Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/elementarylessonOOmorrrich ELEMENTARY LESSONS HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR CONTAINING BY THE REV. RICHARD MORRIS, LL.D., HONORARY M.A. OXFORD, PRESIDENT OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY, LONDON, Author of " Historical Oitt lines of English Accidence" Editor of "Old English Homilies" " Cursor Mundi" etc. NEW EDITION. Jfrmbotr : MAC MILL AN AND CO. 1878. \The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved.} LONDON : R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, BREAD STREET HILL, E.C. PREFACE. The present treatise has been drawn up at the urgent request of numerous teachers, who asked for an easier and more elementary work than my " Historical Outlines of English Accidence," pub- lished some two years ago. I have endeavoured to the best of my ability to produce a short his- torical grammar that might be advantageously used as an introduction to my larger book. I have not, however, made a new book by cutting down and compressing the old one. These u Ele- mentary Lessons" constitute an entirely indepen- 955 PREFACE. dent work, with many peculiarities of arrangement that at once distinguish it from the "Accidence." A reference to the earlier chapters alone will at once show how very different the two books are. The illustrative examples scattered throughout the present work are for the most part new, very few of them having been quoted elsewhere. I trust that, to those engaged in the higher education of boys and girls, these lessons will prove helpful in promoting a more thorough know- ledge of our "mother tongue," the study of which has of late years been put on a better footing, and has acquired a distinct, and by no means an un- important, place in the curriculum of a liberal education. Syntax is not treated of in this volume, but I hope before long to be able to get out both a small and a large book on this important subject. PREFACE. rii My best thanks are due to my kind friend, the Rev. W. W. Skeat, for his assistance in revising the proof-sheets. At his suggestion I have adopted the classification of the periods of the Language on p. 33, and the mnemonics on p. 48. King's College, July 1874. HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. CONTRACTIONS. Allit. = Alliterative. Anat. Mel. = Anatomy of Melancholy C.T. = Canterbury Tales. Dan. = Danish. De Reg. m De Regimine Principum. C. Mundi. = Cursor Mundi ; C. = Cotton MS. F. = Fairfax MS. G. = Gottingen MS. T. = Trinity MS. E.E. = Early English. Fr. = French. Ger. = German. Gest, Rom. = Gesta Romanorum. Gr. = Greek. Icel. = Icelandic. Kath. = St. Katherine. Lat. = Latin. M.E. = Middle English. N. Fr. = Norman- French. O.E. = Old English. O.E. Misc. = O.E Miscellany. O.E. Horn. = Old English Homilies. O.Fr. = Old French. O.H. Ger. = Old High German. P. of C. = Pricke of Conscience. P. of PL = Pastime of Pleasure. Pol. Rel. = Political, Religious. T.E. = Tudor English. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE Relation of English to the Languages of Europe and Asia I Table of Indo-European Languages 3 delation of English to the Teutonic Group 4 Table of Teutonic Languages 5 CHAPTER II. History of the English Language 6 Origin of the English 6 Foreign Elements in English 7 The Keltic Element in English 7 The Scandinavian Element in English 8 The Latin Element in English 10 Latin introduced by Norman French 12 Influence of Norman-French upon the Vocabulary of the English Language 13 Influence of Norman-French upon the Grammar of English 16 Latin introduced by the revival of learning .... 21 Other Foreign elements 24 Preponderance of the Native over the Foreign elements . 27 CHAPTER III. Early English Dialects 31 Periods of the Language 33 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. TAr.B Sounds and Letters 35 Classification of Consonants 37 Number of Elementary Sounds in the English Alphabet . 39 Imperfections of the English Alphabet 4° CHAPTER V. Permutation of Sounds 42 Grimm's Law 4° CHAPTER VI. Etymology 53 Parts of Speech 53 CHAPTER VII. Nouns 61 Gender oi Number 7° Case 78 Declension of Old English Noons %$ CHAPTER VIIL Adjectives 87 Declension of O.E. Adjectives S9 Comparison 9° Irregular Comparisons 9 2 Numerals . . - 9& CHAPTER IX. Pronouns io1 Personal Pronouns 102 Reflexive Pronouns no Adjective Pronouns . * 1 2 CONTENTS. PAGE Independent or Absolute Possessives 114 Demonstrative Pronouns 114 Interrogative Pronouns .118 Relative Pronouns 120 Indefinite Pronouns 122 CHAPTER X. The Verb 129 Voice 13° Mood 131 Verbal Nouns 133 Tense *34 Number 13 6 Conjugation 136 Strong Verbs , 137 Weak Verbs 153 Verbal Inflexions 159 Infinitive Mood 164 Participles 166 Anomalous Verbs 167 Auxiliary Verbs 185 CHAPTER XI. Adverbs 187 Adverbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives 187 Pronominal Adverbs 190 Adverbs formed from Prepositions 193 Compound Adverbs 193 CHAPTER XII. Prepositions ... 195 Simple Preposition . 195 CONTENTS. PACK Compound Prepositions 196 Comparatives 196 Prepositions compounded with Prepositions . . . 196 Prepositions formed from Nouns 197 Prepositions formed from Adjectives 197 Verbal Prepositions 199 CHAPTER XIII. Conjunctions 200 Pronominal Conjunctions 200 Verbal Conjunctions 202 CHAPTER XIV. Interjections 203 CHAPTER XV. Derivation and Word Formation , . 204 Noun Suffixes from Demonstrative Roots 204 Adjective Suffixes from Demonstrative Roots .... 208 Noun Suffixes from Predicative Roots 209 Adjective Suffixes from Predicative Roots 212 Adverbial Suffixes 213 Verbal Suffixes 214 Composition 215 Noun-Compounds 215 Adjective-Compounds 216 Verbal-Compounds , . . . 217 Composition with Particles of English Origin . . . . 217 Inseparable Particles 217 Separable Particles 221 Suffixes of Romanic Origin 223 Composition with Romanic Particles . 236 Composition with Greek Particles ... .... 243 Appendix 247 Index 249 ELEMENTARY LESSONS HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER I. I. — Relation of English to the Languages of Europe and Asia. English belongs to the Indo-European Family of Languages. i. Most of the nations of Europe, and some in Asia, (India, Persia, Afghanistan,) have sprung from one common stock, and are therefore related to one another, by blood and by language. 2. These nationi philologists have called the Indo- European or Aryan family. The ancestors of the Aryan race once lived to- gether in the highlands north of the Himalaya moun- tains. A time came, of which history gives us no account, when the old Aryan tribes separated from each other, and left their ancient abode to seek new settlements. 5 b 2 IIISTORICAr. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Two great tribes, the old Hindus and the Persians, crossed the Himalaya mountains, and found new homes on the banks of the Ganges and Indus, from whence they soon spread over Hindostan, Persia, &c. The rest of the Aryan tribes, at different times, and at considerable intervals, travelled westward and came into Europe. 3. The first Aryan comers were the Kelts, who settled in parts of Germany, Italy, Spain, Gaul, and the British Isles. Their dialects still survive in Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, Ireland, the Isle of Man, and in Armorica or Brittany. The Kelts were driven out of their settlements in Italy, and pushed further westward by the advance ol the Italic tribes. About the same time the peninsula of Greece was peopled by the Hellenic or Grecian tribes. Next came the Teutons, who took up their abode in Germany and Scandinavia. The last Aryan settle- ment was made by the Lithuanians and Slavo- nians. The Slavonians gradually spread themselves over Russia, Bohemia, Poland, &c. The Lithuanians settled on the Baltic coast in Prussia, Livonia, and Lithuania. 4. Of the people living in Europe the Fins, Lapps, Esths, Basques, Hungarians, and Turks, do not belong to the Indo-European family. I] INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. I. Hindu II. Iranian III. Keltic t. Table of Indo-European Languages. Sanscrit (dead). Hindu, Hindustani, Bengali, Mah- ratti (all descendants from the Sanscrit). Cingalese (language of Ceylon). V 4. Gypsy dialect. 1 . Zend (the old language of Persia) 2. Persian. 1. Bas Breton or Armorican 2. Welsh. 3. Erse or Irish. 4. Gaelic or Highland Scotch. 5. Manx. 1. Latin (and old Italian Dialects, Oscan and Umbrian). 2. The Romance dialects which have sprung from Latin. {a) Italian. {b) French. (c) Spanish and Portuguese {d) Roumansch. {e) Wallachian. Ancient Greek, with its various dialects, Attic, Ionic, Doric, &c. Modern Greek. IV. Italic or Romanic V. Hellenic or J Grecian ^i VI. Teutonic VII. Lettic VIII. Slavonic English, Dutch, Swe- . I. Low -German. Flemish. 2. Scandinavian. — Icelandic, dish, Danish, Norwegian. K$. High-German. — Modern German. j 1. Old Prussian (dead). I 2. Lettish. 1. Russian. 2. Polish. 3. Bohemian b 2 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR [Chnp. IL Relation of English to the Teutonic Group. English is a Teutonic Language, and belongs to the Low-German Dialects. 6. The Teutonic group is that with which we are more nearly connected, English being one of its most important members. There are three great divisions of the Teutonic people; (i) Low-German, (2) Scandinavian, (3) High-German. The Low-Germans formerly lived near the low- lying lands, by the mouths of the rivers Rhine, Weser, and Elbe. The Scandinavians, probably an off-shoot from the Low-Germans, settled in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and at a later period in Iceland. The High-Germans lived inland, in the highlands south of Germany (Bavaria, &c.) 7. The word Dutch, now only applied to the people of Holland, formerly denoted all German- speaking people. The Germans still call themselves Deutsche, and their language Deutsch. 8. The word Dutch is an adjective signifying national, 1 and was the name by which the old Teutons called themselves in contradistinction to other people, whose language they were unable to understand. They styled themselves the (intelligible) 1 Cp. O.H. Ger. diot, O.E. theod people; OH. Germ diutitc, O. E. thtodisc of the people, popular. I . ] TEUTONIC LANGUA GES. 5 people, but called others, as the Romans, and the Kelts in Britain, Walsch and Welsh. Ancient nations gave themselves polite names, but spoke con- temptuously of their neighbours. The old Hindus called them- selves Aryans from drya, noble : the Slavonians or Slaves got their name from Slavo, a word or renown. 9. English belongs to the Low-German division of the Teutonic languages. Its nearest living relations are Dutch (the language of Holland), Flemish (once the court language of Brabant), Frisian (between the Scheldt and Jutland and on the islands near the shore), Flat-Deutsch (on the Baltic coast) ; Gothic (the lan- guage of the Goths in the ancient province of Dacia) is a dead language. The Gothic translation of the Gospels by Wuljila or Ulfilas (in the fourth century) is the oldest monument of Teutonic literature extant. The old Saxon is also a dead language ; it was once spoken between the Rhine and the Elbe in Munster, Essen, and Cleves. 10. Table of Teutonic Languages. I. Low-German 1. Gothic (dead). 2. Old Saxon (dead). 3. English and Lowland-Scotch. 4. Frisian. 5. Dutch. 6. Flemish. f 1. Icelandic. _, ,. . J 2. Swedish. II. Scandinavian % Danish> (4. Norwegian. f Modern High-German, with its oldei stages; Middle High-German, aiid Old High-German. HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. CHAPTER II. History of the English Language. Origin of the English. i i. The English language was brought into Britain about the middle of the fifth century by Low-German tribes, commonly known as Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (Frisians). These Teutonic invaders were known to the Britons as Saxons, but they called themselves English (Mr\g- lisc), and their new home England (^Engla-land, the land of the Angles), The term Angle or Engle is supposed by some to take its name from the district of Angeln in the Duchy of Schleswig. 12. The Frisians or Jutes settled in Kent; the Angles in the north, east, and central parts of Britain ; and the Saxons in the south and west parts of the island (in Essex, Sussex, Wessex, &c.) The Lowlands of Scotland once formed part of the old Northumbrian kingdom, hence Lowland-Scotch is an English dialect. II.] KELTIC WORDS IN ENGLISH. Foreign Elements in English. English was originally an inflected and un- mixed LANGUAGE, BUT IS NOW AN UNINFLECTED AND COMPOSITE LANGUAGE. 13. The language that was brought into Britain by the Low-German invaders, was an inflected and syn- thetic language, like its congener Modern German, and its more distant relatives, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Though modern English has lost most of the older grammatical endings, and has been reduced to an analytical language (like Danish, French, and Persian), it still belongs, by virtue of its descent, to the family of inflected languages. 14. The English language brought over by trie Angles, Saxons, &c., was an unmixed language. There were no non-Teutonic elements in its vo- cabulary. It is now a composite or mixed language, having adopted words from various nations with whom the English people have had dealings at different times. The foreign elements in English may therefore be treated historically. I.— The Keltic Element in English. 15. The English invaders of Britain displaced the old Keltic inhabitants, and did not largely mix with them ; their language was, therefore, but little in- fluenced by the speech of the British tribes. It affected the spoken far more than the written language, for from i HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. the ninth to the twelfth centuiy English literature furnishes but few examples of borrowed Keltic terms. The words of this period are barrow (mound), brock, breeches, clout, crock, kiln, cradle, mattock, pool. In the literature of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we find more frequent traces of Keltic terms, of which the following still survive : — boast, boisterous, bribe, cam (crooked), crag, dainty, darn, daub, fleam, glen, havoc, kiln, mop, pillow. 16. The Norman-French contained some few Keltic terms borrowed from the old Gaulish ; some of these found their way i nto English, as : bag, barren, bargain, barter, barrel, basin, basket, bonnet, bucket, bran, button, chemise, car, cart, dagger, gravel, gown, harness, marl, mitten, motley, osier, pot, rogue, ribbon, varlet, vassal, wicket. 17. A few words, the names of Keltic things, are of recent introduction : as, bannock, bard, bog, brogue, clan, claymore, clog, ty> fiWbeg, gag*, kilt, pibrock, plaid, pony, shamrock, slab, slogan, whiskey. 18. The oldest geographical names are of course Keltic, especially names of rivers and of mountains; .is, Avon, Ouse, Esk, Exe, Usk, Thames, Derwent, Dee, 6r*c, Pen-y-Gent, Helvellyn, &>c, Aberdeen, Kent, i wver, cVr. II. — The Scandinavian Element in English. 19. Towards the end of the eighth century (a.d. 787) the Northmen of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Iceland) commonly known as Danes, made descents upon the East coasts of England, Scotland, the Hebrides, and Ireland, as well as in other parts of Europe. II.l SCANDINAVIAN WORDS IN ENGLISH. 9 In the ninth century they obtained a permanent looting in the North and East parts of England : and in the eleventh century a Danish dynasty was established on the throne for nearly thirty years (a.d. 1016 — 1042). The Scandinavians were a Teutonic people and their language very closely resembled the old English speech. It is, therefore, no easy matter to determine the exact number of words introduced by the old Northmen. Many of the borrowed words have taken an English form, so as to be no longer distinguished as pure Scandinavian. The spoken language was af- fected by the Danes far more than the written language, especially in Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, Lincoln, and Norfolk, where many Danish words are still to be found. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries only a few Scandinavian words found their way into the written language; such words are, aren, are ; by, a town ; fel, a hill ; til, to. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they be- came more common and are easily discernible j many of these still survive, as blunt, bole (of a tree), bound (for a journey), busk, buckle-to (buskle), cake, call, cast, curl, cat, dairy, die, daze, droop, fellow, flit, fro,froward t gab, gait, ill, irk- (some), kid, kindle, loft, loiu (flame)., neave (fist), muck, odd, puck, plough, root, same, scold, sly, shy, tarn (lake), ugly (E.E. ugge, to fear), weak; gar (to cause, make), greet (to weep), are used by Spenser. 20. Very many Norse words once very common in old Northern writers have gone out of use, or have become provincial, as, at, to (before infinitives) beck (stream), erre (scar), last (fault), lit, (stain), layte (to seek), mun (must, shall), trine (to go), tyne (to lose), tynsel (loss), throp or thorp (town), &c. io HISTORICAL ENGLISH CKAMMAR. [Chap. 21. Many names of places ending in by (town), fell (hill), beck (stream), shaw (wood), garth (enclosure), indicate Danish settlements ; firth is the Scandinavian fiord (cp. Mil-ford, Water-ford). 22. The Danish invasions did much to unsettle the inflexions in the North of England. Before the Nor- man-French conquest we find the n of the infinitive falling off, and the verb in the third person singular present indicative ending in es instead of eth. The use of the plural suffix in as was frequently extended to nouns that originally formed the plural by the suffix a or u. The dialects of the North and North-East of England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are almost as flexionless as modern English. These parts of England were the last to come under the influence of Norman-French. III. — The Latin Element in English. i. Latin of the First Period: connected with the Roman Invasion. 23. The Roman occupation of Britain for nearly four centuries (from a.d. 43 to a.d. 426) left its traces in the few names of places, as : Chester, Gloucester, Dorchester, Exeter, Stratton, Lincoln, &c. Fortified towns and great roads became familiar objects to the old English settlers in Britain j so castra, a camp, and strata, a street, soon passed into English under the forms ceastre = Chester, and strict = street. Probably portus, a port, as in Ports-mouth, was known to the oldest English. Cp. O.E. port-geref a, a port-reeve. II] LA TIN WORDS IN ENGLISH. 1 1 a. Latin of the Second Period : St. Augustine's Mission. 24. The introduction of Christianity about the end of the sixth century (a.d. 596) brought England into connection with Rome, and during the four follow- ing centuries a large number of Latin words became familiar to educated Englishmen. The words introduced into the language during this period were, for the most part, connected with the Church, its services and observances, as : ancor, hermit (anchoreta) ; postol, apostle (apostolus) ; biscop, bishop (episcopus) \ calc, chalice (calix) ; cluster, cloister (claustrum); diacon, deacon (diaconus) ; clerc, clerk (clericus) ; munec, monk (monachus) ; mcesse, mass (missa) ; mynster, minster (monasterium); preost, priest (presbyter) ; sanct, saint (sanctus) ; carited, charity (caritas) ; celmesse, alms (eleemosyna) ; predician, preach (prsedicare) ; regol, rule (regula). A few foreign articles now came in for the first f ime. and retained their Latin names. (1) A few articles of food, clothing, ornaments, &c. : butor, butter (butyrum) \ cese, cheese (caseus) ; peel, pall (pallium) ; tunic, tunic (tunica). (2) Trees and Plants : cedar, cedar (cedrus) ; fie, fig (ficus) ; pem, pear (pirum) ; persuc, peach (per- sicum) ; lactuce, lettice (lactuca) ; lilie, lily (lilium) ; pipor, pepper (piper) ; pisa, pease (pisum), &c. (3) Animals : mere-greot, pearl (margarita) ; camel, camel (camelus) ; culufre, dove (columba) ; leo, lion (leo) ; pard, leopard (pardus) ; ostre, oyster (ostrea) ; pawa, peacock (pavo) ; trMt, trout (tructa) ; turtlr, turtle (turtur) ; olfend (camel), a corruption of elephant. 1 2 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. (4) Weights : pund, pound (pond us) ; ynce, inch, ounce (uncia), &c. (5) Miscellaneous : candel, candle (candela) ; disc, disk (discus); cutter, coulter (culter); martnan -(stan), marble stone (marmor) ; tcefl, table (tabula) ; mynct y mint (moneta). 3. Latin of the Third Period : introduced by the Norman Conquest. 25. The Norman Conquest in 1066 was a remark- able event in the history of the English nation, and affected the language more than anything that hap pened either before or after it. When the Normans made themselves masters of England they attempted to spread their language throughout the island. French became the language of the court and of the nobility : of the clergy and of literature : of the universities and schools : of the courts of law, and of Parliament : but French did not succeed in displacing English, for the great body of the common people refused to give up their mother- tongue, and from time to time there arose men who wrote in English for the benefit of those who knew nothing of French or Latin. After a while the Nor- mans, being in the minority, mingled with the English and became one people. While the coalescence was taking place (in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries), there was a mingling of the two languages, and many French words found their way first into the spokeD and afterwards into the written language. After the distinction between Normans and English died out, Norman-French degenerated into a mere II.] INFLUENCE OF NORMAN-FRENCH. 13 provincial dialect and at last ceased to be spoken in England. In 1349 boys no longer learnt their Latin through the medium of French. In 1362 (the 36th of Edward III.) English super- seded French and Latin in the courts of law. Certain political circumstances helped to bring about these changes, such as the loss of Normandy in John's reign, and the French wars of Edward III. (a.d. 1339)- Influence of Norman-French upon the Voca bulary of the English Language. 26. The Norman-French was essentially a Latin language, and the Norman Conquest added to English another very considerable Latin element. The introduction of French words was the work of some time, and went on gradually from the eleventh to the fourteenth century. They came into the written language at first sparingly. In the Saxon Chronicle from 1086 to 1 154, we find less than twenty Norman-French words : — court, dub (1086), peace (1135), treasure, prison, justice, rent, privilege, miracle (1137), standard, empress, countess, tower ( 1 1 40) , procession (1154). A little before a.d. 1200 we find, baro?i, che?nise, custom, penance, palfrey, sot, juglcr, master, mercy, manner, poor, riches, robbery, sacrament, charity, easy, font, sermon, passion, wait, saint, poverty, large, mantle, pride, service, spouse, taper, turn, &c. Even at this early period we find hybrids: spus- had = marriage ; crisme-cloth ; maisterling = prince ; i 4 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. bispused, bespoused = married ; elmesful = charitable, &c In Layamon's Brut (a.d. 1205), we find in the two versions less than one hundred words of French origin, among which we note especially, admiral, abbey, annoy, attire, astronomy, camp, change, chattel, 'chieftain, close, country, cope, crown, cross, cry, delay duke, escape, espy, false, fail, fool, grace, guile, guise, hardily, honour, hostage, hurt, ire, cable, legion, mes- senger, machitie, male, mile, mountain, nun, nunnery, pilgrim, post, power, to roll, school, scorn, senator, serve, serving, sire, suffer, use, 1 &c. 27. Numerous French words were introduced into the language during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, by those native writers who for the first time translated religious treatises, poems, and romances, from the French into English. These compensated for the original imperfections of our language in religious, ethical, philosophical, and poetical terms; besides giving us numerous words referring to war, chivalry, and the chase. Towards the middle of the fourteenth century, French influence upon the lan- guage was at its height. 28. Chaucer has been wrongfully accused of cor- rupting the written language of his day, by fresh im- portation of Romance words. In his translations he doubtless was compelled to employ many new terms for ideas and things, as yet unfamiliar to his country- men ; but his vocabulary is not more deeply tinged 1 See the long list of French words in the " Ancren Riwl<\" "King Alexander" (" Hist. Outlines," pp. 339-344)- II.] INFLUENCE OF NORMAN-FRENCH. 15 with French words than other writers of the fourteenth century. He no doubt gave his authority to words already in general use, and rejected others in favour of native terms, and thus did much to fix the native vocabulary, and to stop the increasing inflow of bor- rowed words. It is said that not more than perhaps one hundred Romance words used by Chaucer in his various works have become obsolete. " It is a great but very widely spread error to suppose that the influx of French words in the fourteenth century was due alone to poetry and other branches of pure literature. The Law, which now first became organized into a science, introduced many borrowed terms from the nomenclature of Latin and French jurisprudence; the glass-worker, the enameller, the architect, the brass-founder, the Flemish clothier, and the other handicraftsmen, whom Norman tastes and luxury invited, or domestic oppression expelled from the Continent, brought with them the vocabularies of their respective arts ; and Mediterranean commerce — which was stimulated by the demand for English wool, then the finest in Europe — imported from the harbours of a sea where the French was the predominant lan- guage, both new articles of merchandize and the French designation for them. The sciences too, medicine, physics, geography, alchemy, astrology, all of which became known to England chiefly through French channels, added numerous specific terms to the existing vocabulary ; and very many of the words first employed in English writings as a part of the technical phraseology of these various arts and know- ledges, soon passed out into the domain of common life, in modified or untechnical senses, and thus became 1 6 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. incorporated into the general tongue of society an'1 of books." 1 29. But when the English vocabulary was thus in creased by this great influx of French terms, many of the native words went out of use. Thus, if we take a thirteenth-century version of the Creed, we find ikained, conceived ; ipificd was, suffered ; lihte, descended; steih, ascended; imennesse of haluwen, communion of saints ; ariste, resurrection. In a fourteenth-century copy (a.d. 1340) of the Lord's Prayer we find yeldinges, trespasses ; yelderes, trespassers ; vondinge, temptation ; vri, deliver. Wickliffe has dettis, dettour, ddyvere.' 2 Tyndal (1526) has treaspasses, treaspas (verb) for dettis and dettours. Many good old English words have gone out since Chaucer's time, having been replaced by Romance and Latin terms. Influence of Norman-French upon the Grammar of English. 30. No language gives up its grammar and adopts a new system of borrowed inflexions for its nouns, adjectives, and verbs, &c. It will part with the greater portion of its original vocabulary, and yet leave grammatical forms almost untouched. Norman-French words found an easy 1 Marsh, "History and Origin of English Language," ffc 66. 9 Some older versions of the Pater Noster have gultcs and pilteres, trespasses and trespassers ; thilde (shield) iox fri (free). IT.] INFLUENCE OF IVOR MA AT- FRENCH. 17 entrance into our language, but the influence of four centuries only served to modify and to diminish English inflexions, not to eradicate them by the sub- stitution of new forms. The Danish invasion had unsettled the language in many parts of the country, and in the literature of the eleventh century we see a disposition to adopt a less inflexional structure, than in the earlier periods. Nearly every nation of the Teutonic family has, by the loss of inflexions, become almost as uninflexional as our own. 1 The tendency of all highly inflected or syn- thetical languages is to become analytical or non- inflexional, so that, had there been no Norman Con- quest, we should have followed the ordinary growth of language, in replacing the older grammatical end- ings by the use of relational words, as, prepositions, auxiliaries, &c. Doubtless the Norman invasion caused this change to take place more rapidly and generally, than it would otherwise have done, but even the slight direct modifications here spoken of are not found much before the fourteenth century. 31. The power of forming new words by derivation from Teutonic roots was to a certain extent checked by the introduction of so large a number of foreign words. Instead of making a new word by the old and formerly familiar method of attaching a suffix to a living native root, it became far easier to adopt a term ready made. 1 German and Icelandic have lost much less than other Teu- tonic languages. C IS HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Cp. O.E. thane (thought); thanc-ol (thoughtful); thancful, ihanctvurth (grateful) j tJiancolmod (prudent) ; tha?icwurthlice (gratefully), &c. 32. Some Norman-French suffixes replaced English ones. In the fourteenth century we find the feminine -ess taking the place of -en, and -ster. Cp. . diuelleresse in Wicliffe for dwellstere; goddesse (Chaucer) for Old English gydin; and the modern forms bond-age, till-age, hindr-ance, knave-ry, wondr-ous* &c. 33. Some substitutes for inflexion came into use. The preposition of replaced the genitive -s j the comparison of Adjectives was expressed sometimes by more and most instead of -er and -est. Many Romance adjectives were inflected in the plural after the Norman- French method, as wateres principals, capitalles lettres ; we also find children innocens (La Tour Laundry, p. 104). The Old English method of forming a plural adjec- tive was by adding -an (-en), -e. When used substantively, the Romance adjective formed its plural by the addition of -s, and the Old English by -e. Cp. " He ous tekth to knawe the great-e thinges vram the little, the preciouse-s vram the vile-s."* To this method we owe the early forms gentles, familiars, which became the models for many others, as " our delicates and wantons " (Holland's "Pliny," p. 603); the yellowes = the jaundice 1 See "Historical Outlines," p. 39. a He teaches us to know the great things from the little ones, the precious things from the vile ones. II.] INFL UENCE OF NORMAN-FRENCH. i 9 (Hollinshed), " yonges " = young ones (L. Andrewe) ; calms, shallows, worthies, &c. The use of Auxiliary Verbs (have, shall, will ) became very common after the Norman Conquest. , 34. The earliest and the greatest change was upon the pronunciation. All the older vowel endings -a, -0, -u, became ~e, and the terminations -an, -as, -ath, -on, -od, became -en, -es, -eth, -en, -ed. After a time (fourteenth century) the final e fell off altogether, or was retained as an orthographical expedient. Cp. O.E. nama, name; steorra, M.E. sterre, star ; O. E. suna, M. E. sone =z son, &c. 35. This change of final vowels, simple as it was, served to weaken most of the inflexional forms. It also helped to break down the old distinction of grammatical gender. Thus the suffix -a was a sign of the masculine, and -e of the feminine gender ; but when webb-a (m), webb-e (f), a weaver, came to be represented by the same form, webbe, then the final -e, if retained as a sign of gender, must be limited either to the mas- culine or feminine. An attempt was made to restrict it to the masculine, as hunt-e, a hunter, spus-e, a bridegroom ; but webbe, 2l female weaver, occurs in " Piers Plowman." We now use webster. We also find it frequently used up to the middle of the fourteenth century, to denote the agent (Cp. the restricted sense of the old fern, -ster ; see p. 63). We can easily understand how widuwa (a widow- er) dropped out of use, leaving widuwe (a widow), from c 2 2o HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. which a new masculine had to be formed ; just as in the sixteenth century we find spouse (m), and spouscsse (f) for the twelfth century spus (m), and spuse (f). 36. After a time a few fresh vowel sounds found their way into the language, as u, in duly ; oi in boil ; the a in fame ; ei in aisle. 37. Guttural sounds were softened down or became mute. (1) Initial and final c (k) became ch, tch, as O.E. cild ss child ; godlic sb godlich (godly) ; streccan = strecche (stretch) 5 sc became sh ; sceal s= shall ; fisc z=fish ; g became i (y), w • geledfa — ileafe (be-lief) ; hand-ge-weorc = handy-work \ fugol = fowl ; dceg ss day ; lagii = law. In some instances eg has become j (ge, dge) cri'/ig- an =r to cringe J brycg (M.E. brigge) ss bridge. (2) c, ch, h, g, have disappeared or become mute; ic ss /V/& as fcl ss I| bi^/ (M.E. knk/zt) = knight; //^// = high ; dirtig s= dirty ; &c. Cp. the falling away of h in hlaf = loaf; ^r///^ = ring; ^««ra zz: neck ; k, and g, before n, have become mute : cneow— knee; gnagan ss" to gnaw. Cp. the weakening of 1 before f and k in calf, walk, &c. J (jet), z, sh (sure), zh (azure), were sounds that came into use after the Norman Conquest. 38. A new accentuation was introduced by the Normans. The old English accent like that of other Teutonic nations was upon the root syllable as un- faittiful-ly, u?i-be-liev' -ing ; but in French there was a slight stress of the voice upon the final syllable. II.] I NFL UENCE OF NORMAN-FRENCH. When French words were first adopted they retained their original accent, thus raison and voyage became reason and voyage before they were accented as reason and voyage. In the written poetical language of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, we find words of pure English origin ending in -ing, -liche, -ness, receiving an accent on the final syllable. Chaucer rhymes gladnesse with distresse. But an attempt was made even as early as Chaucer's time to make borrowed words conform to the native accentuation, and in the " Canterbury Tales " we find mortal, tempest, &c. as well as mortal, tempest, &c. 4. Latin of the Fourth Period : introduced by the Revival of Learning. 