
 Henry proceeded from the scene of blood to his mother's 
 apartments, and, announcing to her the news, said, " Now, 
 madam, I am indeed a king ;" she heard the account with the 
 utmost indifference, but advised him to take advantage of the 
 confusion which the event would cause in the league, and secure
 
 ASSASSINATION OF THE DUKE OF GUISE. 
 
 159 
 
 Paris. But Henry, believing all danger removed by the death 
 of his greatest enemy, relapsed into his ordinary indolence. 
 Soon after, Catherine, overwhelmed with sorrow at the disap- 
 pointment of all her schemes, and broken down by witnessing 
 the ruin which her profligate ambition had brought on her chil- 
 dren, felt herself sinking into an unhonoured grave. Her last 
 advice to Henry was to establish liberty of conscience, and to 
 enter into close alliance with Henry of Navarre. She died 
 unlamented and almost forgotten : the dissolution of one who 
 had played so prominent a part was regarded everywhere as an 
 ordinary incident of trifling importance.
 
 160 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ASSASSINATION OF HENRY III. 
 
 NSTEAD of « finding himself indeed 
 a king," Henry, in consequence of 
 his crime, was on the brink of ruin, 
 members of the league openly threw off 
 their allegiance, and choosing as their leader 
 the duke de Mayenne, the brother of the mur- 
 dered duke, gave him the pompous title of "lieu- 
 tenant-general of the royal state and crown of France," which 
 was in fact giving him the authority of a sovereign without 
 the name. Most of the provinces and large cities of France 
 declared in favour of the league, and Henry saw no hopes of 
 preserving his authority unless he obtained the assistance of 
 his cousin of Navarre. That prince suspected the king's sin- 
 cerity, for once unjustly, and remembered too well the share 
 that Henry had taken in the massacre of St. Bartholomew to 
 trust him too readily. But their natural necessities compelled 
 both to bury their former animosities in oblivion ; the two Hen- 
 rys had an interview at the castle of Plessis les Tours, and en- 
 tered into a close alliance which was never afterwards violated. 
 (a. d. 1589.) Henry III. was now superior to his enemies ; he 
 advanced to Paris and laid close siege to the city ; the inhabi- 
 tants were unprepared for his attacks — they had but a small 
 stock of provisions and an inadequate garrison ; the duke de 
 Mayenne was unable to collect an army for their relief; every 
 thing seemed to promise a speedy surrender, when an unex- 
 pected event produced a new and total revolution. 
 
 A monk, named James Clement, was persuaded by his own 
 fanaticism, aided by the artful suggestions of some of the 
 leaguers, that he would perform a meritorious action by killing 
 a monarch who was an enemy to the church. For this purpose 
 he resolved to go on to St. Cloud, where the king resided, and
 
 ASSASSINATION OF HENRY III. 163 
 
 under the pretence of giving him a letter, stab him in the midst 
 of his guards. Never did an assassin display so much intre- 
 pidity ; on his road he met La Guesle and his brother, who 
 were going to join the royal army; he was by them conveyed 
 to the camp, and spent the night of his arrival in their tent. 
 He supped gayly with La Guesle's followers, retorted with con- 
 siderable humour the jokes passed on his monkish habit, readily 
 answered every question put to him, and, after leaving the 
 table, spent the night in a profound sleep. On the following 
 morning he was introduced to the king, and presented his let- 
 ters ; while Henry was engaged in looking at them, Clement 
 stabbed him with a knife which he had concealed in his sleeve; 
 the king immediately called out that he was murdered, and, 
 drawing out the knife from the wound, struck the assassin in 
 the face ; at the same time the attendants despatched him with 
 their swords. The death of Clement prevented any discovery 
 of those by whom he had been instigated to the atrocious deed ; 
 but it appears very probable that the family of Lorraine were 
 those who had most share in the contrivance, in revenge for the 
 murder of the duke of Guise. When Henry found that his 
 wound was mortal, he prepared for death with much apparent 
 resignation. He took an affectionate farewell of the king of 
 Navarre, whom he declared his successor, after having strenu- 
 ously exhorted him to conciliate his future subjects by embrac- 
 ing the Catholic religion. Having then confessed himself with 
 much apparent devotion, he expired in the 38th year of his age 
 and the 15th of his reign. With him ended the house of 
 Valois, which had held the throne of France for 261 years. 
 During their dynasty, the several independent principalities 
 into which Gaul had been so long divided were consolidated 
 into the single compact kingdom of France ; but this advantage 
 was more than counterbalanced by the establishment of arbi- 
 trary principles of government, and the continual weakening 
 of the influence previously possessed by the assemblies of the 
 states. 
 
 The news of the assassination of Henry III. had been re- 
 ceived at Paris with odious joy. It was celebrated by bonfires 
 and other marks of rejoicing. The duchess of Montpensier 
 got into a carriage with her mother, and passing through the 
 streets, called out to the people, from time to time, " Good
 
 164 INCIDENTS OP MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 news ! good news !" The pulpits resounded with eulogies on 
 the glorious martyr, James Clement. Crowds ran to see his 
 mother, a poor rustic, whom the duchess of Montpensier had 
 brought to Paris ; and the sixteen, in their harangues, applied 
 to her these words of Scripture, « Happy is the womb which 
 has borne thee, and blessed are the breasts which have given 
 thee milk." The Parisians, however, demanded a king. May- 
 enne not daring to take the crown himself, because he knew 
 the people, as well as the king of Spain, were opposed to his 
 wishes, caused the old cardinal de Bourbon to be proclaimed, 
 under the name of Charles X. » He was," says L'Etoile, "the 
 true king of the theatre and of painting," and was, at that 
 time, the prisoner of Henry IV. For himself, Mayenne was 
 content to bear the title of lieutenant-general of the kingdom, 
 which, in fact, placed in his hands all the power of the state. 
 He then invited the parliament, the provinces, and the nobility 
 to deliver their king from captivity, and to stand forward in 
 defence of their religion. At the same time, he established a 
 secret understanding with the royal army, and endeavoured to 
 gain over both the officers and soldiers. 
 
 As with Henry III. the race of Valois, by the deed of Cle- 
 ment, was extinguished, the direct line of the Capets ceased 
 by the death of the three brothers without male issue. The 
 next heir to the throne was Henry de Bourbon, king of Na- 
 varre, related to the late king in the twenty-second degree ; 
 but the name which he bore as a Huguenot was, in the opinion 
 of many, enough to exclude him for ever from the throne. The 
 Catholics, who would have deemed it a crime to conspire against 
 Henry III., their legitimate king, scrupled not to repulse 
 Henry IV. altogether, or, at all events, till he should have re- 
 entered the bosom of the church. One other thought influenced 
 them generally, or at least a great number of them ; they had 
 an idea of making him purchase their adhesion, or, perhaps of 
 creating small sovereignties, in particular cities and provinces.
 
 BATTLE OF IVRI. 
 
 167 
 
 BATTLE OF IVRI. 
 
 HE death of Henry III. (a. d. 1589) re- 
 lieved Paris from the imminent dangers 
 to which it had been exposed; the title 
 of Henry IV. was indeed acknowledged 
 by the principal leaders of the besieg- 
 ing army, but his religion prevented 
 them from warmly espousing his cause ; 
 the greater part drew off their forces, 
 and Henry was compelled to raise the 
 siege, which his diminished forces could no longer continue. 
 The duke of Mayenne, who might have assumed the title of 
 king, chose rather to proclaim the cardinal of Bourbon, though 
 he remained a prisoner ; and having collected a numerous band 
 of leaguers, he pursued Henry on his retreat to Normandy. 
 
 Henry IV. again approached the capital ; and Mayenne set out 
 to dispute the road with him. The two armies met near Dreux, 
 in the plain of Ivri. By daybreak of the following morning, 
 the preparations for battle were complete ; but Henry made none 
 for retreat — "No other place of retreat," he said, "than the 
 field of battle." The armies, on both sides, betook themselves 
 to prayer. Henry, advancing on horseback, before his troops, 
 armed at all points, but with head uncovered, exclaimed: — "Oh 
 Lord ! thou knowest my secret thoughts ; if it be good for my 
 people that I should reign, defend thou my cause, and prosper 
 my arms." Then, when the acclamations which his words pro- 
 duced had subsided, — " My children," he cried to his soldiers, 
 "if you should lose sight of our standards, follow my white 
 plume; you will find it always on the road to honour." After 
 these words, he gave the signal to charge; and the army of 
 Mayenne, though far superior in point of numbers, was almost 
 entirely destroyed, (a. d. 1590.) The conqueror marched di- 
 rectly upon Paris, which he invested with his troops : and, about
 
 168 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the same time, his rival and prisoner, the old cardinal de Bour- 
 bon, died. This prince had always recognised the claims of his 
 nephew to the throne ; but Henry, knowing the weakness of his 
 character, had feared that he might become an instrument in 
 the hands of the leaguers, if they should get possession of him. 
 His own followers gave the king nearly as much trouble as 
 his enemies ; the Catholic royalists detested the Huguenots ; the 
 Protestants returned the hatred, and were, besides, divided 
 among themselves; the princes of the blood were either too 
 young to exert any influence, or had ranged themselves under 
 the banners of the league, and Henry found himself engaged in 
 this dangerous war almost solely dependent on his own personal 
 resources. The king of Spain was anxious to obtain the crown 
 of France for his daughter, Clara Eugenia; the Protestant 
 princes of Europe, dreading the additional power that would 
 thus be added to the Spanish monarchy, already formidable, 
 resolved to support the cause of Henry ; the queen Elizabeth 
 especially assisted him with money and warlike stores. 
 
 HENRY IV.
 
 SIEGE OF PARIS 
 
 169 
 
 SIEGE OF PARTS. 
 
 HESE aids, and the confidence 
 inspired by several successive tri- 
 umphs, soon enabled Henry to 
 undertake the siege of Paris, 
 (a. d. 1590,) where the hatred of 
 the leaguers displayed itself with 
 more violence, in proportion as 
 the king showed himself more 
 worthy of affection. Though their 
 shadow of a king, the cardinal de Bourbon, had lately died, and 
 they had not selected any other in his place, so far were they 
 from thinking of submitting to their rightful sovereign, that the 
 doctors of the Sorbonne declared that Henry, being a relapsed 
 heretic, could not receive the crown even thouglt he should obtain 
 absolution, and this shameful decree was confirmed by the par- 
 liament. In the mean time, Paris, being closely blockaded and 
 ill supplied with provisions, was attacked by all the horrors of a 
 severe famine. Bread was made of bones ground into powder, 
 food the most revolting was eagerly sought after, multitudes 
 dropped daily dead in the street from extreme starvation, but 
 no one spoke of yielding. The clergy had promised a crown 
 of martyrdom to all who died in the cause of the church, and 
 their deluded followers submitted to every privation without a 
 murmur. Still, had Henry not been moved with a paternal 
 pity for his frantic subjects, he might have taken Paris by as- 
 sault; but when urged to give orders for the purpose, he replied 
 — " I had rather lose Paris, than get possession of it when ruined 
 by the death of so many persons." He gave the fugitives from 
 the city a safe passage through his camp, and permitted his 
 officers and soldiers to send in refreshments to their friends. By 
 this lenity he indeed lost the fruit of his labours for the present, 
 but he gained the approbation of his own conscience and the 
 22 P
 
 170 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 admiration of posterity. The prince of Parma, who commanded 
 the Spanish army in Flanders, advanced to the relief of Paris 
 when the citizens were at the very point of despair ; by a series 
 of masterly movements, he disconcerted the efforts made by 
 Henry to bring on an engagement, relieved the garrison, and 
 returned to continue his wars with the Dutch ; after having per- 
 formed this essential service to the league with scarcely the loss 
 of a man. The following year Henry met a similar disappoint- 
 ment at the siege of Rouen, where the escape of the prince of 
 Parma was effected under such difficult circumstances, that 
 Henry could scarcely believe the evidence of his senses, when 
 he found that the hostile troops were beyond his reach. Death 
 soon after delivered the king from this formidable rival; the 
 prince died in Flanders, at the age of forty-seven ; his military 
 talents and great virtues would have brought the United Pro- 
 vinces again under the yoke of Spain, had it been possible to 
 find a remedy for despotism and persecution. 
 
 The conduct of the Sixteen at Paris contributed much to 
 weaken the influence of the league ; these hot-headed rebels 
 pretended to give the law both to the duke de Mayenne and the 
 parliament. When a man whom they wished to destroy was 
 acquitted, they suddenly broke out into the most furious excesses, 
 and actually hanged three of the magistrates who had been 
 judges at the trial, among whom was Brisson, the first presi- 
 dent of the parliament. The duke de Mayenne acted on this 
 occasion with a promptitude and decision foreign to his character ; 
 he marched to Paris at the head of his most trusty followers, 
 delivered the most violent of the murderers to the executioner, 
 deprived the Sixteen of the Bastile, which had been their prin- 
 cipal stronghold, and thus finally crushed a detestable faction, 
 which derived its whole strength from the madness of fanaticism. 
 But these favourable events were not sufficient to put Henry in 
 possession of the kingdom, while he professed a religion odious 
 to the majority of his subjects; his most faithful followers, 
 Protestant as well as Catholic, recommended him to change his 
 religion, and Henry only delayed through fear of offending 
 Elizabeth and the Protestant princes of Germany. At length, 
 finding that the states-general had proceeded so far as to offer 
 the crown to the Spanish infanta, on condition of her marrying 
 a French prince, Henry saw that further delay might bring ruin
 
 SOLDIERS OF IIENRT IV. GIVING PROVISIONS TO THE BESIEGED TARISI UN'S.
 
 SIEGE OF PARIS. 
 
 173 
 
 on his cause, and publicly abjured Protestantism in the church 
 of St. Denis, (a. d. 1593.) Though this conversion was any 
 thing but sincere, it was followed by the most beneficial effects. 
 The nobility in general hastened to reconcile themselves to a 
 king whose character they respected, and most of those who still 
 held out only did so in hopes of receiving some reward for re- 
 turning to their allegiance. The duke de Mayenne and some 
 few of the more violent leaguers, however, obstinately refused 
 to acknowledge the king, until he had received absolution from 
 the pope; the bigoted clergy preached with their accustomed 
 vehemence against the man of Beam, as they still called their 
 sovereign ; but the efforts of some men of genius who had joined 
 the royal cause weakened the force of their invectives. Several 
 ingenious writings against the follies and absurdities of these 
 ignorant bigots, especially the Menippean satire, covered them 
 with such merited ridicule that they found their declamations 
 unheeded and neglected. At length Paris opened its gates to 
 Henry, (a. d. 1594,) and found in him not a vindictive conqueror, 
 but a paternal sovereign. 
 
 p2
 
 174 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ASSASSINATION OF HENRY IV. 
 
 ^E are told by Sully, that Henry meditated the 
 formation of a Christian republic in Europe ; it 
 was proposed to divide Europe between fifteen 
 sovereigns, none of whom should be permitted to 
 make any new acquisition, but should form alto- 
 gether an association for maintaining a mutual balance and 
 preserving peace. This project was one of very questionable 
 utility, and at all events could never be realized ; his second 
 object, to set bounds to the ambition of the house of Austria, 
 both in Germany and Italy, was more practicable and more im- 
 mediately useful. He had already made the necessary prepa- 
 rations for this enterprise, when the emperor, Rodolph II., 
 furnished him with a pretence for commencing the war, by 
 sequestrating the duchies of Cleves, Juliers, and Bergue, after 
 the death of the last duke. Henry entered into a league with 
 the elector of Brandenburg and the count Palatine of Neuburg, 
 who both pretended to the succession. The Protestants of Ger- 
 many, always justly suspicious of Austrian treachery, formed 
 a new alliance for the protection of their civil and religious 
 liberties, of which Henry was privately the contriver, and pub- 
 licly the chief support. The pope, the republic of Venice, and 
 the confederacy of the Swiss cantons, all led by separate inte- 
 rests, were united in the common resolution of checking the 
 imperial power. 
 
 Never was any enterprise better concerted. Henry was to 
 march into Germany at the head of forty thousand excellent 
 soldiers. Sully had provided ample resources for the expenses 
 of the army; the allies were all eager to perform their several 
 stipulations. On the other side, the emperor was immersed in 
 the study of astrology, and a vain search after the philosopher's 
 stone ; his only supporter, the king of Spain, was the slave of 
 bigoted inquisitors and avaricious favourites; both were desti-
 
 HENRY IV.
 
 ASSASSINATION OF HENRY IV. 177 
 
 tute of wisdom, confidence, and resources. Henry was impatient 
 to join the army, but was detained much against his will, to 
 gratify the queen with the vain ceremony of a coronation, which 
 she insisted on with the most eager violence. During the fes- 
 tivities which took place on this occasion, the mind of Henry 
 was distracted by the most gloomy forebodings, and he more 
 than once felt that "coming events cast their shadows before," 
 in fearful anticipations of a sudden and violent death. His 
 apprehensions were fatally fulfilled. Passing along a street, his 
 coach was entangled in a crowd, and a desperate fanatic, named 
 Ravaillac, took that opportunity of stabbing him. The assassin 
 mounted on the hind wheel of the coach, and plunged a knife 
 into the king's bosom, who was so intent on the perusal of a 
 letter that he did not even see his murderer. The courtiers 
 who were in the coach drew up the windows, and ordered the 
 driver to return to the Louvre, but life was extinct before they 
 reached the palace. Thus died, at the age of fifty-seven, a 
 prince worthy of immortality, against whom more than fifty 
 conspiracies were formed by his contemporaries, but whose me- 
 mory has been hallowed by the admiration of posterity, and 
 whose reign might serve as a model to all princes who love their 
 subjects. Let us bury in oblivion a few spots which stain his 
 private life, weaknesses which are unhappily too common to he- 
 roic minds, and honour him for the clemency which he showed 
 to his inveterate enemies, the wisdom with which he tranquillized 
 a land distracted by civil wars for nearly half a century, and 
 the enlightened toleration of which he gave a bright example 
 himself, and recommended the practice to his successors. Much 
 of the glory, both of the public works that Henry executed, and 
 those still greater which he had projected, undoubtedly belongs 
 to Sully ; but it is no small praise to have selected such an ad- 
 viser, and to have borne with patience the reproofs which Sully 
 frequently gave him with a boldness almost republican. The 
 king was happy in possessing such a minister, and the minister 
 was as happy in having such a king. The nation was still more 
 fortunate in enjoying such a rare combination as a virtuous 
 sovereign and a patriotic administration. 
 
 Mary de Medicis, the queen, now became regent. The first 
 care of the regent, after having secured her own authority and 
 the throne of her son, was to punish the assassin of the late king. 
 23
 
 178 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 This was a duty which she owed to mankind ; but humanity 
 shudders to recall the manner in which it was fulfilled. Francis 
 Ravaillac, beneath whose hand Henry IV. perished, seems to 
 have been a gloomy enthusiast, who had no great or settled object 
 to gain by becoming a regicide. It was natural to suspect that he 
 might have accomplices. To detect them, if such were in exist- 
 ence, was most desirable. None, however, were discovered ; but 
 the wretched prisoner was put to the torture in order to make 
 him disclose the names of his companions in guilt. He was first 
 sworn; and then the dreadful engine called "the brodequin," a 
 sort of boot, was produced. His legs being inserted in the bro- 
 dequin, wedges were introduced and driven down. The most 
 dreadful anguish was inflicted as they were tightened, and force 
 continued to be applied till the limbs were crushed, and the suf- 
 ferer fainted. While he retained his senses, a minister of reli- 
 gion was in constant attendance to heighten the horror of the 
 moment, by telling the victim that the exquisite misery he then 
 experienced was trifling in comparison with that which awaited 
 him in the world to come, when his sinful spirit should be dis- 
 missed from this. Not merely once was this attempt made on his 
 conscience, but repeatedly was the question applied. No confes- 
 sion, however could be wrung from him, though he was continu- 
 ally assured that for him there was no pardon in another state of 
 being, unless he named those who had prompted his crime. It 
 almost moves our admiration, to find that, thus pursued, he had 
 the resolution to abstain from seeking a momentary respite from 
 agony by making a false confession ; but to this he could not- be 
 subdued. Other men, in the like melancholy circumstances, 
 have been unable to resist the brutal importunities of those about 
 them, and in their maddening throbs have breathed accusations 
 against all they were desired to inculpate, and the guiltless have 
 in consequence been sacrificed. In numerous instances, poor 
 wretches have accused themselves of holding communion with 
 the devil, and described minutely the various shapes in which, 
 as they said, he had appeared to them, and the worship they 
 were accustomed to offer to his infernal majesty. Bernard de 
 Gue", it has been seen, produced to his judges, while suffering 
 from being exposed to a fire, two bones, which had, he said, 
 been extracted by magic from his heels ; and Americ de Villiers 
 declared to his tormentors, when tortured, that he had person-
 
 ASSASSINATION OF HENRY IV. 
 
 179 
 
 EXECUTION OF RAVAILLAC. 
 
 ally taken part in the crucifixion of the Redeemer. With equal 
 ease might Ravaillac have purchased a respite from intolerable 
 agony, by naming innocent persons as his accomplices. To this 
 weakness, in his greatest extremity, the unhappy victim was 
 never brought. He was at length sentenced to a horrible death. 
 Justice, throwing aside all moderation and dignity, proceeded 
 with insane ferocity, not merely to destroy the unhappy culprit, 
 but the house in which he had lived was razed to the ground; 
 and it was ordered, that, within fifteen days after the promulga- 
 tion of the sentence, his relations, who were not shown in 
 any way to have participated in his crime, should " be banished 
 by sound of trumpet from the kingdom, and forbidden ever to 
 return, under pain of being hanged and strangled, without other 
 process of law." The miserable Ravaillac, no longer sustained 
 by the enthusiasm which had carried him away in the first in- 
 stance to an outrage so dreadful, now recalled the crime he had 
 perpetrated with horror. He was carried in a cart to Notre 
 Dame, there to ask pardon of the Almighty for the dreadful 
 deed he had committed, and thence taken to the Place de Greve, 
 where his right hand was burned from his body by sulphur, his 
 limbs were torn with pincers, and melted lead, boiling oil, and
 
 180 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 flaming rosin were poured on his wounds. The infliction was 
 long protracted, and the groans and struggles of the culprit are 
 said to have been witnessed with joy by the populace. He was 
 finally attached to four horses, which, pulling in opposite direc- 
 tions, at length terminated his existence, by tearing his body to 
 pieces. Fragments of his corpse were then seized by the excited 
 crowd. Portions of it were preserved, but bonfires were made 
 in several parts of Paris to consume the quarters of the criminal, 
 which were reduced to ashes, amidst the furious execrations of 
 the frantic multitude. 
 
 &

 
 ^^^SB^^^^ffi^^SES^
 
 ACCESSION OF JAMES I. 
 
 183 
 
 ACCESSION OF JAMES I. 
 
 HE accession of the family of Stuart to the 
 ^ throne of England forms a memorable era 
 in the history of Great Britain. It gave 
 birth to a struggle between the king and 
 parliament that repeatedly threw the whole 
 island into convulsions, and which was never 
 fully composed until the final expulsion of 
 the royal family. 
 The English throne being left vacant by the death of Eliza- 
 beth, who with her latest breath had declared that she wished 
 to be succeeded by her nearest kinsman, the king of Scots, or 
 who in her dying moments had made signs to that purpose, 
 James was immediately proclaimed king of England by the 
 lords of the privy-council. He was great-grandson of Margaret, 
 eldest daughter of Henry VII., so that, on the failure of the male 
 line of the house of Tudor, his hereditary title remained un- 
 questionable. The crown of England, therefore, passed from 
 the family of Tudor to that of Stuart, with as much tranquil- 
 lity as ever it was transmitted from father to son. People of 
 all ranks, forgetting their ancient hostilities with Scotland, and
 
 184 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 their aversion against the dominion of strangers, testified their 
 satisfaction with louder acclamations than were usual at the 
 accession even of their native princes. They foresaw greater 
 advantages resulting from a perpetual alliance with Scotland, 
 than inconveniencies from submitting to a sovereign of that 
 kingdom. And by this junction of its whole collective force, 
 Great Britain has risen to a degree of power and consequence 
 in Europe, which Scotland and England, destined by their po- 
 sition to form one vigorous monarchy, could never have attained 
 as separate and hostile kingdoms.
 
 THE GUNPOWDER PLOT. 
 
 185 
 
 ARREST OF QUIDO FAWKES. 
 
 THE GUNPOWDER PLOT. 
 
 URING the season of peace and 
 tranquillity which followed James's 
 accession, (a. d. 1605,) was brought 
 to light one of the most diabolical 
 of which there is any record in the his- 
 mankind. The conspiracy to which 
 illude is the gunpowder treason. A 
 scheme so infernally dark will require some elucidation. 
 
 The Roman Catholics in general were much disappointed, 
 24 Q2
 
 186 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 and even exasperated, by the king's conduct in religious mat- 
 ters. He -was not only the son of the unfortunate Mary, whose 
 life they believed to have been sacrificed to their cause ; but, 
 in order to quiet opposition, and make his accession to the 
 throne of England more easy, he had given them hopes that he 
 would tolerate their religion. They therefore expected great 
 favour and indulgence under his government. But they soon 
 discovered their mistake ; and, equally surprised and enraged, 
 when they found James had resolved to execute the rigorous 
 laws enacted against them, they determined on vengeance. 
 Some of the most zealous of the party, under the direction of 
 Garnet, the superior of the Jesuits in England, conspired to 
 exterminate, at one blow, the most powerful of their enemies in 
 the kingdom ; and in consequence of that blow to re-establish 
 the Catholic faith. Their conspiracy had for its object the 
 destruction of the king and parliament. For this purpose, 
 they lodged thirty-six barrels of gunpowder in a vault beneath 
 the House of Lords, usually let as a coal-cellar, and which had 
 been hired by Percy, a near relation of the family of Northum- 
 berland, and one of the original conspirators. The time fixed 
 for the execution of the plot was the fifth of November, the 
 day appointed for the meeting of the parliament, when the 
 king, queen, and prince of Wales were expected to be in the 
 house, together with the principal nobility and gentry. The 
 rest of the royal family were to be seized, and all despatched, 
 except the princess Elizabeth, James's youngest daughter, yet 
 an infant, who was to be raised to the throne, under the care 
 of a Catholic protector. 
 
 The destined day at length drew nigh, and the conspirators 
 were filled with the strongest assurance of success. Nor with- 
 out reason ; for, although the horrid secret had been communi- 
 cated to above twenty persons, no remorse, no pity, no fear of 
 punishment, no hope of reward, had induced any one accom- 
 plice, after more than twelve months, either to abandon the 
 conspiracy, or to make a discovery of it. But the holy fury 
 by which they were actuated, though it had extinguished in 
 their breasts every generous sentiment and every selfish mo- 
 tive, yet left them susceptible to those bigoted partialities by 
 which it was inspired, and which fortunately saved the nation. 
 A short time before the meeting of parliament, Lord Monteagle,
 
 THE GUNPOWDER PLOT. 187 
 
 a Catholic nobleman, whose father, Lord Morley, had been a 
 great sufferer during the reign of Elizabeth, on account of his 
 attachment to popery, received the following letter : 
 
 " My lord — Out of the love I bear to some of your friends, 
 I have a care of your preservation : therefore, I would advise 
 you, as you tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift off 
 your attendance at this parliament ; for God and man have 
 resolved to punish the wickedness of this time. And think 
 not slightly of this advertisement ; but retire yourself into your 
 country, where you may expect the event in safety : for, though 
 there be no appearance of any stir, yet I say they will receive 
 a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who 
 hurts them. This counsel is not to be contemned ; because it 
 may do you good, and can do you no harm — for the danger is 
 past as soon as you have burned the letter ; and I hope God 
 will give you the grace to make good use of it, to whose holy 
 protection I commend you." 
 
 Though Monteagle was inclined to think this a foolish at- 
 tempt to expose him to ridicule, by frightening him from at- 
 tending his duty in parliament, he judged it safest to carry the 
 letter to Lord Salisbury, secretary of state. Salisbury either 
 did or pretended to think it a light matter ; so that all farther 
 inquiry was dropped till the king, who had been for some time 
 at Royston, returned to town. To the timid sagacity of James, 
 the matter appeared in a more important point of view. From 
 the serious and earnest style of the letter, he conjectured that 
 it intimated some dark and dangerous design against the state ; 
 and many particular expressions in it, such as great, sudden, 
 and terrible blow, yet the authors concealed, seemed to denote 
 some contrivance by gunpowder. It was, therefore, thought 
 proper to inspect all the vaults below the two houses of parlia- 
 ment. This inspection, however, was purposely delayed till the 
 day before the meeting of the great council of the nation ; when, 
 on searching the vaults beneath the House of Lords, the gun- 
 powder was discovered, though concealed under great piles of 
 wood and fagots ; and Guido Fawkes, an officer in the Spanish 
 service, who stood in a dark corner, and passed himself for 
 Percy's servant, was seized and carried to the Tower. 
 
 This man had been sent for from Flanders, on account of his 
 determined courage and known zeal in the Catholic cause. He
 
 188 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 was accordingly intrusted with the most trying part in the en- 
 terprise. The matches, and every thing proper for setting fire 
 to the train, were found in his pocket. He at first behaved 
 with great insolence and obstinacy; not only refusing to dis- 
 cover his accomplices, but expressing the utmost regret that he 
 had lost the precious opportunity of at least sweetening his 
 death by taking vengeance on his and God's enemies. But, 
 after some days' confinement and solitude, his courage failed 
 him on being shown the rack, and he made a full discovery of 
 all the conspirators. Several of them were men of ancient 
 family, independent fortune, and unspotted character — insti- 
 gated alone to so great a crime by a fanatical zeal, which led 
 them to believe that they were serving their Maker, while they 
 were contriving the ruin of their country and the destruction 
 of their species. 
 
 Such of the conspirators as were in London, on hearing that 
 Fawkes was arrested, hurried down to Warwickshire ; where 
 Sir Everard Digby, one of their associates, was already in 
 arms, in order to seize the princess Elizabeth, who was then at 
 Lord Harrington's in that county. They failed in their at- 
 tempt to get hold of the princess ; the county rose upon them, 
 and they were all taken and executed, except three, who fell a 
 sacrifice to their desperate valour ; namely, Wright, a daring 
 fanatic ; Catesby, the original conspirator ; and Percy, his first 
 and most active associate.
 
 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 189 
 
 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION OF NORTH 
 AMERICA. 
 
 HE fame which Columbus had acquired by 
 his first discoveries on this western conti- 
 nent spread through Europe, and inspired 
 many with the spirit of enterprise. As 
 early as 1496, only four years after the first 
 discovery of America, John Cabot, a Vene- 
 tian, obtained a commission from Henry 
 VII. to discover unknown lands, and annex them to the crown. 
 In the spring he sailed from England with two ships, carrying 
 with him his three sons. In this voyage, which was intended 
 for China, he fell in with the north side of Terra Labrador, and 
 coasted as far as 67° north latitude. Next year he made a 
 second voyage with his son Sebastian, who afterwards proceeded 
 in the discoveries which his father had begun. On the 24th of
 
 190 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 PONCE DE LEON. 
 
 June he discovered Bonavista, on the north-east side of New- 
 foundland ; traversed the coast from Davis's Straits to Cape 
 Florida ; and in 1502, brought three natives of Newfoundland 
 to Henry VII. 
 
 In 1513, Ponce de Leon sailed from Porto Rico northerly, 
 and discovered the continent in 30° 8' north latitude. He 
 landed in April, a season when the country around was covered 
 with verdure, and in full bloom. This circumstance induced him 
 to call the country Florida, which, for many years, was the 
 common name for both North and South America. 
 
 In 1516, Sebastian Cabot and Sir Thomas Pert explored the 
 coast as far as Brazil in South America. This vast extent of 
 country, the coast whereof was thus explored, remained un- 
 claimed and unsettled by any European power, (except by the 
 Spaniards in South America,) for almost a century from the time 
 of its discovery. 
 
 It was not till 1524 that France attempted discoveries on the 
 American coast. Stimulated by his enterprising neighbours, 
 Francis I. sent John Verrazano, a Florentine, to America, to 
 make discoveries ; who traversed the coast from 28° to 50° 
 north latitude, but in a second voyage, some time after, was lost.
 
 lRTIE * TAEINO P06S E£ 
 
 UOH OF CANADA-
 
 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 193 
 
 VEBEAZANO. 
 
 In 1525, Stephen Gomez, the first Spaniard who came upon the 
 American coast for discovery, sailed from Groyn in Spain to 
 Cuba and Florida, thence northward to Cape Razo, in 46° north 
 latitude, in search of a north-west passage to the East Indies. 
 
 In the spring of 1534, by the direction of Francis L, a fleet was 
 fitted out at St. Malo's in France, with design to make disco- 
 veries. The command of this fleet was given to James Cartier. 
 He arrived at Newfoundland in May of this year. Thence he 
 sailed northerly; and, on the day of the festival of St. Law- 
 rence, he found himself, in about 48° 30' north latitude, in the 
 midst of a broad gulf, which he named St. Lawrence. He gave 
 the same name to the river which empties into it. In this 
 voyage, he sailed as far as 51° north latitude, expecting in vain 
 to find a passage to China. Next year he sailed up the river 
 St. Lawrence three hundred leagues to the great and swift fall. 
 He called the country New France ; built a fort, in which he spent 
 the winter, and returned in the following spring to France. 
 
 In 1522, Francis La Roche was sent to Canada, by the 
 French king, with three ships and two hundred men, women, and 
 children. They wintered here in a fort which they had built, and 
 returned in the spring. About the year 1550, a large number 
 of adventurers sailed for Canada, but were never after heard of. 
 In 1578, the king of France commissioned the marquis de la 
 25 R
 
 194 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Roche to conquer Canada, and other countries not possessed 
 by any Christian prince. We do not learn, however, that La 
 Roche ever attempted to execute his commission, or that any 
 further attempts were made to settle Canada during this century. 
 On the 12th of May, 1539, Ferdinand de Soto, with nine 
 hundred men, besides seamen, sailed from Cuba, having for his 
 object the conquest of Florida. On the 30th of May- he ar- 
 rived at Spirito Santo, from whence he travelled northward four 
 hundred and fifty leagues from the sea. Here he discovered a 
 river of a quarter a mile wide and nineteen fathoms deep, on the 
 bank of which he died and was buried, May, 1542, aged forty- 
 two years. Alverdo, his successor, built seven brigantines, and 
 the year following embarked upon the river. In seventeen days 
 he proceeded down the river four hundred leagues, where he 
 judged it to be fifteen leagues wide. From the largeness of the 
 river at that place of his embarkation, he concluded its source 
 must have been at least four hundred leagues above, so that the 
 whole length of the river in his opinion must have been more than 
 eight hundred leagues. As he passed down the river, he found 
 it opened by two mouths into the gulf of Mexico. These circum- 
 stances lead us to conclude, that this river, so early discovered, 
 was the one which we now call the Mississippi.
 
 ~\ 
 
 SOTO DISCOVERING THE MISSISSIPPI.
 
 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 197 
 
 In 1562, Admiral Coligny, of France, sent out a fleet under 
 the command of John Ribault. He arrived at Cape Francis on 
 the coast of Florida, near which, on the first of May, he disco- 
 vered and entered a river which he called May river. It is pro- 
 bable, this river is the same which we now call St. Mary's. As he 
 coasted northward, he discovered eight other rivers, one of which 
 he called Port Royal and sailed up it several leagues. On one 
 of the rivers he built a fort, and called it Charles, in which he 
 left a colony, under the direction of Captain Albert. The severity 
 of Albert's measures excited a mutiny, in which, to the ruin of 
 the colony, he was slain. 
 
 Two years after, Coligny sent Rene Laudonnier with three 
 ships to Florida. In June he arrived at the river May, on 
 which he built a fort, and, in honour to his king, Charles IX., 
 he called it Carolina. In August, Captain Ribault arrived at 
 Florida the second time, with a fleet of seven vessels to recruit 
 the colony, which, two years before, he had left under the di- 
 rection of the unfortunate Captain Albert. In September, Pe- 
 dro Melendes, with six Spanish ships, pursued Ribault up the 
 river on which he had settled, and, overpowering him in num- 
 bers, cruelly massacred him and his whole company. Melendes, 
 having in his way taken possession of the country, built three 
 forts, and left them garrisoned with twelve hundred soldiers. 
 Laudonnier and his colony on May river, receiving information 
 of the fate of Ribault, took the alarm and escaped to France. 
 
 In 1567, a fleet of three ships was sent from France to Flo- 
 rida, under the command of Dominique de Gourges. The object 
 was to dispossess the Spaniards of that part of Florida which 
 they had cruelly and unjustifiably seized three years before. 
 He arrived on the coast of Florida, April, 1568, and soon after 
 made a successful attack upon the forts. The recent cruelty 
 of Melendes and his company excited revenge and retaliation. 
 He took the forts ; put most of the Spaniards to the sword, 
 and having burned and demolished all their fortresses, returned 
 to France. 
 
 In 1576, Captain Frobisher was sent to find out a north-west 
 passage to the East Indies. The first landing which he made 
 on the coast was upon a cape, which he called Queen Elizabeth's 
 Foreland. In coasting northerly he discovered the straits which 
 bear his name. He prosecuted his search for a passage into the 
 
 K 2
 
 198 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN niSTORY. 
 . < fa 
 
 RALEIGH. 
 
 western ocean, till he was prevented by the ice, and then re- 
 turned to England. 
 
 In 1579, Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained a patent from Queen 
 Elizabeth for lands not yet possessed by any Christian prince, 
 provided he would take possession within six years. With this 
 encouragement he sailed for America, and on the 1st of August 
 1583, anchored in Conception Bay. Afterwards he discovered 
 and took possession of St. John's Harbour, and the country 
 south ; but in pursuing his discoveries he was unfortunately 
 lost, and the intended settlement was prevented. 
 
 In 1584, two patents were granted by Queen Elizabeth, one 
 to Adrian Gilbert, (Feb. 6,) the other to Sir Walter Raleigh, for 
 lands not possessed by any Christian prince. By the direction 
 of Sir Walter, two ships were fitted and sent out, under the 
 command of Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow. In July they 
 arrived on the coast, and anchored in a harbour seven leagues 
 west of the Roanoke. On the 13th of July, they took possession 
 of the country, and, in honour of their virgin Queen Elizabeth, 
 they called it Virginia, which for some time after became the com- 
 mon name for all North America.
 
 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 199 
 
 THE SETTLEMENT AT ROANOKE. 
 
 In 1585, Sir "milter Raleigh sent Sir Richard Grenville to 
 America with seven ships. He arrived at Wococon harbour in 
 June. Having stationed a colony of more than a hundred people 
 at Roanoke, under the direction of Captain Ralph Lane, he 
 coasted north-east as far as Chesapeake Bay. The colony under 
 Captain Lane endured extreme hardships, and must have per- 
 ished, had not Sir Francis Drake fortunately returned to Vir- 
 ginia and carried them to England, after having made several 
 conquests for the queen in the West Indies and other places. 
 A fortnight after, Sir Richard Grenville arrived with new re- 
 cruits, and left fifty men at the same place. 
 
 In 1587, Sir "Walter sent another company to Virginia, un- 
 der Governor White, with a charter, and twelve assistants. In 
 July he arrived at Roanoke. Not one of the second company 
 remained. He determined, however, to risk a third colony. Ac- 
 cordingly he left a hundred and fifteen people at the old settle- 
 ment, and returned to England. On the 13th of August, 1587, 
 Manteo was baptized in Virginia. He was the first native In- 
 dian who received that ordinance in that part of America. On 
 the 18th, Mrs. Dare was delivered of a daughter, whom she
 
 200 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 called Virginia. She was the first English child that was born 
 in North America. In 1590, Governor White came over to Vir- 
 ginia with supplies and recruits for his colony ; but, to his great 
 grief, not a man was to be found. They had all miserably fam- 
 ished with hunger, or had been massacred by the Indians. 
 
 In 1602, Bartholomew Gofnold, with thirty-two persons, made 
 a voyage to North Virginia, and discovered and gave names to 
 Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Elizabeth Islands, and to 
 Dover Cliff. Elizabeth Island was the place which they fixed 
 for their settlement. But the courage of those who should have 
 remained failing, they all returned to England. All the at- 
 tempts to settle this continent which were made by the Dutch, 
 French, and English, from its discovery to the present time, a 
 period of a hundred years, proved ineffectual. The Spaniards 
 only, of all the European nations, had been successful. There 
 is no account of there having been one European family, at 
 this time, in all the vast extent of coast from Florida to Green- 
 land. 
 
 In 1603, Martin Pring and William Brown were sent by Sir 
 Walter Raleigh, with two small vessels, to make discoveries 
 in North Virginia. They came upon the coast, which was 
 broken with a multitude of islands, in 43° 30' north latitude. 
 They coasted southward to Cape Cod Bay ; thence round the 
 cape into a commodious harbour in latitude 41° 25', where they 
 went ashore and tarried seven weeks, during which time they 
 loaded one of their vessels with sassafras, and returned to Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Bartholomew Gilbert, in a voyage to South Virginia, in search 
 of the third colony which had been left there by Governor White 
 in 1587, having touched at several of the West India Islands, 
 landed near Chesapeake Bay, where, in a skirmish with the In- 
 dians, he and four of his men were unfortunately slain. The 
 rest, without any farther search for the colony, returned to Eng- 
 land. 
 
 France, being at this time in a state of tranquillity, in con- 
 sequence of the edict of Nantz in favour of the Protestants 
 passed by Henry IV. in 1598, and of the peace with Philip king 
 of Spain and Portugal, was induced to pursue her discoveries in 
 America. Accordingly the king signed a patent in favour of 
 De Mons, in 1603, of all the country from the 40th to the 46th
 
 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 201 
 
 degrees of north latitude, under the name of Acadia. Next 
 year De Mons ranged the coast from St. Lawrence to Cape Sa- 
 ble, and so round Cape Cod. 
 
 In May, 1605, George's Island and Pentecost harbour were 
 discovered by Captain George Weymouth. In May he entered 
 a large river in latitude 43° 20', (variation 11° 15' west,) which 
 Mr. Prince, in his chronology, supposes must have been Saga- 
 dahok ; but from the latitude it was more probably the Pisca- 
 taqua. Captain Weymouth carried with him to England five 
 of the natives. 
 
 26
 
 202 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 N the year 1608, Captain Newport sailed 
 from England with three ships and one 
 hundred and five men, who were destined 
 to remain in the country which they were 
 about to visit. Among these were some 
 gentlemen of distinguished families, par- 
 ticularly Mr. Percy, brother to the earl of 
 Northumberland, and several officers of reputation, who had 
 carried arms during the reign of Elizabeth. Though they fol- 
 lowed the old course, and sailed towards the West Indies, yet 
 when they had reached the American shore, they were driven 
 to the north of Roanoke by a storm, and accidentally discovered 
 Cape Henry. This is the southern boundary of Chesapeake 
 Bay. They stretched at once into that noble harbour, which 
 receives the waters of the Powhatan, the Potomac, the Susque- 
 hanna, and all the rivers which give fertility to this part of 
 America, and adapt it so wonderfully to the purposes of inland 
 navigation. Newport sailed up the Powhatan, to which he gave 
 the name of James River, in honour of the sovereign under whose 
 authority he acted ; and here he chose a place of residence for 
 the adventurers who were to settle in the country. They raised 
 a few huts to protect them from the inclemency of the weather ; 
 and the council who were nominated by the king, and were to 
 reside in America, opened their commissions and entered upon 
 their office. The infant settlement was called Jamestown ; an 
 appellation which it still retains ; and, though it never rose to 
 great wealth or distinction, it was the first of the English es- 
 tablishments in the New World, and has all the honour among 
 ,the American States that antiquity can confer. 
 
 The Indians among whom the European adventurers had 
 settled were divided into small and independent tribes, and sepa- 
 rated from one another by hereditary and unabating resentment.
 
 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH.
 
 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 205 
 
 They were able, however, to disturb the colony by their petty 
 hostilities ; though they could not, at this time, muster a force 
 sufficient to destroy it. But this was not the only calamity 
 which the Europeans were doomed to suffer. The stock of pro- 
 visions which they had brought with them from England was 
 nearly exhausted ; and what remained was of a quality so bad, 
 that it was unfit to be eaten. This scanty allowance to which 
 they were reduced, as well as the influence of a climate to which 
 they were not yet habituated, gave rise to diseases, and quick- 
 ened their virulence ; so that the number of the colonists gradu- 
 ally diminished. In this exigency, they were relieved by the 
 talents and activity of Captain Smith. Immediately after the 
 arrival of the settlers, and in consequence of the disagreements 
 which had taken place during the voyage, he had been expelled 
 from the council, though chosen by the king as one of its mem- 
 bers ; but such were his abilities and enterprising temper, that 
 he was now unanimously called to his seat, and invited to take 
 a chief part in the administration. He was not unworthy of 
 the charge, or unequal to the duties which his situation required. 
 He fortified Jamestown, so as to protect the colonists from the 
 injuries of the savages. He marched in quest of those tribes 
 who had given most disturbance to the Europeans ; and partly 
 by address and good treatment, he put an end to their hostilities, 
 and procured from them a supply of provisions, of which the 
 colony was so much in need. By the exertions of Smith, con- 
 tentment was speedily restored ; and this he considered as a 
 sufficient recompense for all his toils and dangers. But, unfor- 
 tunately, in one of his excursions, he was surprised by a nu- 
 merous party of Indians, and compelled to retreat; and the 
 savages pressing hard upon him, he sunk to the neck in a 
 morass, and was* taken prisoner. He was carried to Powhatan, 
 the most considerable sachem or chief of Virginia, and would 
 have suffered a cruel death, if Pocahontas, the daughter of 
 Powhatan, animated by that concern for the English which the 
 adventurers from the west never failed to experience, had not 
 rushed between him and the executioner, and begged her father 
 to spare his life. Her request was granted; and she afterwards 
 procured him his liberty ; and from time to time sent provisions 
 to the colony. 
 
 When Smith returned to Jamestown, he found no more than 
 
 s
 
 206 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CAPTAIN SMITH EXPLORING CHESAPEAKE BAT. 
 
 thirty-eight persons within the Avails which he had lately raised. 
 The spirits of the colony were completely broken. Every indi- 
 vidual was filled with despondency, and anxious to leave a country 
 which was so inhospitable. He prevailed upon them, however, 
 to remain for some time ; and provisions arriving from England, 
 abundance and satisfaction were happily restored. Smith had 
 formed a determination of visiting and examining the country 
 in the neighbourhood of the place where the English had settled ; 
 and, in order to prosecute his design, he embarked with a hand- 
 ful of adventurers (a. d. 1609) in an open boat, ill adapted to 
 the purposes for which it was intended. He advanced towards 
 the north, as far as the river Susquehanna, and visited the 
 country both on the east and the west ; and trading with some 
 of the natives, and fighting with others, he taught them to re- 
 spect the English for their superiority in knowledge and in arts, 
 and to dread the operation of the weapons which they used. He 
 afterwards made a second excursion ; and at length drew out a 
 map of the creeks and inlets which he had entered, as well as 
 the adjacent country, with such accuracy that his delineation 
 has served as a basis and a model for all those who have since 
 attempted to exhibit the geography of the United States. 
 
 In the same year, (1609,) a remarkable change took place in 
 the constitution of the colony. A new charter was issued, of a 
 more enlarged and liberal nature than the former. The boun- 
 daries of the settlement were extended ; the council resident in 
 America was abolished, and the administration of affairs vested 
 in a council, resident in London. A numerous body of respect-
 
 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 207 
 
 able merchants and others were joined to the former adventu- 
 rers, and they were all incorporated under the name of " The 
 Treasurer and Company of Adventurers of the city of London, 
 for the first colony in Virginia." The proprietors of this com- 
 pany were allowed to chose the persons of whom the council was 
 to be composed ; and powers were granted them to elect a gover- 
 nor, who was to manage their affairs in the colony, and to exe- 
 cute the orders which should be issued from England. They 
 were farther authorized to enact such laws, and introduce such 
 regulations, as they should judge most advantageous for the 
 settlers in America. These ample privileges were conferred in 
 an age when privileges of a similar nature were not often con- 
 ferred ; but it is probable, that James, with all his sagacity, did 
 not perceive the consequences in which they were likely to ter- 
 minate. 
 
 As soon as the company had got the management of their 
 affairs into their own hands, the proprietors daily increased both 
 in numbers and respectability.
 
 208 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 HE efforts of the company at Ply- 
 mouth were neither so vig- 
 orous, nor at first so suc- 
 cessful, as those of the 
 company in London. 
 
 For a while their at- 
 tempts were limited to voy- 
 ages made for the purpose 
 of taking fish, or, at most, 
 of trading with the na- 
 tives, and procuring furs. 
 In one of these attempts, Captain Smith, of whom we have 
 spoken in the history of Virginia, explored with accuracy 
 (a. d. 1614) that part of the American coast which stretches 
 from Penobscot to Cape Cod ; and having delineated a map of- 
 the country, he presented it to Charles, prince of Wales, who 
 gave to the region that Smith had visited the name of New 
 England, which it still retains. 
 
 But what the exertions of the company were unable to ac- 
 complish, was effected by a principle which has, at all times, had 
 a chief share in the revolutions that take place in human affairs. 
 When the light of the Reformation had dawned upon Europe, 
 the extravagant doctrines and absurd practices of the Romish 
 church filled the minds of those who had ventured to think freely 
 on religious topics, with horror and irreconcilable aversion. 
 The spirit which prevailed at that time was by no means satis- 
 fied either with the partial changes which took place in the 
 reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, or the imperious manner 
 in which these sovereigns dictated a creed to their people ; and 
 the less so, as the opinions of the royal theologians themselves, 
 especially those of the former, had undergone considerable al- 
 terations. Elizabeth, determined that all her subjects should
 
 t
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 211 
 
 conform to the belief which she had chosen for them, established 
 a High Commission for ecclesiastical affairs ; with powers not 
 inferior, or less hostile to the rights of conscience, than those of 
 the Inquisition in Spain. Some attempts were made in the 
 House of Commons to check these arbitrary and odious pro- 
 ceedings : but Elizabeth interfered with her prerogative, and the 
 guardians of the people were silent. They even consented to 
 an act, by which those who should be absent from church for a 
 month were subjected to a fine and imprisonment, and, if they 
 persisted in their obstinacy, to death without benefit of clergy. 
 In consequence of this iniquitous statute, and the distresses in 
 which the Puritans were involved, a body of them, called 
 Brownists from the name of their founder, left England, and 
 settled at Leyden, in Holland, under the care of Mr. John Ro- 
 binson^ their pastor. But this situation at length proving dis- 
 agreeable to them, and their children intermarrying with the 
 Dutch, they were apprehensive lest their church, which they re- 
 garded as a model of untarnished purity, should gradually decay ; 
 and having obtained a promise from James I. that they should 
 not be molested in the exercise of their religion, they fled to 
 America, and founded the colony of New Plymouth. They con- 
 tinued for some time to adhere to their religious opinions, but 
 never became so numerous as to attract, in any great degree, the 
 attention of the mother country. They were afterwards united 
 to the colony of Massachusetts Bay, the origin and progress of 
 which we shall now relate. 
 
 From the tranquillity which the Brownists had enjoyed at New 
 Plymouth, and the sufferings to which those who held the same 
 opinions were exposed in England, an association was formed by 
 Mr. White, a clergyman at Dorchester, in order to lead a new 
 colony to that part of America, where their brethren were set- 
 tled. They applied to the Grand Council of Plymouth, of which 
 the duke of Lennox and the marquis of Buckingham were mem- 
 bers, (for the original company had been dissolved by the au- 
 thority of the king,) and purchased from them all that part of 
 New England which lies three miles to the south of Charles 
 river, and three miles to the north of Merrimac river, and ex- 
 tends from the Atlantic Ocean to the South Sea. They obtained 
 a charter from Charles I., by which the same ample privileges 
 were conferred upon them which James had conferred upon the
 
 212 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 two companies of Virginia; and they obtained it with a facility 
 which appears to us altogether unaccountable, when we think of 
 the principles and views of those to whom it was granted. They 
 embarked, to the number of three hundred, in five ships, (a. d. 
 1629,) and landed at New England. They found there the re- 
 mains of a small body of Puritans, who had left their country 
 the year before, under Endicott, a frantic enthusiast ; and 
 uniting with these, they settled at a place to which Endicott had 
 given the name of Salem. This was the first permanent town 
 in Massachusetts. 
 
 All these emigrants were Puritans of the strictest sort, and 
 their notions of eclesiastical affairs were reduced to the lowest 
 standard of Calvinistic simplicity. But with an inconsistency 
 of which there are many examples, and with which no particular 
 sect can be charged to the exclusion of others, the very men 
 who had just escaped from the intolerance of persecution in 
 England, shortly after their arrival, banished two of their num- 
 ber from the settlement, on account of a difference in religious 
 opinion. 
 
 It was by no means agreeable to the planters in America 
 that they should be governed by the company in England, the 
 members of which were at a distance, and unacquainted with 
 their circumstances ; and not a few of the proprietors them- 
 selves were disheartened by the oppression of Laud, and eager 
 to be disengaged from an adventure which was yet unpromising. 
 It was therefore determined, by general consent, that " the char- 
 ter should be transferred, and the government of the corporation 
 settled in Massachusetts Bay." This is perhaps the most re- 
 markable occurrence in the history of English colonization. 
 The right of the company to make such a transference is very 
 questionable. The indifference of the king in allowing it to 
 take place is no less astonishing : but he was engaged at this 
 time in disputes with his parliament, and perhaps was not dis- 
 pleased that a body of his subjects, who were known for their 
 dislike to his government, were removed to a country where their 
 turbulent spirit could not so easily prove dangerous to his in- 
 terests. Whatever was the reason of Charles's connivance, the 
 adventurers proceeded without delay to execute their plans. In 
 a general court, Winthrop was chosen governor, and eighteen 
 persons were nominated his assistants ; and in these, together
 
 W I N T H K 1'.
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 215 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF BOSTON. 
 
 with a body of freemen who should settle in New England, all 
 the rights of the company were vested. In consequence of this 
 alteration, seventeen vessels and three hundred planters sailed 
 for America. As soon as they arrived at New England, they 
 explored the country in quest of a better station than that of 
 Endicott at Salem, and laid the foundations of many towns, 
 especially those of Charlestown and Boston. 
 
 As the same causes which at first led to emigration continued 
 to operate, the number of the settlers increased, by arrivals from 
 Europe almost every year. Among those who left their country 
 about this time were two persons, afterwards distinguished on 
 a more conspicuous theatre — Peters, the chaplain and assistant 
 of Oliver Cromwell, and Mr. Vane, son to Sir Henry Vane, a 
 man of note, a privy-councillor, and of great influence with the 
 king. Mr. Vane was received by the planters with the fondest 
 admiration. His grave and mortified appearance, and his repu- 
 tation for wisdom and piety, together with the attention which 
 he paid to the leading members of the church, all conspired to 
 render him the favourite of the people ; and he was appointed 
 to the office of governor with universal approbation. But the 
 part which he took in the religious disputes which then agitated
 
 216 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the colony, detaching many of his adherents from his interest, 
 he quitted America in disgust, unregretted even by those who 
 had so lately admired him. 
 
 Besides the meetings for the worship of God on Sunday, and 
 the lecture every Thursday, the inhabitants of Boston assembled 
 on the other days of the week for the purposes of religious con- 
 ference and theological discussion. With a propriety which has 
 not always distinguished the enthusiastic and the visionary, the 
 females were strictly excluded from these assemblies. But Mrs. 
 Hutchinson, a woman of some talents, and not deficient in elo- 
 quence, instituted a meeting of the sisters also ; and her lec- 
 tures were at first attended by many respectable persons of her 
 own sex. The number of these daily increased. The doctrines 
 of Mrs. Hutchinson soon became public and generally known ; 
 and Vane, the governor, whose prudence always forsook him 
 when his thoughts were turned towards religious subjects, es- 
 poused the wildest of her tenets with the zeal which character- 
 ized the times in which he lived. She maintained, that purity of 
 life was not an evidence of acceptance with. God ; that those who 
 inculcated the necessity of a virtuous conduct preached only 
 a covenant of works ; and that as the Holy Ghost dwells per- 
 sonally in such as are justified, they have no occasion for posi- 
 tive laws to regulate their actions. These tenets, equally hostile 
 to good sense and pernicious to society, were adopted and de- 
 fended by many of the colonists. Mrs. Hutchinson, in order to 
 separate her followers from such as opposed her, drew a marked 
 line of distinction between them ; the former she described as 
 under a covenant of grace, and in a state of favour with the 
 Almighty ; and the latter, as under a covenant of works, and 
 the objects of his displeasure. 'Dissensions prevailed and rose 
 to a great height. Religious conferences were held ; days of 
 fasting and humiliation were appointed ; a general synod was 
 called; and, at last, to the honour of our rational nature, Mrs. 
 Hutchinson's opinions were condemned as erroneous ; and she 
 herself was banished from the colony. It was after this de- 
 cision that Vane quitted the settlement. 
 
 But whatever the pernicious consequences of these theological 
 disputes might be, they certainly contributed to the more speedy 
 population of America. The proceedings against Mrs. Hutch- 
 inson excited no little disgust in the minds of those who adhered
 
 28
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 219 
 
 BANISHMENT OF ROGER WILLIAMS. 
 
 to her sentiments. A party of these, withdrawing from the com- 
 munion of their brethren, joined themselves to the disciples of 
 Williams, who was banished from Salem in the year 1634 ; and 
 purchasing from the Indians an island in Narraganset Bay, they 
 gave to it the name of Rhode Island, and settled there. The 
 colony of Connecticut owes its origin to the dissensions between 
 Hooker and Cotton, two favourite preachers in Massachusetts ; 
 and those of New Hampshire and Maine, chiefly to the separa- 
 tion of Wheelwright, a proselyte of Mrs. Hutchinson, from the 
 rest of the community in the same province. 
 
 These new establishments exposed the English to great 
 dangers from the Indians, by whom they were surrounded. The 
 Pequods, an ancient and martial tribe, were the first who took 
 the alarm. Relinquishing their former animosities, they pro- 
 posed to the Narragansets that they should unite against the 
 common enemy ; whose numbers became every day more for- 
 midable, and whose progress threatened them both with indis- 
 criminate ruin. But such was the love of revenge, or the want
 
 220 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of foresight on the part of the Narragansets, that, instead of 
 joining with the Pequods in defence of their country and their 
 freedom, they communicated the proposal which had been made 
 to them to the governor of Massachusetts Bay, and united with 
 him against the Indians whom it was the English interest to 
 oppose. The Pequods, exasperated rather than discouraged, 
 took the field, and laid siege to Fort Saybrooke. Captain Ten- 
 derhill was despatched to its relief; and it was agreed by the 
 colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut, that they 
 should march next year into the country of the enemy, and put 
 a final termination to their hostilities. The troops of Connec- 
 ticut were first in motion. But the colony of Massachusetts was 
 divided about the covenant of works and the covenant of grace. 
 It was found that some, both of the officers and men who were 
 to fight its battles, were yet under the covenant of works ; the 
 others therefore declared, that the blessing of God could not 
 rest on the arms of such as differed from them on this metaphy- 
 sical question ; and it was not till after much alarm, and many 
 changes, that they were sufficiently pure to begin the war. In 
 the meanwhile, the troops of Connecticut were obliged to ad- 
 vance against the enemy. The Indians were posted on a rising 
 ground, not far from the head of the river Mystic, and had for- 
 tified themselves with palisadoes, the only method of defence 
 with which they were acquainted. They had been deceived by 
 the movement of the English vessels from Saybrooke to Narra- 
 ganset ; and, imagining that the expedition was abandoned, had 
 given themselves up to riot and security. At the break of day, 
 while the Indians were overpowered with sleep, the colonists ap- 
 proached ; and had not the savages been alarmed by the barking 
 of a dog, their surprise and destruction would have been com- 
 plete. They instantly raised the war-cry, and fiew to such arms 
 as they possessed. But though their courage was great, they 
 were speedily discomfited by the discipline and bravery of the 
 Europeans. The English shot at them through the palisadoes, 
 forced their way through the works, and set fire to their huts. 
 Many of the women and children perished in the flames. The 
 confusion and terror became general, and scarcely any of the 
 party escaped. This blow was followed by others equally effec- 
 tual. The troops of Connecticut being reinforced at length by 
 those of Massachusetts, they pursued the enemy from one retreat
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 221 
 
 MASSACRE OF THE P E Q U D S. 
 
 to another ; and in less than three months, the Pequods were so 
 completely extirpated, that their very name as a tribe was lost. 
 A few individuals, who escaped the general carnage, were incor- 
 porated with the neighbouring Indians. 
 
 In consequence of this decisive campaign, which was marked 
 by cruelties required neither by good policy nor by necessity, 
 the English enjoyed a long tranquillity in all their colonies. 
 
 t2
 
 222 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 RISE OF WALLENSTEIN. 
 
 LBERT of Wallenstein was a Bohe- 
 mian by birth, and had been brought 
 up in the Protestant faith. While a 
 schoolboy at Goldberg in Silesia, he 
 had dreamed, like the patriarch Jo- 
 seph, that the trees of the forest as 
 well as his fellow-students bowed down 
 and did homage before him ; and, at a 
 later period, had studied in Italy the 
 mystical science which taught him to read his future destiny 
 in those fanciful combinations of the stars named by astrologers 
 the houses of heaven. Entering the Imperial army, he distin- 
 guished himself in Hungary against the Turks ; and, having 
 subsequently married a rich widow, raised with her money a 
 regiment of cuirassiers, which did the emperor good service 
 during the Bohemian insurrection. By a second wealthy mar 
 riage, and the favour of his master, who conferred on him the 
 dukedom of Friedland, Wallenstein became so powerful that, 
 when it was proposed to him to raise a force of 20,000 men, he 
 at once declared that he was willing to bring 50,000 into the 
 field. This proposal was eagerly embraced by the emperor, 
 who nominated him generalissimo of the Imperial forces. In a 
 few months Wallenstein, by dint of profuse gifts and still more 
 liberal promises, had collected an army of adventurers from all 
 the countries of Europe. The discipline of this ill-assorted 
 body was suited to the character of those who composed it. 
 Wallenstein allowed no priests in the camp, winked at the irre- 
 gularities of his men when they did not interfere with military 
 duty, rewarded with princely munificence those who distin- 
 guished themselves, and promoted the bravest of his common 
 soldiers to posts of honour. To increase his influence over these 
 wild mercenaries, Wallenstein affected a mysterious adoration
 
 W A I. L E N S T E I N.
 
 RISE OF WALLENSTEIlSf. 225 
 
 of the goddess Fortune, whose name he adopted as the waten- 
 word of his army. Hints also of midnight communings with 
 disembodied spirits were uttered under their breath by the su- 
 perstitious troopers, whenever their general, after a night spent 
 in his astrological studies, appeared in the camp with a counte- 
 nance so haggard and ghastly as well-nigh to warrant the be- 
 lief that his hours of retirement had been passed in converse 
 with the powers of darkness. Wallenstein's great object, in 
 assuming this command, was to restore the Imperial power in 
 its fullest extent : " We want no princes," he was wont to say, 
 "but a single master, as in France and Spain." As the only 
 opposition to this plan was in the North of Germany, (for the 
 weak southern princes were already subjugated,) Wallenstein, in 
 conjunction with Tilly, marched into Holstein, and having com- 
 pelled the king of Denmark to sign an ignominious peace, ap- 
 peared with his army before the strongly fortified town of Stral- 
 sund, which would have surrendered at the first summons, had 
 not the burghers, disgusted at the cowardice of their magis- 
 trates, taken the matter into their own hands, and prepared for 
 an obstinate resistance. Irritated at this disappointment, Wal- 
 lenstein swore that he would take the place, though it were 
 bound to heaven with chains of iron ; but the brave citizens, 
 reinforced by two thousand Swedes and a body of Scotch mer- 
 cenaries in the pay of Denmark, made so obstinate a defence 
 that he was compelled to raise the siege after losing 12,000 
 men. This check decided for the present the fate of Europe. 
 Wallenstein, no longer deemed invincible, and violently opposed 
 by the Jesuits, fell into disgrace, and, being formally deprived 
 of his command, retired to Prague. His army was partly dis- 
 banded, and partly incorporated with the troops of Tilly, who 
 proceeded to invest Magdeburg, where the people had success- 
 fully resisted an edict of the emperor for the suppression of 
 Protestant worship. 
 
 24>
 
 226 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 QUSTATUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 EVENTS OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR— GUS- 
 TAVUS ADOLPHUS— BATTLE OF LEIPSIC. 
 
 ROM Holland to the Carinthian moun- 
 tains, and from Prussia to the Alps of 
 Berne, wherever the German tongue was 
 spoken, Luther's and Calvin's doctrines 
 had penetrated, and found a way to the 
 hearts of the people. "With the excep- 
 tion of Bavaria and the Tyrol, every dis- 
 trict of Germany had at one time or other fought for liberty of 
 conscience ; yet there now remained no vestige of it except in 
 the single city of Magdeburg, whose brave defenders still held 
 out against the assaults of Tilly. In the midst of this melan- 
 choly prospect, a new ray of hope broke through the clouds 
 which hovered over Protestant Germany. The throne of 
 Sweden was at this time occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, a 
 zealous and sincere supporter of the Reformation, who had 
 long witnessed with grief the sufferings of his brethren in Ger- 
 many, but had hitherto been debarred from rendering them any
 
 EVENTS OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 227 
 
 assistance by the wars in which he was engaged with Denmark 
 and Poland. Yet these very wars had given him that unri- 
 valled military knowledge which afterwards produced such glo- 
 rious results. His Swedes were the best and most formidable 
 soldiers of that day, warlike by nature, hardened by their se- 
 vere climate, thoroughly disciplined, experienced in the field, 
 full of confidence, and, more than all, inspired by a strong 
 religious conviction that the cause for which they drew their 
 swords was favoured by the Almighty. As soon, therefore, as 
 Gustavus had secured an honourable peace with Denmark and 
 Poland, he had both leisure to undertake, and thousands of 
 brave spirits ready to aid him in accomplishing, the defence of 
 his brethren in Germany. Besides his zeal for the common 
 cause, the Swedish king had also private injuries to avenge : 
 Austrians had fought against him in the ranks of the Polish 
 army, and Wallenstein had insulted his ambassador, without his 
 having been able in either case to obtain satisfaction. On the 
 20th of May, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus entered the senate- 
 house at Stockholm, to take a solemn farewell of the estates of 
 his kingdom. He had already made the necessary arrange- 
 ments for the administration of public affairs during his ab- 
 sence, and set his house in order, as one who was about to go 
 forth to death. Taking his young daughter Christina in his 
 arms, he presented her to the estates as his successor, and 
 caused them to swear fidelity to her, in the event of his never 
 returning. He then read a paper, in which his wishes respecting 
 the government of the country during his absence, or, in case 
 of his death, during the minority of his daughter, were dis- 
 tinctly explained. The whole assembly melted into tears, and 
 the king himself was so deeply affected, that some minutes 
 elapsed before he could summon sufficient firmness to pronounce 
 his farewell address. " It is not lightly, or without due delibe- 
 ration," thus he began, "that I involve myself and you in this 
 new and dangerous war. Almighty God is my witness, that I 
 fight not for mine own pleasure. The emperor has offered me, 
 in the person of my ambassador, the grossest insults ; he has 
 assisted my enemies, my friends and brethren he persecutes, 
 tramples my religion in the dust, and stretches out his hand to 
 seize my crown. The oppressed people of Germany urgently 
 implore our aid, and, if it please God, they shall not be disap-
 
 228 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 pointed. I know the dangers to which my life will be exposed: 
 these I have never shunned, nor do I hope eventually to escape 
 them. It is true that, until the present hour, the Almighty hath 
 marvellously preserved me: but I shall die at last in defence 
 of my native land. I commend you all to the protection of 
 Heaven. Be upright, be conscientious, walk unblamably : so shall 
 we meet one another again in eternity. To you, my counsellors, 
 I first address myself, — may God enlighten you, and fill you 
 with wisdom, that you may ever advise that which conduces 
 most to the welfare of my kingdom. You, brave nobles, I 
 commend to the protection of God. Go forth, and prove your- 
 selves worthy descendants of those heroic Goths who laid an- 
 cient Rome in the dust. You, ministers of the church, I exhort 
 to unanimity and concord. Be yourselves ensamples of those 
 virtues which ye preach, and abuse not your dominion over the 
 souls of my people. To you, deputies of the burgher and pea- 
 sant orders, I wish the blessing of Heaven, a joyful harvest to 
 reward your toils, fulness to your barns, and abundance of all 
 the good things of life. For all, absent as well as present, I 
 offer my prayers to Heaven. I now bid you affectionately fare- 
 well — Farewell ! perhaps for ever." On the 24th of June, the 
 hundredth anniversary of the Augsburg Confession, Gustavus 
 Adolphus landed at Usedom in the midst of a violent thunder- 
 storm. As soon as he touched the German soil, he fell on his 
 knees, and called God to witness that this campaign was under- 
 taken, not for his own honour, but in the cause of the gospel. 
 His army at this time consisted of only 16,000 men, among 
 whom were thirty companies of Germans ; and so little sensa- 
 tion did his landing produce, that the people of Vienna called 
 him in derision the " Snow King," who would melt away as he 
 approached the south. The Protestants, on the other hand, 
 looked to him as their deliverer, and named him the " Lion of 
 the North." He was of gigantic height, with an open counte- 
 nance, large blue eyes, and a mild but majestic bearing; pre- 
 senting in his whole appearance a remarkable contrast to the 
 gloomy Wallenstein, the ferocious Tilly, and most of the Ger- 
 man princes, who affected a mysterious demeanour, to cover 
 their low plans of personal ambition. Finding himself unsup- 
 ported by the northern Protestants, Gustavus told the duke of 
 Mecklenburg, it was his intention to march on Magdeburg, and
 
 EVENTS OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 229 
 
 relieve that city: " If none will stand by me," continued he, 
 "I shall at once retire, make the best peace I can with the 
 emperor, and return to Stockholm. This I shall have little 
 difficulty in effecting : but at the day of judgment you must 
 give an account for having abandoned the cause of God and 
 of his gospel — yea, even in this world you will have your re- 
 ward." The electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, who were 
 well aware how valuable their friendship must be to either side, 
 held back for a time, observing an armed neutrality, which 
 Gustavus would not break up by violent means, lest he should 
 at once furnish them with an excuse for joining the emperor. 
 This unfortunate delay decided the fate of Magdeburg, which 
 had received no aid from Gustavus except the sending them one 
 of his officers, Colonel Falkenstein, who entered the place in 
 the disguise of a boatman, and took command of the feeble 
 and dispirited garrison. On the night of the 10th of May, 
 1631, the Imperial party within the walls called loudly for sur- 
 render. At four o'clock in the morning, Falkenstein hastened 
 to the town-hall, and, while he was in consultation with the 
 magistrates, Pappenheim, without waiting for orders from Tilly, 
 scaled the walls at a place where the sentinel was unfortunately 
 asleep, and before an alarm could be given, appeared with his 
 men in front of the hall. Falkenstein rushed out, and was 
 instantly shot dead. Still the citizens, in spite of the over- 
 whelming force brought against them, resisted bravely, until 
 their powder failed, when they were obliged to surrender at 
 discretion. Meanwhile the rest of the Imperialists had entered 
 at two undefended gates, and a scene ensued too horrible for 
 description. Even a humane general might have found it im- 
 possible to restrain such troops in the moment of victory ; but 
 this the ferocious old man who commanded the Imperialists did 
 not even attempt. Some officers, who implored him to have 
 mercy on the unresisting citizens, were ordered to return in an 
 hour ; " I will then," said he, " see what can be done ; but the 
 soldier must have something for his labour and danger." In 
 less than half that time, the work of blood was at its height. 
 The furious soldiers spared neither age nor sex. Almost all 
 the men were beheaded, and a great number of the women. 
 Two clergymen were slain as they stood before the altar. On 
 entering the town, Pappenheim had ordered some houses to be 
 
 u
 
 230 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 set on fire ; the wind being strong, the flames soon spread, and 
 in a short time the whole city, with the exception of a few 
 houses and the cathedral, was a heap of ashes. These scenes 
 continued until the 13th, when Tilly himself entered, and re- 
 stored discipline. Four thousand persons, who had taken re- 
 fuge in the fire-proof cathedral, were admitted to quarter, and 
 for the first time during three days obtained something to eat. 
 It is said that they owed this favour to the vanity of Tilly, who 
 was flattered at being addressed in a Latin oration by one of 
 their preachers. The terrible commander, in a sort of masque- 
 rading dress, which at any other time would have excited 
 laughter, — wearing a short jacket of green satin, and a high- 
 crowned hat with a long red feather which drooped over his 
 ghastly countenance, his whole appearance being, we are told, 
 that of a lunatic mountebank, — rode slowly through the town, 
 gloating on the heaps of dead bodies with which the streets 
 were covered. In a letter to the emperor, he speaks of this 
 scene of murder and desolation as the greatest victory that had 
 been achieved since the taking of Troy and Jerusalem. "And 
 sincerely," he adds, " do I pity the ladies of your Imperial 
 family, that they could not be present as spectators of the 
 same." Gustavus Adolphus now resolved, come what might, 
 no longer to spare the electors whose indecision had caused this 
 terrible calamity. On the 11th of June, he appeared before 
 Berlin, and offered George William the choice either of instantly 
 joining him, or seeing his capital laid in ashes. The terrified 
 elector, after a little resistance, signed the treaty of alliance ; 
 and Gustavus garrisoned the fortresses of Berlin, Spandau, and 
 Kiistrin. Tilly, having been repulsed on the Hessian frontier, 
 had marched to the great plain of Leipzic, in the hope of ter- 
 rifying the elector of Saxony into an alliance : but that prince 
 now declared himself on the side of the Swedes ; and eighteen 
 thousand Saxons having joined Gustavus Adolphus, the allied 
 army advanced on Leipzic, which was already in the hands of 
 Tilly. The difference between the Swedish and Imperial armies, 
 which now met for the first time, was very remarkable. In the 
 camp of Gustavus religious service was regularly performed, 
 sometimes to the army in general, on which occasions the king 
 was always present, sometimes by the chaplain of each regiment 
 to those more immediately intrusted to his charge. The kind-
 
 EVENTS OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 231 
 
 ness with which the Swedish soldiers treated the unarmed citi- 
 zens and peasants, the strict morality of their lives, and the 
 gentleness of their manners, rendered them universally objects 
 of respect and love, and presented a striking contrast to the 
 fearful oaths and shouts of licentious revelry with which Tilly's 
 camp resounded day and night, and to the cruelties practised 
 by his soldiers on the defenceless inhabitants. The Swedish 
 troops had lately been equipped by Gustavus Adolphus with a 
 view to rapid movements ; they therefore wore no armour, and 
 were accompanied by only a very light train of field artillery. 
 The Imperialists, on the contrary, wore cuirasses^ greaves, and 
 helmets, had much less discipline among them than the Swedes, 
 and were encumbered by heavy ordnance. Tilly had intended 
 to await the coming up of two of his generals with reinforce- 
 ments, before he engaged the enemy ; although his own force 
 amounted to 40,000 men, a number equal to that of the united 
 Swedish and Saxon army ; but the impetuous Pappenheim hav- 
 ing entangled himself in a skirmish with the Swedes, Tilly was 
 obliged to march to his assistance, muttering, as he went, " That 
 fellow will ruin me yet in honour and reputation, and the em- 
 peror in land and people." Gustavus Adolphus, dressed in a 
 simple gray surtout, with a white hat and gray feather, rode in 
 front of the line, and exhorted his men to fight bravely. The 
 Swedes composed the right wing, the Saxons the left. Tilly's 
 army formed, according to the ancient mode of warfare, one 
 long line ; but Gustavus had broken his force into several small 
 masses. The imperial artillery was planted on the ridge of a 
 low hill immediately behind the army. The battle began on 
 the 7th of September, 1631, with a furious cannonade, which 
 lasted two hours. Then Tilly, abandoning his position on the 
 hills, marched to meet the Swedes ; but their fire was so galling 
 that he was obliged to make a movement to the right, and at- 
 tack the Saxons, who soon fled in confusion. Meanwhile Pap- 
 penheim, at the head of his terrible cuirassiers, had seven times 
 charged the Swedes, and as often been driven back with great 
 loss. While Tilly was engaged with the Saxons, the Swedes 
 attacked him in flank, captured his artillery, and, turning it 
 against himself, threw both him and Pappenheim into irrecove- 
 rable confusion. Four regiments of veterans, who had become 
 gray in the Imperial service, resolved to be cut to pieces
 
 232 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 rather than yield. In detached bodies, they forced their way 
 through the midst of the victorious army, and reached a little 
 wood, where they continued to fight until night came on. The 
 rest of the army fled in disorder, pursued by the Swedes, who 
 cut down hundreds of the fugitives. In all the villages around 
 the tocsin was rung, and the peasants rusned out to wreak ven- 
 geance on their oppressors. Meanwhile Tilly, a veteran soldier 
 of seventy-two years of age, who had never before either sus- 
 tained a defeat or been wounded, stood like a monument of de- 
 spair, stupified and motionless. Three bullets had already 
 pierced his body ; but he refused to surrender himself, and a 
 Swedish officer (called by the soldiers " Long Fritz") was in the 
 act of cutting him down, when he was rescued by Duke Ru- 
 dolph of Lauenburg. The miserable remains of his army took 
 refuge in Haberstadt, where Tilly joined them. During his 
 flight the curses of the peasants rang in his ears, and he was 
 exasperated beyond measure at hearing everywhere the words 
 of a rude song, in which his defeat was celebrated, and the 
 chorus " Fly, Tilly, fly !" howled by hundreds of voices. After 
 this victory the country people rose in a mass, and joined the 
 standard of Gustavus in such numbers that in a few days his 
 army was stronger than it had been before the battle.
 
 30 
 
 v2
 
 BATTLE OF LUTZEN. 
 
 235 
 
 DEATH OF TILLY— BATTLE OF LUTZEN- 
 DEATH OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 EAVING his generals Baudis and 
 Banner to follow up his successes in 
 Northern Germany, Gustavus marched 
 to Erfurt, and thence through the Thu- 
 ringian forest to Wiirtzburg, Frank- 
 fort, and Mainz. Spiers, Landau, and 
 many other places had already declared 
 for the Swedes; and the banks of the 
 Rhine and the Neckar resounded with 
 shouts of joy, as the army of the liberator advanced. The 
 Swedish soldiers, on their part, delighted with the beauty of 
 the country, and revelling in the unaccustomed luxuries of wine 
 and wheaten bread, were eager to hold out the right hand of 
 fellowship to men who received them so kindly. 
 
 Ulm sent a deputation to congratulate Gustavus on his 
 successes. The count palatine, Christian of Birkenfeld, re- 
 cruited for his army ; Frederick of Bohemia returned to 
 his palatinate; and, to crown the satisfaction of the Swedish 
 king, his wife Eleanora joined him at Frankfort. Mean- 
 while "that old devil, Tilly," (as Gustavus always called him,) 
 had begun to rally, and, after taking the town of Rotenburg, 
 was intrenching himself in a strong position at Rain on the 
 Lech, in order to cover Bavaria. Maximilian, with a consider- 
 able force, was also encamped in the same neighbourhood. The 
 works on the Lech were nearly completed, when Gustavus, ad- 
 vancing to the opposite bank of the river, commenced a cannon- 
 ade, which was kept up during three days without intermission. 
 At the end of that time, the Imperialists became first aware 
 that the enemy's engineers, under cover of the smoke, had suc- 
 ceeded in constructing a bridge, over which a considerable por-
 
 236 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 tion of their army had already crossed the river. In a trans- 
 port of rage, Tilly rushed forward to meet the Swedes ; but 
 his course was arrested by a cannon-ball, which shattered his 
 thigh, and produced so ghastly a wound that he shortly after- 
 wards died in great agony, advising the emperor, with his last 
 breath, at whatever sacrifice of life or treasure, to secure Ra- 
 tisbon, the key of Austria and Bavaria. Gustavus now marched 
 to Augsburg, where he caused the gospel to be proclaimed, and 
 thence to Munich, the gates of which were opened to him on 
 his promising to spare the place. By his side rode Frederick, 
 the deposed king of Bohemia, accompanied by his queen, and a 
 large monkey dressed in the frock and hood of a Capuchin 
 friar. In different parts of the city were found one hundred 
 and forty pieces of cannon, which the Bavarians had buried, 
 after filling them to the muzzle with gold and precious stones. 
 Maximilian would gladly have made peace, but Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, in no very courtly language, told him that he was not to 
 be trusted, adding some coarse remarks better suited to the 
 manners of that day than to the more refined taste of modern 
 readers. The loss of Tilly now compelled the emperor to enter 
 into negotiation with the only general who was capable of com- 
 manding an Imperial army at this critical juncture. Since his 
 disgrace, Wallenstein had been living at Prague in more than 
 regal state. His palace stood on the sites of several hundred 
 houses, which had been pulled down to make room for the build- 
 ing : his gardens were full of handsome fountains and aviaries, 
 some of which were so large that tall trees were enclosed within 
 their wires : boys of noble family waited upon him as pages, 
 and many of his former officers were still in his service. His 
 smallest present was a thousand dollars ; the lightest punish- 
 ment which he inflicted was death. During his retirement, he 
 had been endeavouring to bring about an alliance between Den- 
 mark, Saxony, and the empire, under the auspices, as it was 
 generally supposed, of the emperor himself, although he after- 
 wards thought proper to deny that he had corresponded with 
 the duke of Friedland on that or any other subject during his 
 banishment. The overtures of Ferdinand were received very 
 coldly by Wallenstein, who refused to listen to any proposals 
 until he was satisfied that the emperor was willing to reinstate 
 him on terms dictated by himself. The conditions, which se-
 
 BATTLE OF LUTZEN. 237 
 
 cured to him an irresponsible command, having been at last 
 conceded, the new dictator commenced recruiting, and in a few 
 months found himself at the head of a considerable army, with 
 which he easily drove the Saxons out of Bohemia. Gustavus 
 Adolphus had wished to return to Bavaria, and carry the war 
 into the heart of the Romanist states ; but intelligence having 
 reached him that Wallenstein had taken Leipzic, he at once 
 determined to march northwards, and on the 27th of October 
 arrived at Erfurt, where he took leave of his wife, with a me- 
 lancholy foreboding that they were to meet no more on this side 
 the grave. On the 1st of November he reached Naumberg, 
 whither the inhabitants of the surrounding country flocked in 
 crowds to gaze on the hero. Wherever he. appeared, shouts of 
 joy and affection welcomed him, thousands flinging themselves 
 on their knees and struggling with one another for the privilege 
 of kissing his feet or the sheath of his sword. This homage, 
 although only the outpouring of gratitude and admiration, 
 grievously disconcerted Gustavus. " Is it not," he said to his 
 attendants, « as though this people were making a god of me? 
 I pray that the vengeance of the Almighty may not fall on us 
 for this audacious mummery, and show these foolish crowds but 
 too soon that I am only a poor, weak, sinful mortal." " Thus," 
 says Schiller, " did he prove himself doubly worthy of their 
 tears, as the moment drew nigh which was to bid them flow." 
 Having discovered through an intercepted letter that Pappen- 
 heim had been detached to lay siege to Halle, and that the Im- 
 perial troops were dispersed in winter-quarters, Gustavus aban- 
 doned his intention of joining the elector, and advanced at once 
 to attack Wallenstein. Three guns from the castle of Weissen- 
 fels gave the signal to the Imperialists that the Swedish army 
 was in sight. Wallenstein instantly drew his regiments together, 
 and despatched messengers to command the immediate return 
 of Pappenheim. On the 6th of November, Gustavus drew up 
 his forces in nearly the same order which the year before had 
 insured him the victory at Leipzic. The whole army formed 
 two lines, having a canal on their right and in their rear, the 
 high road in front, and the village of Lutzen on their left. The 
 infantry, under Count von Brake, occupied the centre, the 
 cavalry the wings, and the artillery the front of the whole line. 
 Duke Bernard of Saxe Weimar commanded the left wing, and
 
 238 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the king himself with his Swedish cavalry took up his position 
 on the right. The order of battle of the second line was the 
 same as that of the first ; and behind it was stationed a corps 
 de reserve under the command of Henderson, a Scotchman. 
 On the evening before the battle, Wallenstein deepened the 
 trenches on each side of the high road which divided the two 
 armies, and placed a strong body of musketeers behind the 
 mounds formed by the earth thrown out of them. In the rear 
 of these was a battery of seven heavy guns ; and on an emi- 
 nence behind Liitzen, on which stood a windmill, were planted 
 fourteen lighter pieces, which commanded a great part of the 
 field. The infantry, in five unwieldy divisions, were stationed 
 about three hundred paces in the rear of the high road, their 
 flanks being covered by cavalry. To conceal his weakness, 
 Wallenstein ordered all the horse-boys and camp-servants to 
 mount and form on the left wing, where they were to remain 
 until the arrival of Pappenheim should supply their places with 
 more efficient warriors. All these dispositions were made in 
 the dead of night ; and the two armies awaited the dawn of 
 that bloody morning which should prove whether Gustavus was 
 indebted for his previous successes to his own genius, or to the 
 unskilfulness of his opponents. The day at length broke ; but 
 an impenetrable fog lay spread over the whole plain, and pre- 
 vented any movement of the two armies until near midday. In 
 front of the Swedish line, Gustavus Adolphus knelt down, and 
 offered up his prayer to the god of battles, while the whole 
 army raised Luther's battle-hymn, "A steadfast fortress is our 
 God," the field-music of the different regiments playing a solemn 
 accompaniment. The king then mounted his horse, with no 
 defence but a buff-coat, the pain of a recent wound rendering 
 the weight and pressure of his armour insupportable ; and rode 
 through the ranks, speaking cheerfully to the soldiers, and 
 striving to inspire them with hopes which his own melancholy 
 foreboding prevented him from feeling. « God with us," was 
 the battle-cry of the Swedes; "Jesu Maria," that of the Im- 
 perialists. The fog in some measure dispersing about eleven 
 o'clock, the two armies began to be visible to each other, and 
 at the same moment the village of Liitzen was discovered to be 
 in flames, having been set on fire by order of the duke of Fried- 
 land, lest he should be outflanked on that side. Half an hour
 
 BATTLE OF LUTZEN. 239 
 
 later Gustavus gave the signal of attack, and the Swedish 
 infantry rushed forward to carry the trenches, but a murderous 
 fire of artillery and small arms compelled them to retreat. The 
 voice of Gustavus soon rallied them, and they fought with great 
 fury, but without making any impression on the Imperialists, 
 until Colonel Winkel, with a regiment of cavalry, forced his 
 way across two of the trenches, followed by the Swedish body- 
 guard. The battery was soon carried and the guns turned 
 against the Imperialists, — then re-taken by Wallenstein, — and 
 again carried by the Swedes, whose right wing was everywhere 
 victorious, but their left, galled by the heavy fire from the 
 windmill battery, was beginning to give way, when Gustavus 
 rode forward for the purpose of rallying them. The swiftness 
 of his horse rendering it impossible for the heavy cavalry to 
 keep pace with their leader, he soon found himself almost alone 
 in the midst of the enemy. Here a subaltern of the Imperial 
 army, observing the respect with which the unknown officer 
 was treated by his few followers, naturally concluded that he 
 was a person of importance, and called out to a musketeer, 
 " Shoot that man, for I am sure he is an officer of high rank." 
 The soldier immediately fired, and the king's left arm fell pow- 
 erless by his side. At this moment a wild cry was raised, 
 " The king bleeds ; the king is wounded." " It is nothing," 
 shouted Gustavus; "follow me." But the pain soon brought 
 on faintness, and he desired the duke of Lauenburg, in French, 
 to lead him out of the throng. While the duke was endea- 
 vouring to withdraw him without being noticed by the troops, 
 a second shot struck Gustavus and deprived him of his little 
 remaining strength. " I have enough, brother," he said, in a 
 feeble voice to the duke ; " try to save your own life." At the 
 same moment he fell from his horse, and in a short time 
 breathed his last. His horse, bathed in blood, and galloping 
 wildly about the field, gave the first intimation to the Swedish 
 cavalry that their king had fallen : a furious struggle for the 
 recovery of his remains then took place between them and the 
 Croatians ; and the disfigured corpse of Gustavus was soon 
 buried beneath a heap of dead. Meanwhile, the sorrowful 
 tidings had reached the main body, and goaded the Swedes 
 almost to desperation. They fought with a fury which nothing 
 could resist ; and the enemy was already retreating, when Pap-
 
 240 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 penheim appeared, and the battle began afresh. Nothing could 
 exceed the fierceness of the second engagement. The Swedish 
 yellow regiment, the flower of their army, lay dead, each man 
 in his rank, without having yielded an inch of ground. Count 
 Piccoluomini, one of the Imperial generals, had seven horses 
 shot under him, and received six wounds ; but would not quit 
 his post until the battle was decided. Wallenstein rode through 
 the field like one bearing a charmed life ; right and left his 
 attendants fell, and his cloak was pierced through and through 
 with bullets ; yet he escaped unwounded, to fall at last by the 
 hand of an assassin. Pappenheim received two shots in his 
 breast and was carried out of the battle. Whilst they were 
 conveying him to the rear a rumour, reached him that his great 
 rival was slain. The countenance of the dying man brightened 
 at this intelligence. " Tell the duke of Friedland," he said, 
 " that I lie here without hope of life, but I die in peace, know- 
 ing that the enemy of my faith has also fallen." The mists of 
 evening put an end to the fight. So little were the Swedes 
 aware of the advantage which they had gained, that the ques- 
 tion of an immediate retreat was seriously discussed between 
 Bernard of Saxe Weimar and General Kniphausen ; and great 
 was their surprise when the light of morning made them aware 
 that Wallenstein had withdrawn his troops and left them mas- 
 ters of the field. Had Pappenheim's reinforcement arrived a 
 few hours earlier, the event would probably have been different ; 
 and even as it was, something might have been done to save 
 the materiel of the army from falling into the enemy's hands ; 
 but Pappenheim's fall and the disabled condition of most of his 
 men seem to have paralyzed the hitherto fearless spirit of Wal- 
 lenstein ; for leaving his artillery, his colours, and the greater 
 part of his small arms on the field, he commenced a disorderly 
 retreat towards Leipzic, and the next morning was followed by 
 the miserable remnants of his army. He made, it is true, a 
 feeble attempt to regain the ground, by sending out a body of 
 Croatians to hover round the scene of action ; but the sight of 
 the Swedish army, drawn up in good order between Liitzen and 
 Weissenfels, soon scared away these irregular skirmishers ; and 
 Bernard of Saxe Weimar, who succeeded Gustavus in command 
 of the Swedes, retained undisturbed possession of the field. 
 But the victory was dearly purchased. More than nine thou-
 
 BATTLE OF LUTZEN. 241 
 
 sand men lay dead on the field of battle : the whole plain, from 
 Liitzen to the canal, was strewed with the wounded and the 
 dying ; the bodies of knights and nobles were mingled with 
 those of the common soldiers ; and even an ecclesiastic, the 
 Abbot of Fulda, whose zeal for his faith had brought him to 
 the field as a spectator, paid the penalty of his rashness with 
 his life. But the most melancholy feature of the Swedish tri- 
 umph was the loss of him who had died to achieve it. For a 
 long time the body of Gustavus Adolphus lay concealed under 
 the heaps of nameless dead, who had fallen later in the day. 
 At length it was discovered near a large stone between Liitzen 
 and the canal, covered with the most ghastly wounds, trampled 
 on by the horses' hoofs, and stripped of its clothes and orna- 
 ments by the hands of those wretches who follow a camp for 
 the sake of plunder. Tears streamed down the cheeks of the 
 rough soldiers as they followed in melancholy procession the 
 remains of him who had so often led them to victory; and, 
 when the bereft widow embraced his corpse at Weissenfels, a 
 dismal murmur ran through the ranks, like the wailing of chil- 
 dren over the grave of a beloved father. The buff-coat of Gus- 
 tavus, covered with blood, had been torn from his body by the 
 plunderers, and found its way to Vienna, where it was exhibited 
 to the emperor, who bursting into tears at the sight, exclaimed, 
 " Gladly would I have allowed the unhappy man a longer life, 
 and a joyful return to his country, if his death had not been 
 necessary to the repose of Germany." Thus fell, in the thirty- 
 eighth year of his age, Gustavus Adolphus, the great protector 
 of Protestantism in Germany. Pappenheim died of his wounds 
 at Leipzic the day after the battle. He had first distinguished 
 himself at Prague, where, although severely wounded, and sup- 
 ported only by a few soldiers, he had put to flight a whole regi- 
 ment of the enemy. As a second in command, he was excel- 
 lent ; but his wild chivalrous courage rendered him unfit for the 
 chief direction of an army. Tilly always maintained that the 
 battle of Leipzic was lost through his rashness. Like that fe- 
 rocious leader, he had dyed his hands in blood at Magdeburg ; 
 but the habits of his early life were studious and refined, and 
 foreign travel had improved his natural capacity. Unfortu- 
 nately, however, the fierceness of his temper broke through all 
 restraints on the day of battle. Superstition maintained that 
 31 V
 
 242 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 this warlike character was stamped by nature on his brow ; and 
 it is certain that whenever violent passion caused the blood to 
 rush into his face, two red lines appeared on his forehead, giv- 
 ing a strangely savage expression to the whole countenance. A 
 messenger was on the way from Madrid to bring him the order 
 of the Golden Fleece, when death rendered all worldly dis- 
 tinctions valueless.
 
 DEATH OP WALLENSTEIN. 
 
 243 
 
 DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN. 
 
 HE death of Gustavus Adolphus would 
 have been fatal to the 
 Protestant cause, had not 
 the Swedish Chancellor 
 Oxenstierna and duke 
 Bernard of Saxe Weimar 
 v ^p^ exerted themselves to re- 
 pair the loss by assem- 
 ,^-ifP?"^ - bling the German princes 
 
 and representatives of cities at Heilbronn, where Oxenstierna 
 was named head of the alliance in the room of his deceased 
 master. The command of the army was divided between duke 
 Bernard and General Horn ; but the Swedes had lost much of 
 that discipline which had rendered their character so estimable 
 in Germany during the lifetime of Gustavus, and now committed 
 acts of plunder and violence with as little scruple as the Impe- 
 rialists. Some advantages were obtained by Bernard and his 
 colleague ; but the unfortunate city of Leipzic, having surren- 
 dered for the third time to the Imperialists, was sacked and 
 pillaged by Wallenstein's general, Hoik. The plague, which 
 was raging at Leipsic, soon afterwards attacked the conqueror : 
 and as he lay on his sick-bed, without hope of recovery, the 
 stings of conscience became so insupportable that he offered six
 
 244 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 hundred dollars to any one who would bring him a Lutheran 
 minister. But all had either been murdered by his own order, 
 or had concealed themselves so closely that the attempts of 
 his officers to discover them were utterly fruitless. 
 
 While the Swedes were overrunning Germany, Wallenstein 
 remained inactive with his army in Bohemia, until the desertion 
 of some mercenary troops suggested to him the expediency of 
 ascertaining exactly the temper of his men, by tendering his 
 resignation to the emperor. The experiment succeeded. Most 
 of the German troops remained faithful to their commander ; 
 and the principal officers, being invited to a banquet, signed a 
 paper, in which they pledged themselves to support the duke 
 of Friedland against any who should seek to disturb him in his 
 command. It was afterwards pretended that the signature of 
 these officers had been obtained by fraud, inasmuch as a paper 
 containing the words "saving our duty to the emperor," which 
 lay on the table at the beginning of the banquet, had been with- 
 drawn when the guests were too drunk to detect the manoeuvre, 
 and another substituted, which pledged them simply and un- 
 conditionally to the support of their general. But this story, 
 although univerally believed in the days of Schiller, has been 
 pronounced by modern historians to be an invention of Wallen- 
 stein's enemies, who hoped in some measure to justify their deed 
 of blood, by representing the murdered man as a dishonoured 
 traitor. 
 
 These proceedings of the duke of Friedland having been be- 
 trayed to the emperor by Ottavio Piccoluomini, an officer who 
 had insinuated himself into the general's confidence by false 
 professions of friendship, an order for superseding Wallenstein 
 in his command was forwarded from the Imperial court to Gen- 
 eral Gallas, who took care to communicate it to none but the 
 foreign mercenary officers. Wallenstein, aware of this treachery, 
 despatched messenger after messenger, with overtures of sub- 
 mission ; but the vigilance of his enemies prevented their ever 
 reaching Vienna : and the duke at length, hopeless of pardon, 
 and abandoned by many of his officers, threw himself into Eger, 
 (a strong fortress on the western frontier of Bohemia,) and now 
 for the first time entered, it is said, into negotiations with the 
 Swedes. But Bernard of Weimar, doubtful of his sincerity, 
 received these advances coldly. " One who did not believe in
 
 DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN. 245 
 
 God," he said, "ought not to be trusted by men." Perhaps 
 Wallenstein might eventually have succeeded in removing this 
 unfavourable impression : but his hours were now numbered. 
 On the 25th of February, 1633, Gordon, a Scotch soldier of 
 fortune who commanded the garrison, and two mercenary offi- 
 cers named Butler and Leslie, the one Irish, the other Scotch, 
 met at midnight in the citadel of Eger, and swore on the crosses 
 of their swords, that they would put to death the duke of Fried- 
 land, Illo, Terzky, Kinski, and an officer of inferior rank named 
 Neumann, all of whom were invited to an entertainment at the 
 citadel on the following evening. This dark plot was communi- 
 cated to three other Irishmen and two Italians ; and an arrange- 
 ment made that Geraldino, one of the Italians, and another offi- 
 cer named Deveroux, should conceal themselves with thirty men 
 in a room adjoining the banqueting hall, whence they were to 
 rush out at a given signal, and aid the other conspirators in 
 their bloody work. At six o'clock in the evening of the 26th, 
 all the doomed men, with the exception of Wallenstein, who ex- 
 cused himself on the plea of severe indisposition, entered the 
 citadel of Eger, where they were received with affected cor- 
 diality by Gordon and his fellow conspirators : but no sooner 
 had the last of them crossed the moat, than the drawbridge was 
 raised, and the keys of the fortress placed in the hands of Leslie. 
 Then followed one of those scenes with which the wild mercena- 
 ries of that day were but too familiar. Whilst the wine-cup 
 passed from hand to hand, and the unsuspecting guests were 
 drinking deeply to the health of their treacherous entertainers, 
 a side door was suddenly thrown open, and Geraldino, at the 
 head of six dragoons, armed with pikes and sabres, rushed 
 towards the table, shouting in Italian, "Viva la casa d'Austria !" 
 " Long live the house of Austria !" whilst from the opposite side 
 a loud cry was heard, "Who is on the emperor's side, who?" 
 and Deveroux with four-and-twenty soldiers marched into the 
 hall. Gordon and Leslie then extinguished the lights, and the 
 assassins falling on Kinski and Illo, despatched them before 
 they could snatch their sabres from the wall : but Terzky, who 
 had possessed himself of his sword during the first confusion, 
 fought so desperately that two of the assailants were stretched 
 dead at his feet, and many more wounded, before the assassins 
 could effect their purpose. Neumann had rushed out at the 
 
 v2
 
 246 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 first appearance of danger, but being unacquainted with the con- 
 spirators' pass-word, was soon detected and put to death by the 
 soldiers. The conspirators then proceeded to Wallenstein's 
 quarters at the burgomaster's house, where they were admitted 
 by the guard, in the belief that they were the bearers of some 
 important communication to their general. As 'they ascended 
 the staircase, one of the servants implored them not to disturb 
 his lord, who, worn out by long watching and the pain of an 
 imperfectly healed wound, had just fallen into an uneasy slum- 
 ber. "This is the time for disturbance," shouted Deverouxin a 
 voice of thunder ; and striking the servant down, he passed on 
 to the chamber of Wallenstein, and bursting open the door found 
 himself in presence of his victim, who had risen from bed at the 
 first alarm, and advanced to meet the intruders. " Art thou 
 not," exclaimed the assassin, "the villain who would carry over 
 our army to the Swedes, and pluck the crown from our emperor's 
 head?" Wallenstein stretched out his arms without uttering a 
 word, and Deveroux plunged a halberd into his breast. The 
 body of the murdered man was then wrapped in a piece of 
 tapestry, and conveyed to the citadel, whence it was afterwards 
 removed to the duke's burial-place at Gitschin. Bernard of 
 Weimar arrived soon afterwards and found Eger in possession of 
 the Imperialists. The assassins Butler and Leslie were raised 
 by the emperor to the rank of count, as having done good service 
 to his cause. The landed possessions of Wallenstein were di- 
 vided among his murderers ; and what little remained of his per- 
 sonal property (for his false friend Piccoluomini had appropriated 
 the greater part to himself immediately after the duke's death) 
 was distributed among the soldiers. As soon as the emperor 
 received intelligence that his powerful general had ceased to 
 live, he drew up and published a proclamation, in which an 
 attempt was made to justify the murder. The character of 
 Wallenstein was painted in the blackest colours : and acts which 
 were afterwards proved by authentic documents to have been 
 done with the consent and even at the suggestion of the empe- 
 ror himself, were brought forward as proofs of his guilt. The 
 whole of Wallenstein's army, with the exception of a few regi- 
 ments, which went over to the Swedes or Saxons, remained 
 faithful to the emperor, whose eldest son Ferdinand was ap- 
 pointed general-in-chief, and Gallas second in command.
 
 END OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 247 
 
 BERNARD OF SAXE WEIMAR. 
 
 DEATH OF FERDINAND II. AND BERNARD 
 OF SAXE WEIMAR— END OF THE THIRTY 
 YEARS' WAR. 
 
