wv 8^33^ 3 1822 01221 7865 THE .NISM OF SPEECH BY ALEXANDER GMHAM BELL WV 501 B433 190* UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO B 3 1822 01221 7865 E^ 5^5 5 ! ■:'■ 611 4'^^yi>:^^^J L^^2. 10 the absence of voice, but there was no dfficulty in understanding it. In this case the air which was moulded into speech came not from the lungs, but from the pharynx. If we close the lips tightly and compress the air in the mouth and make an effort to blow, the pharynx expands under the pressure of the confined air, just as a rubber ball would expand if you were to blow into it. Upon opening the lips the contra(5tion of the pharynx causes a sudden puff of air. A puff of air of this charader can be produced even though the glottis is closed. By long practice this man had acquired such expertness in the use of the muscles about the pharynx that he could produce explosive effects of this kind which could be distinctly heard at a distance. When he spoke, the conso- nants were formed with very great firmness, and the removal of the consonant position resulted m a puff of air through the vowel posi- tions assumed by the mouth, so that the puff had vowel quality sounding like a whispered vowel. I can imitate the character of his speech so that you may understand, more clearly than I can describe it, the nature of his articulation. The point that I would have you observe is, that in this case vowel effeds were unmistakably produced, although no air passed through the larynx into the mouth. Dr. Hewson: Do I understand you to say that this individ- ual who had the larynx closed, made audible speech ? Dr. Bell: Yes, sir; quite audible speech. Dr. Hewson: I merely wish to make a statement from actual surgical experience that, in cases where the operation of tracheotomy has been performed, it is impossible to make any sound under such circumstances, unless the finger is placed over the tube in the trachea. Now, of course, that may be due to the condition which you have already indicated ; that is, that the speech was pro- duced by this individual by long praftice. Now it is possible for people to speak when that tube is closed, even though the principal part of the vocal apparatus is lined with diphtheric membrane. There is some sort of sound made, at least, but there is no audible speech. The remark I made some time ago about the vowel sounds being made in the larynx, I will amend by saying that of course the experiments that you have had the opportunity of seeing, had not come to the notice of either myself or the gentlemen who have preceded me, in making statements in text-books from which I have quoted. Your experience, I believe, is very unique; because I have never heard of any one who had been able to see the experiments, II made as you have detailed them to-day. With reference to the closure of the upper part of the vocal apparatus by diphtheric mem- brane, and the introduction of a tube into the trachea ; I may say that in order that any sound may be produced at all, the tracheal tube must be closed. Now, if the parts above, are almost closed by the diphtheric membrane, no sound is produced. However, I can readily see, from a knowledge of the muscular tissue surround- ing the parts, that such sounds could be produced as you have detailed in this individual. Dr. Bell: In the case of this individual I have just men- tioned, no air could pass up into the mouth, under any circum- stances. The aperture in the windpipe remained open, and, all the time he was speaking, air gushed out of the tube in his throat, forming a whistling accompaniment to his speech. Miss Yale: Dr. Bell, I have a number of questions here for you to answer. Dr. Bell: The first question is: "Is it possible to constrict the false vocal cords ? " I think that Dr. Hewson will be more competent than I am to answer that question. Dr. Hewson: I cannot conceive of any muscular fibres con- striding the ventricular bands, or false vocal cords. Mr. Crouter: How was it with the Scotchman, Dr. Bell? Dr. Bf.ll: There were no vocal cords in the case of the Scotchman, the vocal cords were represented by a harmonium reed. i nardly know how to commence on the stream of questions you have set for me. They appear to be of very great impor- tance, and I should be very glad if I can be of any assistance to teachers here in answering them. I may, perhaps, group them so as to answer two or three at one time. (i) " Please illustrate the development of Jig." (2) "Dr. Bell develops non-vocal r from ///; please demon- strate." (3) " How would you develop eh ?" I will take up these in one group. In difficult cases you will find manipulation of the tongue of great assistance: and I think that this series of questions may be answered by showing you how to manipulate the tongue; and by directing your attention to the nature of the changes, you can produce by manipulation. You can push a position further back, and you can enlarge an aperture by manipulation ; but you cannot do the converse, if, then, your pu- pil cannot pronounce a given sound, let him give a sound of similar 12 formation but further forward in the mouth ; then push the position back. For example; take the cases specified in the questions, (i.) The pupil cannot pronounce iig. Now, suppose he can pronounce 71 — a sound of similar formation but formed further forward in the mouth. Take a manipulator (for example; a paper cutter), and hold it in the pupil's mouth so as to cover the top or front part of the tongue. Now tell the pupil to say n. The point and front of the tongue being fettered, the back of the tongue alone is free to 'rise; and the attempt to say // results in iig. Now give the pupil a hand-mirror and tell him to keep his tongue still when you with- draw the manipulator. In most cases the pupil is at once able to pronounce iig, but in difficult cases it is advisable to get him to manipulate his tongue for himself, watching the effed in a hand- mirror. (2) Your pupil cannot pronounce non-vocal r, but is able to give th. Place the manipulator under the tongue, and gradually lift the point of the tongue, while the pupil tries to sound ///. The sound changes to a hiss, somewhat like s, then as the tongue is raised higher the sound becomes more like sh; and if lifted still higher, it becomes non-vocal r. When the correft position is reached, the point of the tongue is against the inner part of the upper gum— just where the palate commences to arch — with an aperture over the centre. (3) The pupil cannot pronounce sh. Let him pronounce th. Place the manipulator over the tip of the tongue and push the tongue gradually back. The sound changes first to s, and then to sh. If pushed too far back, it becomesj-/^ (Ji in the word hue) ; and if still further back, the German ch (back-centre aperture). Another question is, "What would you do with a pupil who gives tig too far back ? " I don't quite understand this question, for you can't get w^.too far back. You can get k and g too far back, and these are very common defeds. In such cases the back of the tongue is placed against the back of the pharynx instead of against the soft palate, but such a position cannot produce an ng sound, be- cause the depression of the soft palate would not admit air into the nasal passages, the shut position being below the soft palate. It is very difficult to corred a position that is too far back. You can push a position further back, but you can't pull it forward! I think the best plan is to start anew. Take a position too far forward in the mouth, and push the tongue backwards to the corred position. For example; where you have k too far back, take /; let the pupil try to 13 pronounce /, while you hold the manipulator overthe tongue so as to prevent any portion from rising, excepting the back. In this way you will be sure of a good k, if the pupil does not know what you are aiming at. By vocalizing the k you get^. (Dr. Bell illustrated his remarks by manipulating the tongue of a deaf pupil.) The next question is, "Please demonstrate that intelligible speech does not depend upon perfed vowel positions." I shall read a few sentences from a book, substituting for each vowel sound a mere indefinite murmur of voice. You observe that the articulation, though, of course, very peculiar, is perfedly intelli- gible.