39. The large number of French words brought into the language by the Norman invasion, prepared the way for the introduction of fresh Latin words, through the impetus given to learning and literature by the revival of learning in England at the beginning of the sixteenth century. There are then two distinct classes of Latin words in English. (1) Those that have come in- directly from Latin through French. (2) Those that have come directly from the Latin. Words of the first class have undergone much change in spelling, and their origin is often obscured ; those of the second class have suffered but little alteration, and their origin is easily recognised. HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Words coming from Words coming Latin. Latin through directly from the Norman-French. Latin. captivum caitiff captive dilatare delay dilate factum feat fact fragilem frail fragile hospitale hotel hospital kctionem lesson lection pungentem poignant pungent regalem royal regal securum sure secure separare sever separate 40. Under the influence of learning, many words coming indirectly from the Latin have taken a more classical form, as, assaute, dette, defaut, aventure, vitaille, have been altered to assault, debt, default, adventure, victual, &c. 41. The influx of Latin and Greek words, by means of learning and education, lasted from the time of Henry VII. to the end of the reign of Charles II. Many Latin words when first introduced into our language altered their termination, as, splendidious, mulierosity, but others were adopted in their original form, as, chylus = chyle ; classis =s class ; precipitium = precipice ; mutnmia — mummy ; so too with Greek words, parallelon == parallel \ ecstasis = ecstasy \ epocha — epoch. As the origin of these loans was well known, we ~an understand why co?npact, convict, &c. came into use before compacted and convicted as passive par- ticiples. II. 1 LATIN OF THE FOURTH PERIOD. 23 42. A great number of classical words found their way into the written language which never passed into general usage, as, intenervate, to soften ; deturpated, deformed (Jeremy Taylor); ludibundness, sanguinolency (Henry More), &c. During the reigns of Elizabeth, James, and Charles I. fine writing and speaking were greatly affected ; but fortunately many true lovers of their noble mother- tongue raised a cry against the pedantic use of scho- lastic or ink-horn terms as they were then called, and thereby did something to stop the tendency to inun- date the language with long and useless words. Thomas Wilson writing in 1553 says, "Among other lessons this should first be learned, that we never affect any strange ink-horn terms, but to speak as is commonly received y neither seeking to be over fine, nor yet living over careless ; using our speech as most men do, and ordering our wits as the fewest have done. Some seek so far for outlandish English, that they forget altogether their mother's language, and I dare swear this, if some of their mothers were alive they were not able to tell what they say, and /et these fine English clerks will say they speak in their mother tongue, if a man should charge them with counterfeiting the king's English." Gill in his Logo- nomia Anglica, published in 1619, thus notices what he calls the " new mange in our speaking and writing." " O harsh lips, I now hear all around me such words as common, vices, envy, malice; even virtue, study, justice, pity, mercy, compassion, profit, co?nmodity, colour, grace, favour, aocepta?ue. But whither, I pray, in all the world have you banished those words which our forefathers used for these new-fangled ones ? Are our 24 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. words to be exiled like our citizens? Is the. new barbaric invasion to extirpate the English tongue ? O ye Englishmen, on you, I say, I call, in whose veins that blood flows, retain, retain, what yet remains of our native speech, and, whatever vestiges of our fore- fathers are yet to be seen, on these plant your foot- steps." Butler (" Hudibras," I. i. 91) speaks of: — " A Babylonish dialect, Which learned pedants much affect : 'Twas English cut on Greek or Latin, Like fustian heretofore on satin." 43. There are a few miscellaneous Romance words that have come into the language chiefly during the Tudor and Stuart periods. (1) Spanish terms. — "During the latter half of the sixteenth century, and the first half of the seven- teenth century," the Spanish language "was very widely known in England, indeed far more familiar than it ever since has been. "The wars in the Low Countries, the probabili- ties at one period of a match with Spain, the fact that Spanish was almost as serviceable at Brussels, at Milan, at Naples, and for a time at Vienna, not to speak of Lima and Mexico, as at Madrid itself, and scarcely less indispensable ; the many points of contact, friendly and hostile, of England with Spain for well nigh a century— all this had conduced to an extended know- ledge of Spanish in England. It was popular at. Court ; Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth were both excellent Spanish scholars The statesman and scholars of the time were rarely ignorant of the language. " — Trench. II.] ITALIAN WORDS IN ENGLISH. 25 Many Spanish words end in -ado, -ade, -dor, -illo, -00 n : as armada, barricade, bravado, desperado, el dor- ado, grenade, parade, to7'iiado, corridor, matador, battle- dor, armadillo, flotilla, peccadillo, punctilio (originally puntillo), vanilla, maroon, picaroon, paragon. Other familiar terms are alligator (el-lagarto), 1 buffalo, cannibal, cargo, cigar, cochineal, crusade, don, duenna, filibuster, gala, garotte, indigo, mulatto, negro, parasol, &c. (2) Portuguese. — Caste, fetishism, palaver, porce- lain, moidore, &c. (3) Italian.— In the time of Chaucer, Italian exer- cised an important influence upon our literature, but scarcely any upon the language. During the reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and Elizabeth, Italian was as necessary and familiar to every courtier as French is now-a-days. Numerous Italian works were trans- lated into English and Italian peculiarities of speech were copied by English speakers and writers who wished to be thought in fashion. The writings of Surrey, Wyatt, Spen? er, and Milton, show an intimate acquaintance with Italian literature. To Italian we are indebted for the following words : ambuscade, balustrade, bagatelle, balco?iy, bandit, bravo, broccoli, buffoon, burlesque, bust, cadence, canto, caricature, car- toon, charlatan, citadel, concert, ditto, folio, gazette, grotto, harlequin, lava, madrigal, masquerade, motto, moustache, opera, parapet, pedant, proviso, regatta, rocket, ruffian, serenade, sketch, sovereign, stanza, stiletto, umbrella, volcano, &c. (4) Modern French. — Some few were introduced during the reign of Charles II., as chagrin, good 1 Lat. lacerta — lizard. 26 HISTORICAL ENGLISH CRAMM.iK. [Chap. graces, grimace, repartee. Many others have come into the language at a still later period : accoucheur, debut, depot, dejeuner, elite, gotit, programme, soiree, precis, &c. 44. A few words are borrowed from other Teu- tonic tongues : — (1) Dutch. — Mostly nautical terms, as boom, hoy, doop, schooner, skipper, yacht, &c. (2) German. — (i) Names of metals, cobalt, nickel, zinc, &c. ; (ii) loafer, iceberg, plunder; (iii) some few terms are formed after a German model, father-land, folk-lore, fuller's earth, ha?td-book, one-sided, pipe-clay, stand-poifit, &c. 45. We have naturalized miscellaneous words from various sources . — (1) Hindu. — Calico, chintz, muslin, loot, jungle, pundit, rice, durbar, &c. (2) Persian. — Chess, lilac, orange, sash, turba?i, &c. (3) Hebrew. — Abbot, amen, cabal, cherub, jubilee, Pharisaical, sabbath, shibboleth. (4) Arabic. — Admiral, alchemy, alcohol, almanac, arsenal, assassin, bazaar, chemistry, cipher, gazelle, giraffe, shrub, syrup, sofa, talisman, tariff, zenith, zero, &c. (5) Turkish. — Bey, chouse, scimitar, &c. (6) Malay. — (Run) amuck, bamboo, bantam, orang- utang, sago, &c. (7) Chinese. — Caddy, nankeen, satin, tea, man- darin, &c. (8) American. — Canoe, cocoa, hammock, maize, to- biicco, tomahawk, wigwam, yam. II. ] PURE ENGLISH ELEMENTS. 27 Preponderance of the Native over the Foreign Element. 46. The total number of words in a complete English dictionary would be about 100,000. Numer- ically the words of Classical origin are about twice as many as pure English terms. The best writers, how- ever, use less than a tenth of the total number ; while in ordinary conversation, our vocabulary contains from three to five thousand words. Recollecting that all our most familiar terms are unborrowed, and that in an ordinary page of English, pure native words are used about five times as often as one foreign term, we can have no difficulty in seeing that the pure English element greatly prepon- derates over the foreign element. English is a mixed language only in regard to its vocabulary ; its grammar is neither borrowed nor mixed. We cannot, therefore, speak of English as a Romance tongue ; the construction and meaning of sentences depend upon the use of our grammatical inflexions, and as these are of native origin they serve still more to make the English element the essential and most important part of our language. 47. Pure English elements are : — (1) Grammatical inflexions. a, Plural suffixes of nouns (s,-n) : possessive case b. Suffixes marking comparison of adjectives \-er, -est). 2S HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap c. Verbal inflexions marking persons (-st, -th, -s) ; tense (-d, -t) ; endings of participles (-en, -ing). (f. Auxiliary words used in place of inflexions : — i. Words used for comparing of adjectives {more and most). ii. Auxiliary verbs (be, am, have, shall, will). (2) Grammatical words. a. All numerals : one, two, &c, except second, million, billion. b. Demonstratives : the, this, that, &c. c. Pronouns (personal, relative, &c.) : /, thou, he, who, &c. d. Many adverbs of time and place : Ziere, there, 7£'hen, &c. e. Most prepositions and conjunctions. f. All nouns forming their plural by vowel change. g. All adjectives of irregular comparison. h. All verbs forming their past tense by change of vowel. i. All anomalous verbs. /. Causative verbs, formed from intransitive verbs by vowel change. (3) i. Numerous suffixes of — a. Nouns, -hood, -ship, -dom, -ness, -ing, -th (-/), &c. b. Adjectives, -ful, -ly, -en, -ish, -some, &c. c. Verbs, -en, -le, -er. ii. Numerous prefixes. a, be, for, ful, over, out. &c. ENGLISH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR. 29 (4). Most monosyllabic words. 5. The names of most striking objects and agencies in nature as the heavenly bodies, sky, heaven, sun, moon, stars ; the elements, fire, earth, water, and their natural changes, inundcr, lightning, hail, snow, rain, wind, storm, light, heat, darkness, &c. ; the seasons, spring, summer, winter; x the natural divisions of time, day, night, morn- ing, evening, twilight, sunset, sunrise, &c. ; natural features, external scenery, height, hill, dale, dell, sea, stream, flood, spring, well, island, land, wood, tree, &c. ; words used in earliest childhood, father, mother, sister, brother, son, daughter, child, home, kin, friend, house, roof, hearth; parts of the house and household furniture, room, wall, yard, floor, stair, gate, stool, bed, bench, loom, spoon, cup, kettle, &c. ; food and clothing, cloth, skirt, coat, shoe, hat, &c. ; bread, loaf, milk, cake, ale, wine, beer; agricultural terms, plough, rake, harrow, scythe, barn, flail, sheaf, yoke, &c. ; the ordinary terms of traffic, trade, busi- ness, cheap, dear, sell, buy, baker, miller, smith, tanner, bookseller, &c. ; names of trees and plants, ash, beech, birch, oak, apple, corn, wheal, &c. ; quadru- peds, deer, sheep, sow, swine, cow, horse, goat, fox, dog, hound, &c. ; birds, hawk, raven, rook, crow, swan, owl, dove, lark, nightingale, hen, goose, duck, gander, drake, &c. ; fish, eel, herring, lobster, otter, whale, &c. ; insects, worm, adder, snake, wasp, fly, gnat, &c. ; parts of the body of man and beast, flesh, skin, bone, head, limb, hand, &c. ; horn, snout, 1 Autumn is Latin. 30 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. tail, claw, hoof, &c. j modes of bodily actions and posture, &c, sit, stand, lean, walk, run, leap, stagger, wake, sleep, nod, rise, talk, &c. ; emotions and passions, &c, love, hope, fear, tear, weep, laugh, smile, &c. ; common colours, white, red, brown, &c. 48. To the Romance and Latin elements belong many words connected with dignitaries, offices, &c. as, duke, marquis, baron, &c. ; government, state, people, parliament, treaty, cabinet, minister, army, &c. ; law, attorney, barrister, damage, felony, &c. ; church, bap- tism, ceremony, bible, prayer, preach, lesson, creed, evan- gelist, &c. j general and abstract terms, sense, emotion^ passion, colour, &c. Latin and Greek words are most numerous in scientific and philosophical works. 1 1 1 J EARL Y ENGLISH DIALECTS. 3 1 CHAPTER HI. Early English Dialects. 49. From the eleventh to the middle of the four- teenth century there was no standard or classical language. Various forms of English were spoken in different parts of the country, and every work written during this period illustrates some local variety of the English Speech. There were three leading dialects in the fourteenth century; Southern, Midland, and Northern, each distinguished by certain grammatical peculiarities. Thus in a work written South of the Thames the verb in the plural of the present indicative ends in -eth, as we habbeth, we have : a work composed between the Thames and Humber has -en instead of -eth, as we habben. A Northern writer in the district between the Humber and the Firth of Forth avoids the use of -eth and -en, and substitutes -es for them, or, as is frequently the case, uses an uninflected form, as we haves, or we have. Southern. — "We hopieth for to habbe heuen- riche blisce " : " Ye habbeth iherd thet godspel." (Kentish Sermons, a.d. 1240 — 50.) Bote the Flemynges that woneth in the west syde of Wales habbeth yleft here straunge speche, and speketh Saxonlych ynow. (Trevisa, a.d. 1387.; 32 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ("Chap. Midland. — Thei knelen alle, and with o vois The King thei thonken of this chois. (Gower, a.d. 1393.) .We hauen shep, and we haucn svvin. (Havelok the Dane, before 1300.) Northern. — Tharfor maysters soom tyme uses the wand that has childer to lere under thair hand. (Hampole, 1340.) Thir twa heuens ay obout-rynnes Both day and nyght, and neuer blynnes. in.) Modern English has sprung from the East- Midland Dialect. 50. The Midland dialect between the Thames and the Humber covered a very large area and had various local varieties. The most important of these was the East-Midland spoken in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, which had many words and grammatical forms in common with the Northern dialects. As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century it had thrown off most of the older inflexions (pre- served by the Southern dialects) and was almost as flexionless as our own. It had an extensive literature and numbered among its writers, Ormin, Robert of Brunne, Wicliffe, Gower and Chaucer. Of all these, Chaucer was the author whose works were most popular and widely diffused. Successive writers, as Hoccleve, Lydgate, and Heywood, took him for their model, and thus his influence did not die out till a great change caused by the revival of learning, and III.] EARLY ENGLISH DIALECTS. 33 other important circumstances in the reigns of the Tudors had brought about a new era in the language and literature. It was Chaucer's influence then that caused the East Midland speech to supersede the other dialects and to assume the position of the standard literary English, from which has come in a direct line with but few flexional changes the language spoken and written by educated Englishmen in all parts of the British Empire. 500. Periods of the English Language. — A language is said to be dead when it is no longer spoken. Such a language cannot be altered ; but a living language is always undergoing some change or other. We do not always take note of it, because it is so very gradual ; but when we compare the writers of one period with those of another, we have plain evidence of the fact. The farther we go back in this comparison the greater the changes appear, and our language in its earliest period looks very much like a foreign tongue. In referring to the earlier periods or stages of growth through which our language has passed, we shall distinguish the following divisions : — (1) Old English (a.d. 450 — 11 00). — The language of this period is inflexional. Its vocabulary contains few or no foreign elements. Its poetry is alliterative. To this period belong the writings of Cczdmon, Alfred, and ALlfric. (2) Early English (a.d. iioo — 1250). — The language in this period shows many changes both in orthography and grammar. In the first part of this D 34 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. period the modifications were chiefly orthographical, but they affected the endings of words, and thus led the way to the grammatical changes which took place in the latter part of the thirteenth century. To the earlier part of this period belong the fol- lowing works : the Brut, written by Lay anion ; the Ormulum, by Ormin ; the Ancren Riwle, &c To the latter half belong the Story of Genesis and Exodus, the Owl and Nightingale, &c. (3) Middle English (a.d. 1250 — 1485). — Most of the older inflexions of nouns and adjectives have now disappeared. The verbal inflexions are much altered, and many strong verbs have been replaced by weak ones. To the first half of this period belong a Metrical Chronicle, and Lives of Saints, attributed to Robert of Gloucester ; Langtoft's Metrical Chronicle, translated by Robert of Brunne, and the Handlyug Synne, by the same writer ; the Pricke of Conscience, by Hampole ; the Ayenbite of Inwyt, by Dan Michel of Northgate, Kent. To the second half belong the works of Wicliffe, William Langley (or Langland), Gower, and Chaucer, &c. (4) Modern English, from a.d. 1485 to the present time. We might subdivide this period into two parts, calling the language in the earlier period from 1485 to 1600 Tudor English. IV.] SOUNDS AND LETTERS, CHAPTER IV. Sounds and Letters. (i) Letters. 51. Letters are conventional signs employed to represent sounds. They have grown out of the old pictorial mode of writing, and were at first abbre- viated pictures. 1 In the oldest alphabets, a letter does not represent an indivisible sound (consonant or vowel), but a syllable (consonant and vowel). After a time the consonants were looked upon as the most important part, and consequently thev alone were written, or written in full, while the vowel was either omitted or represented by some less conspicuous symbol. Such was the character of the old Phoenician alpha- bet, from which have come the Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Sanskrit, and Greek alphabets. The Latin alphabet, derived from one of the older forms of the Greek, is the parent oi our own symbols. 1 Cp. the names of the letters in Hebrew and Greek, b — beth (house), Beta : g — gimel (camel), Gamma ; d = daleth (door), Delta. D 2 36 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. The oldest English alphabet consisted of twenty- four x letters, all except three being Roman characters : V, {thorn == th) j and p (&& = w), are Runic letters ; ©, ft is merely a crossed */ used instead of the thorn, j is another form of i, and v of u. w is a doubling of u. (2) Sounds. 52. The spoken alphabet is composed of sounds produced by the articulating organs (or organs of speech), throat, tongue, palate, lips, &c, which serve to modify the breath as it issues from the larynx. There are two great divisions of Sounds : Vowels and Consonants. The Vowels are the open sounds of a language. In a vowel sound the emission of the breath is modified by the organs of speech, but is not inter- rupted or stopped by the actual contact of any of these organs. In the Indo-European speech there were only three original short vowels a, i, u {far, bit, full), from which have sprung the long vowels a (father), i (machine), u (fool). The dipthongs are formed in passing from one vowel sound to another : the oldest are e = a + i (fete), o = a + u {note). All the varieties of vowel sounds, 1 See Whitney, "Language and the study of Language," p. 465 (1867). IV.] SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 37 (and they may be almost infinite) are modifications of the three original vowels (a, i, u.) The Consonants are closer sounds than the vowels and less musical. They are produced by the contact of one or other of the organs of speech, wht/eby the stream of breath is wholly or partially stopped. In the oldest Indo-European speech there were only twelve consonant sounds, b, p, d, t, g, k, s, m, n, 1, r ; and h in combination with b, d, g, forming the aspirates bh, dh, gh (cp. Gr. , 0, x)' 53. Classification of Consonants. — The con- sonants can be arranged according to the organ by which they are sounded : Guttural (g y k) : Dental (d, t, th\ Labial (£, /, v, /,) &c. They can also be classified according as the breath is wholly or partially stopped in its exit. Stopped sounds are called mutes or checks, as g, k, d, t, b, p. In the sounds m, n, ng, the breath passes through the nose, and they are called nasals. Partially stopped sounds are termed Spirants, as, h, th, f, s, z, &c. ; 1 and r are called Trills. 54. In comparing b and p &c, d and t &c, we shall find that b and d are pronounced with less effort than p and t ; hence b and d, &c. are said to be soft or flat, while p and t, &c. are called hard or sharp consonants. 38 HISTORrC-AL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. 55. Table of Consonant Sounds. MUTES. SPIRANTS. Flat. Sharp. Nasal. Flat. Sharp. Trilled Gutturals . G K NG Ch (loch) H Palatals J Ch Y (yea) Palatal ! Sibilants Zh (azure) Sh (sure) R Dental Sibilants Z (prize, rise) S (mouse) L Dentals D T N Dh (bathe) Th (l)Alh) Labials . . [ B P M V W (witch) F Hw (which) 56. Cha } - d ^ zh Zh and s allied to the nd j (in (azure h are c ; dental Englisl onnecte , or linj 1) are C( d with jual ser >mpounds : the f>alatah> les of sound :h = / + sh (si while z and s 5. ire;; are 57. From this table of consonants we have omitted (1) c ; because it can be represented by k before a, o, u, and by s (in rice) before e, i, y. (2) q ; because it is equivalent to kw. (3) x ; because it is a compound of ks, as in fox. IV.] NUMBER OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 39 Number of Elementary Sounds in the English spoken Alphabet. 58. In addition to the twenty-four consonants con- tained in the above table, we have fourteen vowels and five diphthongs, making altogether forty-three sounds. I.— Consonants. I. b. 9. m. 17. y- 2. d. 10. n. 18. z. 3. f. II. /. 19- ch. 4. g- 12. r. 20. dh (bathe) 5. h. 13. * 21. tk (bath). 6. / 14. /. 22. £^ (azure). 7- k. 15. v. 23. j-4 (sure). 8. 1. 16. w. 24. fnu (what). II. — Vowels. 25. rt in gnat. 32. e in meet. 26. a in pair, ware. 33- z in knit. 27. a fame. 34. in not. 28. a father. 35. in note. 29. a alL 36. 00 in fool, rude 30- a want. 37. 00 in wood, put 3i- *• in met. 38. « in nut. Ill . — Diphthongs. 39. i in high. 40. i in aye. 41. oi in boil 42. ow in ho\y bound. 43- * •v in mew. 40 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Imperfections of the English Alphabet. 59. A perfect alphabet must be based upon phonetic principles, and (1) every simple sound must be repre- sented by a distinct symbol ; (2) no sound must be represented by more than one sign. a. The spoken alphabet contains forty-three sounds, but the written alphabet has only twenty-six letters or symbols to represent them ; therefore in the first point necessary to a perfect system of orthography the English alphabet is found wanting. The alphabet, as we have seen, is redundant, con- taining three superfluous letters, c, q, x, so that it contains only twenty-three letters wherewith to repre- sent forty-three sounds. Again, the five vowels, a, e, i, 0, u, have to represent thirteen sounds (see § 58). It is thus both imperfect and redundant. The same combinations of letters, too, have distinct sounds, as ough in bough, borough, cough, chough, hough, hiccough, though, trough, through, Sc. sough ; ea in beat, bear, heard, &c. b. In regard to the second point, that no sound should be represented by more than one sign, we again find that the English alphabet fails. The letter t? (in note) may be represented by oa (boat), oe (toe), eo (yeoman), ou (soul), ow (sow), ew (sew), an (haut- boy), eau (beau), ozve (owe), 00 (floor), oh (oh !). The alphabet is therefore inconsistent as well as imper- fect Many letters are silent as in psalm, calf, could, gnat, know, &c. c. The English alphabet is supplemented by a number of double letters called digraplis (oa. 00 \ &c.) IV.] IMPERFECTIONS OF THE ALPHABET 41 ivhich are as inconsistently employed as the simple characters themselves. d. Other expedients for remedying the defects of the alphabet are recognised — (1) The use of a final e to denote a long vowel, as bite, note, &c. x But even with regard to this e the orthography is not consistent; it will not allow a word to end in v, although the preceding vowel is short, hence an e is retained in live, give, &c. (2) The doubling of consonants to indicate a short vowel, as folly, hotter, &c. 3 It must be recollected that the letters a, e, i, 0, u, were originally devised and intended to represent the vowel sounds heard in father, prey, pique, pole, rule, respectively. In other languages that employ them they still have this value. During the written period of our language the pro- nunciation of the vowels has undergone great and extensive changes at different periods, while the spelling has not kept pace with these changes, so that there has arisen a great dislocation of oui ortho- graphical system, a divorcement of our written from our spoken alphabet. The introduction of foreign elements into the English language during its written period has brought into use different, and often dis- cordant, systems of orthography (cp. eh in church, chivalry, Christian, &c). In addition to this there are peculiarities arising out of the orthographical usages of the Old-English dialects. x This came about because the final e was kept in waiting after the sound was dropped. The i in bite was long while the word was dissyllabic. 9 This arose through the short vowel causing the doubling 0/ the consonant. A2 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. CHAPTER V, Permutation or Interchange of Sounds. 60. The sounds of a language are liable to certain changes. One sound often passes into another. (1) The vowels are subject to almost infinite varia- tions : thus, short a, as in gnat, has kept its place in land, band, &c, but has become ai in name, and o in swan, and ou in bound (O.E. band), &c. Long a has passed into 6 in home ( s= ham), bone (= ban), &c. Long i (as in machine), has become i in bite, drive, &c. Long u (as in pool) has become ou, as in house (= hus). (2) The consonants also pass into one another, and the laws governing these changes may be arranged under the following heads. i. All sounds uttered by the same organ are interchangeable, as b and p, &c, d and t, &c. To ascertain these, read across the table in sect 55. ti. Sounds belonging to the same series though uttered by different organs, are interchangeable. Thus, the spirants f and th ; th and s ; 1 and r, V. ] PERMUTA TION OF SO UNDS. 43 &c, often interchange. Read the columns down- wards in section 55. iii. Combination of consonants leads to assimilation of the one to the other, as gospel = gos-spel =: O.E. godspel; ditto = Latin dictum. 61. Sounds belonging to the same organ interchange. — The most common change of sounds belonging to the same organ is the passing of a sharp into its corresponding flat mute, or vice versa. Pass from col. 1 to col. 2 in section 55. Sometimes the mutes and the aspirates of the same organ inter- change. Labials. — B has become p m. gossip = O.E. godsib. P has become b in cobweb — M.E. copweb. F has become v in vixen = fixen from fox; vat ~ fat. Cp. wife and wives. B and p change to v, as in have == O.E. habban; knave = O.E. cnapa. B and v sometimes pass into their corresponding nasal m, summerset =z Fr. soubresaui; malmsey =: O.Fr. malvoisie; M changes to b in marble, =z Lat. marmor. Dentals. — D becomes t in clot = clod; abbot = O.E. abbod. T passes into d in card = chart, Fr. zarte, \jdX.charta; pedigree = T.E. petigree. D and t be- come th in father, motJier, O. E. fader, moder; author =. O.E. autour, Lat. auctor. Th has become d in could = O.E. cuthe; bedlam = Bethlehem; it passes into t in nostril— O.E. nas-thyrlu = M.E. nos-thirles. Gutturals. — K has become g in wig- == periwig z=z peruque ; goblet ==; Fr. gobelet = M.Lat. cupelletum. Palatals. — Ch and j interchange \wjaw = chaw; a-jar = a-cliar. 41 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. 62. Sounds belonging to the same series interchange : — i. The Spirants interchange with one another, F =: th. Children often say fumb fox thumb. Cp. dwarf, M.E. dwerth and dwerg == O.E. thweorh; Russian Fedor = Theodore. F often represents an older h or gh, as cough, laugh, &c. Th becomes s as loves ss loveth. S between two vowels often becomes an r instead of z. Cp. are s= ase, were = wese. Cp. forlorn =s forlosen; frore (Milton) = frozen; varlet == M. Lat. vassaletus. ii. Trills. — L and r very frequently pass into one another, as marble s± Fr. marbre, Lat. tnarmor; palfrey s= Fr. palefroi =i Lat. paraveredus ; slander = Fr. esclandre = Lat. scandalum; chapter =z Fr. chapitre = Lat. capitulum. iii. Gutturals and Palatals. — K has become ch, as z, child — O.E. 1*3, tfZ/jf ^'/ == Fr. /w/r, Lat. gaudere. 63. Combination of Consonants causes as- similation. When two consonants come together the first is made like the second, or the second like the first. Cp. best == bes-st == to-j-// ad-vise with at-tend, and absorb with absorption. The above examples show us that we cannot keep every combi- nation of sounds. Thus, we may write cupboard, but we must pronounce it cubboard. The general law for the combination of consonant V.] PERMUTATION OF SOUNDS. 45 sounds is, that a flat sound must be followed by a flat sound, and a sharp by a sharp sound. This has an important bearing in English upon (1) the plural of nouns, (2) the possessive case of nouns, (3) the third person singular of verbs, (4) the past tense and passive participle of verbs. Flat + Flat (1) Slabs = slabz; lads = ladz ; wives s= wlvz. (2) Dog's = dog's. (3) Wags =z wagz; stabs =s stabz; bathes = bathez. (4) Dubbed = dubd; hugged = hugd. Sharp 4- Sharp. (1) *S/^, #zfl£r, tt^/j. (2) Cat's, bank's. (3) Reaps, fasts. (4) Weeped has become a/^/y Aftfa/ s &*£/. 64. Some sounds are more difficult to pronounce than others. Difficult sounds, as gutturals, often pass into easier sounds as spirants, or into mere breathings; sometimes they disappear altogether. This explains — (1) The loss of gutturals at the end of words, as godly = O.E. godllc; I = O.E. Ic; day = O.E. dceg % &c. (2) The silent letters in through, though, high, &c. (3) The / sound in laugh, cough, &c. (4) The y sound m year, O.E. ger. (5) The ow in tallozv, M.E. talgh. 46 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [CIkid. • 65. The pronunciation of one sound is rendered easier by an additional one. Thus, m often becomes mb or mp, and n changes to nd or nt. Also s becomes St. (B and p come in after m, because they are Labials, and d, t after n, because they are Dentals.) (1) Slumber = O.E. slumerian; nimble — O.E. nimol; number = Lat. numerus; empty zz O.E. em tig; tempt =5 Lat. lentarc. (2) Thunder =s O.E. thicnor ; hind s= O.E. hine , tender = Lat. tener ; ancient a= O.Fr. ancien; tyrant — Fr. tiran. (3) Amongst = M.E. amonges ; whilst zz M.E. whiles, &c. 66. Occasionally certain combinations of sounds become difficult, and one of the sounds is dropped. Thus, -nf, -nth, and -ns, have become -f, -th, and -s. Cp. soft with Germ. sa?ift ; tooth with Goth. tuntlius, Germ, zahu; goose (O.E. gos) with Germ. gans. Grimm's Law of Permutation of Consonants. 67. We have seen that one sound may pass into another, and also that one sound is often preferred to another, especially by children in learning to speak, who say nujfink for nothing, and poot for foot, &c. Dialects are often distinguished by their preference for particular sounds. In the south-west of England v and z are used instead of f and s, as vingcr (finger), zing (sing). Languages of the same class exhibit a v.] GRIMM'S LA W. 47 similar partiality ; thus, where we have d and th the Germans employ th (= t) and d. Cp. deer sss Ger. thier = O.H.Ger. tier ; thorn sss Ger. dorn. This substitution of one sound for another extends to all the languages of the Indo-European family, and for the most part follows the rules already laid down for the Permutation of Sounds, (i) All sounds pro- nounced by the same organ are interchangeable ; (2) All sounds of the same series are liable to pass into one another. We can read table in sect. 55 across or downwards. The collection of rules by which we can at once tell what sounds in one language correspond to those of its kindred tongues, is called Grimm's Law. To render the law as simple as possible, we must bear in mind, (1) the three-fold division of sounds into Aspirate, Flat, and Sharp, according to the following arrangement : — Names. Aspirate. Flat or Soft. Sharp or Hard. Labial f b P Dental . . . th d t Guttural . . . h g k (c) (2) the classification of the Indo-European Ian guages into three groups. I. Classical (Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, &c.) II. Low-German (English, &c.) III. High-German. 4» HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. (i) Grimm's Law shows us that an Aspirate in I. the Classical Languages is represented by a flat in II. Low-German^ and by a sharp in III. High- German. (2) A Flat mute in I. corresponds to a sharp in II. and an aspirate in III. (3) A Sharp consonant in I. corresponds to an aspirate in II. and a flat in III. I. Classical . . Aspirate Flat Sharp II. Low German Flat Sharp Aspirate III. High German Sharp Aspirate Flat ILLUSTRATIONS. I. Mnemonic 1 ASH Classical. Low German. O.H.German. Aspirate. Soft or Flat. Hard or Sharp Labials . . . /rater brother /ruoder Dentals . . . duyarrjp daughter /ohtar Ger. /ochter Gutturals . . X>ft v > anser (= hanser) ^-oose /•ans 1 If it be remembered that Soft = Flat, and Hard = Sharps the whole of Grimm's law can be remembered by the mnemonic word ASH, with its varying forms SHA or HAS, according to the sound which is to come first. GRIMM'S LAW. 40 n. Mnemonic 1 SHA Classical. Low German. O. IT. German. Soft or Flat. Hard or Sharp. A • 1 Aspirate. Labials . KCLVVO ^5 hem/) liana/(Ger. han/) Dentals t/omare, duo /ame, /wo zeman, zvei (Ger. zwei) Gutturals . ego, genu O.E. Lr, knee \h, (Ger. ic/fc) TIT. Mnemonic ■ HAS Classical. Low German. 1 0. H. German. 1 Harder Sharp Aspirate. Soft or Flat. 1 Labials /ater /ather z>atar (Gerz/ater.) Dentals Ai, /res Zhou, three du, dri (Ger. drei) Gutturals . sorer or to raput sweor (= sweo/zr) eight /fcead(O.E./*eafod) Ger. schwa^er Ger. ar//t (irreg.) //oupit(Ger.^aupt) Suppression, Addition, and Transposition of Consonant Sounds. 68. There are other changes of letters that demand a slight notice. Sounds are (i) dropped, (2) added, (3) transposed. 1 If it be remembered that Soft = Flat, and Hard = Sharp, the whole of Grimm's law can be remembered by the mnemonic word ASH, with its varying forms SHA or HAS, according to the sound which is to come first. E 5o HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap, (i) Dropping of Letters. Sounds fall away from — I. the beginning of a word {Aphceresis). II. the end of a word {Apocope). III. the body of a word, causing coalescence of two sounds {Syncope). Accent plays an important part in these changes, unaccented syllables are much weaker than accented ones, and are thus more liable to drop off. I. APHifcRESIS. reeve = O.E. ge-refa. sport = E.E. disport. bishop = Lat. episcopus. diamond = Fr. diamant, Lat. adamans. II. Apocope. ] before = O.E. beforan. riddle = O.E. raed-els. riches = E.E. richesse. maugre - Lat. male-gratum. pork — Fr. pore, Lat. porcus. III. Syncope. brain = O.E. braegen. head = O.E. heafod. sexton = sacristan. palsy = paralysis. caitiff = Fr. chetif, Lat. captivus. cruel = Lat. crudelis. pray = Fr. prier, Lat. precari. church = O.E. cyrice. mint = O.E. mynet, Lat. moncta. bounty = Fr. bonte, Lat. honitatcm. clergy ■■ Fr. clerge, Lat. clerical us. v. ] a /wrrroiv of ll: tters. 5 1 (2) Addition of Letters. Letters may be added to the primitive form I. at the beginning of a word (Prothesis). II. at the end of a word (Epithesis). III. in the body of a word (Epenthesis). I. Prothesis. h, haughty, Lat. altus, Fr. haut. n (from the indef. article), newt (= an ewt) ; nouch (== an ouch). s, scramble, scratch, squeeze. II. Epithesis. d (after an originally final e), wicked, wretched. d (after the letter n), sound. See § 65, p. 46. h (after s), push, nourish. t (after n). See § 65, p. 46. t (after s). See § 65, p. 46. III. Epenthesis. b (after m). See § 65, p. 46. p (after m). See § 65, p. 46. d (after 1), alder (-liefest), M.E. aller, i.e. of all. n (before t), lantern (Lat. later na). n (before g), messenger, passenger. r, groom, hoarse, culprit. Some letters are merely orthographical blunders, having crept in through a false etymology or analogy. 1 in could because of should, would. h in lanthorn from a supposed connection with horn; and in rhyme from a supposed connection with rhythm, fc 2 52 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. th in farther (because confused with further). s in island (as if derived from isle). w in whole and its derivatives. x in pickaxe (as if connected with axe, Cp. M.E. picoys). (3) Metathesis, or Transposition of Letters. r third for thrid (cp. three), nostrils (for nosthirls), cp. trouble with dis-turb. ps becomes sp, clasped (=z M.E. elapsed), wasp (= O.E. weeps). sc becomes cs or x, hoax (O.E. husc), cp. O.E. ascian, M.E. axe for ask. VI.] INFLEXION AND DERIVATION. 53 CHAPTER VI. Etymology. 69. Etymology treats of the classification, struc- ture, and history of words ; its chief divisions are in- flexion and derivation. Parts of Speech. 70. Words are arranged in classes, according to the functions they perform in a sentence ; these classes ire called the Parts of Speech. 1 ( 1. Noun. Declinable \ 2 ' Adjective. J 3. Pronoun. \ 4. Verb. / 5. Adverb. T , 7 . y 7 ) 6. Preposition. Indeclinable < _ \ J 7. Conjunction. \ 8. Interjection. Inflexion and Derivation. 71. The changes which words undergo to mark case, gender, number, comparison, tense, person, &c, are called inflexions. 1 Speech here means language- 54 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chn ip. The inflexion of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, is called declension; when applied to verbs, it is called conjugation. A root or radical is that part of a word which cannot be reduced to a simpler or more original form. According to their origin, roots are either predicative, as ho? se, white, write, &c. ; or demonstrative, as he, the, &c. When the root is modified by a suffix, it is called a derivative; thus wil-ful, good-ly, tru-th, are derived respectively from will, good, and true. Derivates may be native or foreign, as kncnu-lcdge (English), sci-ence (Latin). Cognates must be carefully distinguished from derived words : thus father is cognate with the Latin pater . but paternal is derived from pater. Two cognate forms of the same class may exist side by side ; from (English), and/h? (Scandinavian). "When a derivative or compound consists of elements be- longing to different languages, it is called a hybrid, as shepherd-ess (English + Romance), socialism, (Latin -f- Greek). A word containing two roots is called a compound, as s hep-herd, fore-man, break-fast, &c. Prefixes like be, fore, with, &c. r are compounded with verbs as be-speak, fore-tell, withstand, &c. Compounds like won't, nill, (will not) are called agglutinative compounds. This term might be applied to all compounds, in which the elements are intimately fused ; as none, naught, fortnight, gospel, &c. 72. Suffixes of inflexion and derivation are called formative elements. All Suffixes are shortened forms of predicative or demonstrative roots. The first step towards inflexion is collocation, just as VI.] INFLEXION' AND DRRIVA TION. 55 good-like has given us goodly. See Suffixes of Predica- tive origin. The suffix -s in Gothic hands, Lat. cani-s, which marks the nominative case, is nothing more than a shortened form of the old demonstrative pronoun, sa, O.E. se, the, that. Thus vox — voc-s, the calling, the voice ; rex = reg-s, the ruling one, the king. The ending -th in the third person sing, of verbs, as love-th % is another form of our demonstrative the, tha-t. 73. That which was not originally an inflexion often by usage becomes one. Thus the vowel change in the plural of nouns, and in the past tense of strong verbs was not originally an inflexion. In feet, teeth, &c, a vowel and a plural suffix (s) have been lost from a very early period. See Plurals of Nouns by Vowel change. The vowel change in Jield, fell, &c. is due to an original reduplication. See Strong Verbs. The addition of a syllable causes a change in the root-vowel Cp. nation, and n&tional : fore, and forehead: break, and breakfast. The loss of an internal letter causes the lengthening of a vowel, as right (pronounced rite) was originally riht, Cp. ewt from evet, lord from hlaford. The suffix -n in ox-en was not originally a sign of the plural, but was added to the root, before the addition of the ordinary plural sign -s. After a time the -s dropped off leaving the inserted letter n to represent the plural inflexion. Cp. eaves, alms, riches, &c, which are now treated like plurals in -s. The primitive plural of ox was not oxan but oxans. Chicken was once used as a plural, but the -en is no plural sign. In ( >. E. the plural of chicken = cycen u from cycen, a chicken : after 56 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Cha a time it became chicken-e, or chicken. Cp. M. E. lendm for knden-u or lendcn-e, loins. Such nouns as jw/g*, &?//*/, &c. are usually treated as derivatives of the verbs sing, bind, &c. This is an erroneous view. The O.E. sang, band, show that these words are the roots of which sing and bind are weakened forms. 74. The same word has sometimes come to have two different forms, with different functions, as to and too; of and off: through and thorough; one and an, &c. 75. The loss of inflexion is supplied by the use of independent roots. Case-e?idings are replaced by pre- positions; verbal endings by auxiliary verbs. Cp. the use of the prepositions of and to for the old genitive and dative inflexions : do, have, shall, will, &c. in the formation of tenses : more and most instead of -er and -est in the comparison of adjectives. The preposition to has replaced the infinitive ending -an {-en) as, drine-an = to drink. 76. There is a tendency in all languages to simplify whatever has become complex or obsolete. Thus the plural suffix -s has replaced various others, in eyes, hands, sisters, =: O.E. e&g-an, hand-a, swustr-u. Many strong verbs have conformed to the weak or regular conjugation, as helped, O.E. heolp, &c. See remarks on Gender and Number of Nouns, and on Strong Verbs. 77. To supply losses, the functions of other parts of speech have been extended. The lobs of the old VI.] PARTS OF SPEECH. 37 relative pronouns se, the, &c. left us the neuter in- declinable that; after a time the interrogatives were employed in their stead. See Relative Pronouns. 78. The English language has lost most of the older inflexions, hence its words are no longer formally distinguished (as in Latin, Greek, &c.) as belonging to certain parts of speech without reference to their use in a sentence. The functions of words like homo, amare, &c. are limited, but in English almost any part of speech may be used as any other part of speech. 1 Thus a verb may become a noun without any change of form. 11 They think nothing they shall from it pass, When all that is shall be turned to 7vas." Ha wes, Pastime of Pleasure. 11 For He [God] is wythoute wes, wythoute ssel by" (For He is without was, and without shall be. ) Ayenbite, p. 104. Even in Shakespeare the preterite of a verb has been converted into a substantive : a feat not easily performed by any synthetical language, cp. "No had, my Lord ! " King John, iv. 2, 207. * This formal fool, your man, speaks nought but proverbs ; and speak men, what they can to him, he'll answer with some rhyme-rotten sentence, or old saying : such spokes as the ancient of the parish use." H. Porter's Two Angry Women of Abingdon. il Where Galaad made his avowes and hightes (promises)." Hardyng's Chronicle, p. 133. Ilight = the preterite of the old verb hatan to call, promise. 1 See Abbott's " Shakspeariaa Grammar. 58 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. A substantive is easily used as a verb, thus Fuller in speaking of those writers who multiply on the map of the Holy Land streams bearing the name of "River of Egypt," says: — " Such is the nimiety of my caution herein, who have Egypt rivered this map to purpose." Fuller, A Pisgah sight of Palestine, p. 618, ed. 1869. " Do you think I fable with you." Ben Jonson's Alchemist. " Rob. 'Las sir, that lamb Were most unnatural that should hate the dam. Steph. Lamb me no lambs, Sir. Rowley, A New Wonder. Adjectives are used as verbs without even the verbal ending -en. Shakespeare uses to fat, to fatten. Cp. thai greteth = grandescunt, become great (Palladius, On Husbondrie). In Latin, nominal verbs are not uncommon, but they have a verbal form given them by the suffix to which the inflexions are added as arbor-csc-o from arbor, a tree. Fuller renders " Hcec planta in Judaci aborescit " by — " Hissop doth tree it in Judaea." A Pisgah Sight, p. 194. An adverb may do duty for a verb, as : — " They askance their eyes. Shakspeake's Rape of Lucrect. Cp. u To back the horses," &c. A preposition and a numeral, originally forming an adverbial phrase, has established itself as a verb and produced a noun. Cp. atone and atonement. VI. J PARTS OF SPEECH. 59 " The constable is called to atone the broil." T. Heywood's English Traveller. " To atone two Israelites at variance." Fuller, A Pisgah Sight, p. 519. Any noun may be turned into an adjective; as a gold watch, a church steeple, a silk thread. By the simple use of the suffix -cd (— possessing), we are able to give a participial, and therefore an adjective appearance to almost any noun. Cp. booted, spurred, one-eyed, &c. " As the Jews' coats were collared above, so they were skirted and fringed below, by God's special command." Fuller, A Pisgah Sight, p. 524. Adjectives are easily converted into nouns. Cp. simples, worthies, seconds. " When I first took thee, 'twas for good and bad. O change thy bad to good." T. Heywood, The late Lancashire WitcJus. " Fear not my fall ; the steep is fairest plain." Lord Brqqke's Alaham. " O these extremes of misery and joy. 'Tis said sometimes they'll [evil spirits] impudently stand A flight of beams from the forlorn of day, And scorn the crowing of the sprightly cocks." J. Crown e's Thyestes. " And shall the baser over-rule the better? Or are they better since they are the bigger. " Chapman's Byron s Tragedy. *' Jove but my equal y Cnesar but my second." 15 en Jonson's Sad Shepherd. 6o HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap- Even pronominal forms are occasionally employed as nouns : — " The cruel'st she alive." Shakespeare Twelfth Night, Act I. Sc. 5. "Thereof Italy." Cymbelijie, Act I. Sc. 4. " A wretch, a worm, a nothing." Ford's *Tis Pity, &c. " Speak of thy fair self, Edith." J. Fletcher's Bloody Brother. " An unthroughfaresome wkatkin " (an impenetrable some- thing). — Fairfax. Interjections may be converted into substantives 01 verbs : — " The effect of thine O-yes" Dekker, Gulls Hornbook. " All the fohs in fairest ladys' mouths." Id. " This sorrowful heigho." Nash, Lenten Stuff. " Cough and hem." " Mew at passionate speeches." lb. Mum and hem are used as adjectives in the follow- ing passage : — 11 Now pleased, now froward, now mum, now hem." Culhlo and Jlclibuti. A slight change of pronunciation replaces an in- flexion. Cp. bathe and bath, glaze and glass, co'nduct and conduct. VII.l GENDER OF NOUNS. 61 CHAPTER VII. Nouns. I. GENDER. 79. Gender is a grammatical distinction and applies to words only. Sex is a natural distinction, and applies to living objects. By personification we can speak of inanimate things as male or female, as " The Sun in his glory, the Moon in her wane." In the oldest English, Sun was treated as a feminine noun, and Moon as masculine. This usage was kept up as late as the fourteenth century, and later still in rare instances. 80. In the oldest English, the grammatical distinction of words as masculine, feminine and neuter, was marked by difference of endings, and difference of declensions. Nouns ending in -dom, as freodom (freedom) were masculine ; nouns ending in -ung, as gretung (greet- ing), and in -nes, as godnes (godness), were feminine ; and some diminutives in -en, as mcegden (maiden), and cycen (chicken), were neuter 5 wife and child were originally neuter ; tongue, earth, week, &c. were femi- nine, and star, sea, tear, &c. were masculine nouns. 62 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chnp. Adjectives and many demonstrative and indefinite pronouns, [he, the, this, such, an, some, &c. ) were declined in three genders, and agreed with the substantives to which they were joined in gender as well as in number and case. 8 1. After the Norman Conquest, adjectives and adjective pronouns lost most of their case-suffixes in the three genders, so that the older distinctions could not well be kept up. In the fourteenth century, the genders of nouns were exchanged for mere marks ot sex, names of males being of the masculine gender, those of females of the feminine gender, and the names of inanimate things of the neuter gender ; so that, strictly speaking, the so-called genders in modern English do not belong to the words at all, but only to the objects they represent. The only genders in English are in the Pronouns. 82. There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine and feminine. I. By the use of suffixes. II. By composition. III. By using distinct words for the name of the male and female. Only the first method comes under the head of grammatical gender. I. — Gender marked by Differences of Endings. &$. A. — Teutonic Suffixes. These are now no longer in general use. We have a trace of two old English suffixes to mark the feminine: (1) -en, (2) -ster. Vix-en (O.K. Fyx-cn), the feminine of fox (M.E. VII.l GENDER OF NOUNS. 63 vox), is the only one we have preserved out of a tolerably large number once in common use in the oldest English, as Masc. self (elf). cas-ere (emperor), munec (monk), theow (man-servant). Fern, aelf-en (she-elf), caser-en (empress), munec-en (nun), theow-en (maid-servant). In the fourteenth century the feminine in -en is rarely met with. The change from o to i is regular when compared with the old English god (god), gyd-en (goddess), and wulf (wolf), wylfen (she-wolf). Cp. Ger. Fuchs> Fikhs-inn. This change is brought about by the ad- dition of the original vowel in the syllable -en. Cp. gold and gilden ; cock and chicken. 1 The suffix -ster exists in spin-ster. This is not strictly a feminine noun, because it does not corre- spond to a masculine spinner, but is merely re- stricted to an unmarried woman. It originally meant a female spinner, as in the following passages : — " Let the three housewifely spinsters of destiny rather curtail the thread of thy life." The Gulfs Hornbook. " And my wyf at Westmunstre that wollene cloth made, Spak to the spinsters for to spinne hit softe." Piers Plowman, A. Pass. v. 130. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we find x This change of the root-vowel (produced by assimilation ot two vowels) is called, by German grammarians, umlaut. 64 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. sempster, songster, huckster, and tapster used as feminine substantives : — " Wassel, like a neat sempster, and songster her page bearing a brown bowl." Ben Jonson. " The tapper of Tavystocke and the tapsters potte." Jack Juggler, p. 68, Ed. Roxb. Club. " The backster of Baldockburye with her bakinge pele (roa).''* lb. In the oldest English feminine nouns ending in -estre (-ster), corresponded to masculines in -ere (er). Masc. Fern. bsec-ere (baker). baec-estre. hearp-ere (harper). hearp-estre. hopp-ere (dancer). hopp-estre. red-ere (reader). red-estre. sang-ere (singer). sang-estre. seam-ere (sewer). seam-estre. trepp-ere (barman). bsepp-estre. webb-ere (weaver). webb-estre. In the fourteenth century the Norman-French suffix -ess began to replace the English -ster, though the older form lived on for some time side by side with its foreign substitute. In Wicliffe we find sleestere and sleeresse (a woman slayer), dwellstere and dwelleress (female dweller), singstcr and singeresse (songster). The employment of webster and songster (Wicliffe), huckster (Trevisa), shep- ster, backstere and brewstere (Langland's " Piers Plowman "), beggestere (Chaucer), as masculine substantives shows us that even at this early period (Middle English) the force of the suffix was con- VII.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 65 siderably weakened, and its origin obscured by the frequent use of the new ending -ess. In the seventeenth century the following hybrids (containing the English -ster and the Norman- French -ess) made their appearance; song-str-ess, seam -str- ess, huck - str-ess, spin -str- ess (Howell), tap-str-ess (T. Heywood). The suffix -ster now merely marks the agent ; as, maltster ; often with more or less a sense of con- tempt or depreciation, as, gamester, punster, trickster, youngster. A large number of words with this suffix, very common in the Elizabethan period, have gone out of common use : drugster, hackster, lewdster, oldster, road- ster. &c. 84. In the oldest English -a marks the masculine, and -e the feminine gender. Masc. Fern. ass-a (ass). ass-e. mag-a (kinsman). mag-e. nef-a (nephew). nef-e. rseg-a, raha (hart). r&g-e. webb-a (weaver). webb-e. wicc-a (sorcerer). wice-e. widuw-a (widower). widuw-e. han-a (cock). hen ( = henn-e) gat, (goat). g£t-e. wulf (wolf). wylf ( = wylf-e) hlaford (lord). hlafdig-e. In the thirteenth century -a was weakened to -e, consequently there was no distinction in form between the masculine and feminine, hence words like webbe might mean a male or female weaver. (It is masculine in Chaucer, and feminine in "Piers Plowman.") 66 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Witch was of the common gender up to a very late period. "Your honour is a witch" Sir Walter Scott, Fortunes oj Nigel, 2. Wizzard has no connection with witch, but is the O.F. guise* -art, a wise man. Widower is a new formation from the feminine widow; it occurs in "Piers Plowman" (B. ix. 174). Neve (= nef-a) gave way in the thirteenth century to nephrw (M.E. nevew, nevu ; from O.F. nevou, Lat. nepos), but the old feminine nifte was kept up to a much later period. 85. B. — Romance Suffixes. (1) -ess (Fr. -esse M. Lat. -issa). The' Latin -issa makes its appearance before the Norman Conquest in abbudisse, abbess. Before the middle of the fourteenth century, the Norman-French -ess occurs only a few times as the ending of Romance words that had already found their way into the language. Cuntesse (countess) is found as early as n 40; clergesse occurs about 1 2 10; hostesse and emper- esse about 1278; charmeresse and maystresse (mistress) in 1340. In the time of Wicliffe and Chaucer, this suffix established itself in the language as the ending of feminine nouns, being added to English as well as Romance roots. Wicliffe has -ess for -ster in dawnseresse, frend- esse, neighboresse, techeresse, thralesse. He uses -ess in many substantives that had no -ess in Norman-French, as cosynesse, devouresse, prophetesse, servauntesse, spousesse. In the Elizabethan period the number of words in -ess was far greater than at present ; this shows that the suffix is now restricted in its application. We no VII.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 67 longer retain waggoness, rectress (Chapman), doctress (Stanyhurst), neatress (Warner), fos- teress (Ben Jonson), &c. One form is now frequently used in both genders, as singer, dancer, cousin, spouse, &c. In modern English, -ess is the ordinary suffix of the feminine, and it is added both to native and borrowed words, as goddess, murderess, ac- tress, baroness. a. The suffix -ess is added to the simple mascu- line as baroness. b. The masculine ending is sometimes dropped before the -ess ; as sorceress from sorcerer. c. The masculine ending is shortened before the addition of -ess ; as actress from actor. Duchess is from O.F. duc-esse, duch-esse. Marchioness is formed from M.L. marchio. Mistress = O.F. and O.E. maistresse from maister = master and mister. Lass is perhaps a contraction of laddess. (2) -ine in hero-ine ; and in landgrav-ine and margrav-ine, from the German landgrave and margrave. (3) -a in donn-a, infanta, sultana, signora. (4) Lat. -trix from Latin nouns in -tor occurs in some nouns taken directly from the Latin, as ad- jutor, adjutrix, testator, testatrix. Empress was originally emperice, Fr. imperatrice, Lat. ace. impcratriicm. Nurse = M.E. nurice, fiorise, Fr. nounice y Lat. ace. nu- tricem. ¥ 2 63 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. II. Gender denoted by Composition. 86. In the oldest English we find instances of a general term compounded with an attribute, as man- aid = manchild ; carl-fugol = a male fowl (bird) ; cwenfugol, a female bird • wifman, woman ; wif-freond, a female friend. In the fourteenth century we find knave-child, boy ; mayde-child, girl (Trevisa) ; men-syngers, wymmen- syngers, male-child, female-bere, jvfo-bere, hee-geyte, he- goat (Wicliffe). In Modern English, we use (i) Male and female as male-servant, female- servant ; male-cat, female-bee. (2) Man, woman, or maid, as man-servant, woman-servant, or maid-servant. Sometimes man is added to the feminine, and woman to the mas- culine to mark contempt; as man-milliner, woman- titan. (3) He and she occur mostly in the names of animals, as he-goat, she-goat. This last method was not employed in the oldest English, and did not come into use before the four- teenth century, and then only in the names of animals. In the Elizabethan period he and she were used is nouns. u The proudest /fo"— Shakespeare. " These shes were nymphs of the chymney." Fuller. It is used as late as Dryden's time. " Another he"—Abs. and Achith. VII.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 69 III. Different Words for the Masculine and Feminine. S7. The use of distinct words for the masculine and feminine, as father, mother, &c. does not belong to grammatical gender. 88. A few correlative terms, apparently distinct, are etymologically connected. Masc Fern. lad. lass (= lad -ess). lord. lady (a final e, denoting the fern, has been lost). nephew. niece (Cp. Lat. nepos, nep- tis). king. queen (from the root kin ; the primitive meaning of king = father; queen = mother). 89. The rule that the feminine is formed from the masculine is violated in the following words, in which the masculine is formed from the feminine :— (1) Bridegroom (from bride) = the bride's man ; groom = goom, O.E. guma, E.E. gome, a man. There was an E.E. grom ±= boy. (2) Widower (from widow). See § 35, p. 19. (3) Gander (from gans, the original form of goose). In the O.E. gandr-a {— ganr-a = gans-a), the a is the sign of the masculine ; d is merely a euphonic addition after n, and r represents a more original s. (4) Drake is a compound from the root end (a duck), with an obsolete suffix -rake, signifying king. (Cp, the suffix -rick in bishoprick). 7o HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. II.— NUMBER. 90. English, like most modern languages, has two numbers, singular and plural. Some languages, as French, have only one mode of forming the plural. In English, we have various ways of denoting the plural, one only of which (the addition of s to the singular), is in common use. In the oldest English there were several plural suffixes, -as, -an, -a, -u (-0) : stan-as =z stones, steorr-an = stars, hand- a z= hands, lim-u = limbs. The most common of these was the suffix -an. After the Norman Conquest these were reduced (in the thirteenth century) to -es, -en ; and finally the termi- nation -es or -s became the ordinary sign of the plural. The suffix -as was originally the plural sign of only one declension of masculine nouns, as rise (fish), smith ; pi., fisc-as, smith-as. It is now the only living suffix which is employed when we borrow new nouns and inflect them in the plural. All other plural endings are merely the relics of a former period in which they had a living power and were not irregular. After the Norman Conquest the suffix -as became -es (later -us, -ys, -is,) and still remained for the most part a distinct syllable. " His son'es and his doughlres, bothe I mene." Occleve, De Reg. Prin. 620. w To heere Godus wordus thei han forborn. " O.E. Misc. /. 226. VII.] NUMBER OF NOUNS. 71 "Her body us wer lyke dragonys, Hor tayles wer lyke schorpyonys, They had naylys on her knocus, That wer lyke ankyr hokys." Tundal, 4 1 ed. 1 843. "His life That vanisht into smoke and cloudes swift." Spenser, Faerie Queene, I. xi. 54. In the fourteenth century, words of French origin were the first to thrust out the e, and adopt the simple suffix -s (or -z). This loss of e brings the letter -s into immediate contact with the final letter of the singular, and causes the following phonetic modifications : — a. If the singular noun ends in a flat consonant, a liquid, or a vowel, -s has the sound of z, as tubs, lads, stags, hills, hens, feathers, days, &c. b. If the singular ends in a sharp consonant, -s is pronounced sharp, (as in mouse?) as traps, pits, stacks, &c. (For the reason of this see § 63, p. 45.) As far as the spoken language is concerned, it would be more correct to say that the plural is formed by adding s or z to the singular. The fuller form -es (pronounced -ez) for the plural, is obliged to be retained when the singular ends in a sibilant or palatal sound (s, z, x, sh, ch, j), as gas-es, glass-es, wish-es, priz-es, fox-es, church-es, ag-es, judg-es. Nouns of pure English origin, whose singulars end in -f, -fe, preceded by a long vowel (except 00) or by 1, change the f into v, and retain the older ending -es, as leaf, leaves, wife, wives, wolf, wolves. This change of f to v is not known before the eleventh cen- tury. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries we find it taking place in the dative case of nouns, wif (nom.), wive (dative), and 72 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. in the plural of adjectives def (sing.) deve (pi.) deaf. It seems that f between two vowels was pronounced as v. Cp. O.E. hcafod, E.E. heved, M.E. heed, head, &c. Pure English words in -ff, rf, and all borrowed words in -f, fcrm their plurals in s, as cliffs, dwarfs, hoofs, briefs, proofs. Nouns ending in y not preceded by a vowel retain the older spelling in the plural, as fly, flies, city, cities. In M.E. the singular ended in -ie, ox ye, as, flie, citie. Y remains unchanged if it is preceded by another vowel, and the plural is regularly formed, as, boys, plays. Remains of older Plural Formations. 91. Plural formed by Vowel Change. chief changes are — The Sing. Plural. a. e. oo. ee. ou. i. Sing. Plural. man, O.E. man. men, O.E. men. foot, O.E. fot. feet, O.E. fet. goose, O.E. gos. geese, O.E. ges. tooth, O.E. toth. teeth, O.E. teth. mouse, O.E. mus. mice, O.E. mys. louse, O.E. Ids. lice, O.E. lys. cow, O.E. cu. ki(-ne), O.E. cy. In these w T ords the primitive suffix s has been lost together with a preceding vowel, which modified the root vowel. Thus the old pi. of boc (a book) was lie, which stands for a more primitive bocis. This change of vowel was not limited to the plural, but took place in the dative of all these words, as, boc (nom.) bic (dative). Breeches, breeks, had for its oldest plural brk, M.E. breek, formed by vowel change from brdc. Byrig } VII. 1 NUMBER OF NOUNS. 73 fyrig, tyrf were once the plurals of borough (O.K. burh), furrow (O.'&furh), turf (O.E. turf). 92. Plurals in -en (O.E. -an), as ox, oxen. Hosen (English Bible), shoon (Shakespeare), are more or less obsolete. Spenser has eyen (eyes), and foen (foes). In a work written about 1420 we find been (bees), een (eyes), fleen (flies), pesen (peas), toon (toes). In the oldest English, plurals in -en were exceedingly common ; in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries they became still more numerous because the older plurals in -a, -u, became first -e, and then -en. 1 In the fourteenth century they became of less frequent occur- rence, and in the northern dialects only eyen, oxen, and hosen were in common use. Children, brethren, and kine did not originally form their plurals in -en (-n). Children. — The oldest plural was cild-r-u, which became (i) child-r-e (and childer) 2 3 (ii) child-r-en (and childern). M The childer are pretty childer." Beaumont and Fletcher, The Knight of the Burning Pestle, Act. 1. Sc. 2. In M.E. we find calvr-en (calves), eyr-en (eggs), and lambr-en (lambs) : the last two are found as late as 1420. "Late lamber" = late lambs. Palladius' Hnsbondne, p. 145, 1. 154. Brethren was (1) brothr-u, (2) brothr-e, brethr-e (brether), (3) brothren, brethren. 1 For proof of this, see O.E. Horn, first series, pp. xxvii. — xxxii. ; second series, p. xiv. ; Ayenbite of Inwyt, pp. xi-xxv. 9 The E.E. -re became M.E. -er. Cp. aire = aller, (of all). 74 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. The old brether is found very late. " These be my mother, brether, and sisters " (Bishop Pilkington, died 1575). Brethers occurs in the Romance of Part enay. The e in brethren comes from the dative brHher. In E. E. we find dehtren, in M. E. defter ; originally dohtru ; the dative singular was dehter. Kine (M.E. kin, ken) is a double plural. See § 9 T > P- 72. " Fat and fair ky." Cursor Mundi, p. 259, 1. 4566. Kine has had a collective sense (like pease and T.E. hose), ever since the sixteenth century. " Kine or oxen." Fitzherbert's Husbondrie, a.d. 1598. 93. Some words, originally neuter, take no plural sign, as in the oldest English : deer, sheep, swine, neat. These words have acquired a collective sense, cp. the use of fish, fowl, fruit, &c, gross, fathom, foot, &c. 94. Substantives having two Plural forms, with different meanings. Brothers (by blood) ; brethren (of an order or community). Cloths (sorts of cloth); clothes (garments, clothing). Dies (a stamp for coining) ;• dice (for gaming). Pennies (a number of separate coins); pence (collective). Pennies = O.E. penegas, (E.E., M.E. pennyes, fans, pens), without any distinction of meaning. Pence, compounded with a numeral as the name of a separate piece of money, is regarded VII.] NUMBER OF NOUNS. 75 as singular and takes a plural, as, two sixpences. But this is a comparatively modern usage. 11 A hundred pieces of vi pence" The Book of Princes, p. 164. The forms pence, mice, &c. show that the O.E. s had only the sharp sound in mouse and not the flat sound in pens. Peas (taken individually, the plural of pea), pease (taken collectively). Pease O.E. pisa (-pl.pesen), is the correct form. " Pease are an excellent seede." Fitzherbert's Husbondrie, p. 15. In M.E. we find the plurals pesen and peses. The s in pease belongs to the root (Cp. Lat. pisurri) and is no sign of the plural, but this was lost sight of when pea was coined, making its plural peas. " A red berry as big as a. pease." Gerarde's Herbal, p. 53. " Benes, peses." — Palladius' Husbondrie, p. 149, 1. 8. When two forms of a word occur, they must either get different meanings and so be utilised, or else one of them must drop out of use. Cp. morrow and morning, latest and last, &c. 95. False Plurals. The s in alms, riches, eaves, is not a sign of the plural any more than it is in largess, lachess, &c. These words are however treated as plural, although singular in form. Alms is a curtailed form of the O.E. celmesse, pi. celmessen (M.E. almesse, almes, T.E. almous ; pi. almessen, a/messes). Cp. a/ms-deed ; " Angels desire an alms. Massinger, The Virg. Mart. iv. 3. See Acts iii. 3. Riches. — M.E. riches se, pi. r (chesses, O.F. richesce % Fr. richesse. 