 AD Bernard of Saxe Weimar been able to 
 avail himself of the first moments of con- 
 fusion consequent on the death of Wallen- 
 stein, he might have found means to dis- 
 perse the Imperial troops, which were in 
 disorder for want of a leader. But the 
 Swedes, jealous of the confidence reposed by Bernard in his 
 German soldiers, refused to co-operate with him until it was too 
 late. The consequence of this indecision was the loss of Ratis- 
 bon, which fell into the hands of the Imperialists before it could 
 be relieved. This calamity was soon followed by a bloody de-
 
 248 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 feat at Nb'rdlingen, where the Protestants lost 16,000 men. In 
 Swabia, the citizens of Augsburg, after subsisting for some time 
 on the dead bodies of men and all sorts of garbage, were com- 
 pelled to purchase their lives at the expense of all their pro- 
 perty and to embrace the Romish religion. These disasters 
 had the effect which might have been anticipated on the waver- 
 ing counsels of the elector of Saxony, who, in the expectation 
 that the emperor's cause would soon be triumphant, hastened to 
 conclude a peace on the best terms that he could obtain. The 
 electors of Brandenburg and Luneburg followed his example ; 
 and a convention was signed at Prague, in which these princes 
 pledged themselves, as the price of their restoration to the em- 
 peror's favour, to surrender to his tender mercies all their Pro- 
 testant brethren in western and southern Germany. Mean- 
 while the emperor was not idle. Preparations were made on a 
 large scale for continuing the war ; and the dukedom of Fran- 
 conia promised to Bernard of Saxe Weimar, on condition of his 
 joining the Imperialists. Bernard saw that utter ruin to the 
 Protestant cause would be the certain consequence of his aban- 
 doning it ; but, on the other hand, the introduction of the 
 French into Germany, which seemed the only resource left to 
 the allies, was a measure full of danger to the liberties of his 
 country. After a severe struggle, religious zeal prevailed over 
 patriotism, and he refused the emperor's offer. In the year 
 1636, Bernard visited Paris, where he was honourably received 
 by Louis XIII., and promises made to him in abundance, which 
 were never fulfilled ; for the French, notwithstanding the inte- 
 rest which they affected to take in the affairs of the German 
 Protestants, were in reality only desirous that the two parties 
 should wear each other out in a long struggle, when it would 
 be easy for a French army to enter Germany and satisfy their 
 ambitious cravings. Bernard returned to his camp, and soon 
 afterwards, during the bombardment of Zabern, narrowly 
 escaped death from a ball, which shattered his bed to atoms. 
 A remarkable change had taken place in his character. For- 
 merly he had allowed his soldiers the most unlimited license ; 
 but, during his residence at Paris, the queen, Anne of Austria, 
 having implored him for her sake to have mercy on the weaker 
 sex, Bernard promised faithfully to obey her commands, and so 
 strictly kept his word, that the nuns of Remberville, surprised
 
 END OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 249 
 
 and delighted at a forbearance so uncommon in those days, 
 overwhelmed him with expressions of gratitude, and presented 
 him with a sword-belt of exquisite workmanship. While the 
 war was proceeding thus languidly, an episode was enacted 
 worthy the brightest days of chivalry. The Infant of Spain 
 and Piccoluomini having invaded France, Richelieu had sent a 
 force to repulse them. While the two enemies lay in their 
 encampments at Liege, General von Werth determined on his 
 own responsibility to lead the cavalry of Piccoluomini to the 
 very gates of Paris. Desperate as the attempt seemed, it was 
 fully successful. The French troops fled before him, cities 
 opened their gates, and the magistrates on bendpd knees pre- 
 sented their keys to the invader. Paris was panic-struck ; and 
 Werth might easily have made himself master of the place had 
 not his troopers wasted time in plundering the surrounding 
 country. This delay enabled Cardinal Richelieu to arm and 
 send against the enemy all the disposable troops ; but it was 
 not until the autumnal rains brought sickness into his camp that 
 the chivalrous invader abandoned his design, and rejoined the 
 Imperial army. In the year 1637, the aged emperor died. 
 Almost the last act of a life which had been one long display 
 of ferocious cruelty, was to order the drowning of some insur- 
 gents in Carinthia, and the infliction of horrible tortures on 
 the peasants of Upper Austria. Few sovereigns have left be- 
 hind them a more odious name. Under the cloak of religious 
 zeal, he sent fire and sword through his native land ; and that 
 not so much from an honest conviction that the tenets of the 
 Romish faith were true, as from an anxious desire to establish, 
 at whatever cost of human suffering, the detestable principle 
 " cujus regio, ejus religio," which both Romanist and Protestant 
 sovereigns had been too ready to assert from time to time since 
 the days of Luther. Heretics were therefore to be extermi- 
 nated, not because their doctrines were damnable, but because 
 those who presumed to differ from their sovereign were in his 
 eyes guilty of rebellion. More than ten millions of human be- 
 ings were sacrificed to this unjust and cruel policy. The Jesuits 
 had impressed upon him the devilish maxim, that a land had 
 better lie waste than harbour heretics and rebels ; and on this 
 principle he had acted through life, and reduced the fair plains 
 and fields of Germany to the condition of a howling wilderness,. 
 32
 
 250 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 through which dissolute soldiers and half-starved miserable pea- 
 sants, in whose breasts famine and suffering had extinguished 
 the feelings of humanity, wandered like fiends, ready to devour 
 alike friends and foes. The year in which the emperor died a 
 frightful famine was added to the other horrors of war. So 
 ghastly was this visitation, that men, to save their lives, disin- 
 terred and devoured the bodies of their fellow-creatures, and 
 even hunted down human beings that they might feed on their 
 flesh. The effect of this unnatural and loathsome diet was a 
 pestilence, Avhich swept away the soldiery as well as the people 
 by thousands. In Pomerania, hundreds destroyed themselves, 
 as unable to endure the pangs of hunger. On the island of 
 Rligen many poor creatures were found dead with their mouths 
 full of grass, and in some districts attempts were made to knead 
 earth into bread. Throughout Germany, the license of war and 
 the misery consequent on famine and pestilence had so utterly 
 destroyed the morality which was once the pride and boast of 
 this land, that the people, a few years before the most simple 
 and kind-hearted in Europe, now vied with the foreign merce- 
 naries who infested their country in setting at naught the laws 
 of God as w^ll as of man. » Germany," says Betkius, in his 
 " Excidium Germanise," "lieth in the dust. Shame is her 
 portion, and poverty and sickness of heart. The curse of God 
 is on her, because of her cruelties, and blasphemies, and blood- 
 shed. Ten thousand times ten thousand souls, the spirits of 
 innocent children butchered in this unholy war, cry day and 
 night unto God for vengeance, and cease not : while those who 
 have caused all these miseries live in peace and freedom ; and 
 the shouts of revelry and the voice of music are heard in their 
 dwellings." Ferdinand was succeeded on the imperial throne 
 by his son Ferdinand III. Towards the end of this year, 
 (1637,) Bernard of Saxe Weimar a second time visited Paris, 
 and, being supported by the confidential agent of Oxenstierna, 
 (the renowned Hugo Grotius, then an exile from Holland,) 
 succeeded in obtaining from the French government a sum of 
 money sufficient to pacify his starving soldiery, who were com- 
 mitting horrible ravages in Champagne. In the following 
 year, the Protestants made themselves masters of the strong 
 fortress of Breisach, during the siege of which Bernard, al- 
 though lying sick of a fever, sprang from his bed, and, mount-
 
 END OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 251 
 
 ing his charger, put to flight a body of the enemy who were 
 coming to the relief of the place. Bernard's last hour was 
 now approaching ; and he seems to have had a melancholy fore- 
 boding of his death. " I am weary of my life," said he, after 
 his soldiers, contrary to his express commands, had plundered 
 a town which had fallen into his hands, " for I can no longer 
 continue with a safe conscience amidst such lawless proceedings." 
 And, when the people thronged to pay homage to him on the 
 road, he exclaimed, « I fear it will be with me as it was with 
 the king of Sweden — as soon as the people honoured him more 
 than God, he died." A few days later he was seized with an 
 incurable illness, which he himself believed to be the effect of 
 poison. They brought him by easy stages to Neuburg, where 
 he died on the 8th July, 1639. » Germany," writes Grotius, 
 " lost in him her ornament and her last hope ; in a word, al- 
 most the only man who was worthy the name of a German 
 prince." Rumour almost universally attributed his death to 
 the French ; although there were not wanting some who accused 
 the emperor of having poisoned him, and a few who believed 
 that he died of fever. Thus was the Protestant cause a second 
 time deprived of its head. Like his great master Gustavus 
 Adolphus, Bernard died in the flower of his age, and was fol- 
 lowed like him to the grave by the lamentations of those whom 
 he had so often led to victory. In person, he was well formed, 
 with long hair flowing over his shoulders in a manner which 
 would have given him an appearance of effeminacy, but for the 
 expression of his marked and sun-burnt features. Religion and 
 war were the occupations of his life. Every day he devoted 
 several hours to the study of the Bible, which he knew almost 
 by heart. Only two regiments of his army wore uniforms ; the 
 rest were dressed in such clothes as they could obtain, and pre- 
 sented a wild and motley appearance. On their standard they 
 bore the inscription "Perque enses perque ignes," (through 
 sword and fire ;) or, " Fortiter agere et pati Bernardinum est," 
 (to do and to suffer bravely is the part of Bernard's followers.) 
 They carried their swords always naked, having no sheath for 
 them, as we are told, but the bodies of their enemies. After 
 Bernard's death, the war was carried on for nine years longer, 
 during which Generals Banner, Torstenson, and Wrangel suc- 
 ceeded one another in command of the Protestant army ; and the
 
 252 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Imperial general Gallas was replaced by a renegade Calvinist 
 named Melander von Holzapfel. The last event of this long 
 and disastrous war was the taking of Prague by the Swedish 
 general Konigsmark. On the 24th of October, 1648, articles 
 of peace were signed at Munster and Osnabrlick in Westphalia. 
 The emperor agreed to pay the Swedes five millions of dollars 
 as an indemnification for the expenses of the war, and to deliver 
 up to them the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, the island 
 of Riigen, and the greater part of Pomerania. The French 
 were to continue in possession of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and the 
 whole of Alsace, except Strasburg, instead of which they were to 
 occupy Breisach, and the fortress of Philipsburg, the keys of Up- 
 per Germany. Peace was at the same time concluded between 
 Spain and Holland, and the independence of the United Provinces 
 fully recognised. Romanists and Protestants were now placed 
 in all respects on an equal footing. All ecclesiastical property 
 which had been appropriated by Protestants was to remain in 
 their hands. The emperor conceded this point, partly because 
 it would have been hopeless to oppose it, and partly because he 
 began himself to be aware of the advantages to be gained by 
 robbing the church of her possessions. The Lutherans and 
 Calvinists had now the good sense to lay aside their disputes, 
 and to obtain the abrogation of that foolish and wicked law 
 which would compel every subject to follow the religion of his 
 sovereign. Thus terminated the Thirty Years' War, during 
 which the best and bravest of the land had fallen victims to the 
 ambition of their own princes, or died in fighting against the 
 oppressors of their country. Like one who has been snatched 
 from the deadly fangs of a serpent, Germany lay rescued in- 
 deed, but torn and exhausted ; while the blood which should 
 have circulated cheerily through her veins, communicating nou- 
 rishment and health, had either been drained in the conflict, or 
 crept through her system, mingled with a poison which was 
 corrupting her juices, and threatening eventually to deprive 
 her of existence.
 
 ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIII. OF FRANCE. 
 
 253 
 
 LOUIS XIII. 
 
 ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIII. OF FRANCE. 
 
 HE young king of France, Louis 
 XIIL, son of Henry IV., who 
 succeeded to the throne on the 
 horrid event of his father's assas- 
 sination, was not yet nine years 
 old. The parliament, as we have 
 already said, immediately con- 
 ferred the regency on his mother, 
 Mary of Medicis, a woman not 
 less bigoted in her devotion to 
 Rome than the former queen-mother of that family. The cha- 
 racter of Mary, however, is wholly unstained with the imputa- 
 tion of any such bloody crimes as those for which Catherine is 
 universally execrated. She was entirely under the influence 
 of two Florentine adventurers, a man of the name of Concini, 
 whom she made Marechal d'Ancre, and his wife Leonora de 
 Galigai. The rapid and extraordinary elevation of these fa- 
 vourites excited almost universal discontent. It is said of Con- 
 cini, that to repress the murmurs of the people, by showing 
 
 W
 
 254 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 them what fate they might expect if they dared to censure 
 him, he had several gibbets erected in different parts of Paris. 
 Such means as this of stifling the expression of public feeling 
 are seldom for the safety of those who adopt them. 
 
 On the 3d of October, 1611, died the due de Mayenne. His 
 death at this time was accounted a great loss to France. He 
 was a man of integrity, and from the time of his reconciliation 
 to Henry IV. had never embarked in any intrigues of state ; 
 and it has been thought, that, if he had lived, he might have 
 been able to check the civil dissensions which ensued. These 
 dissensions were greatly owing to the ambitious desire of some 
 of the princes of the blood, and others of the great nobility, 
 to take advantage of the distractions of a new reign, and of a 
 feeble minority, to establish their own power and independence. 
 The due de Mayenne, on his death-bed, charged his son to re- 
 main firm in his principles of religion and loyalty, and only on 
 that condition gave him his blessing. 
 
 One of the first objects of Mary of Medicis, and her favour- 
 ites, was to unite themselves as closely as possible with the 
 court of Spain. In the year 1612 were announced two intended 
 marriages, the one between the young king Louis XIII. and 
 the infanta, Anne of Austria, daughter of the king of Spain ; 
 and the other, between the princess Elizabeth, the king's sister, 
 and the prince of Spain, afterwards Philip IV. These mar- 
 riages took place by proxy, the one at Burgos in Spain, and 
 the other at Bordeaux, on the same day, Oct. 18, 1615, and 
 the two princesses were exchanged in the isle of Pheasants, in 
 the river Bidassoa, in the November following. The infanta 
 was then conducted to Bordeaux, and the king meeting her on 
 the way, they made together a solemn entry into that city. 
 
 In the mean time, the prince of Conde* (Henry II.) and 
 other princes and nobles joined with the Protestants in oppo- 
 sition to the queen. A war broke out, and the Swiss Protes- 
 tants in the king's pay quitted the service, and returned home, 
 because they would not act against their brethren of the same 
 religion. These troubles were for a time composed in 1617, by 
 the entire downfall of the queen and her party. A courtier 
 of the name of De Luynes excited in the mind of the king, who 
 was now about sixteen years of age, a jealousy of his mother 
 and of her favourites, and proposed to him, that Vitry, a cap-
 
 mm' irwfc.nijiiiif 
 
 ASSASSINATION OF MARECHAL D'ANORE.
 
 ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIII. OF FRANCE. 257 
 
 tain of the guards, should have the royal authority to arrest 
 Marshal d'Ancre. The king agreed, and Vitry, at the head 
 of a body of ruffians, who, it may be suspected, were marked 
 out for this employment, because something more than a mere 
 arrest was intended, took an opportunity of arresting his vic- 
 tim on the bridge of the Louvre, and, on the mare'dial's putting 
 his hand to his sword, had him instantly killed by his followers. 
 The king, on being informed of this transaction by Vitry him- 
 self, exclaimed, " Grand merci a vous ! si cette heure je suis 
 roi ;" and made him immediately mare'chal of France. The 
 body of Concini, which had been carried off, and buried imme- 
 diately after his death, was that very evening taken out of its 
 grave by a mob of footmen and "pages." It was then dragged 
 through the streets, and afterwards cut in pieces, some of 
 which were hung on the gibbets which he had himself erected 
 in order to frighten his enemies. His wife Leonora was be- 
 headed by order of the parliament. She was interrogated dur- 
 ing her trial, what sorcery she had used to acquire her great 
 ascendency over the mind of the queen. "I have used none," 
 she answered, » except that ascendency which strong minds 
 have over the weak." The queen-mother herself was exiled to 
 Blois, from whence she made her escape to Angouleme. Soon 
 after she had an interview with Louis at Tours, and came to a 
 sort of accommodation with him. The reconciliation, however, 
 did not last long, and she was at one time at actual war with 
 her son. To conclude at once all we need say of her history, 
 we may here add, that she was again reconciled to him ; but 
 that a final breach ensued in 1630. She fled to Bruxelles in 
 1631, and, after many sufferings from neglect and vexation, 
 died at Cologne, July 3, 1642. 
 
 w2
 
 258 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 EICHELIEC. 
 
 EISE OF CARDINAL RICHELIEU. 
 
 N the king's approach to maturity, strong 
 hopes were for a time entertained that he 
 would show some portion of his father's 
 energy of character. But though personally 
 brave, and, like many weak men, often ready 
 to authorize very decisive and violent mea- 
 sures, he possessed no power of self-govern- 
 ment and control, and was always, through 
 his whole life, a mere puppet played on by the hands of others. 
 M. de Luynes first assumed over the young monarch the do- 
 minion which the Concinis had exercised over the queen. De 
 Luynes was a man of a proud and grasping temper, but wholly 
 unequal to restrain the ambition of the princes of the blood, 
 and other nobles, who indulged themselves with impunity in 
 all sorts of disorders, and even sometimes committed hostilities 
 against the crown. De Luynes died Dec. 15, 1621. It has 
 been observed of the court of France at this period, that not 
 any one person of eminence was to be found in it, who could 
 properly be entitled a man of honour or worth. Pride and 
 baseness, qualities very often united, appeared to be almost the
 
 RISE OF CARDINAL RICHELIEU. 259 
 
 universal characteristic, and the only ability which was either 
 possessed or valued was the ability to corrupt and betray. 
 
 At the death of De Luynes, the celebrated Armand du Plessis 
 Richelieu, bishop of Luc,on, and soon afterwards created cardi- 
 nal, was rising rapidly into distinction. He was a man of great 
 abilities, and of consummate intrigue and artifice. He had been 
 first brought forward by the unfortunate Concini, and afterwards 
 attached himself to the new favourite De Luynes. He was for 
 some time about the person of the queen-mother, over whom he 
 had great influence. He is said to have perfidiously abandoned 
 her interests, as soon as he saw that he could advance his own 
 by forsaking her. At all events, he acquired a greater degree 
 of power than any minister had before possessed in France, and 
 from the date of his admission into the royal council in 1624, 
 to his death, is to be accounted the sole efficient ruler of 
 France. He reminds us in some respects of Cardinal Wolsey, 
 but was incomparably more crafty and artful. He accumulated 
 in his own hands a great number of church benefices, but gave 
 his whole attention to affairs of state. He was fond, to an ex- 
 treme, of display and magnificence, and even assumed the dress 
 and arms of a soldier, and the personal direction of military 
 affairs. The cardinal de la Valette, archbishop of Toulouse, 
 followed in this respect the example of Richelieu. He com- 
 manded some troops in Italy, and died with arms in his hands. 
 
 Cardinal Richelieu is generally spoken of with applause and 
 respect by French historians, as having laid the foundations of 
 the greatness of the monarchy, and of the glory which it ac- 
 quired in the succeeding reign. He finally extinguished the 
 excessive power of the aristocracy, who have never since his 
 time been able to contend with the crown. He almost wholly 
 suppressed also those religious wars by which the kingdom had 
 been so long fatally distracted. But this he did by depriving 
 the Huguenots of their just rights as subjects, rights which had 
 been guarantied to them by the most solemn treaties. He also 
 depressed that pre-eminence of the house of Austria, which the 
 gallant virtues of Francis I. and Henry IV. had in vain at- 
 tempted to overrule.
 
 260 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 DEATH OF RICHELIEU AND LOUIS XIII., AND 
 ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 N the year 1642, the chief efforts of the 
 French in the Spanish War were carried 
 into Rousillon, in order to aid a revolt 
 which the inhabitants of Catalonia had 
 made against Spain. Louis himself con- 
 ducted his army into that quarter, and 
 undertook the siege of Perpignan. Riche- 
 lieu, who was to have accompanied him, was compelled by ill- 
 ness to stop at Narbonne. Louis returned to Paris, where he 
 was again joined by the cardinal, who, after lingering some 
 time, died Dec. 4, 1642, leaving many of his vast designs in- 
 complete, and a name more brilliant than beloved or honoured. 
 Perpignan had in the mean time fallen before the French 
 arms, and the war was prosecuted with vigour and success. 
 But it was the fate of Louis soon to rejoin his ambitious minis- 
 ter in that solitary mansion where neither greatness nor glory, 
 unless purchased by truly virtuous exertions, is permitted to 
 follow the short career of human life. A slow fever hung on 
 him, and he felt his strength decay. 
 
 The dauphin was at this time not five years old, and the 
 king, in the hope to secure a tranquil minority, endeavoured to 
 provide for the distribution of his power in a manner which 
 should attain this end effectually. He appointed the queen, 
 Anne of Austria, sole regent. The duke of Orleans was de- 
 clared head of the council and lieutenant-general throughout 
 the kingdom ; and it was also provided that all affairs should 
 be decided by a majority of voices in council. Both the queen 
 and the duke of Orleans solemnly swore to adhere inviolably 
 to this arrangement ; and Louis, to secure still more certainly 
 its fulfilment, commanded the deed enacting it to be registered 
 in parliament.
 
 LOUIS XIV.
 
 DEATH OF LOUIS XIII. 263 
 
 This being done, he prepared for death with composure. 
 Before he died, he earnestly desired his physician to tell him 
 exactly how long he had to live ; and when he was told that he 
 could not live more than two or three hours, he testified the 
 greatest satisfaction, and added, " Well, my God ! I consent 
 with all my heart." He died May 14, 1643, in the forty-second 
 year of his age, and on the day on which he completed the 
 thirty-third of his reign. 
 
 No sooner was the king dead than his will was openly vio- 
 lated. Anne of Austria, having previously gained over to her 
 interests the duke of Orleans and the prince of Conde', assem- 
 bled the parliament on the 18th of May, and procured a formal 
 arret which gave her the choice of the council, and invested 
 her with all real authority. She was herself governed in all 
 things by Cardinal Mazarin, a native of the little town of Pis- 
 cina in the Abruzzo in Italy, whose political address had intro- 
 duced him to Richelieu, and who now became the leading minis- 
 ter in France. 
 
 The army in Flanders, at the time of the young king's acces- 
 sion, was under the command of Louis of Bourbon due d'En- 
 ghien, son of the prince of Conde', and himself afterwards known 
 in history by the name of « the great CondeV' On receiving 
 the news of the late king's death, this young prince, who was 
 only twenty-two years of age, received orders not to risk a bat- 
 tle. A battle, however, being necessary for the relief of Ro- 
 croi, which the Spaniards were besieging with a larger army 
 than his own, he ventured to disobey these orders, and on the 
 19th of May fought the battle of Rocroi, in which he gained a 
 decisive victory. In this battle he charged with horse the Spa- 
 nish infantry, which had been till now deemed invincible, and, 
 after charging three times, broke their ranks. The count of 
 Fuentes, their commander, perished on the field. After this 
 great victory, he besieged and took Thionville, and afterwards 
 carried the war into Germany. In August, 1644, he fought 
 another battle at Friburg, and took Philipsburg and Mentz, and 
 several forts on the Rhine. At the end of the campaign, he 
 returned to Paris, leaving the command of his army to Mare'- 
 chal Turenne. Turenne was surprised by the enemy and de- 
 feated, May, 1645, at Mariendahl. The due d'Enghien in- 
 stantly returned to the army, and gained another great victory
 
 264 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 on the 3d of August, at Nordlingen. One of the enemy's gene- 
 rals, General Merci, was among the slain. His body was in- 
 terred near the field of battle ; and on his tomb was engraved 
 the short but expressive inscription : " Sta, viator, heroem cal- 
 cas." — Stop, traveller, you tread upon a hero. 
 
 Meanwhile, in Flanders, the duke of Orleans reduced Grave- 
 lines, Mardyke, and some other towns. On October 10, 1646, 
 the due d'Enghien made the conquest of the important fortress 
 of Dunkirk, which surrendered to him in sight of the Spanish 
 army. The due d'Enghien's father died December 26, and 
 from this time we are to call him prince of Cond'e\ In 1647, 
 Mazarin, envious of his glory, detached him into Catalonia 
 with too slender a force to allow of his effecting there any 
 thing considerable. But, in the following year, the archduke 
 Leopold having entered Flanders, and recovered several of the 
 places which had been reduced in the preceding campaigns, it 
 was deemed expedient to send Conde" to oppose him. The 
 prince took Ypres, and marched to the relief of Lens, which, 
 to his great mortification, surrendered in his sight. This 
 mortification, however, was soon effaced in the decisive battle 
 of Lens which followed, in which the enemy's forces were to- 
 tally destroyed or dispersed. Since the foundation of the mo- 
 narchy, the French had never gained so many successive victo- 
 ries, nor displayed so much conduct or courage.
 
 THE WAR OF THE FRONDE. 
 
 265 
 
 THE WAR OF THE FRONDE. 
 
 HE war with the emperor was 
 terminated this year by a peace 
 signed at Munster on the 24th 
 of October, in which several 
 important cessions were made to 
 France. Peace was also restored 
 between Spain and the Dutch 
 ^^ provinces, in which the independ- 
 ence of these provinces was at last acknowledged, after a con- 
 test which had lasted fourscore years. Spain was thus at liberty 
 to direct her whole force against France ; and in France itself, 
 also, civil dissensions arose, which facilitated the progress of the 
 Spanish arms. 
 
 The unpopularity of Mazarin was the chief occasion of these 
 dissensions. The distress of the finances, which had been much 
 increased by the long war, drove that minister to attempt to 
 procure money by many unjust and impolitic methods. The 
 parliament of Paris refused to register the edicts which were 
 issued for the purpose of raising supplies. In consequence 
 of this refusal, one of its members was arrested. On this the 
 populace flew to arms, shut up the shops, and barricaded the 
 streets. Several aifrays, attended with much bloodshed, took 
 place. The chancellor was attacked as he was going to the 
 parliament for the purpose of annulling its arrets. He was 
 obliged to take flight, and several of his attendants were killed. 
 His daughter-in-law, the duchess of Sully, who was in the car- 
 riage with him, received a wound in her arm. Sanson, the 
 son of the celebrated geographer, who was also in the car- 
 riage, was mortally wounded. This was the commencement 
 of the disturbances commonly called the Fronde : — from the 
 34 X
 
 266 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 French verb fronder, to censure, or browbeat ; and hence the 
 word frondeur, which has often been used to denote a person 
 of a party opposed to the government. 
 
 These disturbances were aggravated by the famous Cardinal 
 de Retz, a man of very bustling and perturbing abilities, and 
 of very profligate morals and politics, who having been, much 
 against his will, placed by his family in the church, was now 
 eoadjuteur to the archbishop of Paris. He appears at first to 
 have tried to conciliate the two parties, for the purpose, appa- 
 rently, of improving his interest with the court ; but this at- 
 tempt failing, he set himself at the head of the Fronde, chiefly, 
 it is supposed, through his sheer love of intrigue, and the 
 vanity of making himself head of a party, and of exercising 
 his skill in artifice and cabal. Nor must we forget to mention 
 the duchess de Longueville, a lady of a very masculine spirit, 
 who was one of the chief promoters of these dissensions. The 
 " day of the barricades" was the 26th August, 1648. On the 
 following day the barricades were removed, the shops re-opened, 
 and affairs to all appearance resumed a peaceable aspect. 
 
 The queen, however, thinking Paris no place of safety, fled 
 to St. Germaine en Laye, accompanied by her children, by Car- 
 dinal Mazarin, the duke of Orleans, and the prince of Conde\ 
 Here she was obliged to pledge the jewels of the crown to ob- 
 tain money. The king himself was often in want of necessa- 
 ries. Most of the court were obliged to sleep upon straw, and 
 the pages of the bed-chamber were dismissed, from absolute 
 inability to supply them with food. Henrietta Maria also, the 
 king's aunt, daughter of Henry IV. and wife of Charles I. of 
 England, who had fled for refuge to her native country, was 
 reduced on this occasion to the extremest wretchedness ; and 
 her daughter, afterwards duchess of Orleans, is said to have 
 been compelled to lie in bed for want of means to procure a fire. 
 The court, in conformity with that cheerful or perhaps flippant 
 humour which has always enabled the French to turn misfor- 
 tune into a subject for pleasantry, consoled itself under these 
 vexations by making a jest of the Parisians, whose inexpert- 
 ness in the military art furnished a perpetual theme of ridicule. 
 Songs and epigrams were for a time a great part of the contest. 
 At last the king's army, under the command of the prince of 
 Conde, invested Paris, and several conflicts took place. Many
 
 ANNE OP AUSTRIA SHOWING THE KING TO THE FEONDEURB.
 
 THE WAR OF THE FRONDE. 269 
 
 of the great nobles had joined the Fronde and the parliament; 
 but scarcely any one of them appeared to be influenced by any 
 better motive than the desire of personal aggrandizement. 
 They joined the Fronde that they might be bought over by the 
 government, either by money or places, or by the hand of some 
 rich heiress ; and when they had got what they wanted, were 
 always ready to change again. The great Conde - was quite as 
 unprincipled as the rest. 
 
 A sort of peace was made in the spring of 1649, and in Au- 
 gust the court returned to Paris. The intriguing De Retz for a 
 time reconciled himself to the court, that he might so purchase 
 his elevation to the rank of cardinal, which was soon afterwards 
 conferred on him. The prince of Conde' became discontented, 
 and incurred the displeasure of Mazarin, and was imprisoned 
 first at Vincennes, and afterwards at Havre. In February, 
 1651, the prince was released, and Mazarin sent into exile. 
 Upon this, a report was raised that the queen was about to 
 follow him with her son, and a new outbreak was the conse- 
 quence. In order to appease the malcontents, it became neces- 
 sary for Anne of Austria to admit some of the citizens into her 
 chamber, to satisfy them that the king was still there. Several 
 of the populace were accordingly admitted, when, drawing the 
 bed-curtains, she proved that the alarm created was unfounded, 
 by showing them the young king fast asleep. 
 
 Conde' returned to Paris ; but in the latter part of the same 
 year retired into Guienne, of which province he was governor, 
 and there set up the standard of revolt. Mazarin soon after- 
 wards returned to court and to power. The court was at this 
 time removed to Poitiers, whence it was obliged afterwards to 
 retreat before Conde', who had been joined by a great number 
 of nobles, and who was reinforced also by a body of troops from 
 Spain. 
 
 Mare'chal Turenne, who, after having attached himself to the 
 Fronde, was now come over to the court party, possessed the 
 command of the royal army. Conde', after gaining a victory 
 at Blenau, advanced to Paris in the month of April, 1652. 
 Turenne pursued him, and a severe action was fought in the 
 suburb of St. Antoine, but with little advantage on either side. 
 Many tumults and assassinations took place in the city, where 
 the great obstacle to the restoration of the royal autho- 
 
 z2
 
 270 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 rity appears to have been the extreme dislike entertained for 
 Mazarin. This dislike the king, who had now attained his ma- 
 jority, found it altogether beyond his power to overrule, and 
 this obnoxious minister was again sent into exile on the 12th 
 of August, 1652. Immediately after his departure, a deputa- 
 tion from the citizens went to the king, and entreated him to 
 return to his capital. This accordingly he did, and tranquillity 
 was restored. The duke of Orleans, who in this last contest 
 had taken part with the prince of Conde - , was banished to Blois, 
 where he passed the rest of his life. Cardinal de Retz was 
 arrested in the Louvre, and conveyed from prison to prison ; 
 while the prince of Conde himself, pressed by Turenne, and 
 feebly supported by the Spaniards, was reduced to wage on the 
 frontiers of Champagne a petty and unsuccessful war. 
 
 Such was the termination of this war of the Fronde. From 
 this time Louis exercised an undisputed prerogative. The 
 country was no longer distracted by faction. The arrogance 
 of the nobles was again reduced within those limits which the 
 policy of Richelieu had dictated. Arts and architecture, and 
 all the splendour of this long reign, date their origin from this 
 epoch of restored domestic tranquillity.
 
 CHARLES I.
 
 ACCESSION OF CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND. 273 
 
 ACCESSION OF CHARLES I. AND DEATH OF 
 THE DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. 
 
 HARLES was in the twenty-fifth year of his 
 age when he ascended the throne. His fea- 
 tures were regular, and he would have been 
 handsome, if it had not been for the melan- 
 choly cast of his countenance. His deport- 
 ment was exceedingly dignified. In the mo- 
 rality and regularity of his conduct he set a 
 good example to his court and people : he was moderate in all 
 his habits and his expenses, humane and gentle in his disposition, 
 was a man of kind affections, and a most tender husband and 
 father. 
 
 Charles's mind was cultivated, but he seldom acted as wisely as 
 he could talk, and was often swayed by the counsels of men of 
 far inferior capacity. His temper was somewhat hasty, but he 
 was generous and forgiving. With all Charles's good qualities, 
 he had unfortunately imbibed some prejudices of education that 
 proved fatal to him as a king. He had too high an idea of his 
 royal prerogative, and, with every desire to do right, had not 
 the smallest notion of the true principles of government or 
 policy. 
 
 From the very commencement of the new reign, much popular 
 dissatisfaction prevailed, chiefly because the king surrendered 
 himself entirely to the control of Buckingham, who, implacable 
 in his hatreds, fickle in his friendships, imperious and grasping 
 in his desires, was regarded with universal dislike. 
 
 The king's marriage with Henrietta Maria, sister to the king 
 of France, was also very displeasing to the people, principally 
 because she was a Papist, and their religious feelings were 
 shocked at her being allowed to exercise publicly her own form 
 of worship. She also offended the more serious part of the na- 
 tion, by the change her elegance and gayety Avrought in the 
 35
 
 274 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 manners of the court ; and the Puritans found less to dislike in 
 the homely vulgarity of the late Queen Anne of Denmark than 
 in the grace and beauty of Henrietta. 
 
 It was a great error in James, and one into which Charles 
 also fell, to be occupied with abstract speculations, that is, with 
 thoughts of matters which did not concern his own business and 
 duties, and not to see what passed under his eyes. Thus, while 
 James was writing books on kingly government, he never per- 
 ceived that the House of Commons was no longer that subser- 
 vient body it had been in all former reigns, but that it had at 
 last found out its own strength, and that, from being the slave of 
 kings, it was now able to be their ruler. 
 
 Charles also had been equally blind to this change, and was 
 not aware of the difficulties which he was bringing on himself 
 by his rash treatment of this great organ of the popular voice. 
 The first year of his reign was spent by him in making attempts 
 to extend his authority, and by the Commons in trying to curb 
 it. Provoked by this opposition, Charles hastily dissolved the 
 parliament ; and thus the king and the Commons parted in mu- 
 tual disgust and animosity, and, when the new parliament as- 
 sembled, they met with feelings of suspicion and dislike. 
 
 Charles, by the persuasion of Buckingham, plunged into a 
 war with France, (a. d. 1627,) and sent some troops to the re- 
 lief of the French Huguenots at Rochelle. Buckingham had 
 the command of this expedition, which was ill-planned and un- 
 skilfully executed ; and in • an attempt to land on the Isle of 
 Rh6, he was repulsed with great loss. Another expedition for 
 the relief of Rochelle was fitted out in 1628, and Buckingham 
 went to Portsmouth to survey the preparations. 
 
 At the same time with the duke a man by the name of Felton 
 arrived at Portsmouth, a Puritan of a melancholy and enthusi- 
 astic turn of mind, who, hearing the universal complaints that 
 were made against the favourite, persuaded himself that he 
 should do his country a service by destroying him. His chief 
 motive, however, was probably that of private resentment, at 
 having been disappointed in his own hopes of promotion in the 
 army. 
 
 Felton for some days followed the duke like his shadow, but 
 without having an opportunity to eifect his purpose. At last, 
 as Buckingham was passing through a door-way, and turning to
 
 ACCESSION OF CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND. 
 
 275 
 
 speak to Sir Thomas Fryer, who was following him, an arm was 
 suddenly stretched over Sir Thomas's shoulder, which struck a 
 knife into the duke's breast. All this passed in an instant. No 
 one saw the blow, nor the person who gave it ; but the by- 
 standers heard Buckingham exclaim, "The villain has killed 
 me •!" and saw him pull the knife from the wound, and fall dead 
 at their feet. 
 
 The confusion and alarm at this moment were very great, and 
 every one rushed forwards in search of the murderer. He was 
 rescued with some difficulty from the violence of the bystanders, 
 who would have put him to death with their swords. Felton 
 was afterwards tried and executed. 
 
 COSTUME OP REIGN OP CHARLES I.
 
 276 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CHARLES'S WAR WITH SCOTLAND— FALL 
 OF STRAFFORD. 
 
 FTER the death of Buckingham, Charles placed his 
 chief confidence in Sir Thomas Wentworth, after- 
 wards Lord Strafford, and in Laud, archbishop of 
 Canterbury. The first was a man of great talents 
 and of a strong and unbending mind, but, unfortu- 
 nately for himself and his master, his political opin- 
 ions would have better suited the despotic times of the 
 Plantagenets than the reign in which he was placed. 
 
 The supplies which the parliament had granted since Charles's 
 accession had been both scanty and grudgingly given ; and the 
 late king, by his unthrifty management, had left the treasury 
 in such an exhausted state, that his son, though frugal and regu- 
 lar, soon found himself greatly embarrassed, and wanted money 
 to defray the necessary expenses of the government. 
 
 Charles had been provoked, by the unbending sturdiness of 
 the Commons, to dissolve the parliament a second time ; and he 
 now declared a determination to govern without one : but he was 
 no gainer by this imprudent step, for his necessities soon drove 
 him to procure money by many arbitrary and unjustifiable 
 means. 
 
 The exactions of the Star Chamber were enforced with great 
 severity. A duty called tonnage and poundage, which had been 
 heretofore given to the reigning monarch as an especial grant 
 from the parliament, Charles took upon himself to levy on his 
 own authority. He also imposed a tax called ship-money, for 
 the express purpose of maintaining the navy. But though the 
 money was employed for the purpose for which it was demanded, 
 and the navy put into a more serviceable condition than it had 
 long been in, still, as it was considered an illegal tax, the people 
 were highly irritated at its being levied. 
 
 Things were in this state in England, when Charles, with an
 
 CHARLES'S WAR WITH SCOTLAND. 277 
 
 indiscreet zeal, tried to introduce episcopacy with the liturgy 
 of the church of England into Scotland ; but the Scots, instead 
 of submitting to change their own Presbyterian form of worship, 
 drew up a protestation, binding themselves to resist all religious 
 innovation. This protestation they called the Covenant, and 
 every person, from one end of Scotland to the other, was re- 
 quired to sign it. 
 
 A number of these covenanters next formed themselves into 
 an army, and placed themselves under the command of the earl 
 of Argyle, seized on some of the king's castles, and hastily for- 
 tified the town of Leith. All ranks were so much inflamed by 
 party zeal, that even ladies were seen mixing with the lowest 
 rabble, carrying loads upon their shoulders, and assisting to 
 complete the fortifications. 
 
 The king, to quell these disturbances, marched an army to 
 Berwick, and negotiations were begun between him and the 
 covenanters. Charles's visible unwillingness to make his native 
 land, to which he was so much attached, a scene of bloodshed, 
 only served to encourage the Scots in their unyielding spirit. 
 He was soon obliged to disband his troops for want of money 
 to continue their pay, and he made many concessions to the 
 Scots to induce them to return to their homes in peace. 
 
 This the Scots pretended to do, but they soon after appeared 
 again in arms ; and, in 1640, Charles found himself in such a 
 distressed condition, that, after an interval of eleven years, he 
 once more summoned a parliament, in hopes it would grant him 
 some assistance. But, as soon as the Commons met, instead of 
 paying any attention to the king's affairs, it immediately en- 
 tered on its own grievances. 
 
 This parliament, after it had sat only a few months, the king, 
 in a moment of irritation, dissolved. This measure he had af- 
 terwards but too much reason to repent. His necessities were 
 now so great, that he was obliged to borrow money of his min- 
 isters and courtiers. With the greatest difficulty he raised a 
 body of troops, which he sent against the Scots, who were ad- 
 vanced almost to Newcastle. The two armies met at Newburn, 
 and Charles's troops were defeated. He was thus reduced to 
 greater difficulties than ever, and, as a desperate resource, once 
 more summoned a parliament. 
 
 The late events had not tended to put the Commons in better 
 
 y
 
 278 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 humour with the king or his ministers ; and their first measure 
 was to impeach Strafford, who, having been formerly a Puritan, 
 was more particularly obnoxious to that party, one of whom, 
 Pym, an active leader in the House, had formerly said to him, 
 "You have left us, but we will not leave you while your head is 
 on your shoulders." And they so well remembered and kept 
 their word, that he was brought to trial and condemned to 
 death. 
 
 The king, knowing that Strafford's greatest fault in the eyes 
 of the people was his attachment to himself, could not at first 
 bring himself to assent to the bill of attainder that was passed 
 against him, although the queen and some of his other advisers 
 besought him to make that sacrifice to the public outcry. Juxon, 
 bishop of London, alone advised him by no means to assent to 
 the bill, if his conscience did not approve of it. 
 
 Strafford himself wrote to the king, entreating him, for the 
 sake of public peace, no longer to defer his assent to it, and 
 ended his letter thus : — " My consent will more acquit you to 
 God than all the world can do besides. To you I can resign 
 the life of this world with all imaginable cheerfulness." 
 
 Strafford perhaps thought that this letter would rather plead 
 for his life than against it, and he seemed greatly surprised, and 
 for the moment overcome, when he was informed that the king 
 had actually consented to his execution. But he might have 
 pitied rather than have blamed him, could he have known how 
 much present grief and after remorse he endured, from allowing 
 his consent to the death of his faithful friend and servant to be 
 thus extorted from him. 
 
 Charles, unwilling to give a personal assent to the bill which 
 deprived him of his valued servant, sent a letter to the Peers, 
 entreating them to confer with the Commons, for a mitigation of 
 the sentence, or at least to obtain some delay. But the enemies 
 of Strafford were inexorable, and he was executed May 12th, 
 1641.
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 279 
 
 BATHE OF EDGEHILL. 
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR IN 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 |T will be impossible to enter into every particular 
 of the unhappy differences between the king and 
 the Commons, (a. d. 1642.) Each party be- 
 coming more and more incensed, and things 
 being likely to proceed to extremities, the king 
 withdrew to York, taking with him his two eldest 
 sons, Charles and James. 
 
 At York the chief nobility and gentry of the kingdom flocked 
 to him, offering their services, and expressing their duty and at- 
 tachment ; for, now that it was become an open quarrel, many
 
 2S0 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 who had shown a disapprobation of his former measures con- 
 demned the violence of the parliament, and took part with the 
 king. The peers, with the exception of Lord Essex and a few 
 others, adhered to the king ; while the Puritans took the side of 
 the parliament. 
 
 The royalists, to show their contempt of the opposite party, 
 and in ridicule of the formality of the close-cropped hair of the 
 Puritans, gave them the name of roundheads ; while they, on 
 their side, gave to the royalists the titles of cavaliers and ma- 
 lignants. 
 
 It was now apparent that a civil war was inevitable ; but each 
 party hung back from commencing hostilities, in the hope that 
 the other would incur the blame of being the first to draw the 
 sword. At last, the king, having been refused admittance into 
 the town of Hull by Sir John Hotham the governor, felt him- 
 self driven to the necessity of taking active measures ; and, on 
 August 20th, 1642, he erected his royal standard at Not- 
 tingham. 
 
 The first battle was fought October 3d, at Edgehill in War- 
 wickshire. At the onset Prince Rupert bore down every thing 
 before him ; but before the day was ended, his rash imprudence 
 lost all that his courage had gained. The two armies, after 
 fighting all day, remained under arms during the night , but the 
 next morning, after facing each other again, they retired from 
 the field without renewing the fight. The loss on each side was 
 equal, and neither gained a victory ; though the parliamentarians 
 considered themselves as somewhat entitled to claim it, because 
 the king's general, Lord Lindsey, was among the slain. 
 
 The siege of Reading, which was garrisoned for the king, oc- 
 cupied both parties for many months, (a. d. 1643.) It was at 
 last taken by Essex, in the month of April. During the sum- 
 mer the royalists were victorious in a battle at Lansdown, near 
 Bath ; and in another fought near Devizes ; and the parliament 
 had a great loss in the death of Hampden, who was mortally 
 wounded in a skirmish at Chalgrave Field, near Oxford. 
 
 Hampden was a man of such exemplary private character, 
 that even his enemies were concerned at his death. The king, 
 who had now made Oxford his head-quarters, was desirous, when 
 he heard of his being wounded, to send his own surgeon to at- 
 tend him ; but in the interim Hampden died.
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 
 
 281 
 
 Mr. Hampden was very temperate in diet, and the supreme 
 governor over all his passions ; he was of an industry and vigi- 
 lance not to be tired out ; of an understanding not to be imposed 
 upon ; and of a courage equal to his other qualities. Such was 
 Hampden's moral courage that he dared at his own cost to 
 question the right of the king to ship-money, and brought the 
 question before the courts of law. 
 
 This tax was known to be illegal ; indeed, there was nothing 
 which the people of England had for more than four hundred 
 years better known, or more strenuously insisted upon than this 
 — that the king had no right to lay a tax without the consent of 
 parliament. But the judges before whom this violation of the 
 laws was carried, to obtain, if possible, a decision that might 
 thoroughly expose it to the nation, decided that the king had a 
 right by his own royal authority to levy this tax or any other 
 that he might think needful. 
 
 From that time, Hampden's resolution to oppose the king and 
 all supporters of arbitrary principles and measures became more 
 inflexible. In the beginning of the civil war he undertook the 
 command of a regiment in the parliamentary army, and per- 
 formed his duty faithfully till he was wounded in the battle of 
 Chalgrave Field. He survived three weeks, and then gave up 
 a life he had devoted to the cause of civil liberty. 
 
 t2
 
 282 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CAPTURE OF CHARLES I. 
 
 EVERAL years after the civil war had raged, 
 the king's affairs went fast to ruin ; and he lost, 
 one after the other, almost all the towns he had 
 garrisoned. He himself fled into Wales and 
 afterwards to Oxford, where he passed the winter. 
 Seeing his condition desperate, and dreading 
 above all things to be made prisoner by the now 
 triumphant parliament, he formed the unfortunate resolution of 
 throwing himself into the hands of the Scots. 
 
 He accordingly set out from Oxford, and arrived on May the 
 5th at the Scottish camp before Newark, (a. d. 1.646.) The 
 Scottish generals were much surprised at the appearance of the 
 king : and though they affected to treat him with respect, they 
 put a guard upon him, and made him in reality their prisoner. 
 The Scots, having now the king in their hands, required of him 
 to send orders to the governors of Newark, Oxford, and all his 
 other garrisons, to surrender. This he did, and the soldiers and 
 officers all received honourable treatment from Fairfax. 
 
 As soon as the parliament knew that Charles was in the hands 
 of the Scots, it began to treat with them for the possession of 
 his person. The Scots, after some delays and hesitation, agreed, 
 on condition of receiving four hundred thousand pounds, the ar- 
 rears of their pay due from the parliament, to give up the king. 
 A private letter, communicating the information of this dis- 
 graceful bargain, was brought to Charles while he was playing 
 at chess ; and his self-command was so great that he continued 
 his game, without betraying by his countenance or manner that 
 he had received any distressing news. In a few days he was 
 given up to the English commissioners, who were sent by the 
 parliament to take him into their custody ; and he was conveyed, 
 in the month of February, to Holmby, in Northamptonshire, 
 one of his own royal residences.
 
 CAPTURE OF CHARLES I. 
 
 283 
 
 After the king had been at Holmby some weeks, Cromwell 
 formed the design of carrying him thence by force, and sent 
 Cornet Joyce, with five hundred men, to seize him. Joyce came 
 armed with pistols into the king's presence, and told him he 
 must come along with him. 
 
 The king asked Joyce upon what warrant he acted : he answered 
 by pointing to his soldiers, who were a fine body of men, drawn 
 up in the court-yard. The king said, smiling, " Your warrant is 
 indeed written in fair characters and legible ;" and knowing that 
 resistance would be in vain, immediately consented to accompany 
 him, and was carried to the head-quarters of the army at Triplo 
 Heath, in Cambridgeshire. 
 
 COSTUME OF A CAVALIER.
 
 284 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF CHARLES I. 
 
 LL things being now prepared for the fatal catas- 
 trophe, the king, on the 6th of January, 1649, was 
 impeached of high treason for having presumed 
 to appear in arms against the parliament. When 
 he was informed that he must prepare for his 
 trial, he said little, but was heard uttering to 
 himself — " God is everywhere alike in wisdom, 
 power, and goodness." He then retired to his apartment, and 
 spent some time alone and in prayer. 
 
 On the 18th of January, Charles was removed from Windsor 
 to St. James's palace ; and his guards and attendants were or- 
 dered to treat him as no longer possessed of royal dignity, and 
 to call him merely Charles Stuart. His own attendants were
 
 TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF CHARLES I. 285 
 
 forbidden to wait on him at table, and the common soldiers were 
 appointed to bring him his meals. Charles was much shocked 
 at this mark of disrespect ; but, soon recovering his composure, 
 he merely said, « Nothing is so contemptible as a despised king." 
 
 The preparations for the trial were soon made. Cromwell 
 declared in a speech in parliament, that had any man volunta- 
 rily proposed to bring the king to punishment, he should have 
 regarded that man as the greatest traitor ; but, added he, 
 " Providence and necessity hath cast it upon us." 
 
 On the 20th of January, the king's judges, who were the per- 
 sons called governors of the kingdom, assembled in Westminster 
 Hall. Charles was brought three several days before the court 
 which his accusers had created to try him, and each time refused 
 to acknowledge its jurisdiction. On the last of these days, 
 January 27th, he was pronounced guilty of having appeared 
 in arms against the parliament, and was condemned to be be- 
 headed on the third day after. 
 
 When he had returned to his apartment at St. James's, he 
 retired into his room with Dr. Juxon, and told Mr. Herbert 
 to refuse admittance to all persons coming to take leave of him ; 
 adding, » My time is short and precious, and I am desirous to 
 improve it the best I may in preparation. I hope those who 
 love me will not take it ill that they have not access to me. 
 The best office they can now do me is to pray for me." 
 
 A scaffold was erected in front of the palace at Whitehall, 
 and on January 30 he was brought there, attended by Juxon 
 and Herbert ; but the latter was so much overwhelmed with 
 grief, that the whole melancholy office of assisting the king in 
 his last moments devolved on the aged bishop. 
 
 On the scaffold, the king spoke a few words : he declared him- 
 self innocent towards his people, — doubtless he thought himself 
 so, — but acknowledged himself guilty in the sight of God ; and 
 that the consent which he had once given to the execution of an 
 unjust sentence was now deservedly punished by an unjust sen- 
 tence inflicted on himself; so heavily did the death of Strafford 
 still press upon his heart. 
 
 Juxon then assisted him to unrobe. An executioner, whose 
 face was concealed by a mask, then struck off his head, and 
 holding it up, said, "This is the head of a traitor!" This 
 bloody spectacle seemed to cause a sudden revulsion in the
 
 286 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 minds of all the spectators, who felt as much surprised and 
 shocked as if the catastrophe they witnessed had been un- 
 expected. 
 
 Charles was in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the 
 twenty-fifth of his reign. He married Henrietta Maria, daughter 
 of Henry IV., king of France. Their children were three sons 
 and three daughters.
 
 ACCESSION AND GOVERNMENT OF CROMWELL. 287 
 
 OLIVER CROMWELL. 
 
 ACCESSION AND GOVERNMENT OF 
 CROMWELL. 
 
 HE first act of the parliament was 
 to abolish the House of Peers as 
 useless and dangerous. A new great 
 seal of England was made, the 
 legend or inscription round which 
 was, " The first year of freedom by- 
 God's blessing restored 1648." All 
 loyalists were treated with great se- 
 verity, and it was made high treason 
 to call the prince of Wales by any 
 other name than Charles Stuart. 
 The forms of all public business were altered, and the new legis-
 
 288 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 lators gave to their government the name of the%commonwealth 
 of England. 
 
 Cromwell went as lord lieutenant to Ireland, (a. d. 1649,) 
 where he found every thing in a very distracted state ; but in a 
 few months he restored order in the island. He then left his 
 son-in-law, General Ireton, as his deputy, the affairs of Scotland 
 calling for his presence in that country. 
 
 The Scottish Presbyterians had refused to acknowledge the 
 English republic ; and, resolving to adhere to the monarchy, 
 had proclaimed Prince Charles their king, and sent to invite 
 him to come and take possession of the throne ; but on such 
 hard conditions that those who were his best friends counselled 
 him not to make such sacrifices for the empty title of king. 
 
 Charles, who entertained, probably, the dishonest intention 
 of breaking through these conditions whenever he should be able, 
 agreed to them and returned with the commissioners. He was 
 not suffered to set his foot on Scottish ground till he had sign 3d 
 the covenant ; and the moment he was on shore he was beset 
 by the Covenanters, who strove to convert him to their own 
 opinions. 
 
 He now found himself in a very comfortless situation. The 
 Presbyterians kept the entire administration both of church and 
 state in their own hands, and though they allowed him the name 
 of king, they did not treat him even with the respect due to a 
 superior. They paid so little regard to his feelings, that they 
 obliged him to pass under the gates of Aberdeen, over which was 
 hung one of the limbs of his faithful friend and servant, the 
 marquis of Montrose, who had a little while before been put to 
 death for appearing in arms in his cause. 
 
 Under these circumstances, Charles secretly rejoiced on find- 
 ing that Cromwell was on his march to Scotland with a power- 
 ful army for the purpose of driving him from his uneasy throne. 
 The Scottish army, commanded by General Leslie, attacked 
 Cromwell near Dunbar, and was completely beaten, with great 
 loss ; and Cromwell would soon have been entire master of the 
 kingdom, had he not been attacked with a fit of illness, and been 
 obliged to return to England. 
 
 Cromwell again entered Scotland, (a. d. 1651,) and marched 
 so far into the country as to get behind the army of the Cove- 
 nanters. Charles, who was with the army, which consisted of
 
 37
 
 ACCESSION AND GOVERNMENT OF CROMWELL. 
 
 291 
 
 CHARLES II. IN THE WOOD OF BOSCOBBL. 
 
 fourteen thousand men, seeing the road to the English border 
 thus opened to him, formed the bold resolution of marching 
 forwards into England, falsely presuming that all who were dis- 
 contented with the commonwealth would flock to his standard. 
 
 Charles marched forwards, in hopes at last to gather strength ; 
 but he arrived at Worcester with only his fourteen thousand 
 Scots. Here he halted, and had a few days' rest after his long 
 and fatiguing march. In the mean time, Cromwell, when he 
 found that the king had slipped by him, left the command of 
 the Scottish war to General Monk, and followed Charles with 
 all possible expedition. 
 
 Cromwell raised the militia of the several counties as he 
 passed, so that by the time he reached Worcester he mustered a 
 considerable force. The next day, Sept. 4, 1651, he surrounded 
 the town with his troops, and, falling on the royal army, soon 
 destroyed it, the very streets being filled with dead bodies. 
 
 Charles, after making a desperate resistance, was at last
 
 292 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 obliged to flee, with fifty or sixty gentlemen in his company. 
 They rode about twenty-six miles without stopping. It was 
 then thought advisable for them to separate. Charles, by the 
 advice of Lord Derby, went to a lone house on the borders of 
 Staffordshire, inhabited by a man of the name of Penderell, who 
 and his five brothers were wood-cutters in the neighbouring 
 wood of Boscobel. 
 
 Charles committed himself to the care of these men, who 
 showed themselves worthy of the confidence placed in them ; 
 for, though a high reward was offered to any one who would 
 deliver up the prince, and it was declared certain death to con- 
 ceal him, these honest rustics would not betray him. 
 
 On one occasion, fearing to be discovered by a party of sol- 
 diers who were searching the wood, Charles hid himself in a 
 large oak tree ; from among the branches of which he could 
 hear the soldiers say, they wondered where he could be, for 
 they were sure he was somewhere in the wood. 
 
 Charles was wandering about not less than six weeks, from the 
 time of the battle of Worcester, without being able to get out of 
 the country ; and the risks he ran of discovery were very great. 
 At last he arrived at a lone house, between Shoreham and 
 Brighthelmstone, and found means to cross the water. 
 
 While Charles was thus wandering about, the party in power 
 had been going on triumphantly. The victory at Worcester 
 they chose to call their "crowning mercy." Monk had been 
 successful in Scotland ; Ireton kept every thing quiet in Ireland ; 
 and the government, elated by success, soon showed a desire to 
 lord it over foreign states ; and, in 1652, declared war against 
 the Dutch. 
 
 Holland was at that time regarded as the most considerable 
 maritime power in Europe, and was supposed to excel all other 
 states in the art of ship-building, and in the skill of her seamen. 
 But now the English navy, which the late king had paid great 
 attention to, and which was manned by sailors whom the cir- 
 cumstances of the time had made bold and hardy, was found a 
 match for that of Holland ; and Admiral Blake was several times 
 the victor in engagements with the Dutch admirals, Van Tromp, 
 De Ruyter, and De Witt. 
 
 In the midst of all this success, an ignominious fall was pre- 
 paring for that comparatively inconsiderable band of men who
 
 ACCESSION AND GOVERNMENT OF CROMWELL. 
 
 293 
 
 CROMWELL EXPELLING THE PARLIAMENT. 
 
 still called themselves a parliament. Cromwell, who now thought 
 it time to drive them from the high station which he had suf- 
 fered them to occupy, went, on April 20, 1653, to the parliament 
 house while the members were assembled, and placing a file of 
 soldiers at each door, entered the hall, saying, "that he was 
 come with a purpose of doing what grieved him to the very soul, 
 and what he had earnestly besought the Lord not to impose 
 upon him ; but that there was a necessity for it." 
 
 He next sat down and heard the debates, and then suddenly 
 starting up, he exclaimed: "This is the time, I must do it." 
 Turning to the members, he loaded them with every term of re- 
 proach, and called them tyrants, oppressors, and public robbers. 
 
 z 2
 
 294 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 At last he stamped with his foot, on which signal the soldiers 
 entering the hall, he ordered them to drive all the members out. 
 
 As the members took their compulsory departure, Cromwell 
 said to them, "You are no longer a parliament; the Lord has 
 done with you : he has chosen other instruments for carrying on 
 his work." He stayed till the hall was empty; then order- 
 ing the doors to be locked, he put the keys into his pocket, and 
 returned to the palace at Whitehall, where he and his family had 
 taken up their residence. 
 
 Cromwell was now the sole head of the government, and no 
 one attempted to dispute his power. To keep up the appearance 
 of a commonwealth, he summoned a parliament, who set them- 
 selves to work to settle the affairs of the state. They consi- 
 dered the clerical office as being altogether a remnant of popery, 
 and proposed that there should be no more clergy. The com- 
 mon law they deemed a badge of Norman slavery, and were 
 desirous to set it aside. They also voted that learning was 
 heathenish, and the universities unnecessary. 
 
 This parliament had the name given it of Barebones's parlia- 
 ment, from the name of one of its chief orators. At last, the 
 measures of the parliament became so utterly absurd that Crom- 
 well became ashamed of it, and suffered one only of their many 
 proposed changes and regulations to be carried into effect. This 
 one was in regard to the marriage ceremony, which was declared 
 to be a mere civil contract, and was appointed to be performed 
 for the future in private rooms, before a magistrate, instead of 
 being solemnized in churches. 
 
 Cromwell had at this time the title of Protector conferred on 
 him. The mass of the people were so tired of the tyranny and 
 oppression of the parliament, that they were thankful to get rid 
 of their many masters, and to enjoy any thing like a settled 
 government. And Cromwell, though he trampled on the laws 
 of the country, would suffer no other person but himself to do 
 so. He enforced justice and civil order, and made his govern- 
 ment respected at home and feared abroad. 
 
 Cromwell kept up the power of the navy, and soon obliged 
 the Dutch to sue for peace. He attacked the Spaniards because 
 they interrupted the English in their traffic with Spanish Ame- 
 rica, and took from them the island of Jamaica in the West In- 
 dies, which is still retained by the English. The protectorship
 
 ACCESSION AND GOVERNMENT OF CROMWELL. 295 
 
 was not only confirmed to Cromwell for life, but was also settled 
 on whomsoever he should choose to appoint after his death. 
 
 This proceeding alarmed both the republicans and the roy- 
 alists, who began to fear that a power so well established would 
 become permanent, to the destruction of their different hopes. 
 In 1655, a plan was formed for a general rising among the 
 royalists. But Cromwell and his secretary, Thurloe, had full 
 information of their designs, and before the appointed day of 
 insurrection, many of the royalists were taken up ; some were 
 punished with death, and several others were sold for slaves and 
 sent to Barbadoes. This despotic act struck terror throughout 
 the whole nation ; and no other considerable attempt was made 
 to overturn the protector's power. 
 
 Cromwell's government of Ireland was equally vigorous. 
 Fleetwood, who had married his eldest daughter, (Ireton's 
 widow,) was his deputy, and carried many of his arbitrary 
 measures into effect. Fleetwood was succeeded by the pro- 
 tector's second son, Henry, a young man of great abilities and 
 extraordinary goodness, who, pitying the condition of the Irish, 
 did all he could to improve it. 
 
 Cromwell, in the latter part of his life, was under a conti- 
 nual dread of being secretly murdered. And though he had often 
 braved danger in battle with intrepidity, he now betrayed a 
 more than common fear of death ; and every moment of his 
 life was made miserable by the apprehension of losing it. In 
 addition to these terrors, he had many causes of mortification 
 in his own family. 
 
 Richard, Cromwell's eldest son, whom he meant for his suc- 
 cessor, was a man of inferior talents and of no ambition. Henry 
 Cromwell was a man of abilities, but had too much virtue to be 
 willing to follow his father's footsteps. Cromwell's other 
 daughters were zealous royalists ; and Mrs. Claypole, the one 
 whom he loved best of all his children, represented to him, when 
 on her death-bed, and in terms which filled him with grief, her 
 disapprobation of the conduct which he had pursued. From that 
 time he was never seen to smile. 
 
 Cromwell's exertions and agitations were too great for his 
 bodily frame to support. He found the exalted state to which 
 he had attained a burden too heavy to be borne ; and died, a 
 worn-out old man, on September 3, 1658, in the 59th year
 
 296 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of his age. He was buried with royal pomp in Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
 Cromwell's character is one of the most extraordinary in 
 history. His talents were, in some respects, of the very highest 
 order. In others, he was strikingly deficient. His government 
 of Ireland ; the manner in which he treated Holland and Spain, 
 thus vindicating the independence and naval power of England, 
 are undoubted proofs of the energy of his mind and the wisdom 
 of his policy. 
 
 Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector in his father's 
 place. But the nation soon found the difference between the 
 strong hand of Oliver Cromwell and the feebleness of his son, 
 and showed a disposition to cast off his authority. But Richard, 
 quietly resigning a dignity which he had neither the power nor 
 the inclination to keep, wisely saved himself from being dispos- 
 sessed by violence. He held the protectorship only a few months. 
 
 Henry Cromwell also resigned his command in Ireland; 
 though his popularity in that country was very great, and he 
 might have retained his power there if he had chosen to do so. 
 
 A PURITAN SOLDIER.
 
 CHARLES II. 
 
 38
 
 RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 
 
 299 
 
 RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 
 
 j§jHE country was now without any apparent ruler, 
 and was split into a variety of factions. The 
 republicans hoped to establish their long-desired 
 form of popular government, and the royalists in 
 their turn were full of expectations and projects. 
 Charles, meantime, on hearing of what was 
 passing in England, left the Low Countries, where he had for 
 some time past taken refuge, and came to Calais, where he stayed, 
 awaiting the event. For some time there seemed little chance 
 of any turn in his favour ; but, at last, what the efforts of his 
 friends could not do, the rivalry of his enemies brought about. 
 
 Lambert and Monk had long hated each other; and Monk, 
 partly perhaps to disappoint Lambert, who was secretly ambi- 
 tious of the protectorship, formed the design of bringing back 
 the king, and entered into a correspondence with him. But he
 
 300 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 kept his intentions so well concealed that he appeared to be only 
 acting for the restoration of the parliament. 
 
 Monk collected several scattered regiments in Scotland, and 
 marched directly into England. Lambert set forward to meet 
 him, but found himself deserted by his own soldiers ; and the 
 parliament, being no longer held in terror by the troops, as- 
 sumed once more the reins of government, arrested Lambert, 
 and committed him to the Tower. 
 
 Monk and his army soon reached London. He appeared at 
 first to acknowledge the authority of the parliament ; but in a 
 few days openly avowed his contempt of that obtrusive body of 
 men, and declared for a free parliament. He called together 
 all the surviving members of the old or Long Parliament, who 
 had been expelled by Colonel Pride in 1648. They met on 
 February 21, 1660, and in a few days formally dissolved them- 
 selves, and issued writs for a new parliament, which assembled 
 April 25. 
 
 On the 1st of May, Monk, having every thing ripe for his 
 project, ventured to propose to parliament the restoration of the 
 king. It is impossible to describe the joy with which this pro- 
 posal was heard — a joy which soon spread from the house to 
 the city, and from thence through the whole country. The 
 peers from all parts of the kingdom hastened to reinstate 
 themselves in their parliamentary rights ; and on the 8th of 
 May, Charles II. was proclaimed king, and a committee of gen- 
 tlemen was sent to invite him to return and take possession of 
 his dominions. 
 
 The king sailed from Scheveling, a small village on the coast 
 of Holland, and was met at Dover by General Monk, who con- 
 ducted him to London, which he entered amidst the joyful ac- 
 clamations of the people, May 29, 1660. 
 
 Charles was thirty years old when, after sixteen years, he was 
 so unexpectedly placed on the throne of his ancestors. He had a 
 good figure, and though his features were harsh, there was some- 
 thing agreeable in his countenance ; and his cheerful, easy, and 
 graceful deportment made him altogether a very engaging per- 
 son. He had a great deal of shrewdness and wit ; and with com- 
 mon application might have been any thing he pleased. But he 
 loved amusement, and hated business, and to live idly and merrily 
 was all he cared for.
 
 RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 
 
 301 
 
 iiPf 
 
 EXECUTION OF SIR HENRY VANE. 
 
 The king began his reign by forming a ministry from among 
 the best and wisest men of all parties, and he gave general 
 satisfaction by the choice he made. An act of indemnity, or of 
 general pardon, was then passed towards all those who had taken 
 part against the crown, excepting only the judges who had sat 
 on the late king's trial, and all those who had in any other way 
 been immediately accessory to his death. About sixty persons 
 had been concerned in that act. Of these many were dead, 
 and others had left the kingdom. 
 
 Of those who could be brought to trial, ten only were exe- 
 cuted : the rest were reprieved and placed in different prisons. 
 Harrison, who had conducted Charles I. from Hurst Castle, 
 was among those who suffered. He died justifying his conduct 
 to the last. Hugh Peters also was executed. He had been 
 one of Cromwell's fanatical preachers, and had not only been 
 very active in stirring up the minds of the people against the 
 king ; but also, it was supposed, was one of the masked exe- 
 cutioners who beheaded him. 
 
 General Lambert and Sir Henry Vane, though they were 
 not absolutely regicides, were yet thought too guilty to be in- 
 cluded in the act of indemnity. Vane was executed : Lambert 
 was reprieved and exiled to the island of Guernsey, where he 
 
 2A
 
 302 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 lived thirty years, and from being a rigid Puritan became a Ro- 
 man Catholic. 
 
 This act of retribution being performed, the ministry applied 
 themselves to the business of the state. The chancellor, Lord 
 Clarendon, who had attended the king during his exile, had the 
 chief weight in the council, and by his integrity and wisdom the 
 government was carried on for a time with justice and modera- 
 tion. The old standing army of the republicans was disbanded : 
 the king retained only a few guards and garrisons ; and most 
 of the fortified places that had not been destroyed in the civil 
 wars were dismantled. 
 
 Charles married Catherine of Braganza, daughter of the king 
 of Portugal, (a. d. 1662.) The new queen had been educated 
 in a convent, and was very formal and grave : she rejected the 
 company of the English ladies, and would only have about her 
 a set of old solemn Spanish duennas. The king found her and 
 her court so dull that he neglected her society, and spent most 
 of his time with idle and dissolute companions and unprincipled 
 women. 
 
 Charles entered into a war with Holland, which afterwards 
 led to a rupture with France and Denmark, (a. d. 1664.) 
 This war was carried on wholly by sea ; and the king's brother, 
 James, duke of York, an active enterprising man, commanded 
 the fleet. Many well-contested actions were fought, and many 
 fruitless victories gained. One of these engagements lasted four 
 days, and is among the most memorable recorded in history. 
 
 The Dutch fleet consisted of seventy-six ships, and was com- 
 manded by the famous De Ruyter, and by Van Tromp, son of 
 the great Van Tromp. The English fleet was commanded by 
 Prince Rupert, and by Monk, then duke of Albemarle, and 
 altogether was nearly equal to the Dutch. The detail of the 
 different engagements of the four days would be little instructive. 
 On the last day neither party had gained the victory. 
 
 The two fleets then retired to their harbours, but met again, 
 June 25th, at the mouth of the Thames, when the English ob- 
 tained a decisive victory. De Ruyter, indignant at being obliged 
 to fly, frequently exclaimed, " God, among so many thou- 
 sand bullets, is there not one to put an end to my miserable 
 life !" The English were now incontestably masters of the sea ; 
 but they had been visited at home during this year by so many
 
 RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 
 
 303 
 
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 calamities that they had no spirit to rejoice in any triumphs 
 over a foreign foe. 
 
 In the preceding autumn, a most violent plague had broken 
 out, particularly in London. There, in a short time, ninety 
 thousand persons are said to have died of that malady. While 
 London was still suffering under this calamity, it was assailed 
 also by another. On the 3d of September, 1666, a fire broke 
 out near London Bridge, which spread with such rapidity that 
 thirteen thousand houses were burnt down. 
 
 These dreadful scenes were not without some good effect on 
 the king's disposition, and detached him for a while from the 
 idle and dissolute habits he had sunk into ; but his vicious com- 
 panions soon got about him, and rallied him out of all his good 
 resolutions ; and he relapsed into his former way of life. 
 
 These vicious companions, the chief of whom was the duke of 
 Buckingham, had long meditated the overthrow of Lord Cla-
 
 304 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 LORD CL AREND ON. 
 
 rondon, -whose integrity made him the particular object of their 
 dislike. It happened that the Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway, 
 and destroyed some ships in the harbour at Chatham. A peace 
 was made with Holland soon afterwards. Buckingham and his 
 party found means of turning both this peace itself, and also the 
 disgrace at Chatham, to the particular discredit of Clarendon, 
 insinuating that the latter could not have taken place, unless he 
 had been negligent of the public security. 
 
 Charles, who had little gratitude in his nature, forgetting 
 how faithfully this great statesman had served him in all his 
 wanderings and necessities, and how much his wisdom had con- 
 tributed to strengthen him on the throne, was not sorry to have 
 a pretext for removing a man who was some check upon his 
 vices. Clarendon was, therefore, impeached on various frivo- 
 lous pretences, and was sentenced to banishment. 
 
 Clarendon retired into France, and employed the remainder of 
 his life chiefly in composing his History of the Rebellion, and 
 also in writing an account of his own life. His youngest 
 daughter, Anne Hyde, married the duke of York soon after the 
 restoration. She died young, leaving two children, the princesses 
 Mary and Anne.
 
 RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 305 
 
 After Clarendon's disgrace, Prince Rupert, the duke of Or- 
 mond, Sir Orlando Bridgman, and other men of experience and 
 high character, had for a time the chief weight in the council. 
 But in 1670 their influence declined, and the king, whose care- 
 lessness about public affairs daily increased, committed the entire 
 management of the state to five of the most unprincipled men in 
 the kingdom, Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and 
 Lauderdale, who were called the Cabal, from the first letters of 
 their names. 
 
 One of the nefarious measures of this administration was to 
 shut up the exchequer, and to take possession of the money 
 which private individuals had placed in it. Another, and a still 
 more generally unpopular measure, was that of entering into a 
 new war with the Dutch, in order to gratify Louis XIV., one of 
 the most ambitious, vain-glorious, and unprincipled kings that 
 ever reigned. 
 
 Charles at first hesitated to take such an unpopular step ; but 
 he was at length persuaded into it by his sister Henrietta, 
 duchess of Orleans, who was sent on a visit to him by the French 
 king. It is even said that the restoration of popery in England 
 was made an article of a secret treaty between the two kings. 
 Charles, if he had any religion at all, was in his heart a Papist ; 
 and the duke of York was a professed one. 
 
 The French and English fleets now joined each other. As they 
 were at anchor in Solebay, De Ruyter came unexpectedly upon 
 them. The duke of York commanded in chief, in the action 
 between the Dutch and the combined fleets, and had his ship so 
 shattered that he was obliged to remove his flag on board another. 
 The battle lasted the whole day, and De Ruyter declared that, 
 of the thirty-two actions he had been in, this was the hardest 
 fought. The English and Dutch lost many ships, and neither 
 party gained any thing. The French took care to keep aloof 
 during the engagement. 
 
 Another memorable naval action was fought on August 11, 
 1673. The English fleet was commanded by Prince Rupert, the 
 Dutch by De Ruyter. In this battle too, as in many of the 
 former, nothing was gained by either party. 
 
 By the death of Clifford, and the disgrace of Ashley, who 
 had been created Lord Shaftesbury, the cabal was broken up. 
 (a. d. 1674.) More honest ministers came into place, and wiser 
 39 2 a 2
 
 306 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 measures were pursued. One of these measures was to make 
 peace with Holland ; but Charles still kept up with France a 
 secret alliance on the most dishonourable terms. He received 
 privately from Louis XIV. an annual pension of two millions of 
 livres, as the price of his supporting the French interest in his 
 own court. 
 
 In the midst of a life of vicious indulgence, Charles was at- 
 tacked by an apoplexy, and died, after a few days' illness, Feb- 
 ruary 6th, 1685, in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and the 
 twenty-fifth of his reign. Charles II. married Catherine of 
 Braganza, daughter of the king of Portugal. They had no 
 children.
 
 JAMES II.
 
 ATTEMPT TO RE-ESTABLISH THE CATHOLIC RELIGION. 30D 
 
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 ATTEMPT OF JAMES II. TO RE-ESTABLISH 
 THE CATHOLIC RELIGION IN ENGLAND. 
 
 IjjP^lHE duke of York, who succeeded his 
 * brother by the title of king James 
 II. (a. d. 1685,) had been bred a 
 Papist by his mother, and was 
 strongly bigoted to his principles. 
 He went openly to mass with all 
 the ensigns of his dignity, and 
 even sent one Caryl as his agent to 
 Rome, to make submission to the pope, and to pave the way for 
 the readmission of England into the bosom of the Catholic 
 church. 
 
 Among those who distinguished themselves against Popery 
 was one Dr. Sharpe, (a. d. 1686,) a clergyman of London, who 
 declaimed with just severity against those who changed their
 
 310 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 religion by such arguments as the popish missionaries were able 
 to produce. This, being supposed to reflect upon the king, gave 
 great offence at court, and positive orders were given to the 
 bishop of London to suspend Sharpe, till his majesty's pleasure 
 should be further known. The bishop refused to comply, and 
 the king resolved to punish the bishop himself for disobedience. 
 
 To effect his design, an ecclesiastical commission was issued 
 out, by which seven commissioners were invested with a full and 
 unlimited authority over the whole church of England. Before 
 this tribunal the bishop was summoned, and not only he, but 
 Sharpe, the preacher, suspended. 
 
 The next step was to allow the liberty of conscience to all 
 sectaries ; and he was taught to believe, that the truth of the 
 Catholic religion would then, upon a fair trial, gain the victory. 
 He, therefore, issued a declaration of general indulgence, and 
 asserted that non-conformity to the established religion was no 
 longer penal. 
 
 To complete his work, he publicly sent the earl of Castlemain 
 ambassador extraordinary to Rome, in order to express his 
 obedience to the pope, and to reconcile his kingdom to the 
 Catholic communion. Never was there so much contempt 
 thrown upon an embassy that was so boldly undertaken. The 
 court of Rome expected but little success from measures so 
 blindly conducted. They were sensible that the king was 
 openly striking at those laws and opinions which it was his 
 business to undermine in silence and security. 
 
 The Jesuits soon after were permitted to erect colleges in 
 different parts of the kingdom ; they exercised the Catholic 
 worship in the most public manner ; and four Catholic bishops, 
 consecrated in the king's chapel, were sent through the kingdom 
 to exercise their episcopal functions, under the title of apostolic 
 vicars. 
 
 Father Francis, a Benedictine monk, was recommended by the 
 king to the university of Cambridge, for a degree of master of 
 arts. But his religion was a stumbling-block which the univer- 
 sity could not get over ; and they presented a petition, beseech- 
 ing the king to recall his mandate. Their petition was disre- 
 garded, and their deputies denied a hearing ; the vice-chancellor 
 himself was summoned to appear before the high commission
 
 ATTEMPT TO RE-ESTABLISH THE CATHOLIC RELIGION. 3H 
 
 court, and deprived of his office ; yet the university persisted, 
 and father Francis was refused. 
 
 The place of president of Magdalen college, one of the richest 
 foundations in Europe, being vacant, the king sent a mandate in 
 favour of one Farmer, a new convert to popery, and a man of 
 bad character in other respects. The fellows of the college 
 made very submissive applications to the king for recalling his 
 mandate ; they refused admitting the candidate, and James, 
 finding them resolute in the defence of their privileges, ejected 
 them all except two. 
 
 A second declaration for liberty of conscience was published 
 about the same time with the former ; but with this peculiar in- 
 junction, that all divines should read it after service in their 
 churches, (a. d. 1688.) The clergy were known universally to 
 disapprove of these measures, and they were now resolved to 
 disobey an order dictated by the most bigoted motives. They 
 were determined to trust their cause to the favour of the people, 
 and that universal jealousy which prevailed against the en- 
 croachment of the crown. The first champions of this service 
 of danger were Lloyd, bishop of St. Asaph ; Ken, of Bath and 
 Wells ; Turner, of Ely ; Lake, of Chichester ; White, of Peter- 
 borough ; and Trelawney, of Bristol. These, together with 
 Sancroft, the primate, concerted the address, in the form of a 
 petition to the king, which, with the warmest expressions of zeal 
 and submission, remonstrated that they could not read his decla- 
 ration consistent with their consciences, or the respect they 
 owed the Protestant religion. 
 
 The king in a fury summoned the bishops before the council, 
 and there questioned them whether they would acknowledge 
 their petition. They for some time declined giving an answer ; 
 but, being urged by the chancellor, they at last owned it. On 
 their refusal to give bail, an order was immediately drawn for 
 their commitment to the Tower, and the crown lawyers received 
 directions to prosecute them for a seditious libel. 
 
 The twenty-ninth day of June, (a. d. 1688,) was fixed for 
 their trial ; and their return was more splendidly attended than 
 their imprisonment. The cause was looked upon as involving 
 the fate of the nation ; and future freedom or future slavery 
 awaited the decision. The dispute was learnedly managed by 
 the lawyers on both sides. Holloway and Powel, two of the
 
 312 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 judges, declared themselves in favour of the bishops. The jury 
 withdrew into a chamber, where they passed the whole night ; 
 but next morning they returned into court, and pronounced the 
 bishops not guilty. Westminster Hall instantly rang with loud 
 acclamations, which were communicated to the whole extent of 
 the city. They even reached the camp at Hounslow, where the 
 king was at dinner, in Lord Feversham's tent. His majesty 
 demanded the cause of these rejoicings, and being informed that 
 it was nothing but the soldiers shouting at the delivery of the 
 bishops, " Call you that nothing ?" cried he ; " but so much the 
 worse for them !" 
 
 It was in this posture of affairs that all people turned their 
 eyes upon William, prince of Orange, who had married Mary, 
 the eldest daughter of king James. 
 
 William was a prince who had, from his earliest entrance into 
 business, been immersed in dangers, calamities, and politics. 
 The ambition of France and the jealousies of Holland had 
 served to sharpen his talents, and to give him a propensity for 
 intrigue. 
 
 This politic prince now plainly saw that James had incurred 
 the most violent hatred of his subjects, (a. d. 1688.) He was 
 minutely informed of their discontents ; and by seeming to dis- 
 courage, still farther increased them, hoping to gain the kingdom 
 for himself in the sequel. 
 
 The time when the prince entered upon this enterprise was 
 just when the people were in a flame about the recent insult 
 offered to their bishops. He had before this made considerable 
 augmentations to the Dutch fleet, and the ships were then lying 
 ready in the harbour. Some additional troops were also levied, 
 and sums of money raised for other purposes were converted to 
 the advancement of this expedition. 
 
 So well concerted were his measures, that, in three days, 
 above four hundred transports were hired ; the army fell down 
 the rivers and canals from Nimeguen, with all necessary stores ; 
 and the prince set sail from Helvoetsluys, with a fleet of nearly 
 five hundred vessels, and an army of above fourteen thousand 
 men. 
 
 It was given out that this invasion was intended for the coast 
 of France ; and many of the English, who saw the fleet pass 
 along their coasts, little expected to see it land on their own
 
 ATTEMPT TO RE-ESTABLISH THE CATHOLIC RELIGION. 313 
 
 WILLIAM III. LANDING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 shores. Thus, after a voyage of two days, the prince landed 
 his army at the village of Broxholme, in Torbay, on the fifth of 
 November, which was the anniversary of the gunpowder treason. 
 
 But though the invitation from the English was very general, 
 the prince had for some time the mortification to find himself 
 joined by very few. He marched first to Exeter, where the 
 country people had been so much terrified at the executions 
 which had ensued on Monmouth's rebellion, that they continued 
 to observe a strict neutrality. He remained for ten days in ex- 
 pectation of being joined by the malcontents, and at last began 
 to despair of success. But, just when he began to deliberate 
 about re-embarking his forces, he was joined by several persons 
 of consequence, and the whole country soon after came flocking 
 to his standard. The nobility, clergy, officers, and even the 
 king's own servants and creatures, were unanimous in deserting 
 James. Lord Churchill had been raised from the rank of a 
 page, and had been invested with a high command in the army ; 
 had been created a peer, and owed his whole fortune to the 
 king's bounty ; even he deserted among the rest, and carried 
 with him the duke of Grafton, the natural son of the late king, 
 Colonel Berkeley, and some others. 
 
 The prince of Denmark, and Anne, his favourite daughter, 
 40 2 B
 
 314 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 perceiving the desperation of his circumstances, resolved to 
 leave him, and take part with the prevailing side. When he 
 was told that the prince and princess had followed the rest of 
 his favourites, he was stung with most bitter anguish. " God 
 help me," cried he, in the extremity of his agony, "my own 
 children have forsaken me !" 
 
 The king, alarmed every day more and more with the prospect 
 of a general disaffection, was resolved to hearken to those who 
 advised his quitting the kingdom. To prepare for this, he first 
 sent away the queen, who arrived safely at Calais, under the 
 conduct of Count Lauzun, an old favourite of the French king. 
 He himself soon after disappeared in the night-time, attended 
 only by Sir Edward Hale, a new convert ; but was discovered 
 and brought back by the mob. 
 
 But shortly after, being confined at Rochester, and observing 
 that he was entirely neglected by his own subjects, he resolved 
 to seek safety from the king of France, the only friend he had 
 still remaining. He accordingly fled to the sea-side, attended 
 by his natural son, the duke of Berwick, where he embarked for 
 the continent, and arrived in safety at Ambleteuse in Picardy, 
 from whence he hastened to the court of France, where he still 
 enjoyed the empty title of a king, and the appellation of a saint, 
 which flattered him more. 
 ^ The king having thus abdicated the throne, the next consi- 
 deration was the appointing a successor, (a. d. 1688.) Some 
 declared for a regent ; others, that the princess of Orange 
 should be invested with regal power, and the young prince con- 
 sidered as supposititious. After a long debate in both houses, 
 a new sovereign was preferred to a regent, by a majority of two 
 voices. It was agreed that the Prince and Princess of Orange 
 should reign jointly as King and Queen of England, while the 
 administration of government should be placed in the hands of 
 the prince only.
 
 WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND HOLLAND. 315 
 
 WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND HOLLAND- 
 DEATH OF TURENNE. 
 
 ^g^g^ gpTHE rapid successes of Louis XIV. gave 
 «jjj alarm to Europe ; and a triple alli- 
 £: - I jjH =^J F§f ance was formed against Louis, between 
 f jjl England, Holland, and Sweden, — and 
 
 concluded in a few days. The grand 
 pensioner of Holland, John de Witt, be- 
 came the soul of this conspiracy, which 
 obliged the king to sign the treaty of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, whereby he retained Flanders, and restored 
 Franche-Comte\ (a. d. 1668.) 
 
 During the peace, Louis turned his attention to the internal 
 administration of his kingdom, and to the affairs of the church 
 of France, disturbed by the quarrels of Jansenism. He next 
 meditated taking vengeance upon Holland for the share which 
 it had taken in the triple alliance. He entertained a profound 
 contempt for all forms of government, save the monarchical ; 
 and, notwithstanding that it was his interest to conciliate indus- 
 trious citizens, who poured annually sixty millions of money 
 into his markets, he listened only to his hatred and scorn 
 against them. This was one of the great faults of his reign. 
 Everywhere, and at all times, he found before him this nation 
 of merchants, heretics, and republicans, whose existence irri- 
 tated him, and whose wealth purchased enemies against him in 
 the two worlds. Offended by certain medals, which represented 
 the United Provinces as the arbiter of Europe, and enraged by 
 the extravagance of certain gazetteers, the king seized upon 
 these frivolous pretexts to declare war against the Dutch. He 
 detached from their alliance the bishops of Cologne and Mun- 
 ster, Charles XI., king of Sweden, and Charles II., king of 
 England, always ready to sacrifice the interests of his people 
 to the gratification of his pleasures. The Dutch navy covered
 
 316 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the seas, and secured the commercial prosperity of that repub- 
 lic by protecting its magnificent establishments in the East In- 
 dies. Louis XIV. reinforced his with fifty English vessels, and 
 entered Holland at the head of a hundred thousand men. 
 (1672.) He had with him Turenne, Vauban, Luxembourg, and 
 Louvois. The latter purveyed with admirable foresight for the 
 maintenance and equipment of the troops, by the establishment 
 of magazines of clothes and provisions, till then altogether un- 
 known. Condd commanded the army ; and had, for his oppo- 
 nent the celebrated William of Orange, captain-general, at 
 twenty-two years of age, of the forces of the republic. The 
 passage of the Rhine, more boasted of than glorious, was ef- 
 fected, without danger, under the king's eye, in the face of the 
 Dutch, whose numbers were too inferior for resistance. An 
 imprudent charge cost the due de Longueville his life ; and 
 Conde received a wound which compelled him to surrender the 
 command to Turenne. In a few months, three provinces and 
 forty fortresses were subdued. John de Witt, the grand pen- 
 sioner, advised his countrymen to treat with the conqueror ; 
 and advances were made to Louis XIV., in spite of the lively 
 opposition of the . prince of Orange. The illustrious Grotius, 
 at the head of a Dutch deputation, made advantageous propo- 
 sals to the king ; but Louis exacted still further concessions, 
 blinded by his successes and self-love. He demanded the re- 
 establishment of the Catholic religion in Holland — the abandon- 
 ment of the temples to the Roman worship — twenty millions 
 towards the expenses of the war — the cession of all that the 
 United Provinces possessed beyond the Wahl and the Rhine — 
 and, finally, propitiatory medals to be presented to him every 
 year in token that the United Provinces held their existence 
 and liberties from him. The Dutch people, exasperated by 
 these cruel pretensions, turned their fury against John de Witt 
 and the admiral Cornelius de Witt, his brother — accusing them 
 of connivance with Louis. They were murdered by the popu- 
 lace, their bodies torn in pieces, and subjected to a thousand 
 outrages. Despair gave strength to the conquered ; and, ani- 
 mated by patriotic devotion, they bored their dykes, and laid 
 the country under water, in the hope of compelling the French 
 to evacuate it. The Dutch admiral Ruyter strove gloriously 
 against the combined fleets of France and England; and the
 
 WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND HOLLAND. 317 
 
 issue of the battle of Saultsbay delivered the coasts of the re- 
 public from all danger of further insult. Europe began to be- 
 stir itself in favour of Holland : the emperor Leopold, the 
 king of Spain, most of the princes of the empire, and the 
 elector of Brandenburg, Frederick-William, the first founder 
 of the high fortunes of his house — all took alarm at the ambi- 
 tion of Louis XIV., and leagued against him. Charles II. 
 himself was compelled, by his parliament, to abandon France. 
 Menaced by such a host of enemies, Louis withdrew his troops 
 from the conquered towns, the fortifications of which he forgot 
 to destroy ; and all Holland was, in a short time, evacuated, 
 the king retaining only Grave and Maestricht. But Franche- 
 Comte' indemnified him for so many losses ; by his order, the 
 due de Noailles and Vauban entered that province, which they 
 conquered, for the second time, in six weeks, and snatched irre- 
 vocably from Spain. (1674.) 
 
 The great Conde', making head against the prince of Orange, 
 fought now his last battle, near Senef, in Flanders. The battle 
 seemed won ; but William rallied his troops, and arrested the 
 conquerors. Three times did Conde" charge him, without being 
 able to drive him from his impregnable position. The loss was 
 dreadful on both sides ; twenty-seven thousand dead remained 
 on the field of battle. Conde* had three horses killed under 
 him. The battle lasted fourteen hours, and the issue of the 
 day remained still undecided. 
 
 Turenne was more fortunate in Alsace. He conquered, at 
 Sintzheim, the old duke of Lorraine, and the army of the Im- 
 perial Circles, commanded by Eneas de Caprara. After this 
 victory, he passed the Rhine and entered the palatinate, where 
 he tarnished his laurels by permitting frightful ravages : two 
 towns and twenty-five villages there were delivered a prey to 
 the flames. Speedily, however, recalled into Alsace, by the pro- 
 gress of the army of the Circles, he awaited it in the environs 
 of Landau and Wissemburg, where he remained in defiance of 
 the formal orders of Louvois and of Louis XIV., by whom he 
 was ordered to defend Champagne and Lorraine, which were 
 threatened with invasion. Turenne, however, succeeded in 
 convincing the king, and justified his conduct by twice beating 
 an enemy superior to him in force — first, at Ansheim, and after- 
 wards at Turkheim, and obliging him to evacuate Alsace, and 
 
 2b2
 
 318 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 repass the Rhine, reduced in numbers by one-half. This cam- 
 paign and the following were Turenne's master-pieces, and put 
 the final seal to his reputation. The emperor sent against him 
 Montecuculli, the greatest of his captains, and conqueror of 
 Saint-Gothard. The two great rivals first made mutual proof 
 of each other's skill, in a series of scientific manoeuvres, which 
 remain to this day the admiration of tacticians. At length, 
 both seemed on the point of giving battle, near the village of 
 Salzbach, in the territory of Baden, and Turenne conceived 
 himself secure of victory, when, in visiting a battery, he was 
 struck dead by a cannon-shot. (167-5.) The same ball carried 
 away the arm of M. de Saint-Hilaire, lieutenant-general of in- 
 fantry, who, on seeing his son burst into tears by his side, ex- 
 claimed — "Not for me, my son, but for this great man, should 
 you weep." Turenne died at the age of sixty-four. Born a 
 Protestant, he had become a convert to Catholicism, and was 
 buried in the tomb of the kings, at Saint-Denis. Montecuculli, 
 informed of his death, compelled his two successors, Generals 
 De Lorges and Vaubrun, to repass the Rhine. Vaubrun was 
 killed in the passage of the river, but De Lorges effected his 
 retreat. The free town of Strasburg immediately offered its 
 bridge to Montecuculli, who penetrated into Alsace. Conde', 
 despatched to meet him, arrested his march, and forced him to 
 evacuate the province. This was the last campaign of these 
 two great captains. 
 
 The due de Cre'qui suffered himself to be beaten, in the same 
 year, at Consurbruck, by the duke of Lorraine ; but this reverse 
 was effaced by some brilliant successes. Messina had thrown 
 off the Spanish yoke, and placed itself under the protection of 
 France. Assisted by the Dutch fleet, the Spaniards endea- 
 voured to retake it. Duquesne, at the head of a French fleet, 
 frustrated their plans. He gained the naval battle of Strom- 
 boli, and that of Agosta, which cost Admiral Ruyter his life. 
 (1676.) The mare'chal de Vivonne completed the destruction 
 of the enemy's fleet, on its coming out of Palermo. These 
 glorious operations were followed by two brilliant campaigns of 
 the king, in Flanders. The heroic taking of Valenciennes, by 
 the musketeers, in open day, (1677,) — those of Cambray and 
 Saint-Omer — and the victory of Cassel, gained by the duke of 
 Orleans, the king's brother, against the prince of Orange, ter-
 
 DEATH OF T U K E N X E.
 
 WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND GERMANY. 
 
 321 
 
 urinated this war, unjustly undertaken, but gloriously concluded ; 
 and Louis saw himself the arbiter of the destinies of Europe. 
 The states-general of Holland were weary of a struggle sus- 
 tained only by means of their subsidies ; and a congress assem- 
 bled at Nimeguen, where peace was signed on the 10th of August, 
 1678. Holland recovered all which had been taken from her 
 during the war; Spain abandoned Franche-Comte*, and a great 
 number of places in the Netherlands ; the emperor ceded the 
 two Imperial towns, of which the mare'chal de Feuillade had 
 gained possession, and surrendered Friburg in exchange for 
 Philipsburg ; and France's right of possession over Alsace was 
 confirmed. The young duke of Lorraine, the nephew of 
 Charles IV., refused to submit himself to the law of Louis XIV., 
 and rejected the conditions on which he was to be re-established 
 in his states, which France, therefore, continued to occupy ; 
 and Sicily was evacuated. 
 
 41
 
 322 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND GERMANY. 
 
 the advantages secured by the 
 peace of Nimeguen, Louis added 
 others, not less important, which he 
 obtained by fraud and violence. It 
 was stated, in the treaty, that the 
 various cessions should be accom- 
 panied by all their dependencies; 
 but it had been the intention of the 
 negotiators that all these annexations should be regu- 
 lated in concert. Louis, however, assumed the right 
 to arrange them alone ; and established, in conse- 
 quence, a sovereign court at Besanc,on, and two coun- 
 cils, equally supreme, one at Brisach, and the other at Metz, 
 commissioned to pronounce, without appeal, on the annexations 
 to his crown. By this arbitrary proceeding, the king of 
 Sweden, the duke of Wirtemberg, and Deux Ponts, the elector 
 palatine, the elector of Treves, and an infinity of other princes, 
 were despoiled of a portion of their dominions, and summoned 
 to do homage in respect of others of their possessions. Louis 
 seized upon Strasburg, in a manner not less violent. Louvois 
 and the marquis de Montclar appeared suddenly before that 
 place with twenty thousand men. Induced by threats and se- 
 duction to capitulate, it was annexed to France, and, fortified 
 by Vauban, became the rampart of the kingdom against Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Justly indignant at these usurpations, the powers of Europe 
 signed a new league on the very day of the capture of Stras- 
 burg. But three hundred thousand Turks had, at that period, 
 poured down upon the empire ; and Vienna, reduced by them 
 to extremity, must have fallen, but for the aid of John Sobi- 
 eski, king of Poland, and Prince Charles of Lorraine, both of 
 whom had joined themselves to the army of the Circles. Leo-
 
 WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND GERMANY. 
 
 323 
 
 pold, and most of the other powers, too much weakened to 
 recommence the war, protested against France without acting. 
 Spain, alone, ventured to fight, and lost Courtray, Dixmude, 
 and Luxemburg. A truce of twenty years, to which the empe- 
 ror and Holland were parties, was concluded at Ratisbon. 
 (1684.) By this truce, the king was authorized to retain, dur- 
 ing its continuance, Luxemburg, Strasburg, and all the annexa- 
 tions decreed by his sovereign courts. Thus Louis XIV., in 
 extending his conquests by illegitimate methods, accumulated 
 on his own head hoarded resentments, which were destined to 
 break out against him in the day of adversity.
 
 324 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ACCESSION OF PHILIP V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 ^HARLES II., king of Spain, was 
 
 A languishing at the point of death ; 
 
 /i\ and the kings of France and Eng- 
 
 land, together with the emperor Leo- 
 pold, were already meditating the partition 
 of his vast territories among themselves. 
 Charles, by his first will, executed in 1698, 
 had nominated as his heir the electoral prince 
 of Bavaria, aged only six years. That young prince, however, 
 died in the following year ; and the expiring monarch, after 
 long consultation with the pope, the Spanish universities, and his 
 own council, appointed as his successor Philip, due dAnjou, 
 grandson of his eldest sister Maria-Theresa, and son of the 
 dauphin of France. In case Philip should refuse to renounce 
 his claims to the crown of France, his brother, the due de Berry, 
 was substituted for him ; and after the due de Berry was named 
 the archduke Charles, the second son of the emperor. In any 
 event, the testator forbade the dismemberment of the Spanish 
 monarchy. He died in 1700. 
 
 Louis XIV. knew that to accept this will would be to involve 
 France in a new war, and brave Europe, at all times sufficiently 
 inclined to reproach him with aiming at universal monarchy. 
 He could not, however, resist the temptation of placing so bril- 
 liant a crown on the head of his grandson ; and, after some 
 hesitation, he accepted — acknowledged the due d'Anjou as 
 king by the title of Philip V., and sent him into Spain with 
 those celebrated words : " The Pyrenees exist no longer." The 
 emperor immediately protested ; and a year had scarcely 
 elapsed ere Holland, England, and the empire made common 
 cause against Louis XIV- That monarch had committed two 
 grievous faults — the one in sending letters-patent to Philip V.,
 
 LOUIS XIV. ACKNOWLEDGES HIS GRANDSON KING OP SPAIN. 
 
 2C
 
 ACCESSION OF PHILIP V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 327 
 
 whereby his rights to the crown of France were preserved 
 against the express will of the testator ; the other, in acknow- 
 ledging as king of England, on the death of James II., his son 
 the prince of Wales, in defiance of a formal clause in the 
 treaty of Ryswick. The tears of James's widow and the im- 
 portunities of Madame de Maintenon had prevailed with the 
 king over the unanimous advice of his council. The combined 
 powers made immediate preparation for that terrible war, known 
 in history under the name of the war of succession, (1701,) in 
 which the north of Europe alone had no part, divided, as it then 
 was, between Peter the Great and Charles XII. The only 
 supporters of Louis XIV. against this formidable league were 
 the king of Portugal, the duke of Savoy, and the electors of 
 Bavaria and Cologne.
 
 328 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 KZJ 
 
 SIEGE OF VIENNA. 
 
 v HE Hungarians, whose privileges the emperor 
 Leopold had never sufficiently respected, had 
 again broken out into rebellion ; and Tekeli, the 
 head of the insurgents, had called in the Turks 
 to the support of his countrymen. By the as- 
 sistance of the basha of Buda, he ravaged Sile- 
 sia, and reduced many important places in Hun- 
 gary; while Mahomet IV., the reigning sultan, was preparing 
 the most formidable force that the Ottoman empire had ever 
 sent against Christendom.
 
 SIEGE OF VIENNA. 329 
 
 Leopold, foreseeing that the gathering storm would finally 
 break upon Germany, besides demanding the assistance of the 
 princes of the empire, concluded an offensive and defensive 
 alliance with John Sobieski, king of Poland. Meanwhile the 
 grand vizier, Kara Mustapha, passing through Hungary, at the 
 head of fifty thousand janizaries, thirty thousand spahis, and 
 two hundred thousand common men, assembled for the occasion, 
 with baggage and artillery in proportion to such a multitude, 
 advanced towards Vienna. The duke of Lorrain, who com- 
 manded the Imperial forces, attempted in vain to oppose the 
 progress of the invader. The Turks, under the grand vizier, 
 took the right of the Danube, and Tekeli, with the Hungarians, 
 the left. Seeing his capital threatened on every side, the em- 
 peror retired first to Lintz, and afterwards to Passau. Two- 
 thirds of the inhabitants followed the court ; and nothing was 
 to be seen, on all sides, but fugitives, equipages, and carriages 
 laden with movables. The whole empire was thrown into con- 
 sternation. 
 
 The garrison of Vienna amounted to about fifteen thousand 
 men ; and the citizens able to bear arms, to near fifty thousand. 
 The Turks invested the town on the 17th of July, 1683 ; and 
 they had not only destroyed the suburbs, but made a breach in 
 the body of the place by the first of September. The duke of 
 Lorrain had been so fortunate as to prevent the Hungarians from 
 joining the Turks, but was unable to lend the garrison any re- 
 lief ; and an assault was every moment expected, when a deli- 
 verer appeared. John Sobieski, king of Poland, having joined 
 his troops to those of Saxony, Bavaria, and the Circles, made 
 a signal to the besieged from the top of the mountain of Calem- 
 berg, and inspired them with new hopes. Kara Mustapha, 
 who, from a contempt of the Christians, had neglected to push 
 the assault, and who, amidst the progress of ruin, had wan- 
 toned in luxury, was now made sensible of his mistake, when 
 too late to repair it. 
 
 The Christians, to the number of sixty-four thousand, de- 
 scended the mountain, under the command of the king of Po- 
 land, the duke of Lorrain, and an incredible number of German 
 princes. The grand vizier advanced to meet them at the head 
 of the main body of the Turkish army, while he ordered an 
 assault to be made upon the city with twenty thousand men, 
 42 2c2
 
 330 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 who were left in the trenches. The assault failed; and the 
 Turks, being seized with a panic, were routed almost without re- 
 sistance. Only five hundred of the victors fell, and not above 
 one thousand of the vanquished. And so great was the terror, 
 and so precipitate the flight of the infidels, that they aban- 
 doned not only their tents, artillery, and baggage, but left be- 
 hind them even the famous standard of Mahomet, which was 
 sent as a present to the pope ! The Turks received another 
 defeat in the plain of Barcan ; and all Hungary, on both sides 
 of the Danube, was recovered by the Imperial arms. 
 
 The king of France, who had supported the malcontents in 
 Hungary, and who encouraged the invasion of the Turks, raised 
 however the blockade of Luxemburg, when they approached 
 Vienna. "I will never," said he, " attack a Christian prince, 
 while Christendom is in danger from the infidels." He was con- 
 fident, when he made this declaration, that the Imperial city 
 would be taken, and had an army on the frontiers of Germany, 
 ready to oppose the farther progress of those very Turks whom 
 he had invited thither ! By becoming the protector of the 
 empire, he hoped to get his son elected king of the Romans. 
 But this scheme being defeated, and the apprehensions of 
 Christendom removed by the relief of Vienna and the expulsion 
 of the Turks, Louis returned to the siege of Luxemburg, 
 (a. d. 1684 ;) and reduced, in a short time, not only that place, 
 but also Courtray and Dixmude, as already related. 
 