* We may learn from such an experiment as this, that con- sonants are much more important elements than vowels. Intelli- gibility of speech mainly depends upon the correft pronunciation of consonants. We could manage to get along very well with only one vowel sound, if indefinite enough, and yet make ourselves understood. I don't mean to advise you to teach speech of this character to your pupils, but many of you may be encouraged to know that very imperfed vowel sounds will not prevent your pupils from being understood by relatives and friends. Consonants are much more easily acquired than vowels, and all pupils who can pronounce the consonants corredly can acquire a useful articulation, even though they murder the vowels. That is, their speech will be intelligible to hearing people, and therefore useful as a means of communication, even though it may not be very pleasant to hear. Too much effort, I think, is made to impart a niceness of pro- nunciation that is not appreciated by the outside world. When 1 first entered upon the work of articulation teaching, I was very proud of the pronunciation of some of my congenitally deaf pupils. They had been drilled upon the elements and were able to pronunce words and sentences written in Visible Speech with absolute corredness, slowly, it is true, but with perfed ele- mentary sounds. To my great mortification, however, I found that * Read the following passage aloud, giving an indefinite murmur of the voice for each dash, and the passage will be intelligible: — - p-nt-d t- th- c-t -nd th-n t- -ts n-m -nd -nd-v-id t- m-k h-m -n-rst-nd th- m-n-ng -v th- r-t-ng - -Is- t-t h-m t- sp-1 th- w-rd -n h-s f-ngg-rs. -v-th-ng th-t h- d-d w-s p-rf-rmd w-th - p-nd-r-s s-rt -V -mf-s-s th-t w-d h-v m-d - p-rs-n -nf-m-ly-r w-th th- d-f s-p-z tli-t h- n- -1 -b-t -t — From the Aiiiuh for Jantury, i8()i,p. 4=;. You may substitute for the (-) any large aperture vowel, such as u in up, er in her, in on, or even a in cjI, without destroying intelligibility. 14 visitors generally preferred the imperfect gabble of some semi-mute to the elocutionary speech I had labored to impart. In those days 1 had a very poor opinion of the visitors, but 1 have since come to the conclusion that 1 myself was somewhat at fault. My aim v/as wrong. At that time I had the mistaken idea that it was hardly worth while teaching articulation at all, unless I could teach my pupils to speak -ucell. My ear was sensitive to every mispro- nunciation, and 1 was constantly correcting my pupils for errors that were not even noticed by visitors to the school. Our obje(ft is not to train elocutionists, but to help deaf children to make themselves understood. Intelligibility is of far greater im- portance than perfection. By all means let us get as perfect a pro- nunciation as we can, but do not let us spend much time on minor details of pronunciation that are of no consequence to intelligi- bility. Let us aim, not to get the speech of the elocutionist, hut the speech of the people among ivhom the children live. Judged by the standard of the elocutionist, how many of the hearing people of the world talk well } Very few, and yet their speech is of inestimable value to them in all the relations of life. Now, I hardly think it worth while attempting to teach the mass of the deaf to talk better than other people. Let us be satisfied with speech like that which we ourselves employ without troubling our- selves about niceties of articulation that might be all very well in an oraior or public speaker, but which would be of no pradlical benefit to a deaf child in his own home. Observe your own utterance and the utterances of your friends, and you will find that half your syllables are pronounced in a slipshod fashion that would make an articulation teacher shudder if given in the same manner by a deaf child. Take such little words as and or of. Who gives them their proper didionary pronunciation in adual speech ? No one but the deaf child. We pronounce them somewhat as though they were spelled und or uv. You und I ; a cup uv tea. No one says thee boy, Ann apple, or eh pear in conversation. The obscure sound is heard, and our utterance is more like thu boy, iin apple, ti pear. The same indefiniteness of vowel sound is charaderistic of all our unaccented syllables. Why, then, need we be particular about the pronunciation of the unaccented syllables in such words as, com- fortable (kumf-t-ble), lesson (les-n), silent (sil-nt), sentence (sent- nce), workman (workm-n), different (dif-r-nt), above (-buv), forgot (f-got), etc. Any sort of indefinite vowel sound will pass muster in these syllables if only softly uttered. 15 We are training our children to talk to ordinary people, not to elocutionists. There are certain points that must be attended to in order that the speech may be satisfadory to ordinary people; but in regard to other points, great latitude may be allowed. Consonant elements and the vowels in accented syllables must be properly pronounced, but the vowels in unaccented syllables may be uttered in any sort of indefinite way without offending the ordinary ear. Accent and rhythm, I think, are of more importance than exact pronunciation. In Visible Speech the voice symbol (i) is used to indicate an in- definite vowel sound like er in the word her, or like the er sound used by public speakers to fill up gaps in their sentences— when— er —they are not — er — very— er—er— sure— er— what they want to say. This indefinite vowel sign I consider a perfed God-send to the teacher of articulation, enabling him to get rid of half the labor of articulation teaching. In spelling phonetically the vast majority of the vowel sounds in the unaccented syllables may be represented by this indefinite voice mark; and it may also be substituted every- where for glide r. I would recommend those who do not use Visible Speech to use a dash. Ordinary people who know nothing of phonetics or elocution have difificulty in understanding slow speech composed of perfe6l elementary sounds, while they have no difficulty in comprehending an imperfed gabble if only the accent and ihythm are natural. Too much labor is bestowed upon unaccented syllables. Any child can give an indefinite vowel sound that may be combined rapidly with consonants. I have seen a teacher puzzling herself over the word comjot table. The first syllable gave no difficulty, but the second syllable was not pronounced easily by the child. There was an attempt on the part of the pupil to give long 6, as in pole, followed by a consonant r of an exaggerated kind, and the teacher was try- ing to get the pupil to substitute aw for o. With regard to the last syllable the teacher was puzzled to decide whether the vowel should have the sound of a in table, a in cat, or a in ask. Now the fad; is that the exact vowel sounds in the unaccented syllables are of no earthly consequence. An ordinary ear will accept any sort of inde- finite sound as good speech, if the word is uttered rapidly with due accent on the first syllable. Even an elocutionist would not ask for a consonant r in the second syllable. He would simply demand a gliding of the tongue towards the position for r; but ordinary peo- 16 pie do not give an r of any sort in a large proportion of cases, and it is certainly the case that glide r may be ignored in teaching a deaf child and taught simply as voice, without any ordinary person notic- ing any peculiarity, so that in the word "comfortable" the second syllable may be given as, / followed by the indefinite voice sign. (3i, /-) So also with the vowel in the last syllable. The whole word, therefore, might be written a]B3iDi0CO or kumf-t-bl. Pro- nounce the first syllable with due deliberation and care, and give tbe others rapidly and carelessly, and it will be satisfadory. Dr. Williams : With indefinite vowel sounds, is there not a danger of carrying that too far so as to get indefiniteness .? Dr. Bell: You don't want to do that with accented vowels. However, it is the consonants that give intelligibility to speech. You may give every vowel indefinitely; but if the consonants are definite, you get intelligibility. If the accented vowels are given corredly, the unaccented vowels may be jumbled up somewhat. Dr. Williams : But if they get into the habit of giving the vowel sound in that indefinite way, won't they carry it into the accented vowels } Dr. Bell ; Well, they might, just as we do. Of course, the better articulation you can get the better; but allow me to say that in ninety-nine out of a hundred persons you meet in ordinary society, that indefinite sound is carried into a great many accented syllables and also into nearly all the unaccented syllables. The next question is, " In a whisper, are the vocal cords lax or tense .? " In the case of a whisper there is a constridion ; there is an obstruction to the passage of air ir the glottis. The vocal cords are not adjusted so as to permit of a definite musical vibration, so that the obstruction results in a rustling sound that we term "whisper." Prof. Binner : You mean constriftion of the vocal cords ? Dr. Bell : Yes, a constridion of the glottis — the space be- tween the vocal cords. THE PHARYNX AND MOUTH IN THEIR RELATION TO SPEECH. In my last lecture I told you about a man with a harmonium reed in his throat, in place of vocal cords. Now, ordinarily, there is vast deal of difference between the sound of a harmonium, and the sound of the human voice, and yet in this case the reed pro- duced the effed of a human voice when the man spoke. To the ear, therefore, it made all the difference in the world, whether the reed was vibrated outside or inside the man's throat. Now, we have no reason to suppose that the thorax and lungs