76 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. " Yet all the riches in the world that is riseth of the ground by God's sending." "Yet is not this riches of thy getting." The Four Elements, in Old Eng. Plays, ed. Hazlitt, p. 8. Eaves = O.E. yfes, efese, margin, edge ; (M.E. eves % ovis ; pi. eveses) \ pi. efesen (cp. T.E. escn-droppers). " Ysekeles in eveses." Piers Plowman , B. p. 315. 96. Plural Forms treated as Singulars. Some plural forms are frequently treated as sin* gulars; as, amends, bellows, gallows, means, news, odds, pains, shambles, tidings, wages, thanks, small-pox (= small-pocks; cp./^-mark). " A little amends." Spectator ; Piers Plozvman, B. p. 338. u A gallows."— Esther, v. 14. "The bellows blows" Shakespeare, Pericles, 1. 2. "A means."— Winter's Tale, iv.3. "By this means;" "this news." Measure for Measure, III. 2. " A fearful odds."— King Henry IV., Part III. "That tidings. "—Julius Cccsar, iv. 3. " A shambles."— Whitlock, p. 97. "A thanks" Beaumont and Fletcher, vol. 1. p. 5. " The smzVi-pocke."— A. Boorde. The singulars amend, gallow, mean, pain, tiding, wage, thank, are found in older writers. 97. Nouns used only in the Plural. (1) These are the names of things that consist of more than one part, or form a pair. VII.] NUMBER OF NOUNS. 77 a. Parts of the body, and bodily ailments. — Lights, lungs, intestines, &c.; measels, mumps, staggers, yellows (the jaundice). b. Articles of dress. — Drawers, trowsers, breeches, mittens, &c. c. Tools, instruments, &c. — Scissors, shears, tongs, scales, &c. (2) The names of things considered in the mass or aggregate. — Ashes, embers, lees, molasses, &c. 98. Some Nouns change their meaning in the Plural ; as, beef, beeves; copper, coppers; spectacle, spectacles, &c. 99. Foreign Plurals. Foreign words, when naturalized, form their plural in the ordinary English way, as, indexes, memorandums, automatons, focuses, beaus, &c. Others, imperfectly naturalized, still retain their foreign plural. Sing. Plural (1) Latin. formula formulae datum data radius radii species species (2) Greek. axis axes phenomenon phenomena (3) Romance. monsieur messieurs bandit banditti (4) Hebrew. cherub cherubim seraph seraphim Some of these have two plurals with different meanings : as, indexes and indices ; geniuses and genii; cherubs and cJierubim. Acoustics, analytics, ethics^ optics, politics, were origi- nally adjectives. We say logic, but logics is still used at the Irish Universities. 78 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. ioo. Plural of Compounds. In compounds the plural is formed by s, as, black' birds, paymasters. When the adjective (after the French idiom) is the last part of a compound, the sign of the plural is added to the noun, attorneys -general, courts- martial, knig/iis-errant, &c. ; cp. the prepositional com- pounds, sons-in-law, lookers-on. In a few titles the last usually takes the plural sign, as major-generals, lord-lieutenants. A few others have both terms in the plural, knights-templars, lords-justices, lords-appellants. We say master-bakers but Robert of Brunne has masters mareschals. Compounds in -full were once strictly adjectival (cp. baleful, &c), and took no plural. " Three sponcfull of vinger." A. Boorde. " Apolful hony." Palladius' Husbondrie, p. 95, 1. 968. 11 Syx hondred syppuol kny3tes." Robert of Gloucester, 1. 3523. *' Thre schipful of kny3tes." lb. 1. 2418. III.— CASE. 1 01. The different forms which a noun (or pro- noun) takes, to mark its relations to other words in a sentence, are called Cases. The moveable or variable suffixes that express these relations are called case-endings. Case means a falling. The nominative was considered by the old grammarians as the upright form, from which the other VII.] THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 79 forms were fallings off, or declinations (Cp. the term declension). The Romans applied the term case to the nominative {casus rectus) ; not so the Greeks, from whom the idea was borrowed. The oldest English had six cases: Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, and Instrumental. In Modern English we have the subject-noun or Nominative case, the object-noun or Objective case, and the Possessive case. The Nominative and Objective case of nouns have the same form, and both are without case-endings. The Objective includes the Accusative or direct object of a transitive verb, and the imper- sonal object or Dative case, generally expressed by the noun with the preposition to or for before it. It is sometimes called the Indirect object. The true Dative (of nouns and pronouns) is seen in such expressions as, he bought his brother a farm ; I made me great works ; woe worth the day ; woe is me ; me-thinks, me-seems, &c. The infinitive of purpose is a dative in " Their feet make haste to shed blood. 1 ' We have preserved the O.E. genitive -s, but all other endings have gone ; e for the dative singular, and um for the plural have disappeared. In the thirteenth century a final e represented both the singular and plural dative. The loss of this final e in the fourteenth century, left the dative and accusative undistinguished in form from the nominative. Possessive Case. 102. The Possessive case, unlike the Nomina- tive and Objective, is marked by a distinct form. Our possessive is the representative of the older genitive, 80 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. but we can see how much its force is weakened when we find as late as 1420 such expressions as strengths qualitee (the quality of strength), canny s knottes (the knots of cane), vynes rootes (roots of vines). In the oldest English there were various declen- sions, as in Greek and Latin, and different genitive suffixes for the singular and the plural. The suffixes for the singular in the first period were -es, smith-es (smith's), -an, steorr-an (star's) -e, rod-e (rood's) -a, sun-a (son's). For the plural they were -a, as, smith-a, rod-a, sun-a ; -ena, as, steorr-ena. In the thirteenth century the suffixes of the genitive in the singular were -es and -e; in the plural -ene (-en), -e, and the modern form -es which often replaced the others. In the fourteenth century -es (-s) is the ordinary suffix lor singular and plural. The suffix -en, -ene (gen. pi.) is found as late as 1387; wycchen tonges (Trevisa, II. p. 187) = tongues of witches. See extract from Trevisa on p. 95. 103. The O.E. suffix -es was at first limited to the singular of certain masculine and neuter nouns, but was afterward extended to the feminine. The expression lady-day is the last relic of the old mode of forming the genitive feminine. Fabyan (a.D. 1516) has Mary Mawdelayne day, (Chronicle, p. 488). This ending -es (-us, -ys, -is) made a distinct syllable in the older stages of the language. 11 And by the popes mediacioun." Chaucer, Man of Lawes Tale, 1. 234. " And cristendom of prestes handes fonge." lb. 1. 377. "The nighte's char (car) the stars about doth bring." Lord Surrey. 11 Larger than the mooncs sphere." Shakespeare, Midsum. Night's Dream, 11. i VII.] THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 81 Formation of the Possessive Case. 104. The Possessive case (singular and plural) is formed in the written language by the suffix -s. In the spoken language it has the same phonetic modifica- tions as the plural -s. (See § 90, p. 71, § 63, p. 45). The apostrophe in the singular marks the elison of the e of the old -es. The general use of the apostrophe in the singular is not found much before the end of the seventeenth century. It was probably employed to distinguish the possessive case from the plural num- ber. Its use may have been established from a false theory of the origin of the suffix -s, which prevailed from Ben Jonson's to Addison's time, namely, that it was a contraction of his, hence such expressions as : — " For Jesus Christ his sake." — Prayer Book. "The emblem is Camerarius his" = (Camerarius's). Whitlock, p. 52. We find this corruption towards the close of the fourteenth century. Trevisa has " egle hys nest " = eagle's nest. -is, another form of -es was sometimes written apart from its noun, and hence perhaps the confusion of his with -is, or -es. In the thirteenth century we find his for -is (-es) intentionally used after proper names. Nouns forming their plural by vowel change, or by the suffix -n, take the possessive sign after the plural ; as, men's, oxen's, children's. Nouns forming their plurals in -s were thought to be without the case-sign • hence in writing the posses- sive came to be marked by the apostrophe, as boys'. 1 When a singular noun ends in an s sound, the possessive sign is dropped, and the apostrophe (often x This came about in the seventeenth century, through the notion that the s in boys' was the sign of the plural number, and not of the possessive case. G SJ HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Ou|». omitted) marks its absence ; as, for justice* sake, for co?iscience' sake, your highness' love, &c. In foreign proper names (of two or more syllables) ending in s, the possessive is unchanged. Cp. Moses' law, Thetis' wrath, Olympus' top. In common English names we generally sound an additional syllable; as James's (pronounced Jamz~ez). *' Peersses bernes ; M ^ Peers ses wyf." Piers Plowman^ C. p. 148. 105. In compounds the possessive suffix is added to the last term, the son-in-law's house, William-the- Conqueror's reign. Sometimes we find the principal substantive inflected as in the older stages. u For his grace's sake the cardinal." — Ford. " Constance the Kynges sister of France" =The King of France's sister.— Fab yan. " Eadwardes kynges leave " =King Edward's leave. " On Williames daye the yonger Kynges" = On King William the younger's day. — O.E. Miscell. p. 145. 11 S&berhtes death east seaxna cyninges " =The death of Saeberht, king of the East Saxons.— -#*/. ii. 5. The Case absolute. 106. In the oldest period the dative was the ab- solute case. About the middle of the fourteenth century the nominative began to replace it. Pecock (a.d. 1449) has a few instances of the dative: " Him it witing and not weerning," = he knowing it and not forbidding it (11. 325). Milton occasionally imitates the Latin construction, as " him destroyed." In the use of the passive participle we have introduced beings as, "this being done," which was in the sixteenth cen- tury, " this done'' VIL] OLD ENGLISH DECLENSIONS. »3 107. Declension of the Old English Noun. I. — Masculine and Neuter Nouns forming the Genitive in -es. wulf, wolf; scip, ship; word, word. Singular. Masculine, Nom ^- wulf Voc. / Gen. Dat. Ace. Inst. Nom. Voc. Gen. Dat. Ace. Inst. wulf-es wulf-e wulf wulf-e wulf-as wulf- a wulf-um wulf-as wulf-um scip scip-es scip-e scip scip-e Neuter. word word-es word-e word word-e Plural. scip-u scip-a scip-um scip-u scip-um word word- a word-um word word-um II. — Feminine Nouns forming the Genitive in -e. Nom. Voc, Gen. Dat. Ace. Inst. Nom. Voc. Gen. Dat. Ace. Inst. H gifu, gift ; daed, deed. Singular. gif-u daad gif-e gif-e gif-e gif-e d&d-e d&d-e daed (daed-e) daed-e Plural gif-a daed-a, daed-e gif-a (gif-ena) gif-um gif-a daed-a daed-um daed-a, daed-e gif-um daed-um G 2 84 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. III.— Stems in -n. steorr-a, star ; tung-e, tongue ; eag-e, eye. Sing. Masc. Fern. Neut. Norn. ) Voc. \ steorr-a tung-e eag-e Gen. steorr an tung-an eag-an Dat. \ Inst ) steorr-an tung-an eag-an Ace. steorr-an tung-an eag-e ural. Norn. ) Voc. j steorr- an tung-an eag-an Gen. stcorr-ena tung-ena eag-ena Dat. 1 Inst. ) steorr-urn tung-um eag-um Ace. steorr-an tung-an eag-an Singular. Nom. Ace. Voc. Gen. Dat. ) Inst, t br6thor brothor brethor IV.— Stems in -n. brothor, brother. Nom. Ace. Plural. Gen. Dat, Inst, m. Ace. ) . Aa . . a . y oc } brothr-u, brothor i. ■i brothr-a brothr-um 108. Declension of Nouns in the thirteenth century : I. — wulf, wolf; scip, ship ; word, word. Nom. Voc. Gen. Dat. Ace. Masc. wulf wulu-es (wulf-es) wulu-e (wulf-e) wulf >!eut. scip, schip word scip-es word-es scip-e (scip-en) word-e scip word VII.] OLD ENGLISH DECLENSIONS. 85 Plural Masc. Nom. Ace. Voc. wulu-es (wulf-es) Gen. wulu-e (wulu-en, wulu-ene) Dat. wulu-e (wulu-es, wulu-en) Neut. Nom. Ace. Voc. scip-e (scip-en, scip-es) word, (word-es) Gen. scip-e (scip-ene, scip-es) word-e (word-es) Dat. scip-e (scip-en, scip-es) word, (word-es) II. — Hand (hond), hand ; dede, deed. Singular. Fern. Fern. Nom. Ace. ) . , Voc. j f,ed - e hond, hand Gen. ded-e hond-e Dat. ded-e hond-e Plural. Nom. Ace. ) , . . . ' Voc. \ ded " e ( _en » " es) hond-e (-en. -es) Gen. ded-e (-es) hond-e (-es) Dat. ded-en(-e,-es) hond-en (-e, -es) III.— Sterr-e, star ; tunge, tongue , e3 e » (ey^. Singular. Masc. Fem. Neut. NomJ . Voc. f terr ' e tung-e e>e Gen. sterr-e (-en,-es) tung-e (-es) e3-e (-es) Dat. sterr-e (-en) tung-e (-en) e3*e (-en) Ace. sterr-e (-en) tung-e (-en) .Plural. e3-e Nom.) . , Voc sterr-en(-e,-es. tung-en (-e, -es) e3-en (-es) * ) Gen. sterr-ene tung-e ne e3-ene Dat. sterr-en (-e) tung-en (-e) e3-en (-e) Ace. sterr-en(-e,-es) tung-< ;n (-e, -es) e3-en (-es) 86 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [Chap. IV.— The words faeder (fader), brother, suster, moder r do3ter, (dohter), in the singular take no genitive inflexion. In the dative we find sometimes a final -e. In the plural we find nominatives in -es, -en, -e ; as faderes, brother es (brothers), dohtres, sostres ; brother en, brethren, dohtren, deht en, sustren, modren; brothre, dohter e, &c. In the thirteenth century the genitive plural has sometimes the suffix -ene (-en), but more often -es. The dative plural ends in -en, -e and sometimes in -es. In the fourteenth century there is but little trace of the dative singular or plural. The nominative plural of nouns ends in -es (-is, -ys, -us), without respect to gender, though many plurals in -en are found. The genitive singular ends in -es (-is, -us, -ys). Some feminines keep up the old genitive form in -e. The genitive plural for the- most part is like the nominative plural. We have still a trace of the old genitive plural -ene, (-en). See § 102, p. 80. VITT.] ADJECTIVES, 87 CHAPTER VIII. Adjectives. 109. The English adjective has lost all the older inflexions of number, gender, and case. In Chaucer's time, and a little later, we find (1) a final e used to mark the plural, as, " the smale fowles ; " (2) a final e to denote the definite adjective, "the yonge sonne," " his halfe cours." Cp. "And quhen sche walkit had a lytill thrawe Under the suett grene bewis bent, Hir /aire, /resche face as quhite as any snawe Sche turnyt has, and furth her wayis went.'* James I. of Scotland, The Kingis Quhair. about 1423. J In the phrase "in the olden time," we have perhaps a trace of the definite declension. The word ones does duty for an inflexional e in the plural, as M.E, "these tweyne olde" — these two old ones. 1 10. Adjectives used as substantives form their plural regularly, as wantons, calms, shallows. In the fourteenth century only Norman-French adjectives used substantively could be thus inflected, as, viles, preciouses ; native words formed their plural by 1 This is a Scottish imitation of Chaucer. 88 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. adding the final e, as suete (sweets), soure (sours). In the sixteenth century we find this new method extended to English words, as yonges = young ones (L. Andrewe, in Babees Book, p. 231). When an adjective of Norman-French origin qualified a noun, it often formed its plural by adding s. Chaucer has conns germains as well as capitalles lettres (Astrolabe, p. 16). Traces of this construction are found in Tudor English. in. In alderliefest = dearest of all (Shakes- peare, 2 King Henry VI. 1. 1), we have one very late instance of the old genitive plural suffix -er. Alder = M.E. alter, E.E. aire, O.E. al-ra, the gen. pi. of all. " Now Jesu Christ be your alder speed." {Everyman ; published early in the reign of Henry VIII. See old English Plays, ed. Hazlitt, p. I. 135). " Adam owre aller fader." Piers Plcnuman, B. p. 298. " Sweetest aire thinge." O.E. Miscell. p. 166. VIII.] DECLENSION OE ADJECTIVES. 89 112. Declension of the O.E. Adjective. Strong or Indefinite Declension. Singular. Masc. Fern. Neut. Nom. Voc. ' blind blind blind Gen. Dat. Ace. Inst. blind-es blind-um blind-ne blind-e blind-re blind-re blind-e blind-re Plural. blind-es blind-um blind blind-e Nom. Voc. ► blind-e • blind-e blind-u Gen. Dat. Ace. blind-ra blind-um blind-e blind-ra blind-um blind-e blind-ra blind-um blind-u Weak r Definite Declen SION. Singular. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom.) Voc. j blind-a blind-e blind-e Gen. ) Dat. j Ace. blind-an blind-an blind-an blind-an blind-an blind-en Plural. Noi Voc Ace Gen Dat Masc, Fem., Neut., . [ blind-an blind-ena blind-um 113. In the thirteenth century we find the following forms of the strong declension. 90 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Norn. Voc. Gen. Dat. Ace. Masc. blind hlind-es blind-e (-en) blind-ne (-e) Singular. Fern. blind-e blind-re (-e) blind-re (-e) blind-e Neut blind blind-es blind-e blind Plural for all genders : — Nom. ) ... , Voc. | blm d-e Gen. blind-ere (-re, -e) Dat. blind-en (-e) Ace. blind-e The strong declension has for the most part all its cases in -e, sometimes its oblique cases in -en ; and throughout the plural •e (or -en). Sometimes the definite form takes the inflexions of the in- definite declension. In the fourteenth century we find a final e used to mark (i) the plural, and (2) the definite form and vocative case of the adjective. (See § 109, p. 87). Comparison of Adjectives. 114. Comparison is that change of form which the adjective undergoes to denote degrees of quantity or quality. Adverbs that have sprung from adjectives may be compared. There are three degrees of comparison, the positive or simple form of the adjective, the com- parative formed by adding -er to the positive, the superlative by adding -est to the positive. This rule applies (1) to all words of one syllable, (2) to some words of two syllables, especially those with the accent on the last syllable. VIII.] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 91 Orthographical changes : — (1) When the positive ends in -e, the comparison is formed by • r and -St. (2) Final y following a consonant is changed to i {happy, happier, happiest). (3) A final consonant after a short vowel is doubled, as, wet, wetter, wettest; cruel, crueller, cruellest ; cheerful, cheerfuller, cheerf idlest. Adjectives of more than two syllables, and most adjectives of two syllables are compared by more and most. The words more and most are pure English words, but the use of them to express comparison is due to Norman-French in- fluence. This mode of comparison came into use towards the end of the thirteenth century, and was frequently employed by the writers of the fourteenth century. But even at this time, adjectives of any number of syllables might be compared by -er and -est. The writers of the Eliza- bethan period paid very little regard to the length of the adjective. " The delectablest lusty sight and movingest object me thought it was." — Nash's Lenten Stuff, p. 9, ed. 1871. 115. Double comparisons are not uncommon in Middle and Modern English. Some of these double forms arose out of an attempt to strengthen the com- parison, as more kinder •, most straitest Others arose through the comparative degree of some irregular forms being mistaken for the positive. " The lesser lights."— Gen. i. 16. " More better"— Temp. i. 2. " The worser of the twain." — Warner. " Lesse gifts and lesser gaines I weigh them not." Hall's Satyres, Book 11. 2. Some numerals, pronominal words, prepositions, &c., have a comparative suffix, -ther (-ter), as o-ther, whe-ther, af-ter, un-der. Traces of an old superlative m are to be found in form-er and for-m-ost. (See § 117, p. 96.) 92 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. 116. Irregular Comparisons. I. With Vowel Change in the Comparative and Superlative. Old, elder, eldest (O.E. eald, aid; yldra, eldra; yldest, eldest). Elder and eldest are archaic, and are replaced by the more recent forms, older and oldest. Cp. O.E. langy lengra 9 lengest; Strang, strengra, strengest. This change is caused by the original vowel before the suffix -s and -st. Nigh, nigher, nighest, (next). Near, nearer, nearest. O.E. ned/i, neh; nyra, near r a ; ned/ist, nehst. M.E. negh, nigh; nerre, nere, nerrer ; neghest } neyest, next, nest. The true representatives of the O.E. forms are nigh, near, (nig/ier), next. Near is a comparative form, nearer is a double comparative. " The Kny3t asked leeve to ryde by an other way that was nere (= nearer )."— Gest. Rom., p. 34, " You're early up, pray God it be the near." Green's Friar Bacon. See Macbeth 11., 4. Next is a contracted form : h -'r s = h + s = x. Cp. M E. hext = highest; coxcomb = coctfs comb. Late, latter, last. Late, later, latest. O.E. Icet (late), lator, latost, Icetemest. In the thir- teenth century we find late, lattre, lattst (latst). The distinction between latter and later, latest and last, is quite a modern one. VIII.] IRREGULAR COMPARISONS. 93 " The sea gravel is lattest for to drie, And lattest may thou therwith edifie." 1420 Palladius, p. 14, 11. 363-4. Last arises by assimilation out of lat-st. Cp. best =s O.E. bet-st; gospel 2= godspeL (Rathe,) rather, (rathest). O.E. hrceth, hrccthra (hrethra), hrathost. Rathe in Milton means early, as, M The rathe primrose." — Lycidas. " The rather born lambs." — Spenser. " Late and rathe." — fiers Plowman B. p. 132. " The rather (previous) day." — Trevisa III. p. 145. " The rathest riping grapes." — Palladius, p. 66. II. From Obsolete Roots. Good, better, best. O.E. god, bet era, (belra,) bet est, betst. The positive of better is bat =: good, which root is found in O.E. betan, 'to make good/ 'amend;' and boot, in ' to boot.' For vowel change in better see elder; for best see last. Bad ) Evil > worse, worst. in ) O.E. yfel, wyrsa, wyrrest, wyrst. Wor-se, wor-st, are formed from the root weor, bad. The -se = -re (-er). Cp. less, O.E. Ices-se. In the phrase "the weaker had the wer" (Harding), we have the remnant of the Danish varre. Spenser uses wit = worse. 94 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. /'Was neuer warre o moder born." Cursor Mundi, p. 68, C. " Was neuer worre of moder borne," — lb. F. Little, less, least. O.E. lytel, lass a, las est, last. The root of less and least is not the lit of l little,' but las, 'infirm.' Cp. Goth, lasiws, 'weak.' The vowel-change is like that in better. Much, more, most. O.E. mteel, mdra, mast. Much is from my eel, through the forms michel, viachel, mochel. Mo-re contains the root mah, or mag/i, to be great- Cp. maz'-n, O.E. mag-en. O.E. micel, M.E. muchel, muche, moche = great, large. " He seide it was not half meek inow." — Capgrave. "A much herd" = a great beard. Sir G. and the G. K?ii- d t p. I. Mo (moe), a shortened form of more, is used by Elizabethan writers for m$re. Gill makes mo the comparative of many ; more the comparative of much. The Lowland Scotch has a similar distinction. III. From Adverbial Roots of Time and Place. Far, farther, farthest. O.E. feor, fyrra,fyrrest; M.E. fer y ferre, (ferrer,) ferrest. Farther. The correct comparative is farrer = M. E. ferrer. " )>an mon (must) he gyf light Als fer als )>e some dose and ferrer." Hampole, P. of C. p. 246. Far (M..JL. fe?re) = * farther,' occurs in Winter's Tale, iv. 4. VIII.] IRREGULAR COMPARISONS. 95 The th in farther has crept in from false analogy with further, M.E. foriher, feriher. Furth-er (O.E. furthor, superlative furthmest), is the comparative of forth. "He went him forlh and fo?'ther soght." — C. Mundi, C. 1. 4107. " He went forlh and further sott."— lb. T. " He went forth and ferder soght." — lb. G. E-re, erst. The root of e-re is the adverb a, 1 ever/ In O.E. we find se cerra = the former, se ceftera (the after) = the latter. In the thirteenth century we find erure, erore — former. O.E. Misc., p. 173. Af-ter, latter, second (compare after-thought), is from of = of , off. Fir-st is the superlative of fore. See § 117, p. 96. For change of vowel see § 83, p. 63 ; § 91, p. 72. Hind-er, from hind, as in behind. Hinder est occurs in Chaucer. Inn-er, from in. In the thirteenth century we find innerest. Neth-er, from neath in beneath. Nethereste is used by Chaucer {Astrolabe, p. 4). Ov-er is from the root ove (O.E. ufe = up), in above. Wickliffe has overere (a double comparative). As late as the seventeenth century over and upper are opposed to nether. "The upper part . . . shutteth close upon the nether" — Holland's Pliny, p. 241. "Also as it is in the parties of the grete worlde that they beeth so i-ordeyned and isette, that the over-meste of the nether kynde touche the nether-meste of the over kynde, as oistres and schellefisch ... in bestene kind." — Trevisa II., p. 181. 96 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Upp-er, from up. Upperest and over est are found in the fourteenth century. Utt-er, out-er, from out (O.E. ut). 117. Superlatives in m. The O.E. for-ma (cp. Lat. pri-mu-s) = l first,' from the root fore, survives in for-m-er (comparative form with superlative sense), and for-m-ost. '*The^r;;^yere."--PALLADius, p. 71, 1. 291. " The formast barn that sco him bare." — C. Mundi, C. p. 68. " The first child that ever scho bare." — lb. G. " Of alle oure former fadris that evere were or aren." — Babees Book) p. 47. The suffix -most (O.E. m-est), contains the su- perlative endings -m and -est, as in in-m-ost, ut-m-ost, up-m-ost, hind-m-ost, &c. Further-more {forther-over in Chaucer), is simply a compound like ever-more. For the Indefinite Article see Numerals, One. For the Definite Article see Demonstrative Pro- nouns. NUMERALS. 118. Numerals may be considered under the three following divisions, Cardinal, Ordinal, and Indefinite Numerals. I. — Cardinals. One = O.E. an, M.E. an, a, on, oon, 0, 00. The Indefinite Article an preserves the original form of the numeral. The n falls oil before a con- VII L] NUMERALS. 97 sonant, and becomes a. (Cp. "w/>/at duden him muchele schonde ; J>e knyhtes J)et hine ledden bitauhten him )>e rode." — They delivered him to knights that did to him great shame ; The knights that led him delivered to him the cross. O.E. Miscell. p. 49. (5) She replaces the older heo, which lasted as late as 1387. It is an altered form of the Old English feminine definite article seo, or sio (Icelandic su). "Heo nuste hwat heo mende, heo wes of wytte poure." = She knew not what she meant, she was of wit poor. • O.E. Miscell. p. 85. (6) He-r (dat) contains a dative (fern.) suffix -r, (-re). He-r, (ace.) originally dative, has replaced the old accusative hi or heo. " Heo cu>ej> hi well sone." = She will show herself very soon. O.E. Miscell. p. 118. " He ber heo on his schuldre." = He bore her on his shoulder. lb. p. 49. (7) It has lost an initial h. The final t was originally a suffix of the neuter gender, as in tha-t, wha-t Cp. Latin i-d, illu-d, istu-d, quo-d. io8 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. It is often employed in O.E. where we use there. " It es na tung may tell." C. Alundiy p. 84. " It ben the deueles disoures." Piers Plowman, B. vi. 56. (8) It (dat.) has replaced the true form him. (9) They is the old nominative plural of the de- finite article. It replaced the older form hi or heo in the beginning of the thirteenth century in the dialects of the North and North East of England, under the forms J>«, \ebi, \ai. M Ic nele neuer ]>e vorsake, and so hi seyden alle. J>o hi hedden al J>is iherd heo were ful sori." = I will never forsake thee, and so they said all ; When they had heard all this they were full sorry. O.E. Miscell. p. 41. (10) The-m (dat.) is the dative plural of the old definite article and replaces the demonstrative hem. The-m (ace.) was originally a dative and replaced the older forms hi, heo, hem; the true accusative is they, O.E. thd. " So ha sente hi into his wynyarde." = So he sent them into his vineyard. O.E. Miscell. p. 33. " And [he wule] makie heo unfere." = And he will make them unbold. Id. p. 75. " And right anoon thay token here way to the court of Melibe, and token with hem some of here *rewe frendes." — Chaucer, ed. Morris, iii. p. 193. In the dramatists, 'em is not a corruption of Uum % but of the older hem. IX.] PERSONAL rRONOUNS. 109 (11) The following table shows the origin of she, they, &c. : — Definite Article. — Singular. Nom. Masc. Fern. Neut. se (E.E. the) 1 seo, sio thaet 1 1 1 the she that Plural. Nom. Poss. Dat. Ace. tha thara tham tha .111 1 they their them . Obs. The following examples show the demonstrative cha- racter of they m those (nom. and ace). * ' For they carles garre syke a dinne. " Warner, Albion *s England, p. 118. " And tha bandes of fyre salle never slake." = And those bonds of fire shall never slack. Hampole, P. of C.\. 7177. " But thai prophetis so thyn ar sawin." = But those prophets are so thinly sown. Barbour, The Bruce, iv. 685. " For he had drede of thai thre men." = For he had dread of those three men. lb. vii. 185. M Thai thre tratouris he has slane." = Those three traitors has he slain. lb. vii. 222. 1 In O.E. the was only used as an indeclinable relative. In E.E. the (masc.) and theo (fern.) were used as demonstrative pronouns instead of O.E. se and seo. no HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. " Ane of thai That com for to sla the kyng." = One of those that came to slay the king. Barbour, The Bruce, vii 212. Tho is another form of tha and thei. " \o weore >eos — \>?X weoren in ]>e pynen of helle." = They were those That were in the pains of hell. 0. £. Miscell. p. 232. " Yf ye wille after this do to me so As ye have done, ye shalle have alletho." {them = coins) Occleve, Be Reg. 166. 14 And tho that cannot (beat their husbands), they will never let Their tongues cease. ,, Hawes, P. of PI. p. 136. II. Reflexive Pronouns. 132. The simple personal pronouns me, thee, &c. may be used reflexively, as, "I repent me," "get thee hence," " sit you down." The word self is usually added to them. Singular. — Myself, thyself, yourself, him- self, herself, itself. Plural. — Ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Self (O.E. silf), was at first declined as an adjec- tive along with the personal pronouns ; nom. ic silf a, gen. tfiin silfes; dat. me silfum; ace. me silfne. Between the nominative of the personal pronoun and the word silf, the dative case of the pronoun was inserted, as: ic me silf '= I myself; thu the silf s thou thyself; he him silf = he himself; we us silfe ~ we ourselves ; ye edw silfe =r you yourselves ; IX.] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 1 1 1 hi him selfe =2 they themselves. So we could say God silf and God him si//. These forms are emphatic rather than reflexive. In the thirteenth century we find the possessive pro- noun replacing the da five, as, / mi self, thu thi self, &c instead of / me self, thu the self. Cp. himself, themselves, itself, oneself. Probably self had already come to be considered a noun ; it certainly was often so treated from the four- teenth century downwards : — " As tM self likyth." Chaucer, Astrolabe, pt. I. sec. 21. "Myself hath been the whip." Chaucer, C. T. 1. 5757. " Thy manner is to muse and [to] devyse, So that sometime myself may carry me Myself knoweth not where ; and I assure ye So hath myself done now." Heywood, The Play of the Wether. Cp. the use of " myself" &c. for " I myself," &c When self was fully established as a noun, it dropped its old plural e, and took s, as ourselves, &c. For some time it was without a plural, as ours elf, themself, &c. One's self, (or more properly oneself), is quite a modern form. In Elizabethan English we find a maris self ss one's self. In O.E., ana (the nom. of dn, one,) was used like self. In M.E., we find one used for self with the possessive pronoun, as, "be myne one" by myself (Morte Arthure, ed. Brock, p. 125) = "by me one." 112 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chnp. An old meaning of self was same. Cp. " the self truth" (Becon), and "self-same." " The same self time." Bale's Works, Park. Soc. p. 23. " For other ruffians, as their fancies wrought, With selfsame hand, self reasons, and self right, Would shark on you." Sir T. More, ed. Shak. Soc. p. 27. III. Adjective Pronouns. 133. The Adjective Pronouns, sometimes called Possessive Pronouns, were formed from the geni- tive case of the personal pronouns, and were declined like ordinary adjectives. In modern English the possessive pronouns, though only used adjectively, are identical in form with the old genitives of the personal pronouns. Sing. — Mine, my ; thine, thy ; his, hers, its. Plural. — Our, ours ; your, yours ; their, theirs. Mine, my ; thine, thy. The original forms were mine and thine (O.E. niin, thin). The final e is no inflexion, and only marks the length of the preceding vowel. The -n in mine and thine is an old genitive suffix. My and thy are formed from mine and thine by the loss of «, as no from none, a from an. Mine and thine are occasionally used before a noun beginning with a vowel, or h ; but this usage is confined to poetry and the solemn style. IX.] ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 113 It is very common in the Bible, and in our old dramatists : — " Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice." Hamlet, 1. 3. " Conduct me to mine host" — Macbeth, 1. 7. Sometimes mine and thine are used when they follow the sub- stantive, as, " Lordyng myne" — Gest. Fom. p. 32. " Master mine." Merry Wives of Windsor, i. 1. 163. Hi-s is a true genitive of the root hi. He-r (O.E. hi-re), contains a genitive suffix fern. -r. *Its (O.E. his). This is quite a modern form, not much older than the end of the sixteenth century. It does not occur in the Bible; it was not used by Spenser, rarely by Shakspeare and Bacon, but is more frequently employed by Milton, and had quite esta- blished itself in Dryden's time as the regular form. The true genitive of it is his. " Put up again thy sword into his place." — Matt. xxvi. 52. " Learning has his infancy, when it is but beginning, and almost childish ; then his youth, when it is luxuriant and juvenile ; then his strength of years, when it is solid and reduced ; and lastly, his old age, when it waxeth dry and exhaust." — Bacon, Essays, 58. In the fourteenth century we find hit = its. This form was kept up as late as the seventeenth century. " Of it own accord." — Levit. xxv. 5. " It knighthood shall do worse... .it shall fright all it friends." Ben Jonson, The Silent Woman, ii. 3. The own = its own, occurs as early as the fourteenth century, and was in use in the sixteenth century. " And albeit their trumpery be built up, and reared as high as the sky, yea even in a moment, and as it were of the own self, falleth it down again." — Translation of Jewel, ed. Jelf, p. 153. I U4 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Ou-r, you-r (O.E, ur-e, eoiv-er.) These forms contain a suffix -r, which belongs also to the genitive plural of adjectives. See note on Alderliefest, § in, p. 88. Thei-r has this genitival suffix -r, which also appears in O.E. hi-re, heo-re\ M.E. he-r. See table, p. 1 06. IV. Independent or Absolute Possessives. 