 .-^ • : : i
 
 KING HILIP'S WAR. 
 
 331 
 
 BURNING OF DEERFIELD. 
 
 KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 HE state of prosperous repose 
 which New England enjoyed for 
 several years was interrupted by 
 a general conspiracy of the In- 
 dian tribes, (1674,) that pro- 
 duced a war so bloody and for- 
 - midable as to threaten for some 
 ^ time the utter destruction of all 
 the settlements. This hostile 
 combination was promoted by a 
 young chief whose history reminds us of the exploits of Opechan- 
 canough in Virginia. He was the second son of Massasoit, a 
 prince who ruled a powerful tribe inhabiting territories adjacent 
 to the settlement of Plymouth at the time when the English first
 
 332 INCIDENTS OP MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 gained a footing in the country. The father had entered into 
 an alliance with the colonists, and, after his death, his two sons 
 expressed an earnest desire to retain and cultivate their friend- 
 ship. They even requested of the magistrates of Plymouth, as 
 a mark of identification with their allies, that English names 
 might be given them ; and, in compliance with their desire, the 
 elder received the name of Alexander, and the younger of Philip. 
 But these expressions of good-will were prompted entirely by 
 the artifice that regulated their schemes of hostility ; and they 
 were both shortly after detected and disappointed in a treache- 
 rous attempt to involve the Narragansets in hostilities with the 
 colonists. The haughty spirit of the elder brother was over- 
 whelmed by this disgrace. Unable to brook the detection and 
 discomfiture of his perfidy, and perhaps additionally stung by 
 the generous clemency of the colonists, which lent aggravation to 
 his infamy, he abandoned himself to despair, and died of the 
 corrosion of rage and mortification. Philip, after the death of 
 his brother, renewed the alliance between his tribe and the 
 English ; but nothing was farther from his thoughts than the 
 fulfilment of his engagements. Subtle, fierce, artful, and dissem- 
 bling, yet stern in adventurous purpose and relentless cruelty, 
 he meditated a universal conspiracy of the Indians for the ex- 
 tirpation of the colonists, and for several years pursued this de- 
 sign as secretly and successfully as the numerous difficulties that 
 encompassed him would permit. Next to the growing power of 
 the European settlers, nothing more keenly provoked his indig- 
 nation than the progress of their missionary labours ; and in 
 reality, it was to these labours, and some of the consequences 
 they produced, that the colonists were indebted for their preser- 
 vation from the ruin that would have attended the success of 
 Philip's machinations. Some of the tribes to whom he applied 
 revealed his propositions to the missionaries ; and several Indians 
 who had embraced his schemes were persuaded by their con- 
 verted brethren to renounce them. The magistrates of Plymouth 
 frequently remonstrated with him on the dishonour he incurred 
 and the danger he provoked by the perfidious machinations of 
 which from time to time they obtained information ; and by re- 
 newed and more solemn engagements than before, he endeavoured 
 to disarm their vigilance and allay their apprehension. For two 
 or three years before the present period, he pursued his hostile
 
 KING PHILIP'S WAR. 333 
 
 projects with such successful duplicity as to elude discovery, and 
 even suspicion ; and had now succeeded in uniting some of thfe 
 fiercest and most powerful of the Indian tribes in a confederacy 
 to make war on the colonists to the point of extermination. 
 
 A converted Indian, who was labouring as a missionary among 
 the tribes of his countrymen, having discovered the plot, re- 
 vealed it to the governor of Plymouth, and was soon after found 
 dead in a field, under circumstances that left no doubt of assas- 
 sination. Some neighbouring Indians, suspected of being the 
 perpetrators of this crime, were apprehended, and solemnly tried 
 before a jury, consisting half of English and half of Indians, 
 who returned a verdict of guilty. At their execution, one of 
 the convicts confessed the murder, — declaring, withal, that its 
 commission had been planned and instigated by Philip ; and this 
 crafty chief, alarmed at the perilous disclosure, now threw off 
 the mask, and summoned his confederates to his aid. The 
 States of Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut took arms 
 for their common defence, — having first employed every means 
 to induce Philip to accommodate the quarrel by a friendly 
 treaty. But a bloodless issue was not what Philip desired ; and 
 perceiving that the season of secret conspiracy was over, he re- 
 jected all negotiation, and commenced a general war, (1675,) 
 which was carried on with great vigour and various success. 
 Though Philip's own tribe supplied no more than five hundred 
 warriors, he had so increased his force by alliances that he was 
 able to bring three thousand men into the field. This formidable 
 host, conducted by a chief who was persuaded that the war must 
 terminate in the total ruin of one or other of the conflicting 
 parties, made exertions of which the Indians were hitherto sup- 
 posed incapable. Several battles were fought, and all the fury, 
 havoc, and cruelty which distinguish Indian warfare were ex- 
 perienced in their fullest extent by the English. Wherever the 
 enemy marched, their route was marked with slaughter and deso- 
 lation. Massachusetts and Plymouth were the states that suf- 
 fered principally from the contest. There, especially, the In- 
 dians were so mingled with the European colonists, that there 
 was scarcely a part of the country which was not exposed to 
 danger, or a family which had not to bewail the loss of a relative 
 or friend. In a woodland scene near the village of Deerfield, 
 in Massachusetts, Captain Lothrop and a party of the provincial
 
 334 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 troops were suddenly attacked by an Indian force commanded 
 by Philip himself; and, unaware that to encounter such an 
 enemy with effect he ought to place his men in phalanx, Lothrop 
 posted them separately behind trees, where he and every one of 
 them, to the number of ninety-three, were presently shot down ; 
 other provincial troops now pressing up with unavailing succour, 
 defeated the Indians and put them to flight. But, more elated 
 with their first success than daunted by their final check, these 
 savages speedily reappeared before the village and shook the 
 scalps and bloody garments of the slaughtered captain and his 
 troop before the eyes of the inhabitants. Deerfield was shortly 
 after deserted by its harassed settlers, and destroyed by the 
 triumphant Indians. It is a truth not yet sufficiently illus- 
 trated, that, in all the Indian wars of this period, the savages, 
 from the condition of the country, their own superior acquaint- 
 ance with it, and their peculiar habits of life and qualities of 
 body and mind, enjoyed advantages which wellnigh counter- 
 balanced the superiority of European science. They seemed to 
 unite the instinct and ferocity of the brutal creation with the 
 art and sagacity of rational beings, and were, in single combat 
 and in the conflict of very small numbers, as superior, as in 
 more numerous encounter they were inferior, to civilized men. 
 Changing their own encampments with facility, and advancing 
 upon those of the colonists with the wary, dexterous secrecy of 
 beasts of prey, with them there was almost always the spirit and 
 audacity of attack, and with their adversaries the disadvantages 
 of defence and the consternation produced by surprise ; nor 
 could the colonists obtain the means of attacking, in their turn, 
 without following the savages into forests and swamps, where 
 the benefit of their higher martial qualities was lost, and the 
 system of European warfare rendered impracticable. The 
 savages had long been acquainted with fire-arms, and were re- 
 markably expert in the use of them. 
 
 For some time the incursions of the Indians could not be 
 restrained ; and every enterprise or skirmish in which they 
 reaped the slightest credit or advantage increased the number 
 of their allies. But the savage artifice which Philip employed, 
 on one occasion, for the purpose of recruiting his forces, recoiled 
 with merited injury on himself. Repairing with a band of his 
 adherents to the territory of a neutral tribe, he caused certain
 
 KING PHILIP'S WAR. 335 
 
 of the people who belonged to it to be surprised and assassi- 
 nated ; and then, proceeding to the head-quarters of the tribe, he 
 affirmed that he had seen the murder committed by a party of 
 the Plymouth soldiers. The tribe, in a flame of rage, declared 
 war on the colonists ; but their vindictive sentiments soon took 
 another direction ; for one of the wounded men, having reco- 
 vered his senses, made a shift to crawl to the habitations of his 
 countrymen, and, though mortally injured, was able, before he 
 expired, to disclose the real author of the tragedy. Revoking 
 their former purpose, the tribe thereupon declared war on Philip, 
 and espoused the cause of his enemies. Hostilities were pro- 
 tracted till near the close of the following year, when the steady 
 efforts and determined courage of the colonists prevailed ; and, 
 after a series of defeats, and the loss of all his family and chief 
 councillors, Philip himself was killed by one of his own tribe 
 whom he had offended. (August, 1676.) Deprived of its chief 
 abettor, the war was soon terminated by the submission of the 
 Indians. Yet to certain of the tribes the colonists sternly 
 denied all terms of capitulation, and warned them, before their 
 surrender, that their treachery had been so gross and unpro- 
 voked, and their outrages so atrocious and unpardonable, that 
 they must abide the issue of judicial arbitrament. In confor- 
 mity with this declaration, some of the chiefs were tried and 
 executed for murder ; and a number of their followers were 
 transported to the West Indies, and sold as slaves. Never 
 before had the people of New England been engaged in hostili- 
 ties so fierce, so bloody, or so desolating. Many houses and 
 flourishing villages were reduced to ashes ; and in the course of 
 the warfare six hundred persons of European birth or descent, 
 composing the flower and strength of several of the districts, 
 either fell in battle, were massacred in their dwellings, or ex- 
 pired beneath the tortures inflicted by the savages on their cap- 
 tives. The military operations of the colonists in these cam- 
 paigns were thought, and perhaps justly, to disclose less skill 
 and conduct than had been displayed in the Pequod War. They 
 were, indeed, no longer commanded by the experienced officers 
 who accompanied their ancestors from Europe ; and they were 
 opposed to an enemy much more formidable than the Pequods. 
 But the firm, enduring valour they manifested was worthy of 
 men whose characters were formed under institutions no less
 
 336 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 favorable to freedom than virtue, and who fought in defence of 
 all they held dear and valuable. Among other officers, Captain 
 Church, of Massachusetts, and Captain Dennison, of Connecticut, 
 have been particularly celebrated by the provincial historians 
 for their heroic ardour and fortitude. In the commencement of 
 the war, the surprising treachery practised by the hostile In- 
 dians naturally excited apprehensions of the defection of the 
 Indian congregations which the missionaries had collected and 
 partly civilized. But not one of these people proved unfaithful 
 to their benefactors. 
 
 The Indian warfare by which New England was desolated 
 during this period was not bounded by the hostilities of Philip 
 and his confederates. An attack was made at the same time on 
 New Hampshire and Maine, by the tribes that were situated in 
 the vicinity of these settlements. The Indians complained that 
 they had been defrauded and insulted by some of the English 
 traders in that quarter ; but strong suspicions were entertained 
 that their hostilities were promoted by the French government, 
 now re-established in Acadia. The invasion of those territories 
 was distinguished by the usual guile, ferocity, and cruelty of the 
 savages. Many of the inhabitants were massacred, and others 
 carried into captivity. Prompt assistance was rendered to her 
 allies by Massachusetts ; and after a variety of sharp engage- 
 ments, the Indians sustained a considerable defeat. They were, 
 notwithstanding, still able and willing to continue the war ; and 
 both their numbers and their animosity were increased by a 
 measure which the provincial government adopted against them. 
 It was proposed to the General Court of Massachusetts to invite 
 the Mohawk tribe, who, from time immemorial, had been the 
 enemies of the Eastern Indians, to make a descent on their ter- 
 ritories at this juncture. The lawfulness of using such auxilia- 
 ries was questioned by some ; but it was deemed a satisfactory 
 answer to the objection, that Abraham confederated with the 
 Amorites for the rescue of his kinsman, Lot, from the hands of 
 a common enemy ; and messengers were accordingly despatched 
 to solicit the co-operation of the Mohawks. Little entreaty was 
 necessary to induce them to comply with the invitation ; and a 
 band of Mohawk warriors quickly marched against their heredi- 
 tary foes. The expedition, however, so far from producing the 
 slightest benefit, was attended with serious disadvantage to the
 
 KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 337 
 
 cause of the colonists. The Indians who were their proper ene- 
 mies suffered very little from the Mohawk invasion ; while some 
 powerful tribes, who had been hitherto at peace with the colonists, 
 exasperated by injuries or affronts which they received from 
 those invaders, now declared war both against them and their 
 English allies. At last, the intelligence of Philip's overthrow, 
 and the probability of stronger forces being thus enabled to 
 march against them, inclined the Eastern Indians to hearken to 
 proposals of peace. The war in this quarter was terminated by 
 a treaty favourable to the Indians, to whom the colonists en- 
 gaged to pay a certain quantity of corn yearly as a quitrent for 
 their lands. 
 
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 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
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 ACCESSION OF WILLIAM III. OF ENGLAND- 
 BATTLES OF THE BOYNE AND OF AUr 
 GHRIM. 
 
 /ILLIAM, as soon as 
 elected to the throne, 
 began to experience 
 the difficulty of go- 
 verning a people who 
 were more ready to examine the 
 commands of their superiors than 
 to obey them. (a. d. 1688.) 
 
 His reign commenced with an 
 attempt similar to that which had 
 been the principal cause of all the 
 disturbances in the preceding reign, and which had excluded 
 the monarch from the throne. William was a Calvinist, and 
 consequently averse to persecution ; he therefore began by
 
 ACCESSION OF WILLIAM in. 341 
 
 attempting those laws which enjoined uniformity of worship ; 
 and, though he could not entirely succeed in his design, a tole- 
 ration was granted to such dissenters as should take the oaths 
 of allegiance and hold no private conventicle. 
 
 In the mean time, James, whose authority was still acknow- 
 ledged in Ireland, embarked at Brest for that kingdom, and on 
 May 22d arrived at Kinsale. He soon after made his public 
 entry into Dublin, amidst the acclamations of the inhabitants. 
 He found the appearance of things in that country equal to his 
 most sanguine expectations. Tyrconnel, the lord-lieutenant, 
 was devoted to his interests ; his old army was steady, and a 
 new one was raised, amounting together to nearly forty thou- 
 sand men. As soon as the season would permit, he went to lay 
 siege to Londonderry, a town of small importance in itself, but 
 rendered famous by the stand it made on this occasion. 
 
 The besieged endured the most poignant sufferings from fa- 
 tigue and famine, until at last relieved by a storeship that hap- 
 pily broke the boom laid across the river to prevent a supply. 
 The joy of the inhabitants at this unexpected relief was only 
 equalled by the rage and disappointment of the besiegers. The 
 army of James was so dispirited by the success of this enterprise, 
 that they abandoned the siege in the night, and retired with 
 precipitation, after having lost about nine thousand men before 
 the place. 
 
 It was upon the opposite sides of the river Boyie that both 
 armies came in sight of each other, inflamed with all the ani- 
 mosities arising from a difference of religion, hatred, and re- 
 venge, (a. d. 1690.) The river Boyne at this place was not 
 so deep but that men might wade over on foot ; however, the 
 banks were rugged, and rendered dangerous by old houses 
 and ditches, which served to defend the latent enemy. William, 
 who now headed the Protestant army, had no sooner arrived, 
 but he rode along the side of the river in sight of both armies, 
 to make proper observations upon the plan of battle ; but in 
 the mean time, being perceived by the enemy, a cannon was 
 privately brought out, and planted against him where he was 
 sitting. The shot killed several of his followers, and he him- 
 self was wounded in the shoulder. 
 
 Early the next morning, at six o'clock, King William gave 
 orders to force a passage over the river. This the army under- 
 
 2d2
 
 342 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 took in three different places ; and, after a furious cannonading, 
 the battle began with unusual vigour. The Irish troops, though 
 reckoned the best in Europe abroad, have always fought indif- 
 ferently at home. After an obstinate resistance, they fled with 
 precipitation, leaving the French and Swiss regiments, who 
 came to their assistance, to make the best retreat they could 
 William led on his horse in person, and contributed by his 
 activity and vigilance to secure the victory. James was not in 
 the battle, but stood aloof during the action on the hill of Dun- 
 more, surrounded with some squadrons of horse, and at inter- 
 vals was heard to exclaim, when he saw his own troops repulsing 
 those of the enemy, " 0, spare my English subjects !" 
 
 The Irish lost about fifteen hundred men, and the Protestants 
 about one-third of that number. The victory was splendid, 
 and almost decisive ; but the death of the duke of Schomberg, 
 who was shot as he was crossing the water, seemed to outweigh 
 the whole loss sustained by the enemy. 
 
 The last battle fought in favour of James was at Aughrim. 
 (a. d. 1691.) The enemy fought with surprising fury, and the 
 horse were several times repulsed; but the English, wading 
 through the middle of a bog up to the waist in mud, and rally- 
 ing with some difficulty on the firm ground on the other side, 
 renewed the combat with great fury. St. Ruth, the Irish gene- 
 ral, being killed, his fate so discouraged his troops that they 
 gave way on all sides, and retreated to Limerick, where they 
 resolved to make a final stand, after having lost above five thou- 
 sand of the flower of their army. Limerick, the last retreat 
 of the Irish forces, made a brave defence ; but soon seeing the 
 enemy advanced within ten paces of the bridge-foot, and per- 
 ceiving themselves surrounded on all sides, they determined to 
 capitulate ; a negotiation was immediately begun, and hostili- 
 ties ceased on both sides. The Roman Catholics, by this ca- 
 pitulation, were restored to the enjoyment of those liberties in 
 the exercise of their religion which they had possessed in the 
 reign of King Charles the Second. All persons were indulged 
 with free leave to remove with their families and effects to any 
 other country, except England and Scotland. In consequence 
 of this, above fourteen thousand of those who had fought for 
 King James went over into France, having transports provided 
 by government for conveying them thither.
 
 ACCESSION OF WILLIAM III. 343 
 
 James was now reduced to the lowest state of despondence ; his 
 designs upon England were quite frustrated, so that nothing 
 was left his friends but the hopes of assassinating the monarch 
 on the throne, (a. D. 1692.) These base attempts, as barbarous 
 as they were useless, were not entirely disagreeable to the tem- 
 per of James. It is said he encouraged and proposed them ; 
 but they all proved unserviceable to his cause, and only ended 
 in the destruction of the undertakers. From that time till he 
 died, which was about seven years, he continued to reside at 
 St. Germains, a pensioner on the bounty of Louis, and assisted 
 by occasional liberalities from his daughter and friends in Eng- 
 land. He died on the sixteenth day of September, in the year 
 1700, after having laboured under a tedious sickness ; and 
 many miracles, as the people thought, were wrought at his 
 tomb. Indeed, the latter part of his life was calculated to in- 
 spire the superstitious with reverence for his piety. He sub- 
 jected himself to acts of uncommon penance and mortification. 
 He frequently visited the poor monks of La Trappe, who were 
 edified by his humble and pious deportment. His pride and 
 arbitrary temper seemed to have vanished with his greatness ; 
 he became affable, kind, and easy to all his dependants ; and 
 at his last illness conjured his son to prefer religion to every 
 worldly advantage — a counsel which that prince strictly obeyed. 
 He died with great marks of devotion, and was interred, at his 
 own request, in the church of the English Benedictines at Paris, 
 without any funeral solemnity. 
 
 William, upon accepting of the crown, was resolved to pre- 
 serve, as much as he was able, that share of prerogative which 
 still was left him. But at length he became fatigued with op- 
 posing the laws which parliament every day were laying round 
 his authority, and gave up the contest. He admitted every 
 restraint upon the prerogative in England, upon condition of 
 being properly supplied with the means of humbling the power 
 of France. War, and the balance of power in Europe, were 
 all he knew, or indeed desired to understand. Provided the 
 parliament furnished him with supplies for these purposes, he 
 permitted them to rule the internal polity at their pleasure. 
 For the prosecution of the war with France, the sums of money 
 granted to him were incredible. The nation, not content with 
 furnishing him with such sums of money as they were capable
 
 344 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of raising by the taxes of the year, mortgaged these taxes, and 
 involved themselves in debts which they have never since been 
 able to discharge. For all that profusion of wealth granted 
 to maintain the imaginary balance of Europe, England received 
 in return the empty reward of military glory in Flanders, and 
 the consciousness of having given their allies, particularly the 
 Dutch, frequent opportunities of being ungrateful. 
 
 The war with France continued during the greatest part of 
 this king's reign ; but at length the treaty of Ryswick (a. d. 
 1697) put an end to those contentions, in which England had 
 engaged without policy and came off without advantage. 
 
 In the general pacification, her interests seemed entirely de- 
 serted ; and for all the treasures she had sent to the continent, 
 and all the blood which she had shed there, the only equivalent 
 she received was an acknowledgment of King William's title 
 from the king of France. 
 
 William was naturally of a very feeble constitution ; and it 
 was by this time almost exhausted by a series of continual dis- 
 quietude and action. He had endeavoured to repair his consti- 
 tution, or at least to conceal its decays, by exercise and riding. 
 On the twenty-first day of February, in riding to Hampton- 
 court from Kensington, his horse fell under him, and he was 
 thrown with such violence that his collar-bone was fractured. 
 His attendants conveyed him to the palace at Hampton-court, 
 where the fracture was reduced, and in the evening he returned to 
 Kensington in his coach. The jolting of the carriage disunited 
 the fracture once more, and the bones were again replaced, under 
 Bidloo, his physician. This in a robust constitution would 
 have been a trifling misfortune ; but in him it was fatal. For 
 some time he appeared in a fair way of recovery ; but, falling 
 asleep on his couch, he was seized with a shivering, which ter- 
 minated in a fever and diarrhoea, which soon became dangerous 
 and desperate. Perceiving his end approaching, the objects of 
 his former care still lay next his heart ; and the fate of Europe 
 seemed to remove the sensations he might be supposed to feel 
 for his own. The earl of Albemarle arriving from Holland, he 
 conferred with him in private on the posture of affairs abroad. 
 Two days after, having received the sacrament from Archbishop 
 Tenison, he expired in the fifty-second year of his age, after 
 having reigned thirteen years.
 
 QUEEN ANNE.
 
 ACCESSION OF QUEEN ANNE OF ENGLAND. 
 
 347 
 
 MARLBOROUGH. 
 
 ACCESSION OF QUEEN ANNE OF ENGLAND. 
 
 NNE, married to Prince George of Denmark, 
 ascended the throne in the thirty-eighth year of 
 her age, to the general satisfaction of all parties. 
 (a. d. 1702.) She was the second daughter of 
 King James, by his first wife, the daughter of 
 Chancellor Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon. 
 Upon coming to the crown, she resolved to de- 
 clare war against France, and communicated her intentions to 
 the House of Commons, by whom it was approved, and war 
 was proclaimed accordingly. 
 
 This declaration of war, on the part of the English, was 
 seconded by similar declarations by the Dutch and Germans on 
 the same day. The French monarch could not suppress his 
 anger at such a combination ; but his chief resentment fell upon 
 the Dutch. He declared, with great emotion, that, as for these 
 gentlemen pedlars, the Dutch, they should one day repent their 
 insolence and presumption in declaring war against one whose 
 power they had formerly felt and dreaded. However, the 
 affairs of the allies were no way influenced by his threats. The
 
 348 INCIDENTS OF MODERN IIISTORY. 
 
 duke of Marlborough had his views gratified in being appointed 
 general of the English forces ; and he was still farther flattered 
 by the Dutch, who, though the earl of Athlone had a right to share 
 the command, appointed Marlborough generalissimo of the 
 allied army. And it must be confessed, that few men shone 
 more, either in debate or action, than he ; serene in the midst 
 of danger, and indefatigable in the cabinet ; so that he became 
 the most formidable enemy to France that England ever pro- 
 duced, since the conquering times of Cressy and Agincourt. 
 
 A great part of the history of this reign consists in battles 
 fought upon the continent, which, though of very little advan- 
 tage to the interest of England, were very great additions to 
 its honour. These triumphs, it is true, are passed away, and 
 nothing remains of them but the names of Blenheim, Ramilies, 
 Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, where the allied army gained 
 great, but, with respect to England, useless victories. 
 
 A conquest of much greater national importance was gained 
 with less expense of blood and treasure in Spain. The minis- 
 try of England, understanding that the French were employed 
 in equipping a strong squadron in Brest, sent out Sir Cloudesly 
 Shovel and Sir George Rooke to watch their motions. Sir 
 George, however, had further orders to convoy a body of forces 
 in transport-ships to Barcelona, upon which a fruitless attack 
 was made by the prince of Hesse. Finding no hopes, there- 
 fore, from this expedition, in two days after the troops were re- 
 embarked, Sir George Rooke, joined by Sir Cloudesly, called a 
 council of war on board the fleet, as they lay off the coast of 
 Africa. In this they resolved to make an attempt upon Gib- 
 raltar, a city then belonging to the Spaniards, at that time ill- 
 provided with a garrison, as neither expecting nor fearing such 
 an attempt. 
 
 The town of Gibraltar stands upon a tongue of land, as the 
 mariners call it, and defended by a rock inaccessible on every 
 side but one. The prince of Hesse landed his troops, to the 
 number of eight hundred, on the continent adjoining, and sum- 
 moned the town to surrender, but without effect. Next day 
 the admiral gave orders for cannonading the town ; and, per- 
 ceiving that the enemy were driven from their fortifications at 
 a place called the South Mole Head, ordered Captain Whitaker 
 to arm all the boats and assault that quarter. Those officers
 
 ACCESSION OF QUEEN ANNE OF ENGLAND. 349 
 
 who happened to be nearest the mole immediately manned their 
 boats without orders, and entered the fortifications sword in 
 hand. But they were premature ; for the Spaniards sprung a 
 mine, by which two lieutenants and about one hundred men 
 were killed or wounded. Nevertheless, the two captains, Hicks 
 and Jumper, took possession of a platform, and kept their 
 ground until they were sustained by Captain Whitaker and the 
 rest of the seamen, who took a redoubt between the mole and 
 the town by storm. Then the governor capitulated, and the 
 prince of Hesse entered the place, amazed at the success of the 
 attempt, considering the strength of the fortifications. "When 
 the news of this conquest was brought to England, it was for 
 some time in debate whether it was a capture worth thanking 
 the admiral for. It was at last considered as unworthy public 
 gratitude ; and, while the duke of Marlborough was extolled for 
 useless services, Sir George Rooke was left to neglect, and soon 
 displaced from his command for having so essentially served his 
 country. A striking instance, that, even in the most enlight- 
 ened age, popular applause is most usually misplaced. Gibral- 
 tar has ever since remained in the possession of the English, 
 and continues of the utmost use in refitting that part of the 
 navy destined to annoy an enemy, or protect their trade in the 
 Mediterranean. Here the English have a repository capable 
 of containing all thing necessary for the repairing of fleets or 
 the equipment of armies. 
 
 While the English were thus victorious by land and sea, a 
 new scene of contention was opened on the side of Spain, where 
 the ambition of the European princes exerted itself with the 
 same fury that had filled the rest of the continent. Philip the 
 Fourth, grandson of Louis the Fourteenth, had been placed 
 upon the throne of that kingdom, and had been received with 
 the joyful concurrence of the greatest part of his subjects. He 
 had also been nominated successor to the crown by the late king 
 of Spain's will. But, in a former treaty among the powers of 
 Europe, Charles, son of the emperor of Germany, was ap- 
 pointed heir to that crown ; and this treaty had been guaran- 
 tied by France herself, though she now resolved to reverse that 
 consent in favour of a descendant of the house of Bourbon. 
 Charles was still farther led on to put in for the crown of Spain 
 by the invitations of the Catalonians, who declared in his fa- 
 
 2E
 
 350 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 vour, and by the assistance of the English and the Portuguese, 
 who promised to arm in his cause. He was furnished with two 
 hundred transports, thirty ships of war, and nine thousand 
 men, for the conquest of that extensive empire. But the earl 
 of Peterborough, a man of romantic bravery, offered to conduct 
 them ; and his single service was thought equivalent to armies. 
 The earl of Peterborough was one of the most singular and 
 extraordinary men of the age in which he lived. When yet 
 but fifteen, he fought against the Moors in Africa ; at twenty 
 he assisted in compassing the revolution, and he now carried 
 on the war in Spain almost at his own expense ; his friendship 
 for the duke Charles being one of his chief motives to this 
 great undertaking. He was deformed in his person ; but of a 
 mind the most generous, honourable, and active. His first at- 
 tempt upon landing in Spain was the taking of Barcelona, a 
 strong city, with a garrison of five thousand men, while the 
 whole army amounted to little more than nine thousand. The 
 prince of Hesse was killed in this action. 
 
 DEATH OF THE PRINCE OF HESSE AT BARCELONA. 
 
 These successes, however, were but of short continuance ; 
 Peterborough being recalled, and the army under Charles being 
 commanded by the lord Galway. This nobleman, having re- 
 ceived intelligence that the enemy, under the command of the 
 duke of Berwick, was posted near the town of Almanza, he 
 advanced thither to give him battle. The conflict began about
 
 ACCESSION OF QUEEN ANNE OP ENGLAND. 
 
 351 
 
 two in the afternoon, and the whole front of each army was 
 fully engaged. The centre, consisting chiefly of battalions from 
 Great Britain and Holland, seemed at first victorious ; but the 
 Portuguese horse, by whom they were supported, betaking 
 themselves to flight in the first charge, the English troops were 
 flanked and surrounded on every side. In this dreadful emer- 
 gency they formed themselves into a square, and retired to an 
 eminence, where, being ignorant of the country and destitute 
 of all supplies, they were obliged to surrender prisoners of war 
 to the number of ten thousand men. This victory was com- 
 plete and decisive ; and all Spain, except the province of Cata- 
 lonia, returned to their duty to Philip, their sovereign.
 
 352 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 EXPLOITS OF THE BUCCANEERS. 
 
 'FTER the failure of the mines of His- 
 paniola, which were never rich, and the 
 conquest of the two extensive empires 
 of Mexico and Peru, where the pre- 
 cious metals were found in the greatest 
 profusion, that valuable island was en- 
 tirely neglected by the Spaniards. The 
 greater part of its once flourishing 
 cities were deserted by their inhabitants, and the few planters 
 that remained sunk into the most enervating indolence. The 
 necessaries, however, and even many of the luxuries of life 
 were there found in abundance. All the European animals had 
 multiplied exceedingly, but especially the horned cattle, which
 
 EXPLOITS OF THE BUCCANEERS. 353 
 
 were become in a manner wild, and wandered about in large 
 droves, without any regular owner. Allured by these conve- 
 niences, certain French and English adventurers, since known 
 by the name of Buccaneers or freebooters, had taken posses- 
 sion of the small island of Tortuga, as early as the year 1632, 
 and found little difficulty, under such favourable circumstances, 
 of establishing themselves on the northern coast of Hispaniola. 
 They at first subsisted chiefly by the hunting of wild cattle. 
 Part of the beef they ate fresh, part they dried, and the hides 
 they sold to the masters of such vessels as came upon the coast, 
 and who furnished them in return with clothes, liquors, fire- 
 arms, powder, and shot. But the wild cattle at length becom- 
 ing scarce, the buccaneers were under the necessity of turning 
 their industry to other objects. The sober-minded men applied 
 themselves to the cultivation of the ground, which abundantly 
 requited their toil, while those of a bold and restless disposition 
 associated themselves with pirates and outlaws of all nations, 
 and formed the most terrible band of ravagers that ever infested 
 the ocean. To these ravagers, however, rendered famous by 
 their courage and their crimes, France and England are in- 
 debted, in some measure, for the prosperity of their settlements 
 in the West Indies. 
 
 Nothing could appear less formidable than the first arma- 
 ments of the piratical buccaneers, who took the name of Bro- 
 thers of the Coast. Having formed themselves, like the hunt- 
 ers of wild cattle, into small societies, they made their excur- 
 sions in an open boat, which generally contained between 
 twenty and thirty men, exposed to all the intemperature of 
 the climate, to the burning heat of the day, and the chilling 
 damps of the night. The natural inconveniencies connected 
 with this mode of life were augmented by those arising from 
 their licentious disposition. 
 
 A love of freedom, which, duly regulated, cannot be too 
 much cherished, rendered the buccaneers averse against all 
 those restraints which civilized men usually impose on each 
 other for their common happiness ; and, as the authority which 
 they had conferred on their captain was chiefly confined to giv- 
 ing orders in battle, they lived in the greatest disorder. Like 
 savages, having no apprehension of want, nor taking any care 
 to guard against famine by prudent economy, they were fre- 
 45 2e2
 
 354 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 quently exposed to all the extremities of hunger and thirst. 
 But deriving, even from their distresses, a courage superior to 
 every danger, the sight of a sail transported them to a degree 
 of frenzy. They seldom deliberated on the mode of attack ; 
 but their custom was to board the ships as soon as possible. 
 The smallness of their own vessels, and their dexterity in ma- 
 naging them, preserved them from the fire of the enemy. They 
 presented only to the broadside of the ship their slender prows, 
 filled with expert marksmen, who fired at the enemy's port- 
 holes with such exactness as to confound the most experienced 
 gunners. And when they could fix their grappling tackle, the 
 largest trading vessels were generally obliged to strike. 
 
 Although the buccaneers, when under the pressure of neces- 
 sity, attacked the ships of every nation, those belonging to the 
 subjects of Spain were more especially marked out as the ob- 
 jects of their piracy. They thought that the cruelties which 
 the Spaniards had exercised on the natives of the New World 
 were a sufficient apology for any violence that could be com- 
 mitted against them. Accommodating their conscience to this 
 belief, which perhaps, unknown to themselves, was rather dic- 
 tated by the richness of the Spanish vessels than by any real 
 sense of religion or equity, they never embarked in an expedi- 
 tion without publicly praying to heaven for its success ; nor 
 did they ever return loaded with booty without solemnly re- 
 turning thanks to God for their good fortune. 
 
 This booty was originally carried to the island of Tortuga, 
 the common rendezvous of the buccaneers, and then their only 
 place of safety. But afterward the French went to some of 
 the ports of Hispaniola, where they had established themselves 
 in defiance of the Spaniards ; and the English to those of Ja- 
 maica, where they could dispose of their prizes to more advan- 
 tage, and lay out their money more agreeably, either in busi- 
 ness or pleasure. 
 
 Before the distribution of the spoil, each adventurer held up 
 his hand, and protested that he had secreted nothing of what 
 he had taken ; and if any one was convicted of perjury, a case 
 that seldom occurred, he was punished in a manner truly exem- 
 plary, and worthy the imitation of better men. He was ex- 
 pelled the community, and left, as soon as an opportunity
 
 EXPLOITS OF THE BUCCANEEKS. 355 
 
 offered, upon some desert island, as a wretch unworthy to live 
 in society, even with the destroyers of their species ! 
 
 After providing for the sick, the wounded, the maimed, and 
 settling their several shares, the buccaneers indulged themselves 
 in all kinds of licentiousness. Their debauches, which they 
 carried to the greatest excess, were limited only by the want 
 that such prodigality occasioned. If they were asked what 
 satisfaction they could find in dissipating so rapidly what they 
 had earned with so much jeopardy, they made this very inge- 
 nious reply : — « Exposed, as we are, to a variety of perils, our 
 life is totally different from that of other men. Why should we, 
 who are alive to-day, and run the hazard of being dead to-mor- 
 row, think of hoarding ! — Studious only of enjoying the present 
 hour, we never think of that which is to come." This has ever 
 been the language of men in such circumstances : the desire of 
 dissipating life, not solicitude for the preservation of existence, 
 seems to increase in proportion to the danger of losing it. 
 
 The ships that sailed from Europe to America seldom tempted 
 the avidity of the first buccaneers, as the merchandise they 
 carried could not readily have been sold in the West Indies in 
 those early times. But they eagerly watched the Spanish ves- 
 sels on their return to Europe, when certain they were partly 
 laden with treasure. They commonly followed the galleons and 
 flota, employed in transporting the produce of the mines of 
 Mexico and Peru, as far as the channel of Bahama ; and if, by 
 any accident, a ship was separated from the fleet, they instantly 
 beset her, and she seldom escaped them. They even ventured 
 to attack several ships at once ; and the Spaniards, who consi- 
 dered them as demons, and trembled at their approach, com- 
 monly surrendered if they came to close quarters. 
 
 A remarkable instance of this timidity on the one side, and 
 temerity on the other, occurs in the history of Peter Legrand, 
 a native of Dieppe in Normandy, who, with a small vessel, car- 
 rying no more than twenty-eight men and four guns, had the 
 boldness to attack the vice-admiral of the galleons. Resolved 
 to conquer or die, and having exacted an oath to the same pur- 
 pose from his crew, he ordered the carpenter to bore a hole in 
 the side of his own vessel, that all hope of escape might be cut 
 off. This was no sooner done than he boarded the Spanish 
 ship, with a sword in one hand and a pistol in the other, and,
 
 356 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 bearing down all resistance, entered the great cabin, attended 
 by a few of the most desperate of his associates. He there 
 found the admiral surrounded by his officers, presented a pistol 
 to his breast, and ordered him to surrender. Meanwhile, the 
 rest of the buccaneers took possession of the gun-room, and 
 seized the arms. Struck with terror and amazement, the Spa- 
 niards demanded quarter. Like examples are numerous in the 
 history of the buccaneers. 
 
 The Spaniards, almost reduced to despair, by finding them- 
 selves a continual prey to those ravagers, diminished the num- 
 ber of their ships, and the colonies gave up their connections 
 with each other. These humiliating precautions, however, 
 served but to increase the boldness of the buccaneers. They 
 had hitherto invaded the Spanish settlements only to procure 
 provisions ; but no sooner did they find their captures decrease, 
 than they determined to procure by land that wealth which the 
 sea denied them. They accordingly formed themselves into 
 larger bodies, and plundered many of the richest and strongest 
 towns in the New World. Maracaibo, Campeachy, Vera Cruz, 
 Porto-Bello, and Carthagena, on this side of the continent, se- 
 verely felt the effects of their fury ; and Quayaquil, Panama, 
 and many other places on the coast of the South Sea, were not 
 more fortunate in their resistance, or treated with greater lenity. 
 In a word, the buccaneers, the most extraordinary set of men 
 that ever appeared upon the face of the globe, but whose 
 duration was transitory, subjected to their arms, without a regu- 
 lar system of government, without laws, without any permanent 
 subordination, and even without revenue, cities and castles 
 which have baffled the utmost efforts of national force ; and if 
 conquest, not plunder, had been their objects, they might have 
 made themselves masters of all Spanish America. 
 
 Among the buccaneers who first acquired distinction in this 
 new mode of plundering, was Montbars, a gentleman of Lan- 
 guedoc. Having by chance, in his infancy, met with a circum- 
 stantial, and perhaps exaggerated, account of the cruelties prac- 
 tised by the Spaniards in the conquest of the New World, he 
 conceived a strong antipathy against a nation that had commit- 
 ted so many enormities. His heated imagination, which he 
 loved to indulge, continually represented to him innumerable 
 multitudes of innocent people, murdered by a brood of savage
 
 EXPLOITS OF THE BUCCANEERS. 357 
 
 monsters nursed in the mountains of Castile. The unhappy 
 victims, whose names were ever present to his memory, seemed 
 to call upon him for vengeance : he longed to imbrue his hands 
 in Spanish blood, and to retaliate the cruelties of the Spaniards, 
 on the same shores where they had been perpetrated. He ac- 
 cordingly embarked on board a French ship bound to the West 
 Indies, about the middle of the last century, and joined the 
 buccaneers, whose natural ferocity he inflamed. Humanity in 
 him became the source of the most unfeeling barbarity. The 
 Spaniards suffered so much from his fury, that he acquired the 
 name of the Exterminator. 
 
 Michael de Baso and Francis Lolonois were also greatly re- 
 nowned for their exploits, both by sea and land. Their most 
 important, though not their most fortunate, enterprise, was that 
 of the gulf of Venezuela, with eight vessels and six hundred 
 and sixty associates. This gulf runs a considerable way up 
 into the country, and communicates with the lake of Maracaibo 
 by a narrow strait. That strait is defended by a castle called 
 la Barra, which the buccaneers took, and nailed up the cannon. 
 (a. d. 1667.) They then passed the bar, and advanced to the 
 city of Maracaibo, built on the western coast of the lake, at the 
 distance of about ten leagues from its mouth. But, to their 
 inexpressible disappointment, they found it utterly deserted and 
 unfurnished ; the inhabitants, apprized of their danger, having 
 removed to the other side of the lake with their most valuable 
 effects. 
 
 If the buccaneers had not spent a fortnight in riot and de- 
 bauchery, they would have found at Gibraltar, a town near the 
 extremity of the lake, every thing which the people of Mara- 
 caibo had carried off, in order to elude their rapacity. On the 
 contrary, by their imprudent delay, they met with fortifications 
 newly erected, which they had the glory of reducing at the 
 expense of much blood and the mortification of finding another 
 empty town. Exasperated at this second disappointment, the- 
 buccaneers set fire to Gibraltar ; and Maracaibo would have 
 shared the same fate had it not been ransomed. Besides the 
 bribe they received for their lenity, they took with them the 
 bells, images, and all the ornamental furniture of the churches, 
 intending, as they said, to build a chapel in the island of Tor- 
 tuga, and to consecrate that part of their spoils to sacred uses !
 
 858 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Like other plunderers of more exalted character, they had no 
 idea of the absurdity of offering to heaven the fruits of rob- 
 bery and murder, procured in direct violation of its laws. 
 
 But of all the buccaneers, French or English, none was so 
 uniformly successful, or executed so many great and daring 
 enterprises, as Henry Morgan, a native of the principality of 
 Wales. While De Basco, Lolonois, and their companions, were 
 squandering at Tortuga the spoils they had acquired in the gulf 
 of Venezuela, Morgan sailed from Jamaica to attack Porto- 
 Bello ; and his measures were so well concerted, that, soon after 
 his landing, he surprised the sentinels, and made himself master 
 of the town, before the Spaniards could put themselves in a 
 posture of defence, (a. d. 1668.) 
 
 In hopes of reducing with the same facility the citadel, or 
 chief castle, into which the citizens had conveyed their most 
 valuable property and all the plate belonging to the churches, 
 Morgan bethought himself of an expedient that discovers his 
 knowledge of national character, as well as of human nature 
 in general. He compelled the priests, nuns, an$ other women 
 whom he had made prisoners, to plant the scaling ladders 
 against the walls of the fortress, from a persuasion that the 
 gallantry and superstition of the Spaniards would not suffer 
 them to fire on the objects of their love and veneration. But 
 he found himself deceived in this flattering conjecture. The 
 Spanish governor, who was a resolute soldier, used his utmost 
 efforts to destroy every one that approached the works. Morgan 
 and his English associates, however, carried the place by storm, 
 in spite of all opposition, and found in it, besides a vast quan- 
 tity of rich merchandise, bullion and specie equivalent to one 
 hundred thousand pounds sterling. 
 
 With this booty, Morgan and his crew returned to Jamaica, 
 where he immediately planned a new enterprise. Understand- 
 ing that De Basco and Lolonois had been disappointed in the 
 promised plunder of Maracaibo by their imprudent delay, he 
 resolved from emulation, no less than avidity, to surprise that 
 place. With this view, he collected fifteen vessels, carrying 
 nine hundred and sixty men. These ravagers entered the gulf 
 of Venezuela unobserved, silenced the fort that defends this 
 passage to the lake of Maracaibo, and found the town, as for- 
 merly, totally deserted, (a. d. 1669.) But they were so fortu-
 
 EXPLOITS OF THE BUCCANEERS. 359 
 
 nate as to discover the chief citizens, and the greater part of 
 their wealth, in the neighbouring woods. Not satisfied, how- 
 ever, with this booty, Morgan proceeded to Gibraltar, which 
 he found in the same desolate condition ; and, while he 
 was attempting, by the most horrid cruelties, to extort from 
 such of the inhabitants as had been seized a discovery of their 
 hidden treasures, he was informed of the arrival of three Spa- 
 nish men-of-war at the entrance of the lake. 
 
 At this intelligence, which was confirmed by a boat despatched 
 to reconnoitre the enemy, the heart of the bravest buccaneer 
 sank within him. But, although Morgan considered his condi- 
 tion as desperate, his presence of mind did not forsake him. 
 Concealing his apprehensions, he sent a letter to Don Alonzo 
 del Campo, the Spanish admiral, boldly demanding a ransom 
 for the city of Maracaibo. The admiral's answer was resolute, 
 and excluded all hope of working upon his fears. " I am 
 come," said he, " to dispute your passage out of the lake, and 
 I have the means of doing it. Nevertheless, if you will submit 
 to surrender, with humility, all the booty and prisoners you 
 have taken, I will suffer you to pass, and permit you to return 
 to your own country without trouble or molestation. But if 
 you reject this offer, or hesitate to comply, I will order boats 
 from Caracas, in which I will embark my troops, and, sailing 
 to Maracaibo, will put every man of you to the sword. This 
 is my final determination. Be prudent, therefore, and do not 
 abuse my bounty by an ungrateful return. I have with me," 
 added he, " very good troops, who desire nothing more ardently 
 than to revenge on you and your people all the cruelties and 
 depredations which you have committed upon the Spanish 
 nation in America." 
 
 The moment Morgan received this letter, he called together 
 his followers ; and, after acquainting them with its contents, 
 desired them to deliberate whether they would give up all their 
 plunder, in order to secure their liberty, or fight for it ? They 
 unanimously answered, that they would rather lose the last drop 
 of their blood than resign a booty which had been purchased 
 with so much peril. Morgan, however, sensible of his danger- 
 ous situation, endeavoured to compromise the matter, but in 
 vain. The Spanish admiral continued to insist on his first con- 
 ditions. When Morgan was made acquainted with this inflexi-
 
 360 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 bility, he coolly replied : " If Don Alonzo will not allow me to 
 pass, I will find means to pass without his permission." He 
 accordingly made a division of the spoil, that each man might 
 have his own property to defend ; and, having filled a vessel, 
 which he had taken from the enemy, with preparations of gun- 
 powder and other combustible materials, he gallantly proceeded 
 to the mouth of the lake ; burnt two of the Spanish ships, took 
 one, and, by making a feint of disembarking men, in order to 
 attack the fort by land, he diverted the attention of the garri- 
 son to that side, while he passed the bar with his whole fleet on 
 the other without receiving any damage. 
 
 The success of Morgan, like that of all ambitious leaders, 
 served only to stimulate him to yet greater undertakings. 
 Having disposed of his booty at Port-Royal in Jamaica, he 
 again put to sea with a larger fleet and a more numerous body 
 of adventurers, (a. d. 1670 ;) and after reducing the island of 
 St. Catharine, where he procured a supply of naval and mili- 
 tary stores, he steered for the river Chagres, the only channel 
 that could conduct him to Panama, the grand object of his 
 armament. At the mouth of this river stood a strong castle, 
 built upon a rock, and defended by a good garrison, which 
 threatened to baffle all the efforts of the buccaneers, when an 
 arrow, shot from the bow of an Indian, lodged in the eye of 
 one of those resolute men. With wonderful firmness and pre- 
 sence of mind, he pulled the arrow from the wound, and, wrap- 
 ping one of its ends in tow, put it into his musket, which was 
 already loaded, and discharged it into the fort, where the roofs 
 of the houses were of straw, and the sides of wood, conforma- 
 ble to the custom of building in that country. The burning 
 arrow fell on the roof of one of the houses, which immediately 
 took fire — a circumstance that threw the Spaniards into the 
 utmost consternation, as they were afraid every moment of 
 perishing by the rapid approach of the flames, or the blowing 
 up of the powder-magazine. After the death of the governor, 
 who bravely perished with his sword in his hand, at the head 
 of a few determined men, the place surrendered to the assail- 
 ants. 
 
 This chief obstacle being removed, Morgan and his associates, 
 leaving the larger vessels under guard, sailed up the Chagres in 
 boats to Cruces, and thence proceeded by land to Panama. On
 
 EXPLOITS OF THE BUCCANEERS. 361 
 
 the savanna, a spacious plain before the city, the Spaniards made 
 several attempts to repulse the ferocious invaders, but without 
 effect. The buccaneers gained a decided superiority in every 
 encounter. Foreseeing the overthrow of their military pro- 
 tectors, the unarmed inhabitants sought refuge in the woods ; 
 so that Morgan took quiet possession of Panama, and delibe- 
 rately pillaged it for some days. 
 
 But Morgan met at Panama with what he valued no less than 
 his rich booty. A fair captive inflamed his savage heart with 
 love ; and, finding all his solicitations ineffectual, as neither his 
 person nor character was calculated to inspire the object of his 
 passion with favourable sentiments toward him, he resolved to 
 second his assiduities with a seasonable mixture of force. 
 " Stop, ruffian !" cried she, as she wildly sprung from his arms; 
 " stop ! thinkest thou that thou canst ravish from me mine 
 honour as thou hast wrested from me my fortune and my liber- 
 ty ? No ! be assured that my soul shall sooner be separated 
 from this body:" and she drew a poniard from her bosom, 
 which she would have plunged into his heart, if- he had not 
 avoided the blow. 
 
 Enraged at such a return for his fondness, Morgan threw this 
 virtuous beauty into a loathsome dungeon, and endeavoured to 
 break her spirit by severities. But his followers becoming cla- 
 morous at being kept so long in a state of inactivity by a ca- 
 price which they could not comprehend, he was obliged to listen 
 to their importunities and give up his amorous pursuit. As a 
 prelude to their return, the booty was divided ; and Morgan's 
 own share, in the pillage of this expedition, is said to have 
 amounted to one hundred thousand pounds sterling. He car- 
 ried all his wealth to Jamaica, and never afterwards engaged 
 in any piratical enterprise. 
 
 The defection of Morgan, and several other principal leaders, 
 who sought and found an asylum in the bosom of that civil 
 society whose laws they had so atrociously violated, together 
 with the total separation of the English and French bucca- 
 neers, in consequence of the war between the two nations 
 which followed the revolution in 1688, broke the force of those 
 powerful plunderers. The king of Spain being then in alliance 
 with England, she repressed the piracies of her subjects in the 
 West Indies, (a. d. 1690.) The French buccaneers continued 
 46 2F
 
 362 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 their depredations, and with no small success, till the peace of 
 Ryswick in 1697 ; when all differences between France and 
 Spain having been adjusted, a stop was everywhere put to hos- 
 tilities, and not only the association, but the very name of this 
 extraordinary set of men soon became extinct. They were in- 
 sensibly lost among the other European inhabitants of the West 
 Indies.
 
 ACCESSION OF GEORGE I. OF ENGLAND. 363 
 
 ACCESSION OF GEORGE I. OF ENGLAND. 
 
 NNE died August 1, 1714, and George, 
 elector of Hanover, was immediately 
 proclaimed. He arrived in England, 
 September 16, and was met at Green- 
 wich, where he landed, by many per- 
 sons of high office and rank. Among 
 these was the duke of Marlborough, 
 who had lately returned to England, 
 and whom, both at this time and ever 
 after, the king treated with great dis- 
 tinction. George, at his accession, was in the fifty-fifth year of 
 his age. 
 
 George was a man of plain, steady understanding, grave in 
 his manner, and simple in his habits, and had the reputation of 
 being a sagacious politician. He spoke English very imper- 
 fectly, and was too much of a German in all his notions and 
 habits to be very popular in England. 
 
 George I. had one son and a daughter. The son had married 
 Caroline, daughter of the margravine of Anspach, and at the 
 time of his father's coming to the throne had three young 
 daughters. He was created prince of Wales, and came with his 
 family to England ; as did also one of the king's brothers, the 
 bishop of Osnaburg, who was created duke of York. 
 
 The spirit of party still ran very high in England, (a. d. 
 1715.) The king showed a decided preference for the Whigs. 
 At this the Tories were much exasperated, and they soon began 
 to show a spirit of disaffection to the house of Hanover. Lord 
 Oxford, the great Tory leader, was sent to the Tower, where he 
 remained two years ; but the two houses of parliament disagreed 
 so violently as to the proceedings to be taken in regard to him, 
 that he was at last acquitted without a trial. The duke of Or- 
 mond and Lord Bolingbroke were impeached, but escaped to
 
 364 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 France. They were then attainted, and their names were erased 
 from the list of English peers. 
 
 These seventies towards the leaders of the Tories excited 
 great murmurs; and the Jacobites, who had been very active 
 ever since the queen's death, made a strong party in Scotland. 
 The earl of Mar proclaimed Prince James Stuart, September 6, 
 1715, and set up his standard. James, however, was not then 
 in a condition to come and take the crown that was proffered him. 
 
 Louis XIV., who had given the Pretender a small supply of 
 arms and ammunition, with the promise of more, died on the 
 first of September this year, and the duke of Orleans, who was 
 regent of France during the minority of Louis XV., (the infant 
 great-grandson of the late king,) was not a friend to the Pre- 
 tender's cause. 
 
 The earl of Mar, nevertheless, continued in arms, and at 
 length assembled a body of ten thousand men, which was farther 
 increased by some English Jacobites. On the other hand, the 
 duke of Argyle, who was appointed commander of the king's 
 forces in Scotland, advanced against the rebels at the head of 
 his own clans, assisted by some troops from Ireland. 
 
 In the mean time the Pretender's party in the north of Eng- 
 land organized themselves in battle array ; but they were en- 
 countered by the militia and other troops sent against them, and 
 were punished for their attempt. Some were hanged at Tyburn ; 
 twenty-two persons were executed in Lancashire, and about one 
 thousand were sent to the North American colonies. 
 
 On December 22, the Pretender, after having been long ex- 
 pected, at last arrived in Scotland. He came attended only by 
 six gentlemen. The earl of Mar soon joined him, and he was 
 proclaimed king ; and in the expectation that all Scotland would 
 rise in his cause as one man, he fixed January 16, 1716, for his 
 coronation at Scone. But before that day arrived, he was so 
 closely pursued by the duke of Argyle, that he was glad to 
 abandon his rash enterprise, and to get back again to France. 
 
 The attention of the nation was chiefly occupied by a scheme 
 called the South Sea Scheme, (a. d. 1720.) It was principally 
 contrived by Sir John Blunt, a busy, speculating man ; and the 
 object of it was to enable a company of merchants, called the 
 South Sea Company, to buy up all the national debts and con- 
 centrate them into one fund.
 
 RISING OF THE HIGHLANDERS IN 1716.
 
 ACCESSION OF GEORGE I. OF ENGLAND. 
 
 367 
 
 Many persons, in the expectation of receiving a high interest, 
 advanced large sums of money towards this purchase ; but in a 
 few months the whole was discovered to be a fraudulent scheme. 
 The principal actors in it were punished by parliament, and 
 measures were adopted to give some redress to the injured par- 
 ties ; but a very large number of the imprudent speculators suf- 
 fered severely. 
 
 The king, who was much attached to Hanover, (a. d. 1727,) 
 and had visited it several times, set out with the intention of 
 going there once more. He had got as far as Delden, a small 
 town near the frontiers of Germany, when he was taken ex- 
 tremely ill. He had set his mind on reaching his brother's 
 palace at Osnaburg, and ordered his people to hasten forwards. 
 But he did not live to get there. It was found, when the car- 
 riage stopped at the gate of the palace, that he had already 
 breathed his last. He died June 11, 1727, in the sixty-eighth 
 year of his age, and the thirteenth of his reign. 
 
 OEATH OF COLONEL GARDINER AT PRESTON PAN
 
 368 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ACCESSION OF GEORGE II.— REBELLION 
 OF 1745. 
 
 his age. 
 
 HE news of the sudden death 
 of George I. reached London 
 June 14, and George II. was 
 proclaimed the next day. He 
 was in the forty-fifth year of 
 His abilities were inferior to 
 ^ those of his father, and his temper hasty. 
 ^^^^^^.tfjirt-^mi,, He was simple in all his tastes and ha- 
 bits, and singularly methodical. His 
 strongest feeling, and that which more than any other governed 
 his conduct, was his preference of Hanover to England. 
 
 Queen Caroline united brilliant beauty to a strong under- 
 standing and great goodness of heart. When George II. came 
 to the throne, he had two sons ; Frederick, the eldest, was 
 twenty years old; William, afterwards duke of Cumberland, 
 was only six years old. He had also four daughters. 
 
 The prince of Wales married the princess of Saxe-Gotha. 
 (a. d. 1736.) In 1737 the queen died, and the king's grief for 
 her loss was sincere and excessive. In the same year a war 
 broke out between England and Spain ; and Admiral Vernon 
 took Porto-Bello, a Spanish settlement on the isthmus of Darien. 
 About this time the peace of the continent was disturbed by 
 a contest for the imperial throne, (a. d. 1743.) The emperor 
 Charles VI. died, leaving an only daughter, Maria Theresa, 
 married to prince Francis of Lorraine. The claim of Maria 
 Theresa was disputed by the elector of Bavaria ; and nearly all 
 Europe entered into the quarrel. The king of France took the 
 part of the elector of Bavaria. 
 
 The king of England engaged on the side of Maria Theresa, 
 and sent to the continent an army of 16,000 men, under Lord 
 Stair, which was afterwards increased by an equal number of
 
 ACCESSION OF GEORGE II.— REBELLION OF 1745. 369 
 
 Hanoverians. In the cause of Maria Theresa, the king and his 
 son, the duke of Cumberland, displayed considerable military 
 talent ; but England, in the mean time, was suffering by the pro- 
 jects of the Pretender. 
 
 In the beginning of 1744, an invasion of England had been 
 attempted by a French force of 15,000 men, under the convoy 
 of twenty ships of the line. James himself, not having sufficient 
 activity to engage personally in this expedition, deputed prince 
 Charles Edward, his eldest son, to join in it. But though this 
 expedition was rendered abortive, Prince Charles ventured in 
 the following year to try his fortune in the northern part of the 
 island. 
 
 Having procured a sum of money, and a small supply of arms, 
 on his own credit, Prince Charles sent to inform his friends in 
 Scotland that he hoped soon to be with them. In June, 1745, 
 he embarked with a few Scotch and Irish gentlemen in a small 
 frigate ; but the vessel which carried a supply of arms for the 
 expedition was disabled in the passage. Meanwhile the frigate 
 pursued her destined course. On the 16th of July, Charles 
 landed at Borodale, in Lochaber, and was soon joined by a con- 
 siderable number of Highlanders. 
 
 A moment more favourable for this enterprise could not have 
 been chosen. The king of England was in Hanover ; the duke 
 of Cumberland, with the most serviceable part of the army, was 
 in Flanders ; and the ministers and parliament were divided by 
 political disputes ; but Charles could not make the most of these 
 advantages ; his want of arms, and the loss of the officers who were 
 to have come, but were prevented, disabling him from making 
 any attack on the strong English garrisons, which were in the 
 heart of the country, at Fort William and Fort Augustus. 
 
 The news of the Pretender's arrival in Scotland threw all 
 England into commotion. The lords regent, to whom the con- 
 duct of affairs had been left during the king's absence, sent to 
 hasten his return ; and in the mean time issued a proclamation, 
 offering a reward of 30,000£. to any one who would seize Charles 
 Stuart. Charles, in retaliation, set the same price on the head 
 of the elector of Hanover. 
 
 The prince, advancing to Perth, proclaimed his father king. 
 His army still kept gathering numbers ; and, September 16, 
 he took possession of the town of Edinburgh. The castle, how- 
 47
 
 370 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ever, still held out. General Guest, an experienced officer, com- 
 manded there ; and, having a strong garrison, was determined to 
 stand a siege. 
 
 Sir John Cope, meanwhile, who commanded the king's forces 
 in Scotland, approached Edinburgh with all the troops he could 
 muster ; and, September 20th, he encamped about nine miles 
 from the town, at Prestonpans. The next morning Charles 
 marched to meet him ; and the half-armed Highlanders attacked 
 the king's troops with so much fury that the cavalry fled with 
 precipitation. The total defeat of the infantry soon followed. 
 They fled, leaving on the field all their baggage, and, what the 
 prince wanted most of all, their arms, ammunition, and a train 
 of field artillery. In this action Colonel Gardiner was killed. 
 
 By this victory the rebels acquired possession of a consider. 
 able part of Scotland. The castle of Edinburgh still held out, 
 and was blockaded by the rebels. Charles, however, at the 
 earnest entreaty of the inhabitants, whom General Guest had 
 alarmed by the threat of destroying the town, and indeed by 
 actually beginning to fire on it, raised the blockade ; that is, 
 he ceased the attempt to take the castle — he withdrew his 
 troops. 
 
 The popularity at this time of the Pretender's cause was 
 greatly increased by the good conduct of the prince himself, 
 who showed himself both vigorous in action and prudent in 
 council, and bore his success with moderation. The king of 
 France, seeing that his affairs were prosperous, sent him a sup- 
 ply of small arms, cannon, and officers, and promised him that a 
 large body of French should be landed in the south of England. 
 
 On this assurance Charles passed the borders of Scotland. 
 He entered Carlisle, November 6th. Leaving a garrison there, 
 he marched onwards ; and on November 29th fixed his head- 
 quarters at Manchester. He was there joined by about two 
 hundred English Jacobites, and then proceeded to Derby. 
 
 The rebel army was now within four days' march of London. 
 Indescribable alarm and consternation prevailed in that city. 
 Those who were in London fled into the country, while those in 
 the country flew to London, every person thinking the place he 
 was in the place of danger. The king, who had returned from 
 Germany on the first summons, was all activity, and intended to 
 have taken the field in person.
 
 ACCESSION OF GEORGE II.— REBELLION OF 1745. 373 
 
 Prince Charles's army was sometimes successful ; but a final 
 battle between his adherents and the English army took place 
 at Culloden, in Scotland, April, 1746. 
 
 The fatal action of Culloden over, Charles, seeing that all was 
 lost, rode off the field with a few followers. These he soon dis- 
 missed, and led a wandering life for nearly five months, con- 
 cealing himself in different parts of the Highlands, and owing 
 his preservation to the fidelity of the poor inhabitants, who could 
 not be tempted to betray him by the great reward which was 
 offered for his apprehension, and who concealed him in their 
 huts and caves, at the risk of their own lives. 
 
 At last Charles, with a few faithful friends, found means to 
 get on board a French privateer. Under the shelter of a thick 
 fog he passed through the midst of a British squadron ; and at 
 last, after many difficulties and dangers, landed safely at Mor- 
 laix, in Bretagne ; but so worn out by the fatigues and hardships 
 he had undergone, that he was scarcely to be known as the 
 same handsome, sprightly youth, who had left France full of ani- 
 mation and hope the year before. 
 
 Frightful scenes followed in Scotland after the decisive victory 
 at Culloden. It is deeply afflicting that the reputation of a 
 brave man should be sullied by such dreadful cruelties as must 
 ever stain the memory of the duke of Cumberland, who com- 
 manded the king's forces. It is said that, in a district of nearly 
 fifty miles round Lochiel, there was, in the course of a few days, 
 neither house nor cottage, neither men nor cattle to be seen ; so 
 complete was the ruin, silence, and desolation. 
 
 The jails in England were filled with rebels, whose trials now 
 followed. Many were executed — many were transported to the 
 plantations in America, and some few were pardoned. Lords 
 Balmerino, Kilmarnock, Derwentwater, and Lovat, and Mr. 
 Ratcliffe, who were among the principal persons concerned in 
 the rebellion, were conveyed to London and executed. 
 
 The rebellion being subdued, the duke of Cumberland returned 
 to the allied army in Flanders, where the war continued a short 
 time longer. At length a general peace was signed at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, October 7th, 1748. 
 
 2G
 
 374 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 MONUMENT ERECTED IN MEMORY OF THE PRISONERS WHO DIED IN THE BLACK- 
 HOLE, CALCUTTA. 
 
 FALL OF CALCUTTA, AND DEATH OF THE 
 PRISONERS IN THE BLACK-HOLE. 
 
 N the death of the nabob, or, more 
 properly, Subah Allaveady, who had 
 governed with great ability for 
 many years the provinces of Ben- 
 gal, Behar, and Orixa, the supreme 
 authority devolved, according to his 
 destination, upon his grandson Su- 
 rajah Dowlah, a weak and tyranni- 
 cal prince, (a. d. 1756.) Equally 
 timid, suspicious, and cruel, the 
 new viceroy determined to take ven- 
 geance on all whom he feared, and to owe his security to the 
 inability of any power within his jurisdiction to hurt him. The
 
 FALL OF CALCUTTA. 377 
 
 English had particularly awakened his apprehensions by the 
 taking of Gheria, a fortress deemed impregnable in Indostan, 
 by their increasing strength in the Carnatic, and by the 
 growth of their settlement at Calcutta. 
 
 Other circumstances conspired to point the resentment of 
 Surajah Dowlah immediately against the English factory in 
 Bengal. He was informed, and not altogether without founda- 
 tion, that the agents of the East India Company had abused 
 their privilege of dustucks, by making them subservient not 
 only to the importation of European and the exportation of 
 India goods, but to the importation of commodities from other 
 parts of Indostan, and even of the same province, to the great 
 diminution of the public revenue, and in direct contradiction to 
 the purpose for which they had been granted, the encourage- 
 ment of foreign commerce. He therefore determined to get 
 those passports recalled by the court of Delhi, or to deny the 
 validity, and also to punish the abuse. And the governor and 
 council of Calcutta, by refusing to, deliver up to him a noble 
 refugee, who had taken shelter with all his treasures within 
 their presidency, farther confirmed him in his hostile resolution. 
 
 Enraged at this refusal, though seemingly occasioned by mis- 
 apprehension, the nabob, who had assembled an army of fifty 
 thousand men, with an intention of striking a blow in a distant 
 quarter, ordered it to march directly toward Calcutta, where 
 the English, he was told, were building new fortifications. . He 
 himself headed his troops, and advanced with such rapidity 
 that many of them died of fatigue. Sufficient force, however, 
 remained for the accomplishment of his enterprise. After at- 
 tempting in vain to oppose the enemy in the streets and ave- 
 nues, the English inhabitants took refuge in Fort William, a 
 place in itself by no means strong, and defended only by a small 
 garrison. Conscious of his inability to hold out, Mr. Drake, 
 the governor, called at two in the morning a council of Avar, 
 (June 19,) to which all, except the common soldiers, were ad- 
 mitted, and, after debating long whether they should imme- 
 diately escape to the company's ships in the river, or defer their 
 retreat until the following night, the council broke up, without 
 coming to any positive determination. But, as the first pro- 
 posal was not carried into execution, the second was generally 
 understood to have been embraced. 
 48 2g2
 
 378 INCIDENTS OF MODERN. HISTORY. 
 
 Meanwhile the besiegers vigorously pushed their attacks, and 
 hoped every moment to carry the fort by storm. Filled with 
 terror, and utterly unacquainted with military service, many 
 of the company's servants, and even some members of the 
 council, went off to the ships. A party of militia, it was ob- 
 served, that had conducted the women on board the preceding 
 night, did not return to the garrison. They who remained in 
 it looked at one another with wild affright. The governor, who 
 had hitherto discovered no want of courage, now panic-struck 
 at the thought of falling into the hands of Surajah Dowlah, 
 who had threatened to put him to death, hurried into a boat 
 that lay at the wharf, without apprizing the garrison of his in- 
 tention. The military commanding officer, and several other 
 persons of distinction, pusillanimously followed his example, 
 and accompanied him to one of the ships. 
 
 The astonishment of the garrison at this desertion could only 
 be equalled by their indignation. Nothing was heard for a time 
 but execrations against the. fugitives. At length, however, the 
 tumultuous concourse proceeded to deliberation ; and Mr. 
 Pearkes, the eldest member of the council left in the fort, hav- 
 ing resigned his right of seniority to Mr. Holwell, that gentle- 
 man was unanimously invested with the chief command. The 
 number of militia and soldiery now remaining amounted only 
 to one hundred and ninety men. The new commander, there- 
 fore, having seen some boats return to the wharf, locked the 
 gate leading to the river, in order to prevent future desertions. 
 
 The same promptitude and spirit distinguished Mr. Holwell's 
 whole conduct. But all his gallant efforts were found insuffi- 
 cient to preserve the fort. Soon convinced of their weakness, 
 and, conscious of their danger, the garrison threw out signals 
 for the ships or boats to repair to the wharf. That rational 
 hope of escape, however, failed them. One ship having struck 
 on a sand-bank, not a single vessel of any kind offered after- 
 ward to yield them a retreat. As a last resource, Mr. Holwell 
 threw a letter from the ramparts, intimating a desire to capitu- 
 late, (June 20 ;) many of the garrison having been killed since 
 the departure of the governor, and more of the survivors 
 thrown into a state of despondency. Encouraged by this indi- 
 cation of weakness, the besiegers made a desperate but inef- 
 fectual assault ; after which one of the nabob's officers ap-
 
 iUEAJAH DOWLAH AND HIS SONS.
 
 FALL OF CALCUTTA. 381 
 
 peared with a flag of truce. It was answered by another from 
 the fort. A parley ensued ; but before any articles of capitu- 
 lation could be settled, the troops of Surajah Dowlah forced 
 open one of the gates, and made themselves masters of the 
 place, though without putting any of the garrison to the sword. 
 
 About an hour after the taking of Fort William, the nabob 
 entered it, accompanied by his general, Meer Jaffier, and most 
 of the great officers of his army. Having given directions for 
 securing the company's treasure, he seated himself, with all 
 the state of an Asiatic conqueror, in the principal apartment of 
 the factory, and ordered Mr. Holwell to be brought before him. 
 On the first appearance of that gentleman, Surajah Dowlah 
 expressed violent resentment at the presumption of the Eng- 
 lish, in daring to resist his power, and chagrin at the smallness 
 of the sum found in the treasury. Softened, however, in the 
 course of three conferences, he dismissed the English chief, as 
 he thought proper to call him, with repeated assurances, on the 
 word of a soldier, that he should suffer no harm. 
 
 Notwithstanding those assurances, Mr. Holwell and his unfor- 
 tunate companions (whom he found on his return surrounded 
 by a strong guard) were forced into the common dungeon of 
 the fort, usually called the black-hole, about eight o'clock in the 
 evening; and in that dungeon, only eighteen feet square, were 
 they condemned to pass the night in one of the hottest climates 
 of the earth, and in the hottest season of that climate. They 
 could receive no air but through two small grated windows, 
 almost totally blocked up by a neighbouring building, which 
 deprived them of the common benefit even of the sultry atmo- 
 sphere. Their distress was inexpressible, in consequence of the 
 heat and the pressure of their bodies, as soon as the door was 
 shut. They attempted to force it open, but without effect. 
 Rage succeeded disappointment. The keenest invectives were 
 uttered, in order to provoke the guard to put an end to their 
 wretched lives, by firing into the dungeon ; and, while some, 
 in the agonies and torment of despair, were blaspheming their 
 Creator with frantic execrations, others were imploring relief 
 from heaven in wild and incoherent prayers. 
 
 Mr. Holwell, who had taken his station at one of the win- 
 dows, exhorted his fellow-sufferers to composure as the only 
 means of surviving till morning. In the mean time, he ad-
 
 382 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 dressed himself to an old jemautdar, an officer of the guard, 
 who seemed to have some marks of humanity in his counte- 
 nance, promising him a thousand rupees if he would separate 
 them into different apartments. He retired to procure an 
 order for that purpose, but returned in a few minutes, with a 
 sorrowful face, and said it was impossible ! Misapprehending 
 his meaning, Mr. Holwell proffered him a larger sum. He re- 
 tired a second time, and again returned with the same woe-fore- 
 boding look, while the prisoners rent the air with their cries to 
 the guard to open the dungeon, and drank their own sweat to 
 relieve their thirst. 
 
 " Unhappy men !" said the jemautdar, "submit to necessity. 
 The subah is asleep ! and what slave dares disturb his repose?" 
 A stronger picture of despotism was never drawn, nor a deeper 
 scene of human misery exhibited. 
 
 All sentiments of friendship, compassion, or respect, were 
 henceforth extinguished in the breasts of the devoted prisoners. 
 No one would give way for the relief of another ; but every 
 one employed his utmost strength to obtain a place near the win- 
 dows, or to maintain that station. The feeble sunk never more 
 to rise, and were trampled upon by their stronger companions. 
 The havoc of death and the struggle for air continued until 
 morning appeared ; when, the door being opened, of one hun- 
 dred and forty-six persons thrust into the black-hole, twenty- 
 three only were brought out alive. And Mr. Holwell, and 
 two other of the survivors, were condemned to farther suffer- 
 ings. They were sent prisoners to Muxadavad, the capital of 
 the province, in hopes of extorting from them, by cruel usage, 
 a confession of the factory's hidden treasures. Calcutta was 
 pillaged, and Fort William secured by a garrison of three 
 thousand men. The affairs of the English East India Com- 
 pany seemed finally ruined in Bengal.
 
 COLONEL CUVE.
 
 RECOVERY OF CALCUTTA. 
 
 385 
 
 RECOVERY OF CALCUTTA— BRILLIANT SUC- 
 CESS OF COLONEL CLIVE IN INDIA. 
 
 HEN Admiral Watson returned to the 
 coast of Coromandel, after reducing the 
 fortress of Gheria, the residence of the 
 famous pirate Angria, he was informed of 
 the loss of Calcutta, with all the horrid 
 circumstances attending it, and resolved 
 upon revenge. He accordingly took on board Mr. Clive, now 
 advanced to the rank of colonel, with part of the English East 
 India Company's troops at Madras, and sailed for the bay of 
 Bengal. By a zealous co-operation of the sea and land forces, 
 the forts of Buzbuzia and Tannah were speedily reduced. The 
 town of Calcutta was recovered, and the English colours being 
 once more hoisted on Fort William, Mr. Drake, and the mem- 
 bers of the council, who had hitherto remained on board the 
 ships in the river, were again put in possession of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Not satisfied with this success, the British commanders made 
 themselves masters also of the large town of Hoogly, where 
 the nabob had established his principal magazines. Enraged at 
 so many losses, and dreading more, Surajah Dowlah assembled 
 a great army and marched toward Calcutta, determined se- 
 verely to chastise the audacity of the invaders, and even finally 
 to expel every Englishman from the province of Bengal. But 
 he met with so warm a salute from Colonel Clive, Captain 
 Coote, and other gallant officers, at the head of the company's 
 troops, reinforced with six hundred sailors from the fleet, as 
 induced him to sue for peace, and agree to such terms as the 
 English commanders thought proper to dictate. He engaged 
 to restore to the East India Company all their factories, goods, 
 and money, which had been seized by his orders ; to reinstate 
 49 2H
 
 386 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 them in all their former privileges ; and to allow them to ex- 
 tend their presidency over thirty-eight neighbouring villages, 
 conformable to a disputed grant that had been obtained from 
 the great mogul. 
 
 Informed of the new war between France and Great Britain, 
 and having nothing now to fear from the nabob, the English 
 commanders resolved to turn their arms against the French 
 factories in Bengal. Their first object was the reduction of 
 Chandernagore, the principal French settlement in the province, 
 and a place of great strength, situated a little higher on the 
 river Hoogly than Calcutta. In the expedition against this 
 town and fort, Colonel Clive commanded seven hundred Euro- 
 pean troops, and sixteen hundred sepoys, or soldiers of the 
 country, habituated to the use of fire-arms. The squadron, 
 consisting of three sail of the line and a sloop of war, was 
 conducted by the admirals Watson and Pocock. The place was 
 defended by six hundred Europeans and three hundred sepoys, 
 who gallantly disputed every post. But so powerful was the 
 cannonade from the ships, as soon as they could bring their 
 guns to bear upon the works, and from two batteries, mounted 
 with twenty-four pounders, that assailed with a cross-fire the 
 two bastions of the fort against which the men-of-war laid their 
 broadsides, that the garrison was obliged to surrender, after a 
 short but vigorous conflict of three hours. 
 
 As conquest naturally expands the views of the conqueror, 
 Clive, who was formed for vast undertakings, no sooner 
 found himself in possession of Chandernagore, than he con- 
 ceived the design of humbling still farther the nabob of Ben- 
 gal, and of advancing to a yet greater height the interests 
 of the English East India Company. And the conduct of 
 that prince furnished him with many pretexts for renewing 
 hostilities. 
 
 Surajah Dowlah was backward in fulfilling the treaty he had 
 lately concluded with the company. He attempted to evade 
 the execution of the chief articles of it ; and he had entered 
 into secret intrigues with the French, to whom he seemed dis- 
 posed to afford protection in return for support. The English 
 colonel, therefore, resolved to compel him to perform his stipu- 
 lations, and, in case of refusal, to chastise him for his breach 
 of faith, and even to divest him of his authority. In the last
 
 RECOVERY OF CALCUTTA. 387 
 
 resolution he was confirmed (if it was not suggested) by a dis- 
 covery of the dissatisfaction of Meer Jaffier, commander-in- 
 chief of the nabob's forces, and of the intrigues of Surajah 
 Dowlah with the French officers in the Deccan. 
 
 The measures employed by Clive to accomplish this revolu- 
 tion do no less honour to his sagacity and address as a politi- 
 cian than to his vigour and skill as a commander. While he 
 conducted an intricate and dangerous negotiation with Meer 
 Jaffier by means of his agents, he counterfeited friendship so 
 artfully as not only to quiet the suspicions of the nabob, but 
 to induce him to dissolve his army, which had been assembled 
 at Plassy, a strong camp to the south of his capital, before the 
 taking of Chandernagore, in consequence of a report that the 
 English commander meant next to attack Muxadavad. "Why 
 do you keep your forces in the field," said he, insidiously, 
 " after so many marks of friendship and confidence ? They 
 distress all the merchants, and prevent us from renewing our 
 trade. The English cannot stay in Bengal without freedom of 
 commerce. Do not reduce us to the necessity of suspecting that 
 you intend to destroy us as soon as you have an opportunity." 
 
 In order to quiet these pretended fears, Surajah Dowlah 
 recalled his army, though not without great anxiety. "If," 
 cried he, with keen emotion, "the colonel should deceive me!" 
 And the secret departure of the English agents from Muxada- 
 vad soon convinced him that he was deceived. He again as- 
 sembled his army and ordered it to re-occupy its former camp 
 at Plassy, after having made Meer Jaffier, by the most solemn 
 oaths upon the Koran, renew his obligations of fidelity and 
 allegiance. 
 
 The English commander, who had hoped to take possession 
 of that important post, was not a little disconcerted by this 
 movement. The nabob had reached Plassy, twelve hours before 
 him, at the head of fifty thousand foot and eighteen thousand 
 horse. These forces were protected by fifty pieces of cannon, 
 planted in the openings between the columns into which the 
 Indian army was divided, and partly directed by forty French- 
 men. Clive, however, though surprised at the enemy's num- 
 bers, as well as at their formidable array, resolved to give them 
 battle. He accordingly drew up his little army, consisting of 
 about one thousand Europeans and two thousand sepoys, under
 
 388 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 cover of eight field-pieces. The cannonade was brisk on both 
 sides, from eight o'clock in the morning till near noon, when a 
 heavy shower damaged the enemy's powder, and their fire began 
 gradually to flag. 
 
 Nor was this the only circumstance in favour of the English 
 army. Surajah Dowlah, who had hitherto remained in his tent 
 beyond the reach of danger, and been flattered every moment 
 with assurances of victory, was now informed that Meer Mur- 
 deen, the only general on whose fidelity he could rely, was 
 mortally wounded. Overwhelmed by so weighty a misfortune, 
 he sent for Meer Jaffier, and throwing his turban on the ground, 
 « Jafiier !" exclaimed he, " that turban you must defend." The 
 traitor bowed, and, with his hand on his breast, promised his 
 best services. But no sooner did he join his troops, than he 
 sent a letter to Colonel Clive, acquainting him with what had 
 passed, and requesting him either instantly to push on to victo- 
 ry, or to storm the nabob's camp during the following night. 
 
 The letter, however, was not delivered till the fortune of the 
 day was decided ; so that Clive was still held in some degree 
 of suspense with respect to the ultimate intentions of Jaffier. 
 Meanwhile the nabob, understanding that his general continued 
 inactive, suddenly ordered a retreat. Mounting a camel soon 
 after, he fled toward Muxadavad, accompanied by two thousand 
 horsemen. And the English army, having surmounted every 
 difficulty, entered his camp about five in the afternoon, with- 
 out any other obstruction than what was occasioned by bag- 
 gage and stores — it being utterly abandoned by his troops, 
 who were seen flying on all sides in the utmost confusion. 
 
 Having at length received Meer Jaffier's letter, Clive pressed 
 on with his victorious army to Daudpore, regardless of the rich 
 plunder of the enemy's camp. He arrived there about eight 
 o'clock in the evening, and the next morning saluted the trai- 
 tor, nabob (though more properly Subah) of Bengal, Baher, 
 and Orixa. 
 
 The new nabob hastened with his troops to Muxadavad, 
 whither he was followed by the English commander. From 
 that city, Surajah Dowlah had made his escape in disguise, the 
 day after his defeat, accompanied only by his favourite woman, 
 and by the eunuch who governed his seraglio, having lost all 
 confidence in his army and in his officers, both civil and mili-
 
 RECOVERY OF CALCUTTA. 389 
 
 tary. He was taken, brought back to his capital, imprisoned, 
 and put to death by order of Meerum, the son of Jaffier, an 
 ambitious and cruel youth, who was unwilling to leave any thing 
 in the power of fortune that violence could secure. Nor can 
 his conduct be blamed on the maxims of Asiatic policy. His 
 father's sway, which otherwise might have been disputed, was 
 instantly acknowledged over all the three provinces that com- 
 pose the viceroyalty of subahship. 
 
 It now only remained for Colonel Give to make Meer Jaffier, 
 whom he had seated in the musnud or throne, fulfil the condi- 
 tional engagements into which he had solemnly entered before 
 the English army was put in motion for his support. After 
 attempting some evasions, by pleading the lowness of his pre- 
 decessor's treasury, the nabob found it necessary to adhere to 
 every stipulation. And a treaty to the following purport was 
 read, and acknowledged to have been signed by him. 
 
 " I engage that, as soon as I shall be established in the go- 
 vernment of Bengal, Behar, and Orixa, I will maintain the 
 treaty of peace concluded with the English by Surajah Dow- 
 lah ; that the enemies of the English shall be my enemies, whe- 
 ther they be Indians or Europeans ; that all the effects and 
 factories belonging to the French in Bengal, the paradise of 
 nations, or in Behar and Orixa, shall remain in the possession 
 of the English, and I will never more allow them to settle in 
 any of the three provinces ; that, in consideration of the losses 
 which the English company have sustained by the capture and 
 plunder of Calcutta by the nabob, and the charges occasioned 
 by maintaining forces to recover their factories, I will give one 
 crore of rupees," equivalent to twelve hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand pounds sterling ; " and that, for the effects plundered from 
 the English inhabitants of Calcutta, I will give fifty lacks of 
 rupees," equivalent to six hundred and twenty-five thousand 
 pounds sterling. He also agreed to indemnify the Armenian, 
 Gentoo, and other Asiatic inhabitants of Calcutta, and greatly 
 to enlarge the territory of the English East India Company. 
 In a word, the indemnification and restitutions, with a donation 
 of fifty lacks of rupees to the fleet and army, exclusive of 
 private gratuities, amounted to the enormous sum of two mil- 
 lions seven hundred and fifty thousand pounds sterling. Near 
 one-third of that sum was immediately paid in coined silver. 
 
 2h2
 
 390 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CONQUEST OF CANADA BY THE 
 BRITISH. 
 
 | HE war which broke out in 1755 opened in a 
 manner most unfavourable to the British 
 arms. General Braddock, who marched 
 from New York against Canada, having neglected the precau- 
 tions necessary in such a country, was completely surprised by a 
 combined force of French and Indians. He himself being killed, 
 only part of the army was saved by the skill and intrepidity of 
 Colonel (afterwards General) Washington, who on that occasion 
 distinguished himself for the first time. His troops, being after- 
 wards joined to the provincial force under Generals Shirley and 
 Johnson, repulsed near Lake George an attack made by a large 
 body of the enemy under Baron Dieskau. Dieskau was mortally 
 wounded in the action, and was found by some soldiers leaning 
 against a tree when the action was over. Johnson, having ac-
 
 CONQUEST OF CANADA BY THE BRITISH 
 
 ?91 
 
 nEATH OF BARON D I E S K A TJ. 
 
 quitted himself with great ability, and received several wounds, 
 was rewarded with the honour of knighthood, and was long 
 much esteemed in American warfare. But in the two following 
 years, the enemy, headed by the gallant marquis de Montcalm, 
 obtained a series of successes, terminating in the reduction of 
 the important forts called Oswego and William Henry. This 
 last triumph was stained with the barbarous murder, by the 
 Indians, of fifteen hundred English prisoners ; which Montcalm, 
 though it would seem unjustly, was accused of sanctioning. 
 These disasters, joined to the failure of Byng at Minorca, and 
 other abortive expeditions, deeply depressed the spirit of the 
 nation, and seemed to sink their reputation in arms lower than 
 at any former period. Yet the courage of the British lion was 
 soon afterwards roused : the public voice called to the helm of 
 affairs William Pitt, the greatest statesman then living, and who 
 was destined to raise her name to a pitch of glory before un- 
 rivalled. 
 
 It was one of the main objects of Pitt's policy to obtain pos- 
 session of the French territories in America, and to form them, 
 together with the British colonies, into one vast range of domi- 
 nion. He chose as his chief instrument Wolfe, a young man
 
 392 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 WILLIAM PITT, EARL OF CHATHAM 
 
 without family or parliamentary interest, or even any esta- 
 blished character as a commander. He had served only 
 in subordinate situations ; yet the minister, with intuitive saga- 
 city, saw in him the man best fitted to lead British troops to 
 victory. In the expedition against Louisburg, in 1758, the 
 most active though not the highest post was assigned to him, 
 and through his exertions chiefly that main bulwark of French 
 America fell. After the great name thus earned, there could 
 no longer be any objection to investing him with the chief com- 
 mand. 
 
 In 1759, preparations were made on a great scale for the con- 
 quest of Canada ; comprising twenty sail of the line, with smaller 
 vessels and transports, having on board eight thousand veteran 
 troops. These were placed under the direction of Wolfe, who 
 was allowed the choice of all his officers. After a prosperous 
 voyage, the armament on the 26th June,- arrived oft" the Isle of 
 Orleans. Quebec was defended by the marquis de Montcalm, 
 having under his command thirteen thousand men, of whom
 
 i0i!p~~-r s ^ 
 
 WOLFE ASCENDING THE HEIGHTS OF AUK A 11 AM.
 
 CONQUEST OF CANADA BY THE BRITISH. 
 
 395 
 
 indeed only two thousand were regular troops, the rest being 
 Canadian militia with a few Indians. The attack having been 
 long foreseen, full time was given him to intrench and strengthen 
 his position. An attempt was first made to destroy the British 
 fleet by fire-ships ; but these were caught with grappling irons, 
 towed aside, and allowed to burn out without doing any 
 injury. Brigadier-general Monckton then occupied Point Levi, 
 opposite to the capital, which was thence bombarded with 
 vigour ; but, though a number of houses were destroyed, the 
 defences remained almost uninjured. The place therefore 
 could only be carried by storming the intrenchments which the. 
 French had thrown up in front of it. This bold measure Wolfe 
 resolved to adopt, and on the 31st July he effected a landing. 
 The boats, however, had met with an accidental delay ; the 
 grenadiers, it is said, rushed forward with too blind and impetu- 
 ous a valour ; Montcalm, strongly posted between Quebec and 
 Montmorenci, poured in upon them a destructive fire ; the 
 Indian rifle told with fatal effect ; and the assailants were finally 
 repulsed, with the loss of one hundred and eighty-two killed and 
 six hundred and fifty wounded.
 
 396 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Wolfe felt this disappointment so deeply that his delicate 
 frame was thrown into a violent fever ; and in a despatch to 
 Mr. Pitt he afterwards expressed the apprehensions under which 
 he laboured. The fleet, his strongest arm, could not act against 
 the wall of rock on which Quebec is seated ; and with his weak- 
 ened force he had to storm fortified positions defended by troops 
 more numerous than his own. As soon, however, as his health 
 permitted, he called a council of war, desired the general offi- 
 cers to consult together ; and, it is said, proposed to them a 
 second attack on the French lines, avoiding the errors which had 
 led to the failure of the first. They were decidedly of opinion 
 that this was inexpedient ; but on the suggestion, as it is now be- 
 lieved, of Brigadier-general Townsend, the second in command, 
 they proposed to attempt a point on the other side of Quebec, 
 where the enemy were yet unprepared, and whence they might 
 gain the heights of Abraham which overlooked the city. Wolfe 
 assented, and applied all his powers to the accomplishment of this 
 plan. Such active demonstrations were made against Mont- 
 calm's original position that he believed it still the main object; 
 and though he observed detachments moving up the river, merely 
 sent De Bougainville with 2000 men to Cape Rouge, a position 
 too distant, being nine miles above Quebec. On the night of 
 the 12th of September, in deep silence, the troops were em- 
 barked and conveyed in two divisions to the place now named 
 Wolfe's Cove. The precipice here was so steep, that even the 
 general for a moment doubted the possibility of scaling it ; but 
 Fraser's Highlanders, grasping the bushes which grew on its 
 face, soon reached the summit, and in a short time he had his 
 whole army drawn up in regular order on the plains above. 
 Montcalm, struck by this unexpected intelligence, at once con- 
 cluded that, unless the English could be driven from this position, 
 Quebec was lost ; and, hoping probably that only a detachment 
 had yet reached it, pushed forward at once to the attack. About 
 fifteen hundred light infantry and Indians arrived first, and began 
 a desultory fire from among the bushes ; but the British reserved 
 their shot for the main body, which was seen advancing behind. 
 They came forward in good order, and commenced a brisk at- 
 tack ; yet no general fire was opened in return till they were 
 within forty yards, when it could be followed up by the bayonet. 
 The first volley was decisive ; Wolfe and Montcalm both fell
 
 DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE.
 
 CONQUEST OF CANADA BY THE BRITISH. 399 
 
 almost at the same moment ; the French instantly gave way in 
 every quarter ; and repeated charges, in which the Highland 
 broadsword was powerfully wielded, soon completed the victory. 
 As soon as Wolfe received his mortal wound, he said, " Support 
 me ! let not my brave soldiers see me drop." He was carried 
 to some distance in the rear, — and hearing the cry u They run !" 
 he asked " Who run?" Being told " The enemy," he gave some 
 short directions, and then said : " Now, God be praised, I die 
 happy !" We cannot forbear quoting the simple and feeling 
 observations of General Townsend respecting his heroic friend, 
 whose fate threw so affecting a lustre on this memorable victory : 
 » I am not ashamed to own to you, that my heart does not exult 
 in the midst of this success. I have lost but a friend in General 
 Wolfe ; our country has lost a sure support and a perpetual ho- 
 nour. If the world were sensible at how dear a price we have 
 purchased Quebec in his death, it would damp the public joy. 
 Our best consolation is, that Providence seemed not to promise 
 that he should remain long among us. He was himself sensible 
 of the weakness of his constitution, and determined to crowd 
 into a few years actions that would have adorned length of life." 
 
 The battle had scarcely closed when De Bougainville appeared 
 in the rear, but, on seeing the fortune of the day, immediately 
 retreated. On the 17th a flag of truce came out, and on the 
 18th a capitulation was concluded on honourable terms to the 
 French, who were not made prisoners, but conveyed home to 
 their native country. 
 
 Canada was not yet conquered. General Amherst, indeed, 
 marching from New York with a large force, had reduced the 
 strong posts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point ; while General 
 Prideaux, aided by Sir William Johnson with a body of Indians, 
 had taken Niagara. But the winter arrested their farther ad- 
 vance ; and General De Levi, who had assembled at Montreal 
 upwards of 10,000 men, conceived the design of recapturing 
 Quebec in the spring, before it could obtain succours, either by 
 sea or land. Being baffled in his projects to carry it by a coup 
 de main, he landed his army on the 27th April, 1760, advanced 
 to the heights of Abraham, and prepared to carry on a regular 
 siege. General Murray had been left with a garrison of G000 
 men ; but a severe attack of scurvy had reduced to half that 
 number those who were capable of bearing arms. This officer,
 
 400 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 fearing that the place was unfit to stand a siege, and hoping 
 much from the bravery of his troops, attacked the enemy on the 
 28th April, at Sillery; but, being overpowered by superior 
 numbers, he was defeated with great loss. If guilty here of any 
 rashness, he atoned for it by the activity with which he placed 
 Quebec in a state of defence, and held out the town till the 15th 
 May, when a fleet, under Admiral Swanton, arrived and raised 
 the siege. The French army then concentrated itself in Mon- 
 treal, where the marquis De Vaudreuil made an attempt to 
 maintain his ground ; but being enclosed by the forces under 
 General Amherst, and by those from Quebec and Niagara, he 
 found himself obliged, on the 8th September, 1760, to sign a 
 capitulation, by which that city and the whole of Canada were 
 transferred to British dominion. He obtained liberal stipulations 
 for the good treatment of the inhabitants, and particularly the 
 free exercise of the Catholic faith, and the preservation of the 
 property belonging to the religious communities. He even de- 
 manded that the bishop should continue to be appointed by the 
 French monarch, but this was of course refused. The possession 
 of Canada, as well as of all the adjoining countries, was confirmed 
 to Britain by the peace of Paris, signed on the 10th February, 
 1763.
 
 THE FIRST SILESIAN WAR. 
 
 403 
 
 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 THE FIRST SILESIAN WAR. 
 
 HE conduct of Frederick the Great in 
 his attack upon Silesia is universally 
 reprobated by historians. Being left 
 by his father, at his decease, in posses- 
 sion of a well-disciplined army, he 
 trumped up some obsolete claims of 
 the house of Brandenburg as a pre- 
 text for what was, in fact, an unprin- 
 cipled robbery. His prosecution of 
 the war is thus characterized by Ma- 
 caulay : — 
 
 Without any declaration of war, 
 without any demand for reparation, in the very act of pouring 
 forth compliments and assurances of good-will, Frederick com- 
 menced hostilities. Many thousands of his troops were actually 
 in Silesia before the queen of Hungary knew that he had set 
 up any claim to any part of her territories. At length he sent
 
 404 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 her a message which could be regarded only as an insult. If 
 she would but let him have Silesia, he would, he said, stand by 
 her against any power Avhich should try to deprive her of her 
 other dominions ; as if he was not already bound to stand by her, 
 or as if his new promise could be of more value than the old 
 one ! 
 
 It was the depth of winter. The cold was severe, and the 
 roads deep in mire. But the Prussians passed on. Resistance 
 was impossible. The Austrian army was then neither numerous 
 nor efficient. The small portion of that army which lay in Si- 
 lesia was unprepared for hostilities. Glogau was blockaded ; 
 Breslau opened its gates ; Ohlau was evacuated. A few scat- 
 tered garrisons still held out ; but the whole open country was 
 subjugated ; no enemy ventured to encounter the king in the 
 field ; and, before the end of January, 1741, he returned to re- 
 ceive the congratulations of his subjects at Berlin. 
 
 Silesia had been occupied without a battle ; but the Austrian 
 troops were advancing to the relief of the fortresses which still 
 held out. In the spring Frederick rejoined his army. He had 
 seen little of war, and had never commanded any great body of 
 men in the field. It is not, therefore, strange that his first mili- 
 tary operations showed little of that skill which, at a later pe- 
 riod, was the admiration of Europe. What connoisseurs say of 
 some pictures painted by Raphael in his youth, may be said of 
 this campaign. It was in Frederick's early bad manner. For- 
 tunately for him, the generals to whom he was opposed were 
 men of small capacity. The discipline of his own troops, par- 
 ticularly of the infantry, was unequalled in that age ; and some 
 able and experienced officers were at hand to assist him with 
 their advice. Of these, the most distinguished was Field-mar- 
 shal Schwerin — a brave adventurer of Pomeranian extraction, 
 who had served half the governments in Europe, had borne the 
 commissions of the States-General of Holland and of the duke 
 of Mecklenburg, and fought under Marlborough at Blenheim, 
 and had been with Charles XII. at Bender. 
 
 Frederick's first battle was fought at Molwitz ; and never did 
 the career of a great commander open in a more inaspicious 
 manner. His army was victorious. Not only, however, did he 
 not establish his title to the character of an able general, but 
 he was so unfortunate as to make it doubtful whether he pos-
 
 ►3 S
 
 X
 
 THE FIRST SILESIAN WAR. 407 
 
 sessed the vulgar courage of a soldier. The cavalry, which he 
 commanded in person, was put to flight. Unaccustomed to the 
 tumult and carnage of a field of battle, he lost his self-possession, 
 and listened too readily to those who urged him to save himself. 
 His English gray carried him many miles from the field, while 
 Schwerin, though wounded in two places, manfully upheld the 
 day. The skill of the old field-marshal and the steadiness of 
 the Prussian battalions prevailed ; and the Austrian army was 
 driven from the field with the loss of eight thousand men. 
 
 The news was carried late at night to a mill in which the king 
 had taken shelter. It gave him a bitter pang. He was suc- 
 cessful ; but he owed his success to dispositions which others had 
 made, and to the valour of men who had fought while he was 
 flying. So unpromising was the first appearance of the greatest 
 warrior of that age ! 
 
 The battle of Molwitz was the signal for a general explosion 
 throughout Europe. Bavaria took up arms. France, not yet 
 declaring herself a principal in the war, took part in it as an 
 ally of Bavaria. The two great statesmen to whom mankind 
 had owed many years of tranquillity, disappeared about this time 
 from the scene ; but not till they had both been guilty of the 
 weakness of sacrificing their sense of justice and their love of 
 peace in the vain hope of preserving their power. Fleury, sinking 
 under age and infirmity, was borne down by the impetuosity of 
 Belle-Isle. Walpole retired from the service of his ungrateful 
 country to his woods and paintings at Houghton ; and his power 
 devolved on the daring and eccentric Carteret. As were the 
 ministers, so were the nations. Thirty years during which 
 Europe had, with few interruptions, enjoyed repose, had pre- 
 'pared the public mind for great military efforts. A new gene- 
 ration had grown up, which could not remember the siege of 
 Turin or the slaughter of Malplaquet ; which knew war by no- 
 thing but its trophies ; and which, while it looked with pride on 
 the tapestries at Blenheim, or the statue in the " Place of Vic- 
 tories," little thought by what privations, by what waste of pri- 
 vate fortunes, by how many bitter tears, conquests must be pur- 
 chased. 
 
 For a time fortune seemed adverse to the queen of Hungary. 
 Frederick invaded Moravia. The French and Bavarians pene- 
 trated into Bohemia, and were there joined by the Saxons.
 
 408 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Prague was taken. The elector of Bavaria was raised by the 
 suffrages of his colleagues to the Imperial throne — a throne 
 which the practice of centuries had almost entitled the House 
 of Austria to regard as an hereditary possession. 
 
 Yet was the spirit of the haughty daughter of the Caesars un- 
 broken. Hungary was still hers by an unquestionable title ; and 
 although her ancestors had found Hungary the most mutinous 
 of all their kingdoms, she resolved to trust herself to the fidelity 
 of a people, rude indeed, turbulent, and impatient of oppression, 
 but brave, generous, and simple-hearted. In the midst of dis- 
 tress and peril she had given birth to a son, afterwards .-the Em- 
 peror Joseph II. Scarcely had she risen from her couch, 
 when she hastened to Presburg. There, in the sight of an in- 
 numerable multitude, she was crowned with the crown, and 
 robed with the robe of St. Stephen. No spectator could refrain 
 his tears when the beautiful young mother, still weak from child- 
 bearing, rode, after the fashion of her fathers, up the Mount of 
 Defiance, unsheathed the ancient sword of state, shook it towards 
 north and south, east and west, and, with a glow on her pale 
 face, challenged the four corners of the world to dispute her 
 rights and those of her boy. At the first sitting of the diet 
 she appeared clad in deep mourning for her father, and in pa- 
 thetic and dignified words implored her people to support her 
 just cause. Magnates and deputies sprang up, half drew their 
 sabres, and with eager voices vowed to stand by her with their 
 lives and fortunes. Till then, her firmness had never once for- 
 saken her before the public eye, but at that shout she sank down 
 upon her throne, and wept aloud. Still more touching was the 
 sight when, a few days later, she came before the estates of her 
 realm, and held up before them the little archduke in her arms. 
 Then it was that the enthusiasm of Hungary broke forth into 
 that war-cry which soon resounded throughout Europe, " Let 
 us die for our king, Maria Theresa !" 
 
 In the mean time, Frederick was meditating a change of 
 policy. He had no wish to raise France to supreme power on 
 the continent, at the expense of the house of Hapsburg. His 
 first object was, to rob the queen of Hungary. His second was, 
 that, if possible, nobody should rob her but himself. He had 
 entered into engagements with the powers leagued against 
 Austria ; but these engagements were in his estimation of no
 
 52 
 
 2K
 
 THE FIRST SILESIAN WAR. 41] 
 
 more force than the guarantee formerly given to the " Prag- 
 matic Sanction." His game now was to secure his share of the 
 plunder by betraying his accomplices. Maria Theresa was little 
 inclined to listen to any such compromise ; but the English go- 
 vernment represented to her so strongly the necessity of buying 
 off so formidable an enemy as Frederick, that she agreed to ne- 
 gotiate. The negotiation would not, however, have ended in a 
 treaty, had not the arms of Frederick been crowned with a 
 second victory ; Prince Charles of Lorraine, brother-in-law to 
 Maria Theresa, a bold and active, though unfortunate general, 
 gave battle to the Prussians at Chotusitz, and was defeated. 
 The king was still only a learner of the military art. He ac- 
 knowledged, at a later period, that his success on this occasion 
 was to be attributed, not at all to his own generalship, but 
 solely to the valour and steadiness of his troops. He completely 
 effaced, however, by his courage and energy, the stain which 
 Molwitz had left on his reputation. 
 