operated in any different way from the wind chest of a harmonium. They simply supplied air to set the reed in vibration. The difference oi effed, therefore, must have been due to the parts above the reed. In other words, the pharynx, mouth, etc., were the agencies involved in changing the harmonium effe(ft into a human voice. Consider for a moment, the nature of the difference between the sound of a harmonium reed and a sound of similar pitch sung by the voice. The same note may be played upon a piano, a violin, a flute, or a trumpet, and yet each sound has an individuality of its own. We can tell by the ear, at once, which instrument is used, although all the notes may be alike in pitch, and equally loud. The sounds differ from one another in "character," "quality" or "tim- bre," and it will thus be understood that the pharynx, mouth, etc., affe(fl the quality or timbre of the voice. We can recognize that every sound possesses the elements of pitch, loudness, and quality. It matters not whether the sound be produced by the human voice, by a musical instrument, by the rustling of leaves, or by a knock upon the door — it has a certain >7 i8 loudness, a certain pitch and a certain character, or timbre of its own, by which we recognize it from other sounds of similar pitch and loudness. Now, when we study the production of voice, we find that these three characteristics originate principally in three different parts of the vocal apparatus. (i) The pitch of the voice is determined by the vocal cords. (2) The loudness by the abdominal or expira- tory muscles; and (3) The quality or timbre by the parts above the vocal cords. 1. The lips of the glottis open and close with great rapidity, and the frequency of the vibration is mainly determined by the tension of the vocal cords. 2. Air escapes from the lungs through this vibrating glottis in a series of puffs, and the force of emission is chiefly determined by the action of the abdominal or expiratory muscles. 3. The upper part of the larnyx, together with the pharynx, nares, and mouth, constitutes a passage-way, or tube, of variable size and shape, through which the vibrating current of air is passed. It is here that the voice is moulded, so to speak, on its way to the ear, and the shape of the passage-way largely determines the quality or timbre of the voice. You can produce a crude voice-like sound by the vibration of the lips of the mouth. Press your lips very firmly together while you blow air between them, so as to cause the edges to vibrate. The sound produced is not very pleasant, and resembles more than anything else the hum of a bee, or the buzz of an imprisoned fly. But place the buzzing lips at the end of a tube — for example a trumpet — and at once the quality changes. Out come the clear ringing tones so familiar to us in a brass band! In this case the source of sound is found in the vibration of the lips, but the timbre or metallic quality is due to the trumpet. In a somewhat similar manner the passage-way or tube, through which the voice is passed, affeds the quality of the sound produced by the lips of the throat; and if we could decapitate a singer in the midst of a song, so as to hear the sound produced by his vocal cords alone, I fancy we should find as great a change in 19 the quality of the voice, as we do in the sound produced by the lips when the trumpet is removed. The beauty of the voice would be gone, and you would simply have a reed-like effeft. In the case of the trumpet, the chara6ter of the tube affeds not only the quality, but the pit:h of the sound produced. For example: If you lengthen the tube, the lips vibrate more slowly, and the sound becomes lower in ]. itch. In the instrument of speech, how- ever, the lips of the glottis are so admirably adapted for independent vibration, that changes in the passage-way do not affecl: their rate of vibration, but simply chinge the quality of the resulting sound. A number of years ago I visited a large school for the deaf, and taught all the pupils to use their voices. In a few cases the effe6l was decidedly unpleasant, the voice resembling somewhat the cry of a peacock. The effect, indeed, was so unnatural and distressing to the ear that some of the teachers expressed the opinion that the vocal cords had been affected by the disease that had caused deaf- ness. They thought, therefore, that it would hardly be worth while attempting to teach these children to speak. Knowing that the quality of the voice is chiefly determined by the shape of the passage through which it is passed, I did not consider it necessary to assume a defeat in the vocal cords, but rather sought the cause of the peculiartiy in some constriction of the passage-way higher up than the vocal cords. I was careful to avoid discouraging the pupils by any expres- sion of disapproval, so they were entirely unconscious of the fa6t that their voices were unpleasant. They had no hesitation, there- fore, in repeating the disagreeable sound as often as I desired ; and I encouraged them to repeat it a great many times, so that I might study the effeft and become familiar with the sound. I then found it possible to imitate the effedi myself. This was proof positive that the existence of the peculiarity was quite consistent with the possession of perfeft vocal organs. Having acquired the ability to repeat the effect, I set myself to work to find out what I did with my mouth during the produdion of the sound. I could feel a con- striction somewhere in the back part of the mouth, and therefore examined my vocal organs in a hand mirror while I depressed the tongue so as to exhibit the whole of the pharynx. At once the cause of the peculiarity became manifest. The muscles constitut- ing the side walls of the pharynx were seen to be forcibly con- tracted, and they were approximated so closely together as almost to touch. After a little pradice I found myself able to move these 20 muscles at will without making any sound. Then I tested the effed of the motion upon the quality of the voice. When the muscles were relaxed and the cavity of the pharynx expanded the quality of the voice was good, but the moment the side walls of the pharynx commenced to approach one another (see dotted lines in Fig. 2.), the character of the voice changed. It acquired a pecul- Fig. 2.* 1. Soft palate. 2. Uvula. 3, 4. Anterior pillars of the soft palate. 5, 6. Pos- terior pillars of the soft palate. 7,8. Tonsils. 9. Tongue. 10. Back of the pharynx. The posterior pillars of the soft palate (5, 6,) are capable of approximation, as shown by dotted lines. iar metallic ring, somewhat like the tone of a brass musical instrument. The effeft became more and more disagreeable as the side walls approached, until the peculiarly distressing effect was produced, which 1 have likened to the cry of a peacock. Having gained this information I attempted to improve the voices of the children. For this purpose I gave them hand mirrors and taught them to depress their tongues so as to render visible the soft palate and back of the pharynx. I then made them look into my mouth while I silently contracted and expanded the pharvnx. After some practice they were able to imitate the adion. 1 then placed my hands on my throat while 1 repeated the exercise with voice. Their first attempts at reproduftion were failures; the moment they sounded the voice,, a powerful contraction ■Reproduced from " Voice, Song, and Speech.' .21 of the muscles about the pharynx became visible, and the usual disagreeable effe6l was produced. By means of the mirror, I direded their attention to the constri(ftion, and told them to expand the pharynx, as they had done before when they made no noise. At first they were unable to relax the muscles of the pharynx, with- out stopping the voice, but, after some praftice, they succeeded in doing this, and at once the voice became natural and pleasant in quality. The cavity of the pharynx may be roughly likened to a room with four walls. The back part ot the tongue constitutes the front wall of the chamber, and opposite to it is the back wall of the pharynx. The side walls are formed by muscles that extend upwards to the soft palate. The approximation of these side walls, as 1 have already explained, imparts to the voice a disagreeable metallic quality. The front and back walls, too, are capable of approxima- tion, and in this case, also, the quality of the voice is injuriously affe(5ted. For example: The tongue may be held so far back in the mouth as to cause the base of the tongue to come almost into contad with the back of the pharynx. The voice then acquires a peculiar " guttural quality." I have heard this kind of voice pro- duced by deaf children, but it is more common, I think, among persons who hear. It is rarely heard during the aft of speech, hut many persons affe6l this guttural quality of the voice when they sing. The "metallic quality " of voice, on the other hand, is quite common among the deaf, although it is rarely so marked as to be painful to the ear. Many hearing persons also possess it in a greater or less degree, — especially persons who use their voices much in the open air. For example, the rasping voice of the street hawker is of this description. Another peculiarity of voice very common among the deaf, is "nasal quality." This is occasioned by the habitual depression of the soft palate. By means of a hand mirror, the cause may be shown to a deaf child. The soft palate is capable of elevation and depression. When it is raised it fits closely against the back of the pharynx, forming a ceiling to the pharyngeal cavity. When it is depressed, it hangs down like a curtain, leaving a passage-way behind it, which leads into the nares or nasal passages. 