134. Mine, thine, his, hers, its, ourB, yours, theirs, are used without a following noun. " Be thine despair and sceptred care j To triumph and to die are mine." Gray, The Bard. Ours, yours, theirs are double genitives, con- taining a genitive plural suffix -r -f- a singular suffix -s. Hers is also a double genitive. These genitives in -s are not found in the oldest English ; they made their first appearance in the Northern dialects of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and are due to Scandinavian Influence. Cp. Swed. (old style) wins, dins, = mine, thine; vdrs = ours, ers, = yours. The more ordinary forms in the Southern dialects were hire, hir (hers), oure, our (ours), &c. Sometimes we find ouren =» ours, heren = theirs. II.— DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 135. The Demonstratives are the, that, this, such, so, same, yon, (yond, yonder). The (usually called the Definite Article), was formerly declined like an adjective for number, gender, and case ; it is now indeclinable. IX.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. il5 Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Inst. ' Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Nom. ) Ace. \ Gen. Dat. n. I Nom. Gen. Dat Ace. Singular. Masculine. the the the the M.E. E.E. the the-s, tha-s tha-n, the-n tha-n, tho-n the O.E. se thae-s tha-m, thae-m tha-ne thl, the" Feminine. the the the theo, the the-re, tha-re the-re, tha-re tha, theo, tho, tb r seo thae-re thae-re Neuter. the, that the-t, tha-t like the masculine. thae-t the, tho, tha, thai the the, (tha, tho, thai) Plural. tha, theo, the tha-re, the-re, the-r tha-re, the-re, the-r tha, tho, the tha tha-ra, thae-ra tha-m, thae-m tha In the second period the article is flexionless in Northern writers. The old form tho, the plural of the, is used as late as Warner's time. They is occasionally found in Tudor English as the plural of the. The, before comparatives, as, "the more the merrier," is a remnant of the old instrumental case thl. Cp. O.E. thl mare = Lat. eo mag/s. It must be parsed as an adverb when used in this way. 1 a u6 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. 136. That was originally the neuter of the. In Northern dialects it replaced the demonstrative thilk, and was used before nouns of all genders. Its plurals were (1) tho (or tha) the pi. of the def. art ; (2) thos (or thas) the old plural of this. The t in that is the old neuter suffix. Cp. it. what. Those (O.E. thas), was at first the plural of this. It had established itself, as early as the middle of the fourteenth century, as the plural of that. I 137. This was originally neuter. As late as 1387 we find thes (masc), theos (fern.), this (neuter), Lat. hie, hcec, hoc. This is more emphatic than the, and was originally equivalent to the-the. Cp. Fr. ce-ciy ce-la. These (O.E. thces, thas, E.E. thas, theos, thos, thes, these, M.E. thes, thees, thise, these). The final e in these, marks the length of the pre- ceding vowel; it is not an inflexion. The form these in M. E. may have been a new plural formed from this, and therefore commonly spelt thise. This and that sometimes replace the former and the latter (O.E. se cerra and se aftera) see § "6, p. 95. This usually refers to the latter of two things mentioned, that to the former. " Two principles in human nature reign ; Self-love to urge, and Reason to restrain ; Nor this a good, nor that a bad we call." Pope, Essay on Man, ii. 2. IX.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 117 138. Such (O.E. swilc, E.E. switch, M.E. swilk, swich, swuch, sich, such) is a compound of so (O.E. jze/i), and //& (O.E. lie). Such like is pleonastic We find compounds of such in some such and none such. 139. Thilk (O. E. thylc) == the like. Cp. Lat. ta-lis. The like is used often as a substitute for the older thilk. 140. Ilk (O. E. ylc) — that like, same. 141. Otherlike and other the like are found in the seven- teenth century. " Chaffe, straw and otherlihe mullocke." Holland, Pliny, 601. 142. So (O.E. swa), is often used as a substitute, for such. "lam wiser than so " i.e. a baby. — Ford. 143. Same (M.E. same, Gothic sama). In the oldest period same is a conjunction, as swa same swa — the same as ; sam — sam = whether — or. Same is joined to the, this, that, and self (e.g. self-same. See § 132, p. 112). 144. Yon, yond, yonder (O.E.geon, Goth. Jains, Ger. jener) = that, Me. " N 'ear yonder copse." Goldsmith, Deserted Village, 1. 136. " Beside yon straggling fence." — lb. 1. 193. Yon is a derivative from the demonstrative root ge (or /a). In O.E. geon = tile; geond = illic and trans. Yonder (adv.) is in Gothic jaindre. In M.E. we find yon a like such a, each a, &c. t from which probably has arisen yond-er. The Scotch still use yon substantively. " Yonder' s a bad man." Beaumont and Fletcher, ii. p. 400. " Yon er theves." — C. Mundi, C. 1. 4890. " Wilder ar theves." — lb. F. " londir be theves." — lb. T. Il8 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. M Bote take we him ute of ipn den, And selle we him to wne chapmen." C. Mundi, G. 11. 4185-6. " Take we him out of londer den And sel him forth to lone chapmen." — lb. F. 11 Take we him out of that den And selle we him to those chapmen." — lb. T. Ill— INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 145. The Interrogatives are who, which, what, whether, with their indefinite compounds whoever, whatever, whichever. 146. Who (masc. and fern.) is only used of persons. Its neuter is what. O.E. Masc. and Fern. Neut. Masc. and Fem. Neut. Nom. who what hwa hwoet Gen. whose whose hwses hwaes Dat. whom what hwam, hwaem hwaem Ace. whom what hwone, hwsene hwaet Inst [why] hw! hwt. E.E. M.E. Masc. and Fern. Neut. Masc. and Fem. Neut Nom. hwa, wha, hwat, hwet, wha, hwo, wo, what, wat, wa what,wh£et ho, quo huet Gen. hwas, whas, whas, whos, was as masc. wos, hos as masc. Dat. hwam,whan, as masc. whom, wham, worn as masc. Ace. hwan, wan, hwat,wlKet, whom, wan, won what, wat, hwam,wham what huet Who-se was originally of all genders. It can be used absolutely, as, " whose is the crime ? " The s in whose is a genitive suffix, as in hi-s. IX.] INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 119 Who-m is a dative like hi-m. It is now also accusative, the older ace. hwone having been replaced by it in the thirteenth century. 147. Wha-t was originally neuter (like tha-t), and never masc. or fem. It got its present usage as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century in the Northern dialects. What for m what sort of. " IVhat's he for a man." Peele, ed. Dyce, p. 383. 148. Whe-ther (O.E. hwcether, M.E. whether, wher), which of the two. M God cupid, or the keeper, I know not whether, Unto my cost and charges brought you thither." Beaumont and Fletcher, The Knight of the Burning Pestle, i. 2. " Whether of them twain did the will of his father." Matt. xxi. 31. For the suffix -ther, see Three § 118, p. 97. We find in the seventeenth century wheiher-so-ever ; in the four- teenth whether-so, whether-ever. 149. Which (O.E. hwilc; E.E. whulc, whulch, wuch; M.E. wich, wuch, which, whilk) contains the wh of who, what, and -lc == O.E. lie =: like. Cp. qua-lis. " Tele us hwuch is helle."— O.E. Horn. 1. p. 249. = Tell us what hell is like, " Moyses seide, Lord wuch is pi face, let me hit iseo." — Vernon MS. no HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Cliap. IV.— RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 150. The Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, that, as. In the oldest period, who, which, and what, were not relative, but interrogative pronouns ; whose, and whom, were established as relatives as early as the thirteenth century ; but who was much later in getting a relative force, and did not come into common use before the end of the sixteenth century. 151. Who, as a relative, is not recognized by Ben Jonson, who speaks of " one relative which." In * Palladius on HusbondrieJ A.D. 1420, we find who used as a relative with a neuter antecedent. Who ( = he who, whoever) replaced the E. E. the the, or the that = he that. " Who steals my purse steals trash." — Othello, iii. 3. 15. In this sense who = quisquis, is an indefinite pronoun. In M.E. the is sometimes joined to whose and whom. Who (and its cases) are often followed in M.E. by that. 152. Which at present relates only to neuter antecedents, but this is comparatively a modern restriction. "Our Father which art in heaven." In M.E. which is frequently joined to the, that, as: — the which, which that, which as, &c. 153. That, originally the neuter singular relative, now agrees with singular and plural antecedents of all genders. That, during the twelfth century, began to supply the place of the indeclinable relative the, and in the fourteenth century it was the ordinary, though not the IX.] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 121 only relative. In the sixteenth century, which often supplied its place, and in the seventeenth century, who was frequently employed instead of it. At a later period (Addison's time), that had again come into fashion, and had almost driven who and which out of use. That (O.E. ftcelte as ^cet \e), is sometimes used in the sense of that which, or what. " We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen." St. John, iii. II. 154. What = that which, refers to singular and neuter antecedents. Its true genitive is whose. "Nebuchadnezzar, the king, made an image of gold, whose height was threescore cubits." — Dan. iii. 1. See Milton's Par. Lost. Bk. i. 1. 2. What that, that what, what as, are archaic compounds. 155. Who-so, what-so, who-so-ever, what- so-ever, which-so-ever, are indefinite, like the Latin quisquis, quicunque. O.E. swa hwa swa = E.E. wha-swa, wha-se, M.E. who-so ; O.E. swa hwylc swa = which so, whichsoever. In the sixteenth century we often find what-som-ever = M.E. what-sum-ever ; sum = as, so is Danish. 11 To quat contre sum that thou wend." C. Mundi, C. 1. 1 149. " To quat contre so thu wend." lb. G. 156. Who-ever, whatever, which-ever, are relative and interrogative. They do not occur in the oldest English. 157. As (O.E. eall-swa; E.E. alswa, alse; M.E. asc, as, ah, also), has a relative force after such, same, thai. Such — as = O.E. swyk — swylc = such — such. E.E. swilc — als. 122 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. ' V.— INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 158. The Indefinite Pronouns are who, what, some, one, any, none, no, aught, naught, each, every, either, neither, other, else, enough, sundry, certain, several. 159. Who as anyone, some one, has an indefinite sense in some old expressions : M Not as who saith by authority, But by the way of intreaty." The 4 P.P. in O.E. P/ay?, ed. Hazlitt, 1. 373. " As who should say." — Macbeth, in. 6. 160. What is indefinite in 11 I'll tell you what now of the devil." Massinger, Virgin Martyr, iii. 3. What not, what else (M.E. elles what). In O.E. hwa, d-hwa — anyone, hwat, A-hwcet — aught, anjh thing. In the thirteenth century we find what treated as a substantive in an hwat — one thing, which gave rise to E.E. sum-what, other-what ; M. E. mueh-what, little-what, many-what, modern English somewhat. There may have been some confusion between aught, wight ; and whit. See § 164, p. 125. " Astrawnge watt" (= wight.) Coventry Mysteries, p. 294 "lama fulle gret watt." — Townley Mysteries, p. 8. 11 Much what." — Sir Gawayne, ed. Morris, p. 41. " A little what." — Wicuffe, John vi. 7 ; and Spenser, Shep. Col. (July). 161. Some (O.E. sum; M.E. som, some, aliquis, quelque), is both singular and plural, but is mostly used before plural nouns. It has the force of the indefinite a, a certain, some one ; some — some = one — another, some — others. lX.j INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 123 Other-some =2 some others, is used by Shake- speare in the Comedy of Errors, iii. 2. 'Framing unto some unwholesome sores plaisters, and epplying other some where no sore is. " — Hooker, v. 1. 1 . In O.E. and E.E. sum was declined like the strong declension of adjectives, see § 112, p. 89. In M.E. we find pi. sume, summe, some. As late as the fourteenth century we find some used in apposi- tion with a pronoun or noun, as sume we — some of us. For some = an, cp. the following versions of the same line : — "Thar-bi groues sum apell tre." — C. Mundi, C. L 2877. M Tharby grows an appel tre." — lb, T. Compounds of some are somebody, some- thing, someone, somewhat. Somebody seems to have got intp the language through the use of body for wight (person). 11 A bodye thynketh himself e well emended in his substaunce and ryches, to whom hath happened some good goubbe of money." — Erasmus, Apophthegms, englished by Udall, ed. 1542, p. 14^. No body occurs in Piers Plowman. — B. xvi. 83, p. 292. Something has in a great measure replaced somewJiat. This usage is as early as the thirteenth century. Some one arose in the early part of the fourteenth century, and replaced sum man ; it is also used where in M. E. oon, one — some one was employed. All and some (M.E. al and sum) = all and one, all and singular, is used by Dryden. " — you must march both all and some." — Peele, Edw. I. In the sixteenth century it often appears as whole and some, all or some. Sometimes we meet with a redundancy of indefinites : — " And the nature of all creatures is contained in some certain one place." — Becon, P?-ayers, p. 273. " Thus saith Pope Alexander, Gregory, John Clement, or some such other like." — Pilkington, p. 20. 124 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. 162. One (O.E. dn, M.E. on, oori) is the numeral one with extended usage. It has a genitive one's, and a plural ones. In the O.E. and M.E. one was declined according to the strong declension. See § 112, p. 89. It has various usages : — (1) In "one says" it replaces the O.E. man, M.E. me (Ger. man, Fr. on). This use is as early as the fifteenth century. (2) It has an indefinite sense like the Latin quidam, Greek ns, especially before proper nouns, as, "one Simon a tanner " {Acts ix. 43). This use is found in E.E. See St. Juliana, p. 5. " One in a certain place testifieth." — Heb. ii. 6. "Also oon told hym that oon of his frendes hadde ispoke euel by hym." — Trevisa, Hi. 317. See Piers Plowman, B. xx. 157, 161, p. 374. (3) It is equivalent to some one, see King Lear, i-3- (4) It is also used as a noun == person, thing (M.E. wight, thing). This usage is found in the fourteenth century. (5) It is used instead of repeating the noun. (6) The one = the first. See § 121, p. 99. (7) One =; the same, as, "it's all one; " "one and the same." For one we sometimes use a man, they, you, people. In M.E. me = men, is used for one (Fr. on) ; but with a singular verb. " The vyne also thai sayen hath that nature, That vynes yf me brenne, or white or blake, And kest hem into wyne, me may be sure The wyne coloure after the vynes take." Palladius, Husbondric, p. 200. IX.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 125 The expression as one that = M.E. as he that; E.E as the that ; as a iviht that ; as thing that. — See Juliana, pp. 4, 5, 8, 20, 21. 163. None, no =s O.E. n&n =1 ne tin = not one. No is formed from none by the dropping off of ne. (Cp. my and mine). None is used absolutely, that is, without a following noun : "I have none." In none other {Acts iv. 12 ; Deut. v. 7), we have the M.E. use of none for no before a vowel. Other-noon (Cp. other some) occurs in M.E. No one =s not one, is tautological, (being for neone one) but it evidently replaces M.E. no man, no wight. Compounds of no are nothing, nobody. Ford has nobody's else for nobody else's. 164. Aught = anything (O.E. dwiht, dwuht, auht, aht). It contains the prefix & = ever, aye; and the root ught = wight, whit (O.E. wiht, wuht, uht), creature, thing, something. Naught (O.E. nawiht, nawnht, nauht, naht, neaht, noht), and not (M.E. nat, not, noght), are negative forms of aught. Awhit is another form of aught. Cp. anywhit, everywhit. As not = nowhit = naught, not a whit is pleonastic. That nawight == noght = not is seen from the following versions of the same line. " S co said, neherdyee nawight hou. ' — C. Mundi, C. 1. 4396. " Scho said, ne herd 3e noght how." — lb. G. " She seide, herde 3e not how." — lb. T. In the following passages nawight is replaced by nathing, nothing. "Ne sal thou nawight thar-wit win." — lb. C. L 919. " Ne sal thou na\inge thar-with wyn." — lb. F. Whit = aught, in " The devil have they whit else." Thersites, O.E. Plays, ed. Hazlitt, I. p. 428. 126 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. 165. Any (O.E. &n~ig; E.E. ceni, #/, d; M.E. eny, ony, any = ullus), has an adjective form like dirt-y, and the stem is an = one. The negative of any is none. In O.E. and E.E. we had a true negative, n£nig = nullus. In O.E. any was declined like one. A plural in -e was in use in the fourteenth century. The genitive anies = anyone's occurs in Warner's Albion's England, p. 200. Compounds of any are anyone, anybody (M.E. any wight, any persone, any man), anything. 166. Each as O.E. ce-lc — a-ge-lic; E.E. elc, elch, euch; M.E. uch, ych, ech, ilk. Each is a compound of a, ever, and lie, like. (Cp. which, such, &c). In E.E. and M.E. each was followed by an, a, on, ( = oni) % This use has sur- vived in each one. Each other besides being equivalent to each the other, see § 1 70, signifies every second, each alternate. " Living and dying, each other day." Holland's Pliny, p. 2, 167. Every (E.E. cever-celc; M.E. ever-ich, ever- ilk), is a compound )f ever and each. It does not exist in the oldest period. Every, as late as the seventeenth century, had a substantive use as in the older periods. " Every of -your wishes."— Antony and Cleop. ii. 2. " Everich of hem his lyf left for a wed." Lydgate, The Storie of Thebes, ii. L 11 86. M.E. evrichon, everilkan, (cp. each one) survives in everyone. Everybody and everything are recent formations. Ever-any existed in the thirteenth century, and is used by Fabyan (ed. Ellis, p. 251), evereither is used by Pecock. (Spec. Eng. ed. Skeat. n. cs, 1. 102.) IX.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 127 Ever-each is like no one, a pleonastic expression, which arose when the origin of every was forgotten. — (See Burton, Anat. of Mel. ed. 1845, p. 601). 168. Either (O.E. aghwcether, cegt/ier, a-hwcether, dwther; E.E. (Either, aither, either, other, owther; M.E. either, ayther, other, out her), is an old compara- tive form (see § 148) containing the prefix a, ever, and the suffix, -ther. It signifies " any one of two." Its negative is neither. Either has a possessive form either's. " Then either' 5 love was either' s life." Warner, Albion's England, p. 57. " Eytheres will." — Piers Plowman, B. xiii. 348, p. 228. 169. Other (O.E. 6-ther = one of two, second and other), contains the root 6 = one, and the com- parative suffix -ther. (See § 121, p. 99). Other originally followed the strong declension of adjectives. Its plural was othre ; when the final e became silent, a new plural others was formed. Other for some time was used as a plural, both in M.E. and in the seventeenth century. Cp. other some — some others. Another, any other, none other, some other, are forms that arose in the thirteenth century. Other the like = M.E. otherlike, occurs in Hooker, v. 1. 3. 170. One another, each other, are sometimes called reciprocal pronouns, but they are not com- pounds. They love one another ; they love each other •=. they love — one (loves) another ; they love — each (loves) the other. 171. Else (O.E. elles), is the genitive case of an old pronominal root el = other (Cp. Lat. alius). We find its pronominal character kept up in what else, O.E. elles hwat. Warner (Albion's England, p. 178) has elswhat , cp. aught else, nothing else. 138 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Becon constantly uses what other thing for what else. So in Hooker, v. xx. 6. M For what else is the Law but the Gospel foreshewed ?" " What other the Gospel than the Law fulfilled ? " Other where = elsewhere in Hooker, v. xi. 12. Else is used substantively in the sense of something else in the following passage. M What's that she mumbles ? The devil's paternoster ? Would it were else.'" — Ford, Witch of Edmonton, ii. 1. 172. Some demonstratives become indefinites. Cp. this and that ; such and such ; he knew not whkh was which ; ilk and ilk In the Ayenbite, p. 54 ; he and he = one — another. — Pier's Plowman, B. p. 226 ; Chaucer's Knights Tale, 11. 1756 — 1761. " This would, I have, and that, and then I desire to be such and such." — (Burton, Anat. of Mel. ed. 184$, p. 185. " One takes upon him temperance, holiness, another austerity, a third an affected kind of simplicity, when, as indeed he, and he, and he, and the rest are ' hypocrites, ambi- dexters,' outsides, so many turning pictures, a lion on the one side, a lamb on the other." — lb. p. 34. " In with the polax preseth he and he ; By hynde the maste begynneth he to fie. " Chaucer, ed. Morris, v. p. 296. "Then was I dubde as true precise, And faithful by and by ; And none was compted hoate enough Save he and he and I. — Dr ant's Horace. See Palladius, Husbondrie, p. 126, 1. 610 ; Burton, Anat. of Mel. ed. 1845, p. 8. 173. Enough (O.E. gendh, E.E. inoh, inoi. M.E. invugh, ynough, anough, inow, enogh.) We sometimes meet with the plural, enow, anow, (M.E. inowe, anowe). 174. The words sundry, divers, certain, and several, have acquired more or less the force of indefinite pronouns. " They had their several ( = separate) partitions for heathen nation?, their several for the people ..., their several for men, their several for women, their several for the priests, and for the high priest alone their several, 11 — Hooker, v. xiv. 1. X.] VERBS. 129 CHAPTER X. THE VERB. 175. Verbs may be classified, according to their meaning, as Transitive and Intransitive. Transitive verbs express an action which doe* not terminate in the agent, but passes over to an object ; as, " he learns his lesson." Transitive verbs are used reflexively ; as, " he killed himself; " " sit thee down" and reciprocally, as "they helped one another" Intransitive verbs express an action that is con- fined to the agent, as, " corn grows" Some intransitive verbs, by the addition of a preposition, become tran- sitive ; as, " the man laughs at the boy ; " " he talks oj himself." Sometimes verbs compounded with pre- positions become transitive; cp, come and overcome, speak and bespeak, go and forgo, &c. 176. Some intransitive verbs have a causative form which is always transitive, as, Intrans. Trans. fall fell sit set rise raise 130 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. As we are not now able to form new causative verbs, we are often obliged to give a causative meaning to an intransitive verb, and it then takes an object; as, " he flies his kite" "he ran the knife into his leg" Intransitive verbs may take a noun of kindred mean- ing as object; as, "he lived a good life" "lie died a horrible death" 177. Verbs used with the third person only are called Impersonal verbs, as "me thinks" "it rains" &c. These verbs were much more numerous in the older stages of the language. (See Syntax of Impersonal Verbs). 178. The verb affirms action, or existence of a subject under certain conditions or relations, called voice, mood, tense, number, person. In some languages the verbal root undergoes a change of form to express these various relations. Voice. 179. Transitive verbs have two voices, the Active and the Passive. When a verb is used in the Active Voice, the subject of the verb represents the actor, or agent ; as, " the lion killed the elephant" A verb is said to be in the Passive Voice where the subject denotes the object to which the action is directed ; as, " the elephant was killed by the lion" In English we have no inflexions for the passive voice, as in Latin and Greek, but express the same notion by means of the passive participle and the verb to be. We have a very good substitute for the X.] VERBAL MOODS. 131 passive form in the use of an indefinite pronoun for the subject of the verb ; as, " somebody killed the boy " s: the boy was killed; "one knows not how it hap- pened? =: it is not known how it happened ; " they say? = it is said. We can also express the passive voice by means of the verb be, and a verbal noun ; as, " the book is printing 93 (— u the book is a printing 31 =z " the book is in printing ") s " the book is being printed 33 The passive voice has grown out of reflexive verbs. The r in amo-r is supposed to be a corruption of the pronoun se. Cp. Fr. s'appeler, "to be called." Of the Teutonic languages only the Scandinavian dialects have formed a passive voice by means of the suffix st = sk = sik = self, Lat. se; we have instances of this in dusk, "to prepare oneself," "to be ready," and bask from bake. Mood. 180. Mood has reference to the manner or mode in which anything is predicated of the subject. The Indicative mood makes a direct assertion, or asks some direct question about a fact; as, "John has a book? " Has John a book ? " The Subjunctive mood expresses some condition or supposition, as " I may go, if the day be fine ; " " Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty ; " * Had I the book, I would give it to you j " " Though he slay me, yet will I. trust in Him." As the Subjunctive mood depends upon the construction of sentences, its peculiarities belong to Syntax. The Subjunctive is almost gone out of use; its place is supplied by auxiliary words. k 2 132 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. The Imperative mood expresses a command, entreaty, desire, request, &c, as, "follow me," "grant our request." In this mood we employ the verbal root without any inflexion. It has only one person, the second (singular and plural). In the oldest southern English the plural took the termination -th. Some languages inflect the imperative mood for all persons. We have a substitute for the first and third persons in the use of let ; " let me call," " let him call." In old English let = cause. Formerly the Subjunctive had the sense of the Imperative, traces of which we have in such expressions as, "But/a// I first Amongst my sorrows, ere my treacherous hand, Touch holy things. " Beaumont and Fletcher, The Maid's Tragedy, Act. iii. Sc. I. '* My soul turn from them, turn we to survey." Goldsmith, Trav. 165. "Fall he that must beneath his rival's arms." — Fope. The Infinitive mood is an abstract noun, and has no inflexions for voice, mood, &c. ; as, " to see" " to know." See p. 164 for a fuller treatment of the Infini- tive Mood. Participles are verbal adjectives, and always refer to some noun in the sentence. Many adjectives take a participial form in -ing, or -ed, or -en. See § 76, p. 59- " Thou to the untamed horse Didst use the conquering bit ; And here the well-shaped oar, By skilled hands deftly plied, X..] VERBAL MOODS. 133 Still leapeth through the sea, Following in wondrous guise The fair Nereids with their hundred feet." Plumptre's (Edipus at Colomis. A Verbal Noun in -ing (O.E. -ung), often cor- responds to a Latin gerund, as " he thanked him for saving his life." Here saving is not a participle, because "for saving" represents an older, "for the saving of" " Thonkyng him for the saving of his life." Gesta Rom. p. 7. " In knowing of the tid of day." Chaucer, Astrolabe, p. 19. M Concerning the means of procuring unity, men must beware that in the procuring or rnunitingof religious unity, they do not dissolve and deface the laws of charity and of human society." — Bacon, Essays, 3. Here procuring — the procuring of . In such expressions as a "walking stick" " the church-going bell," the words walking and going are verbal nouns. In the earlier periods these nouns in -ing were preceded by various pre- positions — an, a, on, in, at, to. " He sent Ancus his sones an hontynge." Treznsa, Hi. 87. " We han a wyndowe a wirchyng." Piers Plowman, B. p. 34. " He fel on slepynge." Generides, 201. 11 While it was in doynge." Trevisa, iii, 97. " While it was in workyng." Hardyng. ** At huntyng he sleugh his father." lb. 134 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. " If she were going to hanging, no gallows should part us." Massinkjer, Virgin Martyr, n. 3. " Hou hue Absolon to hongynge brouhte." Piers Plowman, C. p. 64. These verbal nouns may take an adjective or a demonstrative before them. They may also be used like an ordinary noun as the subject or object of a sentence. Tense. 181. Verbs undergo a modification to indicate time. These forms are called Tenses. In the oldest period the verb was inflected for the present and perfect tenses only. There was in O.E. no distinct form for the future, its place being supplied by the present. Cp. " he goes to town to-morrow." There were, however, traces of a past indefinite tense formed by the verb was, and the imperfect participle. The perfect and past tenses were expressed by one form. In the thirteenth century we find the modern future expressed by the auxiliaries shall and will. In the fourteenth century we find (1) the present imperfect (continuous) formed by the verb be, and the present participle \ (2) the perfect expressed by the auxiliary have and the passive participle ; as well as the em- phatic form of the present and past tenses, with the auxiliary do. The growth of new forms render a fuller classifi- cation of the tenses necessary. The three simple tenses, Present, Past, and Future, have four varieties, (1) indefinite, (2) imperfect, (3) per- fect, (4) perfect continuous. The fourth variety belongs only to the Active Voice. X.] VERBAL TENSES. 135 in W en W H to O a « Pk U 9 i & § o a P. c 8 U bfl c > 43 as 4a 5 £ 43 bo 2 bjO a bo CO g ■ CO E 2 Q* .0 CO 5=3 1 .a CO 2 a, as 43 1 3 136 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. For I praise and I praised we sometimes use I do praise, I did praise, which are mostly em- phatic. (See Do under the heading, Auxiliary Verbs.) In the modern stage of the language verbs undergo change of form only for the present and past tenses. Number. 182. Verbs are modified to express the number and person of the subject. There are two num- bers, Singular and Plural ; and three persons in each number, First, Second, and Third. In- flexions for number have all disappeared, except in the verb to be. The person-endings are preserved only in the singular number of the present and past tenses of the Indicative mood. For the origin of the inflexions that mark person, see Verbal Inflexions, § 200, p. 159. Conjugation. 183. Verbs are classified, according to their mode of expressing the past tense, into Strong and Weak Verbs. Strong Verbs form their past tense by change of the root vowel ; nothing is added to the root, as, fall, fell, fallen. All passive participles of strong verbs once ended in -en ; but this ending has been dropped in very many passive participles of this conjugation. Weak Verbs form their past tense by adding to the root of the present the letter -d, or -t. The vowel X.] STRONG VERBS. 137 e sometimes serves to unite the suffix -d to the root. The passive participles of Weak Verbs end in -d, or -t. Verbs that have vowel change in the past tense, as well as the suffix -d, are not strong verbs. The vowel change in told, bought, taught, has not the same origin as that in strong verbs. The strong conjugation includes the oldest verbs in the lan- guage. Because this process of vowel change is no longer a regular one, we call these verbs irregular. Very many strong verbs have disappeared from the language : many have gone over altogether to the weak conjugation ; some have become weak in the past tense, others in the passive participle. A few have lost their past tense and have taken the passive participle instead, as bit from bitten instead of boot (= he did bite), while others again have lost their old past participle, and have taken instead of it the past tense, as, stood for standen. Strong Verbs. Origin of Vowel Change in the Past Tense, 184. The oldest mode of forming the perfect tense in the Indo-European languages was by reduplication, as, TT£~evya, &c, Lat. pe-pendi, &c. We have only one verb of this class in modern English, the verb did. Cp. Lat. dedi. In the oldest stages of the language, reduplicated forms were more numerous, as heht (our hight), called, from hatan, to call. The Gothic haihait, shows the reduplication more plainly than the O.E. heht. On comparing the Gothic verb haihald with the O.E. heold y and our held, we see that vowel change has i 3 8 HISTORICAL EiVGIJSn CRAMMAR. [Chap. arisen out of an original reduplication ; but we are not able to trace all the past tenses of strong verbs to an earlier reduplicated form. Those that can be so traced form a class by themselves, which we shall call the First Division, and the remainder, the Second Division. First Division. 185. The first division consists of two classes of verbs, (1) those whose passive participles preserve the vowel of the present; (2) those whose passive parti- ciples have vowel change. 186. Division I.— Class I. Pres. a, 0, ea e fall hang hold blow know fell hung held blew knew grow throw grew threw crow beat crew [crowed 1 ] beat gang mow [went] [mowed] Past Pass. Part. a, o sow hew [sowed] [hewed] fallen hung held, holden blown known grown thrown crown [crowed] beaten gone [mowed] mown sown [hewed] hewn Pres. ea, a, o fealle hange healde blawe cnSwe growe thr&we crawe beate gange niawc sSwe heawe O.E. Past eo, e feoll heng heold bleow cneow greow threow creow beot geong seow heow Pass. Part ea, a feallen hangoui healden blawen cnawen gr6wen thrawen crawen beSten gangen miwen s&wen heawen (1) The following verbs once belonged to this class : flow, fold, low, leap, let, row, span, sleep, sweep, walk, well weep. (2) As early as the fourteenth century we find weak past tense? of the verbs know, blow, grow, leap, walk. (3) Fold. In the English Bible {Nahum x. 10) we find p. p. folden. Cotgrave has unfolden. 