 A peace, concluded under the English mediation, was the 
 fruit of this battle. Maria Theresa ceded Silesia ; Frederick 
 abandoned his allies ; Saxony followed his example ; and the 
 queen was left at liberty to turn her whole force against France 
 and Bavaria. She was everywhere triumphant. The French 
 were compelled to evacuate Bohemia, and with difficulty effected 
 their escape. The whole line of their retreat might be tracked 
 by the corpses of thousands who had died of cold, fatigue, and 
 hunger. Many of those who reached their country carried with 
 them the seeds of death. Bavaria was overrun by bands of fe- 
 rocious warriors from that bloody " debatable land," which lies 
 on the frontier between Christendom and Islam. The terrible 
 names of the Pandoor, the Croat, and the Hussar then first be- 
 came familiar to western Europe. The unfortunate Charles' of 
 Bavaria, vanquished by Austria, betrayed by Prussia, driven 
 from his hereditary states, and neglected by his allies, was hur- 
 ried by shame and remorse to an untimely end. An English 
 army appeared in the heart of Germany, and defeated the 
 French at Dettingen. The Austrian captains already began to 
 talk of completing the work of Marlborough and Eugene, and 
 of compelling France to relinquish Alsace and the three bishop- 
 rics. 
 
 The court of Versailles, in this peril, looked to Frederick for
 
 412 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 help. He had been guilty of two great treasons, perhaps he 
 might be induced to commit a third. The duchess of Chateau- 
 roux then held the chief influence over the feeble Louis. She 
 determined to send an agent to Berlin, and Voltaire was selected 
 for the mission. He eagerly undertook the task ; for, while his 
 literary fame filled all Europe, he was troubled with a childish 
 craving for political distinction. He was vain, and not without 
 reason, of his address, and of his insinuating eloquence ; and he 
 flattered himself that he possessed boundless influence over the 
 king of Prussia. The truth was, that he knew, as yet, only one 
 corner of Frederick's character. He was well acquainted with 
 all the petty vanities and affectations of the poetaster ; but was 
 not aware that these foibles were united with all the talents and 
 vices which lead to success in active life ; and that the unlucky 
 versifier who bored him with reams of middling Alexandrians, 
 was the most vigilant, suspicious, and severe of politicians. 
 
 Voltaire was received at the palace of Sans Souci with every 
 mark of respect and friendship, was lodged in the palace, and 
 had a seat daily at the royal table. The negotiation was of an 
 extraordinary description. Nothing can be conceived more 
 whimsical than the conferences which took place between the 
 first literary man and the first practical man of the age, whom 
 a strange weakness had induced to exchange their parts. The 
 great poet would talk of nothing but treaties and guarantees, 
 and the great king of nothing but metaphors and rhymes. On 
 one occasion Voltaire put into his majesty's hand a paper on 
 the state of Europe, and received it back with verses scrawled 
 on the margin. In secret they both laughed at each other. 
 Voltaire did not spare the king's poems ; and the king has left 
 on record his opinion of Voltaire's diplomacy. " He had no 
 credentials," says Frederick, "and the whole mission was a 
 joke, a mere farce."
 
 FREDERICK THE GREAT AND VOLTAIRE AT SANS SOUCI.
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 415 
 
 [E SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 
 
 T was in the month of August, 1756, that the 
 great war of the Seven Years commenced. 
 The king demanded of the empress-queen a 
 distinct explanation of her intentions, and 
 plainly told her that he should consider a 
 refusal as a declaration of war. " I want," 
 he said, " no answer in the style of an ora- 
 cle." He received an answer at once haughty 
 and evasive. In an instant, the rich electorate of Saxony was 
 overflowed by sixty thousand Prussian troops. Augustus, with 
 his army, occupied a strong position at Pirna. The queen of 
 Poland was at Dresden. In a few days Pirna was blockaded 
 and Dresden was taken. The object of Frederick was to obtain 
 possession of the Saxon state papers ; for those papers, he well 
 knew, contained ample proofs that though apparently an ag- 
 gressor, he was really acting in self-defence. The queen of 
 Poland, as well acquainted as Frederick with the importance of 
 those documents, had packed them up, had concealed them in 
 her bed-chamber, and was about to send them off to Warsaw, 
 when a Prussian officer made his appearance. In the hope that 
 no soldier would venture to outrage a lady, a queen, a daughter 
 of an emperor, the mother-in-law of a dauphin, she placed her- 
 self before the trunk, and at length sat down on it. But all 
 resistance was vain. The papers were carried to Frederick, 
 who found in them, as he expected, abundant evidence of the 
 designs of the coalition. The most important documents were 
 instantly published, and the effect of the publication was great. 
 It was clear that, of whatever sins the king of Prussia might 
 formerly have been guilty, he was now the injured party, and 
 had merely anticipated a blow intended to destroy him. 
 
 The Saxon camp at Pirna was in the mean time closely in- 
 vested ; but the besieged were not without hopes of succour. A
 
 416 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 great Austrian army, under Marshal Brown, was about to pour 
 through the passes which separate Bohemia from Saxony. 
 Frederick left at Pirna a force sufficient to deal with the Saxons, 
 hastened into Bohemia, encountered Brown at Lowositz, and 
 defeated him. This battle decided the fate of Saxony. Au- 
 gustus and his favourite, Buhl, fled to Poland. The whole 
 army of the electorate capitulated. From that time till the 
 end of the war, Frederick treated Saxony as a part of his do- 
 minions, or, rather, he acted towards the Saxons in a manner 
 which may serve to illustrate the whole meaning of that tre- 
 mendous sentence — subjectos tanquam suos, viles tanquam alie- 
 nos. Saxony was as much in his power as Brandenburg ; and 
 he had no such interest in the welfare of Saxony as he had in 
 the welfare of Brandenburg. He accordingly levied troops and 
 exacted contributions throughout the enslaved province, with 
 far more rigour than in any part of his own dominions. Seven- 
 teen thousand men, who had been in the camp of Pirna, were 
 half compelled, half persuaded, to enlist under their conqueror. 
 Thus, within a few weeks from the commencement of hostilities, 
 one of the confederates had been disarmed, and his weapons 
 pointed against the rest. 
 
 The winter put a stop to military operations. All had 
 hitherto gone well. But the real tug of war was still to come. 
 It was easy to foresee that the year 1757 would be a memora- 
 ble era in the history of Europe. 
 
 The scheme for the campaign was simple, bold, and judi- 
 cious. The duke of Cumberland, with an English Hanoverian 
 army, was in Western Germany, and might be able to prevent 
 the French troops from attacking Prussia. The Russians, con- 
 fined by their snows, would probably not stir till the spring was 
 far advanced. Saxony was prostrated. Sweden could do no- 
 thing very important. During a few months, Frederick would 
 have to deal with Austria alone. Even thus the odds were 
 against him. But ability and courage have often triumphed 
 against odds still more formidable. 
 
 Early in 1757, the Prussian army in Saxony began to move. 
 Through four defiles in the mountains they came pouring into 
 Bohemia. Prague was his first mark ; but the ulterior object 
 was probably Vienna. At Prague, lay Marshal Brown with 
 one great army. Daun, the most cautious and fortunate of the
 
 MARSHAL SCHWERIN'S LAST CHARGE. 
 
 53
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 419 
 
 Austrian captains, was advancing with another. Frederick 
 determined to overwhelm Brown before Daun should arrive. 
 On the sixth of May was fought, under those walls which, a 
 hundred and thirty years before, had witnessed the victory of 
 the Catholic league and the flight of the unhappy Palatine, a 
 battle more bloody than any which Europe saw during the long 
 interval between Malplaquet and Eylau. The king and Prince 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick were distinguished on that day by 
 their valour and exertions. But the chief glory was with 
 Schwerin. When the Prussian infantry wavered, the stout old 
 marshal snatched the colours from an ensign, and, waving them 
 in the air, led back his regiment to the charge. Thus, at 
 seventy-two years of age, he fell in the thickest battle, still 
 grasping the standard which bears the black eagle on the field 
 argent. The victory remained with the king ; but it had been 
 dearly purchased. Whole columns of his bravest warriors had 
 fallen. He admitted that he had lost eighteen thousand men. 
 Of the enemy, twenty-four thousand had been killed, wounded, 
 or taken. 
 
 Part of the defeated army was shut up in Prague. Part fled 
 to join the troops which, under the command of Daun, were 
 now close at hand. Frederick determined to play over the same 
 game which had succeeded at Lowositz. He left a large force 
 to besiege Prague, and at the head of thirty thousand men he 
 marched against Daun. The cautious marshal, though he had 
 a great superiority in numbers, would risk nothing. He occu- 
 pied at Kolin a position almost impregnable, and awaited the 
 attack of the king. 
 
 It was the 18th of June — a day which, if the Greek super- 
 stition still retained its influence, would be held sacred to Ne- 
 mesis — a day on which the two greatest princes and soldiers of 
 modern times were taught, by a terrible experience, that neither 
 skill nor valour can fix the inconstancy of fortune. The battle 
 began before noon ; and part of the Prussian army maintained 
 the contest till after the midsummer sun had gone down. But 
 at length the king found that his troops, having been repeatedly 
 driven back with frightful carnage, could no longer be led to 
 the charge. He was with difficulty persuaded to quit the field. 
 The officers of his personal staff were under the necessity of 
 expostulating with him, and one of them took the liberty to
 
 420 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 say, " Does your majesty mean to storm the batteries alone ?" 
 Thirteen thousand of his bravest followers had perished. No- 
 thing remained for him but to retreat in good order, to raise 
 the siege of Prague, and to hurry his army by different routes 
 out of Bohemia. 
 
 This stroke seemed to be final. Frederick's situation had at 
 best been such, that only an uninterrupted run of good-luck 
 could save him, as it seemed, from ruin. And now, almost in 
 the outset of the contest, he had met with a check which, even 
 in a war between equal powers, would have been felt as serious. 
 He had owed much to the opinion which all Europe entertained 
 of his army. Since his accession, his soldiers had in many 
 successive battles been victorious over the Austrians. But the 
 glory had departed from his arms. All whom his malevolent 
 sarcasms had wounded, made haste to avenge themselves by 
 scoffing at the scoffer. His soldiers had ceased to confide in 
 his star. In every part of his camp his dispositions were se- 
 verely criticised. Even in his own family he had detractors. 
 His next brother, William, heir-presumptive, or rather, in truth, 
 heir-apparent to the throne, and great-grandfather of the pre- 
 sent king, could not refrain from lamenting his own fate and 
 that of the house of Hohenzollern, once so great and so pros- 
 perous, but now, by the rash ambition of its chief, made a by- 
 word to all nations. These complaints, and some blunders 
 which William committed during the retreat from Bohemia, 
 called forth the bitter displeasure of the inexorable king. The 
 prince's heart was broken by the cutting reproaches of his bro- 
 ther ; he quitted the army, retired to a country seat, and in a 
 short time died of shame and vexation. 
 
 It seemed that the king's distress could hardly be increased. 
 Yet at this moment another blow not less terrible than that of 
 Kolin fell upon him. The French, under Marshal D'Estrees, 
 had invaded Germany. The duke of Cumberland had given 
 them battle at Hastembeck, and had been defeated. In order 
 to save the electorate of Hanover from entire subjugation, he 
 had made at Closter Severn an arrangement with the French 
 generals, which left them at liberty to turn their arms against 
 the Prussian dominions. 
 
 That nothing might be wanting to Frederick's distress, he lost 
 his mother just at this time ; and he appears to have felt the
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 421 
 
 loss more than was to be expected from the hardness and seve- 
 rity of his character. In truth, his misfortunes had now cut 
 to the quick. The mocker, the tyrant, the most rigorous, the 
 most imperious, the most cynical of men, was very unhappy. 
 His face was so haggard, and his form so thin, that when, on 
 his return from Bohemia, he passed through Leipsic, the people 
 hardly knew him again. His sleep was broken ; the tears, in 
 spite of himself, often started into his eyes ; and the grave be- 
 gan to present itself to his agitated mind as the best refuge 
 from misery and dishonour. His resolution was fixed never to 
 be taken alive, and never to make peace on condition of de- 
 scending from his place among the powers of Europe. He saw 
 nothing left for him except to die ; and he deliberately chose 
 his mode of death. He always carried about with him a sure 
 and speedy poison in a small glass case ; and to the few in 
 whom he placed confidence, he made no mystery of his resolu- 
 tion. 
 
 * * * * At the beginning of November, the net 
 seemed to have closed completely round him. The Russians 
 were in the field, and were spreading devastation through his 
 eastern provinces. Silesia was overrun by the Austrians. A 
 great French army was advancing from the west under the 
 command of Marshal Soubise, a prince of the great Armorican 
 house of Rohan. Berlin itself had been taken and plundered 
 by the Croatians. Such was the situation from which Frederick 
 extricated himself, with dazzling glory, in the short space of 
 thirty days. 
 
 He marched first against Soubise. On the fifth of Novem- 
 ber, the armies met at Rosbach. The French were two to one ; 
 but they were ill-disciplined, and their general was a dunce. 
 The tactics of Frederick, and the well-regulated valour of the 
 Prussian troops, obtained a complete victory. Seven thousand 
 of the invaders were made prisoners. Their guns, their colours, 
 their baggage, fell into the hands of the conquerors. Those 
 who escaped fled as confusedly as a mob scattered by cavalry. 
 Victorious in the west, the king turned his arms towards Sile- 
 sia. In that quarter every thing seemed to be lost. Breslau 
 had fallen ; and Charles of Lorraine, with a mighty power, held 
 the whole province. On the fifth of December, exactly one 
 month after the battle of Rosbach, Frederick, with forty thou- 
 
 2L
 
 422 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 sand men, and Prince Charles, at the head of not less than 
 sixty thousand, met at Leuthen, hard by Breslau. The king, 
 who was, in general, perhaps, too much inclined to consider the 
 common soldier as a mere machine, resorted, on this great day, 
 to means resembling those which Bonaparte afterwards em- 
 ployed with such signal success for the purpose of stimulating 
 military enthusiasm. The principal officers were convoked. 
 Frederick addressed them with great force and pathos, and di- 
 rected them to speak to their men as he had spoken to them. 
 When the armies were set in battle array, the Prussian troops 
 were in a state of fierce excitement ; but their excitement 
 showed itself after the fashion of a grave people. The columns 
 advanced to the attack chanting, to the sound of drums and 
 fifes, the rude hymns of the old Saxon Hernholds. They 
 had never fought so well ; nor had the genius of their chief 
 ever been so conspicuous. " That battle," said Napoleon, 
 " was a masterpiece. Of itself it is sufficient to entitle Fre- 
 derick to a place in the first rank among generals." The vic- 
 tory was complete. Twenty-seven thousand Austrians were 
 killed, wounded, or taken ; fifty stand of colours, a hundred 
 guns, four thousand wagons, fell into the hands of the Prus- 
 sians. Breslau opened its gates ; Silesia was reconquered ; 
 Charles of Lorraine retired to hide his shame and sorrow at 
 Brussels ; and Frederick allowed his troops to take some repose 
 in winter-quarters, after a campaign, to the vicissitudes of which 
 it will be difficult to find any parallel in ancient or modern 
 history. 
 
 The news of the battle of Rosbach stirred the blood of the 
 whole of the mighty population from the Alps to the Baltic, 
 and from the borders of Courland to those of Lorraine. West- 
 phalia and Lower Saxony had been deluged by a great host of 
 strangers, whose speech was unintelligible, and whose petulant 
 and licentious manners had excited the strongest feelings of dis- 
 gust and hatred. That great host had been put to flight by a 
 small band of German warriors, led by a prince of German 
 blood on the side of father and mother, and marked by the fair 
 hair and the clear blue eye of Germany. Never, since the dis- 
 solution of the empire of Charlemagne, had the Teutonic race 
 won such a field against the French. The tidings called forth 
 a general burst of delight and pride from the whole of the great
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 423 
 
 family which spoke the various dialects of the ancient language 
 of Arrninius. The fame of Frederick began to supply, in some 
 degree, the place of a common government and of a common 
 capital. It became a rallying point for all true Germans — a 
 subject of mutual congratulation to the Bavarian and the West- 
 phalian, to the citizen of Frankfort and the citizen of Nurem- 
 burg. Then first it was manifest that the Germans were truly 
 a nation. Then first was discernible that patriotic spirit which, 
 in 1813, achieved the great deliverance of central Europe, and 
 which still guards, and long will guard, against foreign ambi- 
 tion, the old freedom of the Rhine. 
 
 Nor were the effects produced by that celebrated day merely 
 political. The greatest masters of German poetry and elo- 
 quence have admitted that, though the great king neither valued 
 nor understood his native language, though he looked on France 
 as the only seat of taste and philosophy, yet, in his own de- 
 spite, he did much to emancipate the genius of his countrymen 
 from the foreign yoke ; and that, in the act of vanquishing 
 Soubise, he was, unintentionally, rousing the spirit which soon 
 began to question the literary precedence of Boileau and Vol- 
 taire. So strangely do events confound all the plans of man. A 
 prince who read only French, who wrote only French, who ranked 
 as a French classic, became, quite unconsciously, the means of 
 liberating half the continent from the dominion of that French 
 criticism, of which he was himself, to the end of his life, a slave. 
 Yet even the enthusiasm of Germany, in favour of Frederick, 
 hardly equalled the enthusiasm of England. The birth-day of her 
 ally was celebrated with as much enthusiasm as that of her own 
 sovereign, and at night the streets of London were in a blaze 
 with illuminations. Portraits of the hero of Rosbach, with his 
 cocked hat and long pig-tail, were in every house. An atten- 
 tive observer will, at this day, find in the parlours of old- 
 fashioned inns, and in the portfolios of print-sellers, twenty 
 portraits of Frederick for one of George II. The sign-painters 
 were everywhere employed in touching up Admiral Vernon into 
 the king of Prussia. Some young Englishmen of rank pro- 
 posed to visit Germany as volunteers, for the purpose of learn- 
 ing the art of war under the greatest of commanders. This last 
 proof of British attachment and admiration, Frederick politely 
 but firmly declined. His camp was no place for amateur stu*
 
 424 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 dents of military science. The Prussian discipline was rigor- 
 ous even to cruelty. The officers, while in the field, were ex- 
 pected to practise an abstemiousness and self-denial such as was 
 hardly surpassed by the most rigid monastic orders. However 
 noble their birth, however high their rank in the service, they 
 were not permitted to eat from any thing better than pewter. 
 It was a high crime even in a count and field-marshal to have 
 a single silver spoon among his baggage. Gay young English- 
 men of twenty thousand a year, accustomed to liberty and to 
 luxury, would not easily submit to these Spartan restraints. 
 The king could not venture to keep them in order as he kept 
 his own subjects in order. Situated as he was with respect to 
 England, he could not well imprison or shoot refractory How- 
 ards and Cavendishes. On the other hand, the example of a 
 few fine gentlemen, attended by chariots and livery servants, 
 eating in plate, and drinking champagne and tokay, was enough 
 to corrupt his whole army. He thought it best to make a stand 
 at first, and civilly refused to admit such dangerous companions 
 among his troops. 
 
 The help of England was bestowed in a manner far more 
 useful and more acceptable. An annual subsidy of near seven 
 hundred thousand pounds enabled the king to add probably 
 more than fifty thousand men to his army. Pitt, now at the 
 height of power and popularity, undertook the task of defending 
 Western Germany against France, and asked Frederick only 
 for the loan of a general. The general selected was Prince 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick, who had attained a high distinction in 
 the Prussian service. He was put at the head of an army, 
 partly English, partly Hanoverian, partly composed of merce- 
 naries hired from the petty princes of the empire. He soon 
 vindicated the choice of the two allied courts, and proved him- 
 self the second general of the age. 
 
 Frederick passed the winter at Breslau, in reading, writing, 
 and preparing for the next campaign. The havoc which the 
 war had made among his troops was rapidly repaired ; and in 
 the spring of 1758 he was again ready for the conflict. Prince 
 Ferdinand kept the French in check. The king, in the mean 
 time, after attempting against the Austrians some operations 
 which led to no very important result, marched to encounter the 
 Russians, who, slaying, burning, and wasting wherever they
 
 54 
 
 2l2
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 427 
 
 turned, had penetrated into the heart of his realm. He gave 
 them battle at Zorndorf, near Frankfort on the Oder. The 
 fight was long and bloody. Quarter was neither given nor taken ; 
 for the Germans and Scythians regarded each other with bitter 
 aversion, and the sight of the ravages committed by the half- 
 savage invaders had incensed the king and his army. The Rus- 
 sians were overthrown with great slaughter, and for a few months 
 no further danger was to be apprehended from the east. 
 
 A day of thanksgiving was proclaimed by the king, and was 
 celebrated with pride and delight by his people. The rejoicings 
 in England were not less enthusiastic nor less sincere. This 
 may be selected as the point of time at which the military glory 
 of Frederick reached the zenith. In the short space of three- 
 quarters of a year he had won three great battles over the 
 armies of three mighty and warlike monarchies — France, Aus- 
 tria, and Russia. 
 
 But it was decreed that the temper of that strong mind should 
 be tried by both extremes of fortune in rapid succession. Close 
 upon this bright series of triumphs came a series of disasters, 
 such as would have blighted the fame and broken the heart of 
 almost any other commander. Yet Frederick, in the midst of 
 his calamities, was still an object of admiration to his subjects, 
 his allies, and his enemies. Overwhelmed by adversity, sick of 
 life, he still maintained the contest — greater in defeat, in flight, 
 and in what seemed hopeless ruin, than on the fields of his 
 proudest victories. 
 
 Having vanquished the Russians, he hastened into Saxony to op- 
 pose the troops of the empress-queen, commanded by Daun, the 
 most cautious, and Laudohn, the most inventive and .enterprising 
 of her generals. These two celebrated commanders agreed on a 
 scheme, in which the prudence of the one and the vigour of the 
 other seem to have happily combined. At dead of night they 
 surprised the king in his camp at Hochkirchen. His presence 
 of mind saved his troops from destruction ; but nothing could 
 save them from defeat and severe loss. Marshal Keith was 
 among the slain. The first roar of the guns roused the noble 
 exile from his rest, and he was instantly in the front of the bat- 
 tle. He received a dangerous wound, but refused to quit the 
 field, and was in the act of rallying his broken troops, when an 
 Austrian bullet terminated his chequered and eventful life.
 
 428 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 The misfortune was serious. But of all generals Frederick 
 understood best how to repair defeat, and Daun understood least 
 how to improve victory. In a few days the Prussian army was 
 as formidable as before the battle. The prospect was, however, 
 gloomy. An Austrian army under General Harsch had in- 
 vaded Silesia, and invested the fortress of Neisse. Daun, after his 
 success at Hochkirchen, had written to Harsch in very confident 
 terms : — " Go on with your operations against Neisse. Be quite 
 at ease as to the king. I will give you a good account of him." 
 In truth, the position of the Prussians was full of difficulties. 
 Between them and Silesia lay the victorious army of Daun. It 
 was not easy for them to reach Silesia at all. If they did reach 
 it, they left Saxony exposed to the Austrians. But the vigour 
 and activity of Frederick surmounted every obstacle. He made 
 a circuitous march of extraordinary rapidity, passed Daun, 
 hastened into Silesia, raised the siege of Neisse, and drove 
 Harsch into Bohemia. Daun availed himself of the king's ab- 
 sence to attack Dresden. The Prussians defended it desperately. 
 The inhabitants of that wealthy and polished capital begged in 
 vain for mercy from the garrison within, and from the besiegers 
 without. The beautiful suburbs were burned to the ground. It 
 was clear that the town, if won at all, would be won street by 
 street by the bayonet. At this conjuncture came news, that 
 Frederick, having cleared Silesia of his enemies, was returning 
 by forced marches into Saxony. Daun retired from before 
 Dresden, and fell back into the Austrian territories. The king, 
 over heaps of ruins, made his triumphant entry into the unhappy 
 metropolis, which had so cruelly expiated the weak and perfidious 
 policy of its sovereign. It was now the 20th of November. The 
 cold weather suspended military operations ; and the king again 
 took up his winter quarters at Breslau. 
 
 The third of the seven terrible years was over, and Frederick 
 still stood his ground. The fourth campaign, the most disastrous 
 of all the campaigns of this fearful war, now opened. The Aus- 
 trians filled Saxony, and menaced Berlin. The Russians de- 
 feated the king's generals on the Oder, threatened Silesia, 
 effected a junction with Laudohn, and intrenched themselves 
 strongly at Kunersdorf. Frederick hastened to attack them. A 
 great battle was fought. During the earlier part of the day every- 
 thing yielded to the impetuosity of the Prussians, and to the skill
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 429 
 
 of their chief. The lines were forced. Half the Russian guns were 
 taken. The king sent off a courier to Berlin with two lines, an- 
 nouncing a complete victory. But, in the mean time, the stubborn 
 Russians, defeated yet unbroken, had taken up their stand in an 
 almost impregnable position, on an eminence where the Jews of 
 Frankfort were wont to bury their dead. Here the battle re-com- 
 menced. The Prussian infantry, exhausted by six hours of hard 
 fighting under a sun which equalled the tropical heat, were yet 
 brought up repeatedly to the attack, but in vain. The king led 
 three charges in person. Two horses were killed under him. 
 The officers of his staff fell around him. His coat was pierced 
 by several bullets. All was in vain. His infantry was driven 
 back with frightful slaughter. Terror began to spread fast from 
 man to man. At that moment, the fiery cavalry of Laudohn,. 
 still fresh, rushed on the wavering ranks. Then followed a 
 universal rout. Frederick himself was on the point of falling 
 into the hands of the conquerors, and was with difficulty saved 
 by a gallant officer, who, at the head of a handful of hussars, 
 made good a diversion of a few minutes. Shattered in body, 
 shattered in mind, the king reached that night a village which 
 the Cossacks had plundered ; and there, in a ruined and deserted 
 farm-house, flung himself on a heap of straw. He had sent to 
 Berlin a second despatch very different from his first : — « Let 
 the royal family leave Berlin. Send the archives to Potsdam. 
 The town may make terms with the enemy." 
 
 The defeat was in truth overwhelming. Of fifty thousand 
 men, who had that morning marched under the black eagles, not 
 three thousand remained together. The king bethought him 
 again of his corrosive sublimate, and wrote to bid adieu to his 
 friends, and to give directions as to the measures to be taken in 
 the event of his death: — " I have no resource left" — such is the 
 language of one of his letters — " all is lost. I will not survive 
 the ruin of my country. Farewell for ever." 
 
 But the mutual jealousies of the confederates prevented them 
 from following up their victory. They lost a few days in loi- 
 tering and squabbling ; and a few days, improved by Frederick, 
 were worth more than the years of other men. On the morning 
 after the battle, he had got together eighteen thousand of his 
 troops.* Very soon his force amounted to thirty thousand. 
 Guns were procured from the neighbouring fortresses ; and there
 
 430 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 was again an army. Berlin was for the present safe ; but ca- 
 lamities came pouring on the king in uninterrupted succession. 
 One of his generals, with a large body of troops, was taken at 
 Maxen ; another was defeated at Meissen ; and when at length 
 the campaign of 1759 closed, in the midst of a rigorous winter, 
 the situation of Prussia appeared desperate. The only consoling 
 circumstance was, that, in the west, Ferdinand of Brunswick 
 had been more fortunate than his master ; and by a series of 
 exploits, of which the battle of Minden was the most glorious, 
 had removed all apprehension of danger on the side of France. 
 
 The fifth year was now about to commence. It seemed im- 
 possible that the Prussian territories, repeatedly devastated by 
 hundreds of thousands of invaders, could longer support the 
 contest. But the king carried on war as no European power 
 has ever carried on war, except the committee of Public Safety 
 during the great agony of the French Revolution. He governed 
 his kingdom as he would have governed a besieged town, not 
 caring to what extent property was destroyed, or the pursuits of 
 civil life suspended, so that he did but make head against the 
 enemy. As long as there was a man left in Prussia, that man 
 might carry a musket — as long as there was a horse left, that 
 horse might draw artillery. The coin was debased, the civil 
 functionaries were left unpaid ; in some provinces civil govern- 
 ment altogether ceased to exist. But there were still rye-bread 
 and potatoes ; there were still lead and gunpowder ; and while 
 the means of sustaining and destroying life remained, Frederick 
 was determined to fight it out to the very last. 
 
 The earlier part of the campaign of 1760 was unfavourable 
 to him. Berlin was again occupied by the enemy. Great con- 
 tributions were levied on the inhabitants, and the royal palace 
 was plundered. But at length, after two years of calamity, vic- 
 tory came back to his arms. At Lignitz he gained a great bat- 
 tle over Laudohn ; at Torgau, after a day of horrible carnage, 
 he triumphed over Daun. The fifth year closed, and still the 
 event was in suspense. In the countries where the war had 
 raged, the misery and exhaustion were more appalling than ever ; 
 but still there were left men and beasts, arms and food, and still 
 Frederick fought on. In truth he had now been baited into sa- 
 vageness. His heart was ulcerated with hatred. The implacable 
 resentment with which his enemies persecuted him, though ori-
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 43 1 
 
 ginally provoked by his own unprincipled ambition, excited in 
 him a thirst for vengeance which he did not even attempt to con- 
 ceal. "It is hard," he says in one of his letters, "for man to 
 bear what I bear. I begin to feel that, as the Italians say, re- 
 venge is a pleasure for the gods. My philosophy is worn out 
 by suffering. I am no saint, like those of whom we read in the 
 legends ; and I will own that I should die content if only I could 
 first inflict a portion of the misery which I endure." 
 
 Borne up by such feelings, he struggled with various success, 
 but constant glory, through the campaign of 1761. On the 
 whole, the result of this campaign was disastrous to Prussia. 
 No great battle was gained by the enemy ; but, in spite of the 
 desperate bounds of the hunted tiger, the circle of pursuers was 
 fast closing round him. Laudohn had surprised the important 
 fortress of Schweidnitz. With that fortress, half of Silesia, and 
 the command of the most important defiles through the moun- 
 tains, had been transferred to the Austrians. The Russians had 
 overpowered the king's generals in Pomerania. The country was 
 so completely desolated that he began, by his own confession, 
 to look round him with blank despair, unable to imagine where 
 recruits, horses, or provisions, were to be found. 
 
 Just at this time two great events brought on a complete change 
 in the relations of almost all the powers of Europe. One of 
 those events was the retirement of Mr. Pitt from office, the 
 other was the death of the empress Elizabeth of Russia. 
 
 The retirement of Pitt seemed to be an omen of utter ruin to 
 the house of Brandenburg. His proud and vehement nature 
 was incapable of any thing that looked like either fear or trea- 
 chery. He had often declared that, while he was in power, 
 England should never make a peace of Utrecht ; — should never, 
 for any selfish object, abandon an ally even in the last extremity 
 of distress. The continental war was his own war. He had 
 been bold enough — he who in former times had attacked, with 
 irresistible powers of oratory, the Hanoverian policy of Carteret 
 and the German subsidies of Newcastle — to declare that Hano- 
 ver ought to be as dear to us as Hampshire, and that he would 
 conquer America in Germany. He had fallen ; and the power 
 which he had exercised, not always with discretion, but always 
 with vigour and genius, had devolved on a favourite who was the 
 representative of the Tory party — of the party which had
 
 432 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 thwarted William, which had persecuted Marlborough, and 
 which had given up the Catalans to the vengeance of Philip of 
 Anjou. To make peace with France — to shake off with all, or 
 more than all, the speed compatible with decency, every conti 
 nental connection, these were among the chief objects of the 
 new minister. The policy then followed inspired Frederick 
 with an unjust, but deep and bitter aversion to the English 
 name ; and produced effects which are still felt throughout the 
 civilized world. To that policy it was owing that, some years 
 later England, could not find on the whole continent a single 
 ally to stand by her, in her extreme need, against the house of 
 Bourbon. To that policy it was owing that Frederick, alienated 
 from England, was compelled to connect himself closely, during 
 his later years, with Russia; and was induced reluctantly to 
 assist in that great crime, the fruitful parent of other great 
 crimes — the first partition of Poland. 
 
 Scarcely had the retreat of Mr. Pitt deprived Prussia of her 
 only friend, when the death of Elizabeth produced an entire 
 revolution in the politics of the north. The grand-duke Peter, 
 her nephew, who now ascended the Russian throne, was not 
 merely free from the prejudices which his aunt had entertained 
 against Frederick, but was a worshipper, a servile imitator, a 
 Boswell, of the great king. The days of the new czar's go- 
 vernment were few and evil, but sufficient to produce a change 
 in the whole state of Christendom. He set the Prussian pri- 
 soners at liberty, fitted them out decently, and sent them back 
 to their master ; he withdrew his troops from the provinces 
 which Elizabeth had decided on incorporating with her domi- 
 nions, and absolved all those Prussian subjects, who had been 
 compelled to swear .fealty to Russia, from their engagements. 
 
 Not content with concluding peace on terms favourable to 
 Prussia, he solicited rank in the Prussian service, dressed him- 
 self in a Prussian uniform, wore the black eagle of Prussia on 
 his breast, made preparations for visiting Prussia, in order to 
 have an interview with the object of his idolatry, and actually 
 sent fifteen thousand excellent troops to reinforce the shattered 
 army of Frederick. Thus strengthened, the king speedily re- 
 paired the losses of the preceding year, reconquered Silesia, 
 defeated Daun at Buckersdorf, invested and retook Schweidnitz, 
 and, at the close of the year, presented to the forces of Maria
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 433 
 
 Theresa a front as formidable as before the great reverses of 
 1759. Before the end of the campaign, his friend, the empe- 
 ror Peter, having, by a series of absurd insults to the institu- 
 tions, manners, and feelings of his people, united them in hos- 
 tility to his person and government, was deposed and murdered. 
 The empress who, under the title of Catherine the Second, now 
 assumed the supreme power, was, at the commencement of her 
 administration, by no means partial to Frederick, and refused 
 to permit her troops to remain under his command. But she 
 observed the peace made by her husband, and Prussia was no 
 longer threatened by danger from the East. 
 
 England and France, at the same time, paired off together. 
 They concluded a treaty, by which they bound themselves to 
 observe neutrality with respect to the German war. Thus the 
 coalitions on both sides were dissolved, and the original enemies, 
 Austria and Prussia, remained alone confronting each other. 
 
 Austria had undoubtedly by far greater means than Prussia, 
 and was less exhausted by hostilities ; yet it seemed hardly pos- 
 sible that Austria could effect alone what she had in vain at- 
 tempted to effect, when supported by France on the one side 
 and by Russia on the other. Danger also began to menace the 
 Imperial house from another quarter. The Ottoman porte held 
 threatening language, and a hundred thousand Turks were mus- 
 tered on the frontiers of Hungary. The proud and revengeful 
 spirit of the empress-queen at length gave way ; and in Febru- 
 ary, 1763, the peace of Hubertsburg put an end to the conflict 
 which had, during seven years, devastated Germany. The king 
 ceded nothing. The whole continent in arms had proved unable 
 to tear Silesia from that iron grasp. 
 
 The war was over. Frederick was safe. His glory was be- 
 yond the reach of envy. If he had not made conquests as vast 
 as those of Alexander, of Csesar, and of Napoleon — if he had 
 not, on the field of battle, enjoyed the constant success of Marl- 
 borough and Wellington — he had yet given an example unrivalled 
 in history of what capacity and resolution can effect against 
 the greatest superiority of power and the utmost spite of for- 
 tune. He entered Berlin in triumph, after an absence of more 
 than six years. The streets were brilliantly lighted up ; and, 
 as he passed along in an open carriage, with Ferdinand of 
 Brunswick at his side, the multitude saluted him with loud 
 55 2 M
 
 434 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 praises and blessings. He was moved by those marks of attach- 
 ment, and repeatedly exclaimed — » Long live my dear people !— 
 long live my children !" Yet, even in the midst of that gay 
 spectacle, he could not but perceive everywhere the traces of 
 destruction and decay. The city had been more than once 
 plundered. The population had considerably diminished. Ber- 
 lin, however, had suffered little when compared with most parts 
 of the kingdom. The ruin of private fortunes, the distress of 
 all ranks, was such as might appal the firmest mind. Almost 
 every province had been the seat of war, and of war conducted 
 with merciless ferocity. Clouds of Croatians had descended 
 on Silesia. Tens of thousands of Cossacks had been let loose 
 on Pomerania and Brandenburg. The mere contributions levied 
 by the invaders amounted, it was said, to more than a hundred 
 millions of dollars; and the value of what they extorted was 
 probably much less than the value of what they destroyed. 
 The fields lay uncultivated. The very seed-corn had been 
 devoured in the madness of hunger. Famine and contagious 
 maladies, the effect of famine, had swept away the herds and 
 flocks, and there was reason to fear that a great pestilence 
 among the human race was likely to follow in the train of that 
 tremendous war. Near fifteen thousand houses had been burned 
 to the ground. 
 
 The population of the kingdom had in seven years decreased 
 to the frightful extent of ten per cent. A sixth of the males 
 capable of bearing arms had actually perished on the field of 
 battle. In some districts, no labourers, except women, were 
 seen in the fields at harvest-time. In others, the traveller 
 passed shuddering through a succession of silent villages, in 
 which not a single inhabitant remained. The currency had 
 been debased ; the authority of laws and magistrates had been 
 suspended ; the whole social system was deranged. For, during 
 that convulsive struggle, every thing that was not military vio- 
 lence was anarchy. Even the army was disorganized. Some 
 great generals, and a crowd of excellent officers, had fallen, 
 and it had been impossible to supply their places. The diffi- 
 culty of finding recruits had, towards the close of the war, been 
 so great that selection and rejection were impossible. Whole 
 battalions were composed of deserters or of prisoners. It was 
 hardly to be hoped that thirty years of repose and industry
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR IN GERMANY. 
 
 435 
 
 would repair the ruin produced by seven years of havoc. One 
 consolatory circumstance, indeed, there was. No debt had been 
 incurred. The burdens of the war had been terrible, — almost 
 insupportable ; but no arrear was left to embarrass the finances 
 in the time of peace.* 
 
 * For this account of the Seven Years' War, we are indebted to Macaulay.
 
 436 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 WASHINGTON. 
 
 OPENING OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 T the close of the Seven 
 Years' War, which termi- 
 nated in America with 
 the conquest of Canada, 
 the British colonists in 
 this country were well disposed to- 
 wards the parent country ; but an 
 attempt on the part of the British 
 government to restrict their com- 
 merce and subject them to stamp du- 
 ties and other taxes, without representation in parliament, cre- 
 ated strong discontent. A series of aggressions followed, such
 
 OPENING OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 437 
 
 as the quartering of troops on the people, the Boston massa- 
 cre of 1770, and the shutting up of the port by the famous 
 Boston port bill, until, in 1774, a congress composed of dele- 
 gates from twelve of the thirteen colonies assembled in Phila- 
 delphia, and prepared for organized resistance to the mother 
 country. The acts of this congress countenanced the people 
 of Massachusetts in their resistance to the oppressive port bill ; 
 and, while addresses to the king and the people of England 
 were voted, they hinted at the necessity of looking forward to 
 melancholy events, and of being ready for every contingency 
 which might arise. 
 
 The inclinations of the people were in exact agreement with 
 the decisions of the congress. The inhabitants of Boston were 
 supplied by contributions from all quarters. Even those who, 
 by their situation, appeared the most likely to derive advantages 
 from the cessation of their trade, were most forward to relieve 
 them in their distress ; and the people of Marblehead, a town 
 at no great distance, generously offered them the use of their 
 harbour, and of their wharfs and warehouses, free of all ex- 
 pense. Every one who could procure arms was diligent in 
 learning how to use them. The whole country of Massachu- 
 setts seemed ready to rise. In the mean time, British troops 
 assembled in greater numbers at Boston ; and General Gage 
 thought it prudent to fortify the neck of land which joins that 
 city to the continent. He also seized the magazines of gun- 
 powder, ammunition, and military stores at Cambridge and 
 Charlestown ; and thus, by depriving the colonists for a time 
 of the means of annoying him, he rendered them less able to 
 carry their designs into execution. An assembly was called, 
 and its sitting immediately countermanded ; but the representa- 
 tives met, notwithstanding the proclamation of the governor, 
 and, after waiting a day for his arrival, they voted themselves 
 " a provincial congress." Winter approached; the people re- 
 fused to supply the troops either with lodging or clothes ; the 
 selectmen of Boston obliged the workmen employed in erecting 
 the barracks to desist ; and the merchants of New York de- 
 clared that they would " never supply any article for the benefit 
 of men who were sent as the enemies of their country." 
 
 All hope of reconciliation with Britain was now at an end. 
 The provincials took possession of the stores which belonged to 
 
 2m2
 
 438 
 
 I MM DENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 
 BATTLE OF CONCORD. 
 
 the government wherever they were able to secure them ; and 
 at Newport, in Rhode Island, the inhabitants carried off no 
 fewer than forty pieces of cannon, intended for the defence of 
 the place, alleging that they seized them in order to prevent 
 them from being used against their liberties and their lives. 
 The assemblies in all the colonies voted that ammunition should 
 be procured at the general expense ; and it required but little 
 foresight to discover that a civil war, with all its fearful conse- 
 quences, was about to ensue. 
 
 General Gage, having received intelligence that a number of 
 field-pieces were collected at Salem, despatched a party of sol- 
 diers to take possession of them in the name of the king. The 
 people, however, assembling in great numbers, prevented the 
 military from advancing to the town by pulling up a drawbridge 
 which it was necessary for them to pass, and they returned to 
 the governor without accomplishing their purpose. The next 
 attempt was followed by more interesting consequences. The 
 provincials had deposited a large quantity of ammunition and 
 stores at Concord, about twenty miles from Boston ; these Ge- 
 neral Gage resolved to seize or to destroy, and with that view 
 he sent a detachment of eight hundred men, under the com- 
 mand of Major Pitcairn and Colonel Smith, ordering them to
 
 OPENING OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 439 
 
 proceed with the utmost expedition, and with all possible se- 
 crecy. But, notwithstanding his care and the alacrity of the 
 soldiers, the provincials had immediate notice of his design ; 
 and, when the British troops arrived at Lexington, within five 
 miles of Concord, the militia of the place were drawn up on the 
 parade and ready to receive them. A skirmish ensuing, seve- 
 ral of the Americans were killed. The rest fled without mak- 
 ing any further resistance ; and the detachment, proceeding to 
 Concord, destroyed or took possession of the stores which were 
 there. Having effected their purpose, the military now began 
 to retire ; but the colonists, pressing upon them on all sides, 
 they were driven from post to post till they arrived at Lexing- 
 ton, where, their ammunition being expended, they must infal- 
 libly have been cut off, if Lord Percy had not been sent by the 
 governor with a strong party to their assistance. In conse- 
 quence of this reinforcement, they quitted Lexington and con- 
 tinued their march towards Boston, which they reached the day 
 after, though not without frequent interruption and very great 
 difficulty. In the affair of Lexington, which has been justly 
 regarded as the commencement of the American war, and in 
 the retreat from that place, the British lost nearly two hundred 
 and fifty men. 
 
 The colonists, elevated with their success in this engagement, 
 became more and more fixed in their opposition, and even medi- 
 tated the total expulsion of the English from Boston. An 
 army of twenty thousand men encamped in the neighbourhood 
 of the city, and that force was soon increased by the arrival of 
 the troops from Connecticut, under General Putnam, an officer 
 of great bravery and of tried skill in the military art ; but 
 Gage had fortified the town so strongly, that, numerous as they 
 were, the provincials durst not attempt it by assault ; while, on 
 the other hand, the governor was too weak to contend with them 
 in the field. It was not long, however, before he was able to 
 act on the offensive. A powerful reinforcement arrived from 
 England, under Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton. Mar- 
 tial law was proclaimed, and pardon was offered to such as 
 would return to their allegiance. 
 
 On the lGth of June, A. d. 1775, the Americans took pos- 
 session of Hunker's Hill, an eminence which overlooks and 
 commands the town of Boston, and, labouring with incredible
 
 440 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 diligence and secrecy, they threw up a redoubt, and protected 
 it by means of an intrenchment, before the approach of day 
 enabled the British to discover what they had done. From this 
 position General Gage thought it necessary to dislodge them. 
 Accordingly, he directed a strong body of men, under the or- 
 ders of Generals Howe and Pigot, to land at the foot of Bunker's 
 Hill, and to proceed with a detachment of the artillery against 
 the Americans. But the latter, having the advantage of the 
 ground, poured upon them such an incessant and deadly fire of 
 musketry that the British were thrown into confusion, and so 
 many of the officers were killed that General Howe was left 
 almost alone. Yet, though twice repulsed, the king's troops 
 rallied and advanced again towards the fortifications which the 
 provincials had erected. The redoubt was now attacked on 
 three sides at once ; the ammunition of the colonists began to 
 fail ; and the British pressing forward, the Americans were con- 
 strained to abandon the post, and to retreat in the face of the 
 enemy over Charlestown Neck ; where they were exposed to a 
 galling fire from the ships in the harbour. In this battle, the 
 town of Charlestown, which is separated from Boston by a nar- 
 row sheet of water, was reduced to ashes by the orders of Ge- 
 neral Pigot, who was saved by that measure, as well as by the 
 arrival of General Clinton, from the ignominy of a defeat. 
 
 Though the victory in the attack at Bunker's Hill was justly 
 claimed by the royalists, it was not gained without considerable 
 loss on their part. The flower of the English troops in Ame- 
 rica were engaged, and their killed and wounded amounted to 
 ten hundred and fifty-four ; while those of the provincials were 
 not above the half of that number. But, while the colonists 
 suffered a defeat in this encounter, they were elated in no ordi- 
 nary degree at the intrepidity which their forces had displayed; 
 and they entertained the hope that patriotism and an ardent love 
 of freedom would enable them to withstand the assaults of the 
 British, till experience should render them equal to them in 
 discipline and military skill. 
 
 They erected fortifications on the heights in the neighbour- 
 hood of Charlestown, and reduced the king's troops in Boston 
 to very great distress for want of provisions. Far from enter- 
 taining any thought of submission, they redoubled their exer- 
 tions, and increased their vigilance. In the mean time, the
 
 OPENING OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 443 
 
 MOUNT VERNON. 
 
 congress, which had again been assembled, acted with all the 
 decision which was expected from them : they drew up articles 
 of perpetual union ; they published a declaration in which they 
 justified the measures which had been adopted at Bunker's Hill ; 
 they resolved to establish an army, and to issue a large quan- 
 tity of paper money in order to support it. They held a solemn 
 conference with the Indians, by whom they were surrounded, 
 telling them that the English had begun the war with a view 
 to enslave them, as well as their own countrymen in America ; 
 and by this, in conjunction with other arguments, they induced 
 many of the savage tribes either to assist them, or to remain 
 neuter during a great part of the contest which followed. 
 
 The provincials now wanted nothing but a leader to enable 
 them to take effectual measures against the British, and they 
 soon found, in the person of George Washington, a man quali- 
 fied in every respect to occupy that high and important station. 
 He was the third son of Augustine Washington, a settler in 
 Virginia. His education was limited to what could be obtained 
 from books written in the English language ; but he derived 
 from nature a mind of extraordinary capacity, and was endowed 
 with prudence, courage, and perseverance, beyond the degree 
 which is allotted to common men. At the age of nineteen, he 
 held the rank of major in the provincial troops of Virginia.
 
 444 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 WASHINOION S HEAD-QUARTERS AT OAMBRIDQB. 
 
 He afterwards distinguished himself against the French, in 
 their attempts to unite their possessions in Canada with those 
 in Louisiana, and had the command of a regiment about the 
 same time. At Jhe conclusion of the war, which terminated in 
 the surrender of Canada to the British, he retired to his estate 
 of Mount Vernon, and devoted himself to agricultural employ- 
 ments, till the troubles in which the Americans were involved 
 led him to take an active part in their defence against the at- 
 tempts of the English cabinet to tax them without their con- 
 sent. He was chosen a member of the first grand congress at 
 Philadelphia, where his example and influence produced very 
 considerable effects; and now that the situation of the provin- 
 cials called for a man of tried firmness and approved judgment, 
 he was unanimously elected " general and commander-in-chief 
 of the army of the united colonies." When his appointment 
 was intimated to him by the president of the congress, he mo- 
 destly observed that he was not equal to the duties of the sta- 
 tion to which their partiality had raised him ; but he declared
 
 OPENING OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 445 
 
 at the same time that he was ready to exert whatever talents 
 he might have in the service of his country, and willing to 
 enter immediately on the performance of his duty. 
 
 On arriving at Camhridge, the head-quarters of the Ameri- 
 can army, General Washington inspected and reviewed the 
 troops. He found them animated with great zeal, and pre- 
 pared to follow him to the most desperate undertakings ; but it 
 was not long before he perceived that they were unacquainted 
 with subordination, and strangers to military discipline. The 
 spirit of liberty, which had brought them together, showed 
 itself in all their actions. In the province of Massachusetts, 
 the officers had been chosen by the votes of the soldiers, and 
 felt themselves in no degree superior to them. The congres- 
 sional and colonial authorities likewise interfered with one 
 another. The troops were scantily supplied with arms and am- 
 munition, and all their operations were retarded by the want 
 of engineers. These difficulties, however, were overcome by the 
 talents and perseverance of Washington ; he formed the soldiers 
 into brigades, and accustomed them to obedience ; he requested 
 the congress to nominate a commissary-general, a quartermas- 
 ter-general, and a paymaster-general, all of which officers they 
 had neglected to appoint ; a number of the most active men were 
 constantly employed in learning to manage the artillery ; and 
 such were the efforts of the commander-in-chief, that in no very 
 long time the army was completely organized and fit for service. 
 
 It was not the temper of Washington to remain inactive. 
 His troops were speedily and regularly encamped before the 
 town of Boston, and occupied a space of ground nearly twelve 
 miles in length. The English were strongly intrenched on 
 Bunker's Hill and Roxbury Neck, and defended by the float- 
 ing batteries in Mystic river and a ship-of-war that lay be- 
 tween Boston and Charlestown. The American general deter- 
 mined, after a long blockade, to force General Howe, who had 
 succeeded General Gage in the chief command, either to meet 
 the provincials in the field or to evacuate Boston, and with this 
 intention he opened his batteries on the east and west sides 
 of the town, (March 2, 1776,) and continued the bombard- 
 ment without interruption. Howe, finding that the place was 
 no longer tenable, resolved, if possible, to drive the colonial 
 troops from their works. A vigorous attack was meditated on 
 
 2N
 
 446 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SIEGE OF BOSTON. 
 
 Dorchester Neck, which they had fortified with great care, and 
 every thing was in readiness, when a dreadful storm prevented 
 the British from making the attempt ; and next day it was 
 thought advisable to desist from it altogether. Nothing re- 
 mained, therefore, but to evacuate the town. The Americans, 
 however, did not annoy the English in their retreat, as they 
 knew that it was in their power to reduce the place to ashes — 
 a loss which the labour of many years and the profits of the 
 most successful trade could not easily have repaired. For this 
 reason they allowed them to embark with great deliberation, 
 and to take with them whatever might be thought necessary for 
 their voyage, together with as many of the inhabitants as chose 
 rather to leave their country than expose themselves to the con- 
 sequences of their attachment to the royal cause. After re- 
 maining for some time in Nantasket road, the whole fleet set 
 sail ; and the army of the Americans proceeded in divisions to 
 New York, which Washington supposed to be the place to 
 which the English were gone. 
 
 During these transactions at Boston, events of considerable 
 importance took place in other parts of America. The for-
 
 OPENING OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 447 
 
 DEATH OF MONTGOMERY. 
 
 tresses of Crown Point and Ticoncleroga having been occupied 
 by the provincials some time before, the reduction of Canada 
 appeared to be more obvious and easy. Three thousand men, 
 under the command of Generals Schuyler and Montgomery, 
 were sent by the orders of the congress into that country, 
 where they were opposed by the English general Carleton, an 
 officer of much experience and activity. The provincials laid 
 siege to St. John's, and the British commander made haste to 
 relieve the place. But he was attacked by the provincials with 
 a superior force while yet on his march, and, being utterly de- 
 feated, was compelled to retire to Quebec. The garrison of St. 
 John's surrendered themselves prisoners of war ; Montreal was 
 taken by General Montgomery; Arnold penetrated into Canada 
 with a strong body of Americans during all the severity of win- 
 ter ; and, after uniting his forces with those of Montgomery, 
 he endeavoured to take Quebec by surprise. But, after a des- 
 perate engagement, in which Montgomery was killed, together 
 with the best part of his officers, the provincials were over- 
 powered, and forced to abandon the attempt. Arnold, having 
 removed to some distance from Quebec, was enabled, by the
 
 448 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 kindness of the people, to endure the hardships of an encamp- 
 ment in the midst of winter, and under a climate to the rigour 
 of which his soldiers were but little accustomed. Notwithstand- 
 ing his defeat, he was created a brigadier by the unanimous 
 voice of the congress. General Sullivan then took the com- 
 mand of the provincial troops. The Americans were defeated 
 with great loss at the Three Rivers, and were finally obliged to 
 retire from Canada. 
 
 In Virginia, the war was carried on with great activity, and 
 was in general favourable to the American interest. 
 
 LORD PERCT.
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1770. 
 
 449 
 
 GENERAL WAYNE. 
 
 with 
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. 
 
 FTER all attempts towards 
 a reconciliation with Great 
 Britain appeared to be fruit- 
 less, the congress proceeded 
 in full assembly to renounce 
 their allegiance to the sovereign of 
 that country, and to declare that the 
 United Colonies were independent of 
 ,, all authority in Europe. 
 
 After the declaration of independ- 
 ence, the Americans had to struggle 
 great difficulties in supporting their pretensions. The 
 
 ^**5 s ^^ e ^~_^_.
 
 450 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 WASHINGTON REFUSING TO RECEIVE HOWES LETTEI 
 
 king's standard was erected in North Carolina, by Colonel 
 McDonald ; and Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, was 
 furiously attacked by a fleet from England. McDonald, how- 
 ever, being met by the provincial general Moore, was totally 
 defeated by that officer ; and the bombardment from the ships, 
 though violent and continued for a long time, produced no great 
 effect upon the town. 
 
 But as the chief part of the colonial troops was assembled in 
 the division of New York, under Washington, their commander, 
 and as that province was most accessible by sea, the English 
 resolved to make an attempt upon it with all their forces. Six 
 ships of the line, and thirty frigates, with many smaller vessels, 
 composed the fleet. It was under the orders of Lord Howe, 
 who had arrived from Europe some time before, and the land 
 army was commanded by Sir William Howe, his brother. Soon 
 after his appearance oft' the coast, Lord Howe sent a letter to 
 the American commander-in-chief, addressed to " George Wash- 
 ington, Esq." ; but the general refused to open it, as the address 
 was not in a style corresponding to the dignity of the situation 
 which he held. Another letter was sent directed to " George
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. 451 
 
 Washington, &c. &c. &c"; but this also was refused. "It did 
 not acknowledge," he said, « the public character with which 
 he was invested by the congress, and in no other character 
 would he have any intercourse with his lordship." The com- 
 munication, however, to which these letters gave rise, afforded 
 the British an opportunity of exerting themselves in order to 
 effect a reconciliation. With this view, the American general 
 was informed, that Lord Howe was invested with full powers to 
 receive the submission of the colonists, and to reinstate them 
 in the favour of their lawful sovereign ; but Washington de- 
 clared, that these powers appeared to consist in nothing but 
 granting pardons; and that as the provincials, in defending 
 their rights, had been guilty of no crime, they required no for- 
 giveness. 
 
 Both sides, therefore, prepared to terminate their disputes by 
 arms ; and hostilities began as soon as the English troops were 
 collected at their appointed stations. The character of the 
 forces which were now about to engage was very different. The 
 British were numerous, regularly disciplined, and accustomed 
 to military operations ; while the Americans were inferior in 
 numbers, and inexperienced, newly embodied, and not well pro- 
 vided with artillery and ammunition. Washington marked the 
 condition of his army with very great concern. It amounted 
 to no more than eighteen thousand effective men ; while that of 
 the English was nearly twenty-five thousand strong. As the 
 American government had no established revenue, and as the 
 sources of their commerce were completely dried up, the diffi- 
 culties which the general had to encounter were such as no hu- 
 man ability and perseverance could easily surmount. 
 
 Notwithstanding the difficulties which Washington had to en- 
 counter, he maintained his positions, and availed himself of 
 every circumstance which might encourage his troops or im- 
 prove their discipline. He animated them by his exhortations 
 and example ; he told them that the day was approaching which 
 would decide whether the American people were to be freemen 
 or slaves ; and he informed them, that the happiness of myriads 
 yet unborn depended on their courage and conduct. He pro- 
 mised rewards to those who should distinguish themselves by 
 acts o*f extraordinary bravery, and threatened such as were 
 doubtful or dilatory with the utmost severity of punishment, if
 
 452 INCIDENTS OF MODERN IIISTORY. 
 
 they should desert the cause in which they were engaged. The 
 time was at hand when the effect of these exhortations was to 
 be ascertained. In the month of August, a. d. 1776, the 
 English made a descent upon Long Island, with forty pieces of 
 cannon, and under cover of their ships. On a peninsula, 
 formed by the East river and Cowan's cove, and constituting 
 part of the same island, lay Putnam, the American general, 
 strongly fortified, and waiting the approach of the king's troops. 
 Between the armies there was a range of hills, the principal 
 pass through which w T as near a place called Flatbush. At this 
 place, the Hessians, forming the centre of the royalists, took 
 their station. The left wing, under the orders of General Grant, 
 was close upon the shore, and the right, commanded by General 
 Clinton, Earl Percy, and Lord Cornwallis, and comprehending 
 the chief strength of the British forces, approached the oppo- 
 site coast of Flat Land. Putnam had directed that all the 
 passes should be secured by strong detachments of the provin- 
 cial troops. The orders to this purpose, though not disobeyed, 
 were not complied with to the extent which that general required ; 
 and one road through the hills, of the utmost importance, was 
 entirely neglected ; an oversight which was speedily communi- 
 cated to the British, and which they were too wise not to im- 
 prove to their advantage. On the evening of the 26th, General 
 Clinton drew off the right wing of the English army, in order 
 to gain the heights. Nearly about daybreak, he reached the 
 pass undiscovered by the enemy, and immediately took posses- 
 sion of it. The detachment under Lord Percy followed, and 
 when the day appeared, the royalists advanced into the level 
 country between the hills and Brooklyn, a village situated on 
 the peninsula, where the Americans were encamped. Without 
 loss of time, Clinton fell upon the rear of the provincials, and 
 the Hessians attacking them in front at the same instant, neither 
 valour nor skill could save them from a defeat. Inspirited, 
 however, by their generals, and the presence of Washington, 
 they continued the engagement for a while, and fought with all 
 the bravery of men whom the love of freedom animates to deeds 
 of heroism ; but pressed by superior numbers, and thrown into 
 confusion, they gave way on every side, and fled with the utmost 
 precipitation to the woods. Nor was this the only part? of the 
 army which suffered ; the right wing, engaged with General
 
 GENERAL PUTNA]
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. 
 
 455 
 
 RETREAT FROM LONG ISLAND. 
 
 Grant, experienced a similar fate. And thus, in one fatal day, 
 the Americans lost four thousand of their best troops, and, what 
 was of more value to them, their confidence of success ; a con- 
 fidence which till now had supported them amidst all their suf- 
 ferings, and had established in their minds a resolution of part- 
 ing with their liberty only with their lives. In this engagement 
 the British fought with extraordinary valour, and their antago- 
 nists, though less experienced in the art of war, were equally 
 distinguished by the steadiness of their conduct. Of a regiment 
 consisting of young gentlemen from Maryland, the greater part 
 was cut in pieces, and not one of those who survived had escaped 
 without a wound. 
 
 After the defeat at Brooklyn, and the evacuation of Long 
 Island by the Americans, proposals for an accommodation were 
 made by Lord Howe. But as his lordship was not authorized 
 to treat with the congress as a legal assembly, he invited such 
 of its members as were desirous of peace to a private conference. 
 To this invitation the congress replied, that as they were the
 
 456 
 
 INCIDENTS OF .MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 LORD HOWE. 
 
 representatives of the free and independent states of America, 
 it was not possible for them to send any of their number, to 
 confer with the English commanders in their individual capacity ; 
 but that, as it was exceedingly. to be wished that an accommo- 
 dation should take place on reasonable terms, they would direct 
 a committee to receive the proposals of the British government. 
 Accordingly they nominated for this purpose, the celebrated Dr. 
 Franklin, Mr. J. Adams, and Mr. Rutledge, all zealous and 
 faithful in the cause of liberty. But notwithstanding the dis- 
 position of Lord Howe, which was certainly towards peace, and 
 the late misfortunes of the provincial troops, the conference was 
 altogether ineffectual : his lordship would not acknowledge the 
 deputies as the commissioners of a free people ; and the depu- 
 ties would not treat with him on any other condition. It was 
 resolved therefore, on both sides, to prosecute the war with all 
 their vigour and their utmost resources. 
 
 The provincial army under the orders of Washington was 
 now stationed in the vicinity of New York. They had erected
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. 457 
 
 many batteries near the place, and from these they kept up an 
 incessant fire upon the British ships. Between the armies lay 
 the East river, which the royalists, for some days, had mani- 
 fested a desire to cross. Accordingly, after the fleet had si- 
 lenced the American batteries, they landed on the opposite 
 shore, at Kipp's Bay, nearly three miles distant from New 
 York ; and marching rapidly towards the city, they forced the 
 enemy to abandon their works, and to retreat with the utmost 
 precipitation. Leaving the town itself, and their baggage, pro- 
 visions, and military stores, in possession of the British, the 
 Americans withdrew to the northern part of the island, where 
 the chief strength of their forces was collected. Here Wash- 
 ington determined to wait the approach of the king's troops, and 
 in the mean time, he used every method in his power to restore 
 the courage of his soldiers, and elevate their fallen hopes. He 
 had long ago formed that plan of operations which is usually 
 successful against an invading army ; though with the intention 
 of deviating from it as circumstances might requird. It was 
 his design at present, not to risk a general engagement, but to 
 harass the English by continual skirmishes, by cutting off their 
 supplies, and exhausting their patience. The object of the 
 British general was exactly the contrary of this ; his safety, as 
 well as his success," lay in bringing the Americans speedily to 
 action, and in terminating the war, if possible, by a single 
 blow. The fortune of the royalists was now predominant. In 
 almost every attack the superiority of regular discipline had 
 been shown. Washington had been forced to quit his strong 
 position at Kingsbridge, in New York Island, and had saved his 
 army by retiring towards the main land of Connecticut. He 
 was followed by the English general as soon as the troops could 
 be landed, and the proper reinforcements had arrived. 
 
 After some ineffectual skirmishing, both armies met at a place 
 called the White Plains ; the royalists began the assault, and 
 made such an impression on the American lines that Washing- 
 ton was compelled again to retreat. He withdrew in good or- 
 der, and occupied an advantageous post at a considerable dis- 
 tance from that which he had just abandoned. But Sir William 
 Howe, finding himself unable to bring on a general action, re- 
 linquished the pursuit, and employed his troops during the rest 
 of the campaign, in reducing and taking possession of the forts 
 58 2
 
 458 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SIR HENRY CLINTON. 
 
 which the enemy still retained in the vicinity of New York. In 
 this he succeeded to his utmost wish ; the Jerseys were laid 
 open to the incursions of the British forces, and if the Americans 
 had not seized the boats, and removed them to a distance, Phila- 
 delphia itself must have fallen into the hands of the royal army. 
 In other parts of the continent, the success of the British was 
 equally great. Sir Henry Clinton took possession of Rhode 
 Island without losing a man. The American fleet under Com- 
 modore Hopkins was obliged to remain in the river Providence, 
 entirely useless. In Canada, General Burgoyne, who had al- 
 ready distinguished himself against the provincials, and forced 
 them to retreat across Lake Champlain to Crown Point, ordered
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. 459 
 
 A number of ships to be built ; and attacking those of the re- 
 publicans, commanded by Arnold, defeated them with great 
 slaughter ; compelling them to run their vessels ashore, and to 
 set them on fire. The consequence of this disaster was, that 
 the garrison of Crown Point, having destroyed or carried off 
 their provisions and military stores, retired to Ticonderoga. 
 
 In the midst of these calamitous events, the spirit of Wash- 
 ington remained unbroken. Though his soldiers had deserted him 
 in great numbers, and though Charles Lee, one of the ablest of the 
 provincial generals, had been taken prisoner, he never despaired 
 of success. He had frequently written to the congress, and 
 represented to that body the condition of his army. It was 
 originally composed of a loose militia, and of volunteers from the 
 different provinces, once full of patriotism, and eager to engage ; 
 but now, dispirited by misfortune, and ready to abandon their 
 general on the first appearance of the king's troops. In addi- 
 tion to this, the time during which the militia were bound to 
 serve had almost expired. The congress, therefore, determined 
 to recruit the army, by offering a bounty in land to all those 
 who would enrol their names, and pledge themselves to continue 
 in the field during the remainder of the war. Their efforts 
 were nobly seconded by the zeal and activity of the commander- 
 in-chief. He kept his troops constantly employed; and being 
 successful in many of the skirmishes in which they were engaged, 
 and reinforced by numbers of their countrymen, the soldiers be- 
 gan to resume their wonted courage, and to be animated with 
 better hopes. When the English approached Philadelphia, the 
 American general had thrown himself into that city, and 
 strengthened it by every method in his power. The royal 
 army now lay in cantonments at some distance from the place ; 
 they occupied a great extent of country, and one of the divi- 
 sions, consisting of the Hessians in the king's service, was sta- 
 tioned at Trenton, about thirty miles from the American capital. 
 This division Washington resolved to attack, and, if possible, to 
 surprise. Accordingly, he put himself at the head of a body 
 of his troops; and after crossing the Delaware and marching 
 all night, with the utmost expedition which the roads would 
 allow, he fell upon the enemy, who had not the slightest intelli- 
 gence of his approach, and routed them with great slaughter. 
 Colonel Rawle, who commanded the royalists in that quarter, did
 
 4 no 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE. 
 
 every thing "which could be expected from an officer at once 
 brave and accustomed to military operations; but the attack 
 was sudden and impetuous, and directed by Washington him- 
 self; the Hessians gave way on all sides; their artillery was 
 seized, and one thousand of their best troops remained prison- 
 ers of war. 
 
 Some of the colonial reinforcements having at length arrived, 
 the provincial army not only increased in numbers, but im- 
 proved in courage and zeal. Emboldened by his success, 
 Washington resolved to leave Philadelphia, and to make another 
 attempt against the British forces. In consequence of this de- 
 termination, he advanced with great secrecy towards Maiden- 
 head-town, situated between Trenton and Princeton, where 
 three regiments, under Colonel Mawhood, had taken post ; and, 
 attacking the royalists on their march, he threw them into con- 
 fusion, and obliged them to retreat with considerable loss. The 
 British troops, astonished at the exertions of the American 
 commander, whose affairs they supposed to be desperate, with- 
 drew towards Brunswick, in order to prevent that town, and the 
 stores which it contained, from falling into the hands of the 
 provincial army. Washington lost no time in availing himself 
 of their retreat. He divided his troops into small bodies, which, 
 though dispersed over an extensive country, could be united
 
 2o2
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. 
 
 463 
 
 without difficulty ; and, by liis activity, vigilance, and skill, he 
 soon regained possession of all the important places. 
 
 Thus terminated the campaign of 1776, and not altogether 
 unfavourably to the American interest : for though the provin- 
 cial troops had often been worsted, and still more frequently 
 obliged to retreat, yet they prosecuted their design of harassing 
 the enemy with great success ; and while the royalists kept 
 possession of New York, they were constrained to act with as 
 much circumspection as if Washington and the whole force of 
 the colonists had besieged them in that city. 
 
 GENERAL CHARLES LEE.
 
 464 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL HOWE. 
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. 
 
 jHE next campaign opened 'with considerable indi- 
 cations of vigour on the part of Sir William Howe. 
 After a number of predatory excursions, in which 
 some forts were reduced and magazines destroyed, 
 that general resolved to make an attempt on Phi- 
 It was at first thought that this could be done by 
 marching through the Jerseys ; but Washington, now in posses- 
 sion of the open country, and strongly reinforced, had taken 
 his measures so effectually that it was declared to be impracti- 
 cable. It was therefore determined to approach Philadelphia 
 
 ladelphia.
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. 465 
 
 by sea. The expedition, led by the British general in person, 
 sailed on the 23d of July from Sandy Hook ; on the 29th, the 
 troops arrived at the mouth of the Delaware ; but having re- 
 ceived intelligence, that the navigation of that river was effec- 
 tually obstructed, they proceeded to Chesapeake bay, in Mary- 
 land, from which they could in a short time reach the capital of 
 Pennsylvania. At length, sailing up the Elk as far as was prac- 
 ticable, the royal army, to the number of eighteen thousand 
 effective men, landed without opposition. On the news of their 
 arrival in the Chesapeake, Washington gave immediate orders 
 for all the colonial troops to join him without delay ; and ad- 
 vanced by rapid marches, to check the progress of Howe. His 
 exertions, however, for that purpose, were not effectual ; and it 
 was perceived, that a battle, which would decide the fate of the 
 American capital, was unavoidable. The royal army had 
 pushed forward towards the Brandywine, on the opposite side 
 of which the provincials were stationed ; the river was fordable, 
 and could therefore present no effective obstacle to a general 
 engagement. This was ardently sought by the English com- 
 mander ; and, in his present circumstances, it was not avoided 
 by Washington. On the morning of the 11th of September, 
 the king's troops advanced towards Chadd's Ford ; various ma- 
 noeuvres and skirmishing there took place, and with varied suc- 
 cess ; till about four in the evening, when the action began be- 
 tween the main strength of the contending forces. The right 
 wing of the Americans was thrown into confusion at the very 
 commencement of the attack ; and, before Washington could 
 lead his battalions to its support, the whole line gave way ; the 
 rout became general, and night alone saved the provincials from 
 a total defeat. 
 
 This victory, on the part of the British, opened their way to 
 Philadelphia. Accordingly, a short time after it was gained, 
 Sir William Howe took possession of that city ; but the troops, 
 during their march, were incessantly annoyed by Washington ; 
 who hung upon their rear, cut off their detached parties, and 
 showed them, that though he had been compelled to retreat, he 
 was not overcome. In the whole conduct of this extraordinary 
 man, we are forced to admire the prudence, perseverance, and 
 activity which marked his character. He had been repulsed in 
 almost every attack where a large body of the provincials had 
 59
 
 466 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY 
 
 -cdm 
 
 BATTLE OF GERMANTOWN. 
 
 been engaged with the enemy ; his troops had deserted him in 
 great numbers, and on the most important occasions ; and he 
 had frequently been distressed by the want of military stores ; 
 yet, notwithstanding these adverse circumstances, he made head 
 against an army of regular troops, commanded by a general of 
 acknowledged ability, well disciplined, and provided with all the 
 means of successful warfare. No sooner had the English gene- 
 ral taken possession of Philadelphia with a part of his forces, 
 and stationed the rest at Germantown, than Washington formed 
 the resolution of attacking the division at the latter place. In 
 this attempt also he was unfortunate; the British had early 
 notice of his approach ; and he was obliged to retire with very 
 considerable loss. But such was his unconquerable spirit, and 
 so firm his conviction that the measures which he pursued 
 would at length bring the war to a favourable issue, that, in his 
 letters to the congress, he exhorted them to perseverance; and 
 rejected every offer towards an accommodation, but that which 
 acknowledged the independence of the United States. The 
 English general, now in possession of Philadelphia, employed 
 himself for some time in taking or destroying the forts on the 
 Delaware. The principal of these were Mud Island and Red- 
 bank. Aided by three ships of the line, and well supported by
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. 
 
 467 
 
 BATTLE OP RED BANK. 
 
 the officers who executed his commands, he, after a sturdy re- 
 sistance from the garrison at Redbank, at length succeeded in 
 reducing the forts ; and many of the ships belonging to the pro- 
 vincials either fell into his hands, or were driven ashore and 
 burnt by their possessors. 
 
 In the northern provinces, the campaign wore an aspect less 
 friendly to the royal interests. An expedition to New England 
 had been projected by the ministry in Europe, as the most 
 effectual scheme for reducing the colonies to obedience. An 
 army of seven thousand chosen troops had been put under the 
 orders of General Burgoyne : these were to be assisted by 
 levies from Quebec ; and means were used to engage the In- 
 dians of Canada in the service of Great Britian. The first at- 
 tempts of Burgoyne were as successful as the condition of his 
 army entitled the ministry to expect. The Indians, gained by 
 presents, or stimulated by the hope of plunder, joined him in 
 considerable bodies ; and to the honour of the British com- 
 mander, we must add, that, in his first address to those new 
 allies, he exhorted them to kill none but such as appeared in 
 arms against them, and to spare the women and children whom
 
 468 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 RUINS OF FORT TICONDEROOA. 
 
 the fortune of war might put into their hands. On the 2d of 
 July, the English army encamped on both sides of Lake Cham- 
 plain, at a short distance from Ticonderoga. To this strong 
 fortress the Americans had retired at the end of the preceding 
 year ; and now it was garrisoned with about three thousand men, 
 and defended by the provincial general St. Clair. The ap- 
 proaches of the British were rapid and decisive. Soon after 
 their appearance before the American works, they took posses- 
 sion of Sugar-hill ; an eminence which overlooked the fortifica- 
 tions, and enabled them to place their batteries to great ad- 
 vantage, but which the enemy had imagined it was impossible 
 to ascend. On the 5th, every step had been taken in order to 
 render the investment complete. St. Clair, however, conscious 
 of his inability to defend the place, and anxious at the same 
 time to prevent the troops which he commanded from surren- 
 dering themselves prisoners of war, abandoned the works, and 
 retreated over Mount Independence to Charlestown, and thence 
 to Skeensborough, in the vicinity of Lake George. Previous
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. 
 
 469 
 
 GENERAL ST. CLAIR. 
 
 to his departure, he had ordered the baggage and military stores 
 to be sent bj water to the same place ; but the vessels which 
 were employed for that purpose were attacked by the English 
 ships, and either captured or rendered unfit for service ; and, 
 in consequence of this disaster, the Americans set fire to their 
 boats and fortifications at Skeensborough. On land the royal- 
 ists were equally successful ; Colonel Francis and a body of 
 the provincial troops were defeated with great slaughter by 
 General Reidesel ; and, by the skilful manoeuvres of Burgoyne, 
 St. Clair was prevented from reaching Fort Anne. An engage- 
 ment then took place in the woods, in which the Americans 
 were routed, and compelled to retire to Fort Edward on the 
 Hudson. 
 
 The loss of Ticonderoga was one for which the United States 
 were not prepared, and which was severely felt through all the 
 colonies. Neither the strength of the invading army nor the 
 weakness of the garrison appears to have been understood. It 
 was universally believed, that the whole force of Canada did not 
 amount to six thousand men ; and, therefore, no adequate 
 measures had been taken, in order to enable St. Clair and the 
 troops under his command to resist such an army as advanced 
 against them. 
 
 2P
 
 470 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL STARKE. 
 
 Burgoyne, elated with his success, and hitherto uninstructed 
 by adverse fortune, proceeded with great ostentation of zeal and 
 activity to finish the campaign. After waiting at Skeensbo- 
 rough for the arrival of tents and provisions, and spending a 
 long time in clearing the ground, in order to facilitate the pas- 
 sage of his troops, he reached Fort Edward about the end of 
 July. In the interval afforded by this delay, General Schuyler 
 recruited the shattered battalions of the Americans, and, uniting 
 the parties which were stationed in different quarters, convinced 
 the British that much was still to be done. The royal army 
 now suffered greatly from the want of provisions. They had 
 attempted to seize the magazines at Bennington ; but the de- 
 tachments under Colonels Baum and Breyman, who were em- 
 ployed for that purpose, were utterly defeated by General 
 Starke, to whom the defence of the place was intrusted. The
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. 473 
 
 expedition on the Mohawk river, undertaken by Colonel St. 
 Leger, had likewise failed. Notwithstanding these misfortunes, 
 however, Burgoyne, fatally for the cause in which he was en- 
 gaged, continued to advance ; and having collected with great 
 care and indefatigable exertion provisions for thirty days, he 
 encamped on the heights and plains of Saratoga, resolved to 
 decide by one vigorous effort the fortune of the campaign. On 
 the 17th of September, the English army was only four miles 
 distant from that of the provincials, commanded by General 
 Gates. This officer, leaving his camp in the islands, had been 
 joined by all the troops destined for the northern provinces, and, 
 marching towards Stillwater with the utmost despatch, showed 
 no inclination to avoid an engagement. Accordingly, when 
 the British appeared, without waiting for the assault, he attacked 
 their centre, while Arnold, who commanded on the left of the 
 provincials, made head against the right of the enemy. A 
 fierce encounter then ensued ; and, had not the artillery arrived 
 during the hottest of the action and checked the Americans, 
 the discipline of the British must have yielded to the valour 
 and impetuosity of the colonial troops. In this battle, the roy- 
 alists lost only three hundred men, while fifteen hundred of their 
 antagonists were either killed or wounded ; yet the English 
 generals were astonished at the resolution which the Americans 
 had displayed, and began to anticipate, with sorrow, the final 
 issue of their exertions. 
 
 The condition of the army under Burgoyne was now almost 
 desperate. Their stock of provisions was nearly exhausted ; 
 the Indians, their allies, who had marked the service with 
 bloodshed and cruelty, withdrew from them in great numbers, 
 and, to complete the mortifications of the general, he had re- 
 ceived no intelligence from Clinton, whose assistance or co-ope- 
 ration he had long expected. After some days, however, a let- 
 ter from that officer arrived, informing Burgoyne that he 
 intended to make a diversion in his favour ; but, as this aid was 
 distant and dubious, the communication of the design had little 
 effect in raising the spirits of the soldiers, or animating their 
 general with confidence. 
 
 In their present distressful circumstances, it was obvious that 
 nothing but a victory could save the royalists from the igno- 
 miny of surrendering at discretion. Accordingly, on the 7th 
 60 2 p 2
 
 474 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY- 
 
 GENERAL GATES. 
 
 of October, the English general moved with his whole strength 
 towards the camp of the provincials. His design was quickly 
 perceived by Gates, the American commander, who resolved to 
 attack him without loss of time. The assault was impetuous 
 and bloody ; but the English, resisting for a while, at last gave 
 way, and Fraser, one of their ablest generals, was killed on the 
 spot. Arnold pressed hard on the right, where Burgoyne com- 
 manded in person ; and though the king's troops in that quarter 
 displayed their wonted courage, the British were compelled to 
 retreat, and, with the utmost difficulty, regained their camp. 
 They were pursued to their intrenchments by Arnold and fu- 
 riously assaulted ; but that officer having received a dangerous 
 wound at the very moment when his division was entering the 
 lines, the Americans were forced to retire. On the left, the 
 provincials were still more successful. The Germans were 
 routed with great loss ; Colonel Breyman fell, and all the
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. 
 
 475 
 
 BURGOTNE'8 ENCAMPMENT ON THE HUDSON. 
 
 artillery and baggage remained in the hands of the colonial 
 army. 
 
 This was the most fatal disaster which the English had expe- 
 rienced since the attack at Bunker's Hill. The number of 
 killed and wounded, both of the Germans and British, was 
 very great ; but the chief misfortune was, that the Americans 
 were now enabled so to arrange their posts as to enclose the 
 army and effectually to prevent their escape. There was only 
 one road by which it was possible for them to retreat. It was, 
 therefore, resolved to repair the bridges on the way to Fort 
 Edward ; to decamp suddenly and march towards that place in 
 the night, and, forcing the passages of the Hudson, to effect a 
 union Avith Sir Henry Clinton and the troops under his com- 
 mand. It was resolved also that the baggage should be left, 
 and that the soldiers should carry their provisions attached to 
 their knapsacks. All these resolutions indicate the extreme 
 necessity to which the British were reduced. The design, how- 
 ever was found to be impracticable. Intelligence was received
 
 47G 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 bueooyne's retreat ON THE HUDSON. 
 
 that the Americans had erected strong batteries at the fords ; 
 that they had taken possession of an eminence between Fort 
 Edward and Fort George, from which, it was said, they could 
 annoy the army on their march ; that their numbers were daily 
 increasing ; and that the fresh troops, as well as their asso- 
 ciates, were animated with all the zeal of men ardent in the 
 cause of freedom and their country. The state of the royal 
 army and of its general was now truly deplorable. Burgoyne 
 himself had projected the expedition. An officer of tried abili- 
 ties had been removed to make way for him ; and at the be- 
 ginning of the campaign, his endeavours had been followed 
 with success. But a mournful reverse of circumstances had 
 taken place ; he was deserted by his allies ; his provisions were 
 exhausted ; he was enclosed by an enemy rejoicing in his mis- 
 fortunes and anticipating his fall. "In these circumstances," 
 says he in a letter to Lord George Germain, "I called a coun- 
 cil of all the generals, field-officers, and captains commanding 
 corps, and, by their unanimous concurrence and advice, I was 
 induced to open a treaty with Major-general Gates." In con-
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. 
 
 477 
 
 GENERAL BUR 
 
 sequence of this treaty, the British forces, to the number of six 
 thousand men, laid down their arms, having pledged themselves 
 not to serve in America during the war, and stipulated that 
 they should be permitted to return to their native country. 
 Such was the agreement, and to this agreement the congress 
 ought unquestionably to have adhered ; but when the trans- 
 ports appeared in the harbour of Boston, and the troops were 
 preparing to embark, the American rulers, suspecting that they 
 might be employed against their interests in other parts of the 
 continent, would not permit them to remove till the treaty 
 should be ratified by the English cabinet. The surrender of 
 Burgoyne led to the immediate evacuation of Ticonderoga and 
 Mount Independence ; and the provincials saw themselves once 
 more sole masters of the north.
 
 478 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL HENRY LEE. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1789. 
 
 HE congress, however, not satis- 
 fied with the exertions of the 
 provinces in behalf of their 
 rights, had recourse to the aid 
 of foreign powers. In the be- 
 ginning of the year 1778, they 
 entered into an alliance with 
 the French, who, as the rivals 
 of the British, and smarting 
 with the loss of their possessions in Canada, eagerly embraced 
 the proposals of the American states. On the 6th of February, 
 the articles of agreement between the two nations were formally 
 signed. It was declared in these articles, 1. That the princi- 
 pal end of the treaty was to support, in an effectual manner, 
 the independency of the united colonies ; 2. That if Great 
 Britain should, in consequence of the treaty, proceed to hostili- 
 ties against France, the two nations would assist each other as
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1789. 479 
 
 circumstances might require ; 3. That if those places in North 
 America, still subject to the British crown, should be conquered 
 by the United States, they should either be confederated with 
 them or subjected to their jurisdiction ; 4. That if any of the 
 islands in the West Indies should be taken by the French, they 
 should be considered as the property of that nation ; 5. That 
 no formal treaty with Great Britain should be concluded by 
 the French or Americans, acting separately, and that both par- 
 ties would continue in arms till the independence of the United 
 States should be acknowledged ; 6. That such powers of Europe 
 or America as had received injuries from Great Britain should 
 be invited to engage in the common cause ; 7. That the United 
 States guarantied to France all the possessions in the West 
 Indies which she might be able to conquer ; and that France, 
 in her turn, guarantied the unconditional independence of the 
 United States, and their supreme authority over every country 
 which they possessed, or which they might acquire during the 
 continuance of the war. • 
 
 When this treaty was notified to the court of London, it pro- 
 duced an immediate declaration of war against the French. 
 The English parliament, in their address to the king, expressed 
 their resolution of adhering to him in all his endeavours to 
 subdue the revolted colonies, and promised to assist him with 
 the whole strength of the empire. The address, however, was 
 not voted without a considerable difference of opinion. The 
 members in opposition loudly affirmed that the war was equally 
 tyrannical and unjust ; that the ministry, by their ignorance 
 and ill success, had forfeited the confidence of the British na- 
 tion ; that the Americans were struggling for independence, 
 and would at last attain it ; and that every attempt to compel 
 them to obedience would assuredly be fruitless. Of the injus- 
 tice of the war, from its commencement to the present time, 
 the ministry themselves, by their wavering and indecisive mea- 
 sures, appear to have been conscious. They now introduced 
 into parliament a bill for reconciling the differences between the 
 Americans and Great Britain ; and should the terms which 
 they offered be rejected by the United States, they declared 
 their fixed and unalterable purpose of reducing them to com- 
 pliance by force of arms. Commissioners were therefore de- 
 spatched to the congress, in order to communicate to them the
 
 480 INCIDENTS OF MODERN IIISTORY. 
 
 proposals of the English administration ; but, as they arrived 
 immediately after the surrender of Burgoyne and the conclu- 
 sion of the treaty with France, they were received with the 
 utmost indifference, and, in many places, with the utmost con- 
 tempt. The general answer was, that the day of reconciliation 
 was past, and that Great Britain, by her tyranny and haughti- 
 ness, had extinguished all filial regard in the breasts of the 
 American people. The congress resolved without delay, that, 
 as a political body, they would not receive the commissioners 
 till their independence was acknowledged ; that whoever made 
 a separate agreement with Britain was an enemy to his coun- 
 try ; and that it was the duty of all the states to exert them- 
 selves to the utmost in recruiting the army, or in adding to the 
 number of its battalions. 
 
 In the mean time, the season for action was approaching. 
 While the congress was yet deliberating on the answer which 
 they should give to the proposals from England, Sir Henry 
 Clinton, now raised to the chief command, evacuated Philadel- 
 phia. On his march from that place, he was followed and 
 harassed by the provincial troops, whom Washington had di- 
 rected to obstruct his progress ; but Lee, the American general, 
 having failed in an attempt to seize the baggage of the royal- 
 ists, they effected their retreat, were conveyed on board the 
 ships, and joined their countrymen at New York. For his mis- 
 conduct on this occasion, as well as his insolence towards the 
 commander-in-chief, Lee was afterwards tried by a court-mar- 
 tial, and sentenced to a temporary suspension from his office as 
 a general in the army — a punishment which, though slight, 
 operated with a powerful effect throughout the colonial forces. 
 
 While the British ships were employed in transporting the 
 troops from Sandy Hook to New York, intelligence was re- 
 ceived that a strong fleet, under the orders of Count D'Estaign, 
 had arrived from France. It consisted of twelve ships of the 
 line, besides frigates, and had six thousand marines, or soldiers, 
 on board. To oppose this force, the British had only six ships 
 of the line — three of fifty guns, and a few vessels of smaller 
 size ; yet they posted themselves so advantageously before the 
 entrance into New York, that the French admiral thought it 
 would be hazardous to attack them, and prudently declined an 
 engagement. The arrival of foreign succours was the occasion
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1789. 
 
 481 
 
 COUNT D'ESTAIGN. 
 
 of much joy to the inhabitants of the United States. The 
 congress immediately wrote to Washington, instructing him to 
 co-operate with D'Estaign, and authorizing him to employ the 
 militia from New Hampshire to New Jersey, as well as the mi- 
 litia of these provinces, for whatever undertakings he might 
 judge to be necessary. But the success of the allied powers 
 was not equal to the magnitude of their preparations. An 
 expedition was agreed on, and Sullivan, the American general, 
 landed on Rhode Island with ten thousand men, resolved to lay 
 siege to Newport, the capital of that state. But Pigot, to 
 whom Sir Henry Clinton had intrusted the defence of the place, 
 61 2 Q 2
 
 482 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL BCL1IVAN. 
 
 had fortified himself so strongly that the Americans found it 
 impossible to succeed without the aid of the fleet. D'Estaign, 
 however, shattered by a storm, and dreading the approach of 
 the English admiral, withdrew from the harbour and sailed for 
 Boston, in order to refit. In consequence of his departure, 
 Sullivan was obliged to retire, and, the garrison of Newport 
 rushing forth and pressing hard upon him, the provincial troops 
 were thrown into confusion, and with no little difficulty accom- 
 plished their retreat. The conduct of D'Estaign at Rhode 
 Island gave the highest offence to the people of New England, 
 who did not hesitate to express their doubts of the admiral's 
 courage. It produced a quarrel between him and Sullivan, 
 which Washington long attempted to heal ; and the resent- 
 ment occasioned by these differences, in the minds of the 
 French, contributed greatly to diminish their exertions in be- 
 half of the colonies. 
 
 The war was now prosecuted with varied success. The 
 whole province of Georgia was reduced by the English. Caro- 
 lina was invaded, and Charleston, its principal city, had nearly 
 fallen into the hands of the royalists. Several expeditions
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1789. 
 
 483 
 
 GENERAL SCHUYLER. 
 
 against the provinces in North America were likewise success- 
 ful. On the other hand, the Spaniards, joining in the confede- 
 racy against Britain, made an irruption into Florida, and took 
 possession of that country without opposition. Not a few of 
 the states of Europe contemplated the exertions of the Ameri- 
 cans with a favourable eye. And the Indians who, at the in- 
 stigation of the British, had molested the provinces by conti- 
 nual depredations, were effectually and completely subdued by 
 General Sullivan ; their villages were burnt, and their planta- 
 tions destroyed ; so that when the invading army had quitted 
 the district occupied by the savages, " there was not a house, 
 nor a field of corn, nor a fruit tree left upon the ground ;" nor 
 was there an Indian to be seen throughout the whole tract. 
 
 During the whole of the American war, there appears to 
 have been one capital and fatal error on the part of the British 
 generals. They never collected their forces and advanced 
 against the Americans with their whole strength, a mode of con- 
 duct which would have brought the war to a point, and enabled 
 their discipline and skill to operate with decisive and awful
 
 484 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 execution against the rude valour of the provincial troops. Oh 
 the contrary, they divided their forces into small bodies ; in- 
 vaded the colonies in separate detachments ; gave the Ameri- 
 cans every opportunity of harassing them and cutting off their 
 supplies, and were finally constrained to yield to the perseve- 
 rance and boldness of men inferior to them in military know- 
 ledge, and almost destitute of those advantages which influence the 
 success of military operations. This error of the British com- 
 manders was perceived by Washington, and he availed himself 
 of it. "From your accounts," says he to Schuyler, in a letter 
 written after the fall of Ticonderoga, " General Burgoyne ap- 
 pears to be pursuing that line of conduct which, of all others, 
 is most favourable to us. I mean, acting in detachment. This 
 conduct will certainly give room for enterprise on our side, and 
 expose his parties to great hazard. Could we be so happy as 
 to cut one of them off, though it should not exceed four, five, 
 or six hundred men, it would inspirit the people and do away 
 much of their anxiety." — Marshall's Life of Washington^ 
 vol. iii. p. 262. 
 
 GENERAL MARION.
 
 
 GENERAL LINOOL N.
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1780 AND 178 1 
 
 487 
 
 GENERAL GREENE. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1780 AND 1781, AND CLOSE 
 OF THE WAR. 
 
 N the year 1780, the war was effectually 
 transferred to the southern provinces. 
 On the 19th of February, Sir Henry Clin- 
 ton, who, in conjunction with Vice-admi- 
 ral Arbuthnot, had left New York some 
 time before, appeared off Charleston ; on 
 the 20th of March, the English squadron 
 entered the harbour of that city ; and on 
 the 29th of the same month, the troops 
 effected a landing at Charleston Neck. The British then sum- 
 moned the town ; but Lincoln, who commanded there, under the
 
 488 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 authority of the United States, expressed his resolution of de- 
 fending the place. In framing his answer to the summons of 
 the English general, he was influenced considerably by the ex- 
 pectation of reinforcements and supplies from the neighbouring 
 provinces ; these, however, came in very slowly ; and a body of 
 militia which was proceeding to his relief was attacked and 
 dispersed by Earl Cornwallis and Colonel Tarleton. The city 
 was now invested in every direction ; Fort Sullivan was in pos- 
 session of the royalists; and the preparations for a general 
 assault were nearly completed ; when Lincoln, disappointed in 
 the hope of obtaining succour from without, and indifferently 
 supported by the troops under his command, agreed to the pro- 
 posals of Clinton, and allowed the English, under General Les- 
 lie, to march into the place. The loss of Charleston was a 
 severe blow to the American interests ; twenty-four hundred 
 and eighty-seven men were taken prisoners, besides a thousand 
 sailors in arms ; and the quantity of ordnance and military 
 stores which fell into the hands of the king's troops was not 
 only great, but, in the present state of the colonial affairs, 
 could with difficulty be spared. Such, however, was the dispo- 
 sition of the provinces, and such the aversion to the English 
 which the Americans had long cherished in their breasts, that, 
 instead of being dispirited by their misfortunes, they united 
 with greater cordiality and firmness, and prompted each other 
 to more vigorous exertions. It is true, that, after the surren- 
 der of Charleston, the English general issued a proclamation 
 in which he exhorted the people to return to their allegiance, 
 and threatened them with the utmost severity of punishment 
 if they refused to comply ; and that some individuals were 
 found who petitioned to be admitted into the number and re- 
 stored to the condition of British subjects. But these were 
 regarded by the majority of their countrymen as the slaves of 
 tyranny, and looked upon as unworthy to be enrolled under the 
 same banner, or to fight in the same cause, with the champions 
 of freedom. 
 
 Amidst the ravages and desolation of war, the congress were 
 not inattentive to the arts of peace. A committee of their 
 number was instructed to examine the ground, as yet unoccu- 
 pied, in the city of Philadelphia, and to choose a place for a 
 building where the representatives of the American people
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1780 AND 1781 
 
 489 
 
 might assemble in a manner suitable to their dignity. They 
 determined to erect a statue in honour of General Montgomery, 
 who had fallen at Quebec, and authorized Dr. Franklin to agree 
 with an artist of Paris for that purpose; they established a 
 court in which all appeals from the admiralty to the United 
 States, relating to captures, might be heard; they reformed 
 the currency, and arranged their finances, so that the army 
 might be regularly supplied with pay and clothing, and furnished 
 with every thing which the general might require. They cele- 
 brated the 4th of July, the anniversary of their independence, 
 with great pomp ; and, on the same day, the first degrees in 
 the arts were conferred by the provost and masters belonging 
 to the college at Philadelphia. On this occasion, the members 
 of congress, the chevalier de la Luzerne, minister plenipoten- 
 tiary from the French king to the United States, together with 
 other persons of distinction, were present. 
 
 Not long after these transactions, a second fleet arrived at 
 
 Rhode Island from France. This fleet, consisting of seven 
 
 ships of the line, was under the orders of M. Ternay, and had 
 
 on board six thousand men, well appointed and disciplined, and 
 
 62
 
 490 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 led by Rochainbeau, an officer of great talents and experience. 
 As the aid which the Americans had now received was both un- 
 expected and considerable, the joy which it occasioned was very 
 great. The assembly at Rhode Island went in a body to con- 
 gratulate the French general on his arrival, and he, in return, 
 assured them that the troops which he commanded were only 
 the first division of a larger force, which the king, his master, 
 would send to their assistance. No sooner was it communi- 
 cated to the British that the provincials had been strengthened 
 by aid from Europe, than they formed a scheme in order to 
 render it ineffectual. It was agreed by Sir Henry Clinton and 
 the English admiral to make an attack by sea and land on the 
 French vessels and the allied troops at Rhode Island. But 
 Washington, having received intelligence of the design, passed 
 the North River with an army of twelve thousand men, and, 
 advancing by a rapid movement to Kingsbridge, threatened 
 with a siege the town of New York, where Clinton commanded 
 in person. This judicious and timely movement produced the 
 desired effect. The English general immediately altered his 
 plan, and ordered his troops to disembark ; in consequence of 
 which, the Americans likewise withdrew from Kingsbridge, and 
 returned, by slow marches, to their former station. They were 
 soon after followed by General Knyphausen, who attempted to 
 surprise and cut off their advanced posts. In this, however, he 
 was unsuccessful, and, having set fire to Springfield, and wasted 
 the neighbouring country, he joined the main army at New 
 York. 
 
 About this time, General Gates, who had already distin- 
 guished himself in the contest with Burgoyne, was appointed 
 to the chief command of the provincial forces in South Caro- 
 lina. He was opposed by the Earl Cornwallis and Colonel 
 Tarleton, officers of high name and respectability, whose ser- 
 vices, in the reduction of Charleston, we have already men- 
 tioned. On the 16th of August, an action took place near 
 Camden, between the royal army and that of the Americans. 
 Prior to this action, the situation of the king's troops was ex- 
 ceedingly critical. The position at Camden, though advan- 
 tageous in some respects, was not well chosen for sustaining an 
 attack. The force under Cornwallis did not exceed two thou- 
 sand, while that of the provincials was more than double that
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1780 AND 1781. 
 
 491 
 
 BATTLE OP CAMDEN. 
 
 number. The consequence of a defeat might be the loss of 
 South Carolina, and the effect of a victory the complete esta- 
 blishment of the royal authority in that extensive province. 
 General Gates was advancing with rapidity, and intelligence 
 was received that it was the design of that commander to 
 attack the British lines. 
 
 In these circumstances, the skill and resolution of Cornwallis, 
 and the decisive bravery of Lord Rawdon, (afterward Earl Moira,) 
 not only saved the English from defeat,, but enabled them to 
 gain a signal victory over the provincial troops. On the even- 
 ing of the 15th, the British general, having resolved not to 
 wait for the approach of the Americans, led out his small but 
 determined band, in order to attack them ; and nearly at the 
 same moment Gates advanced towards Camden with a similar 
 intention. The two armies met in a narrow place, where the 
 colonial troops could not avail themselves of their superior 
 numbers. The English, perceiving the advantage which the 
 ground afforded them, began the assault, and in a short time 
 the action became general and warm. The onset of the royal-
 
 492 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 BARON DE KALB. 
 
 ists, who advanced with their bayonets fixed, was irresistibly 
 impetuous ; the provincial militia, lately raised and strangers 
 to regular service, fin6t gave way, and the continental batta- 
 lions, influenced by their example, yielded on all sides, and fled 
 in the utmost disorder. Many of the colonists fell in this en- 
 gagement, and more in the pursuit ; one thousand men were 
 taken prisoners, and seven pieces of cannon, together with all 
 the ammunition and stores of the provincial army, remained in 
 the hands of the English. While the action was at the hottest, 
 the baron de Kalb, a Prussian officer in the American service, 
 distinguished himself by the heroic valour with which he fought ; 
 he maintained his position against a furious assault of the 
 enemy, and charged them at the head of the battalion which
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1780 AND 1781. 493 
 
 he commanded, till, overpowered by the English horse and 
 wounded in eleven parts of his body, he gave his sword to a 
 British officer who was near him, and resigned himself a pri- 
 soner of war. From the royalists he received every attention 
 which it was in their power to bestow ; but his wounds were 
 mortal, and in a few hours he expired. The last moments of 
 this gallant soldier were spent in acknowledging the kindness 
 of the English, and in declaring his unqualified approbation of 
 the officers and men who had fought under his orders or fallen 
 by his side. And the congress afterwards ordered a monument 
 to be erected to his memory, in testimony of their sense of 
 his Avorth ? and their gratitude for his services. 
 
 But, while the Americans were doomed to suffer by the power 
 of their enemies, their misfortunes were nearly completed by 
 the treachery of their friends. Arnold, a leading man in Phi- 
 ladelphia, governor of that city in the name of the United 
 States, and a general of conspicuous abilities, was induced to 
 quit the service of his country and attach himself to the royal 
 cause. Different motives have been assigned for this inglorious 
 conduct. It has been, said that he was unfriendly to the declara- 
 tion of independence, and disgusted at the alliance with France ; 
 and it has been urged, with greater plausibility, that the origin 
 of his treachery is to be looked for in the fickleness of his tem- 
 per and the unfortunate issue of the speculations in which he 
 engaged. He had been accused by the government at Phila- 
 delphia for the appropriation of goods belonging to the public 
 to his own use ; and had been tried for certain actions, which, 
 though not declared to be highly blamable, or injurious to the 
 state, were, nevertheless, of a very suspicious nature. Those 
 who have written of the American war have not informed us 
 whether any attempts were made to corrupt his fidelity, or 
 whether, by a proposal originating with himself, he betrayed 
 the cause of freedom and the interests of his country. It is 
 certain, however, that he had frequent interviews with Major 
 Andre on board the Vulture, in North River ; and, when that 
 officer was taken in the disguise of a peasant, several docu- 
 ments of a public nature, in the handwriting of Arnold, 
 as well as a plan of the fortifications at West Point, where 
 the traitor commanded, were found in his possession. From 
 the documents alluded to, it is probable that the designs 
 
 2R
 
 494 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 MAJOR ANDRE. 
 
 of the American general were of an extensive nature, and that 
 he meditated the scheme of reannexing the colonies to the Bri- 
 tish empire. But, whether his designs were limited or exten- 
 sive, they were all frustrated by the apprehension of Major 
 Andre. This unfortunate gentleman, equally remarkable for 
 the amiableness of his disposition and his attainments in clas- 
 sical learning, was accidentally prevented from reaching the 
 king's troops by means of the vessel which had conveyed him 
 to the shore, and was discovered and seized on his way to New 
 York. His case was referred by the commander-in-chief to a 
 board of officers, consisting of General Greene, Lord Stirling, 
 the marquis de la Fayette, Baron Steuben, two major-generals, 
 and eight brigadiers. Before these distinguished persons, it 
 was ascertained that he had often come on shore during the 
 night, and conversed in a secret manner with General Arnold ; 
 that he changed his dress within the American lines, and, under 
 a fictitious name and a disguised habit, had passed the Ameri- 
 can works at Stony and Verplank's Points ; that he was taken 
 on the 23d of September by three American soldiers, Paulding, 
 Vanvert, and Williams, when hastening to join the British ; 
 and that certain papers, containing intelligence for the enemy,
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1780 AND 1781. 
 
 495 
 
 CAPTURE OF MAJOR AX DUE. 
 
 ■were found in his boots. It was therefore determined by the 
 court that he should be considered as a spy from the royal 
 army, and that, in conformity "with the law of nations and the 
 practice of European countries, he ought to suffer death. In 
 vain did Sir Henry Clinton, and Arnold himself, write to Gene- 
 ral Washington and petition that his life might be spared. The 
 provincials, galled by their late distresses, were inexorable, and 
 Andre was hanged, on the 2d of October, at Tappan, in the 
 division of New York. He met his fate with courage and 
 composure; but regretted that the usages of war would not 
 permit him to terminate his days in a more honourable manner, 
 and to die, not as a criminal, but as a soldier. 
 