1 would recommend every teacher of articulation to learn to control the movements of the soft palate and the muscles of the pharynx, so as to be able to exhibit the acftion of the parts to pupils. 22 The first point you have to learn, is to depress the tongue so as to unveil the pharynx and soft palate. Many persons find difficulty in doing this, but by persistent efforts before a mirror, all can acquire the power. Now watch the soft palate while you breathe gently, sometimes through the mouth, sometimes through the nose. At first the soft palate appears to move about in a most mysterious man- ner by itself, without any volition on your part. Now it goes up, and then the next moment you see it hanging loosely down. By watching these motions in a mirror, and attempting to control them, you will soon find yourself able to elevate or depress the palate at will. Now sound the voice continuously, and observe what effe£t is produced upon its quality by the movement. You will notice that the moment the palate falls, the voice acquires nasality, and that this effed disappears when the palate is raised into contaft with the back of the pharynx. During the ad of speech, the soft palate is raised continuously, excepting when the sound of w, ;/, and ng, are uttered. In order to corred a nasal quality of voice, therefore, your pupil must raise his soft palate. The question arises, however, — how are you going to make him do it } Various expedients may be resorted to, such as the common one of telling him to blow an imaginary feather away from his mouth while he speaks ; but these are all indirect methods, and do not touch the root of the matter. I would recommend you to go for the soft palate itself, direftly, with a hand-mirror. Teach your pupil to elevate and depress it at will. Direft the adion with your hand. When you raise your hand let him raise the palate (Cut A), and keep it elevated till you give the signal for depression (Cut B). Ill ll/l- lii' 1 (Cut B.)* *These cuts are reproduced from " Voice, Song, and Speech." 2 3 Then let him keep it depressed without motion, till you direct him to raise it. Control over the vocal organs is gained not so much by moving them as by keeping them still. Keep the soft palate de- pressed and still for a long period of time, and then raised for an equal length of time. Do this at first silently, and then afterwards with voice. Elevate and depress the palate without stopping the voice but retain the elevated or depressed position for a considerable period of time. When your pupil can do this without looking in the mirror you may usefully vary the exercise by requiring him to raise or depress the palate while at the same time he prolongs a vowel sound. (For example: ah or ee or o.) Then let him rattle off a series of vowels without stopping the voice. (For example: ah ee o ee; ah ee o ee, etc.), elevating or depressing the palate as you dired. As the ulti- mate objeft to be gained is ability to retain the soft palate in the elevated position continuously during speech, there should be no rapid alternations of elevation and depression. He should repeat the series of vowels many times in succession with the soft palate raised, and many times with it depressed, but the voice should not be stopped excepting when it becomes advisable to take breath. • The uvula, the pendulous extremity of the soft palate, seems to have no special fundion in speech, at least in the English lan- guage, and I have known of cases where it has been excised without interfering with articulation. In teaching the deaf, however, the uvula may be found of use as an index to the pitch of the voice. A pupil may, perhaps, be made conscious of changes in the pitch of the voice, by directing his attention to changes that simultan- eously occur in the length of the uvula, in most cases, the uvula hangs loosely down during the production of low tones and shrinks in size as the pitch of the voice is raised, (See Cuts A, and B.) When the pitch is very high the uvula shrinks up to such an extent that it almost disappears (Cut C, page 24.) While this rule is not invariable, the effed is so commonly produced, as at least to be worthy of note. Every change in the shape of the passage-way, through which the voice is passed, occasions a corresponding change in the quality of the voice, and I have pointed out the causes of certain disagree- able effeds. in order to render the voice sweet and pleasant to the ear, it is necessary that the soft palate should be raised into contad with the back of the pharynx, and that the whole cavity of the 24 pharynx should be expanded, so that the passage-way there should be free and unobstructed. Any constriftion in the pharynx is fatal to the beauty of the voice. The mouth passage also affefts the voice, imparting to it "vowel quality," and changes in the shape of the mouth-passage, produced by the adion of the tongue and lips, occasion changes Of vowel quality. In singing different vowel sounds the voice may have the same pitch and loudness, and yet each vowel remains distinft to the ear. Vowel differences, therefore, are differences in the quality or timbre of the voice ; and vowels themselves are in reality qualities of voice to which we have given specific names, and which we employ as elements of speech. I do not propose to-day to enter into any detailed description of the positions assumed by the tongue and lips, during the produc- tion of vowel sounds, as most of you, I know, are familiar with the [III.' Il/it (Cut C).* subjeft. I shall rather attempt to show you why it is that changei; in the shape of the cavities of the mouth, pharynx, etc., occasion changes in the quality of the voice. When we prolong a vowel sound without varying the pitch of the voice, the effeft produced upon the ear is not simply that of a single musical sound, but of a chord containing a number of musical tones of different pitch. One of these tones is so much louder than the others that it determines the apparent pitch of the whole combi- nation. The other tones are so feebly produced, that it takes a skilled ear to recognize them as musical effects at all; and the untrained ear simply perceives them as the quality or timbre of the sound. When a number of vowels are sung successively without varying the pitch of the voice, a trained ear readily perceives that This cut is reproduced from " Voice, Song, and Speech." the partial tones change in pitch with every change of vowel effed. The loud fundamental is due to the vibration of the vocal cords, and the " partial tones " are caused by the resonance of the air in the cavities of the mouth. " What do you mean by 'the resonance of the air in the cavities of the mouth?'" I fancy some of you ask. In order to answer this question 1 have brought a few empty bottles from the dining- room table and from the kitchen of the hotel. Here we have a pep- per-pot, a pickle-bottle, a mustard-pot, a vinegar-bottle from the cruet-stand, and a few other bottles of different shapes and sizes. Now let me blow into the mouth of one of these bottles. At once you hear a musical tone something like that produced by an organ pipe. I shall now blow into the mouths of the others. You .observe that each bottle has a resonance tone of its own. In some cases the pitch is high, in others low. Observe the pitch of the bottle 1 hold in my hand. I shall now pour in a little water so as to reduce the air space within. The bottle produces a tone of higher pitch than it did before. I pour in a little more water and again the pitch rises. In fa(5l, the smaller the cavity is made the higher does the pitch become. Now you have in your mouth a bottle-shaped cavity, and in this case also the air within has a tendency to vibrate at a definite rate so as to produce a musical tone. When the size of the cavity is reduced by elevating the tongue and bringing it further forward in the mouth, the pitch becomes higher, just as the tone produced by the bottle rose in pitch when I poured in water. I am afraid you would hardly like me to demonstrate the truth of this statement by blowing into your mouth as I did into the bottle! If you are anxious to make the experiment you can blow into your own mouth with a pair of bellows! A still simpler way, however, of testing the effect is to blow air through the mouth from the lungs. For example: whistle. The pitch of the whistle rises as the tongue is advanced in the mouth. Let me dired your attention once more to the bottle. The pitch rose when I poured in water, and of course I can lower it again, if I choose, by pouring out the water. Instead of doing this, however, I shall change the pitch in another way, without varying the size of the air space within. While 1 blow into the bottle I shall gradually cover its mouth with my hand. The tone, you observe, falls in pitch as the orifice is reduced. You see from this that you can vary the pitch; (i) by varying the size of the cavity, and (2) by chang- ing the size of the opening into it. Allow me to illustrate these two ways with my mouth. 