1 The words in brackets are the ordinary forms now in use. X.] STRONG VERBS. 139 (4) Held, is an instance of a passive participle being replaced by a past tense. This arose through the dropping of en in holden, which left hold as the passive participle, in no wise differing in form from the present tense. Cp. stood for stand = standen. (5) Hew retained its strong past tense as late as the sixteenth century. " And (he) hew it al to smal peces." — St. Juliana, p. 85. "And the yere folowynge Kyng Wyllyam hewe downe moche of tie wood." — Fabyan, Chronicle, p. 250. Hewn and mown are mostly used as adjectives, as, " hewn stones," " mown grass." (6) Hang. The old preterite was heng (See Chaucer, Prol. 1. 160). The past hung seems to have arisen from the M.E. form of the past participle hongen (pronounced like the in some). 11 Me ]>ou3te I saw a wyn-tre On J>is tre, on vche a bow3e Henge grapes Jncke ynow3e : Of ]x> grapes J?at pere hong In a coupe me Jxm^te I wrong." Cursor Mundi, T. 1. 441 3. Hardyng {Chronicle, p. 310) uses hong for hung (p. p.) :— " On Sainct Andrewes day thei wer drawe and hong." " With ropes were thou bounde and on the gallowe honge." Fabyan, Chronicle, p. 430. (7) Sew = sewed. " An husband that seu god sed apon his land." — Met. Horn. p. 145. (8) Welk = walked. " A man welk thoru a wod his wai " — Cursor Mundi, Edin- burgh MS. " And than we welk forth."— Paston Letters, ed. Gairdner, vol. i. p. in. (9) Leep (lep) = leaped. 1 For which his hors for feere gan to turne, And leep asyde, and foundred as he leep. " Chaucer, Knightes Tale, 1. 1828* I4o HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. (10) Flowed. The O. E. fleow became in E. E. fleaw, fleau ; in M. E. flew is used as the past of fly ox flee. " The flood that ovyrflew al the world."— CAFGRAVE, p. 1 7. (11) Slep = steeped. "Thre daies step he al on-on." — O.E. Misc. p. 24. (12) Wep = weeped. " Swiche teares wep ure drihten." — O.E. Horn. II. p. 145. 18; r. Division I. — Class II. O.E. Pres. Past Pass. Part. Pres. Past Pass. Part. i a, u, ou u, ou i a u begin began begun on-ginne x on-gann on-gunnen cling clang [clung] clomb clung clinge clang clungen climb [climbed] climbe clamb clumben [climbed] drink drank drunk drince dranc druncen run ran run rinne, yrne ran, arn runnen swim swam swum swimme swamm swummen spin span [spun] spun spinne spann spunnen sing sang sung singe sang sungen shnnk shrank shrunk since sane suncen sink sank sunk scrince scranc scruncen fling flang [flung] flung — — — sling slang[slung] slung — — — ring slink rang slunk rung slung hringe hrang hrungen spring sprang sprung springe sprang sprungen sting stang[stung stung stinge stang stungen swing swang [swung] wrang swung swinge swang swungen wring wrung wringe wrang wrungen [wrung] win wan [won] won — — — bind bound bounden [bound] binde band bunden find found found finde fand funden fight fought fought — — — grind ground ground grind e grand grunden wind wound wound — — — e O O e ea O help holp [helped] hoi pen [helped] helpe healp holpen melt molt [melted] molten [melted] melte mealt molten swell [swelled] swollen [swelled] burst swelle sweal swollen burst burst | berste bearst borsten 1 All these verbs had a plural form in Q : — vot clunqon, &c = we clung. X.] STRONG VERBS. 141 (1) To this class once belonged bellow, burn, ding, delve, carve, milk, mourn, starve, swallow, stint, spurn, thrash, wink, yield. (2) Bounden, drunken, molten, shrunken, sunken, are still occasionally used as adjectives. (3) The forms in u {spun, clung) have arisen from the passive participle. (4) The ou in bound, &c. stands for an older o or a. This ou is probably due to the u in the past participle which in M.E. became ou ; thus the O.E.funden = M.E. founden. Cp. O.E. cu, hu — M.E. cou, hou = Eng. cow, how. (5) Clomb = climbed. "So clomb this first grand thief into God's fold." Milton, Paradise Lost, iv. 192. " We forded the river, and clomb the high hill." Byron, Siege of Corinth, 1. 6. (6) Swal = swelled. "And [he] swalle and become grete." La Tour Landry, p. 37. " Hir thought it swal so sore about hir hert." Chaucer, C. T. 1. 6549. (7) Dalf = delved. " When Adam dalve and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman ? " Pilkington, p. 125 ; see Piers Plowman, B. vi. 193. " Whenne thei be dolven in her den." Babees Book, p. 52. (8) Halp = helped. " This good lady she halpe." La Tour Landry, p. 136. "Those that be in hell cannot be holpen by it [prayer]."— Grindal, Rem. p. 34. 142 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. (9) Yald = yielded. "He yalde ayen the sight unto this good man." — La Tour Landry, p. 102. "He yald hym creaunt to Crist." Piers Plowman, ed. Wright, 1. 7810, B. xii. 193. Surrey has the old past participle yolden ; Fabyan has yolded. (10) Foughten = fought {p.p.). " This yere was the felde of Dykysmew foughten." — Fabyan, p. 683. " On thefoughten field." MlLTON, Paradise Lost, vi. 410. (il) Malt = melted. " And the metalle be the hete of the fire malt." Capgrave, p. 9. (12) Dang = dinged. " That thai suld tak kobille stanes, And ding his teth out all at anes ; And when thai with the stanes him dang, He stode ay laghand tham omang." MS. Harl. 4196, fol. 170. (13) Carf = carved. " And carf byioxw his fader at the table." Chaucer, Prol. 1. 100. " Tho was he corven out of his harneys." The Knightes Tale, L 183S. (14) Starf = starved, died, " — Kyng Capaneus That starf at Thebes." lb. 1. 935- (15) Wonk = winked. " He wonk, and gan about hyme to behold." Lancel. of the Laik, 1. 1058. (16) Burst (past) has come in through the old p. p. borstcn or bursten. The true past is brast or barst. " And ute as a brok it brast ]>e strand." Cursor Mundi, 1. 6392. x.] STRONG VERBS. M3 188. Second Division. Division II. — Class I. Pres. ea (i)bear break shear speak steal tear (2) come Past o(a) bore, bare* broke, brake* [sheared] spoke, spake* stole tore, tare* came Pass. Part. o born broken shorn [sheared] spoken stolen torn come Pres. e bere stele tere cume O.E. Past baer scacr stael taer com Pass. Part. o boren stolen toren cumen (1) The old verbs nim (take), quell once belonged to this class. (2) The O.E. se became in M.E. a (cp. the archaic forms bare, spake, brake), and o. (3) The n of the p.p. in M.E. was often dropped in all dialects except the Northern. We find in Shakespeare many instances of these curtailed forms, as, broke, spoke, stole, for broken, spoken, stolen. (4) Shear. The old past tense was share or shore. " First he shar a- two here throtes."— Havelok, 1. 141 3. 189. Division II.— Class II. O.E. Pres. Past Pass. Part. Pres. Past Pass. Part. i a i i, e se, (ea) e (1 )bid bade, bid bidden, bid bidde baed beden give gave given gife liege geaf gifen lie lay lien,* lain laeg legen sit sat sat sitte saet seten e a, (ee), e a, (0) ea, (ee,) (2 )eat ate eaten ete act cten get gat, got gotten,* got -gite -geat -geten tread trod trodden, trod trede tracd treden see saw seen seo, seohe seah ge-sen weave wove woven wefe waef wefen quoth — cwethe cwaeth cweden — was — [wese] waes weseu Words marked t ius * are archaic 144 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. (i) Quoth is now used as a present tense. The root of the present is seen in bequeathe^ the old preterite of which was biquath : — " [He] biquath his serke to his love." Gest. Rom. 23. (2) Fret, knead, wreak, and mete (measure), once belonged to this conjugation. (3) The old form lien occurs in Gen. xxvi. 10, Ps. lxviii. In Tyndall it is spelt lyne, lyen. (4) The past tenses of wreak in M.E. were wrek and wrak ; p.p. ywroken. Spenser uses the p.p. wroken. Surrey has un- wroken — unrevetiged. (5) The o in trod, got, quoth, arises out of M.E. a = O.E. = ae. (6) Scott ( Waverley, xi. ) has eat = ate. Shakespeare {King John 1. 1.), has eat = eaten; O.E. se becomes M.E. e(ee), as well as a ; hence M.E! eet = eat = ate. " Butter and bred thai ete al-sua." C. Mundi, G., 1. 2715. " Butter and breed thei eet also." — lb. T. 190. Division II.— Class III. Pres. Past Pass. Part. Pres. Past Pass. Part a 0, 00, e a(o) a a awake awoke awoke wace woe wacen forsake forsook forsaken lade [laded] laden[laded] hlade hldd hladen grave, [graved] [graved] grafe gr6f grafen engrave graven stand stood stood stande stdd standen shave [shaved] shaven [shaved] scaf sc6f scafen shake shook shaken scace sc6c scacen swear swore sworn swerige swor swore n take took taken tace t8c tacen draw drew drawn drage sleanhe droh dragen sleahhcu slay slew slain slOh (1) To this class of verbs once belonged ache, bake, fare, gnaw, heave, laugh, shape, step, wade, wash, wax, yelL (2) The past tense is often used for the past participle, as mistook = mistak'n {Jul. Cwsar t I. 2; Milton's Arcades), X.] STRONG VERBS. 145 shook = shaken {Paradise Lost, vi., 219); stood has taken the place of the p.p. standen, or stonden. (3) Sware for swore occurs in Mark, vi. , 23. The a is not original, but probably arose through the M.E. swar—swer, which caused it to be classed with spake, bare, &c. Cp. 1. 161 8 in Cursor Mundi, where "he suar his ath " in Cotton MS. (Nor- thern dialect) = "he swor an ooth" in Trin. MS. (Midland dialect). (4) Bake. The old p.p baken occurs in Levit. ii. 4. " myn hungir book thi blisful breed." Pol. Re/. Love Poems, p. 191. " — benes and bren ybaken togideres." Piers Plowman, vi. B. 184, p. 102. (5) Gnaw was once conjugated like draw, slay. In M.E. we find gnow and gnew ; gnew was used late in the sixteenth century. The p.p. be-gnawn occurs in the Taming of the Shrew, iii. 2. " J>at best gnow up al bidene." — Cursor Mundi, G. 1. 6043. " So depe hi [rasours] wode and gnowe." — St. Juliana, p. 85. (6) Heave. For heaved we sometimes find hove and heft. The O.E. pret. was hdf. E.E. hcef, heof, hef, M.E. hef, hove. " She hef hir heued heyer." — Chaucer, Boethius, 1. 5141. " Ure lafdi this daiwas hoven into heuene." — O.E. Horn. II. p. 167. (7) Shape. The old past tense shope, was in use in the sixteenth century. " I shoop me into shroudes." Piers Plowman, B. Prol. 2. " But at the last god shope a remedy." Hickscorner, p. 1 63, ed. 1874. The p.p. occurs in mis-shapen, illshapen. SeePs. Ii. 5. (8) Grave. We have the old p.p. as an adjective in **a graven image." I 4 6 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. The verb to grave once signified to bury. " In Ebron hir grof Abraham, Thar first was, graven hali Adam." C. Mundi, G. 1. 3213. (9) Lade. We find as passive participle loden, loader), A3 well as laden. (10) Wash. The old p.p. was retained very late in tin- washen. " Hir body wessch with water." Chaucer, Knightes Tale, 1. 1425. (11) Wax to grow. Spenser has wox past, and woxen p.p., waxen = grown, occurs in Gen. xix. 13, Lev. xxv. 39. " J>ai stod ban still and wex no more." Cursor Mundi, 1, 142a 191. Division II. — Class IV. Prks. Past Pass. Part. Prks. Past Pass, Part. i (long) i (short) i a i a-bide abode ab©de,abiden* bide bad biden bite bit bitten bite bSt biten drive drove driven drife dr&f drifen chide chode,* chid chidden, cide did ciden ride rode, rid* ridden, rid ride r£d riden rise rose risen rise ris risen rive rove [rived] riven [rived] shine shone shone seine scan scinen shrive shrove shriven scrife scraf gescrifen Slide did slidden, slid slide slad sliden smite smote, smit* smitten smite smat smiten stride strode stridden strithe strith strithen thrive throve, thrived thriven, throve* — write wrote, writ* written, writ* write wrSt writen strike struck struck, stricken strtce strSc stricen strive strove striven "" " •~ — Obsolete. X.] STRONG VERBS. 147 (1) To this class once belonged gripe, flite (strive), glide, reap, slit, spew, sigh, wreathe. (2) The o in this class of verbs stands for an older a, which occurs in the archaic forms drave {Josh, xvi. 10, Spenser, F. Q. VI. vii. 12); strake {Acts, xxvii. 17); strave (Surrey). (3) Bit (cp. the old past tenses rid, slid, writ, smit), is bor- rowed from the pass, participle. The true form is bot, or boot. "The serpent boot the grehounde grevously." Gest. Rom. 87. (4) Shone, abode, struck (p.p.) show how the past tense has replaced the older passive participle. " Till the sunne haveth sinen." = Till the sun hath shone. O.E. MiscelL p. 1. " Yf he had abyden at home." La Tour Landry, p. 170. M Well stricken in years." Luke i. 7 ; see Ps. liii. 4. Shakespeare has, " Struck in years. "—Rich. III. i. 1. (5) Wreathen sometimes occurs as the p.p. of wreathe, of writhe. " Wreathen hair." Latimer; sea Exodus, xxviii. 14, 22, 24, 25. The M.E. past of wrethe was wrooth or wroth. In the sixteenth century we find writhe used as a past tense. " He writhe her necke in sonder." Stubs, The Anatomic of Abuses, p. 67, ed. 1585. (6) " Hegrop [griped] an axe, that was ful god." Havelok, 1. 1776. (7) " I thair chaulis raf [rived] in tua." Cursor Mundi, G. p. 433. (8) " He slod [slid] sli 3 le a-down." Will, of Palerne, 1. 792. (9) " The vapour, which that of the erthe glod [glided]." Chaucer, C. T I. 10707. (10) M And Jacob chode -with. Laban." Gen. xx xi. 36. 1. a 14? HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Division II. — Class V Pres. Past Pass. Part. Pres. Past Pass. Part. ee, oo o O eo ea O freeze froze frozen freose frcas froren teethe sod* [seethed] sodden, sod* [seethed] seothe seath soden cleave clove [cleft] cloven[cleft] cleofe cleaf clofen choose chose chosen ceose ceas coren lose [lost] [lost] lorn,* forlorn leose leas loren shoot shot shot, shotten* sceote sceat scoten fly flew flown tieoge,fleohe fleah flogen (i) Many weak verbs once belonged to this class, as, brook, bow, brew, chew, creep, crowd, dive, flee, fleet (float), lie lose, lock, greet, knot, reek, rue, shove, smoke, snow, suck, slip, tug. (2) Clave occurs in the Bible for clove {Gen. xx. 3). Cloven has now only an adjectival force, as in "cloven foot" " It [sea] clef \ckiue C] and gaf him redi gate." Cursor Mundi, G. 1. 6262. Cleave, "to cling to," is a weak verb, yet clave is found in Ruth, i. 14, as its past tense. (3) Lorn = losen, and forlorn = forlosen, are archaic forms. In the O.E. p.p. the s has passed into an r (cp. was and were, &c). " After he had fair Una lorn" Spenser, F. Q. i. 42. " Thritti yeir es siben gan bat i mi sun had losen dere." — Cursor Mundi y C. 1. 5363. (4) Froren = frozen. "My heart blood is well m^a froren (frozen) I feel." lb. Shep. Cal, Feb. " The parching air Burns frore ( — frozen) and cold performs th' effect of fire." Milton, Par. Lost, " A froren mur [wall]." — O.E. Miscell. p. 151. (5) Chosen has replaced the old p.p. coren. " For hir childe thenne sho him chees." Cursor Muwtt, T. 1. 5O tf. X] STRONG VERBS. 149 " He is to-fore alle othre i~coren." O.E. Misc. p. 98. (6) Seethe. In the Bible {Gen. xxv. 29), sod = bailed occurs as the past tense. * * Wortes or other herbes .... The whiche sche schredde and seeth for hir lyvinge." Chaucer, The Clerkes Tale, 1. 227. " Some (fisch) thei solde and some thei sothe." Piers Plowman, B. xv. 288. " Ysothe or ybake."— lb. p. 278. *' I force not whether it be sodden or roast." The Four Elements, p. 35, ed. 1874. 11 Of all manner of dishes both sod and roast." — lb. p. 25. (7) " Hit sncw [snowed] to hem as hit were floure." Cursor Mundi, T. 1. 638 1. 192. Some verbs that have now strong past tense or passive participle, were once weak. 1 Pres. Past Pass. Part. betide betid* [betid] dig hide dug digged* hid dug digged* hidden, [hid] rot 6how stick [rotted] [showed] [shewed] stuck rotten shown [shewed, showed] stuck stack* — strew [strewed] strown spit spit,* spat spat, spitten* saw [sawed] sawn wear wore worn ware* The past tenses betid, hid, spit, spat, are only apparently strong. The M.E. forms betid-de, hid-de, spit-te, spat-te, (cp. swat-te, sweated) were weak. 1 Forms marked thus * are archaic. Forms in brackets are weak. ISO HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. 193. Alphabetical List of Strong Verbs." Pres. Past Pass. Part. abide abode abode arise arose arisen awake awoke awoke awaked* awaked bake — baken baked baked bear (bring forth) bore, bare* born bear (carry) bore, bare* borne beat beat beaten begin began begun behold beheld beholden, beheld bid bade, bid bidden, bid bind bound bounden,* bound bite bit bitten, bit blow blew blown break broke, brake* broken burst burst burst, burst en • chide chode,* chid chidden, chid choose chose, chase* chosen cleave (split) clove cloven clave* — cleft cleft cling clung clung climb clomb — climbed climbed cling clang clung come came come crow crew crown crowed crowed do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk, drunken drive drove, drave* driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen 1 The forms in italics are weak, archaic. Those marked • thus are X.] STRONG VERBS. 15« Prcs. Past Pass. Part. fight fought foughten*, fought find found found fling flung, flang* flung fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten forgat* forgot* forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen from, frore* get got, gat* got, gotten give gave given go went gone grave graved graven en-grave en-graven* engraved engraved grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung hung hanged hanged heave hove — heaved heaved help — holpen helped helped hew — hewn hewed hewed hold held held, holden know knew known lade — laden, loaden laded laded lie lay lain, lien* lose — lorn, forlorn lost lost melt — molten melted melted mow — mown mowed mowed ride rode, rid* ridden, rid* ring rang, rung* rung 152 HISTORfCAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Pres. Past Pass. Part rise rose risen rive — riven rived rived run ran run see saw seen seethe sod sodden, sod* seethed seethed shake shook shaken shave shaved shaven, shaved shear sheared, shore* shorn, sheared shine shone shone shined shined* shoot shot shot, shotten* shrink shrank shrunk shrunk 11 shrunken sing sang, sung* sung sink sank sunk, sunken sit sat sat, sitten* slay slew slain slide slid slid, slidden sling slung, slang* slung slink slunk slunk smite smote, smit* smitten, smit* sow — sown sowed sawed speak spoke, spake* spoken spin spun, span* spun spring sprung, sprang sprung stand stood stood steal stole, stale* stolen sting stung, ; stang* stung stink stank stunk stride strode, strid* stridden strike struck struck stricken strive strove striven swear swore sware* sworn swell swelled swollen, swelled x.] WEAK" VERBS. «51 Pres. Past Pass. Part swim swam, swum* swam swing swung swung take took taken tear tore, tare* torn thrive throve thriven thrived thrived throw threw thrown tread trod trodden, trod wake woke — waked waked weave wove woven win won, wan* won wind wound wound wring wrung, wrang* wrung write wrote, writ* Weak Verbs. written 194. The strong conjugation comprehends all primitive verbs ; to the weak belong all derivative and borrowed verbs. The weak conjugation is sometimes called the regular con- jugation, because the formation of the past tense of weak verbs by means of the suffix d, is the ordinary method now in use. The method of forming the past tense by reduplication and by vowel change, is quite obsolete. Children and uneducated persons often make the strong verbs conform to the weak con- jugation, and say seed for saw, &c. We have done exactly the same with r«gard to many old verbs, as, shoved for shof, brewed for brew, &c. 195. Weak Verbs form their past tense by means of the suffix -d or -t. In old English we find that this ending had a longer form -de, as, Ic ner-e-de / saved. This -de represents a more primitive dede = did, which is the past tense, (formed by reduplication) of the verb do. I loved = I love-did ; thou lovedest = thou love-didst, &c. 154 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. 196. The suffix -d is united to the root by the con- necting vowel -e, as, lov-e-d, command-e-d. (1) The connecting vowel, though preserved in writing, is dropped in pronunciation, except when the verbal root ends in a dental. Thus we loved, praised, thanked, are pronounced lovd, praizd, thankt ; but in commanded, and lifted, the -ed has, necessarily, its full pronunciation. The verbs of this class in O. E. had the radical vowel short. For the reason of the change of d to t, see § p. 63, 45. 197. The passive participles also end in d or t. This suffix has not the same origin as the d of the past tense. 198. The following verbs have no connecting vowel, and are sometimes called contracted verbs : — (2) a. Before the addition of the suffix -d, the radical vowel is shortened. Pres. Past Pass. Part, hear heard heard shoe shod shod flee fled fled b. If the root ends in d, the suffix -d is dropped, and the radical vowel is shortened. feed fed fed lead led led read red red In the O.E. the past tenses of a and b were the same : cp. O.E. Inf. Past Pass Part. a. hyr-an (hear) hyr-de hyr-ed fed -an (feed) fed-de fed-ed b. laM-an (lead) l&d-de led-ed Flee was originally strong, see p. 140 ; meet, met, met has con- formed to lead, &c. Cp. O. E. mHan, mH-te, t/ift-ed. X.]. WEAK VERBS. 155 In E.E. we find the shortened p.p. fed, led, &c. The loss of the final e of the past tense, in the fifteenth century, reduced the past tense and the p.p. to the same form : thus, ledde became ledd, or led. In some few verbs ending in a liquid, or combination of liquids, t has replaced the older d. Inf. Past Pass. Part. feel felt felt deal dealt dealt smell smelt smelt mean meant meant dream dreamt dreamt burn burnt burnt d&l-an d&l-de gedaM-ed bcern-an bcern-de boern-ed Cp. O.E. (3) The suffix -d (-t) is often dropped after d, t, st, rt, ft, and the present, past, and passive participle, are identical in form. rid rid rid shred shred shred set set set shut shut shut cut cut cut put put put hurt hurt hurt lift lift 1 lift thrust thrust thrust cast cast cast In O. E. rid and set were Inf. Past Pass. Part, a-hreddan ahred-de a-hredd-ed sett-an set-te sett-ed, set Shut, put, shred, spread, were perhaps similarly conjugated Cut, put, hurt, lift, &c. are not found in O. E. In Middle English the past tense had a form distinct from In the English Bible. 156 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. the pass, participle, as, ridde, shredde, sette, cutte, &c. We have now longer forms for some of the M.E. shorter ones ; cp. reste = rested ; wette — wetted \ &c. O.E. scyl-de = shielded ; stylte = stilted. (4) The suffix -t replaces d after p, f, s, ch, v. The radical vowel, if long, is shortened. Inf. Past Pass. Part. creep crept crept weep wept wept kiss kist kist lose lost lost pitch pight pight* leave left left cleave cleft cleft The v in leave, cleave, bereave, was originally f. In M.E. crept, wept in the past tense were crepte, wepte : and also crep, wep, (strong forms). (5) Verbs ending in Id, nd, rd, changed the d of the root into t, and the tense suffix is dropped. build built built gild guilded, gilt gilt bend bent bent send sent sent gird girt girt The t in the past tense of built, &c., stands for an original d + de, which became de, then te, and, lastly, t. This last change took place during the fourteenth century. In Elizabethan writers we meet with the longer forms, builded, &c, and we have also two participial forms, the contracted, and the uncontracted, with slightly different meanings, as, gilt and gilded, bent and bended, blent and blended. In O. E. we find only the long forms of the p. p. , as, gyrd-ed, send-ed, &c. (6) Some few verbs have vowel-change with the addition of d or t in the past tense. • Archaic. X.] WEAK VERBS. 157 (a) tell told told sell sold sold (b) seek sought sought teach taught taught The change of vowel in these verbs is not the same as that in the strong verbs. It is the present that has changed. The root of tell is tal, which we preserve in tale, and tal-k. Cp. sell and sale. Between the root and the infinitive suffix there was once an i, which turned the a to e ; thus, root tal, whence tali-en, modified to teli-en or tell-en. Cp. man, men. The o in told, sold, represents the older a of tale, talk, which was never modified by the lost suffix -i. The t in sought, &c, is due to the sharp k or c in seek. Under the influence of t, the guttural has become h, or gh. In the seventeenth century we find rought, raught, straught, the past tenses of reck, reach, stretch. In M.E. we had roughte — recked ; raughte — reached; straughte = stretched ; laughte = latched, seized. The verbs of this class were in O. E. contracted in past tense and pass. part. 199. The following weak verbs have some pecu- liarities that need explanation. Catch, caught, caught. This verb of Norman- French origin has followed the past tense &c. of E.E. lacchen, to catch, take ; lahte (past). Analagous to caught we find fraught, as well as freighted ; and distraught for distracted; also raught — reached in Shakespeare, Loves Labour Lj?st, IV. 2, 41 ; raught also = reft. Cp. 2 Hen. VL. 11. 3, 43. M I raught his head from his body." Pierce Penilesse, p. 82. Clothe, clad, clad. In O.E. we find clcithian, (inf.) dathode (past), clathod (p.p.), = M.E. clothe (det/ie), dothede (clethcde, dcdde\ ded y dad. In M.E. we find ledde, ladde, = led, which has pro- bably led to dad through ded s= dedde = det/ide. 158 HISTORIC A J, ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Make, made, made. Made lost its radical k as early as the thirteenth century. In the fourteenth we find in the Northern dialects ma (inf ) and mas — makes. Cp. M.E. ta •=. to take, tas =z takes, tan = taken. Have, had, had; O.E. habban, hcefde, hafed; E.E. have, hefde {hedde, hadde), ihafd (ihad). There was also a short form ha, to have, from which comes has =z haves. In the M.E. Northern dialect we find has. See Bruce, xiii. 642, (ed. Skeat). Say, said, said ; O.E. secgan, scegde, scegd. Lay, laid, laid ; O.E. lecgan, lecgde, lecgd. In say, lay (M.E. seye,, /eye), the y represents the older eg (g). Buy, bought, bought ; O.E. byegan, bohte, boht. In M.E. buggen, bugge = to buy : and here the y re- presents an older g which makes its appearance in the past tense. Cp. slay and slaughter. Think, thought, thought ; O.E. thencan, tlwhte, thoht. The n is not radical; cp. gauge and^/ stand and stood. (Me)thinks, (me)thought, (me)thought ; O.E. thyncth, thuhte, th&ht. Work, wrought, wrought; O.E. wyrcan, worhte, worht. Wrought, as a past tense, is almost superseded by the more modern form, worked. Went was originally the past tense of wend. O.E. wendan, to turn, go. It replaced the O.E. eo-de t M.E. iede, zode, yode (past tense of the root i to go). Go (old form gang) was originally a strong verb, as is seen by its p.p. gone. Ago = agone is the p.p. of the O.E. verb agaj,, X.] VERBAL INFLEXIONS. 159 to go by, elapse. It is now used adverbially, as "a long time ago. 19 " By Saint Mary, and I wist that, I would be ago." Hickscorner, p. 167, ed. 1874. " Who, think you, brought here this figure? Certes, Lord Nature, Himself not long agone. " The Four Elements, p. 28, ed. 1874. Do, did, done, is a reduplicated verb, and of course belongs to the strong conjugation of verbs.' The Sanskrit dhd to place is cognate with English do, and its perfect dadhau is formed by reduplication, like English did. Verbal Inflexions. Personal Endings. 200. Verbs are of two kinds, primary and derivative. All the strong verbs are of primary origin; the weak verbs are of secondary formation. To bpar is a pri- mary verb, because it is formed directly from the root, bar; but tell, as we have seen (p. 157), is formed from the nominal theme, tale, and is therefore a de- rivative verb. The root is the significant element in the verb, to which are added endings to mark person, tense, or mood. Sometimes the personal terminations are added directly to the verbal root, as in do-st, do-th, or by means of a connecting vowel, as in lov-e-st, lov-e-th. The person-endings were originally pronominal roots placed after, and compounded with, the verbal 160 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. root or theme, as if we were to say love-I, love- thou, love-he, &c. 201. The suffix of the first person singular, was originally m (for mt), which we still retain in the verb, a-m. Cp. Lat. su-m, Gr. cl-pi, Sansk. as-mi = I am, Ger. bin, O.H.G. pirn, O.E. (Northern) beom, I be. 202. The suffix of the second person singular is -st ; it was originally -t, which can be traced back to a suffix -ti, identical in origin with the root of thou. In the subjunctive mood this suffix is altogether lost. The original t occurs in shal-t, wil-t, ar-t. Strong verbs in O.E. lost this t of ti, and the second person singular ends only in e ; as, heold-e = held-e-st, didst hold. This -st belonged only to weak verbs in the earliest period, but it was gradually extended to strong verbs in the fourteenth century. 203. The suffix of the third person is -th (the root of the, tha-t) — he, that. As early as the eleventh century, in the Northern dialects, th was softened to s ; but the former is now archaic. In the past tense of strong and weak verbs, the endings in the first and third persons singular have altogether disappeared. 204. In modern English we have no plural suffixes. In O.E. the indicative present plural of all persons ended in -th (originally the ending of the second person plural), as (1) ber-a-th ; (2)ber-a-th ; (3)ber-a-th. The past indicative and the subjunctive (present and past) ended all their persons in -n (the original suffix of the third person plural) j as, subjunctive pre- sent find-e-n ; indicative past, fund-o-n, and sub- junctive past, fund-e-n, or fund-o-n. X.] CONJUGATION OF OLD ENGLISH VERBS. 161 In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, we find the Southern dialect keeping -th for the present plural indicative, the Midland -n, and the Northern drop- ping all endings, or taking -s in the second and third persons. (See § 49, p. 31). In O.E. the personal endings were often dropped when the pronoun followed the verbs ; as ga ge = gath ge (go ye) ; ete we = eten we (eat we, let us eat). The plural in -en was in use up to the middle of the sixteenth century, and a few examples are to be found in Spenser and Shakespeare; Hall, (contem- porary with Milton) uses it in his Satires, eg. u And angry bullets whistlen at his ear." vi. 46. In O.E. the imperative plural ended in -th, as nim- ath, take ye. In M.E. this ending was kept up in the Midland and Southern dialects, but not in the Northern dialect, where -s was used instead of it. 205. Old English Conjugation of Verbs. STRONG VERBS. - Active Voice. Nim-an, to take. Pres. Inf. nim-an Past nam Indicative Mood. Pass. Part. num-en Present (and Future) Tense. Sing. 1. ic nim-e 2. thu nim-est %. he nim-eth Plur. we nim-ath ge nim-ath hi nim-ath 1 62 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I Chap 1. ic nam 2. thu nam-e 3. he nam Past Tense. we nam-on ge nam-on hi nam-on Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense. 1. ic nim-e 2. thu nim-e 3. he nim-e 1. ic nam-e 2. tlid nam-e 3. he nam-e Past Tense. we nim-en ge nim-en hi nim-en we nSm-en 1 ge nam-en hi nam-en Imperative Mood. Simple Inf. nim-an Dative Inf. nim-anne nim-ath Pres. Part, nim-ende Pass. Part, num-en WEAK VERBS. Active Voice. Infin. Preterite. Pas. Part ner-*-an (save) luf-t-an (love) h^r-an (hear) ner-^-de luf-0-de hyr-de ner-^-d M-o-d hyr-^-d 1 The oldest form of the past subjunctive *en t which afterwards became ~on. plural ending was X.] CONJUGATION OF OLD ENGLISH VERBS. 163 Indicative Mood. Present {and Future) Tense. Sing. 1. neri-e, lufig-e, h£r-e 2. neri-est, luf-ast, hyr-est 3. ner-eth, luf-ath, hyr-eth Plur. 1. neri-ath, lufi-ath, h^r-ath 2. neri-ath, lufi-ath, hjr-ath 3. neri-ath, lufi-ath, hyr-ath Past Tense. I. new-de, luf-0-de, h^r-de luf> luf-0-d-en, , 3. ) hyr-d-en Sing. 2. ner-e, luf-a, h£r Imperative Mood. Plur. I 2. neri-ath, lufi-ath, hjr-ath Simple Infin. neri-an, lufi-an, hjr-an Dative Infin. neri-anne, lufi-anne, hyr-anne Pres. Participle. neri-ende, lufig-ende, hjr-ende Pass. Participle. ner-i I conseille alle pe comune to lat the catte worthe." Piers Plowman, B. Prol. 1. 187. 11 To-morwe worth ymade )>e may denes bruydale." lb. II. L 43. 14 This maide werth a slepe."— Early Eng: Poems, xxi. 38. • "Archaic. x.i ANOMALOUS VERBS. 171 210. Can. Indicative Mood. Present Tense. Sing. Plur. i. can i. can 2. canst 2. can 3. can 3. can Past Tense. 1. could 1. could 2. couldst (couldest) 2. could 3. could 3. could In O.E. can was thus conjugated : — Sing. Plur. Pres. Indie. - I. can, con I. cunn-on 2. can-st 2. ,» 3. can 3. „ Past Indie. 1. cu-the I. cu-th-on 2. cu-th-est 2. „ 3. cu-the 3- „ Pres. Subj. I, 2 3. cunn-e 1, 2, 3. cunn-on Past Subj. 1, 2 3 3. cu-the 1, 2, 3. cu-th-on Pass. Part. cu-th Infin. cunn-an Can (1st and 3rd persons) has no personal suffix, because it was originally a strong form signifying / knew. Cp. shall, may, wot, &c. Coul-d (z= O.E. cu-the, M.E. couthe, cou-de) is a weak form. The letter 1 has crept in from false analogy to the past tenses of shall and will. " And the Normans ne couthe speke tho bote hor owe speche." — Spec, of E. Eng. I. A. 215. The verb can (con) once signified to be able, to knew. 172 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. w Thou shalt never conne knowen." Chaucer. " Thou schalt not kunne seie nay." Pecock, Skeafs Spec. p. 5a 11 I can many a quaint game." The World and the Child, O.E. Plays, 1. p. 245. u I trow thou canst but little skill of play." — Lb. I. p. 261. M For we be clerks all, and can our neck verse." Hickscorner, O.E. Plays t I. p. 159. 11 A mous that moche good couthe (knew)." Piers Plowman, B. p. 8. " O she could the art of woman most feelingly." Webster, ed. Dyce, p. 250. Shakespeare has "to con thanks" = to acknowledge or give thanks. " I can thee thank." — The Four Elements, O.E. Plays, I. p. 47. " So give me som thynge that I may conne the thanke for." Merlin, p. 73. " Lutel thonk ye me cuthe." — O.E. Misc. p. 81, 1. 274. " Thai conned [cund C] him ful litel thank." Cursor Mundi, F. 1. 6398. Con, learn, study [con a lesson), has conned for past tense and p.p. Cunning (adj.) = knowing, is a present participle of can, or con. It is also found as an abstract noun = knowledge, " And yhit thai er ful unkunand." IIampole, P. of C.\. 152. " Cunning Latin books." The Four Elements, 0. E. Plays, I. 7. " Works of cunning." — lb. " Nother (neither) virtue nor no other cunning." Lb. p. 22. Couth in uncouth is the old p.p. of can. See Chaucer's C. T. Prol. L 14. " Mayde to the he send (sends) his sonde (message) And wilneth (wishes) for to beo (be) the cuth (known)." O.E. Misc. p. 96, 1. 