 But, as his example was imitated by few of his countrymen, 
 the defection of Arnold was of no great and permanent ad- 
 vantage to the royal cause. The affairs of the British in the 
 southern provinces at length began to decline. The king's 
 troops had made an ineffectual attempt to possess themselves of 
 North Carolina ; Tarleton was defeated with considerable loss ; 
 and though Greene, the American general, at the head of a 
 powerful division, was twice constrained to yield to the abilities 
 of Cornwallis and the valour of Rawdon, the provincials quickly 
 recovered their ground, repulsed the enemy in their turn, and 
 seemed every day to increase in numbers, and to improve in
 
 496 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 discipline. The royalists were often in great distress from the 
 want of provisions, and, on many occasions, were totally desti- 
 tute of bread. No succours had arrived from Sir Henry Clin- 
 ton, the commander-in-chief. That general, opposed by Wash- 
 ington, and deceived by the artifices of the American leader, 
 was in daily apprehension of an attack upon New York, and 
 unable to afford the least assistance to the army in Carolina. In 
 consequence of an action which took place between the French 
 and British fleets, the allies became masters of the Chesapeake. 
 Washington, informed of the' condition to which the English 
 were reduced, took every method in his power in order to com- 
 pel them to surrender. With this view, he quitted his station 
 in the vicinity of New York, and, accompanied by the marquis 
 de Lafayette and the count de Rochambeau, proceeded to 
 Williamsburg, in Virginia; where, putting himself at the head 
 of the French and American troops, he advanced to Yorktown ; 
 and, after the disembarkation of the stores, laid siege to that 
 place. The utmost alacrity prevailing among the allied forces, 
 and the whole army exerting itself with unusual vigour, the 
 lines were completed in a short time. The situation of Lord 
 Cornwallis, and the British under his command, now became 
 desperate. The works which they had raised had fallen before 
 the artillery of Washington ; their attempts to repel the be-
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1780 AND 1781. 
 
 497 
 
 SURRENDER OP CORNWALLI 
 
 siegers, to stop their progress, and even to escape through the 
 American lines, had all proved ineffectual ; every day brought 
 the provincials nearer to their object ; and nothing at length 
 remained, but to capitulate on the most honourable terms. Ac- 
 cordingly, on the 19th of October, 1781, the English general 
 yielded to the necessity which pressed upon him, and surren- 
 dered himself and his whole army prisoners of war. The ar- 
 tillery, arms, and accoutrements belonging to the royalists, 
 together with their military chest, and stores of every descrip- 
 tion, were given up to the Americans ; and seven thousand 
 men, the flower of the British troops, remained under the guard 
 or escort of the continental battalions. 
 
 The success of the allies in the capture of Yorktown is 
 chiefly to be ascribed to the skill and prudence of Washington. 
 No little artifice was employed to impress Sir Henry Clinton 
 with the belief that New York was in danger, and to keep that 
 general in perpetual alarm ; while, in these very circumstances, 
 the American commander was forming his plans and collecting 
 63 2 r 2
 
 498 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 TORKTOWN BATTLE GROUND. 
 
 his supplies, in order to march against Cornwallis in the south. 
 The artifice alluded to was maintained with such ability, that 
 Clinton did not once suspect the intentions of the provincial 
 leader, and was effectually prevented from supporting the falling 
 fortunes of his countrymen. The British general was not de- 
 ficient in those qualities which lead to bold and adventurous 
 exertions ; but he was deceived by appearances, which induced 
 him to think rather of defending the capital in his possession, 
 than of diminishing his strength in order to secure more distant 
 acquisitions. When the design of the Americans, however, was 
 known, he made an effort ; and, though it was late and ineffi- 
 cient, it showed his inclination, at least, to aid the operations 
 in the southern countries. To the skill of the French engineers, 
 likewise, the success of the allies should, in a great degree, be 
 imputed : but, above all, it ought to be ascribed to the perse- 
 vering patriotism of the colonists themselves, and that invin- 
 cible hatred of oppression, which animated them in every 
 struggle, and prompted them, after every defeat, to renewed 
 endeavours in the cause of liberty. 
 
 The joy diffused throughout the United States by the sur-
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 1780 AND 1781. 499 
 
 render of the army under Lord Cornwallis, was equal to the 
 anxiety which it had occasioned. The people of America re- 
 garded the brilliant achievement of their commander, which put 
 the allies in possession of Yorktown, as determining the issue 
 of the contest; and from that moment they looked forward to 
 the reward of all their toils, and a full compensation for all 
 their sufferings. By the congress the intelligence was received 
 with the highest satisfaction. They voted the thanks of the 
 United States to Washington, to the count de Rochambeau, and 
 to the officers and men of the southern army; they resolved, 
 that a marble column should be erected at Yorktown, in Vir- 
 ginia, with emblems commemorative of the alliance between tho 
 United States and his most Christian majesty ; they determined 
 to go in full and solemn procession to the Dutch Lutheran 
 church, and give thanks to Almighty God for the success of 
 their general and the forces under his command ; and they issued 
 a proclamation, appointing the loth of December as a day of 
 thanksgiving and prayer on account of the signal interposition 
 of Divine Providence which they had experienced. 
 
 But if the surrender of Cornwallis was the occasion of joy to 
 the Americans, it was the occasion of much and serious concern 
 to the British. The war, into which the English nation had at 
 first entered with great alacrity, was now become universally 
 unpopular. The Americans, having secured the alliance of the 
 French, were more able than ever to resist the force of the 
 British arms ; and the spirit which had given rise to the defec- 
 tion of the colonies, so far from being subdued, continued to 
 influence them in all their determinations. It was perceived, 
 that the reduction of the provinces could not be accomplished 
 without a great waste of blood and treasure ; and perhaps the 
 injustice of forcing the Americans to contribute to the support 
 of a government which allowed them no place in its councils 
 had at length become evident to the British people. But, from 
 whatever cause it arose, it is certain, that a remarkable change 
 had taken place in the sentiments of the English nation ; and 
 that a desire for peace was everywhere prevalent. Accordingly, 
 on the 4th of March, 1782, it was resolved by the House of 
 Commons, notwithstanding a violent opposition from the min- 
 istry, "that the house will consider as enemies to his majesty 
 and the country, all those who advise or attempt a further prose-
 
 500 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 cution of the offensive war on the continent of North America." 
 A change of administration then took place. On the 5th of 
 May, Sir Guy Carleton arrived at New York, and was joined 
 with Admiral Digby in a commission to treat of peace with the 
 people of America : on the 30th of November, the articles were 
 signed at Paris ; and the colonies of New Hampshire, Massa- 
 chusetts bay, Rhode Island and Providence plantations, Con- 
 necticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
 Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
 Georgia, were acknowledged to be " free, sovereign, and inde- 
 pendent states." In this acknowledgment the French had 
 already agreed, and their example was speedily followed by the 
 other nations of Europe. 
 
 Thus ended the war between Great Britian and America ; a 
 war which began in an injudicious and tyrannical endeavour to 
 procure a revenue from the colonies, and which terminated in 
 their freedom and sovereignty ; a war in which much blood was 
 spilt, and many cruelties exercised ; and the issue of which will 
 remain as a lesson to those who, unmindful of the rights of the 
 people, would lift against them the arm of power, and force 
 them to a compliance with their unjust demands.
 
 FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 501 
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE FIRST FRENCH 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 HE history of the Revolution 
 exhibits to us France, during a 
 period of forty years, under four 
 principal phases, all strikingly 
 different the one from the other. 
 In the first of these, we see the 
 struggle which the nation had to 
 maintain against the court and 
 the privileged orders — an awful 
 and terrible struggle, which ter- 
 minated by the triumph of the 
 multitude and the fall of the 
 throne. The second exhibits to 
 us the scourge of foreign war, 
 accompanied by the still more fearful one of the rule of the 
 populace, and of those violent and vicious men into whose hands 
 a blind and uncalculating resistance had thrown the reins of 
 power. This second is that bloody period during which France 
 was a prey, first to the reign of terror, and then to that of 
 anarchy — the period of the republic, up to the 18th Brumaire. 
 In its third phase, the revolution shows the nation exhausted 
 by a long succession of ills, worn out with its own excesses, 
 and seeking, at the feet of the great captain, a refuge in mili- 
 tary despotism. During this period, France seems transformed 
 into one vast camp, and signalizes, during twelve years, by an 
 uninterrupted succession of triumphs, her reaction against com- 
 bined Europe. This is the period of the consulate and the 
 empire. And finally, when the application of a portion of 
 those principles in the name of which the revolution had been
 
 502 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 effected, has received, from time, a sort of consecration — when 
 men, long agitated by opposing views, have, at length, learned 
 to live together, and in peace, beneath the iron hand of the 
 conqueror, the latter falls, in his turn — the love of freedom 
 reawakens in the hearts of Frenchmen, and the restoration 
 is accomplished, under the condition that France shall be en- 
 dowed with political liberty, and that the general interests in- 
 volved in the new order of things which has arisen shall be 
 respected. This period, during which France learns to exercise 
 her political rights through a struggle of sixteen years for their 
 defence, is the last phase of the revolution, and terminates in 
 the great days of July, 1880, followed by the establishment of 
 a new government, destined to commence with false promises, 
 and, after becoming despotic and corrupt, to terminate in a new 
 revolution in 1848. 
 
 If, at the outset of the reign of Louis XVI., the voices of 
 such men as Turgot and Malesherbes — men alike distinguished 
 for their patriotism and their wisdom — had been listened to, 
 France would, in all probability, have entered at once upon the 
 enjoyment of many of those advantages which she has since 
 purchased at such a price of treasure, tears, and blood. But it 
 is, alas ! with nations as with individuals : their experience is 
 ever dearly bought, and they have need of a painful probation 
 ere they will consent to follow the counsels of wisdom. All 
 parties in France refused to listen to any other voice than that 
 of their own selfish passions, and all perished, in succession, 
 the victims of their own furious excesses. During the bloody 
 period of which we are now about to trace a rapid sketch, the 
 French nation, by its saturnalia of crime, its marvellous victo- 
 ries, and its astonishing progress in population and in wealth, 
 after a series of the most dreadful convulsions by which an 
 empire was ever desolated, was an object, by turns, of horror, 
 pity, admiration, and terror to the gazing universe. 
 
 It was on the 5th of May, 1789, that the states-general 
 were to open, and the royal sitting, for this purpose, was ac- 
 cordingly held in the Salle des Melius, at Versailles. The 
 deputies were summoned thither and introduced, according to 
 the order established in 1614 ; but the time was gone by when 
 the tiers etat, speaking on their knees and bareheaded, acknow- 
 ledged their degrading inferiority in the presence of the other
 
 FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION. 503 
 
 orders. They lost no time in showing that they considered 
 themselves as the equals of the other two estates ;• and when, 
 following the example of the king, the deputies of the two 
 higher orders covered their heads, those of the commons, con- 
 trary to the usage of the ancient states, immediately imitated 
 the clergy and the nobles. That simple action alone might 
 have sufficed to show the court that a revolution had been 
 effected in mind and manners. The deputies of the commons, 
 however, would have gained but little by proclaiming them- 
 selves the equals of the other orders, had they been unable to 
 compel the recognition of that equality by basing it on facts. 
 The first and most important question to be settled was, whether 
 the votes should be taken individually or by orders. In the 
 latter case, the deputies of the tiers 6tat would lose the advan- 
 tage which their number (double that of the deputies of each 
 of the privileged orders) gave them. The court and the major- 
 ity of the nobles and clergy attached the utmost importance 
 to procuring a decision that the votes should be taken by orders 
 on all political questions. But the nobles included among their 
 members many popular dissentients. The cures, too, formed a 
 considerable portion of the clerical deputies ; and their opinions 
 inclined towards those of the deputies of the tiers etat, to whom 
 their unanimity of feeling and numerical force gave an immense 
 advantage. These latter displayed, on the present occasion, 
 immovable patience and unshaken firmness. They proceeded 
 to the verification of their powers, after having invited the no- 
 bles and clergy to be present ; and, subsequently, by the ad- 
 vice of Sieyes, they constituted themselves, on the 17th of June, 
 into a national assembly. This important resolution was im- 
 mediately followed up by acts of supremacy. The assembly 
 proclaimed the indivisibility of the legislative power, voted the 
 provisional levy of taxes so long as they should be sitting, 
 and their entire cessation in case they should be dissolved, con- 
 solidated the public debt, and appointed a committee of supply. 
 Alarmed at the vast ascendency which these early acts of 
 theirs gave to the national assembly over the public mind, the 
 dominant party at court, opposed to Necker and led by the 
 comte d'Artois and the princes de Conde' and de Conti, commu- 
 nicated their alarms to Louis XVI., and prevailed on him to
 
 504 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 interpose his power by annulling the decrees of the assembly, 
 commanding the separation of the orders, and taking upon him- 
 self to prescribe all the reforms which should be undertaken by 
 the states-general. For this purpose a royal sitting was an- 
 nounced, and, under pretext of the preparations requisite for 
 that occasion, the hall of the states was in the mean time 
 closed. Bailly, the chief deputy for Paris, presided at that 
 time over the assembly, a man at once esteemed for his literary 
 and scientific labours, and who had won the respect of all par- 
 ties by his nobility and firmness of character. On the 20th 
 of June, he presented himself, with a great number of his col- 
 leagues, at the door of the hall, and found it closed. The vio- 
 lent designs of the court were no longer doubtful, and the 
 indignant deputies resolved to thwart their execution. They 
 followed their president to the tennis-court, and there, with 
 uplifted hands and hearts filled with the sense of what they 
 owed to their country, swore, with the exception of a single 
 one among them, never to separate till they had given a 
 constitution to France. Two days afterwards, the majority 
 of the clergy joined the deputies of the commons, in the 
 church of Saint Louis, where the latter had assembled provi- 
 sionally. 
 
 Such were the preludes to that royal session which was held 
 on the 23d of June, and at which Necker excused himself from 
 attending. The king appeared there in all the pomp of sove- 
 reignty, and was received with chilling silence. He refused to 
 recognise the assembly but as that of the order of the tiers 
 s'tat, and commanded it immediately to dissolve. The members 
 of the nobility and clergy who were present obeyed as soon as 
 the king had departed ; but the commons retained their seats. 
 The grand-master of the ceremonies entered to remind them of 
 the monarch's order. " Tell your master," replied Mirabeau, 
 " that we are here by order of the people, and will be driven 
 hence only by the bayonet." Then, Sieyes, addressing his 
 colleagues, coolly said — « You are to-day what you were yes- 
 terday. Let us enter on our deliberations." The assembly 
 persisted in all its resolutions, and, on the motion of Mirabeau, 
 added one asserting the inviolability of its members. From 
 that hour the royal authority was lost. The majority of the
 
 FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 505 
 
 members of the clergy sat again in the assembly on its next 
 meeting ; and, a few days afterwards, forty-seven members of 
 the nobility, among whom was the duke of Orleans, joined it. 
 Finally, after the 27th of June, the deliberations became ge- 
 neral, and the distinction established between the orders ceased 
 to exist. 
 
 64 
 
 2S
 
 506 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE BASTILE. 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE BASTILE. 
 
 LL moral authority having thus 
 passed from the monarch to the as- 
 sembly, the counsellors of Louis 
 XVI. rashly persuaded him to have 
 recourse to force. Great numbers 
 of troops were drawn together round 
 Versailles ; Necker was banished ; 
 and the mare'chal de Broglie, La 
 Galissonniere, the due de la Vau- 
 guyon, the baron de Breteuil, and 
 the intendant Foulon, all more or less imbued with the opinions 
 of the court, were named to the ministry. The approach of 
 the troops, and the exile of Necker, provoked a fermentation in 
 Paris. Camille Desmoulins, a young man glowing with zeal in 
 the cause of freedom, harangued the people in the Palais Royal, 
 and summoned them to take up arms. The busts of Necker 
 and the duke of Orleans were paraded through Paris. This 
 sort of ovation was disturbed by the prince de Lambesc, colonel 
 of the royal German corps, who charged the mob ; but the 
 French guards took part with the people, — the troops refused 
 to fire on their companions in arms, and fell back. The tumult 
 and disorder increased throughout the capital. The barriers
 
 CAPTURE OF THE BASTILE. 507 
 
 were set fire to, and many houses were pillaged by ruffians. 
 The populace was without bread, and the greatest evils were to 
 be apprehended. To prevent these, a body of electors assem- 
 bled at the Hotel de Ville, took the authority into their own 
 hands, and rendered great service by their conduct, at once 
 firm, active, and prudent. The national assembly, after having 
 vainly attempted a reconciliation with the court, unanimously 
 decreed the responsibility of ministers, and of all the coun- 
 sellors of the king, of what rank soever they might be. A 
 vote was passed, expressive of regret for Necker and the dis- 
 graced ministers, — the public debt was committed to the safe 
 keeping of the national honour, — and the assembly declared 
 itself permanent. The archbishop of Vienna presided over it, 
 and La Fayette was elected vice-president. 
 
 The populace of Paris, inflamed by the hostile attitude of the 
 court and the energetic proceedings of the assembly, determined 
 to pursue its advantages, and demanded arms. The committee 
 of electors, sitting at the Hotel de Ville, organized the national 
 guard, which they increased to forty-eight thousand men, 
 giving them the tri-coloured cockade — its colours being those 
 of the arms of the city of Paris. Each district had its bat- 
 talion. Fifty thousand pikes were forged, — the arsenal of the 
 Invalids was pillaged, — and the universal cry of the populace 
 was, < To the Bastile !' The memorable siege of that fortress 
 was undertaken ; and the French guards coming to the aid of 
 the people, with cannon, decided its capture, the slender gar- 
 rison laying down their arms. The governor Delaunay and 
 several soldiers, unable to escape the fury of the multitude, 
 were put to death ; and the populace returned in triumph to the 
 Hotel de Ville, bearing the bloody trophies of their victory. A 
 letter found on the unfortunate Delaunay involved M. de Fles- 
 selles, the mayor of Paris, in an accusation of treason. The 
 first impulse of the populace was to massacre him ; but they, 
 subsequently, ordered that he should be arraigned before them. 
 He was assassinated, however, by a pistol shot. The popular 
 effervescence was at its height ; Paris prepared herself for bat- 
 tle on the following day, and the entire city wore the aspect 
 of one vast camp. 
 
 The court, however, was still blind enough to see in this 
 movement of a whole metropolis no more than a mere riot. The
 
 508 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 king proposed to dissolve the assembly, and had delegated to 
 the commandant of the army, the mardchal de Broglie, un- 
 limited powers. Informed, in the middle of the night, by the 
 worthy La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, of the taking of the Bas- 
 tile and all the events of the 14th July, — ' This is an insur- 
 rection!' said the king. 'No sire,' replied the great citizen, 
 'it is a revolution.' The king's firmness gave way, before the 
 gravity of the circumstances ; and, on the day following, he 
 appeared in the midst of the assembly. <■ The silence of the 
 people is a lesson for kings,' as Mirabeau had said ; and the 
 deputies preserved, at first, an attitude of gloomy attention, in 
 the presence of the monarch. But when he had declared to 
 them that he and the nation were but as one, — that the troops 
 should be sent away, — and when he added, with a trembling 
 voice, < Well, gentlemen, I place myself in your hands,' — the 
 assembly broke forth into acclamations, and rising, conducted 
 Louis XVI. back to his palace. 
 
 The king felt the necessity of doing something to appease the 
 capital. He caused it to be announced that Necker should be 
 recalled, and that he would, himself, repair on the following 
 day to Paris, where Bailly had been appointed mayor, and La 
 Fayette commandant of the burgher guard. The monarch was 
 received by these two. ' Sire,' said the former, in presenting 
 to him the keys of the city, — < Henry IV. conquered back his 
 people, — but here the people have conquered back their king.' 
 Louis entered the Hotel de Ville without guards, received the 
 tri-coloured cockade, amid the acclamations of the multitude, 
 and returned to Versailles only after having confirmed the 
 elections of the people, and sanctioned the new magistracies.
 
 THE FIRST EMIGRATION. 
 
 509 
 
 THE FIRST EMIGRATION. 
 
 i9lWT was at this period that 
 the first emigration began. 
 The comte d'Artois, the 
 x» prince de Cond^, the 
 — prince de Conti, and the 
 Polignac family, set the example 
 of quitting France. Necker's re- 
 turn to Paris was in the nature of 
 a triumph ; but with that event 
 ended his career of fame. Believ- 
 ing himself the master of a party, 
 who no longer looked on him as 
 more than an instrument, he endeavoured to save Be'zenval, the 
 second in command of the troops, and whom the people had made 
 prisoner. Already, the intendant Foulon and his nephew Ber- 
 thier had perished, victims of the popular resentment. Bezen- 
 val was more deeply compromised than either of these, and 
 Necker, by proposing an amnesty, sacrificed his popularity at 
 once. From that hour he commenced a fruitless struggle against 
 the revolution. The metropolitan movement had extended itself 
 into the provinces ; and the people were, everywhere, organizing 
 themselves into municipalities and national guards. Troops of 
 armed men scoured the country, burning and pillaging the cha- 
 teaux and destroying their title-deeds. To allay this irritation, it 
 became important that its causes should be in some measure 
 removed, by the abolition of the more odious privileges ; and to 
 this reform the assembly proceeded unshrinkingly, on the famous 
 night of the 4th of August. The signal for sacrifices was given 
 by the vicomte de Noailles, who proposed the redemption of 
 feudal rights, and the suppression of personal servitude. There 
 grew up among the privileged orders a rivalry in offerings, 
 and apparently in patriotism. Many of these, however, contri- 
 
 2s2
 
 510 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 butecl to the destruction of all things in the old social system, 
 only in the hope that the universal overthrow must lead to a 
 reaction as its inevitable consequence. Abuses and privileges 
 ■were suppressed ; and the assembly voted the redemption of 
 tithes, and their conversion into a pecuniary tax, — the abolition 
 of the exclusive right of chase and of seignorial jurisdictions, — 
 of the sale of magisterial offices, — of pecuniary immunities and 
 inequality of taxation, — of the annates (first-fruits) of the court 
 of Rome, and plurality of benefices; and the title of ' Restorer 
 of French liberty' was bestowed upon Louis XVI. That 
 memorable night led to the regulation of the public authorities 
 and the gratuitous administration of justice. It gave to all 
 Frenchmen equality of rights — all might, thenceforth, aspire to 
 office, aim at becoming proprietors, and devote themselves to 
 whatsoever branch of industry they might choose. In a word, 
 all obstacles were, at once, cleared away, which still offered any 
 opposition to the preparation of the new constitution. 
 
 The assembly was at this period divided into three leading 
 parties : — first, that of the court and privileged classes, formed 
 of the majority of the nobles and clergy, whose most remarkable 
 orators were the abbe" Maury and Cazales, a cavalry officer ; — 
 secondly, that which desired a constitution after the model of the 
 English, — composed principally of the minority among the 
 nobles, and having at its head Necker, Meunier, and Lally Tol- 
 lendal, the son of General Lally, and early celebrated for the 
 conspicuous talent which he had displayed in clearing the memo- 
 ry of his father; — and thirdly, the remaining portion of the 
 assembly formed the party called national, and which was hostile 
 to every kind of aristocratic distinction between the different 
 classes of the nation. The most influential members of this 
 party were Bailly, Mirabeau, and La Fayette ; by whose side, 
 however, were, likewise, conspicuous the members of a cele- 
 brated triumvirate, at all times zealous supporters of the most 
 popular propositions, formed of the counsellor Duport, the 
 originator of the famous confederation of clubs, colonel Alex- 
 ander Lameth, and the eloquent Barnave. There was still a 
 fourth party in the assembly — that of the duke of Orleans ; but 
 this latter was vague and ill-defined, — and, if it had a real exist- 
 ence, was composed of a small number of members personally 
 attached to the prince, and supposed to entertain the design of
 
 THE FIRST EMIGRATION. 
 
 511 
 
 transferring the crown to his head. The principal leaders of 
 the assembly were two men not belonging to the tiers etat, but 
 adopted by it — the abbe Sieyes and Mirabeau. Of these, the 
 first swayed it by the influence of a powerful reason, and a mind 
 at once philosophical and abounding in ideas both novel and pro- 
 found ; — he ruled in the committees. The second reigned in the 
 tribune. Early delivered up to the guidance of his own stormy 
 passions, the victim of his personal irregularities, and accus- 
 tomed to the struggle with authority, devoured by a craving 
 after action and movement proportioned to his own prodigal 
 resources, audacious as he was eloquent, revolutions were his 
 fitting element. Repulsed by the nobles of Provence, he flung 
 himself into the arms of the people, by whom he was received 
 with transport, — and exercised over the assembly the sovereignty 
 of genius.
 
 512 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 THE ROYAL FAMILY BROUGHT FROM VER- 
 SAILLES TO PARIS. 
 
 HE royal power, de facto suspended, 
 was now replaced by that of the 
 national assembly ; which imme- 
 diately proceeded to appoint 
 committees charged with pro- 
 viding for every different 
 branch of the public service. 
 On the proposition of La Fay- 
 ette, it then adopted a de- 
 claration of rights, framed in 
 the spirit of the celebrated 
 declaration of the American 
 congress, and which served 
 as the basis of their constitu- 
 tion. This declaration Louis XVI. hesitated to accept, and gave 
 his adhesion at length with great reluctance. The assembly next 
 decreed the permanence of the legislative body ; and after a very 
 animated discussion, in which Necker, Mounier, and Lally-Tollen- 
 dal argued for the division of that body into a senate and chamber 
 of representatives, it was decided that it should continue indivi- 
 sible, and be composed of a single chamber. The next step was 
 to determine the action of the monarch in the constitution of the 
 laws ; and, here, while some contended that the king should have 
 the power of absolute opposition to the decrees of the assembly, 
 it was insisted by others that his veto should be merely suspensive. 
 This question excited the most violent debates. Paris was still 
 in a state of great agitation, — the natural result of the popular 
 victory of the 14th of July. The assembly of electors, who had 
 assumed the functions of a provisional municipality, had been 
 recently replaced. One hundred and eighty members, named 
 by the different districts, had constituted themselves legislators
 
 THE ROYAL FAMILY. 513 
 
 and representatives of the whole body of citizens ; while the 
 committees of the sixty districts of Paris assumed to themselves, 
 likewise, a legislative power superior to that of their constituents. 
 The rage for public discussion had become general ; and assem- 
 blies of every description were formed throughout the city. The 
 soldiery, the journeymen tailors, the hair-dressers, the body of 
 domestic servants, had each their special place of meeting. 
 The most animated debates were carried on in the Palais Royal, 
 whence the people controlled those of the national assembly. 
 There it was that the discussion on the royal veto excited the 
 most violent irritation. The middling class, of which the 
 national guard was composed, had not yet, at Paris, got all 
 power into its own hands ; and the ministry, alarmed at the 
 threatening demonstrations of the multitude, induced the king 
 to abandon the unlimited veto, and confine himself to the sus- 
 pensive one. The assembly then decreed that the refusal of 
 the royal sanction should not be prolonged beyond two legisla- 
 tures. It was not, however, without great difficulty that the 
 court was prevailed on to give way; and projects of a far differ- 
 ent character were still nourished there. The courtiers aimed 
 at exhibiting Louis in the character of an oppressed monarch ; 
 and, having no hope but in a civil war, were desirous that he 
 should take refuge in the midst of his army. Louis XVI. 
 really loved his people, and withstood these violent suggestions. 
 Troops were, however, collected round Versailles. Some dra- 
 goons and the regiment of Flanders were summoned thither, 
 and the enemies of the revolution resumed courage. A feast 
 was given to the officers of the newly-arrived regiments, by 
 their comrades, in the salle de spectacle (theatre) of the chateau, 
 which was usually reserved for great solemnities ; and in the 
 midst of this noisy assemblage suddenly appeared the king and 
 queen, the latter carrying the dauphin in her arms. Their en- 
 trance was greeted with shouts of enthusiasm ; white cockades 
 were distributed, and the tri-coloured emblems trodden under 
 foot. Such was the celebrated banquet of the 1st of October, 
 Avhose results were destined to be so fatal to the royal family of 
 France. The news of this scene soon spread throughout Paris, 
 and produced the most violent fermentation. The arrival of the 
 regiments, their hostile demonstrations, the apprehension of 
 plots against the people, and, more than all, the existing 
 65
 
 514 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 scarcity of provisions, combined to occasion a fearful outbreak 
 of the popular passions. The signal was given, on the 5th of 
 October, by a young girl, who traversed the streets, with a drum 
 beating, and shouting, 'Bread — bread!' A crowd of women 
 gathered round her, and the general cry was — 'To Versailles!' 
 Maillard, one of the volunteers of the Bastile, placed himself 
 at the head of this motley assemblage, continually swelled by 
 the coming in of a furious multitude, and offered to lead them 
 thither. Kept in check for seven hours by La Fayette, they, 
 however, at length set out, and reached Versailles, where their 
 approach had already spread consternation. A first engage- 
 ment had taken place between the populace and the gardes du 
 corps ere La Fayette arrived, at the head of the national guard 
 of Paris, to restrain the lawless rabble. His presence restored 
 security, and tranquillity was re-established. In the dead of the 
 night, however, some stragglers of the mob found one of the 
 gratings of the chateau open, and, arousing their companions, 
 entered the royal abode. The alarm was speedily given, and a 
 struggle took place between the populace and the guards on 
 duty, — many of whom fell heroically at their posts, exclaiming 
 — ' Save the queen !' Marie Antoinette, apprized of her danger, 
 fled, half-dressed, into the apartment of the king. La Fayette 
 flew to the scene of action, and found that the Paris guard had 
 already taken part with the gardes du corps. He succeeded in 
 clearing the castle of the mob, exposing his own life to drive 
 back the rioters from the royal apartments. The multitude de- 
 manded, with loud cries, that the king should make his ap- 
 pearance, and that he should repair with his family to Paris. 
 Louis XVI. showed himself to the shouting crowd, and promised 
 to do as they required. But the queen it was who was the 
 special object of the people's hatred, and La Fayette led her 
 out on to the balcony, and kissed her hand, before them, with 
 deep respect. Shouts of applause arose from the crowd, in an- 
 swer. The departure for Paris was determined on ; and the 
 royal family repaired thither that same day, escorted by the 
 guards, and accompanied by a hideous and bloody procession.
 
 DEATH OF MIRABEAU. 
 
 515 
 
 DEATH OF MIRABEAU— FLIGHT OF THE 
 KING— DISSOLUTION OF THE NATIONAL 
 ASSEMBLY. 
 
 ^ MEANTIME, the emigration went on. 
 l < The aunts of the king had quitted 
 j France ; and Louis XVI., suspected 
 of an intention to follow them, was 
 arrested by the populace, and, with his family, 
 detained in Paris, at the moment when he was 
 preparing to leave the capital for Saint Cloud. 
 The assembly, while proclaiming the inviola- 
 bility of the monarch, declared that his flight from the king- 
 dom should be construed into a forfeiture of the crown. The 
 deputies, however, after having got rid of all abuses and privi- 
 leges, and having completed the constitution, began to mani- 
 fest in their proceedings a more monarchical tendency. This 
 reaction was, in a great measure, attributable to Mirabeau, 
 whose services had been bought by the court, and who was de- 
 sirous at once to consolidate the throne and maintain all the 
 useful results of the revolution. He procured to be rejected, 
 as striking at individual liberty, a violent decree which had 
 been proposed against the emigrants ; but this was his latest 
 triumph. He died a few days afterwards, (1791,) exhausted by 
 excesses of all kinds, and his remains were borne to the Pan- 
 theon. Perhaps he alone could have directed and restrained 
 the revolutionary torrent. His death was a public calamity, 
 and the nation wore mourning for him. 
 
 The storm was already muttering on the frontiers, and the 
 emigrants were soliciting all Europe against France. They 
 formed two bodies — the one organized under Conde, at Worms, 
 the other under the comte d'Artois, at Coblentz. This latter 
 prince repaired, accompanied by his minister, Calonne, and Al-
 
 516 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 phonse cle Durfort, to the emperor Leopold ; and the secret decla- 
 ration of Mantua, signed on the 20th of May, 1791, was the 
 result of their conference. That declaration promised to Louis 
 XYI. the aid of a coalition, which was to include Austria, the 
 Germanic Circles, Switzerland, and the kings of Sardinia, 
 Spain, and Prussia. But it was the wish of Louis to make one 
 previous effort to restore the monarchy without foreign aid ; 
 and he accordingly attempted to repair to Montmedy to join 
 the army commanded by Bouille. His plan of escape was con- 
 certed with that general, who placed detachments at certain 
 distances along the road which the king was to travel. In the 
 night of the 20th of June, the royal family set out, in disguise, 
 from the chateau of the Tuileries, eluded the vigilance of the 
 guards, passed the barriers of Paris without obstacle, and took 
 the road to Chalons and Montme'dy. At the news of this 
 flight, Paris and the assembly at first seemed stupified. The 
 latter, however, immediately took possession of the executive 
 authority, announced its pacific intentions to the different pow- 
 ers, sent commissioners to the troops to receive their oath of 
 allegiance in its own name, and prepared to make it apparent 
 to Paris and to France that a monarch was by no means indis- 
 pensable to the government of the state. In the mean time, 
 however, tidings of the king's arrest were spread abroad. The 
 unfortunate Louis had been recognised and stopped at Varen- 
 nes, and all the national guards of the environs were instantly 
 in arms and afoot. The detachments of troops posted along 
 the road were either repulsed or fearful of acting. Bouille' 
 himself hastened up at the head of a regiment ; but he came 
 too late — the king had been, for several hours, on the road back 
 to Paris. The assembly had sent three of its members to meet 
 him and insure his return. These were the count de Latour- 
 Maubourg, Petion, and the young Barnave ; and the last of 
 these, touched by the affability and sad destiny of the royal 
 family, resolved, from that moment, to give them his counsel 
 and support. The king was greeted in Paris by a silence of 
 most sinister augury. The assembly suspended him provision- 
 ally from the exercise of his functions, and appointed commis- 
 sioners to interrogate him. The discussions on this subject 
 were stormy — some of the disputants wishing to maintain the 
 king on the throne, and others arguing for his deposition. La-
 
 FLIGHT OF THE KING. 517 
 
 meth and Barnave joined the moderate party, with the view of 
 defending the monarch, and created the club of the Feuillants 
 for the purpose of opposing that of the Jacobins, the direction 
 of which had been assumed by Petion and Robespierre, the 
 leaders of the republican party. The assembly, by the advice 
 of Barnave, declared that there was no pretence for bringing 
 Louis XIV. to trial, or pronouncing a forfeiture against him ; 
 but at the same time, in order to calm the popular effervescence, 
 it decreed that the kino; should be considered as having abdi- 
 cated de facto and forfeited his inviolability, if he should make 
 war upon the nation, or suffer it to be made in his name. This 
 decision of the assembly, however, irritated the multitude. The 
 agitators drew up a petition, in which they appealed to the 
 sovereignty of the people, and treated Louis XVI. as having 
 abandoned the crown by his flight. This petition was pre- 
 pared by Brissot, and carried, on the 17th of July, to the 
 Champ de Mars, where, being laid upon the national altar, 
 Danton and Camille Desmoulins harangued an immense multi- 
 tude, whom they incited to insurrection. The danger became 
 imminent, and the assembly enjoined the municipality to take 
 charge of the public safety. La Fayette and Bailly marched 
 to the Champ de Mars at the head of a numerous body of the 
 national guards. Bailly read the summonses prescribed by the 
 law, and ordered the red flag to be displayed. The multitude 
 replied to this signal by a shower of stones, and all hope of 
 conciliation being now at an end, it became necessary to have 
 recourse to force. La Fayette commanded the guard to fire. 
 The second discharge, was murderous, and dispersed the mob. 
 They took to flight; but never forgave either La Fayette or 
 Bailly for having done their duty on this fatal day. These de- 
 plorable dissensions restored confidence to the foes of the revo- 
 lution, and the emigrants devoted all their energies to promot- 
 ing a general European confederation for its suppression. 
 3Tonsieur assumed the title of regent at Brussels, Bouille wrote 
 a fierce and menacing letter to the assembly, and the emperor, 
 the king of Prussia, and the comte d'Artois met at Pilnitz, 
 where, at the risk of compromising the monarch whom they 
 sought to defend, they signed the treaty of the 27th of July. 
 In this declaration they assumed the cause of Louis XVI. for 
 their own, and demanded that he should be restored to the 
 
 2T
 
 518 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN IIISTORY. 
 
 throne and the assembly dissolved ; denouncing the most fright- 
 ful calamities against France in case of refusal. The indignant 
 assembly replied to these menaces by the levy of a hundred 
 thousand national guards and the arming of the "frontiers. The 
 operations of that body were, however, approaching to their 
 close, the convocation of the electoral colleges being fixed for 
 the 5th of August. By a fatal decree, issued previous to the 
 king's flight to Varennes, the members of the existing assembly 
 had formally excluded themselves from eligibility into the ranks 
 of its successor. In vain did Duport exclaim, « How comes it 
 that they who cram us now-a-days with principles have failed 
 to recognise stability as a necessary principle of good govern- 
 ment ?" The decree was promulgated, and the mania of disin- 
 terestedness becoming contagious, Bailly surrendered the may- 
 oralty, and La Fayette the command of the national guards ; 
 and thus the conduct of the revolution was surrendered into the 
 hands of a new set of men, who began a fresh revolutionary 
 system of their own, in the sole design of building up a name 
 and fortune to themselves. 

 
 •HE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY— THE GIRONDISTS. 
 
 519 
 
 LAYFAYETTE. 
 
 THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY— THE 
 GIRONDISTS. 
 
 HE court, the nobles, and the clergy had 
 exercised no influence over the new 
 elections, which were of a character 
 entirely popular; and the assembly 
 opened its session on the ls.t of Octo- 
 ber, 1791. It proceeded at once to de- 
 clare itself the national legislative as- 
 sembly; and, amid the acclamations of 
 the people who thronged the galleries, 
 took, upon the constitutional act, the 
 oath, to live freemen, or to die. The 
 minority of the former assembly had 
 become the majority of this, and the parties of which it was 
 composed speedily declared themselves. The right, consisting 
 of members formerly attached to the constitution, formed the 
 party of the Feuillants, and was supported by the club of that 
 name, the national guard, and the army. But it was no longer
 
 520 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 paramount in the assembly, and was compelled to cede the im- 
 portant post of the municipality to its opponents of the left, 
 who composed the Girondin party, headed by Yergniaud, Gua- 
 det, and Gensonnd, the celebrated orators of the Gironde, from 
 whence it took its name ; and, in conjunction with them, by 
 Brissot, Condorcet, and the violent Isnard. This latter party 
 was disposed to call in, to the aid of the revolution, the passions 
 of the multitude and the weapons of violence, — differing, in 
 that respect, from the constitutionalists, who rejected all other 
 support than that of the law. The centre of the legislative as- 
 sembly was attached to the new order of things ; but the public 
 danger swayed its resolutions, and carried it over to the party 
 of the left. Out of doors, the Girondins were supported by the 
 democratic party, who influenced the populace and the clubs, 
 Robespierre swayed that of the Jacobins ; Danton, Camille Des- 
 moulins, and Fabre d'Eglantine governed the still more violent 
 one of the Cordeliers, and Santerre ruled in the faubourgs. 
 Such were the principal chiefs of the popular party, and their 
 power was rapidly increased by the audacious enterprises of the 
 leaders of the revolution. 
 
 The number of emigrants continued daily to increase. The 
 king's two brothers and the princes had protested against the 
 acceptance, by Louis XVI., of the constitutional act ; and, at 
 their appeal, the nobles quitted their chateaux, and the officers 
 their regiments. Hostile assemblages were formed in the Aus- 
 trian Netherlands and the neighbouring electorates ; and a 
 counter-revolution was in preparation at Brussels, at Worms, and 
 at Coblentz, under the protection of foreign courts. While the 
 emigrant nobles were arranging all things abroad for war, the 
 refractory priests omitted no means of arousing the people in the 
 same cause, by exciting their fanaticism. The bishops forbade 
 the receiving of the sacraments from the priests whom they 
 designated as intrus, (interlopers) ; menacing circulars against 
 all who participated therein, were distributed throughout the 
 country ; and dangerous disturbances broke out in Calvados, 
 Gdvaudan, and La Vendue. The enraged assembly, on the 
 30th of October, adopted a decree, which declared Louis-Stan- 
 islaus-Xavier, the king's brother, to have forfeited his title to 
 the regency, unless he should re-enter France within two months : 
 and afterwards declared that all Frenchmen assembled be-
 
 TIIE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY— THE GIRONDISTS. 521 
 
 yond the frontiers were suspected of conspiring against their 
 country ; and that, if, on the 1st of January, 1792, they should 
 still be in a state of hostile assemblage, they should be treated 
 as such conspirators, and punishable with death : and, finally, 
 it decreed that the refractory ecclesiastics should be required to 
 take the civic oath, under pain of being deprived of their pen- 
 sions, and should be liable to arrest in the event of religious dis- 
 turbances occurring within their parishes. The king sanctioned 
 the first of these decrees, but opposed his veto to the two others. 
 At the same time, he declared vehemently against the emigra- 
 tion ; but his court relied on the co-operation of Europe, and 
 was the focus of most of the intrigues carried on against the 
 assembly. Blinded by its hatred towards the constitution and 
 its authors, it committed the great and fatal error of withholding 
 its confidence from the constitutionalists, when they alone were 
 devoted to its defence. In this manner, it lifted the Girondin 
 Petion to the mayoralty, in preference to La Fayette, and 
 opened up the municipality of Paris to the creatures of the mob. 
 The national indignation was, at this period, especially ex- 
 cited by the conduct of the frontier princes, who warmly re- 
 ceived the emigrants, and encouraged military congregations. 
 The assembly sought to obtain, from Louis XVI. , a solemn 
 declaration against these princes, and Isnard concluded a dis- 
 course, delivered with this object, from the tribune, in these 
 passionate words : — ' Let us say to Europe, that if her cabinets 
 engage their kings in a war against the people, we will engage 
 the people in a war unto the death against kings. Let us say 
 to her, that the battles which the people fight against each 
 other, by order of their despots, are like the blows that two 
 friends, misled by a treacherous instigator, aim at each other in 
 the dark. When the light of day appears, they fling away their 
 arms, embrace, and unite in chastising him who deceived them 
 both. And thus, at the moment when the hostile armies shall 
 struggle against ours, should the dawn of philosophy strike 
 their eyes, the nations shall embrace each other, in view of 
 tyrants dethroned, the earth comforted, and heaven approving.' 
 The proposed measure was carried unanimously and triumphantly, 
 and received the sanction of the monarch. ' If,' said he, ' my 
 representations shall be disregarded, it will then but remain 
 fur me to propose war.' The assembly voted twenty millions 
 66 2 t 2
 
 522 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 for this object ; one hundred and fifty thousand men were raised, 
 and three armies were formed, on the northern and eastern 
 frontiers, under the respective commands of Rochambeau, Luck- 
 ner, and La Fayette. The arraignment of the emigrant princes 
 was, at the same time, determined on, and Monsieur was de- 
 clared to have forfeited his title to the regency. To these de- 
 crees of the assembly, Austria, at that time governed by the 
 prince of Kaunitz, as its prime minister, replied by an order to 
 the mare'chal de Bender to support the elector of Treves, in case 
 he should be attacked ; and by demanding the restoration of 
 the Germanic princes who had formerly held territorial sway in 
 Alsace, — insisting upon the re-establishment of feudalism in that 
 province, or war as the alternative. 
 
 The legislative assembly accused the ministry of weakness and 
 insincerity ; and the minister of war, Narbonne, who was sin- 
 cerely attached to the constitution, having been sacrificed, by 
 means of a court intrigue, to Bertrand deMolleville, the minister 
 of marine, who was justly an object of suspicion, a total break- 
 ing up of the council was the consequence, followed by the com- 
 mittal of Delessart, the minister for foreign affairs, for trial 
 before the high court of Orleans. Constrained by circumstances, 
 the king, then, formed a Girondin ministry, whose most re- 
 markable members were General Dumouriez and Roland. The 
 first of these, accustomed to intrigue from his youth upwards, 
 and seeking to push his fortune at any price, was bold, fickle, 
 and unshackled by political convictions of any kind, but gifted 
 with an acute perception, and a genius fertile in resources. The 
 second was a passionate lover of liberty — worthy, by the sim- 
 plicity of his manners and the austerity of his morals, to be the 
 son of a republic ; but his talents were slender, and he was 
 chiefly remarkable by means of his wife, distinguished by quali- 
 ties at once noble and winning, and herself the soul and coun- 
 sellor of the Gironde. 
 
 The first measure of the new ministry had relation to the 
 war. Leopold was dead, and was about to be succeeded in the 
 empire by Francis II., king of Bohemia and Hungary, — whose 
 accession, however, made no change in the Austrian policy 
 towards France. The prince of Kaunitz, in his name, de- 
 manded the restoration to the clergy of the property of the 
 church, of the territories of Alsace to the German princes, and
 
 THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY— THE GIRONDISTS. 
 
 52:5 
 
 ROCHAMBEAU. 
 
 of the Venaissin to the pope. To this ultimatum of Austria, 
 Louis XVI. replied by a proposition of war, and the assembly 
 decided on its adoption. The invasion of Belgium, occupied by 
 the Prussians, was resolved upon, and Rochambeau was ordered 
 to undertake it. But the first two of the invading columns 
 were seized with a panic at sight of the Prussian army, and 
 fled. Rochambeau shortly afterwards resigned his command ; 
 and thenceforth the war assumed a defensive character. The 
 army of La Fayette extended itself from the sea to Longwy, and 
 that of Luckner from the Moselle to the Jura. 
 
 This first reverse of the republican arms excited great un- 
 easiness and kindled violent 'discontent. The court was ac- 
 cused of an understanding with the enemy. The existence 
 within it of an Austrian committee was denounced without any 
 proof, and the assembly declared itself permanent. It issued 
 orders for the disbanding of the king's constitutional guard, 
 which he had increased from eighteen hundred to six thousand
 
 524 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 men ; and published two decrees, in opposition to the royal 
 will, — by one of which the refractory priests were exiled, and 
 by the other a camp of twenty thousand men was established 
 under the walls of Paris. The ministers implored the king to 
 deprive the opposition clergy of all hope, by admitting the 
 priests who had taken the oaths about his person ; but their 
 efforts were unavailing, and a schism broke out, on this subject, 
 in the ministry. Roland wrote a severe letter to Louis XVI. 
 on his constitutional duties, conjuring him to make himself 
 frankly and in good faith the king of the revolution. This let- 
 ter gave offence to the monarch, and decided the dissolution of 
 the cabinet. The Girondin ministers were dismissed, and, a few 
 days afterwards, the two decrees were rejected by the king. 
 The assembly immediately proceeded to a declaration that three 
 of the members of the late ministry, Roland, Servan, and Cla- 
 viere, carried with them the regrets of the nation. 
 
 The new ministry was chosen from the party of the Feuillants, 
 whose ranks were composed of men, the moderation of whose 
 opinions deprived them of the support of the multitude, while 
 their attachment to the constitution rendered them odious to the 
 court. They were, in consequence, powerless ; and the king, 
 himself, perceiving their feebleness, had no longer any hope 
 save in the intervention of Europe, and charged Mallet-Dupan 
 with a secret mission to the combined princes. The monarchists, 
 at the head of whom were Lally and Malouet, made a last effort 
 to retard the forward march of the revolution. Duport, Lameth, 
 Barnave, and La Fayette, attempted to suppress the clubs, and 
 to restore the royal authority. La Fayette wrote to the as- 
 sembly, denouncing the Jacobins as the fomenters of all disturb- 
 ances, and imploring it to take none but legal measures for the 
 public weal and safety. This letter, however, had no other 
 effect than that of shaking the credit of the young general. 
 Parties grew more and more divided, and all hope of conciliation 
 gradually vanished. All parties alike sought their triumphs by 
 culpable means. The court reckoned on the co-operation of 
 Europe to enable it to recover its power, and the Gironde relied 
 on the multitude to aid it in establishing its own ; while Chabot, 
 Santerre, and the marquis de Sainte-Hurugue agitated in the 
 faubourgs. The anniversary of the Jeu de Paume was ap- 
 proaching, and a formidable insurrection was in preparation.
 
 THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY— THE GIRONDISTS. 525 
 
 On that day, the 20th of June, thirty thousand men, armed 
 with pikes, descended from the faubourgs, and marched towards 
 the place of session of the assembly, where their chief was en- 
 gaged in pronouncing a furious discourse. His hideous cortege 
 filed into the hall, singing the bloody chorus of ga ira, and 
 amid cries of Vivent les sans-culottes ! d has le veto ! From 
 thence, Santerre and Sainte-Hurugue conducted them to the 
 Tuileries, the gates of which the king commanded to be opened. 
 He presented himself, almost alone, before the insurgents ; and, 
 summoned by them to sanction the two decrees, resisted with 
 admirable courage. He dared not, however, refuse the bonnet 
 rouge, which was presented to him at the end of a pike, and 
 which he placed on his head, amid the plaudits of the populace. 
 At length, Petion arrived and harangued the multitude, who 
 dispersed, without resistance, — satisfied, for the moment, with 
 having insulted royalty with impunity. 
 
 The constitutionalists, indignant at this outrage, besought the 
 king to grant them his confidence and accept their support. 
 The due de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt proposed to conduct 
 him to Rouen, where he held a command ; and La Fayette im- 
 plored him to place himself at the head of his army. The un- 
 fortunate monarch, however, seemed blinded by some fatality, 
 and refused these propositions. La Fayette hastened to Paris, 
 and demanded of the assembly the destruction of the sect of Ja- 
 cobins, and the punishment of the ringleaders of the 20th of 
 June. Before, however, inviting him to the honour of a place 
 among them, the assembly deliberated if they should not arraign 
 him as a deserter from his post. La Fayette reckoned upon 
 the national guard to support him in closing the clubs : — the 
 court, however, caused the failure of his project, — the national 
 guard refused to respond to his appeal, — and he returned to the 
 army, with the loss cf his influence and popularity.
 
 526 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 INSURRECTION OF THE 10th OF AUGUST- 
 FLIGHT OF LA FAYETTE. 
 
 HE foreign sovereigns were still 
 collecting formidable masses 
 on the frontiers, while the di- 
 vision of parties at home ren^ 
 dered the situation of the king- 
 dom daily more alarming. In 
 the assembly, the king was the 
 object of the most violent in- 
 vectives, and the question of 
 forfeiture was already agitated 
 in that body, when, on the 5th 
 of July, the assembly declared 
 the country in danger. All 
 citizens capable of bearing arms were called into activity, pikes 
 were distributed, battalions of volunteers enrolled, and a camp 
 formed at Soissons. The revolutionary enthusiasm was at its 
 height, when the federated Marseillois arrived at Paris. Potion 
 became the object of the popular adoration, and, on the anni- 
 versary of the 14th of July, the universal cry of the federa- 
 tion was "Pe'tion or death." The club of the Feuillants was 
 closed, the companies of grenadiers and chasseurs of the na- 
 tional guard were broken, the Swiss troops and the regiments 
 of the line removed, and all things were tending towards a 
 catastrophe. 
 
 Meantime, the enemy was in motion. The duke of Bruns- 
 wick, preceded by a threatening manifesto, was advancing at 
 the head of seventy thousand Prussians and sixty-eight thou- 
 sand Austrians, Hessians, and emigrants. The manifesto in 
 question fulminated fearful menaces against Paris, and all other 
 towns which should have the audacity to defend themselves.
 
 INSURRECTION OF THE 10th OF AUGUST. 527 
 
 It excited everywhere the indignation of the populace, and pro- 
 duced a general rising. In Paris, the popular party was de- 
 sirous at once to annul the king's authority. Robespierre, 
 Danton, Camille Desraoulins, Fabre d'Eglantine, and the infa- 
 mous Marat, harangued the multitude and inflamed its madness. 
 On the 3d of August, the mayor Petion presented himself be- 
 fore the assembly, and, in the name of the city and the sections, 
 demanded the deposition of the king. The petition was re- 
 ferred to a committee of twelve members, and a few days 
 afterwards the question of sending La Fayette for trial was 
 discussed. He escaped by a small majority, and the people 
 hooted and maltreated those who had voted in his favour. 
 Scenes of disorder were daily multiplied, and the insurgents 
 fixed the morning of the 10th of August for an attack on the 
 palace. 
 
 The faubourg Saint-Antoine, whither the Jacobins repaired 
 in procession, was the centre of the insurrection ; and there it 
 was determined to leave Pe'tion behind, for the purpose of re- 
 lieving him from all responsibility, and to substitute an insur- 
 rectionary municipality for the council of the commune. At 
 the same time, the agitators spread themselves through the 
 barracks of the confederated Marseillois and Bretons. In- 
 formed of these alarming preparations, the court had put the 
 chateau in a state of defence. The interior was guarded by 
 eight or nine hundred Swiss, and by a body of gentlemen armed 
 with swords and pistols. Several battalions of national guards, 
 and, among others, those of the Filles- Saint- Thomas and the 
 Petits-Peres, distinguished for their royalist sentiments, occu- 
 pied the courts and external posts ; but a fatal event disturbed 
 their resolution. Mandat, their commandant-general, was sum- 
 moned before the new council of the commune to give an ac- 
 count of his conduct, and butchered by the mob on the steps of 
 the Hotel de Ville. Santerre was immediately invested with 
 the command of the national guard ; and the court found itself 
 thus deprived of its firmest and most influential defender. The 
 insurgents, animated by the terrible Danton, advanced in seve- 
 ral columns and pointed their cannon against the chateau. The 
 king, overwhelmed with grief, took a review of his defenders ; 
 but even in the ranks of the national guard the cries of Vive le 
 roi ! were drowned amid those of Vive Petion ! — d has le veto !
 
 528 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 — d has le traltre ! The procureur syndic, Rocderer, advanced 
 towards the insurgents, and read to them that article of the law 
 which enjoined the repelling of force by force ; but he was fee- 
 bly seconded by the national guard, and the insurgents drew 
 fresh daring from that fact. Then Roederer returned into the 
 chateau, and declared to the royal family that there was no 
 longer safety for them but in the bosom of the legislative as- 
 sembly. " Let us go, sire," said the queen, presenting him 
 with a pistol, "the moment to show yourself has arrived." 
 Louis made no answer ; but, after a few moments, he gave the 
 signal for departure, and repaired to the hall of the assembly 
 amid the insults and clamours of the populace. Vergniaud 
 presided over the chamber, and the king placed himself by his 
 side ; but Chabot having reminded the assembly that they 
 could not deliberate in the presence of the king, Louis and his 
 family withdrew behind the president into the obscure box of 
 the logographe, (short-hand writer.) 
 
 The cause of the contest had ceased to exist since the king's 
 departure for the assembly; yet it continued, nevertheless, to 
 rage furiously between the Swiss and the assailants, of whom 
 the Marseillois and Bretons formed the advanced guard. The 
 attack was directed by the daring Westermann, formerly a sub- 
 altern adjutant. The Swiss, whom their first fire had rendered 
 masters of the Carousel, were soon driven back by the multi- 
 tude and cut to pieces. This was the last day of the monarchy. 
 The new municipality came before the assembly to demand the 
 recognition of its powers, preceded by three banners, on which 
 were inscribed the words patrie, liberte, egalite, (our country, 
 liberty, equality;) and concluded its address by demanding the 
 Icing's deposition and a national convention. Vergniaud re- 
 plied by proposing the convocation of an assembly extraordi- 
 nary, the dismissal of the ministers, and the suspension of the 
 royal office. These measures were approved : the Girondin 
 ministers were recalled, Louis XVI. was conducted to the Tem- 
 ple, and the 23d of September was fixed for the opening of the 
 assembly, which was to decide on the destinies of the nation. 
 From that moment the revolutionary movement was directed 
 rather to the maintenance of the public safety than the promo- 
 tion of liberty ; and La Fayette perceived that such was its 
 future mission, after having himself made incredible efforts for
 
 THE TEMPLE. 
 
 C7 
 
 2U
 
 FLIGHT OF LA FAYETTE. 
 
 531 
 
 the re-establishment of the constitutional monarchy. The ene- 
 my's army was approaching, and the country was menaced by 
 civil war. Under these circumstances, La Fayette could not 
 hesitate between the resignation of his command and the chance 
 of provoking internal strife. He abandoned his army, accom- 
 panied by Bureau de Pusy, Latour-Maubourg, and Alexandre 
 de Lameth, and passed the frontier. Recognised by the Aus- 
 trian posts, he was arrested and imprisoned by the emperor, 
 first at Magdeburg, and afterward at Olmutz, in defiance of the 
 law of nations. There he exhibited a noble courage during 
 four years of cruel captivity. His release was made conditional, 
 on certain retractations which were required from him ; and 
 he chose rather to remain in fetters than abjure the cause to 
 which he had dedicated his fortune and life.
 
 532 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE REIGN OF TER- 
 ROR — SEPTEMBER MASSACRES — BATTLE 
 OF VALMY. 
 
 N Paris, the victor party 
 of the 10th of August 
 proceeded to the establish- 
 ment of its authority, by 
 the most violent measures. 
 It caused all the statues 
 of the kings to be thrown 
 down, abrogated the de- 
 partmental directory, and 
 abolished the qualifica- 
 tions required by law for 
 the citizen franchise — 
 thereby opening up to the 
 multitude an unrestricted 
 access into the government. Finally, the same party de- 
 manded from the assembly the establishment of an extraordi- 
 nary tribunal for the trial of those whom it called the conspi- 
 rators of the 10th of August. The required tribunal was 
 established ; but its administration of justice seemed too tardy 
 to the savage crowd, which obeyed the inspirations of Marat, 
 Panis, Sergent, Jourdeuil, Collot-d'Herbois, Billaud-Varennes, 
 and Tallien, and was, above all, swayed by the turbulent and 
 terrible Danton, recently appointed to the ministry of justice, 
 and named the Mirabeau of the mob. 
 
 The Prussians, supported by thirty-six thousand Austrians 
 and ten thousand Hessians, menaced the northern frontier ; and 
 six thousand French emigrants, under the prince de Conde", 
 marched, in co-operation with them, against France. The 
 army of Sedan was without a leader, and the foreign invasion
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE REIGN OF TERROR. 533 
 
 rapidly advanced. Longwy, invested by the invaders, capitu- 
 lated, Verdun was bombarded, and the road from that place to 
 Paris was open. Terror reigned in the capital, and in the ex- 
 ecutive council the question of retiring beyond the Loire was 
 debated. Danton, however, contended that France was Paris, 
 and there they must maintain themselves at all risks and what- 
 ever cost. He concluded his address by these portentous words : 
 " My advice is, that, for the purpose of confounding the agi- 
 tators and arresting the enemy, it behooves us to strike terror 
 into the royalists." 
 
 Accordingly, numerous arrests were immediately ordered, the 
 prisoners being selected from the dissentient classes of the no- 
 bles and clergy. Regiments were marched to the frontier, the 
 drums beat to arms, and cannon were fired. The news of the 
 taking of Verdun reached Paris in the night between the 1st 
 and 2d of September, and spread dismay throughout the capi- 
 tal. The populace seized upon this moment for the accomplish- 
 ment of its execrable projects : the tocsin was sounded, the 
 barriers closed, and the massacres of the prisons commenced. 
 During three days, the unhappy nobles and priests recently 
 consigned to the Abbaye, the Conciergerie, the Carmes, and 
 the Force, were slaughtered by three hundred murderers, amid 
 a hideous parody of judicial forms. On the part of the vic- 
 tims, traits of noble resignation and the most heroic devotion, 
 and on that of the butchers, acts of atrocious madness were 
 multiplied through all that fearful time. Skilful in the inven- 
 tion of tortures for those even whom their hands could not 
 reach, they enacted their horrible saturnalia beneath the walls 
 of the Temple itself — presenting to the eyes of the queen, at 
 the windows of that royal prison, the bleeding head of her 
 friend, the unfortunate princess de Lamballe. The assembly 
 would have put a stop to these massacres, but wanted the power. 
 The mayor Petion was suspended from his functions, the good 
 among the citizens were terror-struck, and the mob reigned 
 supreme in Paris. These dreadful scenes did irreparable in- 
 jury to the revolutionary cause, and their punishment returned 
 at last on the heads of their ferocious authors. 
 
 The Prussians continued to advance ; and Dumouriez, who 
 had been appointed to the command of the army on the Moselle, 
 threw himself, by an inspiration of genius, into the forest of 
 
 2c2
 
 534 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Argonne, the only position in which he could arrest the march 
 of the enemy. There, he established the main body of his army 
 at Grand-Pre* and Les Islettes, and wrote as follows to the as- 
 sembly : — " I am waiting for the Prussians. The camp of 
 Grand-Prd and that of Les Islettes are the Thermopylae of 
 France; but I shall be more fortunate than Leonidas." The 
 Prussians were, in fact, compelled to suspend their march ; but 
 a fault committed by Dumouriez compelled him to abandon his 
 position and fall back on the camp of Sainte-Menehould, where 
 he concentrated his forces and awaited the reinforcements which 
 Beurnonville and Kellermann were leading towards him. His 
 army amounted to seventy thousand men. On the 20th of 
 September, the Prussians attacked Kellermann, at Valmy, with 
 the intention of cutting off the retreat of the French army. 
 The action was confined to a sharp cannonade, which was pro- 
 longed until the evening, and the honour of the day remained 
 with the French. This first success, unimportant as it was in 
 other respects, animated the republican army and gave it confi- 
 dence in itself, at the same time that it surprised the enemy, to 
 whom the emigrants had spoken of this invading campaign as 
 of a mere military promenade. The duke of Brunswick was 
 without magazines, and the season was growing unfavourable. 
 He offered to retire, on condition that the French should re- 
 store the constitutional king to his throne. The executive 
 council replied " that the French republic could listen to no pro- 
 position until the Prussian troops should have evacuated the 
 territory of France." Brunswick thereupon ordered a retreat, 
 which was commenced on the 30th of September. The French 
 re-entered Verdun and Longwy, and the enemy repassed the 
 Rhine at Coblentz. The campaign had been marked, likewise, 
 by other successes at different points. On the Rhine, Custine 
 had possessed himself of Treves, Spires, and Mayence ; Mon- 
 tesquiou had invaded Savoy, and Anselme the county of Nice. 
 Everywhere the French armies had resumed the offensive, and 
 the revolution was triumphant.
 
 THE NATIONAL CONVENTION. 
 
 535 
 
 ROBESPIERRE AND DANTON. 
 
 THE NATIONAL CONVENTION. 
 
 HE first act of the new as- 
 sembly, which assumed the 
 title of the National Con- 
 vention, was to abolish roy- 
 alty and proclaim the repub- 
 lic ; its next, to declare that 
 it would date from the year 
 I. of the French republic. 
 These measures were voted 
 by unanimous acclamation ; but a short time only had elapsed 
 ere the two parties who, towards its close, had divided the legis- 
 lative assembly, recommenced a furious contest, the issue of 
 which was fatal to both. The parties in question were that of 
 the Girondins, who sat on the right of the assembly, and that 
 of the Mountain, who occupied the upper part of the left, from 
 which position they derived the name by which they were de- 
 signated. The first of these, respectable alike by their intelli- 
 gence and the uprightness of their intentions, were sincerely 
 republicans ; but, in the volcanic condition at which the nation 
 had arrived, their disgust for the multitude and their repug- 
 nance towards all violent measures placed them in a false po-
 
 536 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 sition, and they had lost the confidence of the constitutionalists 
 ■without acquiring that of the democrats. The Mountain party, 
 less enlightened and less eloquent than the Girondins, were 
 more consistent, more decided, and nowise scrupulous in the 
 choice of means. The extreme of democracy appeared to them 
 the best of possible governments, and their principal leaders 
 •were Danton, Robespierre, and Marat. The latter two of these, 
 in particular, were objects of hatred to the Girondins. Robes- 
 pierre, moderately endowed with talents, but devoured by envy 
 and ambition, had hitherto kept himself aloof, always declaring, 
 whether in the constituent assembly, in the Jacobin club, which he 
 ruled, or in the convention, against those who, by turns, had ob- 
 tained the ascendency in each. He aimed at the highest place 
 for himself; and, associating the cause of his own vanity with the 
 passions of the populace, he triumphed over all superiority by 
 branding it with the names, at that time odious, of aristocracy 
 and privilege. He imposed on the multitude by an austere life 
 and the externals of patriotism, and won its affections by lavish- 
 ing on it the wealth and blood of the vanquished. Marat, a 
 furious fanatic, had made himself the avowed apostle of murder 
 in his discourses and in his infamous journal, U Ami du Peuple, 
 (The Friend of the People.) He advocated a dictatorship to 
 combat the enemies of the revolution, and extermination in 
 the mass for their removal. These two leaders, worthy the one 
 of the other, left far behind them Danton and his partisans, 
 who, in the career of murder, would have paused at the massa- 
 cres of September. In the assembly, the Girondins prevailed 
 over their rivals, and they had the departments in their favour ; 
 but the terrible commune of Paris was devoted to the Montag- 
 nards, who, by its means, directed the insurrections ; by that 
 of the Jacobins, the public mind, and, finally, the sections and 
 the faubourgs by the aid of the sans-culottes. A third party, 
 but without decided opinions and without system, fluctuated be- 
 tween the two others, and was known as the party of the Plain, 
 or of the Marais. It was made up of men for the most part 
 well-intentioned, but wanting in firmness. So long as they had 
 nothing to apprehend for themselves, they voted for the Gi- 
 ronde, and kept it in a majority ; but fear finally flung them 
 into the ranks of the opposing party. 
 
 The Girondins, and, among others, the spirited Barbaroux,
 
 THE NATIONAL CONVENTION. 537 
 
 chief of the Marseille-is, accused Robespierre of aiming at a 
 tyranny ; but this accusation, ill sustained, recoiled upon Ma- 
 rat, who was the daily panegyrist of murder. The latter sought 
 to clear himself from the charge, but his appearance in the 
 tribune excited a movement of horror ; and, when this fearful 
 man calmly exclaimed, " I have, in this assembly, many per- 
 sonal enemies," "All, all !" was the general cry. This attack, 
 however, had, notwithstanding, no result ; but a few days later 
 it was resumed against Robespierre. " No one," said the latter, 
 "dares accuse me to my face." " I dare !" exclaimed Louvet, 
 and, rushing to the tribune, he overwhelmed Robespierre by a. 
 brilliant and vigorous denunciation, prefacing each new enume- 
 ration of a grievance by the emphatic formula, " Robespierre, 
 /accuse thee." The future tyrant would have been conquered 
 on that very day, but he asked and obtained a week to prepare 
 his defence, and the dispute was terminated by the order of the 
 day. Thus it was that the Girondins contributed to swell, by 
 their attacks, the importance of their adversaries, not perceiv- 
 ing that they must conquer and crush them, or perish them- 
 selves. Powerless against the citizens, they abandoned, in ad- 
 dition, the club of the Jacobins to their enemies, and irritated 
 the populace of Paris by demanding that the guard of the as- 
 sembly should be composed of a body drawn from the depart- 
 ments. From this circumstance, they acquired the name of 
 Federalists, with the reproach of seeking to arm the provinces 
 against the capital ; while the Mountain party procured a decree 
 declaratory of the unity and indivisibility of the republic. 
 
 08
 
 538 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. 
 
 HE French arms were triumphant 
 in Belgium, where, on the 6th 
 of November, Dumouriez gained 
 the celebrated victory of Jem- 
 mapes over the Austrians, near 
 Mons. On the 14th, he entered 
 Brussels, while his generals took 
 possession of Namur and Ant- 
 1 werp. The Austrians were 
 ja- driven back beyond the Boer, 
 and all Belgium was subdued. 
 £ 5^ From that time began the dis- 
 SJC_ sensions between the conqueror 
 Dumouriez and the Jacobins. 
 These latter pounced upon the 
 conquered provinces as their prey. The Flemings had received 
 the French enthusiastically, as liberators ; but the Jacobins 
 soon estranged them by oppressing them with extortions, and 
 delivering them over to an odious state of anarchy. Indignant 
 at their proceedings, Dumouriez repaired to Paris, with the two- 
 fold object of repressing their violence and saving Louis XVI. 
 His efforts, however, in the one cause and the other, were alike 
 powerless. 
 
 For the last four months, the unfortunate monarch had lan- 
 guished in the tower of the Temple, with the queen, Madame 
 Elizabeth, his sister, an angel of gentleness and goodness, and 
 his two children, dividing his hours betwixt the care of their 
 education and reading. The city exercised a cruel surveillance 
 over its captives, and laboured, by overwhelming them with 
 mortifications, to prepare them for the frightful catastrophe 
 which awaited them. The discussion on the trial of the king 
 was opened in the convention on the 13th of November, and
 
 TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. 539 
 
 the principal charges against him arose out of papers found at 
 the Tuileries in an iron chest, the secret of which had been re- 
 vealed to the minister Roland. Therein were discovered all 
 the plottings and intrigues of the court against the revolution, 
 as well as the arrangements with Mirabeau and the general 
 Bouille\ Other papers, too, found in the office of the civil list, 
 seemed to establish the fact that Louis XVI. had not been alto- 
 gether a stranger to the movements negotiated in Europe in his 
 favour. As king, however, the constitution had declared him 
 inviolable ; besides, he was deposed, and could not, but in defi- 
 ance of every law, be condemned for acts anterior to his depo- 
 sition. The Montagnards themselves felt all the illegality of 
 the proceedings directed against him. Robespierre, in demand- 
 ing his death, repudiated all forms as fictions, and relied, as 
 did Saint-Just, solely on reasons of state. « What," said the 
 latter, " have not good citizens and true friends of liberty to 
 fear, when they see the axe tremble in your hands, and a peo- 
 ple, in the very dawn of its freedom, respecting the memory of 
 its chains ?" The Mountain party, in earnestly labouring for 
 the condemnation of the king, had a further object than the 
 single one of punishing him. They were anxious to crush the 
 Gironde, which had openly manifested a desire to save him, and 
 to arrive at power by prolonging the revolutionary movement 
 through the means of this frightful coup d'etat. The large 
 majority of the assembly persisted in the determination to sub- 
 mit this great process to judicial forms ; and Louis XVI., who 
 had already been separated from his family, appeared as a cul- 
 prit before the convention, whose jurisdiction he did not chal- 
 lenge. His countenance was firm and noble ; his answers were 
 precise, touching, and almost always triumphant. Conducted 
 back to the Temple, he demanded a defender, and named Tar- 
 get and Tronchet. The first of these refused the office, and the 
 venerable Malesherbes offered himself in his place, and wrote 
 to the convention in these memorable words: "Twice have I 
 been called to the councils of him who was my master, in the 
 days when that function was an object of ambition to all men. 
 I owe him the same service, now that it is one which many find 
 dangerous." His request, which was granted, deeply affected 
 Louis XVI. When he appeared before him, the monarch 
 pressed him in his arms, and said, with tears in his eyes, "You
 
 540 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 expose your own life, and will not save mine." Tronchet and 
 Malesherbes immediately set about the preparation of the king's 
 defence, and associated with themselves M. de Seze, by whom 
 it was pronounced, and who concluded his pathetic pleading by 
 these true and solemn words : "Placed on the throne at twenty 
 years of age, Louis carried thither the example of morality, 
 justice, and economy. He brought with him no weakness, and 
 no corrupt passions. He was the unvarying friend of his peo- 
 ple. That people desired the destruction of a burdensome im- 
 post, and Louis destroyed it ; the people desired the abolition 
 of servitude, and Louis abolished it ; the people solicited re- 
 forms, and Louis gave them ; the people sought to alter its laws, 
 the king consented; the people desired that their alienated 
 rights should be restored to millions of Frenchmen, and Louis 
 restored them ; the people sighed for liberty, and the king be- 
 stowed it. The glory cannot be denied to Louis of having even 
 anticipated the wishes of his people in his sacrifices, and yet he 
 
 it is whom you are asked to . Citizens, I dare not speak 
 
 it ! I pause before the majesty of history. Remember that 
 history shall hereafter judge your judgment of to-day, and that 
 the judgment of history will be that of ages !" But the pas- 
 sions of the judges were blind and implacable ; a unanimous 
 vote declared Louis guilty, and the appeal to the people which 
 the Girondins demanded was refused. 
 
 It only now remained to decide what punishment should be 
 inflicted. The ferment in Paris was at its height ; a furious 
 multitude surrounded the door of the assembly, denouncing 
 frightful menaces against all who should incline to mercy. At 
 length, after forty hours of nominal deliberation, the president 
 Vergniaud announced the result of the votes. Out of one hun- 
 dred and twenty-one, there was a majority of twenty-six for 
 death. Malesherbes endeavoured to address the assembly, but 
 his voice was choked by sobs. A respite was demanded, but 
 in vain; and the fatal sentence was pronounced. Louis had 
 one last and heartrending interview with his family after his 
 condemnation, and then prepared himself for death. He slept 
 calmly, received the offices of the church, and confided his last 
 wishes to his faithful and only remaining servant, Cle'ry. 
 Shortly afterwards, Santerre arrived, and Louis went forth to 
 execution. He ascended the scaffold with a firm step, and on
 
 TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. 
 
 541 
 
 his knees received the benediction of the priest, who thus ad- 
 dressed him: "Son of Saint Louis, ascend to heaven!" He 
 then suffered his hands to be tied, and turned to the multitude. 
 " I die innocent," he said; « I forgive my foes; and for you, 
 oh ! wretched people" — ! Here his voice was drowned in the 
 roll of the drums, the executioners seized him, and in another 
 instant he had ceased to live. Thus perished, on the 21st of 
 January, 1793, after a reign of seventeen years, one of those 
 kings who have most illustrated the throne by their virtues. 
 He had the honesty of intention necessary for originating re- 
 forms, but wanted the strength of character necessary for their 
 enforcement — the firmness which might have enabled him to 
 direct the revolution and bring it to a favourable issue. 
 
 2 V
 
 542 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 VENDEAN WAR— DESERTION OF DUMOURIEZ. 
 
 FTER the outrage of the 21st of 
 January, indignant Europe flew to 
 arms with one accord. From that 
 moment, the revolution reckoned 
 as its declared enemies England, 
 Holland, Spain, the whole of the 
 Germanic confederation, Bavaria, 
 Swabia, the elector Palatine, Na- 
 ples, and the Holy See, and after- 
 ward Russia. Almost at the same 
 time, too, La Vende'e assumed a 
 menacing and formidable aspect. 
 France had to contend, besides her enemies at home, against 
 three hundred and fifty thousand of the best troops in Europe, 
 who were advancing upon all the frontiers of the republic. To 
 meet dangers so alarming, Danton and the Mountain party, who 
 had adopted him as their chief, by their discourses and by 
 means of insurrections, aroused the enthusiasm and fanaticism 
 of the populace in the names of liberty, equality, and frater- 
 nity, and kept it in that perpetual condition of violent crisis 
 that they might be enabled to dispose of its passions and its 
 madness. Danton it was who founded the despotism of the 
 multitude, under the name of revolutionary government. A 
 levy of three hundred thousand men was ordered, and a tribu- 
 nal extraordinary created, consisting of nine members, commis- 
 sioned to punish the domestic enemies of the revolution, and 
 whose decrees were to be without appeal. The Girondins con- 
 tended against an institution at once so arbitrary and so formi- 
 dable ; but their resistance was in vain. Stigmatized with the 
 titles of intriguers and foes to the people, already was their 
 destruction determined on. Marat and Robespierre incited the
 
 VENDEAN WAR. 543 
 
 multitude to the extremes of violence against that party, and a 
 project for assassinating the entire body, in a nocturnal insur- 
 rection, was formed by the Jacobins and Cordeliers, which, 
 however, miscarried. On the following day,Vergniaud ascended 
 the tribune, and there denounced these murderous designs. 
 "Our march," said he, "is from crime to amnesty, and from 
 amnesty to crime. A majority of our citizens have arrived at 
 the point of confounding the insurrections of sedition with the 
 great insurrection of freedom, and mistaking the outrages of 
 brigands for the explosions of ardent souls ! Citizens, it is but 
 too greatly to be feared that the revolution, like Saturn, will 
 devour all her children, one after the other, and nourish only 
 despotism, with the multitude of calamities which follow in its 
 train." Prophetic, but fruitless warnings ! The insurrection 
 of La Vendue redoubled the daring of the Jacobins. Already 
 partial troubles had broken out in that portion of Brittany and 
 Poitou, nearly covered, as it was, with woods, without roads or 
 commerce, and w^ere the absence of trade, by preventing the 
 development of the middling classes, closed up the avenues to 
 knowledge. There the ancient manners had been preserved, 
 accompanied by the prejudices and customs of feudalism ; and 
 there the rural population still remained submissive to their 
 priests and nobles. These latter had not followed the tide of 
 emigration. The requisition of three hundred thousand men 
 was followed by the breaking forth of the insurrection gene- 
 rally throughout La Vendue. Its first leaders were the wagoner 
 Cathelineau, Charette, a naval officer, and the gamekeeper Stof- 
 flet. Nine hundred communes rose at the sound of the tocsin, 
 and the principal nobles, Bonchamps, Lescure, Laroche-Jacque- 
 lin, D'Elbde, and Talmont joined the insurgents, and eagerly 
 seconded the movement. They defeated the troops of the line 
 and battalions of the national guard which marched against 
 them. All things, in fact, yielded before the passionate intre- 
 pidity of the Vendean peasants. Without arms, they seized 
 on the artillery by precipitating themselves upon the cannon 
 which mowed them down. One after the other, the republican 
 generals, Marcd, Gauvilliers, Que'tineau, and Ligonnier were 
 overthrown. The victorious Vendeans, masters of several 
 strongholds, formed three corps of from ten to twelve thousand 
 men each. The first of these, under Bonchamps, occupied the
 
 544 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 banks of the Loire, and was called the army of Anjou ; the 
 second, under D'Elbde, occupied the centre, and was distin- 
 guished as the grand army; und the third formed the army 
 called that of the Marais, under Charette, and occupied the 
 lower Vendde. A council of operations was established, and 
 Cathelineau proclaimed generalissimo. This formidable revolt 
 provoked from the convention measures still more rigorous 
 against the priests and nobles. All who joined any assembly 
 were outlawed, the property of emigrants was confiscated, and 
 the revolutionary tribunal entered on its terrible functions. 
 Another enemy likewise declared himself about this time. Du- 
 mouriez, after an unsuccessful invasion of Holland, had lost the 
 battle of Nerwinde against the prince of Coburg, commander- 
 in-chief of the Austrian army, and been compelled to evacuate 
 Belgium. Long at open war with the Jacobins, he had con- 
 templated their overthrow and the restoration of the constitu- 
 tional monarchy. After his defeat at Nerwinde, finding himself 
 more than ever exposed to their furious attacks, he meditated a 
 desertion from the cause of the republic, and formed the pro- 
 ject of marching upon Paris in concert with the Austrians. It 
 is to be presumed that his design was to cause the young due 
 de Chartres (then in his camp, and who had distinguished him- 
 self at Valmy and Jemmapes) to be crowned. He offered to 
 the Austrians several strongholds, as a guarantee of his inten- 
 tions ; but he failed in the attempt to get possession of these 
 places, and at the same time completed his own exposure to the 
 convention. That body, informed of his designs, summoned 
 him to appear instantly at its bar, and, on his refusal, sent the 
 minister of war, Beurnonville, and four deputies, Camus, Qui- 
 nette, Lamarque, and Bancal, commissioned to bring him before 
 them, or arrest him in the midst of his army. Dumouriez de- 
 livered them up to the Austrians ; but he had reckoned too 
 confidently on the affection of his troops. The republican en- 
 thusiasm took possession of them, and Dumouriez found him- 
 self abandoned. He had then no other resource than to pass 
 over to the camp of the Austrians.
 
 FALL OF THE GIRONDINS. 
 
 545 
 
 FALL OF THE GIRONDINS. 
 
 |HE Girondins had been as 
 earnest as the Mountain par- 
 ty in their condemnation of 
 Dumouriez. They were, ne- 
 vertheless, accused of being 
 his accomplices ;. and Verg- 
 niaud, Brissot, Guadct, Gen- 
 sonney and Pe'tion became 
 the special objects of the 
 atrocious persecutions of 
 Robespierre and Marat. For 
 one moment, they assumed 
 an attitude of energy ; and 
 denounced Marat before the revolutionary tribunal. He was 
 acquitted, however, and carried in triumph into the assembly ; 
 and, from that day, the sans-culottes occupied the avenues and 
 galleries of the chamber. Guadet proposed vigorous measures 
 for releasing the assembly from the tyranny of the Jacobins and 
 the citizens, — such, for example, as the abolition of the muni- 
 cipal body, and the removal of the convention to Bourges. 
 Barrere, however, procured the adoption of a middle course ; 
 and the assembly created a committee of twelve members, com- 
 missioned to watch the proceedings of the municipal body, and 
 to arrest the authors of plots against the national representation. 
 A war of extermination, which finally proved fatal to the Gi- 
 ronde, immediately sprang up between it and the municipality. 
 The commission of Twelve, in the first instance, spread terror 
 through that body, by the arrest of the infamous Hubert, the 
 author of the execrable pamphlet of the Pere Duchesne, whom 
 they seized in the very midst of the municipality. The Jaco- 
 bins, the Cordeliers, and the sections declared their sittings 
 permanent, and organized a formidable insurrection, under the 
 
 69 
 
 \2
 
 546 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 direction of Danton. An immense multitude marched to the 
 assembly ; where their deputies, being admitted, boldly de- 
 manded the release of Ilebert, and the dissolution of the 
 Twelve. The Girondins resisted ; but the Montagnards and 
 the sans-adottes in the galleries broke out into vociferations and 
 menaces against them. The sitting -was prolonged, amid fear- 
 ful disorder ; and at length, amid darkness, shouts, and tumult, 
 the petitioners, confounded with the Montagnards on the same 
 benches, passed a vote for the suppression of the Twelve, and 
 the enlargement of the prisoners. This decree was revoked on 
 the following day ; and the corporation, the Jacobins, and the 
 sections renewed their agitation. Robespierre, Marat, Danton, 
 Chaumette, and Pache, the mayor of Paris, combined to con- 
 duct this second insurrection, which was more formidable than 
 that which preceded it. Henriot commanded the armed force ; 
 and forty sous a day were promised to each of the sans-culottes, 
 for so long as they should continue under arms. Alarm-guns 
 were fired, the tocsin was sounded, and the insurgents marched 
 against the convention. The Tuileries, where that body sat, 
 was blockaded, and all free deliberation rendered impossible. 
 Barrere, therefore, and the committee of public safety, with 
 whom the committee of Twelve had originated, demanded its 
 suppression, which was definitively decreed. This was enough 
 for Danton ; but not for Robespierre, Marat, and the corpora- 
 tion. "We must not," said a Jacobin deputy, " suffer the people 
 to cool." Henriot placed the armed force which he commanded 
 at the disposal of the club, and the arrest of the Girondin de- 
 puties was determined on. Marat himself sounded the tocsin, — 
 Henriot commanded the movement, — and, on the 2d of June, 
 eighty thousand armed men surrounded the convention. The 
 intrepid Lanjuinais flew to the tribune, interrupted by furious 
 vociferations, and denounced the projects of the factious. 
 "Paris is pure," he cried, "but Paris is misled and oppressed 
 by tyrants who thirst for blood, and long for power." He con- 
 cluded by proposing that all the revolutionary authorities of 
 the capital should be dissolved. The insurgent petitioners en- 
 tered the hall, at this moment, and demanded his arrest and 
 that of his colleagues. A violent debate ensued, and was pro- 
 ceeding, when the deputy Lacroix rushed into the chamber, 
 complained of the outrages which he had suffered from the
 
 FALL OP THE GIRONDINS. 
 
 547 
 
 multitude, and declared that the convention was coerced. Even 
 the Montagnards themselves were indignant; and Danton ex- 
 claimed, that it became them to avenge the insult to the national 
 majesty. The convention rose in a body, and set forward, with 
 its president at its head. On the Place du Carrousel, it was met 
 by Henriot, on horseback, and sabre in hand. " What is it that 
 the people demand ?" said the president, Herault de Sechelles ; 
 "the convention is occupied only for its good." "The people 
 have not risen to listen to set phrases," replied Henriot ; » they 
 require that twenty-four of the culprits shall be delivered up to 
 them." "Let us all be delivered up !" exclaimed the deputies. 
 Henriot pointed his cannon against them, — and the convention 
 fell back. Surrounded on all sides, they returned, discouraged, 
 to the hall of session ; the arrest of the proscribed members was 
 no longer opposed by them, and Marat decided, like a dictator, 
 upon their fate. Twenty-four illustrious Girondins were con- 
 fined to their own houses by the assembly, and the appeased 
 multitude dispersed ; but, from that day, the party of the Gi- 
 ronde was broken down, and the convention was no longer free.
 
 548 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 FALL OF DANTON. 
 
 ANTON, and his friends Camille 
 Desmoulins, Philippeaux, Lacroix, 
 Fabre d'Eglantine, and Westermann, 
 sought to restore legal order; and 
 with that view desired to arrest the 
 action of the revolutionary tribunal, to empty 
 the prisons filled with suspected persons, and 
 to dissolve the committees. With this view, 
 Camille Desmoulins, a man full of talent and energy, produced, 
 under the name of the Vieux Cordelier, a journal inveighing 
 against the despotism of the dictators. The most formidable of 
 these was Robespierre; and Camille and his friends endeavoured 
 to gain him over. But Robespierre played them one against 
 the other; and, affecting neutrality between the adverse parties, 
 meditated the overthrow of their chiefs, by each other's means. 
 His colleagues in the committee of public safety were furious 
 against Camille and the Dantonists ; and Robespierre abandoned 
 these latter to them — obtaining from them, in return, the heads 
 of Herbert, Clootz, Chaumette, Ronsin, and the principal anar- 
 chists of the commune. This compact being concluded, he 
 ascended the tribune, and denounced to the convention, as foes 
 to the republic, the ultra-revolutionists, on the one hand, and the 
 Dantonists (whom he designated as the moderes — ' moderates ') 
 on the other. He was followed by Saint-Just, who spoke to the 
 same effect, — thundering against the enemies of virtue and those 
 of the terror government, to which he procured to be given the 
 most extensive powers for the punishment of the parties in question. 
 The anarchists of the commune, Hebert, Clootz, Ronsin, and their 
 accomplices, were first seized and condemned, and most of- them 
 died cowards. The revolutionary army was broken up ; and the 
 convention compelled the commune to appear at its bar, and 
 thank it for the very acts by which the power of the latter body
 
 FALL OF DANTON. 
 
 549 
 
 was annulled. But the time of the Dantonists, too, was come. 
 Representing, as they did, the old Mountain party, their names, 
 especially that of their chief, seemed as yet, all-powerful. 
 Warned of the hostile intentions of his enemies, Danton replied, 
 as did of old the due de Guise, " They dare not !" But the com- 
 mittee rightly reckoned on the terror of the assembly ; and the 
 Dantonists were arrested on the 10th Germinal, (1794.) Robes- 
 pierre prevented their being heard in the assembly. " We will 
 see, this day," he said, " if the convention dares to break down a 
 pretended idol, which has long since fallen into decay, or if that 
 idol, in its overthrow, is to crush the convention and the people 
 of France." Saint- Just read the report against the accused par- 
 ties ; and the assembly, stupified by terror, ordered that they 
 should be sent to trial. Arraigned before the revolutionary 
 tribunal, they distinguished themselves by their boldness, and 
 the scorn which they exhibited towards their judges. On their 
 being condemned, Danton exclaimed: "We are sacrificed tc 
 the ambition of a few dastardly brigands ; but they shall not long 
 enjoy their triumph. I drag after me Robespierre — Robespierre 
 shall follow me." They advanced with firmness to the place of 
 execution, amid a silent multitude. From that moment, no voice 
 was, for some time, raised against the decemvirs ; and the con- 
 vention proclaimed that terror and all the virtues were the order 
 of the day.
 
 550 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 FALL OF ROBESPIERRE. 
 
 |EARIED out and disgusted by the atroci- 
 ties by which the republic was disgraced 
 at home, a certain number of the Moun- 
 tain party resolved to bring them to a 
 close, and to avenge Danton, Camille Des- 
 moulins, and the rest of their slaughtered 
 friends. At the head of these were Tallien, Bourdon de l'Oise, 
 and Legendre. They were supported, in the committee of pub- 
 lic safety, by Billaud-Varennes and Collot d'Herbois, both of 
 whom were jealous of the authority assumed by the triumvirs, 
 and, in that for the general security, by Vadier, Voulant, and 
 Amar, all of whom belonged to the overthrown faction of the 
 commune. Irritated by their obstinate resistance, Robespierre 
 had determined upon crushing and immolating them ; and they 
 felt that they must be beforehand with him, or be his victims. 
 They began by accusing him of tyranny in the committees, and 
 designating him under the name of Pisistratus. Next, they 
 reproached him with a desire to pass himself off for a messen- 
 ger from God, by encouraging certain mysterious assemblies, 
 held by an old Chartreux friar, Don Guerle, and an absurd fana- 
 tic, named Catherine Theot, whom they sent to execution, in 
 spite of his opposition. From that moment, Robespierre sel- 
 dom appeared in the committees, but established the centre of 
 his power in the club of the Jacobins, from whence he denounced 
 those whom he called Dantonists. All-powerful in this body, 
 master of the lower orders, and supported by Fleuriot, the 
 mayor, by Henriot, the commandant of the armed force, and- 
 by the revolutionary tribunal, all the members of which were 
 his creatures, he thought himself strong enough to commence 
 the attack, in the very heart of the convention ; and, on the 
 8th Thermidor, he there denounced the committees. He was
 
 FALL OF ROBESPIERRE. 551 
 
 heard in silence ; and experienced his first check by having his 
 discourse referred to the examination of those same committees 
 whom he had accused. In the evening, he repaired to the 
 Jacobins, and there gave vent to his anger. He was enthusi- 
 astically received ; and, during the night, all things were pre- 
 pared by his party for an insurrection ; while a league was 
 formed, among the conventionalists, between the Dantonists, 
 the party of the right, and the Marais. Under these threat- 
 ening auspices, opened the sitting of the 9th Thermidor. Saint- 
 Just ascended the tribune, in front of which sat Robespierre. 
 He was interrupted by Tallien and Billaud, who commenced 
 the attack. Robespierre rushed forward to reply ; but was 
 met, on all sides, by the cry of — A has le tyran ! Tallien 
 waved in his hand a poniard, with which he threatened to pierce 
 the heart of Robespierre, whom he denounced as another Crom- 
 well! He succeeded in obtaining a decree for the arrest of 
 Henriot, and a declaration of the assembly that its sitting was 
 permanent. Barrere caused it to place itself under the protec- 
 tion of the armed sections. "Now, let us think about the 
 tyrant !" resumed Tallien; while overwhelming cries of menace 
 prevented Robespierre from being heard. He made, however, 
 one final effort: — "President of murderers !" he cried, " for 
 the last time, I ask, will you give me a hearing?" Unable to 
 obtain it, he stormed like a madman, flew from bench to bench 
 of the assembly, and addressed himself, with supplications, to 
 the members of the right, who turned from him with loathing. 
 At length he fell back in his seat, exhausted with fatigue, and 
 foaming at the mouth. "Wretch!" cried a member to him, 
 "the blood of Danton chokes thee !" His arrest was forthwith 
 proposed ; and his brother and Lebas demanded to share his 
 fate. The assembly unanimously ordered that they should be 
 seized, along with Robespierre, Couthon, and Saint-Just ; and 
 delivered them into the hands of the gendarmes. " The re- 
 public," exclaimed Robespierre, "is lost, and the brigands 
 triumph!" The victory, however, was still undecided; the 
 Jacobins had likewise declared themselves permanent, swearing 
 to die rather than live under a reign of crime. The munioipal 
 deputies reparred to their assembly ; and Henriot traversed 
 the streets, sabre in hand, and shouting, " To arms !" He was 
 arrested, however, along with the national agent, Payan, and
 
 552 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 bound with cords. During the day the convention was triumph- 
 ant, and in the evening the insurgents were once more upper- 
 most. They marched in a body on the prisons, and delivered 
 Robespierre, Henriot, and their accomplices. Henriot immedi- 
 ately caused the convention to be surrounded, and pointed the 
 cannon against it. Terror reigned in the assembly ; but the 
 very imminence of the peril inspired them with vigorous reso- 
 lutions. Henriot was outlawed ; his gunners refused to fire, 
 and fell back with him upon the Hotel de Ville. This refusal 
 decided the success of the day. The convention, in its turn, 
 resumed the offensive, attacked the commune, and outlawed its 
 rebel members. Barras was named commander-in-chief of the 
 armed force ; the battalions of the sections swore to defend the 
 assembly, and defiled in the chamber, before it, animated by 
 FreVon. " Set forward!" cried the president, "that day may 
 not dawn ere the heads of the conspirators have fallen." It 
 was midnight when the armed bands marched against the com- 
 mune ; whither Robespierre had been borne in triumph, and 
 where he now sat motionless, and paralyzed by terror. On the 
 Place de Greve the multitude read the proclamation of the 
 assembly, by which the commune was outlawed ; and the terri- 
 fied groups dispersed, leaving the place deserted. The Hotel 
 de Ville was surrounded, amid cries of Vive la convention ! 
 The proscribed parties abandoned themselves to rage and de- 
 spair. Robespierre fractured his own jaw with a blow from a 
 pistol; Lebas killed himself; the younger Robespierre threw 
 himself out from a window of the third story, but survived the 
 fall ; Couthon stabbed himself, with a trembling hand, and 
 without fatal effect ; Coffinhal overwhelmed Henriot with im- 
 precations, and flung him from a window into a drain. The 
 conquerors arrived, and seized their prisoners ; and on the fol- 
 lowing day they were led to execution. An immense multitude 
 crowded around the cart in which Robespierre, his head bound 
 with a bloody cloth, lay betwixt Henriot and Couthon, both 
 mutilated, like himself. The people interchanged congratula- 
 tions and embraces before his eyes ; curses were poured out 
 against him ; and, at the moment when his head fell beneath 
 the knife, long salvos of acclamation arose from the crowd. 
 France breathed afresh — and the reign of terror was at an end.
 
 70 
 
 2 W
 
 BONAPARTE'S FIRST CAMPAIGN IN ITALY. 
 
 555 
 
 BONAPARTE'S FIRST CAMPAIGN IN ITALY. 
 
 IT was in 1796 that Bonaparte, 
 then twenty-six years of age, 
 was achieving the prodigies of 
 his Italian campaign. His first 
 proclamation inflamed the ar- 
 dour of his soldiers, and his 
 words were justified by deeds. 
 The victories of Montenotte 
 and Millesimo were the bril- 
 liant coup d'essai of the young 
 general, powerfully seconded 
 by his lieutenants, Augereau, 
 Serrurier, Massena, La Harpe, 
 Murat, and Joubert. Besides these, he had under his orders 
 Belliard, Berthier, Colonel Rampon, and the illustrious Lannes, 
 then a simple chef de bataillon. All these men were destined 
 to a glorious celebrity. The Austrian generals Beaulieu and 
 Colli retired before Bonaparte, who crossed the Alps and gained 
 the battle of Mondovi, thereby subjecting Piedmont to his arms. 
 Victor Amadeus III. accepted peace from the conqueror, and 
 withdrew from the coalition. All the roads which communi- 
 cated with France were occupied by the troops of the republic.
 
 556 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 BATTLE OF LODI. 
 
 Bonaparte deceived the Austrians by fictitious manoeuvres, 
 passed the Po, and laid the duke of Parma under contribution. 
 He triumphed at Lodi, and at the passage of the Adda, where 
 his grenadiers carried with the bayonet a bridge which was swept 
 by the enemy's guns. From that moment, his army became in- 
 vincible. Beaulieu effected his retreat, abandoning behind him 
 Cremona, Milan, Pavia, Como, and Cassano, — into which places 
 the French entered. Bonaparte received the submission of the 
 town of Genoa, and that of Hercules d'Este, duke of Modena. 
 That prince paid to the French ten millions, and retired to 
 Venice. General Vaubois took possession of Leghorn, where 
 six hundred Corsicans had taken refuge. These Bonaparte sent 
 back to their island, to get up an insurrection against the 
 English; who were, in consequence, expelled thence. The 
 conqueror imposed on the pope, as the conditions of peace, a pay- 
 ment of twenty-one millions, and one hundred master-pieces 
 from his museums. The king of Naples was taxed at six mil- 
 lions. Bonaparte then marched upon Vienna; and the army 
 of the Sambre and Meuse, under Jourdan, and that of the 
 Rhine, under Moreau, moved in the same direction. The arch- 
 duke Charles, the emperor's brother, was commander-in-chief 
 of the Austrian army ; and Moreau began by gaining from him 
 four consecutive victories. He was, then, about to join his 
 forces with those of Jourdan, when, inspired by the danger 
 in which he saw himself placed, the archduke detached thirty
 
 GENERAL HOCHE. 
 
 2w2
 
 BONAPARTE'S FIRST CAMPAIGN IN ITALY. 
 
 559 
 
 BATTLE OF A R COLE. 
 
 thousand men, whom he sent against the advanced guard of 
 Jourdan, overthrew it, cut off the communication between the 
 two armies, and crushed that of the Sambre and Meuse, com- 
 pelling it to fall back, in the greatest disorder, on the point 
 from whence it had set out. He then directed his entire forces 
 against Moreau ; who, master of Ulm and encamped at the 
 gates of Munich, covered an immense ground, and reckoned on 
 the army of Jourdan to maintain himself there. Deprived of 
 this succour, he commanded, and executed an admirable retreat, 
 traversing more than one hundred leagues of country, in pre- 
 sence of a formidable enemy, and in the midst of a hostile popu- 
 lation, and re-entered Friburg, without having suffered his line 
 of march to be once broken. 
 
 Bonaparte, however, continued to triumph over all obstacles, 
 and approached Mantua. He blockaded that place, and en- 
 tered the territory of the city of Venice, which was ruined by 
 its neutrality. Old Wurmser raised the blockade of Mantua ; 
 Bonaparte triumphed in the celebrated battles of Castiglione 
 and Lonato ; but a skilful march brought Wurmser with thirty 
 thousand men into Mantua. Bonaparte turned the place, block- 
 aded it anew, and gained the brilliant victory of Arcole, where 
 he performed prodigies of valour, and exposed himself to great 
 dangers. The victory of Rivoli, (1797,) in which Joubert had
 
 560 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 a great share, followed closely upon that of Arcole ; and the 
 pope, who had, at length, taken up arms at the instigation of 
 Austria, was compelled to give in his submission. Wurmser, 
 pressed by famine in Mantua, determined upon capitulating, 
 and all Europe rang with the name of the conqueror. From 
 that moment, Bonaparte foresaw the great destiny that awaited 
 him, and neglected no means of fortune or fame. In the in- 
 tervals of his battles, he conversed with savants and poets, ex- 
 tolled the republic, and in all things gave evidence of the future 
 ruler. Affable with his lieutenants and soldiers, to the directors 
 he exhibited a haughty reserve, and had, at the same time, the 
 art to make his presence at the head of his triumphant army 
 appear to them indispensable. He availed himself of the popu- 
 lar sympathies against governments ; and transformed Lombardy 
 into a Cisalpine republic, of which Milan became the capital. 
 Numerous reinforcements having reached him from France, he 
 marched again upon Vienna, having Prince Charles in his front. 
 Massena commanded the advanced guard, and immortalized him- 
 self by his victories at Tagliamento and elsewhere. Carinthia 
 and Styria were rapidly subdued ; terror reigned at Vienna; 
 and Bonaparte awaited the movements of the other armies to 
 penetrate further. Hoche commanded that of the Sambre and 
 Meuse ; and Moreau retained that of the Rhine. Their pro- 
 gress was slow ; and Joubert, whom Bonaparte had left behind, 
 with three divisions, for the defence of the Tyrol, Avas beaten 
 by Prince Charles, and compelled to retreat. Informed of this 
 reverse, Bonaparte sent to Vienna to treat for peace; and an 
 armistice was concluded at Leoben. The French general ceded 
 to Austria Mantua and a portion of Venetian Lombardy which 
 he had conquered, in exchange for the Cisalpine republic which 
 he had founded. The directory rejected these preliminaries; 
 and Bonaparte suggested Venice to Austria, as an indemnity 
 for Mantua. The fate of that republic was, accordingly, de- 
 cided. The French emissaries, everywhere, excited the people 
 against the senate ; but at Verona, a city dependent on Venice, 
 the French garrison was slaughtered in a popular revolt. Bona- 
 parte, who sought but a pretext to justify an act of spoliation, 
 inveighed furiously against the Venetian republic, and demanded 
 vengeance for the massacre of Verona. Nothing could appease 
 him ; and General Baraguay d'Hilliers marched against Venice.
 
 BONAPARTE'S FIRST CAMPAIGN IN ITALY. 
 
 563 
 
 Alarmed at his approach, the senate voted a constitution, in the 
 hope of conciliating France, and then dissolved itself. The 
 French entered the city ; and, by the definitive treaty of Campo 
 Formio, delivered it to Austria, in exchange for the Belgic and 
 Lombard states. Mantua was added to the Cisalpine republic ; 
 as were also the Bolognese and Romagna. The congress of 
 Radstadt was opened, at the same time, to treat of peace with 
 the empire. The release of General La Fayette and his three 
 companions in misfortune was one of the articles of the glorious 
 treaty of Campo Formio. All the combined powers, with the 
 exception of England, had laid down their arms ; and France 
 had extended her system in Europe, — a great portion of her 
 frontiers, from the North Sea to the gulf of Genoa, being co- 
 vered by republican states.
 
 564 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SURRENDER OF CAIRO. 
 
 BONAPARTE'S EXPEDITION TO EGYPT. 
 
 HIS expedition appears to have 
 been planned by the French Di- 
 rectory for the purpose of em- 
 ploying their army, and acquiring 
 glory for the republic. The com- 
 mand was given to Napoleon Bo- 
 naparte, who departed from Tou- 
 lon with a fleet of four hundred 
 sail, accompanied by a body of 
 celebrated sava?its, and a portion 
 of the army of Italy. On his 
 way he took possession of the 
 island of Malta, and then made 
 sail for the coast of Egypt. (1798.) 
 