26 1. I shall assume the position of the Visible Speech symbol " Back center-aperture " (German r/« in the word nach); and then glide the tongue gradually forward to the position for " Front centre- aperture " ( h in the word hue) thus reducing the size of the cavity in front of the tongue. The pitch of the sound rises as the tongue is advanced in the mouth. 2. 1 shall now retain tne "Back centre-aperture position (Ger- man ch) and gradually contraft the aperture between the lips until the position for the English element wh is reached. The pitch falls as the labial aperture is reduced. In forming German rJi compressed air from the lungs escapes through a very small aperture between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, occasioning a rustling sound in the mouth. Although this effect constitutes a noise rather than a musical tone, you have no difficulty in recognizing that it has pitch. 1 think you should teach all your pupils to produce German ch, because this position of the tongue enters into the composi- tion of three English elements which are usually pronounced in a very detedive manner. I allude to the sounds of wh, iv, and the vowel 00 in the word foo. In these cases the aperture between the lips IS so small as to prevent the pupil from observing the position of the tongue, which position is essential to the production of the sound. He imitates the labial aperture perfectly, but fails to give the back tongue position, and hence produces only a crude approxi- mation to the correft sound. A short time ago I visited one of our best articulation schools, and went through all the classes in search of a good oo. The only children who gave the sound corredly were semi-deaf, or had acquired speech by ear. There is really little difficulty in teaching the sound if you commence with the lingual element by itself, and then modify it by rounding the lips. Commence with German ch. Round the lips and you have wh. Add voice and you have oo. For all practical purposes this may be considered identical with w. When the two elements are in juxtaposition the difference is readily perceived by the pupil. For example : Pronounce the word woo. The labial aperture is visibly smaller for the consonant than for the vowel. The only trouble in teaching this sound arises from the faft that a very slight change in the lingual position destroys the oo effeft. If the tongue is only a little too far forward or a little too far back, the position may yield a very respectable German r //, and yet fail to produce a good oo when the lips are rounded and the 27 voice is sounded. In such cases the pitch of the German ch will tell you the nature of the defed, and how to remedy it. If the pitch is too high the tongue is too far forward ; if it is too low the tongue is too far back. You can obtain your standard for comparison in the following way : Pronounce a good oo. Convert it into wh by substituting breath for voice, and then force your lips apart so as to obtain the effect of the lingual position alone. Observe the pitch of the German ch thus produced. If the pitch of the sound produced by your pupil is higher than this, dired: him to place the tongue further back ; and if it is lower, tell him to bring the tongue forward. The pitch of the mouth can be brought out by other means than by blowing air into or through the cavity. Resonance is caused whenever a sound of similar pitch is produced in the neighborhood. For example: Here is a tuning fork, and upon the table is a bottle which has the same pitch. I hold the vibrating prongs of the fork over the mouth of the bottle, and at once its resonance tone is loudly evoked. Here is another bottle, but it remains silent when the fork is rpolied. Upon blowing into it you perceive that the pitch is too low. Let me tune it by pouring in water. It still fails to respond — the pitch is nov/ too high. Upon pouring out a little water the bot- tle resounds, but very faintly. It has almost the same pitch as the fork — but is still a little too high. I pour out a few more drops, and now you hear the full and loud response made when the fork is ap- plied. Let me hold the fork in front of my lips while my mouth is in the position of "wh. You have no response, because the proper tone of the mouth cavity is different from that of the fork. Upon tuning the cavity by shifting the position of the tongue, the mouth resounds as the bottle did a few moments ago. In these cases you have resonance produced by "sympathetic vibration." If you have in the same neighborhood two bodies that tend to vibrate at the same rate, set the one vibrating and the other vibrates of itself — out of "sympathy" as it were! I shall show you another case. Here we have a piano. 1 shall depress the pedal so as to release all the strings, and then sing into the instrument. When 1 stop singing you will observe that the piano echoes my voice. That string of the piano that had the same pitch as my voice was set sympathetically into vibration. A similar effe(f\ is produced in the case of vibrations which are too slow to produce the sensation of sound. For example: If two clocks having pendulums of similar length are attached to the same wall you need only set one of them going, for by and by the other will go by itself. Of 28 course we cannot suppose that the pendulums had any particular "sympathy " or afFe(5\ion one for the other — or that the string of the piano experienced any emotion at the sound of my voice! Every mechanical effeft must have a mechanical cause — and the fads of " sympathetic vibration " require explanation. Let us consider the case of an oscillation slow enough to be followed by the eye. For example: Imagine one of your pupils to be upon a swing. Stand behind him and give him a shove. The swing moves forward a little way and returns upon its path. It oscillates backwards and forwards at a definite rate for a long time before it comes to rest. Indeed, were it not for frittion and resistance of the air it wouldn't stop at all. Inertia would keep it going; and one shove would be sufficient to set it vibrating forever! In spite of the resistance of air, the effeft of a single push is retained through many vibrations. If, then, you push the swing again at the proper time, the motion is increased. Very slight efforts of the hand will suffice to set the swing into full vibration if the impulses are properly timed to the movements of the swing so as always to come during the forward motion alone. Under such circumstances the effect of each succes- sive shove is added to that of the last, and a cumulative effect is produced. The amplitude may become very great even though the individual impulses are slight. If the shove is given at the wrong -time, that is, when the swing is moving on its backward path, then every impulse tends to stop the vibration. Each push retards the motion to a certain extent, and a series of very slight impulses will bring the swing to rest. For example: The resistance of the air stops it in time if you leave it alone. The air, in effeft, shoves the swing at the wrong time at each vibration. Make it push at the right time, and the converse effedl will be produced. You could set the swing going, for instance, by puffs from a pair of bellow ! Now the strings of a piano are in effed swings, each tuned to vibrate at a different rate from the other ; and puffs of air from my lungs set them going when I sang into the instrument. At each opening of the glottis a puff of air escaped from the lungs, and all the strings of the piano received a shove. The first shove started them all swinging, but th» second caught some of them on the return path and stopped their motion. The motion of others was retarded later on ; but that string which had the same rate of vibra- tion as my vocal cords, received each shove always at the right time, and was thus set into vigorous vibration. It continued sound- ing for some time after I stopped the voice, just as a swing 29 continues in vibration after you stop pushing it. The same kind of adion took place when the tuning fork was held over a bottle of similar pitch to its own. At each descent of the prong the air in the bottle received a shove ; and the air was thus set into vibration, as you set a swing