104. x.i ANOMALOUS VERBS. 173 211. Dare. Indicative Mood. Present Tense. Sing. i. dare 2. darest (dar'st) 3. dares (dare) Plur. 1. dare 2. dare 3. dare Past Tense. i. durst 2. durst 3. durst 1. durst 2. durst 3. durst Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense. Past Tense. Sing. 1, 2, 3. dare Sing. 1, 2, 3. durst Plur. 1, 2, 3. dare Plur. 1, 2, 3. durst Old English conjugation of Dare. Pres. Indie. Past Indie. Pres. Subj. Past Subj. Inf. Sing. 1. dear 2. dears -t 3. dear 1. dors-te 2. dors-t-est 3. dors-te I, 2, 3. durr-e 1, 2 t 3. dors-te durr-an Plur. 1. durr-on 2. „ 3- 1. dors-t-on 2. „ 3- I, 2, 3. durr-on 1, 2, 3. dorst-on Dare. The root is dars, which appears in the past tense, durst. The old 3rd person singular dare (M.E. dar) has given place to dares, the former being used only in 174 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. the subjunctive mood. Cp. Tempest, in. 2, Rich. II v. 5. Dare, to challenge, makes a new past tense and p.p. dared. Cp. owe, ought, and owed. 212. Shall. Indicative Mood. Present Tense. Sing. Plur. i. shall 1. shall 2. shalt 2. shall 3. shall 3. shall Past Tense. should 1. should shouldst, shouldest 2. should should 3. should Shall was conjugated in O.E. as follows : — Sing. Plur. Pres. Indie. 1. sceal 1. scul-on 2. sceal-t 2. ,, 3. sceal 3, ,, Past Indie. 1. sceol-de 1. sceol-d-on 2. sceol-d-est 2. ,, 3. sceol-de 3. „ Pres. Subj. 1, 2, 3. scyl-e 1, 2, 3. scyl-en Past Subj. 1, 2, 3. sceol-de 1, 2, 3. sceol-d-on Infin. scul-an One of the oldest senses of shall is owe. " And by that feith I shal to God and yow." Chaucer, Tr. and Cr. 1. 1600 X.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 175 " Voryef me thet ich the ssct." = Forgive me that I owe thee. Ayenbite, p. 115. " Hu micel scealt thu." = How much owest thou. Luke xvi. 5. " An, se hym sceolde tyn thusend punda." = One that owed him ten thousand pounds. Matt, xviii. 24. Another early meaning arising from the notion of debt is obligation, necessity; hence shall often signifies ought, must. " Be ure se he sceal sweltan." = By our law he ought to die. John xix. 7. " Men seyn, sche schalle endure in that forme. " Maundeville, p. 4. " Thou shalt not steal." " You should listen more attentively." It must be recollected that shall is only a tense auxiliary, that is a sign of the future, in the first person. The following doggerel lines point out the distinctive uses of shall and will. " In the first person simply shall foretells, In will a threat, or else a promise dwells ; Shall, in the second and the third, does threat ; Will simply then foretells a future feat." Grimm supposes that the original meaning of shal is / have killed^ I must pay the fine or {wergeld) ; hence, I am obliged, I must. The idea of failure, offence, guilt, is seen in Sansk. skhal, to fail ; Lat. scelus, fault, cri'me. A strange mingling of should and owe occurs in Fabyan's Chronicle, p. 257. u Obedience that he should owe ( — owed) to the see of Can- terbury." 176 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [Chap. 213. Will. Indicative Mood. I. 2. 3- Present Sing. will wilt will Tense. Plur. 1. will 2. will 3. will I. 2. 3- Past : would wouldst would T'ense. 1. would 2. would 3. would O.E. conjugation of will. Pres. Indie Fast Indie. Sing. 1. wile, wille 2. wil-t 3. wile 1. wol-de 2. wol-d-est 3. wol-de 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3- Plur. will-ath >> >> wol-d-on >> Pres. Subj. Past Subj. Infin. 1, 2, 3. wille I, 2, 3. wol-de will-an 1; Pres. 2, 3. will-en 2, 3. wol-d-on Part, will- end e The original meaning of will is to desire, wish (cp, Lat. void). In M.E. we find a form wol, will, which still survives in won't = wol not. Nill = will not, occurs in Hamlet, v. 1 ; Taming of the Shrew, ii. 1. In O.E. we find two weak verbs, willan and willian, to desire, wish. Willan survives in the verb will, to desire, be X.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 177 willing, to exercise the will, which is conjugated regularly as an independent verb: 1. will, 2. wiliest, 3. willeth, wills, &c, past tense willed. But we often find in the older periods the two forms mixed up. " Wei a3te ihc willen hire to wif." Fl. andBl. p. 67. . " They ne shuld not willen so." Chaucer, R. 6923. " Gif thu wilt, thu miht me geclsensian : Ic wille ; beo ge- claensod." = " If thou wilt, thou mayest make me clean. I will ; be cleansed." — Matt. viii. 2, 3. 11 Abraham wald in his Hue, That Ysaac had wed a wiue." Cursor Mundi, G. 1. 3215. M Abraham willed in his lyue, That Isaac hadde weddede a vvyue." lb. T. M For in evil, the best condition is not to will ; the second, not to can." — Bacon, Ess. xi. The old p.p. wold for wild, or willed, was in use as late as the beginning of the sixteenth century. " The fomy bridel with the bitte of gold, Governeth he ryght as himselfe hath wolde. " Chaucer, Leg. Didonis, 1. 284. " How be it he myghte have entred the cytie if he had wolde. ( = wished). — Fabyan, Chronicle, p. 625. 214. May. Indicative Mood. Present Tense, Plur. 1. may 2. may 3. may Sing. 1. may 2. mayst, mayest 3. may N 173 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Past Tense. Sing. Plur. i. might i. might 2. mightst,mightest 2. might 3. might 3. might The oldest forms of may are : — Plur. 1. magon 2. „ 3- « 1. meah-t-on I, 2, 3. mag-en 1, 2, 3. meah-t-on Pass. Part, meah-t Sing. Pres. Indie. 1. maeg 2. meah-t 3. mseg. Past. Indie. 1. meah-t e Pres. Subj. 1, 2, 3. mage PastSubj. 1, 2, 3. meah-te Infin. mag-an Pres. Part, mseg-ende. The y in may represents an older g (cp. Ger. tnogen). Sometimes g passes into w, hence the M.E. I mow, / may; I mought, / might; pres. part, mowende, mowynge ; pass. part, moght. May st is a new form that arose in M.E. foi mih-t, (See Chaucer's Astrolabe, p. 3). May has the force of the Lat. posse, to be able. It is the preterite of an old root mag, to increase, grow, which exists in mai-n, (O.K. mseg-en), migh-t. " Helle gatu ne mdgon ongean J>e." = Hell's gates cannot prevail against thee. Matt. xvi. 18. " Thatt ifell gast mall oferr tha Thatt folbhen barrness thaewess." = The evil ghost has power over those that follow bairns' habits. Orm. 1. p. 279. M If thou maist ony thing, help us." Wickliffk, Mark ix. 4 " Thai salle viow pas^e aywhare thai wille." IIampoi.e, P. of C. 1. 799 V X.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 179 " As nere as they shall mowe (be able)." Nat. MSS. I. 20, Hen. VII. Quoted in Earle's Phil, of Eng. Tongue, p. 284. " To lakken mowynge (power) to done yuel." Chaucer, Boethius, ed. Morris, p. 124. 215. < Dwe. Indicative Mood. Present Tense, Sing. Plur. owe i. owe 2. owest 2. owe 3. oweth 3. owe Past Tense. i. ought 2. oughtest 3. ought 1. ought 2. ought 3. ought Inf. owe Pres. Part, owing .E. forms of Owe : — Sing. Pres. Indie. 1. ah Plur. I. ag-on 2. ag-e 3. ah Past Indie. 1. ah-te 1, 2, 2. „ 3- » 3. ah-t-on Infin. ag-an ; Pres. Part, ag-ende ; Pass. Part, ag-en. In M.E. we find some new forms, as, owest ( = age) ; ought and owed ( = agen, p.p.). The original meaning of owe is to possess, have; whence the secondary notion, to Jiave as a duty, to owe, to be wider an obligation. Oughte is of course a weak past tense, and is now 1S0 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. used as a present and past tense to signify moral obligation. When owe signifies to be in debt, it is conjugated regularly. i. Owe, 2. owest, 3. owes, oweth, &c. \ past tense and p.p. owed. Ought, in older writers, is used as the past tense of owe, to be m debt. " Thu 3ulde thet thou ouhtest." = Thou didst pay what thou didst owe. Ancren Riw/e, p. 406. " He cmfbte to him 10,000 talents.'* Wickliffe, Matt, xviii. 24. " One of his fellow servants which ought him an hundred pence." — Becon, i. 154. " There of the Knight, the which that castle ought, To make abode that night he greatly was besought." Spenser, F. Q. vi. iii. 2. See Shakspeare's I Henry IV. iii. 3. Own is a derivative of owe. Examples of owe as an independent verb : — " Hwaet do ic thaet ic ece lif dge? " = What must I do that I may have everlasting life ? Mark % x. 17. M Ahte ic geweald." = Had I power. — Cced. p. 23, 1. 32. " The mon the lutel ah." =The man that has little. — La$. 3058. " To makien hire cwen of al thet he ouhte." = To make her queen of all that he possessed. Ancren Riwle, p. 390. " Steuen that the lond auht. n R. of Brunne, Chronicle, 1. 3092. M Ye shal owe and have everlasting life." Gest. Rom. p. 29. X.l ANOMALOUS VERBS. 181 " I am not worthy of the wealth I owe." AlPs Well that Ends Well, II. 5. 11 Owing her heart, what need you doubt her ear." Ford. Owe as an auxiliary appears in La3amon's Brut, 1. 8289, M he ah to don " = he has to do, he should do. " Evel owe no mon to do to other." Cursor Mundi, T. 1. 1 973. 216. Must. Must was originally the past tense of the old verb, motan (Ger. mussen) to be able, be obliged ; it is now used in all persons and tenses, to denote necessity and obligation. TheO.E. forms are:— Sinf. Pluf. Pres. Indie. I. mot I. mo-t-on 2. m6s t 2. „ 3. mot 3. „ Past Indie. 1. m6s-te 1, 2, 3. mos-t-on The old verb mot had the sense of may, can, must, &c. ; and must =: might, could, &c. In the sense of may, mot is found as late as 1522 in The World and the Child. " But Sir Frere, evil mot thou the [thrive]." O.E. Plays, ed. Hazlitt, p. 257. Spenser occasionally employs it though it had become archaic in his time (see Faerie Queenc, i. 2, 37). The s in must does not belong to the root, but was inserted to unite the suffix -t of the second person, and -te of the past tense to the root ; most (second person) = mot-s-t = mot-t. O.E. wast (knowest) = wat-s-t ; mo-s-te (past tense) = mot-s-te =mot-te ; O.E. wiste (knew) = wit-s-te = wit-te. 182 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. 217. Wit. Indicative Mood. Present Tense. I. 2. 3- Sing. wot wot [wottest] x wot [wotteth] 1. 2. 3. Plur. wot wot wot Past Tense. I. 2. 3- wist [wotted] wist wist [wotted] 1. 2. 3. wist [wotted] wist [wotted] wist [wotted] Inf. to wit Pres. Part, witting [wotting] The O.E. vritan was thus conjugated : — Sing. Plur. Pres. Indie. 1. wat I. wit-on 2. was-t 2. ,, 3. wit 1, 2, 3. „ Past Indie. 1. wis-te wis-t-on Infin. wit-an. Pres. Part, wit-ende. Pass. Part, wit-en. [M.E. iwis-t]. Wot was originally the perfect of the root wit (cp. Lat. video, Gr. olla, J kno7c>, from tcW, to see), and meant " I have seen," hence " I know." Its infinitive to wit is used now only as an adverb = namely. The pres. part, exists in wittingly. For the presence of s in wist, see must, § 216, p. 181. * The words in hrackets are later tormations. X.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 183 The pass. part, appears in unwist, unknown, undiscovered (Surrey) ; and in the old proverb, " beware of had-1-wist" i.e. " beware of saying regret- fully had I known." " Dead long ygoe, I wote, thou haddest bin." Spenser, F. Q. i. 2, 20. See Gen. xxi. 26. " But wottest thou what I say, man." The World and the Child, O.E. Plays, I. p. 264. " Again, who wotteth not what words were spoken against St. Paul."— Jewel's Apol. ed. Jelf, p. 3. See Gen. xxxix. 8. u fie wist not what to say." — Mark ix. 6. M And why he left your court, the gods themselves, wotting no more than I, are ignorant." — Winter's Tale, iii. 2. " I do thee well to wit." J. Heyv/OOD, the Pardoner and the Friar. " Wouldest thou wit ? " — Everyman, O.E. Plays, I. p. 103. " For, wit thou well, thou shalt make none attorney." — lb. " T woll handle my captive so, That he shall not well wot wither to go." Jack Juggler, O.E. Plays, II. p. 115. 2 18. Do, in " this will do," has the sense of the Lat. valcre. It represents the O.E. dugan, E.E. duhen, avail, be good, (Ger. taugen) cp. doughty =s valiant O.E. dug-an. Pres. Indie. Sing. 1. deah 2. dug-e 3. deah „ Plur. 1, 2, 3. dug-on Past. Indie. Sing. doh-te " Ring ne broche nabbe 3c. ne no swuch thing thet ou ne deih[= deahy = Have neither ring nor broach, nor any such thing that if not good for you to have. — Ancren Riwle, p. 421. " And sau that his dede litel doht [= did, availed]." Met. Horn. p. 149, 184 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. " What dowes me the dedayn." = What avails me the displeasure. Allit. Poems, p. 90. " That no3t dowed bot the deth in the depe stremez." - That nought availed, but the death in the deep streams. lb. p. 47. 219. Own ss grant, confess, has probably arisen out of O.E. an, (E.E. on) ss /grant, unn-on, we grant; O.E. unnan (Ger. gonnen), to grant " Ich on wel that 3e witen." =»=I own well that ye know. — Kath. 1 76 1. u jif thu hit wel unnest." = If thou well concedest it. — Ancren Riwle, p. 282. 220. Mun =■ shall) must. " I mun be married a Sunday." Ralph Roister Douster, before 1 5 S3. In the fourteenth century mun (mon) as an auxiliary verb ss shall, must, was very common in the Northern dialects. " I mun walke on mi way." — Ant. Arth. xxv. 3. " than mon hegyf lyght Als fer als the sone dose and ferrer." Hampole, P. of C. p. 246. 11 Thai thoght that kynd him mond forbede." =They thought that nature would forbid him. C. Mundi, C. 1. 1 105. The original meaning of mun, mon, was / have remem- bered ; hence, I intend, mind. Pres. Perf. Inf. O.E. ge-man ge-munde ge-munan (meminisse) Icel. man ) mun ) munda ) muna (recordari) munna \ munu ) (prfAAtir) mundu ( XI AUXILIARY VERBS. 185 " The hertes costes we agen to munen." = We ought to remember the hart's habits. O.E. Misc. p. 12. 1. 370. " He wolde money = He would remember. R. of Brunne, Chronicle, 1. 481 1. 221. The verb need, when followed by an infinitive, some- times loses its personal ending -s, as "it need 1 not be." In O.E. to need meant only to compel, force; but from a primitive thurfan (Ger. diirfen) to need, was formed the fol- lowing : — Pres. Indie. Sing. I. thearf I need 2. thearf- 1 Thou needest 3. thearf He needs „ „ Plur. I, 2, 3. thurf-on We need, &c. In M. E. we find thar for tharf* 11 Have thou ynough, what thar the recche or care." a= If thou have enough, why needeth thee reck or care. Chaucer, C. T. 1. 5911 Auxiliary Verbs. 222. Auxiliary verbs supply the places of verbal suffixes to form voice, mood, and tense. The passive voice is expressed by the passive par- ticiple, and the verb to be. In O.E. weorthan and wesan were used with the passive par. Uciple to form the passive voice. Should and would are often used as signs of the subjunctive mood. The use of would, as an auxiliary of the past subjunctive, is as eaily as the thirteenth century. 1 Some explain need as subjunctive = would need ; but cp. me thine in M.E. for me-thinks. 186 HISTORIC A I ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Let is a sign of the imperative mood, as, let us go = go we. See § 180, p. 132. In M.E. let was used in the same way as do = cause, make. The tense auxiliaries are (1) have, had ; and is, was (with intransitive verbs) for the perfect tenses ; as, " he has asked" " he is come." (2) Shall and will for the future ; but other shades of a future tense may be expressed by various modes, as, "I am going to see him f "I am about to see him ;" "I am upon the point of seeing him," &c. (3) Do and did are used for forming emphatic tenses, as, " I do see," " I did see." Do and did originally had a causative sense before another verb in the infinitive. " Thou most do me it have." = Thou must cause me to have it Gamelyn, 1. 159. " And som-tyme doth Theseus hem to reste." = And sometimes Theseus makes them to rest. Knightes Tale. In the fourteenth century did was not uncommon as a mere tense auxiliary. " Summe gouleden and summe dude brenne." = Some yelled and others did burn. — O.E. Misc. p. 224. In M.E. gan, can, con (began) was used for did. " His stede he gan bistride And forth he gan ride." — Horn. p. 22. " YWgunnen ut ride, And funden on a grene A geaunt." — lb. p. 22. " Gret ioi can his frendes mak[e]." Cursor Mundi, C. 1. 30 1 6. 11 Criste of hym his crowne con take." Pol. Rel. and Love Poems, p. 97, L 121. XI.l ADVERBS. 187 CHAPTER XI. Adverbs. 223. Adverbs are, for the most part, abbreviations of words or phrases, or cases of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. According to their origin or form, we may divide them into the following classes : — 224. I. Adverbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives. Genitive. — Need-s = of necessity ; M.E. nedes; E.E. nMe (instr.). A-night-s, now-a-day-s, al-way-s, be-time-s, else (O.E. elles), eft-soon-s, un-a-ware-s, on-ce, twi-ce, thri-ce, whil-s-t, a-mid-s-t, a-mong-s-t, be-twi-x-t Twice = O.E. twi-wa, E.E. twi-e, M.E. twits ; thrice x: O.E. thri-wa, E.E. thrie, M.E. thries ; -wa = -war = fane ; once, O.E. ane, E.E. ene> M.E. an-es y on-es, an-s, on-s. The -st in whilst, &c. represents an older -es(-s). Cp. M.E. whil-es, amidd-es, among-es, &c. Dative. — Whil-om (O.E. hwil-um), from while = time. Seld-orn (O.E. seld-um) from O.E. seld = I8S HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. All adverbs ending in -meal once had the dative suffix -um. Cp. O.E. lim-mcel-um — limb-meal. The suffix -um formed distributives like Latin -im. Cp. M.E. tablc-mele — Latin tabillatim. — Palladius on Husbondrie, p. 66. Little by little = M.E. lytlum and lytlum. Accusative. — Alway (O.E. ealne-weg), otherwise, sometime, the while, now-a-day, backward, &c. Prepositional Forms. — The chief prepositions used to form adverbial expressions are, a, (an), on, in, at, of, be, (by), to. An as in, on: anon = in one second. In M.E. we find on-an = anon. A = in, on : a-bed, a-day, a-sleep, a-loft, &c. ; a-broad, a-cold, a-good, a-twain, &c. On, in : on sleep, on high, in-deed, in vain, in short, in two, &c. At : at jar, at odds, at large, at night, at length, at best, at first, &c. Of (for a) : of kin, of late, of old, of new ; Of (for older genitives), of a truth, of right. Be, by : be-times, be-cause, by turns, by degrees, by hundreds. To : to-day, to-night, to-gether. Per : per-chance, per-haps. An (=in, on) occurs in E.E. and M.E. before words beginning with a vowel or h; as, an eve, in the evening ; an honde, in hand. A is used before words beginning with a consonant. " Ich am nu elder than ich was a wintre and a lore." — O.E. Horn. ii. 220. This a was a separate word as late as the seventeenth century. It is very common before verbal nouns. Cp. a-fishing, a-hunting, a-weeping. As on is only another form of an, it has replaced an before a vowel. XI.] ADVERBS. 189 " Set our teeth an edge [= on edge]." The Four Book of Princes, p. 1 16. A and on, sometimes occur side by side : a-board and on board, a-ground and on ground. An takes the place of in, in the phrase "ever and anon ; " where an-on — M. E. in oon t in one state. *' Ever in oon." — Chaucer, Astrolabe, p. 15. " Ever and anon it (earth) must turn about." Holland's Pliny, p. I. Sometimes an end — in oon — continually. As of takes the place of a in akin, &c. so a sometimes takes the place of of. " I have heard a the horses walking a' (on) the top of Paules." — Dekker, Satiromastix, C. 2. 11 What manner a man." — Becon. Cp. "a the appel tre " m that appel tre = of the apple tree. — C. Mundi, p. 86. This a for o or of explains ; man-0-war, justice-a-peace (Dekker) ; two-a-clock = two o } clock = two of the clock ; jack-a«-apes. In M.E. we find of long, of new, offer (afar), and even of goo = ago (cp. O.E. ofgdn, to go off). Be sometimes preceded the dative adverb in O.E. as be &n- fealdum = by one fold — singly, from which we have formed our expressions, by hundreds and by fifties = O.E. be hundredum and be fiftegum. In E. E. the dative ending dropped, and we have bi sixe, biseove, — by sixes, by sevens, &c. Cp. by piecemeal ion piecemeal, (Beaumont and Fletcher). At especially before superlatives is a contraction of at the, M.E. atte. In O.E. this the was in the dative case. At random = Fr. a randon. 225. Many adjectives are used as adverbs, especially those with irregular comparisons : far, forth, fu/ } ill, late, little, much, nigh, near, well. Many monosyllabic adjectives are used as adverbs, as, to work hard ; to talk fast ; to speak loud ; to aim high. 190 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. In the earlier stages of the language, the adverbial form was marked by a final -e, as, hard (adj.), /iard-Q (adv.), &c. When this -e became silent, then the ad- jectival and adverbial form became identical. We can thus easily understand the use of godly as adjective and adverb; (cp. "a godly life," and "to live godly?) In O.E. the distinction was plainly marked, e.g., god-liz (adj.), god-\ic-z (adv.). The adverbial -e was probably a dative suffix. In M.E. wc find instances of the use of this -e : they pleye hastiliche and swiftliche (Trevisa). In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the suffix -ly was often dropped : as, " Foolish bold." " Grievous sick." Becon. Shakespeare. Cp. " Wondrous wise." The history of wondrous (wonderfully) is a curious one. In O.E. the adverb waswundr-um, which in M.E. became wunder, wonder, T.E. wonders. In E.E. we find wunderliche y in M.E. wonder ii ; and in T.E. wonder sly. In Ford's works we find " woundy bad," i.e. wonderfully or very bad. 226. II. Pronominal Adverbs. Many adverbs are derived from the pronominal stems, the, he, who. PROKOMINAL STEMS. PLACE WHERE. MOTION TO. MOTION FROM. TIME WHEN. MANNER. CAUSE. who where whither whence when how why the there thither thence then thus the lie here hither hence - - - XI.J ADVERBS. 191 The suffixes -re and -ther in the-re, he-re, whe-re, thi-ther, &c, were originally locative. The -n in then, whe-n, &c, is an accusative suffix. See pronouns, § 131, p. 107 ; § 146, p. 119. The -ce (M.E. -es), in the?i-ce, &c, represents an older -an, cp. O.E. than-an (thence); Jieon-an (hence) ; hwan-an (whence). The O.E. -an denotes motion from: edst-an—from the east ; so thence — than-an = from that (place). The, before comparatives, as, the more (= O.E. tin mare, Lat. eo magis) is the instrumental case of the definite article, the. Lest has lost the instrumental the. In O.E. we find thy Ices the, E.E. /es the, M.E. teste = lest. Thus is the instrumental case of this. How (O.E. hu, E.E. hwu), and why (O.E. hwi), are the inst. cases of who. Cp.for-why =for which (reason), wherefore; for- thy = for that (reason), therefore. Yea, ye-s, ye-t, are from a relative stem ya, which also had a demonstrative force, as in yon, yond, yonder. That and so are often used as affirmative adverbs. In nay, no, not, now, we have a demonstrative stem, na. In O.E. ne = not. " Eart thu of thyses leorning-cnihtum ? nic tie eom ic." = Art thou of this man's disciples? not I, I am not. John xviii. 1 7. Negatives are often repeated for emphasis : — " Ne wan ne dorste «an thing acsian." = No one durst ask him anything. Matt. xxii. 46. 192 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. " Ne eom ic nd Crist." — John i. 18. " But he ne lefte wought for rayn ne thonder." Chaucer, Prol. L 492. O.E. ne was also a conjunction = nor. See Spenser, Faerie Queene, I. i. 28. Not (= O.E. nohty M.E. tioght, 7iat) = no whit, (nothing), has replaced the old na, ne. It has already been shown to be an indefinite pronoun. See aught, § 164, p. 125. " Ne wen thu nawiht leoue feder that tu affeare me swa = ne lef thu tiawt leoue feader that tu offeare me swa. Ween thou not dear father that thou may frighten me so." — Juliana, pp. 12, 13. "Ac hit ne helpeth heom nowiht." — O.E, Misc. p. 152. Aught, naught, nothing, something, some- what, muchwhat, anywhit, &c. may be used as adverbs. So (= O.E. swa) was used as a relative pronoun in E.E. ; from it we derive also (O.E. ealswa), which, by loss of 1, has dwindled down to as = M.E. ase = E.E. alse = O.E. eal-swa. Ay, sometimes used for yes, is the same as the adverb aye =5 ever. For ever or aye we find in O.E. a ; E.E. o, 00, ay, ey. Cp. O.E. d-hwatr, ag~hwcer = any -where ; E.E. o-w/iar, eihwer. What (O.E. hwcBt) as why (Lat. quid) is an adverb : — * What do you prate of service ? " Shakespeare, Cor. iii. 3, XI. J ADVERBS. 193 227, III. Adverbs formed from Prepositions. Aft, in "fore and aft-" O.E. ceft-an, after. Af is another form of of (— from). Cp. after, after- wards. Be, by, by and by, hard-by, besides, be-hind, b-at bc-neath, &c. For, for-th, for-ihwith, afore, forward (= M.E. forth-ward). Fro —from; "to and fro." In, with-in, E.E. in-with; M.E. bin == O.E. binnan =: within, Neath, be-?ieath, under-neath. Cp. ne-ther ; O.E. ni-ther, and Sansk. ni =■ down. On, on-ward, on-wards. Of, off; a-down (O.E. of dim = //w/z //# /////). See aft. To, toy to ward, &c. Through, thorough, thoroughly, throughly. Up, up-per, up-wards, upp-er-?nost. Out, with-out, a-b-out, b-ut. (See Preposi- tions. § 230, p. 195. § 231, p. 196.) 228. IV. Compound Adverbs. Many are given under the head of prepositional forms. (See § 224, p. 188.) There, here, and where, are combined with (1) prepositions, (2) adverbs, (3) indefinite pronouns to form compound adverbs: — there-of, there-io, tJiere- o 194 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chip. from, therc-by, &c. ; where-so-ever, where-ever, &c. ; else-where, some-where, no- where. Everywhere = ever-y-where, E.E. roer ihwar (Ancren Riwle, p. 200) ; y-where — E.E. i-hwar, i-hwer = O.E. ge-hwcer. There was a M.E. eywhere, aywhere (which was also combined with ever) — O.TL.ceg-hwcer, everywhere. Cp. O.E. dhwar, M.E. awher, owher, ouwhar = anyvjhere. In O.E. we have very few compounds of there, here, and where, with prepositions ; but they are numerous in E. E. The pronominal adverbs and their compounds, as where, where-of where-to, have the force of relative pronouns. The compounds of there, here, where, with prepositions are almost all archaic. We replace there-of, there-to, &c. by oj that, of it, to that, to it, &c. ; where-of, &c. by of which, &c. and here in, &c. by in this, &c. These compounds, being followed by the preposition, resemble the construction of that, and the O. E. indeclinable relative the. " Thset bed the se lama on lseg." = The bed that the lame man lay on. =The bed whereon [= on which] the lame man lay. Mark ii. 4. " The ston that he leonede to* = The stone whereto he leant. Vertwn MS. Some elliptical expressions containing a verb are used as adverbs, as may-be, may -hap % how-be-it\ as it urte y to be sure, to wit. XII.] J 'RE POSITIONS, - 195 CHAPTER XII. Prepositions. 229. Prepositions are so named, because they were originally prefixed to the verb to modify its meaning. Many prepositions still preserve their adverbial mean- ing (cp. forswear, be-times, &c.). Some relations denoted by prepositions may be expressed by case- endings. Prepositions are either simple or com- pound. 230. I. Simple Prepositions. At (O.E. at; Lat. ad). By (O.E. be, bi). The original meaning is about, concerning. Another form of it is O.E. umbe; M.E. u?nb, um; cp. Gr. afupi ; Lat. amb, am. For (O.E. for, Lat. pro). Fro-m (O.E. /ram). Fro (E.E. fra). The m in from is a superlative suffix. The roots for and fro are connected with each other, and with far and fore. Cp. Lat. pro, per, pra. In, on (O.'E. in, on, an; Gr. kv, Lat. in). Of, off (O.E. of —from; Lat. ab; Gr. d™). O 3 196 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [Chap. Out (O.E. At; cp. utter, utmost). To (O.E. to). It has often the sense of "for." Up (O.E. up; Lat. s-ub). With (O.E. with, wither, from, against). We have preserved the original force of with in withstand &c. The sense of the Lat. cum was usually expressed in O.E. by mid ; Goth, mith, Gr. fUra. 231. II. Compound Prepositions. (1) Comparatives. Af-ter (O.E. czf-ter), is a comparative of the root af = of —from. The suffix -ter is the same as -ther in whe-ther, &c. Ov-er (O.E. of-er; Goth, uf-ar; Lat. s-uper ; Gr. vnep), is a comparative of the root of or uf. We have the same root in O.E. iife« hire is al mi lif Hong." O.E. Misc. p. 158. " But if it is along on me." Gower, Spec. E. Eng. xx. 55. " And that is long of contrarie causes." Holland, Pliny, p. 25. 11 All long of this vile traitor Somerset." I Hen. VI. iv. 3. 11 And this is long of her." Ford. A-mid, a-midst (O.E. on-midd-um; M.E. a-middes, a-midde, in-middes), contains the preposition a (on) and the adjective mid in middle, mid-most, &c. Other prepositions of this kind are, a-round, aslant, &c. ; an-ent, respecting = O.E. on-efn, on-emn, near, toward iti E.E. on-efen-t = M.E . anentes, anence ; a-thwart — across; (O.E. on thweorh. Cp. thweorh — perverse ; Icel. thvert, the ace. neut. of thverr, across, transverse) ; be-low, be-tivix-t (O. E. be-tweox) from two ; be-tween (O.E. be-tweon-um) from twain* XII.] PREPOSITIONS. 199 Since (O.E. sith-than; E.E. sith-tJien, sith-the M.E. sithenes, sith, sin, sins), from sith = late; O.E. jf- ihor later ; cp. .r/>z4 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. CHAPTER XV. Derivation and Word formation, 235. The primary elements and significant parts of words are called roots, as tal in talk and tell; bar, in bear, bairn, birth, &c. The root is modified (1) by endings called suffixes which form derivatives, as, rich-\y, nest-ling; (2) by particles, placed before the root, called prefixes, which form compounds, as, for-bid, un-true. Two words may be placed together to form com- pound words, as, blackbird. SUFFIXES OF TEUTONIC ORIGIN. From Demonstrative Roots. 236. I. Noun Suffixes. Some suffixes have sprung from old demonstrative or pro- nominal roots; others are merely altered forms of nouns and adjectives. The origin of the former is very obscure ; that of the latter tolerably certain. Cp. fantff-fal, loveAy, ^-some, &c. See Suffixes of Predicative origin, § 238, p. 209. Many words have an old vowel suffix, as, -ale = O.E. eal-u ; -hue m O.E. heo-w. XV.] NOUN SUFFIXES. 205 It must be borne in mind — (i) That many prefixes and suffixes have no longer a living power, that is, are not now used to form new derivatives ; as the prefix for inyfrr-swear, and the suffix -m in gleam, &c. (2) That many derivatives were formed from certain ancient roots or stems in the oldest period of our language ; as flight from fledgan, not from the modern fly. -d gives a kind of passive signification to words formed from verbal roots : dee-d from do = that which is done. Cp. floo-d from flow ; glee-d (a live coal) from glow; see-d from sow. ■er (O.E. -ere), denoting the agent or doer: bak- er, speak-er, mill-en Sometimes we find -ar, -or for -er; begg-ar, schol-ar, sail-or. Under N.Fr. influence i or y has crept in before -er; as, law-jy-er, glaz-z-er, cloth-/-er. -man is added to -er in hski-er-man. -t has crept into bragg-^r-/, and -d into d&st-ar-d, XoM-ar-d (M.E. lollere). -est ; earn-est, harv-est. -ing, the ending of verbal nouns, O.E. -ung; as, leam-ing, writ-ing, &c. -ing (O.E. -ing) forming diminutives : as, farth-ing (from fourth), tith-ing (from tithe = tenth), rid-ing (from thrid ~ third). This suffix occurs in a few nouns without adding a diminutival force to them: — kin-g (O.E. cyn-ing) : — shill-ing, penn-y(O.E. pen-ing)\ whit-ing, sweet-ing. This suffix had originally a possessive force, hence it formed patroiiymics ; as, O.E. Scilf-ing, the son of Scilf; JEthehuulf-ing, the son of sEthdwulf. -1-ing, made up of -1 and -ing, forms diminu- tives: dar-ling (from dear), gos-ling, strip-ling, under-ling. 206 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. The addition of the suffix -ling has caused dear, goose, and stripe, to shorten their original long vowels. Cp. nation and national, "to break a/ast," and "to breakfast." -k : haw-k, mil-k, yol-k. -kin (= -k + -in) forms diminutives : as, lamb- kin, lad-kin, fir-kin (from four). It forms patronymics in Daw-kin (from David), Per-kins (from Peter). -le, denoting agent or instrument: as, bead-le, (from O.E. beodan, to pray)) bund-le (from bind); steep-le (from steep) ; sett-le (from seat); thimb-le (from thumb). We find this 1 in angle, apple, bramble, fiddle, saddle, shambles, fowl, hail, heel, nail, sail, stile, (from sty, to go up). -1, -le (O.E. -els, Ger. -el) : as, buri-al, brid-le, gird-le, ridd-le (from O.E. rced-en, to read, interpret, advise), skitt-les (from O.E. sceot-an, to shoot), shew- el (a scarecrow). -m (O.E. -ma, -m. Cp. Lat. no-men) : bar-m (from bear), bloo-m (from blow), doo-m (from do) : giea-m (from gloui), qual-m (from quell), sea-m (from sew), strea-m (from strew, to scatter, spread), tea-m (from tow, tug), stea-m (from steiv). It takes the form of -om in bloss-om, bos-om, fath-om. -n (of the same origin as the -n in passive par- ticiples): bair-n (from bear), beac-on (from beck), burd-en (from bear), heav-en (from heave), maid-en, mai-n (from mag, to be great), wagg-on, wai-n (from wag). In chick-en (from cock), the suffix has a diminutival force ; kitt-en (from cat) = M.E. kit-oun. We also find kit-l-ing = kitten. XV.J NOUN SUFFIXES. 207 -en in vix-en (from fox) was once a common sign of the feminine. -nd (an old present participial ending): err-and, fiend (from O.E. fi-an, to hate), freo-nd (homfreo-n, to love), wi-nd (from wa, to blow). -ness (O.E. -nis, -nes), forming abstract nouns from nouns and adjectives; as, wit-ness, wilder-ness ; dark-ness, good-ness, &c. -ock (O.E. -tied), forming diminutives and patro- nymics : as, bull-ock, hillock; pill-ock (a little pill), Poll-ock (from Paul), Wil-cox, Wil-c-ock (from Will). In the Scotch dialects we find ladd-ock, wif-ock. This -ock becomes -ick, or -ie (-y); as, lass-^, lass-z>. Cp. mamm-/, dadd-^. -r (instrumental) : fing-er (from fang, to take) lai-r (from lie), stai-r (from sty, to elimb), timb-er (from timb, to build), wat-er (from wet), wint-er (from wind). -ster (O.E. estre), originally a sign of the feminine gender : as, spin-ster. It merely marks the agent in song-ster, huck-ster, malt-ster, young-ster. Upholsterer or upholster, is a corruption of upholder. -s : blis-s (from blithe), eave-s. It also appears in adze, axe. -th, -t (of the same origin as the d in seed, &c.).- It is used, for the most part, to form abstract nouns from verbs and adjectives : as, dear-th (from dear), wid-th (from wide), heal-th (from hale), leng-th (from long), slo-th (from slow), dea-th (from die), bir-th (from bear), ear-th (from ear, to plough). 