 The expedition to Egypt was a brilliant one. The Mame- 
 lukes, a body of cavalry independent of the Porte, and of sove- 
 reign authority in Egypt, oppressed that unhappy country at 
 the period of Bonaparte's landing, and alone offered a gallant 
 resistance to his arms. In the first conflict, which took place 
 in the village of Chebreissa, Bonaparte was the conqueror ; that 
 victory was closely followed by the brilliant one of the pyra-
 
 BONAPARTE'S EXPEDITION TO EGYPT. 
 
 5G7 
 
 BATTLE OF THE NILE. 
 
 mids ; Cairo opened its gates on the ensuing day ; and Rosetta 
 and Damietta surrendered. Mourad Bey, the chief of the 
 Mamelukes, retired into Upper Egypt ; and there Desaix, 
 despatched in pursuit of him, at once displayed extraordinary 
 talents, and won blessings for his justice and moderation. About 
 the same time the English admiral, Nelson, gave a mortal blow 
 to the navy of France. Admiral Brueys having imprudently 
 anchored the French fleet in the roads of Aboukir, Nelson at- 
 tacked it there, and completely destroyed it. Bonaparte, how- 
 ever, took great pains to gain the affections of the Egyptians, 
 by conforming to their usages, and quoting the Koran as autho- 
 rity for his decrees. He relieved, at the same time, from the 
 hereditary oppression to which they were subjected, the Chris- 
 tians called Cophts, considered to be the descendants of the 
 ancient Egyptians — and founded an institute at Cairo. Then, 
 after having extinguished a formidable revolt, got up in that 
 city against his army by the Ottoman Porte, he quitted the 
 scene of his conquest, for the purpose of undertaking that of 
 Syria, intending from thence to penetrate into India, and there 
 strike the English in one of the sources of their power. His 
 army traversed sixty leagues of burning desert, to march upon 
 Gaza, which opened its gates. Jaffa and Ka'iffa were carried, 
 and Saint- Job n-of- Acre invested. But Bonaparte wanted siege-
 
 568 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 REVOLT OF CAIRO. 
 
 artillery ; and made seventeen furious but fruitless assaults upon 
 this place, defended by the joint talents of the French engineer 
 Phelippeaux, and the English commodore, Sir Sidney Smith. 
 His army -was surrounded by the Turks ; but they were defeated 
 
 SIEGE OF ACRE. 
 
 at Nazareth, by Junot : and Bonaparte, assisted by Kle'ber and 
 Murat, gained the celebrated battle of Mount Tabor. After 
 this victory, he raised the siege of Acre, and returned to Cairo ; 
 where he learned, by the journals, the events of the 30th Prai- 
 rial, and the disturbed situation of the republic. Anarchy
 
 72 
 
 2x2
 
 BONAPARTE'S EXPEDITION TO EGYPT. 
 
 571 
 
 reigned at home ; a second forced loan had excited the indigna- 
 tion of the middling classes : while the odious law of hostages, 
 which rendered the relatives of emigrants responsible for the 
 outrages committed by the Chouans, once more armed the roy- 
 alists of the west and south against the Directory. Italy, with 
 the exception of Genoa, was lost. Joubert had been killed at 
 the bloody battle of Novi, gained by Suwarrow ; and the allies 
 were advancing on the French frontiers, through Holland and 
 Switzerland, where they were arrested by Brune and Massena. 
 Informed of this state of things and minds, Bonaparte deter- 
 mined to overthrow the directorial government, and to repair at 
 once to France, whither he was preceded by the intelligence of 
 a new and brilliant victory. Eighteen thousand Turks having 
 landed in the bay of Aboukir, Bonaparte, supported by Murat, 
 Lannes, and Bessi^res, fell upon this army and annihilated it. 
 Immediately after this victory he set out, leaving Kleber* in 
 command of the army of Egypt ; crossed the Mediterranean in 
 the frigate Le Murion ; escaped, as by miracle, from the Eng- 
 lish fleet ; and landed in the gulf of Frejus, on the 9th of 
 October, 1799 — a few days after the celebrated victories of Zu- 
 rich and Berghen, gained, the first over the Austrians, by Mas- 
 sena, and the second by General Brune, over the duke of York. 
 
 * Kleber was subsequently assassinated in Egypt. His death took place on 
 the same day, June 14th, 1800, as that of Desaix, at Marengo. 
 
 BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS.
 
 572 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 REVOLUTION OF THE 18th BRUMAIRE. 
 
 IgONAPARTE traversed France 
 as a conqueror, and was received 
 with enthusiasm by the masses of 
 the moderate party in Paris. He 
 now altered his line of conduct. 
 Hitherto he had refrained from 
 ^attaching himself to any system. 
 Affecting great simplicity, and 
 occupying modest apartments in 
 the Rue Chantereine, he saw him- 
 self courted by the heads of each 
 party, and deceived them all. Sieyes dreaded him ; but the sup- 
 port of a military chief was essential to the execution of his de- 
 signs. Bonaparte was in a condition to aid him, and in the end 
 Sieves and he came to an understanding. Their object was to 
 overthrow the constitution ; and with this view the generals, 
 with the exception of Bernadotte, were gained over — as was also 
 the garrison of Paris. On the 18th Brumaire, on the demand 
 of Regnicr, one of the conspirators, the council of the anciens 
 declared that, in virtue of the right which the constitution gave 
 it, it transferred the legislative body to Saint-Cloud, under the 
 pretext that its deliberations would there be more free. Bona- 
 parte was charged with the execution of this measure, and in- 
 vested with the military command of the division of Paris. He 
 immediately attacked the Directory by speeches and by procla- 
 mations. "What," said he, "have you done with that France 
 which I left to you so covered with glory ? I left with you 
 peace, and I return to find war ; — I left victories, and I find
 
 REVOLUTION OF THE 18th BRUMAIRE. 57?, 
 
 but disasters. What have you done with a hundred thousand 
 Frenchmen of my acquaintance — the companions of my fame ? 
 — they are dead." In this manner, while accusing his adver- 
 saries, he contrived to insinuate his own vast importance. On 
 the same day, Sieyes and Roger-Ducos repaired to the Tuileries 
 and laid down their authority. Their three colleagues would 
 have resisted, but their own guard refused obedience to them. 
 Barras, losing all hope, sent in his resignation ; Moulins and 
 Gohier were detained prisoners : and the struggle was now 
 to commence between Bonaparte and the council of the cinq- 
 cents. 
 
 On the 19th Brumaire, the legislative body repaired to Saint- 
 Cloud, accompanied by an imposing armed force. Bonaparte 
 presented himself first before the council of the anciens ; and 
 being summoned to take the constitutional oath, he declared 
 that the constitution was vicious, and the Directory incapable, 
 and appealed to his companions in arms. From thence he 
 repaired to the council of the cinq-cents, which sat in the 
 Orangery, and where the agitation was already at its height. 
 His presence raised a' violent storm: — " Outlaw him ! Down 
 with the dictator !" resounded on every side. Accustomed to 
 brave an enemy's fire, rather than the menaces of a deliberative 
 assembly, Bonaparte grew pale and agitated, and was hurried 
 away by the grenadiers who formed his escort. The tumult 
 continued to rage in the chamber, where Lucien, the brother 
 of Napoleon, presided, and attempted his defence. On all sides 
 the outlawry of the tyrant was loudly called for ; and Lucien, 
 being required to put the question to the vote, quitted the chair, 
 and divested himself of the insignia of the magistracy. Bona- 
 parte had him carried from the hall ; and both brothers, mounting 
 on horseback, harangued the soldiers — one as the conqueror of 
 Italy and Egypt, and the other as president of a factious assem- 
 bly. The enthusiasm of the troops broke loudly forth ; and 
 Bonaparte, addressing them, exclaimed ; — " Soldiers ! can I 
 reckon upon you?" — "Yes! yes!" resounded on all sides; 
 and Bonaparte immediately ordered the council of the cinq- 
 cents to be expelled. A troop of grenadiers entered the hall, 
 under the command of Murat, who said : — " In the name of 
 General Bonaparte, the legislative body is dissolved. Let all 
 good citizens retire ! — Grenadiers, advance !" The shouts of
 
 574 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN niSTORY. 
 
 indignation which arose in answer were drowned in the roll of 
 the drums : the grenadiers advanced, and the deputies fled 
 before them, escaping by the windows, amid cries of Vive la 
 republique ! Freedom of representation was, on that day, at 
 an end ; and of the French republic there now remained nothing 
 but the name.
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF AUSTERLITZ. 
 
 577 
 
 CAMPAIGN OF AUSTERLITZ. 
 
 AD Napoleon, after the peace of 
 Amiens, preferred the interests of 
 France to those of his own ambition, 
 he might have secured to the nation 
 the fruits of twelve years of internal 
 and external struggle, and become the 
 moderator of Europe. But he chose 
 rather to be its sovereign, and, keep- 
 ing his eyes steadily fixed on the great 
 image of Charlemagne, believed that 
 he was himself summoned to the same 
 high destinies. His firs.t object of 
 ambition 'was to add to the title of 
 emperor of the French that of king 
 of Italy; and the representatives of 
 the Cisalpine republic decided that 
 their country should be erected into a 
 kingdom in his favour. Napoleon set out instantly for Milan, 
 where he put on the iron crown of the Lombard kings, and ap- 
 pointed Eugene de Beauharnois, his step-son, viceroy of Italy. 
 The establishment of this kingdom, the annexation to the em- 
 pire of the territory of Genoa and that of Piedmont, and the 
 efforts of the English cabinet, once more directed by Mr. Pitt, 
 revolted Austria, and united that country, England, and Russia, 
 (where the emperor Alexander had succeeded to his murdered 
 father,) in a third coalition against France. Napoleon was at 
 this time at Boulogne, meditating a descent upon England, and 
 preparing a formidable armament for that purpose. On learn- 
 ing that two hundred and twenty thousand Austrians were ad- 
 vancing in three bodies, under the archdukes Ferdinand, John, 
 and Charles, towards the Rhine and Adige, and that two Rus- 
 
 78 
 
 2 Y
 
 578 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CAMP AT BOULOGNE. 
 
 sian armies were in march to join them, he suddenly quitted 
 Boulogne, passed the Rhine on the 1st of October, 1805, at 
 the head of one hundred and sixty thousand men, and advanced 
 into Germany, while Massena arrested Prince Charles in Italy. 
 The Danube was crossed and Bavaria occupied, and Napoleon 
 and his generals vied with each other in boldness and success — 
 Murat triumphing at Vertingen, Dupont at Hasslach, and Ney 
 at Echlingen. Bewildered by such a series of rapid reverses, 
 the Austrian general, Mack, suffered himself to be invested in 
 Ulm, and laid down his arms, with thirty thousand men. This 
 capitulation opened the gates of Vienna to the French, and 
 Napoleon made his entry into that city on the 13th of Novem- 
 ber. From thence he marched into Moravia to meet the Rus- 
 sians, and encountered them with the remains of the Austrian 
 army in the plains of Austerlitz. The battle was fought on the 
 2d of December, the anniversary of his coronation ; and there 
 Napoleon gained the most brilliant of all his victories. The 
 battle of Austerlitz put an end to the third coalition, and was 
 followed, on the 26th of December, by the peace of Presburg. 
 By this treaty the house of Austria ceded the provinces of Dal- 
 matia and Albania to the kingdom of Italy, and a great num- 
 ber of its possessions to the electorates of Bavaria and Wurtem- 
 berg, which were erected into kingdoms. But the year 1805, 
 so fruitful in triumphs for France on the continent, beheld like-
 
 CAMPAIGN OF ATJSTERLITZ. 
 
 581 
 
 wise the complete ruin of her navy. The combined fleets of 
 France and Spain, under the command of Admiral Villeneuve, 
 beaten on the 22d of July at Cape Finisterre, lost on the 21st 
 of October the celebrated battle of Trafalgar. Thirty-two 
 French and Spanish ships were beaten by twenty-eight English 
 sail, under the command of Nelson, and thirteen ships alone of 
 the combined fleet escaped. This great victory, which cost the 
 English admiral his life, secured to England the sovereignty of 
 the seas, and it was no longer on that element that Napoleon 
 attempted to disturb her power. 
 
 DEATH OF NELSON. 
 
 2t2
 
 5*2 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 NAPOLEON. 
 
 INVASION OF SPAIN. 
 
 WEDEN was the only power in the north 
 which, after the treaty of Tilsit, had re- 
 mained in arms. Her feeble monarch, Gus- 
 tavus IV., declared himself the avenger of 
 Europe against Napoleon ; but, abandoned 
 by England and plundered by his former ally, 
 Russia, he saw Stralsund and the Isle of Ru- 
 gen carried off before his eyes, lost Pome- 
 rania, and by his foolish pride alienated from himself the affec- 
 tions of his subjects. The entire shores of the Baltic submitted 
 to the French yoke. England had, some months previously, 
 vainly attempted to subdue the Ottoman Porte, at that time at
 
 INVASION OF SPAIN. 583 
 
 war with Russia and an ally of France. An English fleet, after 
 having with this design passed the Dardanelles, had been beaten 
 back by formidable batteries, hastily thrown up by the French 
 ambassador, Sebastiani. There remained but one single state 
 which acknowledged the direct influence of Great Britain. 
 That state was Portugal, and Napoleon, who, by the decree of 
 the continental blockade, had arrogated to himself the right of 
 disposing, at his own good pleasure, of the destinies of nations, 
 signed at Fontainebleau, on the 27th of September, 1807, an 
 iniquitous treaty with Spain, by which Portugal, in chastisement 
 of her alliance with England, was to be almost entirely shared 
 between the king of Etruria and Godoy, prince of peace, who 
 governed the Spanish monarchy. This treaty acknowledged 
 the king of Spain, Charles IV., as suzerain of the two states 
 formed by the dismemberment of Portugal. A proclamation 
 announced, on the 13th of December, 1807, that the house of 
 Braganza had ceased to reign. Twenty-eight thousand French, 
 under the command of Junot, were charged with the execution 
 of this sentence, and, before their arrival at Lisbon, the prince- 
 regent of Portugal embarked for Brazil, abandoning his capital 
 and his fleet to the invading army. 
 
 This rapid success, and the scandalous dissensions of the 
 royal family of Spain, inflamed the ambition of Napoleon, and 
 accustomed him to look upon the peninsula, in part or in whole, 
 as his conquest. The feeble Charles IV., entirely governed by 
 the queen's favourite, Godoy, had rendered himself contempti- 
 ble in the eyes of all his subjects, of whom Ferdinand, the 
 prince of Asturias, became the idol, as the declared enemy of 
 the obnoxious favourite. Napoleon, at the summit of his for- 
 tune, was an object of admiration and reverence to Charles IV. 
 and his son. Already he had been chosen as the arbiter of 
 their differences, and the prince of Asturias had solicited the 
 honour of an alliance with his family. It was in the emperor's 
 power, by pacific measures, to have exercised a sovereign influ- 
 ence over Spain, and profited, advantageously for his own sys- 
 tem, by the hatred with which a number of maritime disasters 
 had inspired the Spaniards against England. This, however, 
 was not sufficient for his ambition, and, while the eyes of all 
 the royal family of Spain were turned towards him in hope, a 
 French army passed the Pyrenees, under Murat, the grand-
 
 584 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 duke of Berg, and suddenly the news reached Madrid that the 
 strongholds of Barcelona, Figueiras, Pampeluna, and Saint 
 Sebastian were militarily occupied by the French, (a. d. 1808.) 
 Soon afterwards, Napoleon, in contempt of the treaty of Fon- 
 tainebleau, openly demanded the annexation to his. empire of 
 the provinces on the left bank of the Ebro. Charles IV. and 
 the queen were smitten with dismay, and Godoy counselled them 
 to imitate the prince-regent of Portugal, and embark for their 
 dominions in America. His advice was adopted, and prepara- 
 tions were making for their departure ; but Ferdinand opposed 
 the measure, and, summoning the population of Aranjuez to 
 arms, denounced to them, as new treacheries, the dastardly 
 counsels of Godoy. An insurrection was the consequence, in 
 which the troops took part, and which was directed by Ferdi- 
 nand. He caused Godoy to be arrested, kept his father pri- 
 soner, compelled him to abdicate, and then made a triumphal 
 entry into Madrid, in the character of king of the two 
 Spains. On the following day, however, Murat, without await- 
 ing the emperor's orders, entered that capital with his army. 
 Charles IV. protested against his compulsory abdication, and 
 Murat refused to acknowledge the royalty of Ferdinand. 
 "Napoleon, alone," he said, "must decide between the father 
 and son." The emperor came to Bayonne, whither he invited 
 King Charles and his son to repair, that he might pronounce 
 as supreme arbiter of their differences and destinies. They 
 obeyed the summons, and Napoleon, master of their persons, 
 decided for the father, and compelled him to abdicate in his 
 own favour. Charles IV. had the chateau of Compiegne as- 
 signed for his habitation, and his son was held captive in that 
 of Valentjay. Thus was consummated an odious act of usurpa- 
 tion, whose results became fatal to its author, and gave the first 
 blow to his fortune by shaking the stability of his throne. 
 Murat, however, retained possession of Madrid, and, swayed by 
 French influence, the council of Castile was induced to demand, 
 as king of Spain, Napoleon's eldest brother, Joseph. 
 
 An assembly of notables was immediately convened at Bay- 
 onne, at which the emperor organized a junta charged with the 
 provisional government. Joseph yielded up the crown of Na- 
 ples to Joachim Murat, instantly quitted that capital, and 
 arrived at Bayonne on the 7th of June, where he was acknow-
 
 INVASION OF SPAIN. 
 
 585 
 
 JOSEPH BONAPARTE. 
 
 ledged king of Spain by the duke de l'lnfantado, and a depu- 
 tation of the grandees and different bodies of the state. The 
 assembly of Bayonne voted a constitution, to which Joseph 
 swore, and on the 9th of July he was in march for Spain. But 
 already the Spaniards, indignant and furious at the usurpation, 
 had flown to arms. The clergy set the example of revolt, de- 
 claring that heaven was interested in the cause of Ferdinand, 
 and denouncing Napoleon as antichrist. The army had risen 
 in mass, and a provisional junta of government, assembled at 
 Seville, disputed and annulled the acts of the junta of Bayonne. 
 On Saint Ferdinand's day, a new " Sicilian Vespers" sounded 
 against the French throughout the whole of Spain. Their 
 squadron was seized at Cadiz, and the crews slaughtered, and 
 the Spaniards signalized their vengeance, in a variety of places, 
 by massacres and crime. They declared war to the death 
 against the French, and the Portuguese followed their example. 
 However, Bessieres was victorious at Medina de Rio Secco, and 
 his success opened the gates of Madrid to King Joseph, who 
 7*1
 
 586 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 made his entry into that capital on the 20th of July. Almost 
 immediately afterwards, however, General Dupont shamefully 
 capitulated at Baylen, and laid down his arms with twenty- 
 six thousand soldiers. This terrible check gave a shock to the 
 French authority in the peninsula, and redoubled the daring of 
 the Spaniards. Joseph was obliged to quit Madrid one week 
 after his solemn entry. Portugal revolted, and an English 
 army landed there under the command of Sir Arthur "Wellesley, 
 afterwards the duke of Wellington. Junot, with only ten 
 thousand men, risked the battle of Vimiera against twenty-six 
 thousand English and Portuguese. He was beaten, and shortly 
 afterwards signed the convention of Cintra, which at least left 
 him at liberty to return to France with honour. Portugal was 
 evacuated, and already Joseph possessed no more than Barce- 
 lona, Navarre, and Biscay, in all Spain. The English, so re- 
 cently enemies to the Spaniards, were received by them with 
 open arms. The star of Napoleon began to wane, and the 
 prestige of the invincibility of the French arms, under his 
 reign, was at length destroyed.
 
 MARSHAL LANNES.
 
 THE WAR IN SPAIN AND GERMANY. 589 
 
 THE WAR IN SPAIN AND GERMANY. 
 
 ETERMINED to subdue Spain, Napoleon 
 strengthened his alliance with Alexander, by 
 an interview, at Erfurt, in September and 
 October, 1808; and, secure of the pacific 
 intentions of that emperor, he recalled his 
 legions from the banks of the Niemen, the 
 Spree, the Elbe, and the Danube, and directed them against 
 Spain, where his presence at the head of his veterans soon 
 changed the aspect of things. The battles of Burgos, Espinosa, 
 and Tudela, in which his eagles were triumphant, once more 
 opened to Joseph the gates of Madrid. Arrived in that capital, 
 Napoleon promised franchises and the abolition of feudalism to 
 the Spaniards ; but he spoke to a people who scarcely under- 
 stood him, who had no ears but for their priests, and whose he- 
 roism displayed itself only in their impatience of a foreign 
 yoke. Their answers to the liberal promises of the usurper 
 were cries of execration and rage. They organized themselves 
 into guerilla bands, who converted Spain into a second Vendue 
 for the troops of France. Everywhere the population rose, and 
 flew to arms ; and the vow of national independence became a 
 bond to unite the constitutionalists with the partisans of the 
 clergy, against their common enemy, France. The English 
 were approaching, and Napoleon marched to meet them. But 
 his course was suddenly arrested by the intelligence that Aus- 
 tria, emboldened by his absence and the withdrawal of his vete- 
 ran troops, had formed a fifth coalition with England and the 
 holy see, (1809 ;) and that the archduke Charles was again in 
 arms, and with difficulty held in check by Davoust, whose force 
 was inferior. Napoleon instantly quitted Spain, flew to the 
 Rhine, triumphed at Eckmuhl and at Ratisbonne ; and the 
 French army entered a second time, as victors, into the capital 
 of Austria. On the 22d of May, was fought, on some islands 
 
 2 Z
 
 590 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 DEATH OF MARSHAL LANNES. 
 
 in the Danube, the bloody and indecisive battle of Essling ; 
 in which the emperor lost thousands of brave men, and his 
 friend Lannes, duke of Montebello. The corps of Marmont 
 and Eugene rejoined the grand army, and repaired its losses ; 
 and, after the victory of Raab, the terrible battle of Wagram, 
 in which no less than twelve hundred pieces of cannon swept 
 the ranks of the two armies, terminated the war in favour of 
 France. The vanquished Francis I. signed, on the 14th of Oc- 
 tober, the peace of Vienna, whereby he ceded several provinces, 
 and gave in his adherence to the continental system. Pope 
 Pius VII., who, groaning under the partition of his territories, 
 had given his countenance to this coalition, and threatened the 
 emperor with the thunders of the Vatican, was dethroned from 
 his temporal sovereignty, brutally torn from the pontifical 
 palace, and consigned to a four years' captivity, first at Savone, 
 and afterwards at Fontainebleau; and the ancient metropolis of 
 the world was degraded into the capital of a French department. 
 A hundred thousand English had, during this campaign, at- 
 tempted a descent upon Holland ; Flushing had fallen into their 
 power, and Antwerp was menaced by them. But the strong 
 defensive condition of this place, and a levy of national guards 
 in the northern departments, rendered their efforts unavailing. 
 Their ranks were thinned by sickness in the marshes of Zealand ; 
 and they evacuated Flushing, after having sustained considerable
 
 W®L 
 
 THE EMPRESS JOSEPHINE.
 
 THE WAR IN FRANCE AND GERMANY. 593 
 
 losses. The resistance to Napoleon's arms in the peninsula was, 
 however, continued, notwithstanding numerous victories gained 
 by his generals. Sebastiani had triumphed at Ciudad-Real, 
 Victor at Medelin, and Soult at Oporto, where twenty thousand 
 Portuguese were left upon the field of battle. But the lofty 
 example of Palafox, the defender of Saragossa, and the heroic 
 conduct of the inhabitants of that town, who buried themselves 
 beneath its ruins rather than submit to the conqueror, excited 
 the enthusiasm and redoubled the energies of the Spaniards. 
 The English, hailed by them as deliverers, successfully second- 
 ed their efforts. On the 28th of July, Joseph fought against 
 Sir Arthur Wellesley the indecisive battle of Talavera, which 
 however, the English celebrated as a victory. In vain did Se- 
 bastiani triumph on the 21st of August, at Almonacid ; and 
 Mortier, with twenty-five thousand men, overthrow fifty thou- 
 sand at Ocana, on the 19th of November ; in vain was Anda- 
 lusia open to the French ; Spain was still unsubdued. Soult in 
 the south, and Suchet in the north, commenced the campaign 
 of 1810. Grenada, Malaga, and Seville were occupied by the 
 French ; and the provisional junta of Seville removed to Cadiz, 
 which was unsuccessfully besieged by Marshal Victor. It was 
 at this period that South America threw off the Spanish yoke, 
 and proclaimed the federal government of Venezuela. Massena, 
 prince of Essling, at the same time, sustained the war in Por- 
 tugal against Wellington, whose army was greatly superior to 
 that of the French : but the success of the campaign was com- 
 promised by a serious misunderstanding which arose betwixt him 
 and Marshal Ney. He marched upon the capital, was beaten 
 at Busaco, and his progress finally arrested in the month of De- 
 cember, by Wellington, before the formidable lines of Torres 
 Vedras, which covered Lisbon. 
 
 While the peninsula was thus devouring the flower of the 
 French armies, Napoleon attained the highest point of his mar- 
 vellous destinies. Induced alike by his anxiety for an heir, and 
 his desire to ally himself with the old European dynasties, he 
 divorced his first wife, Josephine de Beauharnois, and on the 
 30th of March, 1810, married Maria-Louisa, archduchess of 
 Austria, and daughter of the emperor Francis. 
 75 2 z 2
 
 594 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 NAPOLEON'S RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. 
 
 m 
 
 WARDS the close of 1811, a com- 
 mercial ukase re-opened the ports 
 of Russia to the colonial produce 
 of England, and the armies of Alex- 
 ander approached the Niemen. At 
 the same time, Sweden renounced 
 her adhesion to the continental sys- 
 tem ; and shortly afterwards, a sixth 
 confederation against France was 
 formed between England, Russia, 
 Sweden, Spain, and Portugal, — 
 France being voluntarily seconded by Italy and Poland, and 
 constrainedly so, by Germany, Prussia, and Austria. The sultan 
 Mahmoud, the successor of Selim, who had been slain by the 
 janissaries, entered, at this period, into treaty with Russia, and 
 signed the peace of Bucharest. Napoleon repaired to Dresden ; 
 where his court was composed of most of the crowned heads and 
 princes in Europe ; and there he made final but fruitless efforts 
 to re-attach Alexander to his system. That which he failed in 
 obtaining by means of persuasion, he determined to secure by
 
 NAPOLEON'S RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. 595 
 
 force of arms ; and war was declared against Russia, on the 22d 
 of June, 1812. 
 
 Napoleon took the field, at the head of four hundred thousand 
 soldiers, passed the Niemen, on the 24th of June, with half his 
 forces, and halted at Wilna seventeen days. That delay was 
 fatal to his arms. The diet of Warsaw, during his sojourn in 
 Poland, proclaimed the re-establishment of the kingdom, and 
 the liberation of the entire nation. A deputation demanded of 
 the emperor that he should recognise the existence of Poland. 
 Napoleon hesitated and gave finally an evasive answer. After 
 a glorious action, he arrived at Witepsk, the hostile army, under 
 Barclay de Tolly, retiring before him. A bloody battle was 
 fought before Smolensko, which was abandoned to the flames. 
 The Russians fell back, and the French continued to advance. 
 Valoutina witnessed a murderous conflict ; but the disobedience 
 of one of Napoleon's generals saved the army of the enemy from 
 total destruction. Still, however, that army retreated, followed 
 by the emperor. At length, on the 5th of September, the grand 
 army arrived on the plains of Borodino, a few miles from Moscow, 
 on the banks of the Moskowa, and found itself in presence of the 
 whole Russian army, commanded by the veteran Kutusoff. A 
 general engagement was determined on for the following day ; and 
 on that memorable morning, Napoleon, issuing from his tent thus 
 addressed his officers : — " How bright, to-day, is the sun ! — it is 
 the sun of Austerlitz !" Then, in a proclamation to his soldiers 
 he said, — "The battle is now at hand for which you have so 
 longed : acquit yourselves as you did at Austerlitz, at Friedland, 
 at Witepsk, at Smolensko ; and let posterity the most remote 
 refer with pride to your deeds of this day. Let men say 
 of each of you, when they shall behold you, — ' He was at that 
 great battle on the plains of Moscow !' " The fight began almost 
 immediately afterwards, and was a terrible one. Ney, Murat, 
 Eugene, Davoust, GeVard, and Poniatowski performed prodigies 
 of valour. Auguste Caulaincourt was mortally wounded, while 
 carrying, in a gallop, a formidable redoubt, at the head of his 
 cuirassiers. The Russians at length gave way, after a most 
 sanguinary struggle. Napoleon restrained his guards, and suf- 
 fered the enemy, whom he might have annihilated, to escape. 
 Twenty-two thousand French and fifty thousand Russians were 
 killed or wounded on that murderous day. A great number of
 
 596 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the generals of France was slain, but the victory was hers, and 
 Marshal Ney was proclaimed prince of the Moskowa, on the 
 field of battle. A second engagement took place at Mojaisk, 
 half a league from Moscow, where the Russians were again 
 beaten ; and their army entered into the ancient capital of their 
 empire only to abandon it. Thither the French penetrated, 
 after them: but were astonished at the solitude which reigned 
 within its walls. The streets were deserts, and the inhabitants 
 had fled. Napoleon entered, unresisted, into the ancient citadel 
 of the Kremlin. Moscow he looked upon as an asylum, after 
 the sufferings and fatigues of his army. He found immense re- 
 sources within the city, and here, therefore, he resolved to establish 
 his winter quarters, — and looked proudly around on his conquest. 
 But during the night a frightful conflagration broke out. Ros- 
 topchin, the governor of the city, had determined, in evacuating 
 it, on an immense sacrifice, for the salvation of his country. 
 Russia was lost, if the French should find a shelter in Moscow. 
 At an appointed signal, and by order of Rostopchin, a band of 
 convicts spread themselves throughout the city, carrying flame in 
 their hands, and set fire to it in a thousand parts. Moscow 
 crumbled away beneath the conflagration, and little more of her 
 was left, in a few hours, than a heap of cinders and ruins. 
 
 The winter was approaching, and the French had no longer 
 an asylum to look forward to against its rigours. Napoleon
 
 NAPOLEON'S RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. 
 
 597 
 
 NAPOLEON LEAVING RUSSIA. 
 
 still flattered himself with the hope of peace, and Alexander 
 prolonged the negotiations purposely, with the view of detaining 
 his enemy amid the ruins of Moscow. At length, however, the 
 negotiations were broken up, and the order was issued for retreat. 
 The emperor quitted the city at the head of a hundred thousand 
 fighting men, after forty days of fruitless expectation. " Your 
 day of warfare is ended," said old Kutusoff, " and ours is about 
 to begin." The winter set in suddenly, with more than its 
 usual rigour, even in Russia. The French troops, paralysed by 
 the cold, were pursued and harassed in their retreat by innume- 
 rable enemies, and the roads were covered with their frozen 
 corpses. Still, however, the army marched in tolerable order as 
 far as the Beresina, which it had to cross in the presence of three 
 Russian armies. The river was, as yet, unfrozen over, though 
 covered with floating ice. It was necessary to construct rafts, 
 under the fire of the enemy, and at the same time make head 
 against them unceasingly. At this place were again achieved 
 prodigies of heroism ; but the rafts were encumbered by multi- 
 tudes of stragglers and disarmed soldiers, and, yielding to the 
 pressure, thousands of men were engulfed in the waters of the 
 Beresina. At length, after incredible efforts, this formidable 
 barrier was cleared ; but the moral as well as physical strength 
 of the soldiers was gone ; the cold set in with renewed rigour ; 
 and the retreat was, thenceforth, one vast and frightful rout.
 
 598 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 COMMODORE TRUXTUN. 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE INSURGENTE AND 
 VENGEANCE. 
 
 HE quasi war, as it is 
 called, between this 
 country and France, 
 under the Directory, 
 having commenced, a 
 squadron under the 
 command of Commo- 
 dore Truxtun was or- 
 dered to protect the 
 commerce of the Uni- 
 ted States in the West 
 Indies. It was while 
 on this service that his 
 brightest laurels were 
 
 won, by the capture of two French frigates, each of superior 
 
 force to his own ship. 
 
 On the 9th of February, the Constellation being alone cruising 
 
 on her prescribed ground, the island of Nevis bearing W. S. W.,
 
 CAPTURE OF THE INSURG*ENTE AND VENGEANCE. 590 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE INSURGENTS. 
 
 and distant five leagues, made a large ship on the southern 
 board. The stranger, being approached by the Constellation, 
 showed the American colours, when the private signals were 
 shown. The chase being unable to answer, further disguise was 
 abandoned, and, hoisting the French ensign, he fired a gun to 
 windward, by way of challenge, and gallantly awaited the con- 
 test. This being the first time since the revolutionary war that 
 an American ship had encountered an enemy in any manner 
 that promised a contest, the officers and men were eager for 
 the engagement ; and the enemy were not inclined to avoid it. 
 The ships neared, until the Constellation, after having been 
 thrice hailed, opened a fire upon her antagonist. A fierce can- 
 nonade ensued, while the American was drawing ahead. She 
 suffered much in her' sails and rigging, and the foretopmast was 
 nearly cut off by a shot. This was, in some degree, remedied 
 by Mr. David Porter, a midshipman, who, being unable to com- 
 municate the circumstance to others, himself cut the stoppers 
 and lowered the yard, and thus prevented the fall of the mast 
 with its rigging. In the mean time, their superior gunnery 
 gave the action a turn in favour of the Americans, who were at 
 last enabled to decide the contest by two or three raking broad- 
 sides, after a combat of an hour, when the American wore
 
 600 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 round, and would again have raked her, with all their guns, had 
 she not prudently struck. 
 
 The prize was the French frigate l'lnsurgente, one of the 
 fastest vessels in the world. She was greatly damaged, and had 
 lost in all seventy men. The Constellation also was much dam- 
 aged in her rigging, but lost only three men, wounded, one of 
 whom, Mr. James McDonough, had his foot shot off. 
 
 The Insurgente carried forty guns, and four hundred and nine 
 men. The American vessel carried thirty-eight guns, and three 
 hundred and nine men. 
 
 It was half-past three in the afternoon when the Insurgente 
 struck, and Mr. Rodgers, the first lieutenant of the Constellation, 
 was sent, together with Mr. Porter and eleven men, to take 
 possession and have the prisoners removed ; but, ere this could 
 be effected, the darkness and a rise of wind separated the ships. 
 
 The situation of Rodgers, at this period, was unpleasant in 
 the extreme. No handcuffs were to be found, and the prisoners 
 seemed disposed to rebel. Fortunately, Rodgers was well cal- 
 culated to act with decision in such circumstances, and Porter 
 and the men equally prompt in executing his orders. The pri- 
 soners were sent into the lower hold, and a sentinel stationed at 
 each hatchway, with orders to shoot any one who should attempt 
 to come upon deck without orders. Thus he was obliged to 
 spend three days, at the end of which time he arrived at St. 
 Kitts, where the Constellation had already arrived. 
 
 On the 1st of February, 1800, the Constellation came in sight 
 of a strange sail, off the coast of Guadaloupe. Thinking her to 
 be an English merchantman, Truxtun hoisted the English flag, 
 in order to be hailed by her. This was disregarded, and sail 
 made in pursuit, when the stranger was discovered to be a French 
 man-of-war. The English flag was lowered, and all made ready 
 for a desperate struggle. The enemy's ship was ascertained to 
 carry fifty-two guns ; but the vessel being very deep, Truxtun 
 was not discouraged by her superior force, but still gave chase. 
 The wind being light during the afternoon, it was not until 
 evening, at eight o'clock, that they came within speaking dis- 
 tance. The ship then opened a fire upon them, which was re- 
 turned, and kept up till near one o'clock in the morning, when 
 the French ship made all sail to escape. Truxtun ordered to 
 give chase ; but was informed that the mainmast had been nearly
 
 .; a
 
 CAPTURE OF THE INSURGENTE AND VENGEANCE. 603 
 
 shot away, and, as it was found impossible to remedy it, the 
 chase was given up. 
 
 Soon after the ships separated, the mast fell, and several men 
 were lost by the accident ; among them Mr. Jarvis, a midship- 
 man. 
 
 Mr. Truxtun, as no port to windward could be reached, bore 
 up for Jamaica, where he arrived in safety. His antagonist, it 
 was ascertained afterwards, arrived at Cura§oa, in a very disa- 
 bled condition, and reported a loss of fifty killed, and one hun- 
 dred and ten wounded. The loss of the Constellation was four- 
 teen killed, and twenty-three wounded, of whom eleven died. 
 
 The Constellation, at this time, carried twenty eighteens on 
 her main-deck, and the quarter-deck was supplied with ten twenty- 
 four pound carronades. She numbered three hundred and ten 
 men. The Vengeance, the French vessel, carried twenty-eight 
 eighteens, sixteen twelves, and eight forty-two pound carronades. 
 There are various statements of her crew, all between four hun- 
 dred and five hundred men. 
 
 It is certain that, but for the loss of her mast, the Constel- 
 lation would have brought the prize into port ; indeed, it is re- 
 ported, that the Vengeance struck three times, but the Ameri- 
 cans continuing their fire, the colours were hoisted again. 
 
 Commodore Truxtun was rewarded for this exploit by a pro- 
 motion to the command of the President, forty-four guns ; and 
 was also presented by Congress with a gold medal. 
 
 The Constellation was now given to Captain Murray ; and 
 Commodore Truxtun, hoisting his broad pennant in the Presi- 
 dent, made another cruise on the Guadaloupe station, where he 
 rendered eminent service in the protection of the American 
 commerce against French cruisers, until the close of the war. 
 
 I
 
 604 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 DECATUR. 
 
 THE TRIPOLITAN WAR. 
 
 N consequence of insolent demands for tribute 
 made on the government of the United States, 
 and depredations on the American commerce, a 
 war broke out, in 1801, between this country and 
 Tripoli. In 1803, the government of the United 
 States, determined to bring the war to a close, sent out a large 
 squadron under Commodore Preble. One of the ships, the 
 Philadelphia, commanded by Captain Bainbridge, when recon- 
 noitering to the eastward of Tripoli ran aground, and, with 
 her officers and crew, was captured by a fleet of the enemy's 
 gun-boats. Decatur, then a lieutenant, proposed to his com- 
 mander to retake or destroy the frigate.
 
 THE TRIPOLITAN WAR. 605 
 
 The consent of the commodore 
 having been obtained, Lieutenant 
 Decatur selected for the expedition 
 a ketch (the Intrepid) which he had 
 captured a few weeks before from 
 the enemy, and manned her with 
 seventy volunteers, chiefly from his 
 own crew. He sailed from Syra- 
 cuse on the 3d of February, 1804, 
 accompanied by the United States 
 brig Syren, Lieutenant Stewart, 
 p REBLE - who was to aid with his boats and 
 
 to receive the crew of the ketch, in case it should be found 
 expedient to use her as a fire-ship. 
 
 After fifteen days of very tempestuous weather, they arrived 
 at the harbour of Tripoli a little before sunset. It had been 
 arranged between Lieutenants Decatur and Stewart, that the 
 ketch should enter the harbour about ten o'clock that night, 
 attended by the boats of the Syren. On arriving off the har- 
 bour, the Syren, in consequence of a change of wind, had been 
 thrown six or eight miles without the Intrepid. The wind at 
 this time was fair, but fast declining, and Lieutenant Decatur 
 apprehended that, should he wait for the Syren's boats to come 
 up, it might be fatal to the enterprise, as they could not remain 
 longer on the coast, their provisions being nearly exhausted. 
 For these reasons he determined to adventure into the harbour 
 alone, which he did about eight o'clock. 
 
 An idea may be formed of the extreme hazard of the enter- 
 prise from the situation of the frigate. She was moored within 
 half gunshot of the bashaw's castle and of the principal bat- 
 tery. Two of the enemy's cruisers lay within two cables' 
 length on the starboard quarter, and their gun-boats within 
 half gunshot on the starboard bow. All the guns of the fri- 
 gate were mounted and loaded. Such were the immediate 
 perils that our hero ventured to encounter with a single ketch, 
 besides the other dangers that abound in a strongly fortified 
 harbour. 
 
 Although from the entrance to the place where the frigate 
 lay was only three miles, yet, in consequence of the lightness 
 of the wind, they did not get within hail of her until eleven 
 
 8a2
 
 GOG INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 o'clock. When they had approached within two hundred yards, 
 they were hailed and ordered to anchor, or they would be fired 
 into. Lieutenant Decatur ordered a Maltese pilot, who was 
 on board the ketch, to answer that they had lost their anchors 
 in a gale of wind on the coast, and therefore could not coin ply 
 with their request. By this time it had become perfectly calm, 
 and they were about fifty yards from the frigate. Lieutenant 
 Decatur ordered a small boat that was alongside of the ketch 
 to take a rope and make it fast to the frigate's forechains. This 
 being done, they began to warp the ketch alongside. It was 
 not until this moment that the enemy suspected the character 
 of their visitor, and great confusion immediately ensued. This 
 enabled our adventurers to get alongside of the frigate, when 
 Decatur immediately sprang aboard, followed by Mr. Charles 
 Morris, midshipman. These two were nearly a minute on deck 
 before their companions could succeed in mounting the side. 
 Fortunately the Turks had not sufficiently recovered from their 
 surprise to take advantage of this delay. They were crowded 
 together on the quarter-deck, perfectly astonished and aghast, 
 without making any attempt to oppose the assailing party. As 
 soon as a sufficient number had gained the deck to form a front 
 equal to that of the enemy, they rushed in upon them. The 
 Turks stood the assault for a short time, and were completely 
 overpowered. About twenty were killed on the spot ; many 
 jumped overboard, and the rest flew to the main-deck, whither 
 they were pursued and driven to the hold. 
 
 After entire possession had been gained of the ship, and 
 every thing prepared to set fire to her, a number of launches 
 were seen rowing about the harbour. This determined Lieute- 
 nant Decatur to remain on board the frigate, from whence a 
 better defence could be made than on board the ketch. The 
 enemy had already commenced firing on them from their bat- 
 teries and castle, and from two corsairs that were lying near. 
 Perceiving that the launches did not attempt to approach, he 
 ordered the ship should be set on fire, which was done, at the 
 same time, in different parts. As soon as this was done, they 
 left her, and such was the rapidity of the flames, that it was 
 with the utmost difficulty they preserved the ketch. At this 
 critical moment a most propitious breeze sprang up, blowing 
 directly out of the harbour, which, in a few moments, carried
 
 THE TMPOLITAN WAR. 
 
 <">09 
 
 them out of reach of the enemy's guns, and they made good 
 their retreat Arithout the loss of a single man, and with but four 
 wounded. 
 
 For this gallant and romantic achievement, Lieutenant De- 
 catur was promoted to the rank of post-captain, there being at 
 that time no intermediate grade.
 
 610 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF TRIPOLI. 
 
 N April, 1804, Commodore Preble decided to bom- 
 1 bard the city of Tripoli. His force consisted of 
 the frigate Constitution, forty-four guns, twenty- 
 four pounders ; brig Argus, eighteen guns, twen- 
 ty-four pounders ; brig Syren, eighteen guns, 
 eighteen pounders ; Scourge ; schooner Vixen, sixteen guns, six 
 pounders ; schooner Nautilus, sixteen guns, six pounders ; En- 
 terprise, fourteen guns, six pounders ; six gun-boats of one 
 brass twenty- six pounder each ; and two bombard ketches, 
 each carrying a thirteen-inch mortar ; the whole number of 
 men, one thousand and sixty. 
 
 The enemy had on his castle and several batteries one hun- 
 dred and fifteen guns, fifty-five of which were heavy battering 
 brass cannon ; the others, long eighteen and twelve pounders ; 
 nineteen gun-boats, with each a long brass eighteen or twenty- 
 four pounder in the bow, and two howitzers abaft. He had two
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF TRIPOLI. (511 
 
 schooners of eight guns each, a brig of ten, and two galleys, 
 having each four guns. In addition to the ordinary Turkish 
 garrison, stationed upon the fortifications, and the crews of the 
 boats and armed vessels, computed at about three thousand, the 
 bashaw had called in to the defence of his city more than 
 twenty thousand Arabs. These forces were arranged in the 
 positions best adapted for repelling an attack, and also for seiz- 
 ing the occasion of falling upon any detachment of the invading 
 force which could be drawn from the main body. 
 
 The weather prevented the squadron from approaching the 
 enemy till the 28th, when, after anchoring within two and a 
 half miles of his line of defence, the wind suddenly shifted and 
 increased to a gale. They were compelled to weigh and gain 
 an offing. On the 1st of August, the gale subsided, and the 
 squadron on the 3d, (the weather being pleasant and the wind 
 at east,) at noon were within two or three miles of the batte- 
 ries, which were all closely manned. 
 
 The commodore, observing that several of the enemy's boats 
 had taken a station without the reef of rocks which covers the 
 entrance of the harbour, about two miles from its bottom, re- 
 solved to take advantage of this circumstance, and made signal 
 for the squadron to come within speaking distance, when he 
 communicated to the several commanders his intention of at- 
 tacking the shipping and batteries. The gun and mortar boats 
 were immediately manned, and prepared to cast off. The gun- 
 boats in two divisions of three each : the first division under 
 Captain Somers on board No. 1, with Lieutenant James Decatur 
 in No. 2, and Lieutenant Blake in No. 3. The second division 
 under Captain Decatur in No. 4, with Lieutenant Bainbridge 
 in No. 5, and Lieutenant Trippe in No. 6. The two bombards 
 were commanded by Lieutenant-commandant Dent, and by Mr. 
 Robinson, first lieutenant of the commodore's ship. At half- 
 past one o'clock, the squadron stood for the batteries ; at two, 
 cast off the gun-boats ; at half-past two, signal for the bombs 
 and boats to advance and attack, and in fifteen minutes after 
 signal was given for general action. It was commenced by the 
 bombs throwing shells into the town. In an instant the enemy's 
 lines opened a tremendous fire from not less than two hundred 
 guns, which was promptly returned by the whole squadron, 
 now within musket-shot of the principal batteries.
 
 612 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 At this moment Captain Decatur, with his three gun-boats, 
 attacked the enemy's eastern division, consisting of nine. He 
 was soon in the centre of them, and the fire of grape, langrage, 
 and musketry was changed to a deadly personal combat with 
 the bayonet, spear, sabre, and tomahawk. Captain Decatur 
 grappled one of the enemy's boats, and boarded with but fif- 
 teen men. He parried the blows of five Turks, who fell upon 
 him with cimeters, so as to receive no injury, till a blow from 
 the boat's captain, a powerful Turk, cleft his blade in two. He 
 instantly closed with the Turk, but, overpowered by muscular 
 strength, he fell under him across the gunnel of the boat. In 
 this position, he drew a side-pistol and killed his antagonist. 
 Meantime, his sergeant and a marine soldier, seeing his dan- 
 ger, flew to his relief, and engaged and slew the other four 
 assailants. By this time the other thirteen men had vanquished 
 the residue of the crew, thirty-one in number, and the boat's 
 colours were hauled down. Captain Decatur left this boat in 
 charge of an officer, and immediately, with Lieutenant McDo- 
 nough and eight men besides himself, laid another boat on 
 board, which he carried, after a desperate and bloody encounter 
 of a few minutes. The fierce desperation of the Arnaout 
 Turks, who value themselves on never yielding, made the 
 slaughter of the enemy in these conflicts immense. The two 
 prizes of Captain Decatur had thirty-three officers and men 
 killed, and twenty-seven made prisoners, nineteen of whom 
 were severely wounded. 
 
 Lieutenant Trippe boarded one of the enemy's large boats 
 with only a midshipman, Mr. Jonathan Henley, and nine men. 
 His boat falling off before any more could join him, he was left 
 to concpier or perish with the fearful odds of eleven to thirty- 
 six. In a few minutes, however, though for a moment the vic- 
 tory seemed dubious, the enemy was subdued ; fourteen of them 
 lost their lives, and twenty-two submitted to be prisoners, seven 
 of whom were badly wounded. Lieutenant Trippe received 
 eleven sabre wounds, some of which were deep and dangerous. 
 The blade of his sword also yielded. He closed with the 
 enemy ; both fell, but in the struggle Trippe wrested the Turk's 
 sword from him, and with it pierced his body. Mr. Henley, in 
 this encounter, displayed a valour joined to a coolness that 
 would have honoured a veteran. Lieutenant Bainbridge had
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF TRIPOLI. 613 
 
 his lateen-yard shot away, which baffled his utmost exertions to 
 get alongside the enemy's boats ; but his active and well-di- 
 rected fire, within musket-shot, was very effective. At one 
 time he had, in his ardour, pushed forward so that his boat 
 grounded within pistol shot of one of the enemy's formidable 
 batteries, and where he was exposed to volleys of musketry. 
 But, by address and courage, he extricated himself from this 
 situation, and, so ill-directed was the enemy's fire, without 
 receiving any injury. 
 
 Captain Somers was not able to fetch far enough to wind- 
 ward to co-operate with Decatur. But he bore down upon the 
 leeward division of the enemy, and, with his single boat within 
 pistol shot, attacked five full-manned boats, defeated and drove 
 them in a shattered condition, and with the loss of many lives, 
 under shelter of the rocks. 
 
 Lieutenant Decatur, in No. 2, engaged with one of the ene- 
 my's largest boats, which struck after the loss of the greatest 
 part of her men. At the moment this brave young officer was 
 stepping on board his prize, he was shot through the head by 
 the Turkish captain, who, by this means, escaped, while the 
 Americans were recovering the body of their unfortunate com- 
 mander. 
 
 The two bomb-vessels kept their station, although often co- 
 vered with the spray of the sea, occasioned by the enemy's shot. 
 They kept up a constant fire and threw a great number of shells 
 into the town. Five of the enemy's gun-boats and two galleys, 
 composing their centre division, stationed within the rocks, 
 joined by the boats which had been driven in and reinforced, 
 twice attempted to row out and surround our gun-boats and 
 prizes. They were as often foiled by the vigilance of the com- 
 modore, who gave signal to the brigs and schooners to cover 
 them, which was propeidy attended to by these vessels, all of 
 which were gallantly conducted, and annoyed the enemy ex- 
 ceedingly. The fire of the Constitution had its ample share 
 in this bombardment. It kept the enemy's flotilla in constant 
 disorder, and produced no inconsiderable effect on shore. The 
 frigate was constantly in easy motion, and always found where 
 danger threatened to defeat the arrangements of the day. Se- 
 veral times she was within two cables' length of the rocks, and 
 three of the batteries, every one of which were successively 
 
 3B
 
 614 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 silenced as often as her broadside could be brought to bear on 
 them ; but having no large vessels to secure these advantages, 
 when circumstances compelled her to change her position, the 
 silenced batteries were reanimated. " We suffered most," says 
 the commodore, " when wearing or tacking. It was then I 
 most sensibly felt the want of another frigate." 
 
 At half-past four, the wind inclining to the northward, and 
 at the same time the enemy's flotilla having retreated behind 
 coverts which shielded them from our shot, while our people 
 were necessarily much exhausted by two hours and a half severe 
 exertion, signal was given for the gunboats and bombs to retire 
 from action ; and, immediately after, to the brigs and schooners 
 to take the gunboats and their prizes in tow, which was hand- 
 somely executed, the whole covered by a heavy fire from the 
 Constitution. In fifteen minutes the squadron was out of reach 
 of the enemy's shot, and the commodore hauled off to give tow 
 to the bomb ketches. 
 
 The squadron were more than two hours within grapeshot 
 distance of the enemy's batteries, and under a constant fire. 
 But the damage received was in no proportion to the apparent 
 danger, or to the effect produced by the assailants. The frigate 
 took a thirty-two pound shot in her mainmast, about thirty feet 
 from the deck ; her sails and rigging were considerably cut ; 
 one of her quarter-deck guns was injured by a round shot, 
 which burst in pieces and shattered a mariner's arm, but not a 
 man was killed on board of her. The other vessels and boats 
 suffered in their rigging, and had sundry men wounded, but lost 
 none except Lieutenant Decatur, the brother of the Captain 
 Decatur, so conspicuous in this war. Several circumstances ex- 
 plain this impunity of our squadron. Where the engagement 
 was close — as with the boats — the impetuosity of the attack, as 
 well as our more dexterous use of the weapons of destruction, 
 overpowered and appalled the enemy. The barbarians are un- 
 skilful gunners. The shower of grapeshot annoyed and dis- 
 composed them in the application of what little skill they pos- 
 sessed. The assailing party were so near as to be overshot by 
 the batteries ; especially as the managers of the guns were so 
 fearful of exposing their heads above the parapets as easily to 
 oversight their object. 
 
 Very different was the result of this conflict to the enemy.
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF TRIPOLI. 615 
 
 The American fire was not an empty peal, but a messenger of 
 death in every direction. The three captured boats had one 
 hundred and three men on board, forty-seven of whom were 
 killed, twenty-six wounded, and thirty only fit for duty. Three 
 other boats were sunk, with their entire crews, and the decks 
 of their vessels in the harbour were swept of numbers. The 
 effect on shore was not so great as in the shipping, but still such 
 as to spread consternation. Several Turks were killed and 
 wounded, and many guns of the fort dismounted, and the town 
 was considerably damaged. 
 
 As might be expected, the bombardment made a powerful 
 impression on the mind of the enemy. The burning of the 
 Philadelphia could not fail to make the bashaw and his people 
 apprehend something serious from the present commander. 
 When the squadron was seen standing in, however, he affected 
 contempt, and surveying them from his palace, observed, " They 
 will mark their distance for tacking ; they are a sort of Jews, 
 who have no notion of fighting." The palace and terraces of 
 the houses were crowded with spectators, to see the chastisement 
 the bashaw's boats would give the squadron, if they approached 
 too near. This exultation was very transient. The battle was 
 scarcely joined, when no one was seen on shore, except on the 
 batteries. Many of the inhabitants fled into the country; and 
 the bashaw, it is said, retreated with his priest to his bomb- 
 proof room. An intelligent officer of the Philadelphia, then in 
 captivity, observes, that the Turks asked if those men that 
 fought so were Americans, or infernals in Christian shape, sent 
 to destroy the sons of the prophet. " The English, French, 
 and Spanish consuls," say they, "have told us that they are a 
 young nation, and got their independence by means of France ; 
 that they had a small navy, and their officers were inexpe- 
 rienced, and that they were merely a nation of merchants, and 
 that by taking their ships and men we should get great ran- 
 soms. Instead of this, their Preble pays us a coin of shot, 
 shells, and hard blows ; and sent a Decatur, in a dark night, 
 with a band of Christian dogs fierce and cruel as the tiger, who 
 killed our brothers and burnt our ships before our eyes."
 
 61 G 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN IIISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL WILLIAM EATON. 
 
 CAPTURE OF DERNE AND CLOSE OF 
 THE WAR. 
 
 URING the months of August and 
 September, other repeated attacks 
 were made on the fortifications and 
 city of Tripoli by the American 
 squadron, which did great injury to 
 
 .LTLJ 
 
 12k 
 
 ifjij the Tripolitans, and evinced the 
 fc\A^S| skill and valour of the Americans, 
 p without producing any decisive re- 
 sult. 
 
 It was now determined to unite a land expedition with the 
 operations of the fleet, and the singular spectacle was exhibited 
 of the invasion of an African state by an American force. The 
 command of this enterprise was intrusted to General William
 
 CAPTURE OF DERNE AND CLOSE 
 
 THE WAR 
 
 617 
 
 CAPTURE OF DERNE. 
 
 Eaton, who succeeded in forming an alliance with Haraet, the 
 ex-bashaw of Tripoli, who had been unjustly deprived of the 
 government and expelled by his brother, the reigning bashaw. 
 Having met Hamet in Egypt, where he held command of an 
 army of Mamelukes at war with the Turkish government, Eaton 
 united his handful of troops with those of his ally, and marched 
 from Alexandria on the 6th of March, 1805. After accom- 
 plishing a route of more than 1000 miles, — a parallel to which, 
 in peril, fatigue, and suffering, can hardly be found but in 
 romance, — he arrived before Derne on the 25th of April, and 
 summoning the governor to surrender the city, he received the 
 doughty reply, "My head or yours !" 
 
 On the 27th, Derne was assaulted by the troops of Hamet 
 and the Americans, under the command of Eaton, and after a 
 contest of two hours and a half was carried at the point of the 
 bayonet. The assault was supported by the American squad- 
 ron, which had previously arrived in the bay, as agreed upon. 
 The governor and many of his adherents fled to the desert. 
 78 3 b2
 
 618 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 The Americans suffered severely in the assault, and General 
 Eaton himself was "wounded in the wrist. The inhabitants of 
 the city submitted to the authority of Haraet. 
 
 Eaton's next exploit was the successful resistance of a siege 
 by the army of the reigning bashaw of Tripoli, who advanced 
 to recapture Derne, and experienced a signal defeat, being 
 compelled to yield to the superior skill and discipline of Eaton's 
 forces. His career of victory, however, was cut short by the 
 arrival of the Constitution frigate in the harbour of Derne, 
 with the news of a treaty of peace, on terms much less advan- 
 tageous than Eaton might have dictated if left to his own 
 resources. By this arrangement, entered into by Mr. Lear on 
 the part of the United States, with the reigning bashaw, the 
 American prisoners were ransomed for 60,000 dollars, and the 
 cause of Hamet was abandoned. This treaty was by no means 
 acceptable to the American people, who have an insuperable 
 aversion to purchasing peace with gold, and honour the custom 
 of ransoming prisoners with steel.
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR OF 1812. 
 
 619 
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR OF 1812. 
 
 N the course of the prolonged struggle 
 between Napoleon and England, each at- 
 tempted to destroy the commerce of the 
 other. Hence the famous Berlin and Mi- 
 lan decrees of Napoleon, and the orders 
 in council of the British government, mak- 
 ing prizes of neutral ships engaged in 
 the carrying trade. The United States 
 suffered heavily by these proceedings, and felt injured and in- 
 sulted by the imprisonment of American seamen, haughtily per- 
 sisted in by the British. The consequence was, a declaration of 
 war against Great Britain by the United States, which took 
 place on the 18th of June, 1812. 
 
 When the war of independence was commenced, the United 
 States contained less than four millions of inhabitants, and had 
 neither an army, a treasury, nor a national existence. But it 
 possessed a people united in purpose, and firmly resolved to vin- 
 dicate their rights. At the opening of the war of 1812, the 
 country had eight .millions of inhabitants, great resources of 
 wealth, and all the elements of an efficient army and navy. But 
 the people were divided in sentiment, indisposed for war by a
 
 620 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL DEARBORN. 
 
 long continuance of peace, and unfit for its successful prosecu- 
 tion by inexperience and irresolution. Their early movements 
 in the new contest were marked by a character of indecision 
 corresponding with this want of preparation. It was not till 
 near the close of the conflict that the national spirit was fully 
 roused ; and the results at that period were such as to show 
 that, when fairly and heartily embarked in a contest, the people 
 possess the same spirit and the same moral power which carried 
 them so nobly through the struggle for independence. 
 
 In organizing the army, Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts 
 was appointed major-general and commander-in-chief. He had 
 served in the revolutionary contest, and had subsequently borne 
 the office of secretary of war. Thomas Pinckney, of South 
 Carolina, also received a commission as major-general, and
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR OF 1812. 621 
 
 Wilkinson, Hampton, Bloomfield, and Hull were among the 
 brigadier-generals. 
 
 The army, which until the year 1808 had numbered no more 
 than three thousand men, had then been augmented to six thou- 
 sand. In January, 1812, congress had directed a force of up- 
 wards of twenty-five thousand to be raised, so that the entire 
 force authorized by law now exceeded thirty-five thousand, in- 
 cluding officers ; consisting of twenty-five regiments of infantry, 
 three of artillery, two of light artillery, two of dragoons, and 
 two rifle regiments. In addition to this, the president was au- 
 thorized to accept the services of any number of volunteers, not 
 exceeding fifty thousand, who were to be armed and equipped 
 by the United States ; and a similar authority was given to him 
 to call upon the governors of states for detachments of militia, 
 the whole of which was not to exceed one hundred thousand. 
 
 Though apparently formidable, this force wanted many of the 
 requisites of an efficient army. The act authorizing the raising 
 of twenty-five thousand men had been passed so short a time 
 before the declaration of war, that scarcely one-fourth of that 
 number was enlisted; and these were by no means in a high 
 state of discipline. The volunteers and militia were yet to be 
 called for, as occasion might require, and their services were 
 considered of very doubtful utility. Even in the revolutionary 
 war, they had been pronounced, by high authority, a most in- 
 efficient species of force, and the long peace had certainly not 
 increased their efficiency. The officers, however, who had the 
 direction of the military force, had served with distinction, and 
 high hopes were entertained of a successful campaign. 
 
 The whole navy of the United States consisted of but ten 
 frigates, five of which were laid up in ordinary, ten sloops and 
 smaller vessels, and one hundred and sixty-five gun-boats, only 
 sixty of which were in commission. With this trifling force, war 
 was commenced with a power that numbered a thousand ships 
 afloat, and boasted herself the mistress of the ocean. The com- 
 merce and fisheries of the United States, however, had given her 
 the elements of a navy ; and if the Americans had not many 
 ships, subsequent events proved that they had men ; and that 
 the efficiency of a navy depends more upon discipline and cou- 
 rage than upon the size and number of its vessels. 
 
 The plan of operations at the commencement of the war was
 
 022 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 COLONEL MACARTHUR. 
 
 to garrison and defend the sea-board principally by occasional 
 calls on the militia, aided by a few of the regular troops, the 
 whole to be under the direction of the generals of the regular 
 army, stationed at the most important points. The remaining 
 regular troops, with such volunteers as could be procured and 
 a portion of the militia, were to attack the British posts in Up- 
 per Canada and subdue them, with the ultimate design of in- 
 vading and conquering Lower Canada. 
 
 With these views, William Hull, the governor of Michigan 
 territory, ' having been appointed a brigadier-general, on the 
 25th of May, took command of the army destined for the in- 
 vasion of Canada. On the 1st of June, he rendezvoused at 
 Urbanna, in Ohio. His force consisted of five hundred regular 
 troops, and twelve hundred Ohio volunteers, under the com- 
 mand of Colonels McArthur and Cass. Proceeding in a north- 
 westerly direction, the army marched through a wilderness to 
 Detroit, the capital of Michigan territory, situated on the west 
 bank of Detroit river. 
 
 On his arrival at this place, General Hull was joined by the 
 Michigan militia; and expecting the co-operation of General 
 Dearborn on the Niagara frontier, he made his descent on Ca- 
 nada on the 12th of July. He crossed the river and established 
 his head-quarters at Sandwich, a village on the opposite bank.
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR OF 1812. 623 
 
 Here he issued a proclamation, offering peace and protection to 
 the Canadians who would remain at home, and threatening ex- 
 termination to such as should be found in arms associated with 
 the Indians. He further declared that he commanded a force 
 sufficient to "look down all opposition," which was but the van 
 of a much greater force. In consequence of this proclamation, 
 several hundred Canadian militia joined the Americans, or re- 
 turned to their homes under General Hull's protection. 
 - Meantime the British had collected a considerable force of 
 Canadians and Indians, and strengthened their garrison at 
 Maiden. 
 
 Excepting some skirmishing parties under the command of 
 Colonels McArthur and Cass, nothing was done to promote the 
 objects of the invasion till August 8th; General Hull remaining 
 during the interval in his encampment at Sandwich. He then 
 gave orders for the main body to re-cross the river and retire to 
 Detroit, abandoning the Canadians who had accepted his pro- 
 tection to the vengeance of their own government, and disgusting 
 his own men with his inertness and pusillanimity. 
 
 Towards the last of July, a reinforcement of one hundred and 
 fifty volunteers from Ohio, under Captain Brush, who had been 
 ordered to join General Hull, arrived at the river Raisin, thirty- 
 six miles below Detroit. Here they were ordered to await an 
 escort from the camp. Two hundred militia, under Major Van- 
 horn, being sent on this service, fell into an ambuscade of In- 
 dians, and were obliged to retreat, with the loss of seventeen 
 killed and thirty wounded. 
 
 On the 8th of August, a detachment of six hundred men, un- 
 der Qolonel Miller, being despatched on the same service, were 
 attacked by a large body of British and Indians within fourteen 
 miles of Detroit. The enemy was gallantly resisted, and com- 
 pelled to retreat with a heavy loss ; but the detachment returned 
 to Detroit on the 10th, without effecting its object. 
 
 While these events were passing, General Brock, the governor 
 of Canada, had been making active preparations for its defence. 
 He issued a proclamation in answer to that of General Hull, re- 
 minding the Canadians of their previous prosperity and freedom 
 under the British government, and calling upon them to join 
 his standard. This address was not without effect. The Ca- 
 nadians joined the governor in great numbers, and on the 13th
 
 624 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 COLONEL CASS. 
 
 of August, General Brock arrived at Maiden, with a respectable 
 force, just after the American troops had retired from the Ca- 
 nadian shore, dispirited and disgusted with their commander. 
 On the 15th, General Brock erected batteries on the bank of the 
 river opposite Detroit, and summoned the American general to 
 surrender ; stating that he should otherwise be unable to restrain 
 the Indians from committing their usual atrocities. This sum- 
 mons was answered by a refusal, and a declaration that the for- 
 tress would be defended to the last extremity. The firing from 
 the fortifications on both sides now commenced, and continued 
 with little effect till the next day. 
 
 General Hull had by this time become so much alarmed as 
 to betray his cowardice to his own officers and men, by his ap- 
 pearance and his hasty and irregular measures. On the 12th 
 the field-officers had determined to arrest him, and were only 
 prevented by the absence of Colonels Cass and McArthur, who
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR OF 1812. 625 
 
 had been detached with 400 men on a third expedition to the 
 river Raisin. On the 15th they received orders to return. 
 
 On the 16th, the British troops began to cross the river to the 
 American side, three miles below the town, under cover of two 
 ships of war. Having landed, they commenced their march 
 towards the fort. Besides the fourth regiment of regular troops 
 stationed in the fort,- it was protected by the Ohio volunteers, 
 and a part of the Michigan militia, placed behind the pickets 
 where the whole flank of the British would have been exposed 
 to their fire. The remainder of the militia were stationed in 
 the town of Detroit, for the purpose of resisting the desultory 
 attacks of the savages. Two four-pounders, loaded with grape, 
 were placed on an eminence, ready to sweep the advancing 
 columns. McArthur and Cass, on their return from the expe- 
 dition on which they had been ordered, had arrived within view 
 of Detroit, and were ready to attack the enemy on the rear. 
 There was every reason to anticipate a victory, and the troops 
 were eagerly expecting the commencement of the battle. 
 
 When the British columns were within five hundred yards of the 
 American line, General Hull ordered the troops to retire into the 
 fort, and the artillery not to fire. A white flag was then hoisted, 
 and a British officer rode up to inquire the cause. A commu- 
 nication was opened between the commanding generals, which 
 speedily terminated in a capitulation. The fortress of Detroit, 
 Avith the garrison and munitions of war, were surrendered. The 
 detachment under Cass and McArthur, and even the troops at 
 the river Raisin, were included in the capitulation. Captain 
 Brush, however, not considering himself bound by Hull's en- 
 gagement, on being summoned to surrender, broke up his camp 
 and retreated towards Ohio. The Canadians who had joined 
 Hull, or accepted his protection, were abandoned to their fate, 
 and many of them were subsequently executed as traitors. 
 
 Every circumstance which could heighten the disgrace of a 
 surrender was found in the present instance. Hull did not even 
 call a council of his officers. His only object seems to have 
 been to escape from the Indian scalping-knife. When he had 
 first entered Canada the British had at Maiden but 100 regu- 
 lar troops, 400 Canadian militia, and a few hundred Indians. 
 After General Brock's arrival, their whole force was 830 regu- 
 lars, 400 militia, and 600 Indians. The army surrendered by 
 79 3C
 
 G26 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 General Hull amounted to 2500 men, of whom 1200 were 
 militia. 
 
 The indignation of the Americans at this disgraceful transac- 
 tion knew no bounds. When the arrogant proclamation of Hull 
 was contrasted with his subsequent indecisive and timid move- 
 ments, and his ultimate abandonment of all manhood or decency, 
 his whole conduct was regarded with a unanimous feeling of 
 derision and contempt. The government, of course, brought 
 him to trial by court martial as soon as he was exchanged. He 
 was charged with treason, cowardice, and neglect of duty, found 
 guilty of the two latter charges, and sentenced to be shot. In 
 consideration of former services his life was spared. The trial 
 did not take place till 1814, but it is mentioned in this connec- 
 tion in order that the whole affair may be dismissed as speedily 
 as possible from the reader's notice. 
 
 The surrender of Hull left the north-western frontier exposed 
 to the incursions of the British and Indians, and occasioned 
 considerable alarm in the neighbouring states. Nearly ten 
 thousand volunteers immediately offered their services to the 
 government ; and being placed under the command of General 
 William H. Harrison, marched towards the territory of Michi- 
 gan. This force, however, was not sufficiently disciplined to 
 act with the efficiency of regular troops, and before any thing 
 could be done towards retrieving the important losses of the 
 early part of the campaign, the winter set in. Their operations 
 were chiefly confined to incursions into the country of the In- 
 dians, who had generally become hostile. 
 
 General Van Rensselaer, of the New York militia, had com- 
 mand of what was called the army of the centre, destined also 
 for the invasion of Canada. His force consisted of regulars 
 and militia, who were assembled at Lewistown, on the Niagara 
 river. On the opposite side of the river was a fortified British 
 post, called Queenstown, which was the first object of attack. 
 On the 13th of October, a detachment of 1000 men, led by 
 Colonel Van Rensselaer, crossed the river and effected a land- 
 ing under a heavy fire from the British. 
 
 In the onset, the colonel was wounded ; and the troops under 
 Colonels Christie and Scott were led on to the assault of the 
 fortress. They succeeded in capturing it ; and a reinforce- 
 ment of six hundred men, under General Brock, arriving and
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR OF 1812. 
 
 627 
 
 BATTLE OF QOEENSTOWN. 
 
 attacking the victors, were repulsed with the loss of their com- 
 mander. 
 
 General Van Rensselaer had crossed the river, and now re- 
 turned to bring over a reinforcement of the Americans. But 
 his troops refused to obey the order ; and the British, receiving 
 another reinforcement, recaptured the fort after a severe 
 engagement, in which the greater part of Colonel Van Rensse- 
 laer's detachment was destroyed. 
 
 General Van Rensselaer now retired from the service, and 
 was succeeded by General Smyth, of Virginia. He commenced 
 operations by issuing a proclamation addressed to the " men of 
 New York," and couched in terms similar to those employed by 
 General Hull. He was soon at the head of an army of 4500 
 men ; and the 28th of November was the day appointed for 
 crossing the river for the third invasion of Canada. The troops 
 were embarked, but the enemy appearing on the opposite shore 
 with a determined front, a council of war was held, and the 
 invasion was postponed till the 1st of December, when, although 
 1500 of the men were ready and willing to cross the river, a 
 second council of war decided that it was inexpedient to pro-
 
 628 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ceed, and the troops were again debarked. The invasion of 
 Canada at that point was thus finally abandoned for the season. 
 The army of the north was commanded by General Dearborn. 
 A part of the forces were stationed at Greenbush, near Albany, 
 and the remainder at Plattsburgh, on Lake Champlain. This 
 division of the army effected nothing but an incursion into 
 Canada, in which a small body of British and Indians and 
 some military stores were taken. The failure of the other 
 expeditions had the effect of discouraging the general from any 
 serious attempt on the British territory. 
 
 FORT NIAGARA.
 
 CAPTURE OF THE GUERRIERE. 
 
 629 
 
 CAPTAIN HULL. 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE GUERRIERE. 
 
 HE disasters of the Americans 
 in the land campaign of 1812 
 were compensated by several bril- 
 liant victories. The first remark- 
 able naval victory was that of the 
 frigate Constitution, Captain Hull, 
 over the frigate Guerriere, Cap- 
 tain Dacres. The action took 
 place on the 19th of August, 1812. 
 At half-past three, p. m., Captain Hull made out his an- 
 tagonist to be a frigate, and continued the chase till he was 
 within about three miles, when he cleared for action ; the chase
 
 630 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 backed her main-topsail and waited for him to come down. As 
 soon as the Constitution was ready, Hull bore down to bring 
 the enemy to close action immediately ; but, on his coming 
 within gun-shot, the Guerriere gave a broadside and filled away 
 and wore, giving a broadside on the other tack, but without 
 effect, her shot falling short. She then continued wearing and 
 manoeuvring for about three-quarters of an hour to get a raking 
 position ; but, finding she could not, she bore up and ran under 
 her topsails and jib, with the wind on the quarter. During this 
 time, the Constitution not having fired a single broadside, the 
 impatience of the officers and men to engage was excessive. 
 Nothing but the most rigid discipline could have restrained 
 them. Hull, however, was preparing to decide the contest in a 
 summary method of his own. He now made sail to bring the 
 Constitution up with her antagonist, and at five minutes before 
 six, P. M., being alongside ivithin half pistol-shot, he commenced 
 a heavy fire from all his guns, double-shotted with round and 
 grape, and so well directed and so well kept up was the fire, 
 that in sixteen minutes the mizen-mast of the Guerriere went 
 by the board, and her mainyard in the slings, and the hull, rig- 
 ging, and sails were completely torn to pieces. The fire was 
 kept up for fifteen minutes longer, when the main and foremast 
 went, taking with them every spar except the bowsprit, and 
 leaving the Guerriere a complete wreck. On seeing this, Hull 
 ordered the firing to cease, having brought his enemy in thirty 
 minutes after he was fairly alongside to such a condition that 
 a few more broadsides must have carried her down. 
 
 The prize being so shattered that she was not worth bringing 
 into port, after removing the prisoners to the Constitution, she 
 was set on fire and blown up. In the action, the Constitution 
 lost seven killed and seven wounded ; the Guerriere, fifteen 
 killed, sixty-two wounded, including the captain and several 
 officers, and twenty-four missing. 
 
 The news of this victory was received in the United States 
 with the greatest joy and exultation. All parties united in 
 celebrating it, and the citizens and public authorities vied with 
 each other in bestowing marks of approbation upon Captain 
 Hull and his gallant officers and crew.
 
 CAPTURE OF THE FROLIC. 
 
 631 
 
 CAPTAIN JONES. 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE FROLIC AND THE 
 MACEDONIAN. 
 
 ~]N 1811, Captain Jacob Jones was transferred 
 by the secretary of the navy to the com- 
 mand of the sloop-of-war Wasp, mounting 
 eighteen twenty-four pound carronades ; and 
 was despatched, in the spring of 1812, with 
 communications from our government to its 
 functionaries at the courts of St. Cloud and St. James. Before 
 he returned from this voyage, war had been declared by the 
 United States against Great Britain. Captain Jones refitted 
 his ship with all possible despatch, and repaired to sea on a 
 cruise, in which he met with no other luck than the capture of 
 an inconsiderable prize.
 
 632 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 He sailed from the port of Philadelphia on the 13th of 
 October, 1812, with a gallant set of officers, and a high-spirited 
 and confident crew. On the 18th of the same month, the 
 Wasp encountered a heavy gale, during which she lost her jib- 
 boom and two valuable seamen. On the following night, being 
 a bright moonlight, a seaman on the look-out discovered five 
 strange sail, steering eastward. The Wasp hauled to the wind- 
 ward and closely watched the movements of these vessels until 
 daylight next morning, being the 18th, when it was found 
 that they were six large merchant vessels under convoy of a 
 sloop-of-war. The former were well manned, two of them 
 mounting sixteen guns each. Notwithstanding the apparent 
 disparity of force, Captain Jones determined to hazard an at- 
 tack, and, as the weather was boisterous, and the swell of the 
 sea unusually high, he ordered down top-gallant yards, closely 
 reefed the topsails, and prepared for action. The convoy sailed 
 ahead and lay to, five or six miles distant, while the sloop-of- 
 war, with Spanish colours flying, remained under easy sail, the 
 Wasp coming down to windward on her larboard side, within 
 pistol-shot, displaying the American ensign and pendant. Upon 
 the enemy's being hailed, he hauled down the Spanish flag, 
 hoisted the British ensign, and opened a broadside of cannon 
 and musketry. The fire was promptly returned by the Wasp, 
 the vessels gradually neared each other, and each maintained 
 the combat with great animation, the English vessel firing with 
 most rapidity, but, as the result proved, with no great precision. 
 In a few minutes after the commencement of the action, the 
 main-topmast of the Wasp was shot away, and, falling on the 
 topsail yard, across the larboard fore and foretop-sail braces, 
 caused the head yards to be unmanageable during the conti- 
 nuance of the action. In two or three minutes more, the gaft 
 and mizzen-top-gallant sail were shot away. Each vessel con- 
 tinued in the position in which the action commenced, and main- 
 tained a close and spirited fire. Captain Jones directed his 
 officers not to fire except when the vessel rolled downwards, so 
 that the shot was either poured on the enemy's deck or below 
 it, while the English fired as soon as they had loaded, without 
 regard to the position of their vessel, and thus their balls were 
 either thrown away or passed through the rigging. The Wasp 
 now passed ahead of the enemy, raked her, and resumed her
 
 CAPTURE OF THE FROLIC. 
 
 633 
 
 WASP AND FROLIC. 
 
 original position. It was now obvious that the Wasp had 
 greatly the advantage in the combat, and Captain Jones 
 thought the contest might be speedily decided by boarding, but 
 hesitated because the roughness of the sea might endanger the 
 safety of both vessels if brought in contact. As, however, the 
 braces and rigging of the "Wasp were so injured by the shot of 
 the enemy that he was fearful his masts, being unsupported, 
 would go by the board, and that the enemy might escape, he 
 therefore determined at all hazards to board and thus decide 
 the contest. With this determination he Avore ship, run athwart 
 the enemy's bow, so that the jib-boom came in between the 
 main and mizzen rigging of the Wasp. The enemy being 
 in a position so inviting for a raking broadside, one was 
 promptly ordered. So closely in contact were the contending 
 vessels, that, while loading, the rammers of the Wasp struck 
 against the sides of the opposing vessel, so that two of the 
 guns of the former entered through the bow of the ports of the 
 latter and swept the whole length of the deck. At this junc- 
 ture, a sprightly and gallant seaman, named Jack Lang, who 
 had once been impressed on board a British man-of-war, jumped 
 80
 
 634 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 on a gun with his cutlass, and was about to leap on board the 
 enemy, when Captain Jones ordered him back, wishing to give 
 a closing broadside before boarding. His impetuosity, however, 
 could not be restrained, and, observing the ardour of the crew 
 generally, Lieutenants Biddle and Booth gallantly led them on ; 
 but, to their great surprise, when they reached the enemy's 
 deck not a single uninjured individual was found on deck ex- 
 cept the seaman at the wheel and three officers. The deck was 
 covered with the dying and dead, and was slippery with blood. 
 When Lieutenant Biddle reached the quarter-deck, the com- 
 mander and two other officers threw down their swords, and 
 made an inclination of their bodies, thus affording evidence 
 that they had surrendered. 
 
 During the early part of the action, the ensign of the enemy 
 had been shot down, upon which a British seaman carried it 
 aloft again and nailed it to the mast. In this state it continued 
 floating, they not being able to lower it, 'until one of the United 
 States officers ascended the rigging and tore it from its attach- 
 ments. In forty-three minutes from the commencement of the 
 action, full possession was taken of the enemy, which proved 
 to be his Britannic majesty's sloop-of-war Frolic, commanded 
 by Captain Whynyates. 
 
 On examining the berth-deck, it was found crowded with the 
 dead and wounded, there being but an inconsiderable propor- 
 tion of the crew of the Frolic which had escaped unhurt. Soon 
 after Lieutenant Biddle took possession of the enemy, her 
 masts fell by the board, so that she lay a complete wreck. The 
 contest being now terminated, Captain Jones ordered Dr. New, 
 the assistant surgeon of the Wasp, to visit the wounded enemy, 
 and to carry with him every thing on board which could in 
 any manner contribute to their comfort. 
 
 The force of the Frolic consisted of sixteen thirty-two pound 
 carronades, four twelve-pounders on the main-deck, and two 
 twelve-pound carronades. She was, therefore, superior to the 
 Wasp, by four twelve-pounders. The officers of the Frolic 
 stated that the number of men on the ship's books was one 
 hundred and ten ; but, as boats were seen plying between the 
 Frolic and some of the convoy in the morning before the 
 action, it was believed that she received many volunteers in 
 addition to her regular crew. This belief was strengthened by 

 
 CAPTURE OF THE FROLIC. 635 
 
 the circumstance, that one of the vessels in the convoy came 
 alongside the Wasp next morning after her capture, and asked 
 assistance to reef his sails, as he had but two men and a boy 
 on board. It was intimated that he had thus diminished his 
 crew by allowing volunteers to go on board the Frolic. 
 
 The officers, seamen, marines, and boys on board the Wasp, 
 numbered one hundred and thirty-five, which, from the best 
 information which could be obtained, was less in number than 
 that of the enemy. Both vessels, however, had more men than 
 was essential to their efficiency, and the officers of the Frolic 
 candidly acknowledged that they had more men than they 
 knew what to do with. It appears, therefore, that, while there 
 was an equality of strength in the crews, there was an ine- 
 quality in the number of guns and weight of metal, the Frolic 
 having four twelve-pounders more than the Wasp. 
 
 The exact number of killed and wounded on board the Frolic 
 could not be ascertained with any degree of precision ; but, 
 from the admissions of the British officers, it was supposed that 
 the number killed was about thirty, including two officers ; and 
 of those wounded, between forty and fifty. The captain and 
 every other officer on board were more or less severely wounded. 
 The Wasp sustained a loss of only five men killed and fivo 
 wounded. 
 
 A busy scene now ensued, in disposing of the dead, taking 
 care of the wounded, and repairing the damages which the 
 Wasp sustained during the conflict. Lieutenant Biddle and 
 a portion of the officers and crew of the Wasp were similarly 
 engaged on board the Frolic. While engaged in erecting jury- 
 masts on board the latter vessel, a suspicious sail was seen to 
 windward, upon which Captain Jones directed Lieutenant Bid- 
 die to shape her course for Charleston, or any other southern 
 port of the United States, while the Wasp would continue her 
 cruise. 
 
 The strange sail coming down rapidly, both vessels prepared 
 for action, but soon discovered, to the mortification of the vic- 
 tors of this well-fought action, that the new enemy was a 
 seventy-four, which proved to be the Poictiers, commanded by 
 Commodore Beresford. Firing a shot over the Frolic, she 
 passed her, and soon overhauled the Wasp, which, in her crip- 
 pled state, was unable to escape. Both vessels were thus cap-
 
 636 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 tured and carried into Bermuda. Captain Jones and his 
 officers were placed on parole of honour at St. George's, Ber- 
 muda, and were treated there with great courtesy, particularly 
 by the officers of the ninety-eighth and one hundred and second 
 regiments of British infantry. Dinners, balls, and other acts 
 of civility were tendered with a cordiality of manner which 
 made our officers almost forget their misfortunes. 
 
 After remaining in St. George's a few weeks, a cartel was 
 prepared, by which the officers and crew of the Wasp were con- 
 veyed to New York. On the return of Captain Jones to the 
 United States, he was everywhere received with demonstrations 
 of the highest respect and admiration for the skill and gallantry 
 which he displayed in his combat with the enemy. In his jour- 
 ney to Washington, whither he was ordered by the President 
 of the United States, he received brilliant entertainments in 
 the cities through which he passed. 
 
 The legislature of Delaware, his native state, gave to him 
 a vote of thanks and an elegant piece of plate, with appro- 
 priate engravings. On motion of James A. Bayard, of Dela- 
 ware, the Congress of the United States appropriated twenty- 
 five thousand dollars, as a compensation to Captain Jones, his 
 officers, and crew, for the loss they sustained by the recapture 
 of the Frolic. They also voted a gold medal to Captain Jones, 
 and a silver medal to each of his commissioned officers. 
 
 On the 25th of October, 1812, in latitude 29° N., longi- 
 tude 29° 30' W., Commodore Decatur, commanding the frigate 
 United States, fell in with his Britannic majesty's ship Mace- 
 donian, mounting forty-nine carriage guns, the odd gun shift- 
 ing. She was a frigate of the largest class, two years old, four 
 months out of dock, and reputed one of the best sailers in the 
 British service. The action, after lasting an hour and a half, in 
 consequence of the enemy being to windward, and having the 
 advantage of engaging at his own distance, terminated in the 
 capture of the Macedonian. The British ship lost her mizen- 
 mast, fore and main-topmasts and mainyard, and was much cut 
 up in her hull. The damage sustained by the United States 
 was not so much as to render her return into port necessary, 
 and had Commodore Decatur not deemed it important to see 
 his prize in, he would have continued the cruise.
 
 3D
 
 CAPTURE OF THE JAVA. 
 
 639 
 
 COMMODORE BAINBRIDQE. 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE JAVA. 
 
 HE Constitution, under the command of 
 Commodore Bainbridge, sailed on 
 the 26th October, and arrived off 
 "V- St. Salvador on the 13th Decem- 
 
 || ber. On the 29th, in latitude 
 2: 13° 6' south, and about ten 
 leagues from the coast of Brazil, 
 the Constitution fell in with an 
 enemy's frigate, the Java, bound for the East Indies, with a 
 number of supernumerary officers and seamen for the Bombay
 
 610 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 station. The commodore, finding the frigate fairly within 
 his reach, prepared with alacrity for action. The stranger 
 showed English colours, and bore down, with the intention of 
 raking the Constitution. Bainbridge avoided this, and the 
 enemy having hauled down colours, and left flying a jack only, 
 the commodore gave orders to fire ahead of the enemy to make 
 him show full colours. This was returned with a full broadside, 
 and a general action commenced, both ships striving to rake 
 and to avoid being raked. 
 
 Soon after the commencement of the action, Bainbridge re- 
 ceived a ball in the hip ; and a few minutes later a shot carried 
 away the wheel, and drove a small bolt with violence into his 
 thigh. These injuries did not induce him to sit down, and he 
 continued on deck, giving orders until eleven o'clock at night. 
 The action lasted an hour and fifty-five minutes, when the enemy 
 struck her flag, and the American commodore sent Lieutenant 
 Parker to take possession. The Java was commanded by Cap- 
 tain Lambert, a distinguished officer, who was mortally wounded, 
 and died a few days after the battle. The enemy's loss was not 
 less than sixty killed and one hundred wounded. The Consti- 
 tution lost nine killed and twenty-five wounded. The two ves- 
 sels presented a striking contrast in appearance, at the close of 
 the action : the Constitution " actually coming out of the battle 
 as she had gone into it, with royal-yards across, and every spar, 
 from the highest to the lowest, in its place," though some of 
 them were considerably injured; while the Java lay upon the 
 water an unmanageable wreck, with every spar shot away, and 
 but a few stumps left standing. Bainbridge displayed great 
 kindness in the treatment of his prisoners, and having destroyed 
 his prize, he landed his captives at St. Salvador, on parole of 
 honour not to engage in hostilities against the United States, 
 until exchanged. 
 
 The Constitution soon returned home for repairs, and Bain- 
 bridge entered Boston harbour in triumph. 
 
 _Uia*~
 
 81 
 
 3d2
 
 MASSACRE OF THE RIVER RAISIN. 
 
 643 
 
 GENERAL WINCHESTER. 
 
 MASSACRE OF THE RIVER RAISIN, AND 
 SIEGE OF FORT MEIGS. 
 
 HE people of the Western States were 
 naturally anxious to recover the posts 
 which had been lost by General Hull 
 on the north-western frontier ; and 
 thus to relieve themselves from the 
 danger of incursions from the British 
 and Indians in that region. During 
 the autumn of 1812, General Harrison, 
 who had command of the army in that quarter, was principally 
 occupied in collecting and organizing his forces preparatory to 
 a winter campaign. Nothing of importance was effected, as 
 we have already had occasion to remark, before the winter set in. 
 General Winchester, with a detachment of seven hundred 
 and fifty men, was sent forward in advance of the main body ;
 
 644 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 and while General Harrison was collecting his forces at San- 
 dusky, with a view to join Winchester, and advance upon Mai- 
 den and Detroit, the latter officer received a pressing call from 
 the inhabitants of Frenchtown, on the river Raisin, for protection 
 against the British and Indians assembled at Maiden. Ad- 
 vancing within three miles of the town, on the 17th of January, 
 he learned that the enemy had already taken possession of it. 
 He attacked them on the 18th, and drove them from their po- 
 sition with considerable slaughter. On the 20th, he advanced 
 to within twenty miles of Maiden, where a British force much 
 stronger than his own was stationed. 
 
 General Winchester's desire to afford a relief to the inhabi- 
 tants of Frenchtown had thus brought his detachment into a 
 situation of no little peril. The expedition in which he was en- 
 gaged had been undertaken without the knowledge of General 
 Harrison, who, on learning his advance, sent for reinforcements, 
 and pushed forward with the main body in hopes of affording 
 him relief. 
 
 The British were not slow to perceive their advantage. On 
 the evening of the 21st of January, Colonel Proctor left Maiden 
 with six hundred British and Canadian troops, and one thousand 
 Indians, under the command of their chiefs, Splitlog and Round- 
 head, and at daybreak of the 22d, commenced a furious attack 
 upon the Americans. General Winchester's left wing, amounting 
 to six hundred men, was protected by pickets ; the right wing, 
 one hundred und fifty in number, being exposed, was speedily 
 defeated, and nearly the whole massacred by the Indians, who 
 cut off their retreat. A detachment of one hundred sent out to 
 their relief shared the same fate. General Winchester and Col- 
 onel Lewis, in attempting to rally them, were made prisoners. 
 The left wing sustained the unequal contest with undaunted 
 valour until eleven o'clock, when General Winchester capitu- 
 lated for them, stipulating for their protection from the fury of 
 the Indians. This engagement was violated on the next day, 
 when a large body of Indians fell upon the wounded, toma- 
 hawked and scalped them, and, setting fire to the houses, con- 
 sumed the dead and the dying in one undistinguished confla- 
 gration. In permitting this massacre, Proctor seems to have 
 counted on daunting the courage of the Americans. But the 
 effect was directly the reverse of what was intended. New
 
 MASSACRE OF THE RIVER RAISIN. 
 
 645 
 
 MASSACRE 07 THE KIVER RAISIN. 
 
 volunteers, fired by these barbarities, flocked to the standard of 
 their country, and were eventually successful in avenging their 
 murdered fellow citizens. 
 
 General Harrison, having received considerable reinforce- 
 ments from Kentucky and Ohio, advanced to the rapids of the 
 Miami, and there erected a fort which he called Fort Meigs, in 
 honour of the governor of Ohio. This position had been se- 
 lected as a suitable post for receiving reinforcements and sup- 
 plies from Ohio and Kentucky, protecting the borders of Lake 
 Erie, and concentrating the forces intended for the recapture 
 of Detroit, and the invasion of Canada. 
 
 On the 26th of April, General Proctor, with two thousand 
 regulars, militia, and Indians, from Maiden, appeared on the 
 bank of the river opposite the fort, and, erecting batteries on an 
 eminence, commenced a regular siege. The Indians crossed the 
 river on the 27th, and established themselves in the rear of the 
 American lines. A heavy fire of shot and shells was poured 
 in upon the fort for several days, and on the 3d of May, a bat- 
 tery was erected on the left bank of the river, within two hun- 
 dred and fifty yards of the American lines. 
 
 General Harrison now received a summons to surrender, 
 which was gallantly refused. On the 5th of May, General Clay,
 
 646 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL HARRISON. 
 
 with twelve hundred Kentuckians, advanced to the relief of 
 Fort Meigs, and by a spirited attack, succeeded in driving the 
 besiegers from their works. Eight hundred of his troops hav- 
 ing subsequently dispersed in the woods, in pursuit of the In- 
 dians, were drawn into an ambuscade, and compelled to sur- 
 render. They were saved from massacre only by the decisive 
 interference of the Indian chief Tecumseh, who humanely re- 
 strained his followers from their usual atrocities. Of the eight 
 hundred men only one hundred and fifty escaped, the remainder 
 being slain or captured. General Proctor, seeing no prospect 
 of taking the fort, and being deserted by his Indian allies, who 
 were heartily weary of the siege, abandoned his position on the 
 9th of May, and returned to Maiden. General Harrison, having 
 repaired the fort, left it under the command of General Clay, 
 and returned to Ohio for reinforcements. Nothing further was 
 attempted in this quarter until a naval force was ready for ac- 
 tion on Lake Erie.
 
 CAPTURE OF YORK. 
 
 647 
 
 COMMODORE CHADNCEY. 
 
 CAPTURE OF YORK, AND DEFENCE OF 
 SACKETTS HARBOUR. 
 
 3 HE principal object of 
 the campaign of 1813, 
 on the Canadian bor- 
 der, was the capture of 
 Montreal. To effect 
 this, it was essential to gain the 
 command of Lake Ontario. Sack- 
 ett's Harbour, on the east end of 
 the lake, near its outlet, was se- 
 lected as a naval depot ; and Com- 
 modore Chauncey had been occu- 
 pied since the month of October, 1812, in building and equip-
 
 648 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 sackett's harbour. 
 
 ping a squadron sufficiently powerful to cope with that of the 
 enemy, which consisted of six vessels, mounting in all eighty 
 guns. In this he was successful ; and having made several cap- 
 tures in the autumn of 1812, he was enabled, in the spring of 
 the next year, to acquire the complete ascendency on the lake, 
 confining every British ship to the harbour of Kingston. 
 
 General Dearborn had now under his command a respectable 
 force of six thousand men, composing the army of the north ; 
 and as Montreal was in a comparatively defenceless state, and 
 could receive no reinforcements until June, it was his proper 
 policy to have made an immediate descent upon that city. Unfor- 
 tunately his exertions were directed to a much less important 
 object. On the 28d of April, he embarked at Sackett's Harbour 
 with sixteen hundred men, on an expedition against York, the 
 capital of Upper Canada, situated at the head of Lake Ontario. 
 On the 27th he arrived at his destination, and immediately com- 
 menced a disembarkation. Remaining on board the fleet, he 
 intrusted the command to General Pike, who succeeded in 
 landing, though opposed by a superior force of the enemy, who, 
 after a severe action, were driven to their fortifications. The 
 remainder of the forces having effected a landing, the whole 
 army advanced to the assault, carried the first battery, and was
 
 CAPTURE OF YORK. 
 
 649 
 
 GENERAL PIKE. 
 
 approaching the main works, when a magazine of the British, 
 prepared for the purpose, blew up with a tremendous explosion, 
 destroying one hundred of the assailants. General Pike was 
 mortally wounded by a stone which was thrown up by the ex- 
 plosion and struck him on the breast. 
 
 He was immediately conveyed on board the commodore's ship, 
 and soon expired. The troops paused a few moments at this 
 unexpected catastrophe, but soon pressed forward and gained 
 the possession of the town. The government hall was burned, 
 contrary to the orders of the American general. The British 
 lost one hundred killed, and six hundred wounded and prisoners. 
 The Americans, three hundred and twenty killed and wounded. 
 The object of the expedition being attained, the fleet pro- 
 ceeded to Niagara, landed the troops, and returned to Sackett's 
 Harbour. 
 
 On embarking for York, General Dearborn had left Sackett's 
 82 3 E
 
 050 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Harbour in rather a defenceless state. It was consequently 
 attacked on the 29th of May, by the combined land and naval 
 forces of the British, under Sir George Prevost and Sir James 
 Yeo. General Brown, of the New York militia, had the chief 
 command at the harbour. He detached Colonel Mills, with the 
 militia and Albany volunteers, to oppose the enemy's landing. 
 On their approach, the militia fired without orders, and too soon 
 to produce any effect, and then fled. Colonel Mills was slain in 
 attempting to rally them. General Brown succeeded in rallying 
 about one hundred, and fell upon the enemy's rear. The British 
 advanced towards the village, and encountering Colonel Backus, 
 with the regular troops and a few militia, after a severe action 
 were repulsed and driven to their boats. Lieutenant Chauncey, 
 who had been ordered to set fire to the store-house| and bar- 
 racks in case of defeat, anticipated that result, and thus caused 
 the loss of the supplies which were essential to the success of 
 the campaign. 
 
 
 DEATH OP GENERAL PIKE.
 
 DEFENCE OF FORT STEPHENSON. 
 
 G51 
 
 COLONEL CROGHAN. 
 
 DEFENCE OF FORT STEPHENSON. 
 
 on the 
 siegers 
 
 APTAIN CROGHAN com- 
 manded, a short time, Fort 
 Defiance, on the Miami of 
 the lakes; but after the 
 defeat of General Winches- 
 ter, he was ordered to Fort Meigs, upon 
 which the enemy designed an attack. 
 Here General Harrison commanded in 
 person. Every disposition, both for 
 attack and defence, was made by the 
 conflicting parties. The siege began 
 28th of April, and on the 9th of May following the be- 
 commenced their retreat, covered with disgrace. Here
 
 652 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Croghan particularly signalized himself with his corps, by seve- 
 ral handsome and brilliant charges on the enemy. For his con- 
 duct on this occasion, he received the particular notice of the 
 commanding general ; and was shortly after advanced to a ma- 
 jority, and was stationed with his battalion at Upper Sandusky. 
 From this he was ordered to Fort Stephenson, twenty miles 
 above the mouth of Sandusky river, with orders from General 
 Harrison to destroy the stores and abandon the fort, if the 
 enemy made his appearance. Learning that the enemy de- 
 signed to attack him, he disobeyed his orders, and immortalized 
 his fame. He laboured day and night to place the fort in a 
 state of defence. 
 
 The necessity of cutting a ditch round the fort immediately 
 presented itself to him. This was done ; but in order to render 
 the enemy's plans abortive, should they even succeed in leaping 
 the ditch, which was nine feet wide, and six deep, he had large 
 logs placed on the top of the fort, and so adjusted that an in- 
 considerable weight would cause them to fall from their position, 
 and crush to death all who might be situated below. 
 
 A short time before the action he wrote the following con- 
 cise and impressive letter to a friend. " The enemy are not 
 far distant : I expect an attack — I will defend this post to the 
 last extremity. I have just sent away the women and children, 
 that I may be able to act without encumbrance. Be satisfied : 
 I hope to do my duty. The example set me by my revolution- 
 ary kindred is before me — let me die rather than prove un- 
 worthy of their name." 
 
 On the first of August, General Proctor made his appearance 
 before the fort. His troops consisted of 500 regulars, and 
 about 700 Indians of the most ferocious kind. There were but 
 133 effective men in the garrison, and the works covered one 
 acre of ground. The pickets were about ten feet high, sur- 
 rounded by a ditch, with a block-house at each angle of the 
 fort, one of which contained a six-pounder. This was the exact 
 state of the post at the time the enemy appeared. The first 
 movement made by the enemy was to make such a disposition 
 of his forces as to prevent the escape of the garrison, if they 
 should be disposed to attempt it. He then sent Colonel Elliot 
 with a flag, to demand the surrender of the fort. He was met 
 by Ensign Shipp. The British officer observed that General
 
 DEFENCE OF FORT STEPHENSON. 653 
 
 Froctor had a number of cannon, a large body of regular troops, 
 and so many Indians, whom it was impossible to control, that 
 if the fort was taken, as it must be, the whole of the garrison 
 would be massacred. Shipp answered, that it was the deter- 
 mination of Major Croghan, his officers, and men, to defend the 
 garrison or be buried in it, and that they might do their best. 
 Colonel Elliott addressed Mr. Shipp again — " You are a fine 
 young man — I pity your situation — for God's sake surrender, 
 and prevent the dreadful slaughter that must follow resist- 
 ance." Shipp turned from him with indignation, and was 
 immediately taken hold of by an Indian, who attempted to 
 wrest his sword from him. Major Croghan, observing what 
 passed, called to Shipp to come into the fort, which was instantly 
 obeyed, and the action commenced. The firing began from 
 the gun-boats in the rear, and was kept up during the night. 
 
 At an early hour the next morning, three six-pounders, 
 which had been planted during the night within two hundred 
 and fifty yards of the pickets, began to play upon the fort, but 
 with little effect. About four, p. m., all the enemy's guns were 
 concentrated against the north-western angle of the fort, for the 
 purpose of making a breach. To counteract the effect of their 
 fire, Major Croghan caused that point to be strengthened by 
 means of bags of flour, sand, and other materials, in such a 
 manner that the picketing sustained little or no injury. But 
 the enemy, supposing that their fire had sufficiently shattered 
 the pickets, advanced, to the number of five hundred, to storm 
 the place, at the same time making two feints on different 
 points. 
 
 The column which advanced against the north-western angle 
 was so completely enveloped in smoke, as not to be discovered 
 until it had approached within eighteen or twenty paces of the 
 lines, but the men being all at their posts, and ready to receive 
 it, commenced so heavy and galling a fire as to throw the 
 column into confusion ; but being quickly rallied, Lieutenant- 
 colonel Short, the leader of the column, exclaimed, " Come on, 
 
 my brave fellows, we will give these d d Yankee rascals no 
 
 quarters," and immediately leaped into the ditch, followed by 
 his troops. As soon as the ditch was entirely filled by the as- 
 sailants, Major Croghan ordered the six-pounder, which had 
 been masked in the block-house, to be fired. It had been loaded 
 
 3e2 
 
 X
 
 051 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 DEFENCE OF FORT STEPHENSON. 
 
 with a double charge of musket balls and slugs. The piece 
 completely raked the ditch, from end to end. The first fire 
 levelled the one half in death ; the second or third either killed 
 or wounded every one except eleven, who were covered by the 
 dead bodies. At the same time, the fire of small arms was so 
 incessant and destructive, that it was in vain the British officers 
 exerted themselves to lead on the balance of the column ; it 
 retired in disorder under a shower of shot, and sought safety 
 in an adjoining wood. The loss of the enemy in killed was 
 about one hundred and fifty, besides a considerable number of 
 their allies. The Americans had but one killed and seven 
 slightly wounded. Early in the morning of the third, the ene- 
 my retreated down the river, after having abandoned consider- 
 able baggage. 
 
 The garrison was composed of regulars, all Kentuckians ; a 
 finer company of men was not to be found in the United States, 
 perhaps not in the world. 
 
 Notwithstanding his disobedience of orders, for the successful 
 defence of this post, Major Croghan was raised to the rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel.
 
 COMMODORE PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. 
 