into vibration by the hand. A similar aftion took place when I held the vibrating fork in front of my lips. At first no sound was produced, but when 1 shifted the position of the tongue, so as to tune the mouth-cavity to the pitch of the fork, resonance resulted, and you all heard the effed. I have no doubt that the Scotchman with the artificial larynx could have produced the same effed, if he had slipped a tuning-fork into his throat in place of the harmonium reed. Imagine a multitude of tuning-forks of different pitch to be massed together in front of the mouth and all simultaneously to be set in vibration. It should then be possible, by shifting the position of the tongue, to reinforce the tone — now of one fork, now of another — at will. Indeed under such circumstances, it would hardly be possible to assume a position of the mouth, that would not reinforce some fork — at least in a greater or less degree. Imagine the mass of tun- ing-forks to be placed in the Scotchman's throat, and similar effeds would result. Now the vocal cords like the hypothetical forks, produce a number of feeble tones of different pitch ; when we pronounce a vowel sound, the mouth cavity reinforces, by resonance, that " par- tial tone" of the voice which is nearest in pitch, to the proper tone of the cavity. The effect produced we call the " vowel quality." The loud fundamental tone of the voice, so distrafts the attention of the untrained observer, that he finds difficulty at first in hearing the resonance tone produced by the mouth. The best way to train the ear is to commence by observing the pitches of non-vocal sounds. Then listen for similar effects when the voice is sounded. If you whisper the vowels ah, aiv, oh, 66, I think you will have little difficulty in recognizing the faer lip. " Upper gum. <> Top of hard palare. c Front part of soft palate. ' Back of pliarynx behind sort palate. 42 T3 t/3 3 E on C C3 U) u O > c o <4— > (A o a. n 00 t/2 X J= E H oo >> X: o c OLE 13 X ttl c o &-0 r; bo O 'u. -C OJ ^ OJ o r-; G. (A X tu o o ■4—1 a- — r- 1- l- C _ — c •t-i Xi o O r: — O Xj -t-i (U JZ H I biD rz oo oo a. u a c o ■4—' o^ u - 3 ■4-' a. o -5 c :^ O = Xi CO W (1) OJ t o C/3 o 3 be C C -4-> D Xi t/2 c be o re o I bo 0) oo r- '^ 1^ _: "O . ■- 03 j::^ "S £ E:^ — 03 J;; D ^ a, (U 00 (U 00 o 3 — ■^ 03 c ■4-1 CD 03 I bo 03 00 00 « 43 The various combinations of these positions tabulated upon page 208, may be symbolized as follows : POSITIONS ASSUMED. Expressed Expressed upon plan shown upon plan shown in Fig. 6. in Fig. 7. resulting sounds. P D^ Blowing to cool. P' C*= German ch in " nach." P" I The vowel i^r in "her." P + P' O^ + C*= The consonant tvh in ' ' what. " P+ P" 0^ + 1 German w in " ztie." P+P" C^ + l Gaelic aogh in " laogh." P+P'+P" O^' + C^ + l . .The vowel 00 in "too." The equations to which 1 have direded your attention may be thus expressed: 1. German ch = English zch — P. C^ = (D^ + C<:) — D^ 2. Gaelic aogh = English 00 — P. C*^ + I = (O^ + C^ + I) — O^ Three positions (P, P', P"), have been shown in Fig. 6, but a fourth position, which has not hitherto been noticed, is also indi- cated in that diagram. The soft palate is in contad with the back of the pharynx, thus closing the entrance to the nasal passages. Visible Speech affords us a means of expressing this position if we so desire. The portion of the soft palate that fits against the back of the pharynx, like other active organs, is represented by its own outline {S ), in such a dia- gram as Fig. 7; and the part of the pharynx with which it makes contad could, consistently with the notation, be represented by the same symbol in miniature ('). Combining these with the symbol for passage-way closed (CI), we could form the compound charader D' (soft palate shut against back of pharynx). In English utterance this position is con- stantly assumed during the ad of speech, excepting when the sounds of m, n, and ng occur. As a matter of convenience the position of the soft palate is not noted excepting when these sounds occur. When the soft palate is depressed, as in Fig. 7, a passage-way exists between it and the back of the pharynx, through which air escapes into the nasal passages. 44 This position may be thus expressed : p, j " A central aperture between the soft palate and the } back of the pharynx." In forming /;/ we shut the lips and pass voice through the nose. This sound, therefore, results from three positions which are simultaneously assumed. Position for /» = D^ + C + I (See Fig. 8). That is: "Under lip shut against upper lip" plus "central aperture, between the soft palate and back of the pharynx," plus "slit-like aperture between the vocal cords." Position for « = D" + C + I (See Fig. 9). That is, "point of tongue, shut against upper gum" plus " central aperture, between the soft palate, and back of the pharynx,' plus " slit-like aperture between the vocal cords." Position for w^ = Q*^ + C + ' (See Fig. 10). That is: "Back of the tongue shut against the soft palate" plus " central aperture, between the soft palate and back of the phar- ynx " plus " slit-like aperture between the vocal cords." RESUME OF ELEMENTARY POSITIONS. = Under lip, shut against upper lip. D^ = Point of tongue, shut against upper gum. Q'^ = Top (or "front") of tongue, shut, against top of hard palate. Q*^ = Back of tongue, shut against soft palate. □ ' = Soft palate, shut against back of pharynx. O^ = Central aperture, between the under lip and the upper lip. U*^ = Central aperture between the point of the tongue and the upper gum. O" = Central aperture between the top (or "front") of the tongue and the hard palate. C*^ = Central aperture between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. C = Central aperture between the soft palate and back of the pharynx. I = Slit-like aperture between the two vocal cords. An elementary position is expressed by a symbol composed of three associated characters. For example: — 0= z= :p or P = a b c. (Fig. 6). The sign for the constridion (c) is united with that for the 4? Fig, 8. Position for M l + tl' + D'zr-S Fig. 9. Position for N. i + c'Do+^ce Fig. 10. Position for NG. 46 active organ (a) so as to form one charader ; and the passive organ (b) appears as a diacritical mark. In order to express the mechanism of speech-sounds with accu- racy, as many symbols are required as there are elementary positions to be represented. Hence many sounds like the vowel oo (Fig. 6), require at least three position-symbols to express their formation. (See also positions for iii, n, and iig; Figs. 8, 9, 10.) This method of symbolization, though admirable for the pur- poses of scientific analysis, would be unsuitable for current use as a phonetical representation of speech. For example: It would hardly be convenient to write the word " moon " in the following way! M 00 N (D^ + C + I) (O^ + C^ + I) D" + C + I) See Fig. 8. See Fig. 6 See Fig. 9. In order to fit the symbols for use as a phonetical alphabet, my father saw that it was necessary, or at all events advisable, that each sound should be represented by only one character; and that there- fore, associated positions should be combined into a compound form capable of use like a letter of the alphabet. By the adoption of certain principles of abbreviation this has been accomplished without interfering with the symbolic character of the notation. ABBREVIATIONS. I. Passive organs may in general be implied and not written. This plan gets rid of the diacritical marks save in exceptional cases. For example: D (•' Point shut"') alone, without any representation of the passive organ, is to be taken as meaning D" ("Point shut against the upper gum ") for the upper gum is the usual place of application for the point of the tongue. The symbol expresses the position for /. If, however, a deaf child should pronounce / by placing the point of the tongue against the top of the hard palate, then the passive organ must be shown, thus D". So also when we repre- sent the /-like sound produced during the ad of spitting, D^ (" Point of the tongue, shut, against the upper lip.") In forming the Sanscrit "cerebral /" D<= ("Point of the tongue, shut against the soft palate ") the passive organ, being abnormal, must also be indicated. In general^ the passive organ may be omitted without ambi- guity, by adopting the rule that in such cases the adive organ shall 47 be considered as applied to that passive organ which is represented by its own symbol in miniature. For example: = 3^ U = U^ O = O" C = C^ C = C D = D^ D = D^ Q^Q"" a = a^ □ = D' 2. I have already alluded to the abbreviation employed to represent the vocalizing position of the larynx. The slit-like aper- ture (I) alone, is used for the full position — the organs themselves (the vocal cords) being implied. This simple symbol (I) is admirably adapted for combination with other signs into a single charader. For example: — D^ + I = D + I = D" + I = D + I = CD Q" + I = Q + I = Q ac + i = a + i = G D^ 4- C^ + I (Fig. 6) = D + C + | = 3 + C = 0-|-e = 3 + G 3. The symbol S ("soft palate") is used to indicate C (centre- aperture, between the soft palate and back of the pharynx "). This can be combined with other symbols into a single charader. For example: — (Fig. 8) D^ + C' + l = D + ) + l = D + l = D + )=a (Position for (Fig. 9)0"4-£:' + l=D + ) + l = C5 + I = CD + ) = ?C (Position for ;/). (Fig. 10.) 