208 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Drough-t (from dry, O.E. drig) : heigh- 1 (from high), len-ten (from long). Drif-t (from drive) : fligh-t (from fly, O.E. fleogan), gif-t, (from give), migh-t (from may, O.E. mceg), slaugh- ter (from slay, O.E. sled/ian), sigh-t (from see, O.E. mw, pret. sea/i), draugh-t from draw or drag, O.E. dragan), fros-t, beques-t. The suffix t for th is due to the sharp sounds f, gh (originally h), s. In O. E. th was always sounded flat, as in thine. -ther, -ter, marking the agent : bro-ther, fa-ther, mo-ther, daugh-ter, sis-ter, fos-ter (from food). -ther, -ter, -der, marking the instrument : bla- dder, (from blow), fea-ther (from root fat, to fly), wea-ther (from wa, to blow), fo-dder (from fa, to feed), la-dder (from root hit, to climb), mur-der (from mar, to kill). Ru-dder (from row), laugh-ter. -y (O.E. -ig, -h): bod-y, hon-ey. It has become -ow in holl-ow, sall-ow, marr-ow, &c. -ow also arises out of (i) O.E. -u: — mall-ow, mead-at euer is made." — G. 1. 1961. " O nakin worm J>at es made." — G. 1. 1961, " Of no maner worm }?at is made." — T. 1. 196 1. -dom = doom (O.E. dom, Ger. thum) : thral-dom, wis-dom, cristen-dom, hali-dom (and halidame 1= O.E. halig-dom; E.E. halidom, sanctuary, relic) ; king- dom (from O.E. cyne, royal). In E.E. kine is a very common prefix, kine-ierde = royal-rod, sceptre, kine- helm = crown, kine-riche — realm, kine-setle — royal settle, throne. -fare (O.E. fartc, way ; faran, to go), way, course • thorough-fare, wel-fare, chaf-fer (= chap-fare from cheap). -head, -hood (O.E. /idd, state, rank, person ; M.E. -/ted, -hod ; Ger. -heit). God-head, man-hood (M.E. man-//#&, xmxi-hodc); live-li-hood once signified liveliness ; but it now re- presents the O.E. Vif-lade; E.E. lif-lode; M.E. live-lode (life-leading), sustenance. -herd (O.E. hyrde> pastor, keeper, herdsman): XV.] SUFFIXES OF PREDICATIVE ORIGIN. 211 shep-herd, swine-herd. Cp. goose-herd (Holins- hed), hog-herd (Harrison). -lock, -ledge (O.E. lac, gift, sport), wed-lock, know-ledge (M. E. knoxv-leche, know-laehe, know- lage). O.E. hryd-lac = marriage, reaf-for, bereaving, spoil. The Icelandic -leikr ( = O. E. -lac) is very common under the forms •leic or -laik in E.E., and M.E. ; god-leic = goodness, hende-/sa.\m-7vrighl, or the O.E. psalm-scop — psalm-shaper, psalmist. Becon uses t>salm-o-graph for psalmist ! E.E. bred-wrigte — bread-wright = baker. -ward (O.E. weard, warder, keeper), ape-ward, bear-ward, hay-ward. (2) Adjectives. -fast (O.E. -fast, firm, fast): sted-fast, shame- faced (z= shame-fast, modest) : root-fast. -fold (O.E. -feald) : two-fold, manifold. -ful (O.E. ////) : aw-ful, bale-ful, hate-ful, need- ful. -less (O.E. -Ms — loose): fear-less, god- less. -ly, -like (O.E. -Vic; lie, Ger. leich, body): god-ly, like-ly, man-ly, dove-like, war-like. See § 225, p. 190. "'Tis as manlike to bear extremities as godlike to forgive.'' • Ford. -right (O.E. -rt'hf) : up-right, down-right. In M.E. upright m supine ; downright — perpendicular. -some (O.E. -sum, Ger. ~sam) is another form of same : dark-some, hard-some, irk-some : buxom XV.] ADVERBIAL SUFFIXES. 213 = bugh-som == bending-some, pliant, obedient, fioni bow (O.E. bugan to bend) : lissom = lithe-some. -teen, ty = ten. See numerals § 118, p. 98. -ward (O.E. -weard, becoming, leading to. Cp. O.E. weorth-an, to become, Lat. versus, from vertere, to turn) : back-ward, for-ward, fro-ward, to-ward, unto-ward. -wise (O.E. wis, way, mode) : right-eous (O.E. riht-wis = right- wise. Cp. M.E. tale-wise = tell- tale, tale-bearing. " ForGodd es ever on right-wis side, Werrand [warring] again wrang-wis pride." C. Mundiy G. 11. 7547, 7548. -worth (O.E. -weorth, E.E. -wurthe): stal-worth, dear-worth (precious). In E.E. we find luue-wurthe (love- worthy), kine-umrthe (royal). 239. IV. Adverbial Suffixes. The demonstrative suffixes -s, -m, -nee, have already been treated of under adverbs, §§ 224, 226, pp. 187, 188, 191. The following are of predicative origin : — -ly (O.E. -lice) : bad-ly, on-ly, lone-ly (= al-o?ie- ly), utter-ly, willing-ly. See -ly, p. 212. -ling, -long (O.E. -lunga, -linga) : head-long, flat- ling, dark-ling, side-ling, side-long. In M.E. we find the genitive form -lynges (linges) mgro/- lynges = groveling (prone), hedlinges — headlong. " I'll run headlongs by and by." Webster, Northward Ho. " Hurlet (hurl'd) hym doun hedlynges" The Gest Hy storiette, 1. 7485. Nose-linges, trase/ynge, voslyngys (supine, with the nose up- ward), handiuiges (hard to hand). 214 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap, -meal (O.E. -malum, from mail, division, meal): limb-meal, piece-meal, flock-meal. -ward, -wards : hither-ward, down-wards, up- wards. See p. 213. -wise (see p. 213) : other-wise, no-wise, like- wise. In M.E. we find "in other wise," "in no wise," "in like wise," " in the same wise," " in what wise." -way, -ways : al-way, al-ways, straight- way, straight-ways. -Gate or gates = gait, way, is a suffix in M.E. Thus -gate, other -gates, so-gate. 240. V. Verbal Suffixes. -k (frequentative or intensitive) : har-k (from hear), tal-k (from tell), stal-k (from steal). -1, -le (frequentative) : dibb-le (from dip), dribb-le (from drip), dazz-le (from daze), grapp-le (from grasp), dwind-le (from dwine), knee-1, spark-le, start-le. -n (causative) : hast-en, strength-en, fatt-en, short- en, &c. This suffix had once a reflexive or passive signification. Cp, learn from M. E. leren. -r (frequentative or intensitive) : ling-er, (O.E. leng-an, to delay), flitt-er, glitt-er, glimm-er, welt-er. Stagger = M.E. stakeren. For change of consonant before the suffix, cp. dribb-le from drip, &c. •s: ble-ss (O.E. blet-s-i-a?i, from blot, sacrifice), clean-se, tru-s-t, cla-s-p (from clap), gra-s-p, (from grap), li-s-p (from lip). Rinse = Fr. rincer (= rins-er, from a root found in Golh. hrain-jan, to cleanse ; /trains, jure, clean. Gcr. reitt, pure.) XV.] COMPOSITION, 215 241. COMPOSITION. Two or more words joined together to make a single term, expressing a new notion, are called Compounds : as, black-bird, rail-road, rain-bow, &c. The accent distinguishes a compound word from the mere collocation of two terms, as blackbird and black bird. The hyphen is used to denote a com- pound, as, passer-by, man-of-war, coast- line, &c. Notice the shortening of the long vowel in com pounds, as, breakfast, shepherd; vineyard (= M.E. wyn-yard). Compound words form nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. I. Noun-Compounds. 1. Noun and noun : — Noontide, churchyard, oaktree, doomsday, kinsman, herdsman, man-killer, &c. There are many similar old compounds whose elements are so fused together that we do not recognize them at first sight. Bridal = bride-ale Bandog = band-dog, Holinshed has band-dog or tie-dog. Gospel = god-spell = good- word. Nostril = nose-thrill = nose-hole (O.E. thyrel — hole). Orchard = wort- (herb) yard (garden) ; O.E. ort-geard. Nightingale = night-singer (O.E. nihte-gale). Hand-y-work = O.E. hand-geweorc> hand work. 1 Cp. everywhere = E.E. ever-ihwer = O.E. cefre -\- gehwcer. 2. Substantive and adjective : — Alderman, freeman, blackbird, midnight, uppcrhand, 1 Fox a longer list, sec " Historical Outlines," p. 222. 2i6 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. (M.E. over- hand '), fore-thought ; neighbour = O.E. neah-bur = nigh dweller ; twilight, fortnight, &c. 3. Substantive and pronoun : — Self-will, self esteem, self sacrifice. (4) Substantive and verb : — Bakehouse, pickpocket, telltale, spendthrift, godsend windfall. II. Adjective-Compounds. 1. Substantive and Adjective : — Blood-red, snow-white, sea-sick, heart-sick, fire-proof praise-worthy. 2. Adjective and substantive : — Barefoot, barefoot-ed. Cp. O.E. clcen-heort =: having a clean heart; an-eage = one-eye- d, four-footed, &c. 3. Adjective and adjective : — Fool-hardy {fool =■ foolish). Cp. mad-hardy, blue- green, rathe-ripe. 4. Participial combinations : — (a) Noun and pres. part. : earth-shaking, heart- rending, match-making. (b) Adjective and pres. part. : ill-looking, time- serving. (c) Noun and pass. part. : earth-born, chap-fallen, heart-broken, thwider-struck. (d) Adjective and pass. part. : new-made, well-bred, dead-drunk, &a XV.] ENGLISH PREFIXES. 23 7 III. Verb-Compounds. i. Noun and verb : backbite, hoodwitik, henj>eck, waylay. 2. Adjective and verb : dry-nurse, white-wash. 3. Verb and adverb : doff = do off, don = do on. Cp. cross-question. For compound adverbs, see § 228, p. 193, 194. 242. COMPOSITION WITH PARTICLES OF ENGLISH ORIGIN. I. Inseparable Particles. a- (O.E. on, E.E. an) on: aback, a-bed, a-board, a-foot, a-sleep, a-loof, a- skew, a-loud, a-b-aft, a-b-out, a-midst, a-mong, a-thvvart, a-fishing, a-hunting, &c. 1. The original form an occurs in an-on (in one moment), an-ent (see p. 188), a-c-knowledge (O.E. oncndwa?i), an-vil (O.E. an-filt). 2. A- (O. E. of off, from) : a-down = O.E. of dtine, from the down (hill) ; a-kin, a-new. The prefix of- had an intensitive meaning, like our over aiu 1 Latin per. Cp. M.E. of-take — overtake; M.E. of-se — perceive. Of (intensive), exists in a-thirst = O.E. of-thirst; an-hungercis, truly, certainly), ever-y-where, hand-y-worL mis- (O.E. mis-), wrong, ill. Cp. a-mis (= on the wrong, M.E. misse wrong, injury) : mis- behave, mis-deed, mis-lead, mis-trust, mis-take; mis-like, (in Shakespeare) has become dis-like. For mis- in mischief, see p. 243. nether-, (O.E. ni-ther) -=. down, below : nether- stocks, nether-lands. sand- (O.E. sdm, half) : sand-blind = half-blind. u Wrinkled, sand-blind, toothless, and deformed." — Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, ed. 1845, P- 7°- Cp. O.E. s&m-cwic — half-alive; M.E. sam-hale = half-whole, lame (Cursor Mundi, 1. 5153); "chiries sa?n-rede" = half-ripe (PUrs Plowman, C. Text, ix. 311, p. 155). to- (O.E. to-). This is an adverbial form of two (cp. Lat. dis-) signifying asunder, i?i pieces : O.E. to- brecan = to break to pieces, to-dcelan = to divide ; E.E. to-don, to do asunder; to-fleon, to fly asunder; M.E. to-pulleji y to pull to pieces, &c. It sometimes has an intensitive force, and is strengthened by the adverb all (quite). " And all to- brake his skull." Judges IX. 5, 3. " Al is to- broken tliilke rcgioun." Chaucer, A'uig/tfes Tale, 1. 275'j. XV.] ENGLISH PREFIXES. 22 i Go to (used as an interjection in Hamlet i. 3) seems to corre- spond to to-go = O.E. to-gdn, to go away, depart ; cp.for-do and do-for. For the phrase " all to" see all, § 243. to- is the ordinary preposition " to " in to-day, to- night, to-morrow, to-gether, here-to-fore, to-ward. un- (O.E. on-, Goth, and-, Ger. e?it-) c= back (with verbs) : un-bind, un-do, un-fold, un-lock, un-wind. un- (O.E. un-) = not (with adjectives, and nouns formed from adjectives) : un-true, un-wise, un-told, un-just, un-truth.' wan- (O.E. wan) wan-ing, want-ing : wan-hope = despair; wan-ton = wanto7uen, untrained, wild ; 4o7ven is the O.E. togen, p.p. of the O.E. verb te-on, lead, draw. Cp. Ger. un-ge-zogen. with- (O.E. with-, a shortened form of wi-ther), against, back : with-draw, with-hold, with-stand. 243. II. Separable Particles. Af-ter (O.E. after) : after-growth, after-math, after-clap, after-dinner, after-ward. All (O.E. eat) : al-mighty, al-one, 1-one, l-onely, 1-onesome, al-to-gether, al-most, al-though, al-so, a-s. All, meaning quite, is very often joined to the adverb to (too), and was made to precede the prefix to- in composition. (See to- p. 220). " All to dirtied."— Latimer. "All to ruffled. "—Milton. M.E. "Altolonge." Life of Beket, 774. E.E. "Al towel" yt^iana, p. 50. 222 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Forth (O.E. forth) : forth-coming, forth-going for-ward (O.E. forth-weard). "From that day forthward man most nedes deie." — Trevisa. Cp. E.E. forth-far e = departure, forth-gong = progress, &c. Fro, from (O.E.fram, O.N./ra) : fro-ward, from- ward. In (O.E. fh) : in-come, in-land, in-sight, in-born, in-bred, in-wardly, in-ly, in-lay, in-fold, in-to. In many verbs in has been replaced by a Romance form (en-, em-) : en-dear, em-bitter. Of (O.E. of = from, off) : of-fal, off-set, off-shoot, off-spring. See a-, pp. 217-8. In M.E. we find of-schreden, shred off; of-smiten, smite off; E. E. of-springen, to spring from. On (O.E. on, upon, forward) : on-set, on-slaught, on-ward. Out, ut (O.E. lit) : out-come, out-let, out-break, out-pour, out-cast, out-joint, out-law, out-landish, out-side, out-ward, ut-ter. It sometimes signifies beyond, over, as in out-bid, out-do. Over (O.E. ofer) : above, beyond, exceedingly, too : — (1) With nouns and adjectives : over-eating, over- flow, over-plus (E.E. over-eke), over-joy, over-big, over-much. (2) With verbs : over-flow, over-hang, over-run, over-take, over- work, over-whelm, over-hear, over- look. Over (O.E. ufe-ra, E.E. uve-re, superior; cp. a-b -ove) : over-coat, over-man ; M.E. over-lippe = upper-lip ; ofer-hand = upper-hand. Through, thorough (O.E. thurh, E.E. thunth); XV.] ROMANIC SUPFIXES. 223 thorough-fare (M.E. thurgh-fare), through-out, thorough-bred, through-train. Cp. E.E. thurgh'fexzxi (to go through), /^«;-^-driven, thurh~ seken, /^«r^-wunian (to remain); M.E. thorow-horQ (bore through), ihorow-Ti&Q, &c. Under (O.E. wider) : under-go, under-stand, under-lay, undermine, under-let, under-sell; un- der-growth, under-ling, under-wood, under-hand, under-neath. Up (O.E. up): up-bear, up-braid, up-hold, up- heave, up-lifted, up-land, up-shot, up-right, up- start, up-ward, up-on. 244. SUFFIXES OF ROMANIC ORIGIN. Under the head of Romanic suffixes we must dis- tinguish (1) those Latin suffixes that have a Norman French form ; (2) those suffixes that are unchanged, being borrowed directly from the Latin language ; (3) modern French and other Romance endings of Latin origin. Voy-age comes through N. French ; its Latin form is vi-aticum. Cp. beni-son with benedic-tion, charn-el and carn-al, &c. Liqu-our has a N. French form; liqu-eur comes to us from modern French; cp. antic (N.Fr.), antiqueYr. Cavalc-ade, escap-ade, are Italian words that have come to us through the French. The true French forms are chevauch-k and khapp4e; other forms in -ade (originally -ado), come to us directly from the Spanish language, as crus-ade, brav-ado, torn-ado, &c. ; cp. prem-ier (Fr.), prim-ary (Lat.), prim-er 2H HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [Chap. (N.Fr.) Many suffixes of Norman French origin have now no living power, not being used to form new derivatives, I. Noun Suffixes. -age (Lat. -aticum), forms abstract nouns : advant- age bever-age, com-age, hom-age. It sometimes denotes the place where, as in hermit age, parson-tfg?. Ti\l-age and cott-age are hybrids. -ain, -an, -en, -on (Lat. -anus) : charA-ain, chieft- am, viM-ain, pelic-0#, peas-#///, ward-^;/ (= guard tan), sext-on (= sacrist-aw), surge-*?//, sover-eign. Modern formations, having no corresponding Latin form in -anus, are antiquari-aw, barbari-0//, civili-a//, grammari-tf«, librarwz/z, &c. From modern French come artis-an, courtes-aw, partis-aw. -ain (Lat. -aneus), appears in -mount-am, czmy-aign, champ- aign* -al, -el (Lat. -alts) : can-#/, cardin-tf/, cathedra/, coron- al, spitt-a/, chann->, excell-eucy, &c. s6-ance is from modern French. -and, -end (Lat. -andus, -endus), are gerundial suffixes : — (1) Gsil-and, vi-a/id, leg-end, prov-end-er. (2) Memor-andum retains its Latin form ; (3) preb-end, reprim- and", are directly from Modern French. -ar, -er, -or (Lat. -arium), marks the place where; it enters into the name of some common objects : — (1) Cell-tfr, mort-tfr, charter, dow-^r, sampler, garner, lard-^r, sauc-^r, manor. (2) -ary (Lat. -arium), gran-ary, (= gsin-er), avi- ary, seminary, viv-ary. In M.E. we find O.Fr. -aire in sal- -ier; Lat. -arms) : engin-**r, mountain-**/-, harpoon-*r, brigad-z*r, prem-/*r, chandel- /*r, are from Modern French. See -ar, -er, p. 225, for the N. French form. -el (Lat. -eld) : cant-*/, cand-/*, quarr-*/, tut-*/-age. -el (Lat. -e//us, -elluni) : bush-*/, bow-*/, chanc-*/, mors-*/, cast-/*, mant-/*, pann-*/, pomm-*/. -en, -in (Lat. -enus, -ena, -enum) : ali-*#, warr-*«, flor-/^, cha-z>z, verm-//*, ven-om. -er (Lat. -*r/#) : gart-*r, gutt-*r, matt-*r, pray-*r. Barrier is the Modern-French barr-ikre. See -ry, p. 230. -erel, -rel, has a diminutive force : cock-*r*/, dott- erel y mack-*r*/, pick-r*/, pick-*r*/; T.E. daint-r*/ == a dain-/>>. -ern (Lat. -*r^a) : cav-*r;/, cist-*r«, tav-*r# (cp. tab- *r;/-acle). -et, -ot (N. Fr. -*/, -0// Fr. -*/, -*#*; -at, -ot), is a diminutive suffix. Blank-*/, cygn-*/, hatch-*/, pock-*/, tick-*/, chari-0/, fagg-0/, parr-0/. -et, -ot, -ette (see above) : ball-*/, balk?/, bilk?/, paroqu-*/, ettiqu-*//*, coqu-*//*, from Modern French. To the original -et has been prefixed 1 (for */), XV.] ROMANIC SUFFIXES. 227 making a new diminutive suffix, -let in ham-/V/, stream-/^/, &c. See -el, p. 226. -ess (Lat. -zssd), sign of the feminine gender. See p. 66, § 85. ess, -ice, -ise (Lat. -itia) : distr-6$\r, larg-£$\r, lach- ess, rich-^j", prow-^w, franch-/Vz, citr-/>z, cows-tn, gobl-Zzz, pilgr-/#/ (= pere- gx-tne), mv-zne. Latin atonic -ina disappeared in Old French, hence English dame, page; Modern French has reintroduced it under the form, -ine, whence our machine. in (Lat. -inetri) : marg-//;, orig-/>z, virg-//z. -ism (Lat. -ismus ; Gr. -toyxoc) : de-ism, fatal-ww, tgo-t-ism. Many are direct from the Greek, as bar- bax-ism, \a.con-/sm. No words of N.Fr. origin end in -i$m. Cp. M.E. sophivtc s= sophism. Q 2 228 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. -ist (Lat. -ista, Gr. ic-r?/e): bapt-w/, evangel-/,*-/, chor-/y/-er ; M.E. soph-/tf-er = soph-w/. More recent forms are dent-/r/, de-ist, exorcist, flor-Zs-/, medall-/^, novel-/*-/, and numerous others. -ite (Lat. -//#, Fr. -He) forms patronymics : Israel-//?, Jesu-//. -id (Lat. •4fo Gr. -iS-, Fr. -ide) : JEne-id, Nere-/*/. Many modern chemical words end in -id, as alkalo-///. -le (Lat. -u/us, -u/a, -uluiri) : fab-//). -me, the modern French form is contained in alu-w, legu-#^, wohi-me, vegi-me. -men, the original Lat. form, is retained in all later loans, as z.cw-men, bitu-w>, cruel-/)*, feal-/>>, (=: fidelity), frail -ty, &c. -ule. See -le, p. 228. -ure (Lat. -urd) : advent-^r*, aperl-ure, creat-ar*, 232 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. forfeit-ure 9 nat-ure, mixt-ure, meas-z/r/, past-z/r, stud-j>. Directly from the Latin are formed augury, obsequ-j>, remedy, &c. -y (Lat. atus) : attorn-^, deputy, all-_>>. Many words in -cy, -sy, are formed on the model of Fr. words in -«>, Lat. -tia : — cura-. -y (Lat. -ta), arm-y : embassy, chium-ey, country dela-jj, destin-jy, entr-j>, joum-ey, )\ir-y, part-.)>, vall-^. See -ee, p. 226. -y (Lat. -ies) : progeny. II. Adjective Suffixes. -al (Lat. -alls), annu-0/, besti-0/, casu-#/, equ-a/, \oy-al (= leg-al), xoy-al (= reg-#/), &c. See p. 224. -al forms many new derivatives, as, festiv-a/, celesti-a/, comic »al f mathematic-0/. -an, -ain (Lat. -anus) : cert-ain, germ-an, gemwwV/, hum-an, me-an. There are numerous adjectives in -an y of recent formation that have no corresponding Latin form in -anus: agrari-tf/z, barbari-tf//, diluvi-#/z, pedestrw*;*. .'See an, p. 224. -ane (Lat. -anus): hum-ane, transmont-ar//* are modern foims. XV.] ROMANIC SUFFIXES. 233 -ant, -ent : en-ant, rsanip-ant, Xxtnch-ant, obedi-#z/, paxi-ent, &c. See -ant, -ent, p. 224. -ar (Lat. -art's) : famili-ar, regular, singular. -ary (Lat -arius) : contrary, necessary, secondary. See -ar, p. 225. Arbitx-ary, disciplin-^ry, honorary, and many English derivatives in -ary, having no Latin form in -arius. The Lat. -arius is sometimes changed into -arious, as, nef- arious t greg-ari-ous. Sometimes -an is added to -ari t as, agr-ari-an, axitiqu-ari-an, &c. -atic (Lat. -aticus) : fan-atic, lun-tf/fo Most nouns in -atic, -tic, come directly from the Latin, as zqu-atic, ms-tic, domes-/fc, &c. See -age, p. 224. -ate (Lat. -atus) : dz\ic-ate, desol-0/*?, &c. See -iff, p. 227. *n Early and Middle English these adjectives ended in -if: us, actif, attentif, &c. The f has dropped off in hasty, jolly, testy. Cp. massive with. T.E. massy ; and baily = bailiff. We have a large number of modern derivatives in -ive, as, coerc-w^ conclus-tz/i 1 , affirmat-zV*', &c. We have one hybrid, talk-atwe. -lent (Lat. -l-entus) full ol : corpu-/*///, opu-/*r///, vio- lent, &c. XV.J ROMANIC SUFFIXES. 235 -ory (Lat. -orius) : amatory, mandatory, &c. -ose (Lat. -osus) : bellic-. See -ive, p. 234. III. Verbal Suffixes. -ate (Lat. -atus, the ending of the pass, part.) forms verbs from Latin and French verbs : agit-#te, alien- ate, assassin-tfte, &c. \ and from nouns and adjectives : accentuate, filtr-tfte, superannuate, &c. -ise, -ize (Lat. -izare, Fr. iser, Gr. -ifa) forms verbs from nouns and adjectives : colon-zze, pulver-z"^, civil- ize, fertil-/^. -ish (Lat. esc-o ; Fr. -iss in the pres. part, of verbs in -ir)i establ-w^, ftoux-isk, fin-zs/i, nour-zV//, pol-ish, &c. fy (Lat. -ficare, Fr. -fier) : edi^, magni^, signify. 245. COMPOSITION WITH ROMANIC PREFIXES. Words with these prefixes are divisible into two classes, (1) those that have come from the Latin through the Norman French, (2) those that have come directly from the Latin. The first class of words is of course the oldest. See § 244, p. 223. A, av (Fr. a, av; Lat. a, ab, abs, away from) : — (1) A-vaunt (Fr. a-vant ; Lat. ab-ante), a-d-vance, a-d-vantage, a-vert, a-bridge, a-s-soil (absolve), abs- tain, ab-ound, ab-use. (2) ^-dicate, absent, afo-cond, &c. XV.] ROMANIC PREFIXES. 237 A, ad (O.Fr. ad, a; Fr. a; Lat. ad, to) : — By assimilation ad- becomes ac, a/-, ag- f al- t an-, ap- t ar~ t as; at-. (1) A-bate, ac-quaint (M.Lat. ad-cognitare), ac-quit, ac-cord, (O.Fr. a-cointer), a-c-count. A-chieve, ac-cuse, a-d- venture, (M.E. a-venture), ad-journ (M.E. ajorni), ad-join, ad-verse, ad-versary, af-firm, af-fiance, af-finity, af-ford, a-gree, ag-grieve, (M. E. ag-regge and a-greve), a-d-monish (M.E. a-moneste), a-mount, a-merce, al-ledge, al-ly, al-low, ap-parel, ap-pear, ap-pease, ap-ply, ap-proach, ar-rive, as-sail, as-sault (M.E. asaute), as-size, as-suage, as-semble, at-tain, a-venge, a-vow. Cp. the later loans adieu, adroit, alarm, alert, apart, &*c. (2) Ad-avt, accept, accumulate, aggravate, al- leviate, an-nex, &c. An, ante (Fr. ans, ains; Lat. ante): — (1) An-cestor (M.E. ancessoure), an-cestry, v-an- guard (= Fr. av-ant-garde). (2) Ante-cede, ante-meridian, ante-chamber. (3) Ante-date, anti-cipate, seem formed on the model of the Fr. anti-dater, anti-cipier. Circum, circu (Lat. circum, around) : — Circum-cise, circu-it, are found in M.E. Modern compounds with this prefix are very com mon : circumscribe, circumstance, &c. Co, com, con (Fr. co, com, con; Lat. cum, with) : — Com becomes col before /, cor before r, and co before vowels. (1) Col-late, com-mand, com-mon, com-pany, 23S HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [Chap. con-ceive, con-ceit, con-demn, con-duit, con-found, con-strue, con-vey, con-voy, &c. ; counsel, coun- tenance, co-vent, con-vent. Couch (Lat. collocare) ; count (Lat. computare), cost (Lat. constare), custom (Lat. consuetudinem), cover, (Lat. co-operire), curry (Fr. cor-royer, for O.Fr. con-roi ; Lat. con-redum,) {redum = arrangements from a Teutonic root red to arrange. Cp. Flemish reden, Goth, raidjan, to prepare, make ready). Quail, to curdle (Fr. coailler, Lat. coagulare). (2) Modern forms are very numerous : ^/-locate, comprehend, con-duct, -sextile, fo-ennial, ^///-ocular. (3) Biscuit is modern French biscuit, Lat. bis -cod um. Demi (Fr. demi; Lat. dimidium, half) : — (1) Demi-god, demi-quaver. Semi (Lat. semi, half) : — (1) Semt-dicle, semi-column. Mai, mau, male (Fr. ma/, man; Lat. male, ill) :-— (1) Mau-gre, mal-ady. (2) M ale-diction, mal-evolent. (3) Mai- treat, #^/-content. Non (Lat. zw«, not) : — (1) Noun-power impotence. Chaucer's Boethius, P. 75- (2) Non-sense, non-existent (3) JVdn-chal&nce, non-psneil. Mis (Fr. mes; Lat. minus, less) : — (1) Mis-chance (M.E. mesc/ieance), mis-cnief (M.E. meschief); (2) mis-fortune and mis-nomer are modern analogous forms. (3) J/^-alliance. Pen (Yx.pen; Lat. pane, almost) : — /^/-insula, /^//-ultimate. R 2 244 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. Sans, sine (Fr. sans, Lat. sine, without) : — (2) Sine-cure, sin-cere. (3) Sans-culotte, jvz/w-culottism. 246. Greek Prefixes. Nearly all compounds with Greek prefixes are of late origin. An-, a- (av, a), negative like Lat. in- and Eng. un-: an-archy, an-aesthetic, a-pathy. Amphi- (afi(f>l) t about, on both sides. Cp. Lat. am, amb, O.E. umbe, ymbe, about: amphi-bious, amphi- theatre. Ana- (ava), up, up to, again, back : ana-logy, ana- lysis, an-ec-dote. Anti- (avrC), opposite to, against : anti-dote, anti- pathy, anti-thesis, ant-arctic. Apo-, ap- (aTrd), away from, from. Cp. Lat. ab, Eng. off: apo-logy, apo-strophe, apo-gee, apo-crypha, ap- helion. Apocalypse, from the Latin, occurs in Middle English; also pocalips {Piers Plowman, B. p. 215). Arch-, archi- (npx^i), chief, head: arch-heretic, arch-aism, archi-tect. Shakespeare uses arch as a root in King Lear, ii. I, "My worthy arch" Arch-bishop occurs in M.E. Chaucer has archi- wyves {Clerhes Tale), archi-deknes {Prologue). The last existed in O.E. Auto-, aut (avTo), self: auto-crat, auto-graph. Cata , cath-, cat- (Kara), down, downwards. XV.] GREEK PREFIXES. 245 about \ cata-ract, cata-strophe, cath-olic, cat-hedral, cat-egorize. Dia- (Std), through : dia-meter, dia-gonal. Di- (Si). Cp. Lat. dis, Eng. to: di-syllable, (often mis-spelt dissyllable) di-phthong. Dys- (dvg) ill : dys-peptic, dys-entery. Ec-, ex- (Ik, ci-) out, forth ; cp. Lat. ex; ec-centric, ec-lectic, ex-orcism. En- (kv), in. Cp. Lat. in- : en-thusiasm, en-tomo- logy, en-comium, em-piric, em-phasis, el-liptical. Epi-, ep- (£7rt), upon, on, by: epi-demic, epi- taph, epi-tome, ep-och. Eu-, well : eu-logy, eu-phony. U in Utopia is for ov, not cv. Evangelist occurs inM.E. and comes through the Latin. Hemi- (///u), half: hemi-stich, hemi-sphere. Hyper- (yirip), above, beyond. Cp. Lat. super, Eng. over : hyper-bole, hyper-critical. Hypo-, hyp- (Wo), under. Cp. Lat. sub : hypo- crite, hypo-thesis, hyp-hen. Meta-, met- (fiera), after, tratis : meta-phorical, meta-morphosis, (cp. Latin trans-form), met-hod. Mono-, mon- (novo), single, alone: mono-graph, mon-archy. Also monk = O.E. niunec. Pan- (irav), all : pan-theistic, pan-acea. Para-, par- (rrapa), beside, against : para-dox, para-site, para-phrase, par-helion, para-ble. Cp. parley, from Fr. through Latin. Peri- (jrepi), round. Cp. Lat. per, Eng. for : peri- meter, peri-odical, peri-phrasis. Pro- (wp6), before. Cp. Lat. pro, Eng. fore : pro- logue, pro-gnostic. 246 HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Chap. XV. Pro-pTiet and pro-phecy, prologue^ proem occur in M. E. Pro- gramme is Fr. Pros- (7rpoc), towards : pros-elyte, pros-ody. Syn- {<7vv), with : syn-opsis, syn-tax, sym-pathy, syl-logism, sy-stem. 247. We have some few Greek suffixes that have come from Latin though Norman-French. See suffixes, -ic (pp. 227, 234), -m (p. 228), -ist (p. 228) -sy (p. 231), -ize (p. 236). APPENDIX. Note to p. 68. he and she. In M.E. we find he and she used as nouns. " QueJ>er-sum it war sco or he, To godd be-taght J>an S uld it be." C. Mundi, C. 1. 10205. Note to p. 96. former = O.E. forma, M.E. forme ; the r seems to have arisen out of the final e ; former occurs in the Gottingen text of the Cursor Mundi ; but Fairfax has forme and Cotton form. See Cursor Mundi, (ed. Morris, p. 526, 1. 9156). Note top. 122. What and aught: "gif he hwat dselan wyle" = " 3 if he awiht delan wule." (See O. £. Horn. i. p. 297 and p. 103.) Note to p. 189. a = of. Cp. the Gottingen and Cotton texts of the C. Mundi, 1. 8968. 11 Hu all J>is werld sal wite awai." Cotton. M Hou all Ms world suld wit of way." Gottingen. " Wendaj) min heafod ofdune, forjKm J?e min Drihten Haelend Crist of heofenum adune to eorJ>an astag." "Turn my head adown (downwards), because my Lord Jesus Christ came from heaven adown to earth. " — Blickiing Homilies, ed. Morris, p. 191. INDEX. The numbers refer to the pages. A, 19, 3 6 > 40, 188. Abide, 147. About, 196. Accent, 20, 56. Addition of Letters, 51. Adjectives, 18, 58, 87. Ado, 218. Adverbs, 187. Adverbs, Pronominal, 190. After, 196. Agglutination, 54. •Ago, 158. Alder-liefest, 51, 88. All and Some, 123. Alms, 75. Along of, 198, 218. Alphabet, 35, 39, 40. Also, 192 American words in English, 26. Amends, 76. Among, 197. An = if, 200. An, article, 96, 97. Analytical languages, 17. Anomalous verbs, 167. Anon, 217. Any, 126. Apocope, 51. Arabic words in English, 26. Aryan, 1, 5. Article, indefinite, 96. definite, 114. As, relative, 12 1. As, adverb, 192. At, before infinitive, 218. Aught, 125. Augustine's mission, II. Auxiliary verbs, 56, 185. B, 43, 46, 51. Be, 168 — 170. Belief, 20. Bequeath, past tense of, 144. Best, 93. Better, 93. Bit, verb, 147. Body, 123. Both, 98, 99. Bound (for journey) 9. Bridal, 215. Bridegroom, 69. But, 196. By, Be, 188, 189. Can, 171. Cardinal numbers. See Nu- merals. Case, loss of case-endings, 56, 79. So- 250 INDEX. Case, 78. absolute, 82. possessive, 81. dative, 79. Causative verbs, 129. Chaucer, 14, 16. Chester, 10. Chicken, 55, 61, 63. Childer, 73. Chinese words in English. 26. Classical words in English, 10, 21, 30. Cleave, 148. Cognates, 54. Comparison, 18, 56, 90. Comparison, double, 91. marks of in pronouns, 91. marks of in adverbs, 91. marks of in prepositions, 196. Composition, 54. Compounds, 54, 78, 215. Conjunction, 200. Conquest, Norman, effects on English, 13, 16. Consonants, 20, 37, 39. classification of, 37. changes of, 43, 46. D, 43, Si- Danish words in English, 9. Dare, 173. Dative, absolute, 79. infinitive, 164. Decay, phonetic, 20, 45. Degrees of comparison, 90. Demonstrative pronouns, 1 14. Dentals, 43. Derivatives, 54. £>o, 159, 183, 186. Dialects, 31. Digraphs, 40. Diphthongs, 36, 39. Distributives, 98. Drake, 69. Dutch, meaning of, 4, 5. words in English, 26. E, 19, 36. Each, 126. Early English, 33. Eaves, 76. Either, 127, 201. Elder, Eldest, 92. Else, 127. Empress, 13, 67. English, 6. Enough, enow, 128. Epen thesis, 51. Epithesis, 51. Ere, 95. Ess, suffix, 65, 66. Euphonic changes, 42. Every, 126. Eyren, 73. F,44. Farthest, 94. Fell, (hill) 9. Feminine gender, 18, 63. Few, 100. First, 95. Firth, 10. Foreign plurals, 77. Formation of words, 204. Formative elements, 54 Former, 96, 247. French words (modem) in English, 25. Further, 95. Future tense, 134. G, 20, 44 Gander, 69. Gender, 19. of nouns, 61. of pronouns, 116. Genitive suffixes, 80. German, High, 4. Low, 4. German words in English, 26 rm DF.X. 251 Gerundial infinitive, 164, Keltic languages, 3. Gilden, 63. words in English, 8. Go to, 221. Kine, 72, 74. Goddess, 63. King, 69. Goose, 69. L, 44. 5<- Gossip, 43. Labials, 43. Gospel, 215. Lad, 69. Gothic, 5. Lady, 69. Grave, verb, 145. Languages, classification of, 3. Grimm's Law, 46. Lass, 69. Gutturals, 20, 44. Last, 92. Latin Alphabet, 35. H, 20, 51. Latin words in English, 10. Handy-work, 20. Laws of sound-change, 42. He, 68, 106, 128. Less, 94. Hebrew words in English, 26. Lest, 191. Hem, 60. Let, 132. Hindu words in English, 26. Letters, 35. His = 's, sign of possession, Lord, 69. 81. Low German, 4. Hosen, 73, Hundred, 98. M, 43, 46. Hybrids, 54. Malay words in English, 26. Man 68 I, 103. Many, 100. Ilk, 117. Marchioness, 6j. Indefinite article, 96. Masculine gender, 64. Indo-European languages, I. May, 177. Ine, feminine suffix, 67. Me, dative, 79. Infinitive mood, 164. indefinite pronoun, 124. Inflections lost, 56. Means, 76. Instrumental case, 115. Metathesis, 52. Interjections, 203. Middle English, 34. Irregular comparisons, 92. Mistress, 67. plurals of nouns, 72. Mo, 94. verbs, 137. Mood, indicative, 131. It, 107. infinitive, 132, 164. Italian words in English, 25. imperative, 132. Italic languages, 3. subjunctive, 131. Its, 113. Modern English, 34. Much, 94. L 20, 43. Jaw, 43. Mum, 60. Mun, 184. Must, 181. K, 43,44. Mutes, 37. 252 INDEX. N, 46, $1. Nam, 169. Nasals, 37 Naught, 125. Nay, ne, no, 191. Need, verb, 185. Needs, 187. Neither, 127, 201. Nephew, 69. Neuter gender, see gender. News, 76. Next, 92. Niece, 69. Nill, 176. No, 125. Nobody, 123. None, 97, 125. Norman-French words, 13, 21. prefixes, 236. suffixes, 223. Nostril, 215. Not, 125, 192. Nothing, 125. Nought, 125. Nouns, 61. verbal, 133. Number, 70, 136. Numerals, 96. Nurse, 67. O, 36, 39- Objective case, 79. Odds, 76. Of, 56, 193> 195, 2I 7- Off, 56. Old English, 33. On, 96. Once, 187. One, 96, 124. One = self, III. Or, conj., 20 1. Or = ere, 197. Orchard, 215. Ordinals, see numerals. Orthography, faults of English, 40. Other, 99, 201. Otherlike, 117. Our, Ours, 114. Over, 95, 196. Owe, 179. Own, 180, 184. Oxen, 55, 73. P.43. 46. Pains, 76. Participles, 168. Particles, 217. Parts of speech, 53. Passive voice, 130. Pease, 75. Periods of the English lan- guage, 33. Permutation of sounds, 43. Persian words in English, 26. Person-endings of verbs, 159. Personal pronouns, 102. Pesen, 73. Plural of compounds, 78. Plural of nouns, 70. adjectives, 87. Portuguese words in English, Possessive case, 79, 81 Prefixes, English, 217, 221. Romanic, 236. Greek, 195. Prepositions, 195. Pronominal adverbs, 190. Pronouns, 1 01. Pronouns, adjective, 1 1 2. demonstrative, 114. indefinite, 122. interrogative, 118. personal, 102. relative, 120. reflexive, 110. Prothesis, 51. INDEX. 253 Pure English words, 27. Q, 38- , Queen, 69. Quoth, 144. R, 44, 51. Rather, 93. Reduplication, 55, 137. Relational words, 1 7. Revival of learning, 2 1 . Riches, 75. Romanic languages, 3. Romanic dialects, 3. prefixes, 236. suffixes, 223. Roots, 54, 204. S, 18,44, $f< Same, 117. Saxons, 6. Scandinavian languages, 3, 9. Sclavonic languages, 3. Seethe, 149. Seldom, 187. Self, no. Self-same, 112. Sempster, 64. Several, 128. Shall (to owe), 175. Shaw, 10. Shoon, 73. She, 68, 107. Sibilants, 38, 44. Small-pox, 76. So, 117. Softening of gutturals, 20, 45. Some, 122. Songster, 64. Songstress, 65. Sounds, classification of, 37. changes of 42. assimilation of, 44. Spanish words in English, 24. Spinster, 63. Spirants, 37, 44. Ster, suffix, 18, 19, 63. Street, 10. Strong verbs, 136, 137. Such, 117. Suffixes, adverbial, 187, 213. plural, 70. of pronouns, 117. of verbs, 159. English, 204. Roman, 223. Sundry, 128. Superlative degree, 91, 96. in m-ost, 96. Sware, 145. Swine, 74. T, 43, 46. Table of consonant sounds, . 38- Grimm's Law, 48. Tenses, 135. Tapster, 64. Ten, 97. Tense, 134. Teuton, Teutonic, 4. Teutonic languages, 3. That, 116. The adverb, 191. definite article, 102, 109, 114. instrumental, 115. Their, 1S4. Ther, comparative suffix, 97. These, no. They, 107. Thilk, 117. Thine, Thy, n 2, 113. This, 116. Thorough, 56, 106. Through, 56, 196. Those, 116. Thus, 191. Till, 198. To, 56. 254 INDEX. Too, 56. Ti-ansitive verbs, 129. Trills, 37, 44. Turkish words in English, 26. Twain, 97. Twelve, 97. Twenty, 97. U, 36. Ulfilas, 5. Under, 196. Unto, 197. 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