 655 
 
 COMMODORE PERRY. 
 
 COMMODORE PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE 
 ERIE.— BATTLE OF THE THAMES. 
 
 ERRY took charge of the 
 flotilla of gun-boats station- 
 ed in the harbour of New 
 York, early in 1812, with 
 the rank of master-com- 
 mandant. Here he remain- 
 ed about a year, disciplining 
 his crews. As war had be- 
 gun its ravages between 
 Great Britain and the United States, he sought a more active 
 sphere ; and, at his own request, he was transferred to the 
 service on the lakes.
 
 656 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 BUILDING OP THE FLEET ON LAKE ERIE. 
 
 In pursuance of this disposition of his services, he repaired 
 with a reinforcement of seamen to Sackett's Harbour, on Lake 
 Ontario, to act under Commodore Chauncey. The transporta- 
 tion of the seamen from the sea-board to the harbour, from its 
 novelty to the sons of Neptune, afforded them the highest 
 amusement, particularly as it was a " land-cruise" in the depth 
 of winter. 
 
 After remaining at Sackett's Harbour some time, Commodore 
 Chauncey despatched Perry to take charge of the squadron 
 then fitted and fitting out on Lake Erie, and to hasten their 
 equipments. At this time, the British fleet on that lake was 
 commanded by Captain Barclay, an officer of high standing, 
 rank, and skill, who had seen much service, and whose force 
 was of superior strength to the American squadron. 
 
 Perry pursued his object unmolested by the enemy, who was 
 continually hovering about the harbour. Having equipped and 
 manned his vessels, he buoyed them over the bar, on which was 
 only five feet of water, at the harbour's mouth of the port of 
 Erie, on the 4th of August, 1813. The enemy were peaceable 
 spectators of the scene. The next day he sailed in pursuit of 
 them, and returned to port on the 8th, without accomplishing 
 his object. The day following he was reinforced by several 
 officers, and eighty seamen under Lieutenant Elliot, which gave
 
 COMMODORE TERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. 657 
 
 his squadron a full complement. He again sailed on the 12th, 
 on a cruise, and on the 15th arrived at Sandusky Bay, in front 
 of the encampment of the American army, commanded by 
 General Harrison. Thence he proceeded to cruise off Maiden, 
 and the British commander thought proper to hug his force, for 
 protection, close under the guns of the British fortifications. 
 The inhabitants were filled with terror and consternation at the 
 sight of the American squadron, and the astonished Indian 
 allies of the British crown urged the British squadron to put to 
 sea, and give battle. They, however, felt themselves not dis- 
 posed to risk an engagement ; and Perry returned to Sanduskv 
 Bay. 
 
 Nothing of moment happened until the morning of the 10th 
 of September. The American squadron was then lying at 
 anchor at Put-in-Bay, and consisted of brigs Lawrence, Commo- 
 dore Perry, twenty guns ; Niagara, Captain Elliot, twenty guns ; 
 Caledonia, Purser McGrath, three guns ; schooners Ariel, Lieut. 
 Packet, four guns ; Scorpion, Sailing-master Champlin, two 
 guns ; Somers, Almy, two guns and two swivels ; Tigress, Lieu- 
 tenant Conklin, one gun ; Porcupine, Midshipman G. Senat, 
 one gun ; sloop Trippe, Lieutenant Smith, one gun ; in all, 
 fifty-four guns. 
 
 At sunrise they discovered the enemy, and immediately got 
 under way and stood for him, with a light wind at south-west, 
 The British force consisted of ship Detroit, nineteen guns, one 
 on pivot and two howitzers ; Queen Charlotte, seventeen guns, 
 one on pivot ; schooner Lady Prevost, thirteen guns, one on 
 pivot ; brig Hunter, ten guns ; sloop Little Belt, three guns ; 
 schooner Chippeway, one gun, two swivels ; in all, sixty-three 
 guns. 
 
 At ten, A. M., the wind hauled to the south-east, and brought 
 our squadron to windward. Commodore Perry then hoisted his 
 union jack, having for a motto the dying words of the valiant 
 Lawrence, " Don't give up the ship !" It was received with 
 repeated cheerings by the officers and crews. And now, having 
 formed his line, he bore for the enemy ; who likewise cleared 
 for action, and hauled up his courses. As the hostile squadrons 
 approached each other, suddenly a bugle was sounded from on 
 board the enemy's ship Detroit, and loud huzzas immediately 
 burst forth from all their crews.
 
 G58 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 As soon as the Lawrence came within the reach of the ene- 
 my's long guns, they opened a heavy fire upon her, which, from 
 the shortness of her guns, she was unable to return. Perry, 
 without waiting for his schooners, kept on his course, which 
 induced the enemy to suppose it was his intention to hoard. In 
 a few minutes, having gained a nearer position, he opened his 
 fire. The length of the enemy's guns, however, gave them 
 greatly the advantage, and the Lawrence was excessively cut 
 up, without being able to do any great damage in return. Their 
 shot pierced her sides in all directions, killing the men on the 
 berth-deck and in the steerage, where they had been taken 
 down to be dressed. One shot had nearly produced a fatal 
 explosion ; passing through the light room, it knocked the snuff 
 of the candle into the magazine ; fortunately the gunner hap- 
 pened to see it, and had the presence of mind to extinguish it 
 immediately with his hand. 
 
 Their heaviest fire was directed at the Lawrence, and Perry, 
 finding the hazard of his situation, made sail, and directed the 
 other vessels to follow, for the purpose of closing with the foe. 
 The tremendous fire, however, to which he was exposed, soon 
 cut away every brace and bowline, and the Lawrence became 
 unmanageable. 
 
 Even in this disastrous plight, she sustained the action for 
 upwards of two hours, within canister distance, though for a 
 great part of the time the Lawrence could not get more 
 than three guns to bear upon her antagonist. It was ad- 
 mirable to behold the perfect order and regularity that pre- 
 vailed among her valiant and devoted crew, throughout this 
 scene of horror. No trepidation, no confusion occurred, even 
 for an instant ; as fast as the men were wounded, they were 
 carried below, and others stept into their places ; the dead re- 
 mained where they fell, until after the action. At this junc- 
 ture, the fortune of the battle trembled on a point, and the 
 enemy believed the day their own. The Lawrence was reduced 
 to a mere wreck; her decks were streaming with blood, and 
 covered with mangled limbs, and the bodies of the slain ; nearly 
 the whole of her crew were either killed or wounded ; her guns 
 were dismounted, and the commodore and his officers helped to 
 work the last gun that was capable of being used. 
 
 Finding the Lawrence was incapable of further service, he
 
 COMMODORE PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. 659 
 
 gave his vessel in charge to Lieutenant Yarnall, who had already 
 distinguished himself by his bravery, and hauled down his 
 union, bearing the motto of Lawrence, and taking it under his 
 arm, ordered it to be put on board of the Niagara, which was 
 then in close engagement. In leaving the Lawrence, he gave 
 his pilot choice, either to remain on board or accompany him ; 
 the pilot replied, "He'd stick by him to the last," and jumped 
 into the boat. Perry went off from the ship standing up in the 
 stern of the boat, until the crew absolutely pulled him down 
 among them. Broadsides were levelled at him, and small arms 
 discharged by the enemy, two of whose vessels were within 
 musket-shot, and a third one nearer. His shipmates who re- 
 mained behind stood watching him in anxiety ; the balls struck 
 around him and flew over his head in every direction ; but the 
 same special Providence that seems to have watched over the 
 youthful hero throughout this desperate battle, conducted him 
 safely through a shower of shot, and they beheld with transport 
 his flag hoisted at the masthead of the Niagara. No sooner was 
 he on board, than Captain Elliot volunteered to put off in a 
 boat, and bring into action the schooners which had been kept 
 astern by light wind ; the offer was accepted, and Elliot left the 
 Niagara to put it in execution. 
 
 About this time the flag of the Lawrence came down. The 
 event was unavoidable ; she had sustained the whole fury of the 
 enemy, and was rendered incapable of defence : further show 
 of resistance would have proved but a most useless and cruel 
 carnage among the relics of her brave and mangled crew. The 
 enemy, however, were not able to take possession of her, and 
 subsequent circumstances enabled her again to hoist her flag. 
 
 Commodore Perry now made signal for close action, and the 
 small vessels got out their sweeps and made all sail. Finding 
 that the Niagara was but little injured, he determined, if pos- 
 sible, to break the enemy's line. He accordingly bore up and 
 passed ahead of the two ships and brig, giving them a raking 
 fire from his starboard guns, and also to a large schooner and 
 sloop from his larboard side, about half pistol-shot distance. 
 Having passed the whole squadron, he luffed up and laid his 
 ship alongside of the British commodore. The smaller vessels, 
 under the direction of Captain Elliot, having in the mean time 
 got within grape and canister distance, and keeping up a well-
 
 6G0 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 directed fire, the whole of the enemy struck, excepting two 
 small vessels, which attempted to escape, but were afterwards 
 taken. 
 
 The engagement lasted about three hours, and never was vic- 
 tory more decisive and complete. The captured squadron, as 
 has been shown, exceeded ours in weight of metal and number 
 of guns. Their crews were also more numerous ; the Ameri- 
 cans were a motley collection of some good seamen, mixed with 
 soldiers, volunteers, and boys, and many were on the sick list. 
 More prisoners were taken than we had men to guard. The 
 loss on both sides was severe. Scarcely any of the Lawrence's 
 crew escaped unhurt. Among those slain was Lieutenant 
 Brooks of the marines, a gay and elegant young officer, full of 
 spirit, of amiable manners, and remarkable for his personal 
 beauty. Lieutenant Yarnall, though repeatedly wounded, re- 
 fused to quit the deck, during the whole of the action. Com- 
 modore Perry, notwithstanding that he was continually in the 
 most exposed situations of the battle, escaped uninjured ; he 
 wore an ordinary seaman's dress, which, perhaps, prevented 
 him from being picked off by the enemy's sharp-shooters. He 
 had a younger brother with him on board the Lawrence, as mid- 
 shipman, who was equally fortunate in receiving no injury, 
 though his shipmates fell all around him. Two Indian chiefs 
 had been stationed in the tops of the Detroit, but when the ac- 
 tion became warm, so panic-struck were they with the terrors 
 of the scene, and the strange perils that surrounded them, that 
 they fled precipitately to the hold of the ship, where they were 
 found, after the battle, in a state of utter consternation. Thft 
 bodies of several other Indians were said to have been found 
 the next day on the shores of the lake, supposed to have been 
 slain during the engagement and thrown overboard. 
 
 The loss of the British in killed and wounded was estimated 
 at one hundred and sixty, and that of the Americans at one 
 hundred and twenty-three. On board the British fleet, the 
 captain and first lieutenant of the Queen Charlotte were killed. 
 Commodore Barclay, of the Lady Prevost, was severely wounded 
 and lost his hand. He, however, did himself honour by the 
 brave and obstinate resistance which he made. He was a fine- 
 looking officer, then about thirty-six years of age. He had seen 
 much service, having been desperately wounded in the battle of
 
 3T
 
 \
 
 COMMODORE PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. 663 
 
 Trafalgar, and afterwards losing an arm in another engagement 
 with the French. In the present battle, he was twice carried 
 below on account of his wounds, and had the misfortune to have 
 his remaining hand shot away. While below the second time, 
 his officers came down and told him that they must strike, as the 
 ships were cut to pieces, and the men could not be kept to their 
 guns. Commodore Barclay was then carried on deck, and after 
 taking a view of their situation, and rinding all chance of suc- 
 cess was over, reluctantly gave orders to strike. 
 
 In the course of the action, Perry noticed a prime and favour- 
 ite sailor, who was captain of one of the guns, very much 
 embarrassed with his piece, which, in consequence of the firelock 
 being broken, was rather unmanageable, and rebounded. Perry 
 approached him, and in an encouraging manner asked him, 
 " What is the matter ?" The honest tar, who had been showing 
 signs of infinite vexation, turned round, and, as if speaking of 
 a mistress, exclaimed reproachfully, " Sir, my gun behaves 
 shamefully !" He then levelled, and having taken aim, raised 
 up and squared himself, when suddenly a cannon ball struck 
 him in the breast, passed through him, and he fell dead without 
 a groan ! 
 
 Lieutenant Yarnall, of the Lawrence, behaved throughout 
 with great bravery and coolness. He was dressed as a common 
 seaman, a red bandanna handkerchief was tied round his neck, 
 and another round his head, to staunch two wounds which he 
 had received. From these, the blood trickled down his face, 
 and a splinter having passed through his nose, it had swelled to 
 a hideous magnitude. In this frightful plight, looking like the 
 very genius of carnage and ill luck, he came up to Perry, in the 
 hottest and bloodiest of the fight, and announced to him that all 
 the officers of his division were killed. Perry ordered others 
 in their place. Shortly after, Yarnall returned with a repeti- 
 tion of the dismal tidings that all the officers were shot down ! 
 " Then, sir," said Perry, "you must endeavour to make out by 
 yourself; I have no more to furnish you with." 
 
 Soon after the victory on Lake Erie, the president of the 
 United States appointed Oliver H. Perry to the rank of captain 
 in the navy. 
 
 The commodore was presented with the freedom of the cities 
 of New York and Albany.
 
 664 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 HARRISON CROSSING LAKE ERIE. 
 
 The thanks of congress were voted to the commodore, his 
 officers, seamen, and marines ; and medals were presented to 
 him and his officers. 
 
 The thanks of the senate of Pennsylvania, with medals also, 
 were voted to the commodore, and those brave men who served 
 under him. 
 
 Rejoicings, illuminations, and bonfires were exhibited through 
 all parts of the United States. 
 
 On receiving intelligence of Perry's success, General Harri- 
 son, who had been reinforced by a strong body of Kentucky 
 militia under Governor Shelby, embarked on the lake, and soon 
 arrived at Maiden. This post had been abandoned by the 
 British, who had ascended the river Thames as far as the Mo- 
 ravian villages. Here they were overtaken by General Harri- 
 son, on the 5th of October, who succeeded in bringing them to 
 action, and gained a complete victory. General Proctor saved 
 himself by flight, leaving his camp equipage and papers. Six 
 hundred of the British were made prisoners. The Indians are 
 said to have borne the brunt of the battle and fallen in great 
 numbers. Their great chief, Tecumseh, was among the slain in 
 the battle of the Thames, having been shot by Colonel Johnson. 
 This victory restored to the Americans all the posts which had 
 been surrendered by General Hull.
 
 BATTLE BETWEEN THE HORNET AND PEACOCK. 665 
 
 CAPTAIN LAWRENCE. 
 
 BATTLE BETWEEN THE HORNET AND 
 PEACOCK. 
 
 jjjjl HE following account of this cele- 
 
 y|| brated action is extracted from 
 
 \_^^ Captain Lawrence's official de- 
 
 . J§§F- s P at ch to the secretary of the 
 
 ^ navy, dated March 19, 1813 : 
 
 After cruising off the coast of 
 Surinam, from the 5th to the 22d 
 of February, without meeting 
 a vessel, I stood for Demarara, with an intention, should I not 
 be fortunate on that station, to run through the West Indies, 
 on my way to the United States. But, on the morning of the 
 24th, I discovered a brig to leeward, to which I gave chase ; 
 
 84 3 v 2
 
 666 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ran into quarter less four, and, not having a pilot, was obliged 
 to haul off — the fort at the entrance of Demarara river at this 
 time bearing south-west, distance about two and a half leagues. 
 Previously to giving up the chase, I discovered a vessel at 
 anchor without the bar, with English colours flying, apparently 
 a brig-of-war. In beating round Corobano bank, in order to 
 get at her, at half-past three, P. M., I discovered another sail on 
 my weather quarter, edging down for us. At twenty minutes 
 past four she hoisted English colours, at which time we discovered 
 her to be a large man-of-war brig, beat to quarters, and cleared 
 ship for action ; kept close by the wind, in order, if possible, 
 to get the weather-gage. At ten minutes past five, finding I 
 could weather the enemy, I hoisted American colours and 
 tacked. At twenty minutes past five, in passing each other, 
 exchanged broadsides within half pistol-shot. 
 
 Observing the enemy in the act of wearing, I bore up, re- 
 ceived his starboard broadside, ran him close on board on the 
 starboard quarter, and kept up such a heavy and well-directed 
 fire, that in less than fifteen minutes he surrendered, being lite- 
 rally cut to pieces, and hoisted an ensign, union down, from his 
 fore rigging, as a signal of distress. Shortly after, his main- 
 mast went by the board, despatched Lieutenant Shubrick on 
 board, who soon returned with her first lieutenant, who re- 
 ported her to his Britannic majesty's late brig Peacock, com- 
 manded by Captain William Peake, who fell in the latter part 
 of the action ; that a number of her crew were killed and 
 wounded, and that she was sinking fast, having then six feet 
 of water in her hold ; despatched the boats immediately for the 
 wounded, and brought both vessels to anchor. Such shot-holes 
 as could be got at were then plugged, her guns thrown over- 
 board, and every possible exertion used to keep her afloat, until 
 the prisoners could be removed by pumping and bailing, but 
 without effect, and she unfortunately sunk in five and a half 
 fathoms water, carrying down thirteen of her crew and three 
 of my brave fellows, viz. : John Hart, Joseph Williams, and 
 Hannibal Boyd. Lieutenant Conner, Midshipman Cooper, and 
 the remainder of the Hornet's crew, employed in removing the 
 prisoners, with difficulty saved themselves by jumping in a boat 
 that was lying on her bows as she went down. Four men of 
 the thirteen mentioned were so fortunate as to gain the foretop,
 
 BATTLE BETWEEN THE HORNET AND PEACOCK. 669 
 
 and were afterwards taken off by the boats. Previous to her 
 going down, four of her men took to her stern boat, which had 
 been much damaged during the action, which I hope reached 
 the shore in safety ; but, from the heavy sea running at the 
 time, the shattered state of the boat, and the difficulty of land- 
 ing on the coast, I much fear they were lost. I have not been 
 able to ascertain from her officers the exact number killed. 
 Captain Peake and four men were found dead on board. The 
 master, one midshipman, carpenter, and captain's clerk, and 
 twenty-nine seamen were wounded, most of them very severely, 
 three of whom died of their wounds after being removed, and 
 nine drowned. Our loss was trifling in comparison. John 
 Place, killed ; Samuel Coulsan and Joseph Dalrymple, slightly 
 wounded ; George Coffin and Lewis Todd, severely burnt by 
 the explosion of a cartridge. Todd survived only a few days. 
 Our rigging and sails were much cut ; one shot through the 
 fore-mast, and the bowsprit slightly injured. Our hull received 
 little or no damage. At the time the Peacock was brought to 
 action, the L'Espeigle, (the brig mentioned above as being 
 at anchor,) mounting sixteen two-and-thirty-pound carronades 
 and two long nines, lay about six miles in shore, and could 
 plainly see the whole of the action. Apprehensive that she 
 would beat out to the assistance of her consort, such exertions 
 were made by my officers and crew in repairing damages, &c, 
 that by nine o'clock the boats were stowed, a new set of sails 
 bent, and the ship completely ready for action. At two, A. M., 
 got under way, and stood by the wind to the northward and 
 westward under easy sail. 
 
 On mustering next morning, found that we had two hundred 
 and seventy-seven souls on board, including the crew of the 
 American brig Hunter, of Portland, taken a few days before 
 by the Peacock ; and, as we had been on two-thirds' allowance 
 of provisions for some time, and had but three thousand 
 four hundred gallons of water on board, I reduced the allow- 
 ance to three pints a man, and determined to make the best of 
 my way to the United States. 
 
 The Peacock was deservedly styled one of the finest vessels 
 of her class in the British navy, probably about the tonnage of 
 the Hornet. Her beam was greater by five inches, but her 
 extreme length not so great by four feet. She mounted six-
 
 670 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 teen twenty-four pound carronades, two long nines, one twelve- 
 pound carronade on her top-gallant-forecastle, as a shifting gun, 
 and one four or six pounder, and two swivels mounted aft. I 
 find by her quarter bill that her crew consisted of one hundred 
 and thirty-four men, four of whom were absent in a prize. 
 
 The cool and determined conduct of my officers and crew 
 during the action, and their almost unexampled exertions after- 
 wards, entitle them to my warmest acknowledgments, and I 
 beg leave most earnestly to recommend them to the notice of 
 the government. 

 
 THE ENTERPRISE AND THE BOXER. 
 
 671 
 
 BATTLE BETWEEN THE ENTERPRISE AND 
 THE BOXER. 
 
 N the 1st of September, the 
 Enterprise, Captain Burroughs, 
 sailed from Portsmouth on a 
 cruise. On the 5th, early in 
 the morning, they espied a brig 
 in shore, getting under way. 
 They reconnoitred her for a 
 while to ascertain her character, 
 of which they were soon in- 
 formed by her hoisting three 
 British ensigns, and firing a 
 shot as a challenge. The En- 
 terprise then hauled upon a wind, stood out of the bay, and pre- 
 pared for action. A calm for some time delayed the encounter ; 
 it was succeeded by a breeze from the south-west, which gave 
 our vessel the weather-gage. After manoeuvring for a while to
 
 672 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ENTERPRISE AND BOXER. 
 
 the windward, in order to try her sailing with the enemy, and to 
 ascertain his force, the Enterprise, about three, p. m., shortened 
 sail, hoisted three ensigns, fired a gun, tacked, and ran down 
 with an intention to bring him to close quarters. When within 
 half pistol-shot, the enemy gave three cheers, and commenced 
 the action with his starboard broadside. The cheers and the 
 broadside were returned on our part, and the action became 
 general. In about five minutes after the battle had commenced, 
 the gallant Burrows received a musket-ball in his body and fell ; 
 he, however, refused to be carried below, but continued on deck 
 through the action. The active command was then taken by 
 Lieutenant McCall, who conducted himself with great skill and 
 coolness. The enemy was out-manceuvred and cut up ; his 
 maintopmast and topsail-yard shot away ; a position gained on 
 his starboard bow, and a raking fire kept up, until his guns 
 were silenced and he cried for quarters, saying, that as his 
 colours were nailed to the mast he could not haul them down. 
 The prize proved to be his Britannic majesty's brig Boxer, of 
 fourteen guns. The number of her crew is a matter of con- 
 jecture and dispute. Sixty-four prisoners were taken, seventeen 
 of whom were wounded. How many of the dead were thrown 
 into the sea during the action it is impossible to say ; the British 
 return only four as killed ; courtesy forbids us to question the 
 veracity of an officer on mere presumption ; but it is ever the
 
 THE ENTERPRISE AND THE BOXER. 673 
 
 natural wish of the vanquished to depreciate their force ; and, 
 in truth, we have seen with regret various instances of disinge- 
 nuousness on the part of the enemy, in the statements of our 
 naval encounters. But we will not enter into disputes of this 
 kind. It is enough that the enemy entered into the battle with 
 a bravado at the mast-head, and a confidence of success ; this 
 either implied a consciousness of his own force, or a low opinion 
 of his antagonist ; in either case he was mistaken. It is a fruit- 
 less task to vindicate victories against the excuses of the van- 
 quished ; sufficient for the victor is the joy of his triumph ; he 
 should allow the enemy the consolation of accounting for it. 
 
 We turn gladly from such an idle discussion to notice the last 
 moments of the worthy Burrows. There needs no elaborate 
 pencil to impart pathos and grandeur to the death of a brave 
 man. The simple anecdotes, given in simple terms by his sur- 
 viving comrades, present more striking pictures than could be 
 wrought up by the most refined attempts of art. " At twenty 
 minutes past three, p. m.," says one account, " our brave com- 
 mander fell, and while lying on the deck, refusing to be carried 
 below, raised his head and requested that the flag might never 
 be struck." In this situation he remained during the rest of 
 the engagement, regardless of bodily pain ; regardless of the 
 life-blood fast ebbing from his wound ; watching with anxious 
 eye the vicissitudes of battle ; cheering his men by his voice, but 
 animating them still more by his glorious example. When the 
 sword of the vanquished enemy was presented to him, we are 
 told that he clasped his hands and exclaimed, " I am satisfied, 
 I die contented." He now permitted himself to be carried be- 
 low, and the necessary attentions were paid to save his life, or 
 alleviate his sufferings. His wound, however, was beyond the 
 power of surgery, and he breathed his last within a few hours 
 after the victory. 
 
 The commander of the Boxer, Captain Samuel Blythe, was 
 killed early in the action, by a cannon-ball : had he lived, he 
 might have defended his ship more desperately, but it is not 
 probable with more success. He was an officer of distinguished 
 merit ; having received a sword from government for his good 
 conduct under Sir James L. Yeo, in the capture of Cayenne. 
 He was also one of the pall-bearers of our lamented Lawrence, 
 when buried at Halifax. It was his fate now to receive like 
 85 3 G
 
 674 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN niSTORY. 
 
 courtesy at the hands of his enemy. His remains, in company 
 with those of the brave Burrows, were brought to Portland, 
 where they were interred with military honours. It was a 
 striking and affecting sight, to behold two gallant commanders, 
 who had lately been arrayed in deadly hostility against each 
 other, descending into one quiet grave, there to mingle their 
 dust peacefully together.
 
 NEGOTIATIONS FOR PEACE. 
 
 675 
 
 OPERATIONS ON THE NORTHERN FRONTIER 
 
 IN 1814. 
 
 ARLY in the spring of 1813 an offer was 
 made by the emperor of Russia of his 
 mediation, as the common friend of the 
 United States and Great Britain, for the 
 purpose of facilitating a peace between 
 them. The president, having accepted 
 this offer, commissioned John Quincy 
 Adams, then minister of the United States at St. Petersburg, 
 Albert Gallatin, and James A. Bayard, with the requisite pow- 
 ers to conclude a treaty of peace with persons clothed with 
 similar powers on the part of Great Britain. 
 
 During the session of congress, which commenced in Decem- 
 ber, 1813, a communication was received from the British go- 
 vernment, declining to treat under the mediation of Russia, 
 and proposing a direct negotiation in London or Gottenburg. 
 This proposition was accepted, and the latter place appointed 
 for the meeting, which was afterwards transferred to Ghent ; 
 and Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell were added to the com- 
 missioners who had already gone to Europe. 
 
 For the purpose of increasing the force of the regular army, 
 several acts of congress were passed, offering large bounties to 
 recruits, and providing liberally for the pay, rations, and 
 clothing of the troops. A loan of twenty-five millions of dol- 
 lars, and the issue of treasury notes for five millions, were also 
 authorized. Provision was also made for the increase and bet- 
 ter organization of the navy, and for the defence of the sea- 
 board. An embargo, which had been laid to prevent the trade 
 under British licenses, was repealed in April, 1814. 
 
 The fall of Napoleon, having left Great Britain at peace 
 with all nations, except the United States, enabled that power
 
 676 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 to direct the whole of her disposable force against the Ameri 
 cans. This circumstance, increasing the perils of the campaign, 
 rendered it necessary to make greater exertions and sacrifices 
 for the defence of the country. 
 
 The spring passed away without any important operations on 
 either side. The army, which had wintered at French Mills, 
 left that station in the early part of the spring, one division, 
 under General Wilkinson, proceeding to Plattsburg, and the re- 
 mainder, under General Brown, returning to Sackett's Harbour. 
 In March, General Wilkinson entered Canada, and made an 
 attack on a party of the British stationed in a large stone build- 
 ing called La Cole Mill. He was defeated with a heavy loss, 
 and, being soon afterwards superseded, his command was given 
 to General Izard. 
 
 On the 5th of May, the British made a descent on Oswego, 
 and succeeded in capturing and destroying the fort and mili- 
 tary stores at that place ; after which they returned to King- 
 ston. 
 
 Early in July, General Brown crossed the Niagara river and 
 invested Fort Erie, which was surrendered without opposition, 
 and the prisoners, one hundred and thirty-seven in number, 
 were sent to Buffalo. The army then advanced to Chippewa, 
 where a large body of the British were posted ; and, on the 5th 
 of July, a severe engagement took place, in which the British 
 lost upwards of three hundred killed and wounded, two hun- 
 dred being left dead on the field. The American loss was sixty 
 killed, and two hundred and sixty-eight wounded and missing. 
 The British then retired to Fort George, and General Brown 
 took post at Queenstown, to await reinforcements from Sackett's 
 Harbour. 
 
 The expected reinforcements, however, being blockaded by a 
 British fleet off the harbour, did not arrive. Detachments from 
 the army were occupied with unimportant skirmishes until July 
 25th, when the battle of Bridgewater, near the cataract of 
 Niagara, took place. 
 
 The British advanced to the attack under General Drummond. 
 The first brigade, under General Scott, with Towson's artillery 
 and a body of cavalry, composed the advance of the Americans, 
 and, engaging the enemy at six o'clock in the evening, sus- 
 tained the attack without support for an hour. General Rip-
 
 BATTLE OF BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 G77 
 
 
 BATTLE OF LUNDY'8 LANE. 
 
 ley, with fresh troops, then arriving, relieved General Scott, 
 and his exhausted brigade formed a reserve on the rear. The 
 British artillery had taken post on an eminence at the head of 
 Lundy's Lane, and poured a most deadly fire on the Americans. 
 It became necessary to dislodge them or retreat. " Will you 
 advance and capture that battery?" said the commanding 
 general to Colonel Miller. "I will try, sir," was the modest 
 reply of the colonel, which afterwards became the motto of his 
 regiment. He advanced coolly and steadily to his object, amidst 
 a tremendous fire of artillery, and at the point of the bayonet 
 carried the artillery and the height. The guns were turned 
 upon the enemy. Several attempts were made to regain them 
 without success. The principal force of both parties were di- 
 rected to this point, and a most sanguinary contest took place, 
 which resulted in the defeat of the British. The loss on each 
 side was about eight hundred. Generals Brown and Scott 
 being both severely wounded in the battle, the command de- 
 volved upon General Ripley, who took post at Fort Erie. Gene- 
 ral Gaines having arrived soon after, and taken the command, 
 was attacked by General Drummond, at the head of five 
 thousand troops, who formally invested the place on the 4th of 
 
 3q2
 
 678 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 COLONEL MILLER. 
 
 August. Having advanced their lines to within four hundred 
 yards of the fort, the enemy commenced a brisk cannonade on 
 the 13th, which continued the whole of that and the next day. 
 The fire was steadily returned by the Americans. On the night 
 of the 14th, an assault was made by the British, which resulted 
 in their repulse, with the loss of nine hundred men — the Ame- 
 ricans losing but eighty-four. 
 
 On the 2d of September, General Brown had so far recovered 
 from his wounds as to be able to resume the command. The 
 British main body, under General Drummond, was encamped 
 two miles from Fort Erie, while his works were advanced to 
 within four hundred yards of the American lines. One of his 
 brigades, with a detachment of artillery, was stationed at this 
 advance. On the 17th, Generals Porter, Miller, and Brown,
 
 DEFENCE OF FORT ERIE. 
 
 679 
 
 DEFENCE OP FORT ERIE. 
 
 with large detachments, made a sortie, with a view to cut off 
 the British advanced posts from the main body. Within thirty 
 minutes the whole line of the enemy's intrenchments were in 
 possession of the Americans. The works were destroyed, and, 
 strong reinforcements of the enemy coming up, the Americans 
 retired within their lines. The American loss was seventy- 
 nine killed and four hundred and thirty-two wounded and miss- 
 ing. The British loss, live hundred killed and wounded, and 
 three hundred and eighty-five captured. The result of this 
 gallant sortie completely discouraged the enemy, who, on the 
 night of the 21st, raised the siege, which had continued forty- 
 nine days, and retired to his intrenchments behind the Chip- 
 pewa. 
 
 On the 9th of October, General Izard arrived with reinforce- 
 ments from Plattsburg and took the command, General Brown 
 retiring to Sackett's Harbour. General Izard, deeming it in- 
 expedient to attempt any further offensive operations in this 
 quarter, demolished the works at Fort Erie, and removed the 
 troops to Buffalo. 
 
 The next attempt of the British was a descent upon Platts- 
 burg. This was the principal military and naval depot for the
 
 680 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 army of the north and the flotilla on Lake Champlain. Its 
 defence was intrusted to General Macomb, with one thousand 
 five hundred regulars, and the neighbouring militia to be 
 called in as occasion might require. On the 1st of September, 
 General Prevost, with fourteen thousand men, advanced to 
 Champlain, within fifteen miles of the American lines. Hav- 
 ing called in the militia, who flocked to his standard from the 
 neighbouring country in great numbers, General Macomb made 
 every exertion to impede the approach and prepare for the 
 attack of the enemy. The bridges on his line of march were 
 broken up, and every possible impediment thrown in the way 
 of his passage, and the fortifications at Plattsburg were 
 strengthened by additional breastworks and batteries. 
 
 On the 6th of September, the British advance was met at 
 Batemantown, six miles from Plattsburg, by a corps of seven 
 hundred militia, under General Mooers. After some slight 
 skirmishing, the militia discovered the New York state dragoons 
 in red uniform, reconnoitering the heights on their rear, and 
 mistaking them for British troops in the act of surrounding 
 their party, they broke and fled in every direction. On the 
 same day, the British, commanded by Sir George Prevost in 
 person, entered Plattsburg. The Americans retired to the 
 south side of the Saranac river, tore up the bridges and made 
 breastworks of them, and guarded the ford-ways, while the 
 British strengthened their works and prepared for the attack. 
 
 While these operations were going forward on land, the 
 American squadron on Lake Champlain lay at anchor in a bay 
 two miles distant, awaiting the arrival of the British fleet, which 
 was to assist in the simultaneous attack about to take place on 
 land and water. On the morning of the 11th, the enemy's 
 ships appeared, bearing down upon the Americans under easy 
 sail, and the action immediately commenced. It was a hard- 
 fought battle, and it terminated in a manner highly honourable 
 to the courage and resolution of Commodore McDonough and 
 his brave associates. The fleets were engaged two hours and 
 twenty minutes. Nearly all the British ships were sunk or 
 taken ; and, when the action closed, there was not a mast stand- 
 ing in either squadron to which a sail could be attached. When 
 the flag-ship of the British, having lost its commander, Com- 
 modore Downie, struck her colours, the shores resounded with
 
 BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN. 
 
 081 
 
 BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN. 
 
 the acclamations of the American troops and citizens. The 
 British, seeing their fleet completely conquered, were dispirited 
 and dismayed. 
 
 The American force consisted of the Saratoga, twenty-six 
 guns ; Eagle, twenty ; Ticonderoga, seventeen ; Preble, seven ; 
 six galleys of two guns, and four of one — -in all eighty-six guns 
 and eight hundred and twenty men. The British had the Con- 
 fiance, thirty-nine guns ; Linnet, sixteen ; Cherub, twelve ; 
 Finch, eleven ; five galleys of two guns each, and eight of one 
 gun each — making in all ninety-five guns and one thousand and 
 twenty men. American loss, fifty-two killed and fifty-eight 
 wounded. British loss, eighty-four killed and one hundred and 
 ten wounded. The old story ! The result was always about 
 in the same proportion when the fighting was done on the water. 
 
 At the moment when the naval action had commenced, the 
 British, from their works on shore, had opened a heavy fire of 
 shot, shells, and rockets upon the American lines. Under 
 cover of this fire, three desperate efforts were made to cross 
 the Saranac, for the purpose of carrying the American lines by 
 assault, all which were met and successfully resisted. One 
 ford, guarded by militia, was passed, and a body of the British 
 being drawn into the woods, were so severely handled that they 
 86
 
 682 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 were compelled to recross the river with considerable loss. At 
 six o'clock in the evening, the British batteries were silenced ; 
 and, during the night, the whole army decamped with precipi- 
 tation, leaving their sick and wounded, and most of their camp 
 equipage, intrenching tools, and provisions, behind them. This 
 retreat was so sudden and unexpected, that it was not discovered 
 by the American general till the British were eight miles from 
 the late scene of action. Indeed, he had little reason to sup- 
 pose that a disciplined and well-appointed army, "Wellington's 
 veterans," numbering some fourteen thousand, would have fled 
 so incontinently from one thousand and five hundred American 
 regulars and three thousand militia. The hard fighting on the 
 lake must have had what it is the fashion to call a " moral 
 effect." In the phrase of Monsieur De Bourrienne, it " demo- 
 ralized'" them. Their commander was dismissed and disgraced 
 by his government. 
 
 This batfle terminated the 
 active warfare on the Canada 
 border, the general result of 
 which conveys to Americans 
 the important lesson that the 
 genius of their institutions, 
 and the character of the peo- 
 ple, are as uncongenial to all 
 schemes of foreign conquest 
 as they are favourable to the 
 resolute and unflinching de- 
 fence of their own soil. The 
 militia who displayed so much 
 bravery near their own firesides could never be brought to enter 
 heartily into the scheme of invading the British territory. All 
 efforts in that quarter resulted in the same "lame and impotent 
 conclusion." Even the splendid achievement at Chippewa, 
 Bridgewater, and Fort Erie, produced nothing in the way of 
 conquest ; while the defence of Fort Sandusky and Plattsburg 
 brought the solid advantages of immunity from foreign oppres- 
 sion and savage warfare. 
 
 COMMODORE M c D SOUGH.
 
 ATTACK ON WASHINGTON AND BALTIMORE. 
 
 683 
 
 »ilil!i!fllUIIIUU[Ulllllllllliiii 
 
 COMMODORE BARNEY. 
 
 ATTACK ON WASHINGTON AND 
 BALTIMORE. 
 
 N the 10th of August, 1814, a Bri- 
 tish fleet of sixty sail, under Ad- 
 miral Cochrane, with a land force 
 of six thousand men, under General 
 Ross, entered the Chesapeake bay, 
 and proceeded to the mouth of the 
 Potomac, when a squadron under 
 Commodore Gordon entered that 
 river, and advanced towards Alex- 
 andria. The principal part of the 
 fleet, with the land forces, continued 
 their course to the mouth of the Patuxent, and entered that 
 river on the 18th. Commodore Barney, who commanded the 
 American flotilla of gun-boats on that river, to prevent their 
 falling into the hands of the enemy, blew them up, and pro- 
 ceeded to join General Winder.
 
 684 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 The British, on their advance up the Patuxent, learning the 
 defenceless state of Washington, determined on an expedition to 
 that city. Five thousand men, under General Ross, having 
 landed at Benedict, advanced towards the capital ; the Ame- 
 ricans retiring before him. The whole force for the defence of 
 the city, including militia, did not exceed seven thousand two 
 hundred. They were concentrated on and near the heights of 
 Bladensburg. On the 24th, the British advanced, and com- 
 menced an attack, driving in the advanced parties until they 
 encountered the battery of Commodore Barney, manned with 
 seamen and marines, who gave them the only serious repulse 
 which they met, and inflicted the heaviest loss which they suf- 
 fered in the battle. Being deserted by the militia, this gallant 
 little band were at length surrounded, and their commander, 
 being wounded, was captured and paroled for his courage by 
 General Ross. The city was then abandoned by the president 
 and heads of departments ; the whole American force retreated 
 to Georgetown. 
 
 At eight o'clock in the evening, General Ross entered the 
 city at the head of eight hundred men. Having arrived on 
 Capitol hill, he offered terms of capitulation, which were, that 
 the city might be ransomed by paying a sum of money nearly 
 equal to the value of public and private property which it con- 
 tained ; and that, on receiving it, the British troops should retire 
 unmolested. As there was no civil or military authority on the 
 spot, competent to enter into such an arrangement as this, he 
 proceeded to burn the Capitol, the president's house, the offices 
 of the several departments, and a consideral number "of private 
 dwellings. The navy yard, with its contents, one frigate on the 
 stocks, and several smaller vessels were also destroyed. The 
 libraries and public archives, together with all the works of art 
 contained in the public buildings, were included in the general 
 conflagration. 
 
 No parallel for this act of Vandalism can be found in the an 
 nals of modern warfare. It was felt with the deepest resent- 
 ment by the American people, and denounced in the severest 
 terms even in the British parliament. The disgrace of having 
 their capital taken by an enemy was suffered by the Americans 
 in common with every other civilized nation ; but the lasting
 
 ATTACK ON WASHINGTON AND BALTIMORE. 685 
 
 stigma of burning national archives and senate chambers remains 
 with the British alone. 
 
 Having accomplished their object, the enemy, on the 25th, 
 made a precipitate retreat, and on the 30th embarked at Bene- 
 dict. 
 
 The squadron under Commodore Gordon, which had advanced 
 up the river Potomac, arrived at Alexandria on the 29th ; and 
 the commander having granted terms of capitulation to the citi- 
 zens, by which the shipping, naval stores, and merchandise 
 were delivered up, received the surrender of the place. A 
 scene of indiscriminate plunder then ensued. The vessels in 
 the harbour were taken and loaded with the large stores of 
 flour, tobacco, cotton, wines, and sugars, of which Alexandria 
 was the depot, and the whole was carried off with the squadron, 
 on its return down the river. The public and private buildings 
 of the town were mercifully spared. 
 
 The success of General Ross at Washington induced him to 
 undertake the capture of Baltimore. He boasted that he would 
 make that city his winter-quarters, and with the force which he 
 commanded he could march where he pleased in Maryland. 
 
 The Americans were not unprepared for an attack in this 
 quarter. A force of militia from Maryland and the neigh- 
 bouring states, together w T ith the regular troops who had re- 
 cently been engaged at Washington, amounting in all to fifteen 
 thousand men, had been assembled for the defence of the city. 
 The command of these troops was given to General Smith, of 
 the Maryland militia, assisted by General Winder. 
 
 On the 11th of September, a British squadron of fifty sail, 
 Avith six thousand men, entered the mouth of the Patapsco, and 
 on the morning of the 12th commenced landing at North Point, 
 fourteen miles below the city. General Strieker was detached 
 with three thousand five hundred militia to oppose their advance. 
 General Ross, having preceded the main body of his army with 
 a small reconnoitering party, was shot through the breast by a 
 rifleman, fell into the arms of his aid-de-camp, and died in a 
 few minutes. The command devolved on Colonel Brook, who 
 led on the attack, which was commenced by a discharge of 
 rockets from the British, and was succeeded by grape,canister, 
 and small arms on both sides. After maintaining his position 
 for an hour and a half against a great superiority of numbers, 
 
 3H
 
 686 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 General Strieker was at length obliged to retire to Worthington 
 Mills, half a mile in advance of the main body. 
 
 On the night of the 12th, the British bivouacked in advance 
 of the battle ground, and on the 13th commenced their march 
 towards the city. When -within two miles of the American 
 lines they halted to await the result of the attack on Fort 
 McHcnry. This fortress defends the narrow passage from the 
 Patapsco into Baltimore harbour, two miles below the city, and 
 its command had been intrusted to Major Armistead, with one 
 thousand men. Fort Covington, on the right of Fort McHenry, 
 was commanded by Lieutenant Newcomb. On the 12th, a. Bri- 
 tish squadron of sixteen ships drew up in line of battle within 
 two miles and a half of the forts, and at sunrise on the 13th, 
 commenced an attack on them with bombs and rockets. Twelve 
 hundred men were detached to storm the works on the suc- 
 ceeding night, and the battle raged with great fury till the 
 morning of the 14th, when the assailants, being completely 
 foiled, were compelled to retire, and the squadron sailed down 
 the river. Their example was speedily followed by the army, 
 who had sanguinely anticipated the capture and plunder of Bal- 
 timore. 
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF FOBT M°HENRY.
 
 CRUISE OF THE ESSEX. 
 
 687 
 
 COMMODORE PORTER. 
 
 CRUISE OF THE ESSEX. 
 
 SSB pflpL MONG those by whom the 
 =111|§11 e enterprise of the American 
 | navy was chiefly evinced, 
 ?v-i was Captain Porter, whose 
 jpl cruise on the Pacific termi- 
 nated about this time. As 
 early as the month of Oc- 
 | tober, 1812, he sailed from 
 the Delaware in the frigate 
 I Essex. He doubled Cape 
 Horn, amidst tremendous 
 storms, about the middle of February, 1813, and on the 15th of 
 March put into the port of Valparaiso, and, having obtained the 
 necessary supplies, proceeded on his cruise, along the coast of 
 Chili, and thence to the Gallipagos islands. In the vicinity of
 
 688 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 COMMODORE PORTER'S CRUISE IN THE PACIFIC. 
 
 these isles the Essex cruised for upwards of six months, during 
 which she totally destroyed that valuable part of the enemy's 
 commerce which was carried on in those seas. The whole of 
 the British vessels at that time in the Pacific, to the number of 
 twelve, carrying in all one hundred and seven guns, and three 
 hundred and two men, were captured. Their value was estimated 
 at two and a half millions of dollars. He converted one of them 
 into a vessel of war, mounting twenty guns, which he named the 
 Essex Junior ; and sailed for Valparaiso. 
 
 The intelligence of Captain Porter's exploits had at length 
 occasioned a force of the enemy to be sent in pursuit of him. 
 Soon after his arrival at Valparaiso, the Phoebe, a British frigate 
 of thirty-eight guns, and a sloop of war, appeared off the port, 
 having been fitted out expressly to meet the Essex. • They en- 
 tered the harbour to obtain provisions, and, having effected this, 
 again stood out and cruised off the port for about six weeks. 
 Their united force was much greater than that of Captain Por- 
 ter, the Essex Junior being of but little utility in action. At 
 length, on the 28th March, the Essex made an attempt to get 
 to sea, with a favourable wind. The enemy's vessels were close 
 to the shore, and Captain Porter expected to be able to pass to 
 windward of them. Unfortunately, however, in rounding the 
 point, the American vessel was struck by a squall, which carried 
 away her main-topmast. Thus crippled, escape to sea was im- 

 
 CRUISE OF THE ESSEX. 689 
 
 possible ; and as it was equally difficult to reach the harbour, 
 Captain Porter ran into a small bay, and anchored within pistol- 
 shot of the shore. In this situation it was to have been expected 
 that the ordinary rules of warfare, which forbid an attack upon 
 an enemy lying within a neutral territory, would have been ob- 
 served. It was, nevertheless, soon perceived that Captain Hill- 
 yar, the English commander, was determined to avail himself 
 of the opportunity offered, without regard to the rights of sove- 
 reignty of the local government. The Essex was prepared for 
 action with all possible despatch ; but before a spring could be 
 put upon her cable to enable her to bring her broadside to bear, 
 the attack was commenced. The British commander, desirous 
 of capturing the Essex with as little loss to himself as possible, 
 placed his frigate, the Phoebe, under her stern, while the Cherub 
 took a position on her bows. The latter, soon finding the fire 
 of the Essex too warm, bore up, and ran also under her stern, 
 where both ships kept up a heavy and raking fire. Captain 
 Porter continued the action for a considerable time, with three 
 long twelve-pounders, being all the guns which he found it possible 
 to bring to bear on the enemy, when, finding his crew falling 
 fast around him, he cut his cable, and ran down on the enemy, 
 with the intention of laying the Phoebe on board. For a short 
 time a close and sanguinary action ensued ; but the superior 
 equipment of the British frigate enabling her to choose her 
 distance, she edged off, and continued so heavy a fire from her 
 long guns, that Captain Porter determined to run his ship 
 ashore. He was, however, disappointed in this hope by the 
 wind setting off the land ; and after an unequal and hopeless 
 contest of three hours, was compelled to give the painful order 
 to strike the colours. 
 
 The loss of the Essex in this engagement was fifty-eight 
 killed, sixty-six wounded, and thirty-one missing, most of the 
 latter escaping to the shore by swimming ; that of the British 
 was said to be only five killed and ten wounded. Both of the 
 enemy's vessels, as well as the Essex, were so much crippled, 
 that it was with difficulty they were enabled to reach the port of 
 Valparaiso. Captain Porter and his crew were paroled and per- 
 mitted to return to the United States in the Essex Junior, her 
 armament being previously taken out. On arriving off the 
 port of New York, they were overhauled and detained by the 
 87 3 h 2
 
 690 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Saturn razee. Being thus treated, Captain Porter told the 
 boarding-officer that he gave up his parole, and considered him- 
 self a prisoner of war, and as such should use all means of 
 escape. In consequence of this threat, the Essex Junior was 
 ordered to remain all night under the lee of the Saturn ; but 
 the next morning Captain Porter put off in his boat, though 
 thirty miles from shore ; and, notwithstanding he was pursued 
 by the Saturn, effected his escape and landed safely on Long 
 Island. His reception in the United States was such as his 
 great services and distinguished valour deserved.
 
 CAPTURE OF THE EPERVIER AND REINDEER. 
 
 G91 
 
 CAPTAIN WARRINGTON. 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE EPERVIER AND 
 REINDEER. 
 
 HHi^ N the 29th of April, the sloop-of- 
 war Peacock, of eighteen guns, 
 commanded by Captain Warring- 
 ton, fell in with, and after an ac- 
 tion of forty-two minutes, cap- 
 tured the British brig-of-war Eper- 
 vier, of a like number of guns, 
 and one hundred and twenty- 
 eight men, of whom eight were 
 killed and fifteen wounded. The 
 Peacock was deprived of the use of her foresail and fore-top- 
 sail in the early part of the action ; but received no other in- 
 jury, two men only being slightly wounded. The prize had on 
 board one hundred and twenty thousand dollars in specie, which
 
 692 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CAPTAIN BLAKELY. 
 
 was transferred to the Peacock, and both vessels arrived in 
 safety in the United States. 
 
 About this period the sloop-of-war Wasp, of eighteen guns, 
 commanded by Captain Blakely, sailed from Portsmouth, on her 
 first cruise. After capturing seven merchantmen, she encoun- 
 tered, on the 28th of June, the British brig-of-war Reindeer, of 
 nineteen guns and one hundred and eighteen men. After a 
 series of manoeuvres on the part of the latter, by -which a close 
 action was for a long time prevented, a warm engagement com- 
 menced, which was continued with great spirit on both sides for 
 upwards of two hours, during which the enemy several times 
 attempted to board, but were as often repulsed. The crew of 
 the Wasp now boarded with great ardour, and in a few minutes 
 resistance ceased and the British flag was hauled down. Owing 
 to the proximity of the two vessels and the smoothness of the 
 sea, the loss on both sides was severe. That of the Americans 
 was five killed and twenty-one wounded ; while the British lost
 
 CAPTURE OF THE EPERVIER AND REINDEER. 
 
 695 
 
 twenty-five killed, including Captain Manners, and forty-two 
 wounded. The Reindeer was so much injured that it was found 
 necessary to set her on fire. 
 
 Captain Blakely, continuing his cruise, about the 1st of. Sep- 
 tember discovered a fleet of merchantmen under convoy of a 
 seventy-four gun ship. One of them was taken, and after re- 
 moving her cargo, was set on fire. On the same evening he 
 fell in with and captured the British sloop-of-war Avon, of 
 twenty guns. The appearance of a British squadron compelled 
 him to abandon his prize, which sunk soon after the removal of 
 her crew. 
 
 The damage sustained in this action being soon repaired, 
 Captain Blakely continued his cruise, and on the 23d of Sep- 
 tember, captured the British brig Atalanta, which he sent into 
 the United States. From this period no tidings ever reached 
 the republic of this gallant ship. Whether she foundered in 
 darkness and tempest, or perished in a conflict with an enemy, 
 has never been ascertained.
 
 696 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE PENGUIN. 
 
 N the morning of the 23d of March, 
 while the Hornet sloop-of-war, of eighteen 
 guns, commanded by Captain Biddle, 
 was preparing to anchor off the island 
 of Tristan d'Acunha, a sail hove in sight, 
 steering to the northward, with a fine 
 breeze, and disappeared in a few minutes 
 behind a projecting point of land. The 
 Hornet immediately made sail, and on 
 clearing the point, discovered the same 
 vessel, bearing down before the wind, when Captain Biddle 
 shortened sail and hove-to for her to come up with him. When 
 the stranger got near he began also to shorten sail, and took in 
 his steering-sails very clumsily, for the purpose, as it afterwards 
 appeared, of practising a deception. At forty minutes past 
 one, the engagement commenced by a broadside from the Hor- 
 net. The action was sustained with great spirit for fifteen 
 minutes, when the enemy approached, with the apparent inten-
 
 CAPTURE OF THE PENGUIN. 
 
 699 
 
 ESCAPE OF THE HORNET. 
 
 tion of boarding ; but finding the Hornet prepared to receive 
 him, he desisted from the attempt, and in a few minutes sur- 
 rendered. The prize proved to be the British brig-of-war Pen- 
 guin, of nineteen guns and one hundred and thirty-two men, 
 forty-two of whom were killed or wounded. So heavy and well- 
 directed had been the fire of the Hornet, that it was found 
 necessary to scuttle the Penguin, after removing the prisoners. 
 The Hornet received no material injury ; one man only of her 
 crew was killed, and eleven wounded. 
 
 Shortly after this event the Hornet was joined by the Pea- 
 cock ; but was soon separated from her again by the appearance 
 of a seventy-four gun-ship, by which the former was chased. 
 
 Captain Biddle finally succeeded in effecting his escape from 
 the seventy-four, by throwing his guns overboard, and otherwise 
 lightening his ship. This rendered the Hornet's return into 
 port indispensable ; and as it would have been extremely hazard- 
 ous to approach the American coast, being without guns, boats, 
 or anchors, he concluded to go into St. Salvador, for the pur- 
 pose of refitting and resuming his cruise. He arrived there on 
 the 9th of June, and received intelligence of the peace with 
 Great Britain.
 
 700 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL JACKSON. 
 
 EXPEDITION OF THE BRITISH AGAINST NEW 
 ORLEANS.— RETURN OF PEACE. 
 
 HE British had for some time been preparing 
 for an expedition against New Orleans. The 
 fleet lately employed in the Chesapeake, and 
 the whole British force which could be spared 
 from the Atlantic coast, had been assembled 
 at Jamaica and at Bermuda, to prepare for 
 this grand attempt. Large reinforcements 
 had been ordered from England, under Gene- 
 ral Packenham, furnished not only with the means of war, but 
 with printing presses, and custom-house and civil officers, and
 
 EXPEDITION AGAINST NEW ORLEANS. 701 
 
 every thing incident to a permanent establishment. Indeed, so 
 certain were the enemy of accomplishing their object, that there 
 were merchants on board the fleet who went out for the purpose 
 of buying the cotton which was to compose a part of the coveted 
 plunder. 
 
 On the 20th of October, this formidable armament, con- 
 sisting of sixty vessels, with eight thousand troops, sailed from 
 the West Indies, and on the 18th of November arrived at the 
 entrance of Lake Borgne. On the 2d of December, General 
 Jackson, with the regular troops from the Mobile and Missis- 
 sippi territory, arrived at New Orleans, and immediately com- 
 menced a system of efficient measures for its defence. The 
 militia of Louisiana and Mississippi were ordered out en masse, 
 and large detachments from Tennessee and Kentucky. From 
 Governor Claiborne, of Louisiana, General Jackson had pre- 
 viously learnt that the city corps had for the most part refused 
 to turn out on the requisition of General Flournoy, that the 
 legislature of the state, then in session, had encouraged them in 
 their disobedience, and that among the citizens there were many 
 disaffected to the government of the United States, and friendly 
 to the British. 
 
 Finding on his arrival in the city that this information was 
 correct, and that the most imminent danger was threatened by 
 the presence and influence of the disaffected, General Jackson, 
 after consulting with the governor and other leading citizens, 
 on the 16th of December issued an order, declaring the city 
 and environs of New Orleans to be under strict martial law. 
 The rigid police which this measure enabled him to exert, soon 
 freed the city from the spies and traitors with which it had 
 abounded ; and the citizens addressed themselves earnestly to 
 the business of preparing for the vigorous defence of the city. 
 The fortifications were strengthened, and every man who could 
 bear arms was required to take a part in the military operations 
 on which the safety of all depended. 
 
 Fort St. Philip, which guarded the passage of the river at 
 Detour la Plaquemine, was strengthened and placed under the 
 command of Major Overton. An extensive line of works was 
 erected four miles below the city, on the east bank of the Mis- 
 sissippi, the right resting on the river, and the left reaching to 
 an impenetrable cypress swamp. A ditch which had been dug
 
 702 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 for agricultural objects, between the river and the swamp, was 
 now made use of for an important military purpose. On its 
 northern bank intrenchments were thrown up, and large quan- 
 tities of cotton bales were so arranged as to protect the troops 
 effectually from the enemy's fire. These works were well 
 mounted with artillery. Opposite this position, on the west 
 bank of the river, General Morgan, with a body of militia, was 
 stationed, and ne^r him Commodore Patterson, with the crews 
 and guns of part of his squadron ; enfilading the approach of 
 the enemy against the principal works. A detachment was 
 stationed above the town, to guard the pass of the Bayou St. 
 John. These dispositions having been made for the defence of 
 the city, the approach of the enemy was firmly awaited. 
 
 To clear the way for the transportation of their troops by 
 boats, the British first sent forward forty launches filled with 
 men, who attacked, and after a desperate resistance captured 
 and destroyed the American flotilla stationed on lakes Borgne 
 and Pontchartrain, consisting of five gun-boats and a small sloop 
 and schooner. Having thus obtained possession of the lakes, 
 on the 22d of December a detachment was sent from their ren- 
 dezvous, at Ship Island, to the Bayou Bienvenue, and having 
 effected a landing unobserved, were marching towards the city. 
 General Jackson, having been apprized of their approach, 
 marched out and attacked them on the night of the 23d. In 
 this action the British lost five hundred in killed, wounded, and 
 missing. They retreated, and intrenched themselves at Bien- 
 venue, four miles from the American camp. The armed 
 schooners Caroline and Louisiana dropped down the river from 
 the city, and opened a fire on the British lines. On the 27th, 
 the Caroline got aground, and was set on fire and destroyed 
 by the hot shot of the enemy. The Louisiana succeeded in 
 getting out of the reach of their batteries. 
 
 On the 28th, the British advanced within half a mile of the 
 American lines, and opened a fire of shells and rockets, but 
 were repulsed by the artillery. On the night of the 31st, they 
 came within six hundred yards of the works, erected three bat- 
 teries, and opened a heavy fire. Under cover of these batteries 
 they attempted three times to storm the works, but were re- 
 pulsed, and their batteries being silenced, they returned to their 
 former position.
 
 EXPEDITION AGAINST NEW ORLEANS. 
 
 703 
 
 The final assault was reserved for the 8th of January. To 
 insure its success, it was deemed necessary to order a simulta- 
 neous attack to be made on the main works, and on the position 
 of General Morgan and Commodore Patterson, west of the 
 river. Colonel Thornton was detached for the latter service, 
 with five hundred men, and soon effected a landing. Colonel 
 Davis, with three hundred Kentucky militia, being ordered to 
 the water's edge to oppose them, was soon put to flight, and the 
 Louisiana militia, under General Morgan, also fled, deserting 
 their battery. Commodore Patterson's battery being thus left 
 unsupported, his crews were obliged to yield to a superior force ; 
 but the resistance which they were able to make detained the 
 British until the contest on the other side of the river was nearly 
 over. 
 
 While these operations were going forward on the west bank 
 of the river, the decisive action was fought on the opposite side. 
 At daybreak, on the 8th, the main body of the British, under 
 General Packenham, advanced from their encampment to storm 
 the American lines. A battery which they had erected the 
 evening before, within eight hundred yards, opened a fire to 
 protect their advance. They came on in two columns, the left
 
 704 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 column along the levee against the American right, and the right 
 column advancing to the swamp, for the purpose of turning 
 General Jackson's right. When they had approached within 
 three hundred yards of the lines, forty pieces of artillery from 
 the American works opened upon them a destructive fire of 
 grape-shot and musket-balls, and mowed them down by hundreds, 
 while the riflemen, taking deliberate aim, made nearly every 
 shot take effect. Through this destructive fire the British left 
 column rushed on with their fascines and scaling ladders, and 
 carried the advanced bastion of the American right ; but being 
 unsupported, and assailed by the battery planted in the rear, 
 and a regiment of riflemen brought up for the purpose, they 
 were driven from the ground with immense loss of lives. The 
 right column of the British having attempted to pass into the 
 swamp for the purpose of turning the American left, were pre- 
 vented from effecting their object by the nature of the ground, 
 and being exposed to the fire from the batteries, were compelled 
 to retire. The assault continued an hour and a quarter, during 
 which the British were exposed to the destructive fire from the 
 American artillery and musketry, while the breastworks of cot- 
 ton bales, which no balls could penetrate, afforded a perfect 
 protection to their opponents. General Packenham was mor- 
 tally wounded ; General Gibbs, the second in command, also 
 received a mortal wound; and General Keane, the third in 
 command, was wounded so severely as to be incapable of per- 
 forming his duties of commander. 
 
 At eight o'clock the British retreated to their works. The 
 militia were anxious to pursue them, but General Jackson pru- 
 dently determined not to risk the loss of the city by so rash a 
 proceeding. Of the troops which the British had brought into 
 the field, seven hundred were killed, fourteen hundred wounded, 
 and five hundred captured, making a total loss of twenty-six 
 hundred. The Americans lost six killed, and seven wounded. 
 Of General Morgan's detachment on the west bank, and of a 
 party sent on a sortie on the British lines, forty-nine were killed, 
 and one hundred and seventy-eight wounded. 
 
 The British kept up the appearance of renewing the attack, 
 and on the ninth commenced a bombardment of Fort St. Philip, 
 which was continued till the 17th, and sustained by Major Over- 
 ton and his garrison with but trifling loss. This, however, was
 
 RETURN OF PEACE. 
 
 705 
 
 merely a feint to cover their final retreat, which took place on 
 the 16th of January, under the direction of General Lambert. 
 
 While the whole country was electrified with the news of this 
 important victory, intelligence was received from Europe of the 
 conclusion of a treaty of peace by the commissioners assembled 
 at Ghent. The treaty had been signed on the 24th of Decem- 
 ber, and ratified by the prince-regent of England on the 27th. 
 It was received in the United States on the 11th, and ratified 
 on the 17th of February by the president and senate. The 
 pacification of Europe, in 1814, had removed all the real grounds 
 of war between Great Britain and the United States, by render- 
 ing the interruption of American commerce and the impressment 
 of seamen unnecessary for promoting the objects of the British 
 government. The conquests on both sides were restored ; and 
 provision was made for settling the boundaries between the 
 United States and Canada, which, till 1842, continued a subject 
 of negotiation. 
 
 A treaty to regulate the commerce between the two coun- 
 tries was signed at London on the 3d of July, and ratified by 
 the president on the 22d of December. 
 
 89
 
 706 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 THE GREEK REVOLUTION. 
 
 HE events of the Greek revo- 
 1 lution, which began in 1820, 
 and of the war between the 
 Greeks and Turks, which 
 1 lasted ten years, till the end 
 of 1829, are well known 
 through the works of Leake, 
 Stanhope, Blaquiere, and nu- 
 merous others. The Greeks 
 were determined to shake off 
 the Turkish yoke, and they 
 succeeded in clearing the Morea of their enemies and defeating 
 them by sea. The Porte, unable to subdue them, called to its 
 assistance the disciplined forces of the pasha of Egypt, which 
 invaded the Peloponnesus, and the cause of Greek independ- 
 ence had again become problematical, when the three powers, 
 Great Britain, France, and Russia, resolved to put a stop to 
 this war of extermination, which had been carried on for so 
 many years. The victory of Navarino, gained by the allied 
 fleets in October, 1827, obliged the Egyptian forces to evacuate 
 the Morea. The conference of London, in March, 1829, esta- 
 blished the principle of the independence of Greece as a state, 
 and the successful campaign of the same year of the Russians 
 against the Turks induced the sultan to acknowledge it by an 
 article of the treaty of Adrianople, in September, 1829. In
 
 THE GREEK REVOLUTION. 707 
 
 January, 1830, the conference of London settled the total in- 
 dependence of Greece from the Porte, and fixed Thermopylae 
 and the Aspropotamos as the frontiers of the new state, which 
 were afterwards extended in 1832 to the present boundary line, 
 with the consent of the sultan. Meantime, the internal govern- 
 ment of Greece had undergone many vicissitudes. During 
 their arduous struggle against the Turks, the Greeks had called 
 together at Troezen a congress of deputies from the various 
 districts, which settled the basis of a constitution ; but the 
 vicissitudes of the war prevented the government from assuming 
 a fixed and orderly shape. When the independence of Greece 
 was secured by the interference of the three allied powers, the 
 congress appointed Count John Capodistria, a native of Corfu, 
 who had been employed with distinction as a diplomatic agent 
 of Russia, to be the head of the executive of the new state of 
 Greece, with the title of president, for seven years, and with 
 very extensive powers. Capodistria arrived in Greece in Feb- 
 ruary, 1828, and he set about establishing a central system of 
 bureaucracy, as in France and Russia, by which the government 
 was to interfere in and regulate at pleasure all the concerns of 
 society, civil, financial, commercial, municipal, and religious. 
 Unfortunately for his plan, the Greeks, even under Turkish 
 despotism, had been used to much individual freedom, and to 
 have the direction of their own municipal, judicial, and com- 
 mercial affairs, under the guidance of their archontes and 
 clergy ; the Turks lived chiefly in the fortified towns, interfer- 
 ing but little in the internal concerns of the rayahs, and em- 
 ploying the archontes themselves to exact whatever they wanted 
 from the people. The result of Capodistria's rash measures 
 was an insurrection, which began in Maina and Hydra, and 
 soon extended to most of the islands, and to the warlike popu- 
 lation of Roumelia. 
 
 On the 8th of October, 1831, Capodistria was murdered at 
 Nauplia in open day, on the threshold of the church of St. 
 Spiridion, by George and Constantine Mauromicali, the rela- 
 tives of Petros Mauromicali, the bey of Maina, whom the pre- 
 sident had kept for a long time in prison without bringing him 
 to trial. His brother Augustin Capodistria succeeded him in 
 the presidency, but the civil war continuing, he was obliged to 
 resign. At last the allied powers offered the crown of Greece,
 
 708 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 which had been refused by Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg, to 
 the king of Bavaria for his younger son Otho, then a minor ; 
 and the offer being accepted, Otho, accompanied by a council 
 of regency, and a body of Bavarian troops, arrived at Nauplia 
 in February, 1833, and was willingly acknowledged by the 
 Greeks as their sovereign. In June, 1835, King Otho, being 
 of age, took the direction of the affairs of state. The govern- 
 ment is a constitutional hereditary monarchy, with two legisla- 
 tive houses — a senate and house of representatives. In the year 
 1836, King Otho made a journey to Germany, where he married 
 Amelia Maria, daughter of the grand-duke of Oldenburg ; an< 
 in February, 1837, he returned with his bride to Greece, ana 
 made his entrance into Athens, the capital of the kingdom, in 
 the midst of general acclamations. It is settled that the chil- 
 dren of this marriage shall be brought up in the Greek commu- 
 nion. Since the arrival of King Otho, Greece has been com- 
 paratively quiet, bating some intrigues and dissensions between 
 the Roumeliote chiefs, the Moreote primates, and the old klepht 
 Colocotroni.
 
 FRENCH CONQUEST OF ALGIERS. 
 
 709 
 
 CHARLES X. 
 
 FRENCH CONQUEST OF ALGIERS— FRENCH 
 REVOLUTION OF 1830. 
 
 N 1827, the French government had sent a fleet 
 under Admiral de Rigny to the coast of the Mo- 
 rea, for the purpose of joining the English in put- 
 ting a stop to the barbarous warfare between the 
 Greeks and the Turks. De Rigny and the Eng- 
 lish admiral, Codrington, acted in concert in the battle fought 
 in Navarino bay, in which the Turkish fleet was destroyed, and 
 France, in like manner, subsequently became a party to the 
 treaties by which Greece was finally extricated from the Turk- 
 ish yoke, and made, at least ostensibly, an independent state. 
 
 In the same year some disputes took place with Algiers, and 
 a blockading squadron was despatched there to demand satis- 
 faction. Some slight hostilities followed ; but these were only 
 a prelude to the sending a formidable army there three years 
 afterwards. 
 
 This army, which consisted of no less than thirty-seven thou- 
 sand men, sailed from Toulon on the 25th of May, 1830. It was 
 
 3K
 
 710 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 commanded by the comte de Bourmont, who had been originally 
 a Vendean chief, but had tarnished his reputation by his readi- 
 ness to join all parties, and had been a Bourbonist and a Bona- 
 partist by turns. On June 14th, after encountering much hazy 
 and baffling weather, the army was landed on the coast of 
 Africa, at about fifteen miles to the west of Algiers. On the 
 4th of July, as the French were preparing an assault against 
 one of the forts, the dey sent a flag of truce to treat for peace, 
 and the terms finally settled were that the town should be de- 
 livered up to France, and that the inhabitants should retain 
 their private property and personal liberty, together with the 
 free exercise of their religion. The dey himself was expelled, 
 and finally took up his abode at Naples. It had been originally 
 announced that this expedition had been fitted out for the pur- 
 pose of causing the French flag to be respected by the piratical 
 states, and not with any view to a permanent conquest ; but no 
 disposition to abandon the new colony thus acquired has yet 
 been shown. 
 
 The news of this success reached Paris on the 9th of July, 
 and it was for a moment hoped that it might gain some popu- 
 larity for the ministers. The public feeling was, however, by 
 this time too much decided to be easily turned. On the 26th 
 the king issued six ordinances, by which the liberty of the press 
 was abolished ; the newly elected chamber of deputies dissolved, 
 though it had not yet met ; a new mode of election appointed ; 
 and several individuals very obnoxious to the people nominated 
 as members of the council of state. The intelligence of this 
 subversion (for it was nothing less) of the charter was first com- 
 municated to the public by the appearance of the ordinances in 
 the government newspaper. Even Mare'chal Marmont, who had 
 the military command, and was the person to be relied on to 
 suppress any tumult or insurrection, had not been apprized of 
 what was intended. The king passed the day in hunting, and 
 the ministers, although some mobs collected in Paris, and broke 
 lamps and windows, and threw stones at Prince Polignac's car- 
 riage, were so blind to their danger that they even congratu- 
 lated each other on the tranquillity of the capital. But these 
 congratulations were very premature. 
 
 During the whole of the next day the agitation went on in- 
 creasing. The military were called out, and in some places the
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830. 711 
 
 collected multitudes were charged by the cavalry. In other 
 places, after much forbearance, the streets were cleared by vol- 
 leys of musketry. By these means a temporary repose was 
 obtained at an early hour of the night, and the ministers again 
 hoped that the contest was come to an end. Many persons 
 also have thought that if the ensuing night had been passed by 
 the government in active preparation for the more serious con- 
 test of the next day, the insurrection might still have been 
 suppressed. 
 
 At an early hour of the morning of the 28th, large bodies of 
 people were everywhere in motion. At nine o'clock, the tri- 
 colour flag was seen to wave from the top of the cathedral of 
 Notre Dame, and at eleven from the central tower of the Hotel 
 de Ville. On this morning, there also appeared in the throng 
 several armed citizens arrayed in the old uniform of the national 
 guard. The ministers declared the town in a state of siege, 
 and Marmont, who had been disgusted at the weakness and 
 precipitation which had brought affairs into this dangerous state, 
 was now seriously alarmed for the result, and recommended to 
 take measures of pacification. No attention was paid to this 
 recommendation, and at mid-day he put the guards in motion. 
 A series of contests ensued in all parts of the town, some of 
 which lasted till late at night. The troops fought under the 
 disadvantage of being plunged in narrow and crowded streets, 
 in which, though, when they could act together, they sur- 
 mounted all opposition, they were exposed to a harassing fire 
 from the windows, and to the hurling down on their heads of 
 stones and tiles, or any other missiles that could be found. 
 Even boiling water and oil were used as instruments of warfare 
 on this occasion ; and it is said that one lady and her maid 
 contrived to throw down a pianoforte on the heads of the ad- 
 verse party in the streets. The scene on which the contest of 
 this day took the most serious appearance was the Place de 
 Gre>e, and the north end of Pont Notre Dame. Of these stations 
 the guards took possession, though under a series of incessant 
 attacks. But the troops of the line, which had been appointed 
 to support them, refused to act, and the guards were therefore 
 at length compelled to retire, first to the Hotel de Ville, and 
 afterwards to the Tuileries. There is no doubt that Marmont 
 had exposed his troops to these repulses by frittering them into
 
 712 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 small bodies ; but his heart had never been in the cause for 
 ■which he was fighting. He was pledged by the office which he 
 bore to obey the orders of the government, but he saw and felt, 
 at the same time, that it was going wrong. 
 
 In the mean time, some of the deputies to the new chamber, 
 which the king had dissolved, endeavoured, but in vain, to re- 
 store tranquillity. They had assembled on the 27th, and had 
 protested against the fatal ordinances of the day before. On 
 the 28th, a body of them proceeded to the Tuileries, and had 
 an audience of Marmont, who tried to persuade them to use 
 their influence with the people to make them submit. They 
 replied that the ordinances must be repealed, and the ministers 
 changed, before any conciliation could be attempted, and that, 
 if these things were not done, they must themselves take part 
 against the government. Marmont wrote at five in the after- 
 noon to the king, to express his opinion of the great danger of 
 the crisis which had arrived, but received in return only an in- 
 junction to persevere in the use of force, and to act in larger 
 masses than before. 
 
 The night of the 29th was passed by the populace in erect- 
 ing barricades across the principal streets, to hinder them from 
 being penetrated or scoured by the troops. On the evening of 
 the 27th, they had made, in some places, a rude sort of blockade 
 with carriages and omnibuses. They now broke up the pave- 
 ment at intervals, and heaped it into mounds, which they aug- 
 mented with planks and pieces of furniture ; and they also cut 
 down and employed in the same manner the trees of the Boule- 
 vards. All these preparations, however, were not brought to 
 the trial. The soldiers, instructed by their experience of the 
 day before, did not attempt to penetrate again into the narrow 
 streets, and maintained themselves during the whole of the 
 morning of the next day in their positions. The populace 
 made, however, several skirmishing attacks, and some of them 
 fell by the fire of the guards. 
 
 The first approach to a decision of the contest was by the 
 desertion of the regiments of the line at about noon of 
 this day, the 29th. But before this was known, or during an 
 interval in which the guards had been removed from their post, 
 the populace made way into the garden in front of the Louvre, 
 and thence, entering through the windows and glass doors,
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830. 713 
 
 took possession of the whole interior of the edifice. The re- 
 mainder of the guards were compelled to fly in disorder ; they 
 rallied for a time in the Place de Carrousel, but were not sup- 
 ported, and were again obliged to retire. Shortly afterwards, 
 Marmont relinquished the possession of the city to the insur- 
 gents. He withdrew all the troops whom his orders could 
 reach, and directed them to take the road to St. Cloud, in order 
 to protect the person of the king. And thus, by three in the 
 afternoon, Paris was left entirely at the command of the popu- 
 lace. 
 
 The ministers now tendered their resignations ; and the king, 
 seeing the necessity of the case, signed an order, by which he 
 repealed the obnoxious decrees, and appointed a new ministry 
 composed of men attached to popular principles. But, before 
 this order could be received in Paris, the Parisians had deter- 
 mined that he should not be permitted to reascend the throne. 
 
 As soon as the retreat of Marmont and his troops was ascer- 
 tained, the deputies in Paris formed and proclaimed a provi- 
 sional government. The national guard was called out, and 
 General La Fayette was appointed to take the command. The 
 personal influence and popularity of this veteran was exceed- 
 ingly great with all classes of citizens. All his orders were 
 willingly obeyed ; and it is thought to have been greatly through 
 the weight of his individual character that order and police 
 were restored throughout the whole city before the close of the 
 day. It is also remarked, that no instance has been recorded 
 in which the disorder of these three days was made the occa- 
 sion of any plunder, or of gratifying any private malice. 
 
 Such was the revolution de trois jours, or of the three days. 
 Never before, probably, was any contest of so much moment, 
 and so hotly contested, begun and ended so rapidly. There 
 is a story of a party of Englishmen, who had arrived in Paris 
 just at the time on a tour of pleasure, and who never found out 
 what was going on. They perceived that there was a violent 
 tumult, but, being ignorant of the French language, did not 
 discover its meaning till they learned on their return home 
 from the English newspapers, that they had been " assisting," 
 as the phrase was, at a revolution. 
 
 On the 30th of July, the deputies invited the duke of Orleans 
 to place himself at the head of the government, with the title 
 90 3k2
 
 714 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. The duke accepted the 
 offer without delay, and on the following morning issued a pro- 
 clamation announcing his appointment, and adding that the 
 chambers were about to assemble to consider of the means to 
 secure the reign of the laws and the maintenance of the rights 
 of the nation, and that the charter should henceforward be a 
 reality. He afterwards met the deputies and the members of 
 the provisional government at the Hotel de Ville, and pledged 
 himself still more strongly to the most popular principles. 
 
 In the mean time, the intelligence of these events was joy- 
 fully received as it spread into all parts of the kingdom. The 
 tri-colour flag waved everywhere. The troops submitted to the 
 orders of the new government, the guards only continuing so 
 far their adherence to the court as to deem it their duty still 
 to protect the person of the sovereign. All further contest 
 was hopeless. The court withdrew on the 31st of July from 
 St. Cloud to Trianon, and on the following day to Rambouillet. 
 Here, on the 2d of August, the king and the dauphin signed 
 an act of abdication — the one of the crown itself, the other of 
 his right of succession, in favour of the king's infant grandson, 
 the duke of Bordeaux, the son of the unfortunate due de Berri. 
 This act of abdication the king addressed to the duke of Or- 
 leans, and required him to proclaim the accession of Henry V. 
 No such resource, however, to save the crown for this last scion 
 of the direct stock of the Bourbons was now available. The 
 duke of Orleans, either in his eagerness to be king himself, or 
 because he felt that the proposition came too late, suppressed, 
 in announcing the king's and the dauphin's abdication, the sti- 
 pulation coupled with it as to the duke of Bordeaux. But that 
 the stipulation had been made was publicly known, and the 
 news threw the capital again into some confusion. 
 
 The mob prepared in thousands to march to Rambouillet, in 
 probably much the same temper in which, in the disastrous 
 period of August, 1789, another mob of Paris had marched to 
 Versailles. But the king, though he had still guards who 
 might, and probably would, have defended him successfully 
 against an undisciplined multitude, determined not to prolong 
 an unavailing resistance. He set out for Cherbourg, and on the 
 next day dismissed his guards, retaining only a small escort. 
 After a journey in which he was everywhere treated with re-
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830. 715 
 
 spect, but not received with any indications of attachment, he 
 arrived at that port, August 15th. He reached England on the 
 17th, and, after a short residence at Lulworth castle«in Dorset- 
 shire, proceeded to Edinburgh, where the ancient palace of 
 Holyrood, which had been his place of abode during a great 
 part of his former exile, now once more afforded him an asylum. 
 
 The chamber of deputies proceeded on the 6th and 7th of 
 August to revise the charter, and to make the formal appoint- 
 ment of the new sovereign. They declared the throne to be 
 vacant ; that not only the Roman Catholic, but that all minis- 
 ters of Christianity, (and to these were added, at a later period, 
 those of the Jews,) should be supported at the public expense ; 
 and that all the peerages granted during the reign of Charles X. 
 should be null and void. Finally, they resolved that Louis 
 Philippe duke of Orleans should be called to the throne, by the 
 title, not of king of France, but king of the French, in the 
 same manner in which Napoleon had been entitled emperor of 
 the French, not of France, and that he should be succeeded by 
 his descendants in the direct male line only, in the order of 
 birth. 
 
 These resolutions of the house of deputies were transmitted 
 on the same day (August 7) to the chamber of peers, though 
 rather as a matter of courtesy than with any recognition of 
 that house as possessing an independent voice in the legisla- 
 ture. The viscount Chateaubriand spoke, but in vain, in behalf 
 of the claims of the duke of Bordeaux. The declaration of the 
 deputies was adopted, and on the 9th the constitution, as thus 
 created, was formally tendered to and accepted by the new 
 sovereign.
 
 '16 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 THE E JI P E P. R OF CUISA. 
 
 THE OPIUM WAR BETWEEN ENGLAND 
 AND CHINA. 
 
 SHE prohibition of the importation of opium into 
 Canton having been disregarded by the English, 
 the Chinese government resolved on the adoption 
 of some extraordinary measures to put an end to 
 that illicit trade. Accordingly, commissioner Lin 
 issued a proclamation in March, 1839, requiring the opium con-
 
 BURNING OF THE ENGLISH FACTORIES BT THE CHINE8E.
 
 THE OPIUM WAR BETWEEN ENGLAND AND CHINA. 719 
 
 tained on board the British vessels, or in their store-houses, to 
 be given up. After vainly protesting against this measure, the 
 British merchants were compelled to comply, and 20,283 chests 
 of opium were delivered to the Chinese, and by them destroyed 
 or rendered useless ; and in a riot the English factories were 
 burnt. In July, a street fight occurred between some English 
 sailors and a number of Chinese, in which one of the latter was 
 killed. On the refusal of Captain Elliott to surrender the 
 offender, Lin issued another proclamation, forbidding the people 
 to furnish the English with provisions, who, in consequence, 
 were obliged to leave the land and remain on ship-board. Im- 
 pelled by hunger, the English next made an attempt to take 
 provisions from the inhabitants by force. In vain did Captain 
 Elliott endeavour to re-establish a good understanding between 
 the parties ; Lin insisting, as a necessary condition, that the 
 masters of all vessels, before entering the river of Canton, should 
 make a declaration that they had no opium on board, and that, 
 in the event of a search being made, and opium being found, it 
 should be confiscated, and the individual so found guilty of 
 smuggling should forfeit his life. Elliott would not agree to 
 these terms, and skirmishes were constantly occurring between 
 the Chinese and small parties of the English in search of pro- 
 visions, until, at length, on the 7th of September, a fleet of 
 war-junks attacked the British armed vessels, but were repulsed 
 with considerable loss to the assailants. War was now declared 
 by the British government against China. On the 28th of 
 February, 1840, an attempt was made to set fire to the English 
 vessels. In June, Captain Elliott blockaded the river of Can- 
 ton ; and in August, Admiral Elliott entered the river Peiho, 
 the river on which Pekin is situated, and so alarmed the emperor, 
 that he disavowed the acts of Lin at Canton, and appointed a 
 commissioner to conclude a treaty with the English. The pro- 
 mised negotiator did not make his appearance at Canton until 
 the 29th of November ; and then so little progress was made 
 in the drawing up of the treaty, that it soon became evident that 
 it was the intention of the emperor merely to amuse the English, 
 and to keep them at a distance from his capital. Accordingly, 
 Commodore Bremer, who now commanded the British naval 
 force, on the 9th of January, 1841, attacked the forts at the 
 Bocca Tigris, and inflicted much damage upon the enemy. This
 
 720 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 induced the commissioner to hasten his operations, and on the 
 20th of January, a preliminary treaty was signed, very favour- 
 able to the English. A month, however, having elapsed, with- 
 out any indication of its ratification by the Chinese being mani- 
 fested, hostilities recommenced on the 25th of February. The 
 forts at the Bocca Tigris were taken, a fleet of junks destroyed, 
 and, on the 18th of March, the English appeared before Canton, 
 and established themselves in the suburb containing the fac- 
 tories. Then, on the 24th of May, Major-general Sir Hugh 
 Gough, at the head of twenty-five thousand men, attacked and 
 defeated the Chinese army of fifty thousand, commanded by the 
 Tartar general Yeshan, and the minister Hu. He was about to 
 storm the city, when the Chinese again offered to negotiate. 
 The former treaty, very little modified, was again agreed upon, 
 and a portion of the indemnity money paid to the English, who 
 consequently withdrew their forces to Hong-kong ; but there 
 new difficulties were interposed by the Chinese. Captain Elliott 
 was now superseded in the office of superintendent by Sir Henry 
 Pottinger, and Admiral Parker was appointed to the command 
 of the fleet. An expedition was fitted out from Hong-kong in 
 August, 1841, and the cities of Amoy, Chusan, Chinhae, and 
 Ningpo were captured. On the 18th of May, 1842, the expedi- 
 tion captured Chapoo, and on the 13th of June reached the con- 
 fluence of the Woosung with the Yang-tse-kiang, where the enemy 
 had erected batteries, and mounted two hundred and fifty can- 
 non. The position was, nevertheless, carried in two hours. The 
 city of Shang-hae was taken on the 19th of June, and on the 
 21st of July the British captured by assault the city of Ching- 
 kian-foo. The moral effect produced by the capture of this place 
 was decisive ; and when, on the 6th of August, they presented 
 themselves before the great city of Nanking, the second in the 
 empire, an armistice was earnestly solicited by the Chinese ; en- 
 voys arrived from the emperor, and the war was brought to a 
 close by a treaty ratified on the 26th of August, 1842. By the 
 provisions of this treaty, the emperor consented to indemnify 
 the English for the expense of the war, by the payment of 
 $21,000,000, the entire cession of the island of Hong-kong, and 
 the freedom of trade at the ports of Shanghai, Ning-po, Fou- 
 tcheou, Amoy, and Canton.
 
 91 
 
 3L
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 723 
 
 GENERAL TATIOE. 
 
 THE WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES 
 AND MEXICO. 
 
 EFORE the breaking out 
 of hostilities between 
 Mexico and the United 
 States, circumstances 
 rendered a war inevita- 
 ble. In February, 1845, 
 resolutions annexing the 
 republic of Texas to the 
 United States passed 
 congress. Mexico had 
 never acknowledged the 
 independence of Texas, 
 but looked upon it as a 
 rebellious province. The 
 consequences of the an- 
 nexation to the United States were, therefore, easily foreseen, 
 and measures taken to provide for them. Upon the receipt of
 
 7 24 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CORPUS CHRIST I. 
 
 the news of the adoption of the annexation resolutions by the 
 Texan convention, Brigadier-general Taylor, with about two 
 thousand five hundred men, was ordered to take a position at 
 Corpus Christi, on the river Nueces, to repel any invasion of the 
 Mexican forces. The " Army of Observation," as it was called, 
 arrived at Corpus Christi, on the 31st of July, 1845. Early in 
 February of the following year, General Taylor received orders 
 to march to the Rio Grande and take a position on that river. 
 The territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande was dis- 
 puted, and there can be no doubt, that whatever may have been 
 the prospect of war before, this move hastened hostilities. 
 
 The American army reached the Rio Grande on the 28th of 
 March, 1846. A large force of Mexican troops were collected 
 at Matamoras, on the opposite side of the river, under the com- 
 mand of General Ampudia. Communications between the two 
 commanders were immediately opened, but with no satisfactory 
 result. The Mexicans and Americans both proceeded to erect 
 defences. A strong battery was constructed directly opposite to 
 Matamoras by the Americans, and Matamoras was strongly 
 fortified by Ampudia's forces. Several slight skirmishes took
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 725 
 
 FORT BROWN. 
 
 place about the middle of April, between bands of Mexicans -who 
 had crossed the river, and American parties. Colonel Cross was 
 murdered by one of the guerillas, and Lieutenant Porter and a 
 private killed in a skirmish. Leaving Major Brown with a small 
 body of troops in the fort opposite Matamoras, General Taylor 
 marched to Point Isabel, at the mouth of the Rio Grande, which 
 he reached on the 2d of May, without opposition. 
 
 On the 3d of May, at daybreak, the Mexicans opened their 
 fire upon the fort, and it was returned with effect, the heavy gun 
 batteries of the Mexicans being silenced in thirty minutes. The 
 throwing of shells was incessantly continued, however, and the 
 little band in the fort were in great peril. Receiving informa- 
 tion that the Mexicans had crossed the Rio Grande, and were 
 posted between Point Isabel and Matamoras, General Taylor 
 resolved to march and fight the enemy, no matter what might 
 be their strength. Accordingly, he started at three o'clock, on 
 the 7th of May, and on the 8th, at two o'clock, found the 
 enemy in position, in front of a chaparral, which lies opposite to 
 the timber of a stream called Palo Alto. General Taylor im- 
 mediately formed his line of battle, although it was clear the 
 Mexicans numbered double his force. The Mexicans opened 
 the action by a fire from their artillery, and it was returned in 
 
 3l2
 
 726 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 IEGE OF FORI BROWN. 
 
 a rapid and effective manner by the Americans. Then the fight 
 commenced in earnest, and lasted till darkness dropped upon 
 the scene. The Mexicans were driven from their position, with 
 a severe loss, and the Americans encamped upon the field. 
 
 On the 9th, General Taylor packed the heavy trains, collected 
 the enemy's wounded in hospital, buried their dead, arranged 
 his own wounded, and moved on in pursuit of the Mexicans. 
 They had taken post in a strong position, in the chaparral, on 
 each side of the bed of a stream called Resaca de la Palma, 
 with their artillery on the road at the crossing. General Taylor 
 brought up his troops by battalions, and posted them with brief 
 orders to find the enemy with the bayonet, and placed the ar- 
 tillery where they could act on the road ; the dragoons being 
 held in reserve. The battle was a series of brilliant skirmishes 
 and heavy shocks, in which two thousand fighting men, General 
 Taylor's whole force, met six thousand, overwhelmed them with 
 the precision of their volleys and the steady coolness of the bay- 
 onet, and drove them from the field with the loss of their artil- 
 lery, baggage, pack-mules, fixed ammunition, and near two 
 thousand stand of muskets. 
 
 The total loss of the Americans during both battles was
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 727 
 
 thirty killed, and about one hundred and forty wounded. But 
 though the number was small, it included some of the most 
 valuable officers in the army. The Mexican loss at Palo Alto 
 is set down by themselves at four hundred and fifty, in killed 
 and wounded; at Resaca de la Palma, the number of killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners was more than twice that number. 
 Among the prisoners was General La Vega, captured during a 
 brilliant charge of the American dragoons, under Colonel May. 
 
 While the battles of the 8th and 9th of May were raging, the 
 Mexican batteries kept up a constant fire upon the American 
 fort opposite Matamoras, but the heroic little force that defended 
 it suffered but little ; their principal loss being their indomitable 
 commander, Major Brown, who was killed by the bursting of a 
 shell. As the fugitives from the field of Resaca de la Palma 
 arrived at Matamoras, the fire ceased, and the garrison was re- 
 lieved by the arrival of General Taylor. 
 
 On the 11th of May, an exchange of prisoners took place, 
 and Captain Thornton 'and his command, who had been surprised 
 and captured at the commencement of hostilities, rejoined the 
 American army. On the 15th, Bariga, a town near the mouth 
 of the Rio Grande, on the Mexican side, was taken by the Ame- 
 ricans without opposition, the inhabitants fleeing at their ap- 
 proach. At sunrise, on the 17th, General Ampudia signalized 
 that he wished to parley. He requested that an armistice might 
 be granted, but General Taylor replied that it was too late, and 
 on the 18th, the American forces crossed the river, and entered 
 Matamoras without opposition. The Mexican general retreated 
 to Reynosa, with all his forces. 
 
 Although in possession of Matamoras, General Taylor found 
 himself in no condition to advance. He lacked both troops and 
 means of transportation. It became necessary, therefore, for 
 him to remain at this post during the greater part of the sum- 
 mer, waiting for the means to prosecute the invasion. 
 
 In the meantime, Captain McCulloch with the Texan rangers 
 had seized and occupied the Mexican ports of Reynosa, Camargo, 
 and Mier, without resistance on the part of the enemy. It was 
 not until the 5th of August, nearly three months after the bat- 
 tle of Resaca de la Palma, that General Taylor was able to take 
 up his line of march from Matamoras for Camargo. On ar- 
 riving at that place, General Worth was detached to San Juan
 
 728 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 while Captain Wall occupied Reynosa, and General Twiggs had 
 been left in command of Matamoras. Towards the end of 
 August, General Worth was ordered to advance to Seralvo and 
 there to await further orders. From this port he sent advices 
 to General Taylor on the 5th of September, that Monterey had 
 just been reinforced by the arrival of three thousand men under 
 General Ampudia, thus increasing the garrison to four thousand. 
 
 This important information determined General Taylor to ad- 
 vance immediately and attack Monterey. He accordingly took 
 up his line of march towards Seralvo on the 7th, leaving General 
 Patterson in command of all the forces stationed between Ca- 
 margo and Matamoras. 
 
 Disencumbering his troops of all unnecessary baggage, and 
 sending forward his supplies on pack-mules to Seralvo, Taylor 
 now hastened eagerly on to the next scene in his grand drama. 
 On his arrival at Seralvo, instead of waiting for further rein- 
 forcements or fresh orders before attacking so formidable a fort 
 with so light a force, he pushed forward for Monterey with his 
 main body, consisting of but little more than six thousand men. 
 
 The character and extent of the work the Americans had 
 before them may be inferred from a short sketch of Monterey : — 
 The town is seated in a beautiful valley, bosomed among lofty 
 and imposing mountains on the north, east, and south, and open 
 to a plain on the west, fortified with thick stone walls in the old 
 Spanish fashion of another century, with all the apparatus of 
 ditches and bastions, and lowering upon them with deep-mouthed 
 . cannon. From their elevated position the Americans could see 
 in part what they had already learned from spies and deserters, 
 that the flat-roofed stone houses of the city itself had been con- 
 verted into fortifications. Every street was barricaded, and 
 every housetop was bristling with musketry. On one side the 
 Americans could see the Bishop's Palace, a strong fort well gar- 
 risoned ; on the other, redoubts well manned ; and in the rear of 
 all, a river. 
 
 The attack on Monterey began on the 20th of September. The 
 Americans were divided into two columns ; one, under the com- 
 mand of General Taylor, designed to attack the front of the 
 town, and the other, under General Worth, to attack the Bishop's 
 Palace and the other strong works in that quarter. The siege 
 lasted three days, and was characterized by the display of the
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 729 
 
 
 STORMING OF MONTEREY. 
 
 most undaunted bravery on the part of the American soldiers, 
 and the most consummate skill on the part of the commanding 
 general. One by one the various posts, deemed impregnable, 
 fell into the hands of the besiegers, and they even attained strong- 
 positions in the city before the Mexican generals capitulated. 
 
 The great strength of the defences of Monterey was not fully 
 seen until after the capture. The town and works were armed 
 with forty-two pieces of cannon, well supplied with ammunition, 
 and manned with a force of at least seven thousand troops of 
 the line, and from two to three thousand irregulars. The whole 
 force of the assailants was about six thousand five hundred men, 
 with only one ten-inch mortar suitable for a siege. The loss of 
 the Americans was twelve officers, and one hundred and eight 
 men killed, and thirty-one officers and three hundred and thirty- 
 seven wounded. 
 
 By the terms of the capitulation, the Mexican forces were al- 
 lowed to retain certain of their arms, and were to retire, within 
 seven days from the capitulation, beyond a line formed by the 
 pass of the Riconada, the city of Linares, and San -Fernando de 
 Preras. The forces under General Taylor were not to advance 
 92
 
 730 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 beyond that line before the expiration of eight weeks, or until 
 orders were received from the respective governments. 
 
 After establishing his head-quarters in Monterey, General 
 Taylor detached Brigadier-general Worth with twelve hundred 
 men and eight pieces of artillery to Saltillo. Brigadier-general 
 Wool and the column under his command, twenty-four hundred 
 strong, with six pigces of artillery, were ordered to occupy the 
 town of Parras, a small but beautiful place seventy miles north- 
 east of Saltillo. Saltillo, to which Worth was ordered, is about 
 seventy miles from Monterey, and at an elevation of about two 
 thousand feet above the latter place. General Patterson having 
 been withdrawn on an expedition to act in conjunction with the 
 fleet in the gulf, General Butler was ordered to take the command 
 of the reserve. Saltillo and Parras were occupied by the Ame- 
 ricans without any opposition, the enemy having fallen back as 
 far as San Luis Potosi. 
 
 Santa Anna had now been recalled to Mexico, and placed at 
 the head of affairs, and Paredes deposed. Santa Anna was 
 nominally commander-in-chief of the Mexican armies — really 
 dictator. He was raising a formidable army to resist the further 
 advance of General Taylor. Before December, he had succeeded 
 in raising twenty thousand men, and concentrating them at San 
 Luis Potosi, which he strongly fortified, and filled with military 
 stores. After awaiting the advance of this formidable force for 
 some time, General Taylor determined to meet them on their own 
 ground. 
 
 On the 30th of December, General Taylor received intelligence 
 that General Winfield Scott had been ordered to Mexico, to take 
 command of an expedition against Vera Cruz, and the castle of 
 San Juan de Ulloa, and a requisition for nearly all the regular 
 troops under his command. General Worth was also detached, 
 and proceeded to join General Scott. This deprivation of his 
 best troops was a source of regret to General Taylor, and it was 
 thought would force him to act upon the defensive for a time. 
 But by February, 1847, he had received reinforcements raising 
 his whole army to about six thousand men. 
 
 Anticipating an attempt on the part of Santa Anna, an at- 
 tempt to possess himself of the line of posts between himself 
 and Matamoras, he determined to advance and fight a pitched 
 battle with him. Accordingly, on the 20th of February, we
 
 WAR BETWEEN MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 731 
 
 GENERAL WOOL. 
 
 find him encamped at Agua Nueva, eighteen miles south of Sal- 
 tillo, and sending out videttes, who return with intelligence that 
 Santa Anna is within thirty miles of his position, rapidly ad- 
 vancing with some twenty thousand men against his forlorn hope 
 of five thousand four hundred. 
 
 On receiving this intelligence, General Taylor determined to 
 choose his own battle-ground, and accordingly fell back to an 
 admirable position in front of Buena Vista, seven miles south of 
 Saltillo. 
 
 The features of the ground of Taylor's position were such as 
 nearly to paralyze the artillery and cavalry of an assailant, 
 while his infantry could not derive all the advantage of nume- 
 rical superiority. 
 
 On the 22d of February, the advance of the Mexican forces 
 came in sight, and Santa Anna, the commanding general, sent
 
 732 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 TAYLOR AT BUESA VISTA. 
 
 General Taylor a summons to surrender, which he, of course, 
 declined, although Santa Anna informed him that he was sur- 
 rounded by twenty thousand men. The Mexicans then opened 
 a fire from a mortar, but without execution ; and then made a 
 demonstration on the left of the Americans, pouring a tremen- 
 dous fire into their ranks. The skirmishing was kept up until 
 dark, when General Taylor, leaving General Wool in command, 
 returned to Saltillo. The troops bivouacked on the field. 
 
 Early on the morning of the 23d, the battle commenced by 
 an attempt of the Mexicans to outflank the left of the Ameri- 
 cans, where the Kentucky riflemen were posted. They main- 
 tained their position against a vastly superior force, and were 
 well supported by the artillery. But they were overwhelmed 
 and driven back, with the loss of their guns. The Mexicans 
 then poured their masses of infantry and cavalry along the 
 base of the mountain on the left, and were gaining the rear in 
 great force, when General Taylor arrived on the field, and by 
 his skilful and prompt measures, the fortune of the day turned. 
 After a bloody conflict, the Mexicans were driven back. An- 
 other body of them gained the rear of the Americans, and were 
 there cut off from the main army. A device of Santa Anna, by 
 which he secured time enough for them to rejoin him, was all
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 733 
 
 that saved them from annihilation. A last and desperate 
 attempt was made to force the Americans from their position ; 
 and the determined bravery of the Americans, and the vast 
 number of the Mexicans, made the conflict extremely obstinate 
 and bloody. The splendid artillery of the Americans was served 
 with such effect that whole ranks of the enemy were swept by 
 it, and at length they fell back. Night put an end to the bat- 
 tle. The Americans sank down exhausted upon the field, but 
 their untiring general made every preparation for an attack 
 the next morning. 
 
 When the morning came, it was found Santa Anna had re- 
 treated, evidently satisfied with his previous efforts. No pursuit 
 was attempted, it being considered enough to have maintained 
 a position against such an army. The whole number of Ame- 
 ricans engaged at Buena Vista was three hundred and thirty- 
 four officers, and four thousand four hundred and twenty-five 
 men, of which number only four hundred and fifty-three were 
 regular troops. The strength of the Mexican army is set down 
 at fifteen thousand infantry, and six thousand cavalry. The 
 loss of the Americans was two hundred and sixty-seven killed, 
 four hundred and fifty-six wounded, and twenty-three missing. 
 The loss of the Mexicans is said, by Santa Anna, to have been 
 at least fifteen hundred ; more than five hundred of their killed 
 were left upon the field of battle. The victory must be attri- 
 buted, in great part, to the artillery of the American army, which 
 saved the day at three different times ; but the genius of the 
 commanding general was conspicuous from the choice of position 
 till the close of the battle, and to his coolness and intrepidity, 
 resources and skill, which inspired confidence in the men, must 
 be allowed a due consideration. In spite of the great exertions 
 of the veteran General Wool, it was clearly evident in the early 
 part of the day, that without General Taylor the battle would 
 have been lost. 
 
 The subsequent movements of the army under General Tay- 
 lor are not of sufficient importance to warrant an extended men- 
 tion. After the battle of Buena Vista, the greater part of the 
 army encamped upon that bloody field, under the command of 
 General Wool; the rest, under General Taylor, encamped at 
 Walnut Springs, four miles from Monterey. 
 
 An expedition against the ports on the Gulf of Mexico having 
 
 3 M
 
 734 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 been determined upon by the United States government, Major 
 General Scott was ordered to take command of the troops raised 
 for that purpose. He reached the seat of war, January 1st, 
 1847. By February, the troops under his command amounted 
 to more than eleven thousand men. The proposed object of 
 attack was the city of Vera Cruz and the castle of San Juan 
 d'Ulloa. The fleet under Commodore Conner was to co-ope- 
 rate. This castle is situated on a bar in front of Vera Cruz, 
 and is considered the strongest fortress in America. The city 
 was also strongly fortified — being surrounded by a wall defended 
 by towers. 
 