3D + C' + l = a + i + | = G + l = a + j = G (Position for iig). 4. The most difficult case arises when two mouth-positions are simultaneously assumed. Fortunately the curves to be combined are usually of opposite kind so that one can be hooked on to the end of the other. Thus C + D = O or a The resulting character, however, is of so awkward a shape that another hook is added for the sake of symmetry. Curves of this kind are what my father terms "mixed" symbols. For example: — C + ^ = ^ a labial position modified by the back of the tongue (English it'//). Or = c; a back tongue position modified by the lips. (A labi- alized German r/i). O -f U = Q a front-tongue position modified by the point of the tongue (English s/i). 48 Or = 23 'T point-tongue position modified by the top or "front " of the tongue (English 5). 5. When two or more positions are simultaneously assumed, the sound may be considered as originating at the point of greatest constridion — the other constrictions merely modifying the effed. In representing associated positions, therefore, the point of greatest constriction is selecfted as the base for the compound sym- bol, and the other positions are indicated in a subordinate manner. For example, take the positions shown in Fig. 6. In this case we have three associated positions, P, P', and P". Now if P, (the labial position), should happen to be the point of greatest constriction, a rustling noise will be perceived originating at the labial aperture. This kind of sound is characteristic of air under pressure, escaping through a fine orifice. We can recognize by ear many varieties of the sound for which we have no name. It varies, according to the size of the orifice, and the degree of pressure, from a simple rustling sound — like the rustling of leaves upon a tree, to an intense hiss — like the noise of steam escaping from a loco- motive. When the vocal organs yield a noise of this character, we call the effeCt a " consonant sound." If, then, the 00-like effeCt produced by the positions shown in Fig, 6, is accompanied by a rustling sound at the labial orifice (P), we call the result a labial " consonant," and not a " vowel" although the voice is heard. The labial position becomes the base for the compound symbol which is then written as follows: — O^ + C*= + 1 = 3 (English w) a labial position modified by the back of the tongue and the throat. If P', (Fig. 6), be the point of greatest constriction a rustling sound is also heard, but in this case it originates within the mouth, at the back-tongue position (German r//), and the labial aperture simply modifies the effeCt. This rustling noise characterizes the sound as a " consonant " although the voice is also heard. In this case the back-tongue position becomes the base and the other posi- tions are indicated in a subordinate manner. C*^ + O^ + I = C (German ch modified by the lips and vocal cords. If P" (Fig. 6), be the point of greatest constriction, the sound heard originates in the glottis. Instead of a continuous rustling noise or hiss, an intermittent effeCt is produced by the vibration of the vocal cords. The air escapes in a series of p'.;rf5 t'r.at succeed 49 one another with such rapidity as to produce upon the ear the effe(5t of a musical tone. Voice alone is heard without any rustling or whistling accompaniment in the mouth. This charaAerizes the sound as a "vowel". The sound originates at the position P", and the mouth positions P, P', merely modify the effect The slit-like aperture between the vocal cords is therefore made the base for the compound symbol; and the mouth positions P, P', are indicated in a subordinate manner as follows: — I -|- C*^ + 0*= = i (vowel 00), a laryngeal position modified by the back of the tongue and the lips. The vertical line or "vowel stem," represents (1) the slit-like aperture between the vocal cords (P", Fig. 6), the tlack dot indi- cates the back-tongue position C^ (P') • and the horizontal cross- bar the labial position O^ (P). The three sounds represented by the symbols 59. G and 1, result from almost identical positions of the vocal organs, and in teaching the deaf the sounds themselves may be considered as iden- tical. The subtle distinctions, however, recognized by the ear are faithfully depicted to the eve, in the shape and general appearance of the symbols. The symbols for w (53), and the vowel oo (\), may be taken as typical of consonant and vowel symbols in general. A curve (/. e. a mouth-position), is the charaderistic feature of a consonant sym- bol; and a straight line (I) (the slit-like aperture between the vocal cords), forms the basis of the vowel notation. In conclusion I may say that the symbols for all the English consonants and vowels have been abbreviated to single signs, and that the phonetical alphabet thus produced is admirably adapted for use in schools for the deaf. The following example of abbreviation may be of interest: M 00 N (D^ + C' + l) (C^ + D^ + l) (D^ + C'-l-l) =SlCD Fig. 8. Fig. 6. Fig. 9. In my next lecture 1 shall present the symbols of Visible Speech in the way they are taught to the deaf. Dr. Bell then took charge of some children and illustrated his method of teaching. Dr. Bell : You must understand that while I claim the privi- lege of telling you in the forenoon what 1 want to tell you, I want to do in the afternoon just what you want. (Dr. Bell here gave an exhibition of the clicks with Miss Black's little girl pupil.) 50 He said: "It does not matter what sound you get from a child as long as you get a sound. The plan is to follow the child up and symbolize the different sounds made, and get him to remember and repeat the varieties that occur. I go from the known to the un- known. The queer sounds children make are the known sounds to them and the English sounds the unknown. Children like the process, and this to my mind is a proof that it is suited to their con- dition. There is something wrong about a process that gives pain to a child. It grieves my heart to visit schools for the deaf and find little children constantly corre6led for minor defefts of pronuncia- tion. The nagging process interrupts the flow of thought through speech, and is apt to dishearten the child in his attempts to speak. I would accept all sounds with approval, and utilize defe(5live sounds in the way I have suggested above." VISIBLE SPEECH AS TAUGHT TO THE DEAF. The following Charts are employed for the purpose of explain- ing to deaf children the meaning of my father's "Visible Speech" symbols. The elementary symbols shown in Chart 1. are compounded in Charts II. and HI. to express positions of the vocal organs which yield consonant sounds. In Chart IV. we have other elementary symbols which are combined in Chart V. to express vowel positions. Chart VI. illustrates symbolically the positions of the vocal organs in uttering English consonants, and Chart VII. symbolizes positions that yield English vowels. CHART 1. The teacher seleds some member of her class, and pretends to draw upon the blackboard the profile of the pupil's f;ice. She then looks into the pupil's mouth and proceeds to draw a picture of the interior of the mouth. The whole piAure when completed, con- stitutes a diagram like that shown in Chart 1. The teacher then proceeds to test the children's comprehension of the drawing. She points to different parts of the diagram, for example the forehead, nose, upper lip, lower lip, chin, lower part of jaw, throat, etc. The children indicate their comprehension of the diagram by touching the corresponding parts of their own faces. Attention is then directed to the interior of the mouth, and the teacher points to the picfture of the upper teeth, upper gum, top of the hard palate, soft palate, etc. The children touch or attempt to touch the correspond- ing parts of their own mouths. So with the lower organs, — the under teeth, the point of the tongue, the top or " front " part of the tongue, the back of the tongue, etc. 5' 52 When the comprehension of the class has been weh tested, the teacher erases from the blackboard all those parts of the diagram which are shown by dotted lines in Chart I., leaving the Visible Speech symbols in position as shown by the heavy lines. The teacher points to the fragmentary remains of the pidlure upon the blackboard, and the pupils recognize the symbols as "the nose," the "under lip," "the point of the tongue," "the top, or front of the tongue," "the back of the tongue," and "the throat." The arrow-head, which represents a sudden emission, or puff, of air from the mouth, is indicated by a sudden motion of the hand away from the mouth. The next step is to have the pupils recognize