 Early in March, the American army at Tampico embarked on 
 board of the gulf squadron, and on the 7th reached Anton 
 Lizardo, near Vera Cruz. A reconnoissance of the coast was 
 made by General Scott and Commodore Conner, and a portion 
 of the beach west of the Isle of Sacrificios was selected for 
 landing the troops. That event took place on the 9th of March. 
 No resistance was met with, and nearly four thousand men were 
 landed at once. Commodore Conner permitted the marines to
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 735 
 
 VERA CRUZ. 
 
 join the artillery upon land. The time from the 9th to the 22d 
 of March was occupied by General Scott in extending his line 
 completely round to the beach on the opposite side of Vera 
 Cruz, in landing mortars, and in general preparation for a siege. 
 On the 22d, he summoned the city and castle to surrender. 
 Governor Morales replied, that he had prepared for a vigorous 
 defence, and therefore declined. The bombardment was then 
 commenced, and the fire being returned from the city and cas- 
 tle, it was tremendous. The shells of the Americans told with 
 the most destructive effect, and the citizens implored the governor 
 to surrender. But he refused to do so, and resigned his office ; 
 and General Llandero was appointed to succeed him. He im- 
 mediately made overtures for a truce, which was granted on the 
 26th of March, and negotiations entered into, which resulted 
 in the surrender of the city and castle to the American forces. 
 The whole garrison became prisoners of war, and, according to 
 the terms of the surrender, marched out to an open plain, on 
 the 29th, stacked their arms, and then proceeded towards the 
 interior. The Americans entered the city amidst the strains
 
 736 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 HARNEY'S DRAGOON FIGHT. 
 
 of their national music, the shouts of the soldiery, and the 
 booming of cannon, both from fleet and castle. 
 
 The only fight that occurred during the siege was between 
 a body of dragoons, under Colonel Harney, and a greatly supe- 
 rior force of Mexican lancers. The latter were put to flight, 
 with the loss of nearly one hundred killed and wounded. The 
 Americans had two killed and nine wounded. The loss of the 
 Mexicans in the city during the whole siege is not known pre- 
 cisely. But it is certain that it was very severe. The destruc- 
 tion of property was also great. 
 
 After the fall of Vera Cruz, General Scott, having made the 
 necessary dispositions for garrisoning the place, took up his line 
 of march with the main body of the army for the city of Mexico. 
 General Twiggs's division formed the van-guard, and those of 
 Worth and Patterson followed several days after. 
 
 On the 17th of April, the army approached the celebrated 
 pass of Sierra Gordo, always reputed to be impregnable, and 
 which was now strongly fortified, with seven batteries so ar- 
 ranged as to protect each other. The position was held by 
 General Santa Anna, a host of other Mexican generals, and the 
 flower of the national army, twenty thousand strong. They 
 were expected to make a desperate stand against the eleven 
 thousand Americans who were advancing towards the capital.
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 737 
 
 BATTLE OF SIERRA GORDO. 
 
 General Scott, having reconnoitred the enemy's position, in- 
 stantly decided on his plan of operations. This plan, formed 
 with the skill of a master, was executed with all the precision 
 that the general could require. The attack began on the 18th 
 of April, early in the morning. The troops were all in position 
 before daylight. The whole line of the Mexican intrenchments 
 and batteries was attacked in front and turned at the same 
 time. The troops advanced amidst the most deadly and tre- 
 mendous fire, without hesitation, and before two o'clock, p. m., 
 the Mexicans were driven from their works and pursued with 
 vigour. Their whole force was routed, and Santa Anna came 
 near being captured. About three thousand men laid down 
 their arms, with the usual proportion of field and company offi- 
 cers, besides five generals — a sixth was killed. According to 
 General Scott's official desp'atch, the army was " embarrassed 
 with the results of the victory." Nearly all the prisoners were 
 released on parole, and the private effects captured were restored 
 to their owners, and the small arms and some ammunition de- 
 stroyed. The force of the Americans at Sierra Gordo was 
 about eight thousand five hundred. Their loss was thirty-three 
 officers and three hundred and ninety-eight men — total, four 
 93 3 m 2
 
 738 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 hundred and thirty-one, of whom sixty-three were killed. The 
 loss of the Mexicans in killed and wounded was never known, 
 but during the battle it no doubt equalled their antagonists, and 
 in the retreat was greatly augmented by the slaughter committed 
 among the fugitives by Harney's dragoons. 
 
 On the same day that the victory of Sierra Gordo was achieved, 
 the town of Tuspan was captured, with but slight resistance, by 
 a portion of the gulf squadron. On the following day Twiggs 
 entered Jalapa, in pursuit of the flying enemy. On the same 
 day, and the following, the Mexicans abandoned the strong post 
 of La Hoya ; and on the 22d, General Worth entered the strong 
 town and castle of Perote. This fortress is one of the most 
 formidable in Mexico. It contained fifty-four pieces of cannon, 
 bronze and iron mortars, eleven thousand cannon-balls, fourteen 
 thousand bombs, and five hundred muskets, all of which fell 
 into the hands of the Americans. 
 
 On the 15th of May, General Worth approached the city of 
 Puebla. He was met by a party of lancers, supposed to be led 
 by Santa Anna, with whom a skirmish ensued, in the plains of 
 Amasoca. After losing a few men, the enemy retreated, and 
 were driven into the streets of Puebla, where they separated 
 and escaped. 
 
 Thus, in less than two months, General Scott and his army 
 had captured three large cities, two castles, ten thousand men, 
 more than seven hundred cannon, mostly new, and an immense 
 quantity of shells, shot, and small arms. For rapidity of exe- 
 cution, these achievements have scarcely a parallel, except in 
 Napoleon's first Italian campaign. 
 
 After the fall of Vera Cruz, the Mexican government author- 
 ized the organization of small bands of citizens and villagers, 
 armed and mounted. They were termed "guerilla parties," 
 and being composed mostly of outlaws and robbers — the dregs 
 of the population — they entered upon the campaign with the 
 avowed determination to extend rib quarter to any who might 
 fall into their hands, but to rob and murder as often as occa- 
 sion offered. Spreading themselves over the country through 
 which the route of the Americans extended, they seized the 
 mountain fastnesses and strong passes, attacked scouting par- 
 ties, intercepted communications, and even entered garrisoned
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 739 
 
 cities at night, and murdered all American stragglers within 
 their reach. 
 
 These attacks of the guerillas kept the region between Vera 
 Cruz and Puebla in a state of constant alarm, and rendered 
 travelling, except with a strong escort, in the highest degree 
 dangerous. The most active and daring of these partisans was 
 the celebrated Father Jarauta, a priest, who had organized most 
 of the parties, and who seems to have been considered as their 
 general leader. Vigilant exertions were made to capture him 
 by Captain Walker, and General Patterson, who was then sta- 
 tioned at Vera Cruz, but without success ; and, until the close 
 of the war, he continued to arm and lead different bands, whose 
 rapid and fearless movements rendered his name a terror in 
 that neighbourhood. 
 
 General Scott, with the main portion of the army, remained 
 at Puebla until early in August, when he prepared for a march 
 upon the capital. A sufficient garrison was left in the city 
 urder Colonel Child's. On the 7th, Twiggs's division, preceded 
 by Harney's brigade of cavalry, moved for the capital ; and 
 was followed, on the three succeeding days, by the divisions of 
 Quitman, Worth, and Pillow, the corps being at no time more 
 than five hours' march, or supporting distance, apart. 
 
 On the 11th of August, the army under Scott descended 
 into the valley of Mexico, the different divisions nearing each 
 other more closely than they had done in any part of the march. 
 A careful reconnoissance of the strong works upon the direct 
 road to Mexico, with the character of the ground, determined 
 General Scott to avoid it, by passing round the western and 
 southern shores of Chalco and Xochimilco, at the foot of the 
 hills and mountains. This march round Lake Chalco is a most 
 striking evidence of the scientific abilities of General Scott. Santa 
 Anna had good reason to believe such a step was impossible. 
 It was a work of a most difficult character, but it enabled the 
 Americans to escape the terrible batteries of Penon and Mexi- 
 calzingo. The advance, under General Worth, reached San 
 Augustin on the 18th of August. 
 
 The strong post of Contreras was the first object of attack. 
 It was situated on the rocks bordering the western side of the 
 valley, mounting twenty-two guns, and garrisoned by seven 
 thousand troops. General Smith was despatched at the head
 
 f40 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 BATTLE OF CON'TRERA 
 
 of his own brigade, Cadwalader's and a rifle regiment, with 
 orders to gain the rear of the post ; and, after encountering 
 many obstacles from the nature of the route, and being exposed 
 to the fire of the Mexican batteries, he succeeding in reaching 
 the village of Encelda. There he was joined by the brigade of 
 Colonel Riley, and the whole force passed a stormy night with- 
 out fires or shelter. Their whole strength was only three thou- 
 sand two hundred men ; and there were at least eighteen thou- 
 sand of the Mexicans in the neighbourhood. At three o'clock, 
 on the morning of the 20th, silent instructions of the plan of 
 attack having been given to the officers, the Americans started 
 to perform their work, leaving General Shields, with the New 
 York and South Carolina volunteers, who arrived very oppor- 
 tunely, in command of the village. Colonel Riley led the ad- 
 vance, and as he reached a favourable position, he formed his 
 men into two columns preparatory to the assault. He then 
 continued his march, and, arriving in full view of the Mexican 
 rear, they opened their fire. Throwing forward a few skir- 
 mishers, he shouted to his men to follow, and rushed to the fort, 
 followed by his whole command. This charge, in the face of 
 the enemy's fire, was one of the most brilliant actions of the
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 741 
 
 GENERAL SHIELDS. 
 
 war. Through a destructive storm, Riley hurried his shattered 
 column, and finished the struggle with the bayonet. Every 
 battery in the fort was silenced ; the Mexicans were driven in 
 masses from the walls, and were soon flying in every direction. 
 The cavalry outside of the walls were attacked at the same time 
 by Major Dimick, and routed with great slaughter. The 
 guns taken by Santa Anna at Buena Vista were recovered by 
 the same company from whom they had been taken. Such was 
 the enthusiasm of the Americans, that shouts rent the air con- 
 tinually, and the arrival of General Scott, who joined in the 
 shouts of the soldiers, added to the hilarity of the occasion. 
 
 The reports of the Mexican officers leave no doubt that there 
 was, in and about Contreras, seven thousand regular troops, 
 under General Valencia, and a reserve of ten thousand near 
 Encelda, under the command of Santa Anna. Their loss was
 
 742 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL WORTH. 
 
 seven hundred killed, a large number wounded, and fifteen pri- 
 soners, including several generals. The Americans numbered 
 three thousand two hundred men, without guns or cavalry, and 
 yet they drove twice their number from a fort thought to be 
 impregnable, and captured a great quantity of artillery and 
 ammunition. The attack was ably planned by General Smith, 
 and bravely and rapidly executed by Riley and his men. 
 
 The forces were now disposed for an attack on a still stronger 
 position than Contreras. The whole of the remaining forces 
 of Mexico, some twenty-seven thousand men, were now collected 
 in on the flanks, or within supporting distance of the works, at 
 the village of Churubusco. The principal defences were a for- 
 tified convent, and a strong field-work, (tete de pont,) with 
 regular bastions and curtains, at the head of a bridge over 
 which the road passes from San Antonio to the capital. The
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 743 
 
 fortified convent was warmly attacked by Twiggs's division, and 
 the tete de pont by Worth and Pillow. The latter was a formi- 
 dable work ; but was assaulted and carried by the bayonet, 
 after a short but bloody struggle. Three field-pieces, one hun- 
 dred and ninety-two prisoners, and a large quantity of ammuni- 
 tion fell into the hands of the victors. After the capture of 
 the tete de pont, the whole strength of the two divisions was 
 directed against the convent, the citadel of the strong line of 
 defence at Churubusco. After a desperate conflict of two hours 
 and a half, signals of surrender were thrown out on all sides, 
 though not before some of the infantry had entered the work. 
 The immediate results of this victory were seven field-pieces, 
 some ammunition, one colour, three generals, and one thousand 
 two hundred and sixty-one prisoners. While the attack was 
 being made on the convent and tete de pont, General Shields, 
 with two brigades, was detached to the left to turn the enemy's 
 works, and prevent the escape of the garrison. The battle at 
 that point was long, obstinate, and bloody ; but in the end suc- 
 cess crowned the determined bravery of Shields's troops, and 
 the Mexicans were driven from the field, with a severe loss in 
 killed and wounded, and three hundred and eighty of them 
 were taken prisoners. This completed the rout of the Mexicans, 
 and they were pursued to within a mile of the capital ; a com- 
 pany of dragoons even charged them up to the nearest gate. 
 
 The results of the whole day's work on the 20th of August 
 are thus summed up by General Scott : — 
 
 " It (the army) has, in a single day, in many battles as often 
 defeated thirty-two thousand men ; made about three thousand 
 prisoners, including eight generals, (two of them ex-presidents,) 
 and two hundred and five other officers ; killed or wounded four 
 thousand of all ranks, besides entire corps dispersed and dis- 
 solved ; captured thirty-seven pieces of ordnance — more than 
 trebling our siege train and field-batteries — with a large num- 
 ber of small arms, a full supply of ammunition of every kind. 
 These great results have overwhelmed the enemy." 
 
 The loss of the Americans, in killed, wounded, and missing, 
 was one thousand and fifty-three. The whole force engaged 
 during the day was only eight thousand five hundred men. 
 
 The enthusiasm of the Americans did subside upon the en- 
 tire rout of the Mexican forces ; but many were anxious to
 
 744 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CITY OF MEXICO JROM THE CONVENT OF SAN COSME. 
 
 push on at once to the attack upon the capital. General Scott, 
 however, knew better the character of the work before him, and 
 he determined to recruit his men before attempting it. Most 
 of the army had been watching, marching, fasting, and fight- 
 ing, for more than thirty-six hours, and the garitas and the 
 heights of Chapultepec were still to be attacked and conquered 
 before the capital could be reached. But Scott was enabled to 
 have a still longer rest than he imagined. On the night of the 
 20th, a flag of truce came from the Mexicans, asking for an 
 armistice and proposing peace. Ever desiring to secure a 
 peace and save life, General Scott granted the armistice, mak- 
 ing, it terminable in forty-eight hours. 
 
 On the 21st, commissioners were appointed by the opposing 
 commanders to negotiate a lengthened armistice, to enable 
 overtures for peace to be received and considered. On the 22d, 
 the commissioners met at Tacubaya, and, after considerable 
 discussion, agreed upon sixteen articles for the duration and 
 regulation of an armistice. This was to continue as long as 
 negotiations were engaged in by the two governments, or until 
 the commander of either army gave formal notice to the other
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 745 
 
 of the cessation of the armistice, and for forty-eight hours 
 afterwards. Prisoners were to be exchanged and guaranties 
 given that property would be respected by the invading forces. 
 The articles of the armistice were signed by both commanders, 
 and commissioners were at once appointed by the Mexican go- 
 vernment to meet and open negotiations with Mr. N. P. Trist, 
 the American commissioner, who had accompanied the army in 
 its march to the capital. They met on the 25th of August ; 
 but the question of boundary prevented the desired result. 
 The Mexican commissioners would consent to any thing almost 
 but the surrender of the disputed territory in Texas. Nego- 
 tiations were continued until the 2d of September, when Mr. 
 Trist handed in his ultimatum, and the commissioners adjourned 
 to meet on the 6th. But, in the mean time, events occurred 
 which hastened the resumption of hostilities. 
 
 About the 1st of September, some infractions of the truce 
 took place, which General Scott passed by upon the receipt of 
 apologies. But hearing that Santa Anna had commenced the 
 strengthening of his defences in the city, he sent him a note on 
 the 6th, informing him that hostilities would commence the 
 next day at twelve o'clock. Having learned that many church- 
 bells had been sent to the foundry at Gasa Mata to be cast 
 into guns, and that immense quantities of powder, balls, and 
 other military stores, were arriving at the same place, General 
 Scott determined to attack it, as well for the sake of the guns 
 and stores as to cut off all communication between the city and 
 the castle of Chapultepec. 
 
 The position of the Mexicans at the Casa Mata and the Mo- 
 lino del Rey was a very strong one. The right rested upon 
 the foundry and fortress of Casa Mata, at the base of a ridge. 
 The left rested on the strong stone buildings of Molino del Rey, 
 directly under the guns of the castle. Midway between the 
 two was a powerful field-battery, supported on both sides by 
 infantry. Most of the defences were skilfully masked, and 
 therefore the reconnoissance of them by General Scott was far 
 from being satisfactory. The plan of attack was arranged, 
 however, by General Scott, and General Worth was appointed 
 to execute it at the head of three thousand two hundred men. 
 
 The troops started at three o'clock on the morning of the 
 8th of September, and so well was all arranged that they were 
 94 3N
 
 746 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 in all their appointed positions by daylight. The report of the 
 heavy guns, very soon after the dawn of day, gave the signal 
 for the assault. So heavy were the discharges, that in a short 
 time masses of masonry fell with tremendous noise, and the 
 whole line of intrenchments began to shake. The Mexicans 
 returned the fire in rapid succession, unfolding at intervals bat- 
 teries and systems of defence of which their enemies had before no 
 knowledge. Meanwhile, Major Wright, at the head of the as- 
 saulting party, dashed down the slope of an eminence upon which 
 he was posted, amid the shouts of the Americans. At the same 
 time, the Mexicans opened their central batteries with terrible 
 effect, and, as Wright led on his men to the attack, the storm 
 seemed to threaten their entire destruction. But they rushed 
 on, gained the lines, drove infantry and artillery before them 
 at the point of the bayonet, seized the large field-batteries, 
 drove off the cannoneers, and trailed its guns upon the retreat- 
 ing masses. But, after retreating a short distance, the Mexi- 
 cans suddenly halted, rallied, and, seeing the small force by 
 which they were attacked, returned to the conflict with new 
 energy. The little party was almost overwhelmed by the 
 masses of the Mexicans, and eleven out of the fourteen officers 
 composing the command, and privates in proportion, were 
 struck down by a tremendous fire. The party was thrown 
 into confusion; but General Worth ordered up Cadwalader's 
 brigade and the light battalion, and these troops, coming 
 into action at a seasonable moment, saved the remnant of 
 Wright's men. The struggle was obstinate, but short. The 
 Mexicans were again routed, and their central works fully car- 
 ried and occupied. The attack was equally successful at the 
 left, on Molino del Rey. The works were carried, and the 
 Mexicans driven towards Chapultepec. The Casa Mata was 
 found to be a far stronger work than first supposed, and the as- 
 sailants were driven back with the loss of at least one-third of 
 their number. But the capture of the other works enabled the 
 Americans to concentrate their strength, and the enemy were 
 forced to abandon it after a short but destructive fire. Every 
 part of the defences was thus in possession of the assailants. 
 
 The greatness of this achievement may be made apparent 
 from a statement of the strength of the opposing forces and 
 the' results of the victory. The entire line of strong fortresses
 
 V 
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 749 
 
 captured was defended by fourteen thousand men, with all the 
 means necessary for defence ; yet they were carried by three 
 thousand two hundred men. The loss of the Mexicans was 
 about three thousand, exclusive of a great number who deserted 
 after the rout. Eight hundred prisoners, including fifty-two 
 commissioned officers, were taken. Generals Valdarez and 
 Leon, the second and third in command, were killed. A great 
 quantity of stores of all kinds and all the guns fell to the vic- 
 tors. But these results were not obtained without a severe loss 
 on the part of the assailants. Nine officers and one hundred 
 and seven men were killed ; forty-nine officers and six hundred 
 and fifteen men wounded, and there were eighteen rank and 
 file missing. 
 
 The capture of the works at Molino del Rey left no obstruc- 
 tion to the attack on the city but the castle of Chapultepec. 
 This fortress was now cut off from all immediate communica- 
 tion with the city. It was on a natural mound of great height, 
 strongly fortified at its base, acclivities, and passes. Besides 
 a numerous garrison, it contained the military college, with a 
 large number of students. The capture of this castle was re- 
 solved upon by General Scott, and the plan devised with his 
 usual skill. The assault was the first of a series of' brilliant 
 achievements, continuing more than two days, ending in the 
 capitulation of the city, to which General Scott gave the name 
 of the battle of Mexico. We must content ourselves with a 
 brief sketch of these events, the intricacy of the movements 
 and the extent of the battle preventing any thing like a detail 
 of them. It is apparent, however, that this two days' fight 
 was one of the most remarkable displays of the science and 
 abilities of a general and the daring and heroism of soldiery 
 to be found in the annals of war. 
 
 The assault upon Chapultepec began early on the 12th of 
 September. The two divisions that moved to the attack in 
 different directions were commanded by Generals Quitman and 
 Pillow. A bombardment and cannonade was opened upon the 
 castle at an early hour, but stopped when the assault com- 
 menced. The Mexicans opened all their batteries as the Ame- 
 ricans rushed forward to the att&ck, and the fire was tremen- 
 dous. But the assailants pushed on up the broken ascent, over 
 rocks and mines, and soon carried a redoubt. General Pillow 
 
 3 n2
 
 750 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 STORMING OF CHAPCLTEPEC. 
 
 was struck down by a grape-shot ; but he was carried along 
 with his party up the height, the troops being led by General 
 Cadwalader. The assault was rapidly conducted, and the men 
 of Pillow's division reached the castle first. Many were thrown 
 from the walls ; but the stream that followed soon took their 
 places, and planted the colours of the United States on the 
 highest walls. The other division, under Quitman, had more 
 serious work. The batteries and works at the foot of the hill 
 were only carried after a desperate struggle. Seven pieces of 
 artillery, one thousand muskets, and five hundred and fifty 
 prisoners, including one hundred officers, were the results of the 
 victory at the lower batteries. About eight hundred prisoners, 
 including one major-general a'nd six brigadiers, and a great 
 number of inferior officers, were captured by Pillow's division. 
 The forces in and around Chapultepec amounted to six thousand
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 751 
 
 men, under the veteran General Bravo. Of the number, eigh- 
 teen hundred were either killed, wounded, or taken prisoners. 
 
 The capture of Chapultepec opened to the American army 
 the direct road to the western and southern portions of the 
 city, which points now became the objects of attack. Aware 
 of the importance of improving upon the impression made upon 
 the enemy by so heavy a loss, General Scott determined to 
 waste no time, but to press on immediately to the decisive as- 
 sault. 
 
 Two great routes lead from Chapultepec to the capital. That 
 on the right enters the Belen with the Piedad road from the 
 south ; the second, obliquing to the left, intersects the great 
 western or San Cosme road, in a suburb outside the San Cosme 
 gate. Each of these routes is an elevated causeway, having 
 a double road on the sides of an aqueduct of strong masonry, 
 of great height, and resting on open arches and massive pillars, 
 affording fine points both for attack and defence. In addition 
 to this, the sideways of both aqueducts were defended by many 
 strong breastworks, both at the gates and before reaching them, 
 the whole presenting a chain of breastworks, every link of which 
 would have to be broken before the city could be entered. 
 
 The attack upon the city was made by two divisions. One, 
 under General Worth, advanced along the road to the San 
 Cosme gate ; the other, under General Quitman, took the Ta- 
 cubaya road, which led to the Belen gate. The troops of both 
 divisions were exposed to a tremendous fire from the Mexican 
 batteries ; but they pressed on without faltering, and battery 
 after battery was either silenced or captured. In the mean 
 time, as part of the plan of attack, General Twiggs diverted 
 the attention of the Mexicans by an incessant cannonade 
 against the southern side of the city. At length the strong 
 fortress of San Cosme was carried by Worth and his followers, 
 and shouts announced his entrance into Mexico. Quitman met 
 with a more obstinate resistance, being opposed at the Belen 
 gate by General Santa Anna in person. The ammunition of the 
 advance of the troops gave out, and they were exposed to a 
 destructive fire until the deficiency was supplied. The garita 
 was carried with a severe loss, and then darkness fell upon the 
 scene. The Mexicans ceased firing, and the troops of Quit- 
 man's division set about erecting batteries to maintain their
 
 752 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GENERAL QUITMAN. 
 
 position within the city. Worth was well prepared to continue 
 the attack ; but soon after his heavy guns were placed in a fa- 
 vourable position, a flag came from the municipality, the bearer 
 of which stated that the government and the army had evacu- 
 ated the city. All firing ceased upon the receipt of this flag. 
 Worth's loss during the day was two officers killed and ten 
 wounded, with one hundred and twenty-nine rank and file, killed, 
 wounded, and missing. Quitman's loss was five hundred and forty 
 men, of whom seventy-seven, including eight officers, were killed, 
 four hundred and fifty-four wounded, and nine missing. 
 
 On the morning of the 14th of September, General Scott 
 gave orders to Generals Worth and Quitman to advance cau- 
 tiously towards the heart of the city. In obedience to these 
 orders, Quitman proceeded to the grand plaza and hoisted the 
 flag of the United States upon the national palace. General
 
 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 753 
 
 Worth halted within three squares of the goal of general am- 
 bition. The remainder of the army, under the personal direc- 
 tion of Major-General Scott, soon followed the advanced divi- 
 sions, and the entrance was conducted amid the sounds of the 
 national music of the United States. Immediately upon en- 
 tering, the troops were fired upon from the roofs of houses, 
 windows, and corners of the streets, by a large number of con- 
 victs, liberated by the flying government. In spite of the ex- 
 ertions of the Mexican authorities, the fire was not stopped 
 until many of the Americans were killed or wounded. Gene- 
 ral Scott issued a proclamation, as soon as he was fixed in 
 quarters, enforcing rules of order upon the soldiers, and calling 
 on the men to return thanks to God for their important con- 
 quests. General Quitman was appointed governor, and the 
 citizens returned to their homes satisfied with the prospect of 
 peace. 
 
 The army that took possession of the city of Mexico was 
 only six thousand strong ! The numerous garrisons and the 
 heavy losses in battle had reduced it to that number. This 
 small force had beaten more than thirty thousand men, posted 
 in the strongest positions ; killed or wounded more than seven 
 thousand officers and men ; taken three thousand seven hun- 
 dred and thirty prisoners, including thirteen generals and a 
 large number of inferior officers ; captured one hundred and 
 thirty-two pieces of cannon, twenty thousand small arms, and 
 an immense quantity of ammunition and other stores. The 
 most celebrated and glorified actions which have occurred in 
 the campaigns of Napoleon or Wellington might well shrink in 
 comparison with the display of generalship on the part of Ge- 
 neral Scott, or of heroic daring and rapidity of execution on 
 the part of his officers and men, to be found in the history of 
 these battles. 
 
 Upon the same day the capital was taken, the small force 
 left in the works at the city of Puebla was besieged by the 
 Mexicans, and the fire kept up until the arrival of General 
 Santa Anna on the 22d of September. The fire was returned 
 by the besieged with considerable effect, though the small force 
 was reduced to great straits. On the 25th, Colonel Childs, the 
 commander of the garrison, was summoned to surrender, which 
 he declined. Santa Anna then opened his batteries upon the 
 95
 
 754 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 American works, and the fire was so extensive and constant 
 that the most untiring vigilance was necessary on the part of 
 the garrison. The bombardment and cannonade continued with 
 undiminished energy until the 12th of October, when General 
 Lane arrived with reinforcements for the wearied garrison. The 
 siege of Puebla lasted forty days, and was the longest single 
 military operation of the war. The result will appear astonish- 
 ing, when it is remembered that it was sustained by about four 
 hundred troops, encumbered with eighteen hundred sick, and 
 deficient in supplies, against an army, according to Santa 
 Anna's statement, eight thousand strong. General Lane had 
 several encounters with the enemy on the road from Vera Cruz, 
 and defeated them, although in much superior force. In one 
 of these skirmishes, Captain Walker, the noted Texan ranger, 
 was killed. The guerillas were very active, and, doubtless, 
 their partial success kept up the spirits of the Mexicans and 
 delayed the conclusion of a peace. 
 
 The abortive attempts of Mr. Trist to establish peace, imme- 
 diately after the battles of Contreras and Churubusco, did not 
 terminate his mission as a negotiator with the Mexican repub- 
 lic. Efforts were made both by himself and General Scott, 
 from time to time, for the purpose of bringing about so desira- 
 ble a result. These were at length crowned with success. In 
 January, the general-in-chief laid before the Mexican authori- 
 ties the basis of a treaty, similar in its general features to the 
 one formerly rejected. They appointed Luis G. Cuevas, Ber- 
 nardo Conto, and Miguel Atristain, as commissioners. Mr. 
 Trist acted as the representative of the United States. The 
 negotiators met at Guadalupe Hidalgo, and, after a reciprocal 
 communication of their respective powers, arranged and signed 
 a « treaty of peace, friendship, limits, and settlement, between 
 the United States and the Mexican republic." 
 
 This treaty was ratified, with some amendments, by both 
 governments, and by it the United States became possessed 
 of the territories of California and New Mexico, paying there- 
 for fifteen millions of dollars.
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND '49. 755 
 
 LOUIS PHILIPPE. 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND '49. 
 
 HE year 1848 will ever be noted as 
 the period during which the people of 
 the majority of the European states 
 made the most desperate and the most 
 heroic exertions to break down the 
 power of their kings, or, at least, to 
 secure constitutional governments. A 
 general calm pervaded Europe dur- 
 ing the latter part of 1847, as if the 
 elements of a storm were gathering 
 their strength for one tremendous 
 burst. The king of France, under 
 the guidance of his able minister, 
 Guizot, directed his efforts constantly to two great ends, to con- 
 centrate as much power in the executive branch of the govern- 
 ment as possible, and to maintain peace with the European na- 
 tions. In the accomplishment of the first object, the rights of 
 the people were subject to constant and growing encroachment. 
 Paris was strongly fortified, and defended by more than a hun- 
 dred thousand armed troops. Nothing appeared less likely than 
 a successful revolution of the people ; and, therefore, the con- 
 vulsion which soon took place was the more astonishing to the
 
 756 INCIDENTS OP MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 government and foreign observer. But the seeds of repub- 
 licanism were sown deep in the minds of the lower classes of the 
 French people, and all the excesses of the Keign of Terror could 
 not eradicate their hatred of tyranny, or their belief in the 
 republican doctrines. There were able and eloquent men who 
 sided with them in their opinions and feelings, and the chamber 
 of deputies was the scene of many exciting debates upon the 
 measures of the government. 
 
 For some time previous to the revolution of February, signs 
 of discontent began to manifest themselves. A desire for par- 
 liamentary reform pervaded all classes of the people, and not 
 less than sixty-two reform banquets were held in various towns 
 during the fall of 1847. But none of these demonstrations was 
 of sufficient magnitude to warrant an opinion of any serious re- 
 sult, and the government persevered in its measures. Em- 
 boldened by the enthusiasm displayed at these banquets, the 
 leaders of the opposition resolved on holding a monster banquet 
 at the capital. Then the government became alarmed, and 
 resolved to prevent this display of the friends of liberty. Mili- 
 tary preparations were made on the most extensive scale ; guns 
 mounted on all the fortresses around Paris ; large stores of am- 
 munition provided, and no means of preserving order neglected. 
 
 On the 29th of December, 1847, the chambers met. The 
 debate on the address in reply to the king's speech occupied 
 nineteen sittings. On the 12th of February, the opposition 
 members refused to vote on the address ; but they assembled the 
 next day, and resolved unanimously not only on attending the 
 monster banquet, but also, that no member of their party should 
 participate in presenting the address to the king, even if chosen 
 by lot. Before adjourning, they fixed upon Tuesday, the 22d 
 of February, as the day of the banquet, and invited the national 
 guard and the students of the universities to be present. This 
 increased the alarm of the government, and the national guard 
 were forbidden to take part in the banquet. But this measure 
 only increased the firmness and determination of the opposition. 
 Early on the 22d of February, crowds of people moved towards 
 the Champs Elysees, and, at noon, the vast area between the 
 chamber of deputies and the Madelaine church was thronged by 
 about thirty thousand people. The banquet was dropped by the 
 popular leaders, but, at noon, a procession was formed, which
 
 3o
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND '49. 
 
 759 
 
 proceeded to the hotel where the meetings of the opposition were 
 held. Another body of the people succeeded in gaining the 
 interior of the chamber of deputies. These the troops ejected, 
 and the mob retired, shouting « Down with Guizot,'' and singing 
 the Marseillaise hymn of liberty. All efforts to disperse the 
 crowds of people were useless, and they laughed at the soldiers 
 while they began to barricade the streets. The skirmishing 
 continued all the afternoon : but, by midnight, all Paris was in 
 possession of the soldiery. The next morning, the conflict com- 
 menced in earnest. Barricades were erected at every feasible 
 time and place, and all kinds of missiles accumulated for use 
 against the troops. The national guard declared for the people, 
 and shouted loudly for reform. Several times during the day, 
 were the national guard and the municipal troops on the point 
 of coming in collision. The latter, however, always retreated. 
 The people prevailed, and it was announced that Guizot had 
 dissolved his cabinet. 
 
 For a while, it was thought peace would be restored. But 
 about ten o'clock at night, the troops of the line, no doubt irri- 
 tated by the people, fired upon them at the Hotel des Etrangers, 
 and fifty of their number fell dead or wounded. This roused 
 the mob to seek revenge, in the same manner that the Boston 
 massacre hastened the American revolution. Now burst the
 
 760 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN IIISTORY. 
 
 O DILLON BiBEOT. 
 
 storm so long pent up. The work at the barricades was re- 
 newed with ardour, and on the following morning, the 24th, 
 there was not a single leading street without a fortress. The 
 national guards were called to their posts, and the defences of 
 the municipal guards were attacked and taken. Meanwhile the 
 attempts to form a new ministry failed. Even the appointment 
 of Thiers could not calm the storm, although he accepted Odillon 
 Barrot as one of his cabinet. The whole population was armed, 
 and by twelve o'clock, on Thursday the 24th, the military power 
 had passed from the government. The dense crowd moved 
 towards the Tuileries and the Palace Royal. The whole of that 
 quarter of the town was invested. At one o'clock, a procla- 
 mation was posted, declaring that the king had abdicated in 
 favour of the count de Paris, with the duchess of Orleans as 
 regent. 
 
 But it was too late. Neither the dynasty nor its palace could 
 be saved by so tardy a concession. Red flags were here and 
 there hoisted among the mob, with the word republic rudely 
 traced upon them. The ominous cry began to swell, " To the 
 gallows with Louis Philippe !" At half past twelve, the attack 
 on the Palace Royal commenced, and for an hour the firing upon 
 it was excessive. It was carried by storm, and at the same
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND ; 49. 763 
 
 time the Tuileries surrendered without resistance. As the 
 people entered on one side, Louis Philippe with his family es- 
 caped on the other. The national guard marched in with their 
 muskets shouldered, the muzzle downwards, followed by thou- 
 sands of the people. A general ransacking of the royal apart- 
 ments commenced ; conducted with a strange mixture of order, 
 enthusiasm, and inconsistency. 
 
 In the chamber of deputies, the scene on Thursday was most 
 extraordinary. It was not an inapt repetition of what occurred 
 in the constitutional assembly, on the 10th of August, 1792, and 
 of the decisive blow struck by Bonaparte on the 18th, when 
 with his grenadiers he turned the legislative body out of doors. 
 At one o'clock the president took the chair, upwards of three 
 hundred members being present. They gazed on each other 
 with mingled anxiety, alarm, and exultation. Half an hour 
 afterwards, the duchess of Orleans entered with her two sons, 
 and the dukes of Nemours and Montpensier. The young count 
 de Paris came first, led by one of the deputies. With great 
 difficulty way was made for him amid the crowd of officers and 
 soldiers of the national guard. His appearance at the door 
 caused a strong sensation, which soon broke forth into murmurs 
 and hostile exclamations. Several of the people, however, 
 rushed into the chamber with the young count, and placed him 
 under the tribune. Immediately after the duchess of Orleans 
 entered and seated herself in a chair, with her two sons beside 
 her. By this time the passages and every vacant space was 
 filled with such of the populace as had succeeded in pressing 
 themselves in along with the national guard. The chamber was 
 agitated in every part. M. Dupin arose, and announced the 
 abdication of the king, and the regency of the duchess of Or- 
 leans. The scene that followed this announcement baffles de- 
 scription. One voice was heard above the others exclaiming, 
 « It is too late." The duchess and her children now appeared 
 amid a group of deputies, the national guards hastened to sur- 
 round the royal family. The debate commenced, one long and 
 stormy. During its progress a crowd rushed into the chamber, 
 composed of national guards in arms and citizens carrying 
 sabres, guns, swords, and flags. So great was the excitement 
 that many of the deputies hastily retired, together with the 
 duchess and her sons.
 
 764 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Lamartine and Ledru Rollin ascended the tribune, and wrote 
 out the names of members of a provisional government. The 
 deputies then retired. 
 
 At the Hotel de Ville, another terrible scene occurred. There 
 the members of the provisional government met, to decide what 
 course to adopt. The people demanded aloud that the first act 
 of the members should be communicated to them. The majority 
 of the members were opposed to an unmitigated democracy, but 
 the people were inflexible in their demands. The president, M. 
 Dupont de l'Eure, was compelled to give up the attempt to be 
 heard, when he recommended the republic in its less democratic 
 form, and he was so exhausted that he twice fainted. M. Marie 
 met with no better success. Finally, after the most untiring 
 exertions, the provisional government was announced to consist 
 of Dupont de l'Eure, Lamartine, Arago, Marrast, Ledru Rollin, 
 Gamier Pages, Flocon, and Louis Blanc ; and the democratic re- 
 public was proclaimed and received with unparalleled unanimity. 
 Universal suffrage was established ; the death penalty abolished; 
 and other popular measures adopted. On the day after the bat- 
 tle, the 25th of February, order was in a great measure restored 
 through the exertions of Lamartine, who addressed the people 
 five times from the windows of the Hotel de Ville, and thus pre- 
 vented an outbreak. But it was a terrible struggle. The more 
 violent of the mob demanded the destruction of the provisional 
 government. The triumph of the oratory of Lamartine was 
 complete, however, and calmness and order took the place of 
 violence and confusion. Business revived, and the principal 
 personages who had adhered to the late king gave in their sub- 
 mission to the republican government. 
 
 On the following Sunday, the 27th of February, a general 
 holiday and festivity was celebrated. The provisional govern- 
 ment reviewed the national guards, and in the evening there was 
 a general illumination. The week succeeding the revolution was 
 occupied by the provisional government in restoring public con- 
 fidence. Twenty thousand of the most indigent youth of Paris 
 were quickly enrolled, and marched off to the frontier, and thus 
 was the public peace secured from the outbreaks of an idle and 
 starving populace. On Saturday, the 4th of March, the funeral 
 obsequies of those who fell among the people during the revolu- 
 tion were conducted with much pomp and ceremony.
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND '49. 
 
 765 
 
 LEDRU ROLLIN. 
 
 Peace being restored, it became necessary to adopt measures 
 for the election of permanent officers of the republic. This was 
 a gigantic task. A people were to choose rulers, who had been 
 unaccustomed to ruling themselves. The mode of ballot, and the 
 qualifications of electors and candidates were to be arranged. 
 The 23d of April was named as the day of the election. A new 
 constitution was to be drawn up by the constituent assembly of 
 the people. The number of representatives was to be nine hun- 
 dred. Suffrage was to be direct and universal, and all citizens 
 twenty-five years old were eligible, if possessed of civil rights. 
 The ballot was to be secret. Ledru Rollin opposed the decree 
 containing the above provisions, and issued an incendiary pro- 
 clamation, which was disavowed by the other members of the pro- 
 visional government. He even threatened to call the people to 
 resist and overthrow the government, but was deterred for the 
 time by the determination of Garnier Pages, who threatened to 
 shoot him if he did. It was soon apparent that the working 
 classes were dissatisfied with the quiet which succeeded the revo- 
 lution. Trees of liberty were planted in various parts of Paris, 
 illuminations and firing of artillery took place at night, and the 
 spirit of anarchy was kept alive by inflammatory addresses issued 
 by the socialist and red republican leaders, among whom Ledru 
 Rollin was the most conspicuous.
 
 766 
 
 INCIDENTS OF, MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 L A M A R T I N E. 
 
 On Saturday, April 16th, an attempt was made to overthrow 
 the moderate section of the government, but the plot was de- 
 feated by the prompt and cordial manner in which the national 
 guard, numbering more than two hundred thousand men, rallied 
 to the support of the government. Lamartine and his colleagues 
 found themselves much strengthened by the attempt to break 
 down their power, and they were enabled to bring the troops of 
 the line back to Paris, with the approbation of the citizens. On 
 Thursday, April 20th, the great fete to celebrate the return of 
 the troops of the line took place. Three hundred thousand 
 armed men, and as many spectators, were mingled together for 
 seven or eight hours, with the greatest cordiality. A grand 
 illumination took place in the evening. 
 
 Meanwhile the election for representatives to the national as- 
 sembly came off on the day appointed. The moderate repub- 
 licans gained a complete triumph. Lamartine was chosen by 
 nine cities, as their representative, and all candidates who had 
 over two thousand votes were declared members of the assembly. 
 On the 4th of May, the republic was officially proclaimed, amid 
 the firing of artillery and the shouts of the people ; and, on the 
 following day, the members of the provisional government ten- 
 dered their resignations from office, and received the thanks of
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND '49. 
 
 767 
 
 LOUIS BLANC. 
 
 the nation. • The assembly then appointed five of their number 
 as an executive committee, in the place of the provisional go- 
 vernment. Their names were, Arago, Gamier Pages, Marie, 
 Lamartine, and Ledru Rollin. 
 
 Several serious riots occurred at Rouen, Elboeuf, and other 
 manufacturing towns, which were not suppressed without blood- 
 shed. They were instigated by the socialist and communist 
 leaders, who clung to their theories with a tenacity undiminished 
 by defeat, and watched the moment for establishing them by 
 force of arms. The celebrated Louis Blanc was one of the most 
 active of these men, and contributed as much as any one else to 
 bring about the struggle between the workingmen and the mid 
 die classes. The first serious manifestation of the feeling of the 
 socialists and red republicans occurred on the 15th of May. A 
 large meeting was held in the capital, to express sympathy for 
 the Polish patriots who had lately attempted a revolution. The 
 wildest excitement prevailed, and the national assembly was de- 
 nounced in the most bitter terms. About fifty vthousand persons 
 followed a committee to the national chamber, where they de- 
 manded that France should interfere in the Polish quarrel. The 
 greatest uproar and excitement filled the chamber, as the crowds 
 rushed in and were cheered on by the leaders of the clubs. An
 
 768 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 attempt was made to get up a provisional government composed 
 entirely of socialists and communists, and the assembly dispersed 
 amid the clamour and threats of the populace. The national 
 guard promptly rallied for the republic, and were joined by the 
 "garde mobile" and the troops of the line. Lamartine headed 
 them, and was received with enthusiasm. In a short time, the 
 mob dispersed, and their most prominent leaders, Barbe"s, Al- 
 bert, Blanqui, Raspail, and Sobrier, were captured and thrown 
 into prison. 
 
 Other commotions followed at various periods, which served 
 to show the state of feeling existing between the red republi- 
 cans and the moderates. Another party was soon added to 
 these, occasioned by the election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte 
 to a seat in the national assembly. A paper was started to 
 advocate his cause, and mobs, shouting for an emperor, were 
 only dispersed by the soldiers with difficulty. But the great 
 struggle was yet to come. The workingmen, imbued with the 
 spirit of socialism and communism, had engaged in the revolu- 
 tion of February with the hope that their favourite theories 
 would be put in practice, and that they would reap the greatest 
 benefit from it. In their view, the revolution was fruitless, 
 since the doctrines of the moderate republicans had triumphed. 
 On the other hand, the middle classes were satisfied with the 
 results of the revolution, and were determined to resist all at- 
 tempts to disturb the order of things. Both parties prepared 
 themselves for a desperate contest. 
 
 The first hostile demonstration occurred on the 22d of June. 
 A body of workmen appeared before the palace of the Luxem- 
 bourg, and demanded to see the executive committee. M. Ma- 
 rie consented to receive five of their number, but the interview 
 was fruitless to both parties. The workmen then gathered 
 a great crowd, and proceeded through the streets, shouting 
 "Down with the executive committee !" Towards evening, the 
 mob had increased to such a size that an additional military 
 force was called out and kept under arms all night. The next 
 morning it was found that the rioters had erected barricades in 
 every quarter of the city, and were preparing for a struggle. 
 The battle began at the Porte St. Dennis, which was barricaded 
 very strongly and defended with obstinacy. The troops tri- 
 umphed, however, and the barricades were carried at the point
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND '49. 769 
 
 of the bayonet. Boys and women took part with the insur- 
 gents, and several of them were distinguished for their bravery 
 and the ardour with which they fought. 
 
 The executive committee met at the, Luxembourg, and ap- 
 pointed General Cavaignac commander-in-chief of all the forces 
 in and around Paris. He was allowed to take what steps he 
 deemed proper without interference from the civil authorities. 
 On Saturday, the insurgents continued their operations with 
 persevering tenacity of purpose at St. Marceau, St. Antoine, 
 St. Dennis, and other points. The assembly appointed Gene- 
 ral Cavaignac dictator, and declared Paris in a state of siege. 
 Before Saturday evening, the general had suppressed the insur- 
 rection on the left bank of the Seine and the Cite. But the 
 most terrible struggle was at the Clos St. Lazarre. The assail- 
 ants fought with a desperation rarely equalled, and at four 
 o'clock two hundred men of one battalion of the " garde mo- 
 bile" had fallen. At six o'clock, the national guards joined 
 their friends in a grand effort on the Clos St. Lazarre. Before 
 this, a party, led by General Cavaignac in person, carried the 
 first barricade of the Faubourg St. Antoine ; but the • stronger 
 position could not be reduced. The slaughter at this point was 
 terrible. 
 
 The appearance of Paris at this time was dreary in the ex- 
 treme. At least three hundred thousand troops were under 
 arms against one hundred and twenty thousand insurgents. 
 One-fourth of the city had been ruined to build barricades, and 
 garrisoned so as to be impassable. General Cavaignac sup- 
 pressed several papers which were disseminating political dis- 
 cord, and endeavouring to inflame the passions of the people, 
 and strictly forbid all placards but those issued by the govern- 
 ment. On Sunday, the contest at the Pantheon was of the 
 most determined character. For fifteen hours the firing con- 
 tinued incessant, and the slaughter on both sides was appalling. 
 At length military discipline triumphed, and the street was 
 cleared. The prisoners taken by the insurgents were horribly 
 mutilated by them ; but it must be remembered that the work- 
 ingmen were maddened by starvation and the instigation of bad 
 men At this stage of the rebellion, the archbishop of Paris 
 offered to go among the insurgents and try to restore order. 
 The offer was accepted, and the archbishop proceeded to the 
 97 3P
 
 770 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP OF PARIS. 
 
 Place de Bastile, bearing a proclamation of General Cavaignac 
 that hostilities should cease. The firing ceased on both sides ; 
 but, during the cessation, the combatants came within reach of 
 each other and got into personal scuffles. Suddenly the firing 
 recommenced. The prelate, thus placed between the two parties, 
 received a shot in the groin, and was borne away mortally 
 wounded. This event caused regret on both sides — the insur- 
 gents declaring they did not intend to injure him. 
 
 On Monday morning, the conflict was renewed with desperate 
 valour on both sides. But Generals Cavaignac and Lamoriciere 
 captured the barricades one after another, and before night the 
 insurgents were either killed, captured, or dispersed, and the 
 insurrection was suppressed. More than twenty thousand peo- 
 ple had fallen in the four days' contest, and the number of pri- 
 soners embarrassed the government. Lamartine and the other 
 members of the executive committee displayed great courage 
 and activity during the trying time, and well deserved the 
 thanks of the nation. The remainder of the week was em- 
 ployed In burying the dead, repairing damages done to the city, 
 and restoring order. Troops continued to pour into Paris for
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND '49. 
 
 771 
 
 GENERAL NEGEIEE. 
 
 some days subsequent to the suppression of the revolt, until 
 their number amounted to three hundred thousand men. Ge- 
 neral Cavaignac resigned his absolute power to the assembly on 
 the 29th ; but such was the gratitude of the people for his ser- 
 vices, that he was immediately created president of state, with 
 authority to name his officers. General Changarnier was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief of the national guards. Guards 
 were placed at the end of every street to prevent the assassina- 
 tion of citizens by the disaffected. The energy of General 
 Cavaignac was fully displayed in crushing every manifestation 
 of a renewal of the disturbances, and in his determination to 
 maintain law and order. The 14th of July was appointed for 
 the holding of a great banquet, in which two hundred thousand 
 workmen were to take part. Its occurrence was prevented by 
 a disclosure that a plot existed to assassinate all the members of 
 the national assembly and the heads of government. The great 
 number of soldiers on duty in Paris and the vigorous measures 
 of the government dampened the courage of the workmen. 
 
 Many distinguished men fell in the four days' battle with the 
 insurgents ; but none was more lamented than General Negrier. 
 He fought bravely upon the side of order, and was shot dead
 
 772 
 
 INCIDENTS OP MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 while advancing towards a barricade at the head of his men. 
 General Charbonnel, a member of assembly, was mortally 
 wounded at his side. He was interred with the greatest honours 
 paid to the illustrious dead. 
 
 The good results of the revolution were not appreciated by 
 the great mass of the French people, until the constitution of 
 the republic had been framed and adopted by the national as- 
 sembly. Then a feeling of confidence and security took the 
 place of fear and excitement, and all kinds of business revived. 
 The constitution was proclaimed on Sunday, the 12th of No- 
 vember, 1848. The election for president of the republic took 
 place on the 10th of December. The principal candidates were 
 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, General Cavaignac, and Ledru Rol- 
 lin. Nearly eight million votes were polled, of which Louis 
 Napoleon Bonaparte received six million. The quiet with 
 which the election was conducted gave promise of the entire 
 restoration of order and harmony to the nation. The newly 
 elected president, Bonaparte, was formally proclaimed as the 
 head of the republic on the 20th of December. He selected 
 Odillon Barrot to form a ministry, and thus, after a year of ex- 
 traordinary exertion, was France changed from a monarchy, 
 with a titled nobility, to a constitutional republic, with the peo- 
 ple placed upon an equality, which can only be destroyed by 
 wealth or talent.
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY. 
 
 i i . 
 
 PRINCE WINDISCHGRATZ. 
 
 THE INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY. 
 
 HE news of the February re- 
 volution in France threw all 
 ji Germany into commotion. The 
 success of the French people 
 stimulated the Germans to make 
 strenuous efforts to secure their 
 rights. The idea of a union 
 of all the German states into 
 one confederacy was long a 
 favourite one with the people 
 of the various states. They now demanded a new civil and 
 criminal code for all Germany, ratifying, among other things, 
 the freedom of the press, trial by jury and publicity in all judi- 
 cial proceedings, representative government in the several states, 
 with the right of voting taxes vested in the people alone, civil 
 equality without distinction of creed, and, lastly, that the peo- 
 ple, as well as the princes, should be represented in the council 
 
 3p2
 
 774 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of the German confederation. These demands were the old 
 creed of the liberal party of Germany, for which they had suf- 
 fered every kind of persecution. But they were now extorted, 
 with more or less violence, in the space of three weeks, from 
 every sovereign in Germany. 
 
 The first act of submission was made by the king of Wur- 
 temberg, on the 3d of March, and the example was followed by 
 his brother sovereigns in rapid succession ; those of Bavaria 
 and Hesse Darmstadt abdicated, after they had complied with 
 the demands of their subjects. On the 13th, the old system 
 perished in its metropolis, Vienna, after a street tumult (for it 
 was not a fight) of three or four hours; and on the 18th the 
 new order of things was established in Berlin, and consecrated 
 by a lavish and gratuitous outpouring of blood. 
 
 The king of Saxony refused to grant the reforms demanded, 
 and called out the troops ; but they would not act against the 
 people, and the king was forced to grant every thing. King 
 Ernest, of Hanover, also refused all concessions when first 
 pressed. He then talked of abdicating ; but the Hanoverians 
 were unmoved from their purposes by this threat, and the king 
 resigned himself to his fate, consenting to receive Stiibe as one 
 of his ministers. This man had spent many years in prison 
 for resisting the tyranny of the king of Hanover. 
 
 Serious riots had occurred in Bavaria on the 19th of Feb- 
 ruary, occasioned by an insolent freak of Lola Montez, the 
 king's mistress. Lola was compelled to quit Munich, and, hav- 
 ing returned to it on the 9th of March, she was removed by 
 the police. The king was compelled either to give up his fas- 
 cinating mistress or to abdicate his throne ; and the infatu- 
 ated old monarch chose the latter alternative. The time for 
 a people to bear with the insolent freaks of their rulers was 
 past. 
 
 The revolution in Vienna began on the occasion of the open- 
 ing of the diet for Lower Austria. The business of the day 
 had not proceeded more than half an hour, when it was inter- 
 rupted by a mass of people, who forced their way into the hall, 
 clamouring for reform. Count Montecuculi, marshal of the 
 diet, immediately went to the palace, followed by a crowd of 
 people, to present a petition to the emperor, praying the same 
 reforms as had been granted in other parts of Germany. The
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY. 775 
 
 archduke Ludwig, chief of the Home Department, informed 
 the count that there was no disposition to make concessions. A 
 cabinet council, however, was summoned, and the marshal of 
 the diet and those who accompanied him waited in vain for its 
 determination, from twelve to four o'clock. The people became 
 exasperated by this delay; the students harangued them ; the 
 tumult continually increased. Suddenly the troops appeared 
 and fired upon the unarmed multitude, killing and wounding a 
 great number. Four pieces of cannon were planted on St. 
 Stephen's Platz, and the gunners stood by them with lighted 
 matches. Meanwhile, the alarum drum was beaten ; the Burgher 
 Guard appeared in arms, and were received by the popu- 
 lace with loud acclamations ; but all further conflict was pre- 
 vented by the announcement that Prince Metternich had re- 
 signed, that the emperor had acceded to the popular demands, 
 and had confided the city to the keeping of the students and 
 the burghers. A new ministry was formed under the presi- 
 dency of Count Kolowrath, and various measures of grace were 
 announced in rapid succession. An amnesty was declared in 
 favour of all political prisoners in Galicia and the Lombardo- 
 Venetian kingdom. One hundred and fifty Polish and Italian 
 prisoners were dismissed from the fortress of Spielberg, infa- 
 mous in the annals of Austrian despotism. The Secret Court 
 of Police was abolished, and a letter was published from the 
 minister, Baron Pillersdorf, to the police officers of all the Aus- 
 trian provinces, in which he tells them that a great many of their 
 former functions are now illegal. They are forbidden to em- 
 ploy spies, " since the free press will not fail to reveal danger- 
 ous conspiracies and plots, if any exist." Liberty of the per- 
 son and a kind of habeas corpus are officially proclaimed in this 
 letter. 
 
 The constitution was proclaimed on the 25th of April, and it 
 secured those rights dearest to the mass of the people. The 
 imperial parliament consisted of two houses, of which the lower 
 one was constituted on the broadest democratic basis. 
 
 In Prussia, after the adjournment of the diet, the people of the 
 Rhenish provinces broke out in loud cries for reforms, and these 
 demands were echoed from Breslau, Konigsberg, and Berlin. A 
 great open-air meeting, held on the 13th of March in the capital, 
 to petition for reform, ended in a tumult, in which the troops acted
 
 776 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 with great violence. For nearly a week, Berlin was a continued 
 scene of disorder. On the 15th, though the people offered little 
 more than passive resistance, ten persons were killed and up- 
 wards of a hundred were wounded by the military. While 
 such was the state of the capital, sanguinary riots were taking 
 place also in Breslau and Kijnigsberg. On the morning of the 
 18th, a deputation arrived in Berlin from Cologne, and at once 
 waited on the king and presented a petition for reform. Fre- 
 derick William having promised to accede to their demands, 
 they replied, "We have been so often deceived and put off that 
 we cannot wait any longer; we must insist on a proclamation 
 being issued at once, or your majesty will cease to reign over 
 the Rhenish provinces." The king was much hurt ; but, after 
 some parley, submitted. 
 
 He issued a proclamation, echoing the wish of the German 
 people for a federal state, and granting a constitution based on 
 liberal principles. This proclamation was received with every 
 demonstration of satisfaction on the part of the Prussians. 
 Crowds repaired to the palace, and the king appeared at a 
 window and was received with tremendous cheers. Unluckily 
 the shouts were mistaken by the soldiery for the signal of at- 
 tack. Two regiments of dragoons endeavoured to force the 
 people back, and some shots were accidentally fired. The 
 effect was disastrous. Conceiving the existence of a design to 
 massacre them, the masses rushed to arms at once. Barricades 
 were erected, and riflemen posted on every house-top and in 
 every window. The soldiery had always hated the bourgeoise, 
 and were nothing loath to engage with them in a conflict. For 
 fifteen hours, the people fought with valour and determination, 
 and the soldiers with a fury only increased by resistance. -No 
 quarter was given on either side. 
 
 At five on the morning of the 19th of March, the king 
 voluntarily desisted from the contest, without being actually 
 defeated. At seven o'clock, a proclamation was issued, addressed 
 to the citizens of Berlin, assuring them that the conflict was 
 the result of an accident and a mistake, and entreating mutual 
 forbearance on both sides. Crowds again thronged to the 
 palace of the king, and he appeared and confided himself to 
 their protection. The people received him cordially. An am- 
 nesty was announced. The military were sent out of the town,
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY. 777 
 
 a liberal ministry formed, and a burgher guard created, in 
 ■which the students of the universities were incorporated. The 
 people of Berlin were satisfied. The number of those who fell 
 in the conflict on the popular side was about two hundred, of 
 whom one hundred and eighty-seven received a public funeral. 
 On the part of the military, the loss was three commissioned 
 officers and seventeen non-commissioned officers and privates 
 killed, and fourteen commissioned officers, fourteen non-com- 
 missioned, two hundred and twenty-five rank and file, and one 
 surgeon wounded. 
 
 Frederick William had now virtually lost a battle against his 
 own subjects. He hoped to raise his fallen dignity, however, 
 by a bold stroke. On the 21st of March, he issued a procla- 
 mation, declaring in clear and forcible terms that he would 
 head the grand movement for the regeneration of Germany. 
 On the same day, the king, wearing the once-proscribed tri- 
 colour, rode through the streets of Berlin, and was received 
 with enthusiasm. 
 
 A sudden feeling in favour of Poland broke out in Germany 
 in the first days of the revolutionary fervour. On the 20th of 
 March, the doors of the prison of Berlin were thrown open, 
 and the condemned Poles came forth amid the shouts of the 
 populace. Mierolawski and his companions were seated in a 
 carriage, and the people drew them to the palace and the uni- 
 versity. The patriots bore the black, red, and golden banner 
 of the German republicans. A Polish deputation from Posen 
 arrived in Berlin on the following day, and obtained a division 
 of that duchy, so as to give the exiled Poles a home. Eight 
 days after the Poles were liberated from the prison of Berlin a 
 civil war broke out in Posen, between the people of that nation 
 and the Germans. Both sides displayed the most savage cru- 
 elty, and the details are too horrid to relate. At last the line 
 of demarcation between Polish and German Posen was settled, 
 and the insurrection terminated on the 10th of May, by the 
 capture of Mierolawski and the defeat of his band, the last 
 remnant of a Polish army of thirty thousand men. 
 
 On the 31st of March, five hundred deputies from all parts 
 of Germany held their first sitting at Frankfort, as the prelimi- 
 nary convention for the formation of a national parliament. 
 It was resolved that a national assembly should be elected by 
 98
 
 778 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 universal suffrage, and that any German should be eligible 
 thereto for any part of Germany. Having made a few other 
 arrangements, the convention adjourned, but left behind it a 
 permanent committee of fifty, who, with seventeen » men of 
 confidence," constituted from the beginning of April till the 
 middle of May, the supreme council that governed Germany. 
 A constitution for the collective German states was drawn up, and 
 military operations directed against the armed republicans of Ba- 
 den. The republicans were commanded by Hecker and Struve. 
 The force of the confederation met them on the 20th of April, 
 and, after General von Gageon had been treacherously murdered 
 in a parley, totally routed them. Hecker escaped ; Struve was 
 taken prisoner, but soon after rescued. Friburg was stormed 
 on the 24th, and Constanz was occupied on the same day. Her- 
 wegh, the poet and communist, arrived with his free corps from 
 France too late to prevent the catastrophe. His own men 
 (nine hundred) were totally routed on the 27th by a single com- 
 pany of Wurtemburg troops, with a loss of twenty-three killed 
 and two hundred taken prisoners. Herwegh, with his wife, 
 who was armed and in the fight, escaped to Switzerland. 
 
 The German parliament held its first sitting at Frankfort on 
 the 18th of May, and on the 28th of June the parliament cre- 
 ated the provisional central power for the administration of all 
 affairs which affect the whole German nation. Archduke John 
 of Austria was elected regent by a large majority. He was 
 solemnly installed in office on the 12th of July. 
 
 For two months after the revolution in March, Vienna re- 
 mained in a state of uninterrupted quiet. But the corruption 
 of the emperor's advisers and the harangues and writings of 
 republican leaders, kept the spirit of revolt alive in the minds 
 of the people ; and on the 15th of May the public feeling dis- 
 played itself in a fresh revolutionary movement. The students 
 of the university took the lead. They demanded of the minis- 
 try that the military should be withdrawn from the city, that 
 the central committee of the national guard should be main- 
 tained, and that the election law should be declared null and 
 void. The ministers withstood these demands a whole day; 
 but, finding themselves without force sufficient to resist the 
 armed petitioners, who were joined by the national guard, they 
 yielded, and at midnight the minister of the interior issued a
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY. 779 
 
 proclamation conceding all that was required. This was a vir- 
 tual ratification of a new revolution, the constitution of April 
 25th being superseded, and it was settled that the diet should 
 consist of but one chamber- 
 On the 16th of May, the emperor and his family absconded 
 from the capital and fled to Innspruck, in the Tyrol. This 
 event threw the ministers and the whole population of Vienna 
 into a ferment, and messengers were despatched to entreat the 
 fugitives to return, but they were obstinate. The aristocratic 
 party had counselled the flight of the emperor, and they strove 
 to make the event serve their reactionary projects. They 
 spread stories of the ill treatment of the emperor by the Vi- 
 ennese through all the provinces, with the object of exciting a 
 feeling of sympathy for him and a detestation of the liberals. 
 A final stroke was then resolved upon to complete the work. 
 
 On the 25th of May, a rumour reached the Viennese that 
 three regiments of the military were to enter the city by night, 
 and universal alarm was created. The next day the academi- 
 cal legion received orders to disband within twenty-four hours. 
 They refused to lay down their arms, and the gates of the 
 town were shut and guarded by soldiers. But the workmen 
 from the suburbs stormed them, and one of the assailants, a 
 wox-kman, was killed in the conflict. A general insurrection 
 was begun, and barricades arose in every street. This state 
 of things lasted until night, and ended in a complete victory 
 of the people, whose conditions were again ratified by the mi- 
 nisters on the 15th. Things then assumed a comparatively 
 quiet state. The barricades were removed, and business re- 
 sumed. The emperor still remained at Innspruck ; but he 
 appointed his uncle, the archduke John, to represent him in 
 the capital and open the assembly in his name. This was ac- 
 cordingly done on the 22d of July, in an amicable speech, by the 
 archduke. The emperor was at last prevailed upon to return 
 to Vienna, where he arrived on the 12th of August, and thus 
 ended the second phase in the Viennese insurrection. 
 
 Two days before the rising in Vienna, a meeting was held in 
 Prague, which adopted an address to the government, in which 
 the equality of the Tchechs and Germans was required to be 
 recognised by law, and representative and municipal reform, 
 security for personal liberty, equality of all religious denomina-
 
 780 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 tions, and other liberal measures, demanded by both the Tchechs 
 and Germans, who forgot their national hatred for the time. 
 A deputation carried the address to the government, which, at 
 first, met it with evasive and dilatory compromises, but eventu- 
 ally granted all they desired. Bohemia was formed into a se- 
 parate state, under the vice-royalty of Francis Joseph, the heir- 
 presumptive to the empire. But the Tcshecks soon perceived 
 that they reaped all the advantages of the reforms, and they 
 set about striving to unite the whole Sclavonic nation into one 
 empire. They neglected to send a representative to the Ger- 
 man national assembly, and circulated a proclamation inviting 
 representatives of the Sclavonic race from all the Austrian 
 provinces, and even foreign states, to assemble at Prague on 
 the 31st of May, to concert measures for protecting the inde- 
 pendence of the Sclavonic people from the encroachments of 
 the Germans. 
 
 The congress opened on the 2d of June, and was abruptly 
 closed on the 12th. ' The representatives were cordially unani- 
 mous in support of the measures proposed. A manifesto was 
 issued to the nations of Christendom, declaring that they were 
 about to form a central federation in Austria. The Viennese 
 ministry declared the provisional government of Bohemia, which 
 was created by the Sclavonians, to be an illegal body, and its 
 acts were therefore null and void. This challenge was answered, 
 as it was intended it should be, by a general insurrection, which 
 raged for five days. Nor was it subdued, until Prince Windisch- 
 gratz, the Austrian commander, had bombarded Prague, and 
 laid much of it in ruins. Prague relapsed into its former 
 dependence on Vienna ; the Sclavonic congress was dispersed, 
 and the holding of the Bohemian parliament postponed. The 
 most horrid cruelties were practised by the insurgent Tchechs 
 upon the soldiers they took alive. Almost the first shot fired 
 in the insurrection killed the princess Windischgratz in her own 
 apartment. The prince himself was seized and dragged to a 
 lamp-post to be hung, but was rescued by his grenadiers. Five 
 minutes afterwards, his artillery swept the streets of Prague. 
 
 War broke out in the latter part of August between the Hun- 
 garians and the Croats. Jellachich, the ban of Croatia, was 
 attached to the government of Vienna, and the Magyars were 
 forced to depend altogether upon their own exertions for success.
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY. 781 
 
 The diet sent a deputation to Vienna before the war broke out, 
 but the Viennese assembly would not receive them, and the 
 diet, deeply offended by the insult, conferred dictatorial powers 
 upon Kossuth. 
 
 Jellachich, at the head of the Croat army, crossed the Drave, 
 and, traversing all southern Hungary without meeting an enemy, 
 he arrived at Stuhlweissenburg, within a day's march of Pesth, 
 the capital of Hungary. He issued a proclamation on crossing 
 the frontier, in which he said he invaded Hungary on his sole au- 
 thority, and for the purpose of upholding a constitutional mon- 
 archy in opposition to the diet. Encouraged by the movement of 
 Jellachich, the emperor of Austria resolved to put an end to the 
 distractions in Hungary, as he called them. He appointed Count 
 Lamberg to command all the forces in the kingdom. The diet 
 resolved that the count's commission was illegal, and when he 
 arrived at Pesth, in the latter part of September, he was attacked 
 by a mob, killed, and his body dragged through the streets. It 
 was soon discovered that the imperial government assisted 
 Jellachich by secret subsidies, and the Magyars resolved to 
 devote their strength to the resistance of his authority. At 
 Pesth, every man took up arms, and even ladies worked in the 
 trenches. 
 
 While Jellachich was waiting for artillery to lay siege to Pesth, 
 he was attacked by an irregular force led by Mezzaros, the 
 Hungarian minister of war, and a portion of his cavalry suf- 
 fered severely. The ban then withdrew westward to Raab and 
 Comorn, where he could command the Danube and the Vienna 
 road to Buda. This movement was thought by the people of 
 Vienna to be intended to back the reactionary movement of the 
 government, and they murmured loudly against all measures 
 adverse to Hungary. 
 
 In October, a regiment of German grenadiers, favourable to 
 the cause of the people, was ordered to join the expedition 
 against the Hungarians. They immediately concerted with the 
 national guard and the academical legion, and it was resolved 
 to prevent their departure. The confederates broke up the rail- 
 way to some distance from the station, in the night, and erected 
 a barricade where the soldiers would have to pass. In the 
 morning, the grenadiers were ordered to storm the barricades, 
 but, being joined by their friends, they attacked and routed the 
 
 3Q
 
 782 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 government troops, and marched into the town. The insur- 
 rection became general, and the imperial forces were everywhere 
 defeated. Count Latour, the minister of war, was butchered 
 in the most horrible manner. On the 7th of October, every- 
 thing was in the hands of the people, and they might have cho- 
 sen their own form of government. The emperor Ferdinand 
 left Vienna on the 7th, leaving behind him an address to the 
 diet, which promised to aid in crushing the insurgent populace, 
 as soon as a force could be collected. The emperor took refuge 
 with the Sclavonians, and then declared open war against the 
 German and Magyar rebels. Prince Windischgratz was ap- 
 pointed commander of all the forces of the empire, except the 
 army in Italy. 
 
 Vienna was soon invested by Windischgratz, with one hundred 
 thousand men, and one hundred and forty guns. Messen- 
 hauser and General Bern commanded the forces in the city. 
 The attack began on the 28th of October, and, by the next day, 
 the city was so far reduced that a suspension of hostilities was 
 agreed upon while the besieged could deliberate upon a sur- 
 render. The greater portion of the forces and the city authori- 
 ties agreed upon a surrender, and a disarming had begun on 
 the 30th, when news that the Hungarian forces were advancing 
 from Vrucks broke off all thoughts of surrender, and the battle 
 was renewed *vith vigour on both sides. The slaughter was 
 dreadful. The whole city was not subdued until the 2d of No- 
 vember, when twenty-five hundred people had fallen on both sides, 
 and a great quantity of property been destroyed. The Hun- 
 garians were driven off by Jellachich. No quarter was given by 
 the savage imperialists, and the city was pillaged. For a week 
 after the capture, "Windischgratz sanctioned the commission of 
 the worst crimes, and the court-martials were busy condemning 
 prisoners to be hung, shot, or otherwise punished, with secrecy, 
 as if conscious of committing murder, and not satisfying justice. 
 Among their victims was Messenhauser, commander of the 
 national guard, and Robert Blum, a member of the Frankfort 
 assembly. 
 
 The imperial authority was now triumphant in Austria, but 
 the lesson which the emperor had learned led him to adopt 
 milder measures and more liberal policy than before the in- 
 surrection. All veneration for the person of Ferdinand, how-
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY. 783 
 
 ever, was at an end among the people, and it was deemed ne- 
 cessary by the ministry, that some measure should be taken to 
 restore public confidence in the government. By their advice, 
 Ferdinand abdicated the throne of Austria, on the 2d of De- 
 cember, and was succeeded by the son of the archduke Francis 
 Charles, a young man only nineteen years old, who was pro- 
 claimed under the title of Francis Joseph I. The accession of 
 the new emperor brought j^eace to all the Austrian states, except 
 Hungary. The diet of that country denounced the emperor as 
 an usurper, and both sides prepared for war. 
 
 The imperial generals collected all their forces, and enclosed 
 Hungary in a ring of bayonets and cannon. The main army 
 of invasion was led by Windischgratz, and there were others, 
 under Schlich, Dahler, Puchner, Urban, and Wardener. On the 
 part of the Hungarians, the most extraordinary exertions were 
 made, stimulated by the eloquence of Louis Kossuth, the dic- 
 tator, and the appeals of the diet. Having collected an army 
 of fifty thousand infantry, with fifty-four cannon, and twelve 
 hundred hussars, the Hungarians marched to the plains of Vi- 
 enna, where a battle took place with an army of one hundred 
 and thirty thousand Austrians, under Windischgratz. The Hun- 
 garians fought bravely, but were overpowered by numbers, and 
 compelled to retire, leaving six thousand men dead upon the 
 field. Defeat did not dishearten them ; but, on the contrary, 
 the enlistment and equipment of troops proceeded with wonder- 
 ful rapidity. Even women joined the army, and fought in the 
 subsequent battles. At the close of 1848, more than one hun- 
 dred thousand Hungarians were in the field. But their forces 
 were divided, while a solid army of one hundred thousand Aus- 
 trians and Croats were advancing to their capital. Barricades 
 were erected on the road to Pesth, but they were avoided by a 
 roundabout march by the imperialists, and the Hungarians were 
 compelled to leave their capital, after placing a garrison in the 
 almost impregnable fortress of Comorn. A Hungarian army of 
 sixty thousand men, under the young General Georgey, held the 
 plains between the Danube and the Thiers. General Bern de- 
 fended the rear, with fifteen thousand men. 
 
 We cannot follow the two armies in all their various move- 
 ments. At first, the Hungarians were everywhere driven back, 
 and their cause was regarded as hopeless. But they roused
 
 784 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 themselves to still greater exertions, and began to act on the 
 offensive. By skilful manoeuvring, Bern regained Transylvania, 
 driving out the Russians who were advancing in that direction. 
 A two days' battle was fought near Exlan, and the Austrians 
 claimed the victory, but they were without benefit from it. In 
 the mean time, the valiant Georgey defeated the enemy opposed 
 to him, in several brilliant engagements. 
 
 The Austrians now fell back in allt directions, and were glad 
 to escape from the Hungarian territory. Windischgratz was 
 succeeded by "Welden, said to be the best Austrian general. A 
 great battle was fought on the twentieth and twenty-first of 
 April, near Ofer, in which the Austrians were totally defeated, 
 with the loss of twenty guns and two thousand prisoners. On 
 the 24th, Dembinski, at the head of fifteen thousand Magyars 
 and Poles, took possession of Pesth, amid the most extravagant 
 demonstrations of joy on the part of the populace. The Aus- 
 trians then raised the siege of Comorn. 
 
 The triumphant Magyars now made known the terms on which 
 they would cease hostilities ; . but the imperial government re- 
 fused to accede to them, and finding the whole strength of the 
 empire unable to cope with the heroic defenders of their country, 
 the assistance of the giant power of Russia was solicited and 
 obtained. Unterrified by this array of power, the Hungarians 
 nerved themselves for a last and glorious effort. Kossuth was 
 chosen governor of Hungary, and the diet proclaimed their in- 
 tention to establish a republic. On the 14th of May, Kossuth 
 took the oath of office. According to the report of the minister 
 of Avar, the Hungarian army consisted of three hundred and 
 ninety-six thousand armed troops, commanded by Bern, Georgey, 
 Dembinski, Perezel, Guyon, Klapka, Dannenburg, Gaspar, 
 Vetter, and Aulich. There were sixty thousand cavalry, and 
 more than four hundred pieces of artillery. The Austrians 
 again made preparations for invasion. Welden was removed, 
 and Baron Haynau appointed commander-in-chief. At the head 
 of a large army, he marched down the Danube, captured several 
 towns, and committed acts of the most atrocious cruelty. Jel- 
 lachich, with an army of Croats, advanced from the south-west, 
 and Prince Paskiewitch, at the head of the Russians, advanced 
 from the north-east. 
 
 In the brief campaign which followed, the Magyars defeated
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY. 
 
 785 
 
 the Croats under Jellachich, and, after a series of combats 
 lasting four days, Bern compelled the imperialists to raise the 
 siege of Peterwardein. The information of the defeat of Jel- 
 lachich and the Croats was conveyed to Kossuth by Bern, in 
 the words, Bern, Bam, Boom ! The object of Kossuth was to 
 unite the Hungarians, and fall upon each of the invading 
 armies, and beat them before they could unite. But the plans 
 of the governor were defeated by the obstinacy or treachery of 
 Georgey. In his headstrong rashness, he was entangled be- 
 tween the armies of Haynau and Paskiewitch, and from this 
 time the Hungarian cause began to droop. The diet threw its 
 power into the hands of Georgey, who was proclaimed dictator. 
 After a consultation at Arad, with Kossuth, Bern, and other 
 leaders, he protested that the struggle was a hopeless one, and 
 resolved to bring it to an end. The result was an unconditional 
 surrender of his whole army into the hands of the Russians, 
 and Hungary was betrayed. 
 
 99 3q2
 
 786 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 COUNT BATH TAN I. 
 
 Before this treacherous surrender, the garrison of Comorn 
 sallied out, and captured the city and citadel of Raab, obtaining 
 a complete triumph over the Austrians. But everywhere else, 
 the Magyars were defeated by the Russians and Austrians. 
 Bern and Guyon were surrounded by the Russians, but succeeded 
 in making their escape. Dembinski was defeated in the north, 
 and about sixteen thousand men surrendered to the Russians. 
 The garrison of Comorn, under General Klapka, still held out, 
 and was furnished to stand a long siege. They refused to sur- 
 render, except on the most favourable terms. Haynau and Ra- 
 detski were opposed to each other on the question of granting 
 terms. The ferocious Haynau wanted to storm, slay, and hang 
 all that could be taken, but Radetski was humane as well as 
 brave, and he opposed it. Humanity triumphed in this instance, 
 and the garrison surrendered on good terms. Thus was the
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY. 
 
 787 
 
 revolution in Hungary completely subdued ; partly by the over- 
 whelming numbers of the united Austrian and Russian forces, 
 but principally by headstrong insubordination, or, as seems 
 apparent from the unconditional surrender of Georgey, foul 
 treachery. 
 
 With every thing at their mercy, the Austrians, at the insti- 
 gation of the savage Haynau, acted with all the barbarity and 
 cruelty that was only to be expected from an uncivilized nation. 
 Combatants and non-combatants, priests, women, and children, 
 fell victims to the insatiable thirst for vengeance, and were 
 either put to death, thrown into prison, or scourged by the con- 
 querors. Among the victims whose death excited much sym- 
 pathy throughout the civilized nations, was the count Bathyani, 
 Kossuth's minister of war. His execution was a murder with- 
 out a shadow of justification, and it was conducted with all the 
 barbarity which was possible, under the circumstances. The 
 conduct of the Austrians excited universal detestation for that 
 government throughout Christendom. Kossuth, Bern, Dem- 
 binski, and other leaders of the patriots, took refuge in Turkey, 
 when they found that all was lost. The Sultan of Turkey pro- 
 tected them, and resisted, firmly, the demands for their surrender 
 made by Russia and Austria.
 
 788 
 
 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 GARIBALDI. 
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN ITALY. 
 
 N Italy, the year 1848 was from the outset 
 marked with important events. First on the 
 list is the massacre of Milan, to which we 
 shall presently revert. On the 12th of Janu- 
 ary, the fete-day of King Ferdinand of Na- 
 ples, the people of Palermo and all the great 
 towns of Sicily rose simultaneously and drove 
 out the Neapolitan troops. On the 28th, the 
 Neapolitans received a constitution modelled on the French 
 charter of 1830, but in some respects more liberal. The Si- 
 cilians were offered their share of this constitution, but they re- 
 fused to accept it. They defeated all the royal troops sent 
 against them ; elected their own parliament, which was opened 
 at Palermo, on the 25th of March, by Ruggiero Settimo, presi- 
 dent of the provisional government ; and on the 13th of the 
 following month, the deposition of King Ferdinand and the in- 
 dependence of Sicily were formally decreed. 
 In Tuscany, a series of liberal measures was crowned on the
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN ITALY. 789 
 
 1st of February by the issue of a constitution better than any 
 of the others granted by the four native princes of Italy to 
 their subjects, and in one capital item superior to that framed 
 for themselves by the Sicilians. 
 
 The Sardinians next obtained a constitution, -which was pub- 
 lished on the 5th of March, and Count Cesare Balbo, a well- 
 known writer and statesman, was appointed to form a cabinet. 
 Piedmont followed in the wake of the kingdom of Sardinia, but 
 the constitution of that country gave more power to the execu- 
 tive than any of the others. In Rome, the constitution granted 
 by the pope was proclaimed on the 15th of March, and on the 
 same day the Jesuits were ordered to withdraw from the papal 
 dominions. The new constitution, however, was far from being 
 satisfactory to the people. The most objectional feature of it 
 was the union of the civil and religious regulations. The diffi- 
 culty of harmonizing the views of the pope with those of the 
 people was frankly stated by the pope in the proclamation in- 
 corporating the constitution. 
 
 In the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, resistance to the Austrian 
 authorities began in the early part of January, 1848. Though 
 unable to cope in arms with the Austrians, every occasion by 
 which they could be annoyed was eagerly seized by the inhabi- 
 tants of the kingdom. On the 3d of January, the Austrian 
 soldiers were inflamed to such a pitch against the people, that 
 they attacked and killed or wounded ninety-one persons. Five 
 days after the massacre at Milan, another outrage occurred at 
 Pavia. The soldiers attacked a funeral procession of the stu- 
 dents, but there they suffered severely themselves. Other out- 
 rages followed, and a deep, intense hatred of the Austrians 
 was roused in the breasts of the oppressed. Martial law was 
 proclaimed, and the people of that beautiful country were ground 
 by an unmerciful military despotism. When the news of the 
 revolution in Vienna reached Milan, the people flocked to the 
 government house, and demanded the release of all political pri- 
 soners, and the formation of a national guard. The soldiers 
 fired at the crowd ; a boy of sixteen drew out a pistol and fired 
 at the soldiers, exclaiming " Viva V Italia !" The shot and 
 cry roused the people ; they rushed forward, overpowered the 
 guard, made the vice-governor prisoner, and planted the tri- 
 coloured banner on the palace. Some Croats afterwards fired on
 
 790 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the people, and killed five or six of them. A general rising 
 took place at once. Radetski withdrew his men to their re- 
 spective barracks, undecided how to act. By the time he had 
 decided, the city was barricaded. The Austrians numbered 
 twelve thousand men, yet they acted on the defensive. The 
 conflict raged day and night, until the evening of the 23d of 
 March, when the Austrians were compelled to retire towards 
 Vienna. The Milanese displayed the greatest bravery through- 
 out the contest, and defeated twelve thousand Austrians, with 
 cavalry and artillery, when they had not over five hundred guns 
 and pistols. Their loss was about one hundred killed, and two 
 hundred and fifty wounded. 
 
 The other cities of Lombardy followed the example of Milan, 
 and Venice declared itself a republic. Mantua and Verona 
 alone sheltered the Austrians. On the 27th, the vanguard of 
 the Piedmontese army, under Charles Albert, arrived before Mi- 
 lan. But he refused to enter the city, until he had defeated the 
 Austrians, which was not destined to be achieved by him. 
 
 The weakness of the administration of the provisional go- 
 vernment of Lombardy was the principal cause of its short 
 existence. Able men were displaced by the intrigues of weak 
 ones, and the greatest confusion prevailed in all departments of 
 the government. Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Rome, and Naples 
 sent large contingents to the army under Charles Albert. But 
 he neglected to prevent the concentration of the Austrian forces, 
 although he forced their lines at several points. On the 18th 
 of May, Charles Albert laid siege to Peschiera. The Austrians 
 were beaten at Goito, in attempting a diversion in its favour. 
 Peschiera was taken after two days' fighting, and Charles Albert 
 took up his quarters there. These conquests were rendered of 
 little avail, however, by the imbecility or treachery of Durando, 
 the Roman general, who surrendered Vicenza to Radetski, 
 although he knew an army was marching to his assistance, and 
 he had a strong force within the city. Radetski soon became 
 master of all the Venetian territory, except the capital, which 
 was defended by the Neapolitans, under General Pepe. 
 
 In the beginning of July, the Piedmontese army occupied a 
 line thirty miles in length ; from Mantua on its right, to Rivoli 
 on its left. General Bava defeated four thousand Austrians 
 near Governolo ; but this only served to fill Charles Albert
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN ITALY. 791 
 
 with false hopes. On the 22d of July, the whole Austrian force 
 descended on La Corona, and carried the lines of Rivoli. The 
 lines of Somma Campagna were also carried after a brave re- 
 sistance, and the Austrians became masters of the whole terri- 
 tory formerly held by the Piedmontese, except Peschiera. On 
 the 25th, Charles Albert, at the head of thirty thousand men, 
 advanced against the Austrians, at Somma Campagna. There 
 was fought the decisive battle. It lasted from five in the morn- 
 ing till five in the evening. The Piedmontese fought despe- 
 rately, and the victory was only decided for the Austi'ians by 
 the arrival of Radetski, with a reserve of twenty thousand men. 
 Charles Albert retreated to Milan, with the remnant of his 
 army, and preparations were made for a grand stand at that 
 city ; but he capitulated to Radetski, and, on the 7th, the Aus- 
 trians again ruled in Milan, and things returned to their old 
 state. From the oppressive measures taken by Radetski, there 
 is no fear that the people of Lombardy will cease to detest 
 Austrian rule. 
 
 Venice, forsaken by all her allies, maintained her inde- 
 pendence. Besieged and blockaded by land and sea, her peo- 
 ple firmly upheld their republican government, and submitted 
 to the greatest privations with a fortitude that commanded 
 the admiration of their enemies. Manini was the repub- 
 lican chief, and he nobly sustained the reputation he had 
 acquired as a pure and able republican. Several encounters 
 took place between the Austrians and the heroic defenders of 
 Venice, in which the latter were successful. The number of 
 their troops was about twenty thousand, many of the legions of 
 which were commanded by skilful French officers. Fourteen 
 hundred cannon were mounted on thirty-six forts on the shore, 
 opposite the city. The siege continued more than five months, 
 and then the Venetians surrendered on favourable terms. 
 
 In the mean time, Charles Albert was making extensive pre- 
 parations for another campaign. He proclaimed his resolve to 
 drive the Austrians beyond the Alps, or perish in the attempt. 
 The conflict was obstinate, but of short duration ; and on the 
 plains of Verelli, the hopes of Northern Italy were completely 
 overthrown. Three successive battles were fought ; the last on 
 the 4th of March, 1849. Fifty thousand men on each side were 
 engaged. Charles Albert and his followers displayed the most
 
 792 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 undaunted heroism, and the Sardinian king sought to die on the 
 field, when he found that all was lost. But death would not be 
 invited. The Piedmontese fled to the mountains ; Charles Al- 
 bert resigned the Sardinian crown to his son Victor Emanuel, 
 and Austrian order was restored to Northern Italy. 
 
 In Rome, the liberal concessions of the pope made him very 
 popular for a while. But the demands of the people went far- 
 ther than agreed with the views or the intentions of their ruler. 
 The pope signified to the chamber of deputies that they wanted 
 too much, and that he would be compelled to defend his prero- 
 gatives against further encroachment. This symptom of reac- 
 tion alarmed the Romans, and the breach between them and 
 the pontiff widened every day. Popular outbreaks were of 
 such frequent occurrence, that the pope began to regard the 
 palace as an unsafe residence. On the 24th of November, 
 1848, the supreme pontiff, disguised as a servant of the Bava- 
 rian envoy, Count Spohr, left Rome, and hastened to the town 
 of Gaeta, in the kingdom of Naples, where he became the 
 guest of King Ferdinand. From Gaeta, the pope issued a 
 manifesto, condemning the republicans of Rome, and explaining 
 the reasons which induced his flight. He also nominated a 
 governing commission, under the lead of Cardinal Castricane, 
 to execute his orders in Rome. The people received the mani- 
 festo with the most profound contempt and indignation. The 
 individuals appointed to administer the government prudently 
 left the city as soon as possible. 
 
 A counter-proclamation was immediately issued by the depu- 
 ties, and messengers sent to Gaeta to request the pope to return 
 to Rome. The conditions which he demanded were so despotic 
 that the people at once set about organizing a government for 
 themselves. A day was appointed for the election of a con- 
 stituent assembly to frame a constitution. The pope issued a 
 protest against the election, and excommunicated all who should 
 vote. But excommunication had no power to control the Ro- 
 mans, or prevent them from choosing their rulers. They 
 laughed at it, and a number of cardinals joined them in censur- 
 ing the protest. The election was conducted with order and 
 regularity. When the constituent assembly first met, the ques- 
 tion came up, what form of government should be adopted by 
 the Roman states. The debate was lengthy, but was conducted
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN ITALY. 793 
 
 calmly and with an earnest desire to reach a wise conclu- 
 sion. 
 
 On the morning of the 9th of February, 1849, it was decided 
 that the form of government should be a pure democracy, and 
 take the name of the Roman republic, and that the pope should be 
 guarantied his spiritual power only. Only five members out of 
 one hundred and forty-four voted negatively. A provisional 
 ministry had been appointed after the refusal of the pope to re- 
 turn to Rome, of which Armelini was the head. On the deci- 
 sion of the assembly in favour of a republic, he came forward 
 and resigned his powers ; but the assembly voted that he and 
 his colleagues should retain their authority for the time. The 
 proclamation of the republic was received with every mark of joy 
 and satisfaction by the Romans. 
 
 In the mean time, the pope remained at Gaeta, uncertain 
 what course to pursue. To call in foreign aid would be at once 
 to own that he had lost the confidence and attachment of that 
 people whom he had asserted were only misled by bad men. 
 Yet this course he was compelled to adopt, or remain in exile. 
 He appealed to the Catholic powers of Europe ; and Austria, 
 Spain, Naples, and even republican France answered him fa- 
 vourably. The government of France fitted out an expedition, 
 the destination and purpose of which were shrouded in mys- 
 tery. On the 22d of April, 1849, an army, under General 
 Oudinot, set sail from Marseilles, and landed at Civita Vecehia. 
 Before embarking, a proclamation was issued, the words of which 
 led the French troops and the Italian people to believe that 
 the army was designed to uphold the republican cause. 
 
 The Austrians, under Marshal Winpan, entered the papal 
 states on the north, an army of Neapolitans advanced on the 
 south, and a body of Spaniards landed at Micino. Rome was 
 surrounded ; but her brave people were active in preparation 
 for defence, and firm in maintaining their republic. One soul 
 seemed to animate the whole people, and the old Roman spirit 
 was awake. To give greater efficiency to the government, a 
 triumvirate was appointed, consisting of Armelini, Saflfi, and 
 Mazzini, the ruling spirit of the republicans. For a time, vic- 
 tory favoured the Roman arms. The Neapolitans were routed 
 at Palestrina, and the Austrians and Spaniards did not hurry 
 their march. The struggle now lay between Rome and France. 
 
 100 3R
 
 794 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Oudinot soon arrived before Rome, and sent a deputation to 
 the government. They declared the object of the French in- 
 vasion was to prevent Austrian interference and restore the 
 pope to his dominions, and they demancfed that the gates of 
 the city should be thrown open to the French army. The go- 
 vernment rejected the interference of the French, and refused 
 to admit them. Preparations for defence were made on an ex- 
 tensive scale, and Oudinot was told that Rome would resist his 
 entrance with all her power. The attack was then begun by 
 the French. The defenders fought bravely, and, after a long 
 struggle, the French were repulsed, with the loss of six hundred 
 killed and a large number of wounded and prisoners. The ge- 
 neral himself was nearly taken. The Romans were under tbe 
 command of General Garibaldi and other able men. The 
 French fell back to wait for reinforcements, which soon arrived, 
 and Oudinot found himself at the head of a powerful army, 
 supplied with every requisite for a siege. 
 
 To a second summons to surrender, the triumvirs returned 
 an answer full of the indignant feeling of the Romans. An 
 eloquent appeal was made to the French soldiers by Mazzini ; 
 but they had been defeated, and that drowned all thought of 
 aiding the Romans. The attack was renewed on the 3d of 
 June, and the besieged met it obstinately. Battle after battle 
 was fought, and the siege continued until the 30th of June, 
 when the triumvirs, considering all further resistance hope- 
 less, ceased hostilities and virtually surrendered. The last acts 
 of the assembly were to order the constitution to be engraved 
 on marble and deposited in the capital, and that funeral ser- 
 vices should be celebrated for those who had fallen in defence 
 of the city. The French army then entered Rome, and the 
 republican leaders fled. General Garibaldi, at the head of a 
 small force, took refuge in the mountains, from whence he sub- 
 sequently escaped to England. Thus was the Roman republic, 
 the free choice of the whole people, crushed by foreign soldiery, 
 and those, too, from a republic. The pope could not be in- 
 duced to return to Rome for some time after its capture, and 
 when he did he was coldly received.
 
 CALIFORNIA AND ITS GOLD MINES. 
 
 795 
 
 COLONEL FREMOKT. 
 
 ACQUISITION OF CALIFORNIA AND ITS 
 GOLD MINES. 
 
 EFORE the commencement of hostili- 
 ties between the United States and 
 Mexico, in 1846, the territory of Up- 
 per California formed the north-west- 
 ern < )rtion of the republic of Mexico. 
 The principal portion of its inhabi- 
 tants were Indians, on account of 
 whose hostility the interior of the 
 territory was but imperfectly known. 
 The settlements of the descendants 
 of the Spaniards and Mexicans were either situated upon the
 
 796 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 coast of the Pacific, or a short distance in the interior. These 
 small villages and towns had grown up around the missions 
 established at different places by the Jesuits, at an early period. 
 The town of Monterey, situated upon the coast, was the prin- 
 cipal port ; while Ciudad de los Angeles, situated about twenty- 
 five miles from the coast, was the largest town, and the capital 
 of the territory. The only articles of export were hides and 
 tallow, and the commerce of the country was monopolized by a 
 few American and English merchants, residing at Monterey, 
 San Diego, and San Francisco. These ports were often the 
 resort of vessels of war cruising in the Pacific, and also of some 
 whalers. Portions of the country, situated principally in the 
 valley of San Jose, and the neighbourhood of Los Angeles, were 
 considered worth cultivating ; and, at Los Angeles, great quan- 
 tities of grapes and various fruits were raised. But the greater 
 portion of the territory was thought to be only fit for grazing 
 purposes, and, consequently, the population increased very 
 slowly. 
 
 Intelligence of the beginning of hostilities upon the Rio 
 Grande having been received, on the 2d of July, Commodore 
 Sloat, commander of the United States Pacific squadron, arrived 
 at Monterey, and on the 7th, the American flag was hoisted 
 over that town, amid the cheers of the Americans, and a salute 
 of twenty-one guns from the ships in the harbour. A procla- 
 mation was then issued to the inhabitants of California, by Com- 
 modore Sloat. On the 8th, the American flag was hoisted at 
 San Francisco, by Commander Montgomery, of the sloop-of- 
 war Portsmouth, and a volunteer corps of resident Americans 
 was immediately organized. On the same day, purser Faunt- 
 leroy, of the frigate Savannah, was ordered to organize a com- 
 pany of dragoons, volunteers from the ships and the citizens on 
 shore, to reconnoitre the country, and keep the communication 
 open between Monterey and the more northern posts occupied 
 by the Americans. Captain Fremont, who had arrived in Cali- 
 fornia by an over* and journey, with a party of about one hun- 
 dred and seventy men, took possession of Sonoma, One of the 
 most northerly posts in the territory, and, leaving a small gar- 
 rison at that place, marched for the mission of San Juan, about 
 thirty miles east of Monterey. He arrived there, and took pos- 
 session of the mission without opposition, about one hour before
 
 CALIFORNIA AND ITS GOLD MINES. 797 
 
 the arrival of purser Fauntleroy, who had marched to accom- 
 plish the same object. At San Juan were found nine pieces of 
 cannon, two hundred old muskets, twenty kegs of powder, and 
 sixty thousand pounds of cannon-shot. Both parties marched 
 to Monterey, the next day after taking possession of the mission. 
 
 The fortification of Monterey was commenced immediately 
 after the raising of the United States flag. On the 23d, Com- 
 modore Sloat sailed in the Levant for the United States, leaving 
 Commodore Stockton in command of the Pacific squadron. Im- 
 mediately after, the Cyane, Commodore Dupont, with Captain 
 Fremont and volunteers on board, sailed for San Diego, and 
 the frigate Congress, Commodore Stockton, sailed for San Pe- 
 dro, the port of Los Angeles, the capital of California. The 
 frigate Savannah remained at Monterey, and the sloop-of-war 
 Portsmouth at San Francisco. Thus all the different ports of 
 the territory were secured. 
 
 On the 17th of August, Commodore Stockton issued a procla- 
 mation, declaring California in the full and peaceable possession 
 of the United States, and authorizing the election of civil offi- 
 cers throughout the country. Colonel Fremont soon afterwards 
 went northward, with only forty men, intending tq, recruit and 
 return immediately. Early in September, Commodore Stock- 
 ton withdrew all his forces, and proceeded with the squadron to 
 San Francisco. Capt. Gillespie was left in command of the 
 Pueblo de los Angeles, with about thirty riflemen ; and Lieut. 
 Talbot in command at Santa Barbara, with only nine men. 
 Scarcely had Commodore Stockton arrived at San Francisco, 
 when he received information that all the country below Mon- 
 terey was in arms, and the Mexican flag again hoisted. 
 
 Commodore Stockton, having come down in the Congress from 
 San Francisco, then took command of the sailors, and dragging 
 by hand six of the ship's guns, he marched towards Los An- 
 geles. At the ranche Sepulvida, they found the Californians 
 prepared to meet them. A desperate battle ensued, in which 
 the Californians were totally routed, with great loss. Com- 
 modore Stockton, having acquired a sufficient number of horses, 
 mounted his men, and organized his force for land operations. 
 From this battle, the war was waged in a series of skirmishes, 
 until January, 1847. 
 
 In the mean time a party of three hundred men under Gcne- 
 
 8b2
 
 798 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ral Kearny, left Santa Fe, in New Mexico, on the 25th of 
 September, 1846, and marched for California. Meeting a 
 small return party from California, General Kearny received 
 information that the country had been completely subdued 
 by Commodore Stockton, and in consequence of this infor- 
 mation, he sent back two hundred dragoons under Major Sum- 
 ner, to remain in New Mexico. With one hundred dragoons, 
 and two mountain howitzers, under Captain Moore, General 
 Kearny continued his march, and on the 2d of December 
 reached Warner's ranche, the frontier settlement of California, 
 on the road leading to Sonora. Finding a body of Californians 
 mounted, ready to dispute the passage, the small advance guard 
 made a furious charge upon them, and being supported by the 
 dragoons, the enemy gave way, still keeping up their fire. Cap- 
 tain Moore pursued the Californians for about half a mile, when 
 they halted, upon seeing an interval between the advance under 
 Captain Moore and the rest of the party. They charged with 
 their lances, and did considerable execution ; but the rest of the 
 Americans, coming up, drove them from the field. The loss of 
 the Americans was thirty-four, in killed and wounded. The 
 march of General Kearny's troops was then continued, and on 
 the 12th, they arrived at San Diego, upon the Pacific coast. 
 
 On the 29th of December, General Kearny left San Diego, 
 with about six hundred men. This force marched without any 
 opposition, until the 8th of January, when they found the Cali- 
 fornians, to the number of six hundred mounted men, with four 
 pieces of artillery, under the command of General Flores, sta- 
 tioned upon the heights which commanded the crossing of the 
 river San Gabriel. The necessary dispositions were soon made 
 by General Kearny, and his whole force then forded the river, 
 carried the heights, and drove the enemy from them, after an 
 action of an hour and a half. The Americans encamped on the 
 field till the next morning. 
 
 On the next day, the 9th of January, the march was re- 
 sumed. When General Kearny's force reached the plains of 
 the Mesa, they found the Californians again prepared to dis- 
 pute their progress. The artillery opened upon them in front, 
 and, after hovering near and skirmishing for about two hours, 
 the Californians concentrated their force and charged the left 
 flank of the Americans ; but they were quickly repulsed. They
 
 CALIFORNIA AND ITS GOLD MINES. 799 
 
 then retired, and on the following morning the victorious troops, 
 under General Kearny, entered the « City of the Angels," 
 without opposition. 
 
 These two battles decided the contest, and, on the 13th of 
 January, the enemy capitulated to Lieutenant-colonel Fremont, 
 near San Fernando. Peace being restored, General Kearny 
 was appointed to the post of civil and military governor of 
 California, and he issued a proclamation absolving the Califor- 
 nians from their allegiance to Mexico. 
 
 The conquest of California by the United States troops gave 
 an impetus to emigration to that country, and things began to 
 wear a livelier aspect. At the close of the war with Mexico, 
 the United States became possessed of California as far south as 
 the thirty-second degree of latitude, and then the settlement of 
 the country proceeded more rapidly. Colonel Mason was appoint- 
 ed to exercise the functions of governor and military commandant, 
 and tranquillity reigned throughout the territory, until an event 
 occurred which gave a new spring to affairs, and changed the 
 whole appearance of the country in a few years. 
 
 In the latter part of February, 1848, a mechanic, named 
 James Marshall, was employed in building a saw-mill for John 
 A. Sutter, Esq., on the south branch of a river known in Cali- 
 fornia as the American Fork, some fifty miles from New Helvetia, 
 or Sutter's Fort. While employed in cutting a mill-race or 
 canal for this improvement, Mr. Marshall discovered the pieces 
 of gold as they glistened in the sunlight at the bottom of the 
 sluices. Pieces of considerable size were taken from the water, 
 and in a few days gold to the amount of one hundred and fifty 
 dollars was removed in this manner. The labourers on the 
 works, mostly Mormons, soon became satisfied of its precious 
 nature, and the news spread rapidly about the country. Ex- 
 aminations were prosecuted at other points along the stream, 
 and almost everywhere with success. Reports of a most mar- 
 vellous nature soon reached the coast touching these mines. 
 Their apparent extravagance created incredulity, and the pub- 
 lic attention was not fully called to the subject until gold-dust 
 or grain-gold was brought into the market in considerable 
 quantities for sale. Doubt soon became belief, and a change, 
 almost magical in its nature, pervaded the whole population. 
 Lawyers, doctors, clergymen, farmers, mechanics, merchants,
 
 800 INCIDENTS OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Bailors, and soldiers, left their legitimate occupations to embark 
 on a business where fortunes were to be made in a few weeks. 
 Villages and districts, where all had been bustle, industry, and 
 improvement, were soon left without male population. Mecha- 
 nics, merchants, and magistrates were alike off to the mines, 
 and all kinds of useful occupation, except gold-digging, were 
 here apparently at an end. 
 
 At one time^pnly seven persons were left in the town of San 
 Francisco, in consequence of the rush for the gold diggings. 
 The price of all kinds of labour and of merchandise became 
 enormously high. The news of the discovery was not long in 
 reaching the States, and then began the influx of immigration. 
 Every route leading to the El Dorado was filled with anxious 
 ones, and the shortest road thither became the general demand. 
 Companies for mining purposes were formed in all directions. 
 The excitement was general and intense. 
 
 In the latter part of the year 1848, the town of San Fran- 
 cisco had increased wonderfully in size, and new towns were 
 laid out at various points between that port and the mines. 
 Continued discoveries of gold at various places on the tributa- 
 ries of the Sacramento added new fuel to keep up the heat of 
 excitement, and emigrants from the United States, Chili, 
 Mexico, and even China, poured into San Francisco, or came 
 by the overland journey from the Atlantic states of the Union. 
 The old towns and villages began to give signs of progress, and, 
 as the ports began to be the resort of a great number of ves- 
 sels of all nations, bringing great quantities of merchandise for 
 the expected increase of demand, the towns situated in the fer- 
 tile valleys of the interior attracted some who preferred trust- 
 ing to the sure reward of trade, or tilling the ground, to bear- 
 ing the fatigues of gold-digging. From being a half-settled, 
 half-explored grazing country, California became the centre of 
 attraction for all nations, and one of the most important com- 
 mercial countries on the earth. 
 
 THE END.
 
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