the symbols inde- pendently of their position on the blackboard. The symbols are therefore written in one line below the fragments of the head (see Chart 1.) The heavy lines alone are written, the dotted lines not appearing at all. The pupils then compare these symbols with the fragments of the drawings above and identify them, — as (i) the throat, (2) the back of the tongue, (3) the top, or front part, of the tongue, (4) the point of the tongue, (5) the under lip, (6) the nose, and (7) puff of air from the mouth. Finally the upper drawing is entirely removed from the black- board, and the lower line of symbols alone is left. Each pupil describes these as follows: (i) he touches his throat; (2) he points backwards into his mouth with a little jerk of the hand, indicating a part of the tongue further back in the mouth than he can well touch with his fmger; (3) he touches the top, or front part, of his tongue; (4) he touches the tip, or point, of his tongue; (s) he touches his under lip; (6) he touches his nose; (7) he places his hand near his mouth to indicate a sudden emission, or puff, of air. After these have been mastered, two new symbols, shown at the bottom of Chart I. are introduced. Here again it should be noticed that the symbols drawn on the blackboard consist only of the parts in heavy lines, the parts in dotted lines being omitted. The first of these new marks as you already know, symbolizes a pipe or passage through which air may pass. In the second case the pipe is shut, or stopped up> at one end. The first indicates a narrow central aperture or passage, somewhere in the mouth ; the second indicates the complete closure or shutting of the mouth- passage at some part. The idea is of too abstract a charafter to be explained at once to a deaf child who knows no language; hence CHART I ( ) I C ^ u ) s c a 54 these symbols are taught arbitrarily as positions of the fingers with- out any attempt being made to explain their significance. As a matter of fad, deaf children come to understand their meaning when applied to the explanation of positions of the mouth. The pupils are taught to indicate the first symbol at the bottom of Chart I. by holding the thumb and forefinger of the right hand near to one another without touching. This sign we may translate as "centre aperture." The second or "shut" symbol, is shown by bringing the thumb and forefinger together with a shutting adion. We may here notice that the straight line indicating a slit-like aperture between the vocal cords, is used in the sense of " voice." When a deaf child places his hand upon the throat of his teacher he can feel a vibration or tremor in the throat, whenever the voice is sounded. Hence he soon comes to associate the throat sign with a vibration of the vocal cords, and he indicates " voice " by touch- ing his throat. It should also be noticed that the " nose " sign is really pictorial of the pendulous extremity of the soft palate, and it indicates, as you have already learned, "soft palate depressed" so as to allow air to pass into the nasal passages. When a deaf child places his finger against the nose of his teacher while she pronounces ///, ;/, or ng, he can feel a vibration or tremor of the nostrils, and to him the soft palate symbol means voice or breath passing through the nose. The symbols shown upon Chart 1. are capable of being com- bined into compound forms, some of which are shown in Charts II. and III.. Before proceeding, however, to the analysis of the com- pound characters on these Charts it may be well to assign brief names to the elementary symbols of Chart 1. : these we can use to designate the gestures or signs employed by the deaf child which have been explained above. In the following Charts, I shall refer to the symbols at the bot- tom of Chart 1. as — I. Voice. 2. Back. 3. Front. 4. Point. 5. Lip. 6. Nose. 7. Puff of air. 8. Centre-aperture. 9. Shut. CHART II. The symbols on this Chart are named by the deaf child by analyzing them into the elementary symbols of which they are com- posed. We may translate his signs as follows : — First line.— 1. Lip centre-aperture. 2. Point centre-aperture. 3. Front centre-aperture. 4. Back centre-aperture. 55 Second line. — i. Lip centre-aperture. Voice. 2. Point centre aperture, Voice. 3. Front centre-aperture, Voice. 4. Back centre-aperture, Voice. Third line. — i. Lip centre-aperture, Nose. 2. Point centre- aperture, Nose. 3. Front centre-aperture, Nose. 4. Back centre-aperture, Nose. Fourth line. — i. Lip centre-aperture. Voice, Nose. 2. Point centre-aperture, Voice, Nose. 3. Front centre-aperture, Voice, Nose. 4. Back centre-aperture. Voice, Nose. Fifth line. — i. Lip shut. 2. Point shut. ^. Front shut. 4. Back shut. Sixth line. — i. Lip shut, Voice. 2. Point shut, Voice. 3. Front shut, Voice. 4. Back shut, Voice. Seventh line. — i. Lip shut, Nose. 2. Point shut, Nose. 3. Front shut, Nose. 4. Back shut, Nose. Eighth line. — i. Lip shut, Voice, Nose. 2. Point shut, Voice, Nose. 3. Front shut. Voice, Nose. 4. Back shut. Voice, Nose. Long before a class has finished describing these symbols, the pupils begin to obtain the idea that the symbols are directions to do something with the mouth. For example, when they describe the first symbol in the fifth line, " Lip shut," some of them usually shut their lips. After the whole Chart has been described, it then becomes the teacher's duty to make the children understand that the compound symbols they have been describing indicate positions of the mouth. The teacher direds attention to her mouth while she assumes some of the positions symbolized. For example, she describes seriatim the symbols in the first line. 1. "Lip centre-aperture." She places her lips close together leaving a small aperture between them. She then takes a pupil's hand and blows through this small centre-aperture against his hand. The resulting sound is not an English element of speech, but is the sound produced by blowing to cool something. 2. She describes the next symbol, "Point centre-aperture." With her hand she lifts up the point of her tongue and brings it into position against the upper gum, and makes the pupil look into her mouth and observe that there is a small aperture or hole between the point of her tongue and the upper gum. She then, without moving her tongue, blows through the point centre-aperture against the pupil's hand. The resultant sound is that of the French /', in the word theiUrc, or the English /-, (non-vocal), in the word irce. 56 In a similar manner she shows that in pronouncing thf third symbol "Front centre-aperture," the tongue is humped up in the middle, leaving a small centre passage or channel over the front of the tongue, through which she can blow against the pupil's hand. The resultant sound is that of the letter h in the word hue. 4. In pronouncing the fourth symbol she pushes her tongue towards the back part of her mouth with her hand, and shows that her tongue remains back when her hand is removed. She then lets the pupil feel that air can be blown upon his hand without moving the tongue. The resulting sound is that of the German ch in the word nach. Proceeding next to the second line: — 1. She shows that the first symbol, "Lip center-aperture, Voice," is the same as the first symbol in the first line, " Lip centre- aperture," excepting that a straight line is placed within the curve. She shows then that the lips are in the same position, but that a tremor or vibration can be felt in the throat which could not be felt when the other symbol was sounded. She takes the two hands of her pupil and places one against her throat, and holds the other in front of her mouth while she produces "Lip centre-aperture, Voice." The pupil sees the small centre-aperture between the lips, and feels the emission of air against his hand, and also perceives the trembling of the throat when the voice is sounded. The resulting sound is the German iv in the word wie. 2. In a similar manner, keeping one of the pupil's hands on her throat and the other in front of the mouth, she produces the second symbol in the second line, "Point centre-aperture, Voice,'' contrasting it with the second symbol in the first line, which has no voice. He sees the centre-aperture over the point of the tongue, and feels the vibration of the voice and the emission of air from the mouth. The resulting sound is that of the letter r in the word run. 3. In a similar manner she exemplifies the third symbol in the second line, " Front centre-aperture, Voice." The resultant sound is that of the consonant y in you. In teaching the deaf, this may be considered identical with the vowel ee. 4. The fourth symbol in the second line, " Back centre-aperture, Voice," is shown to be the same as the German ch (Back centre- aperture), excepting that a vibration is felt in the throat. Proceeding next to the eighth line: — I. The teacher describes the first symbol, " Lip shut, Voice^ Nose." In forming this sound the lips are shut and the voice is CHART 11- ) U O C 3) Ci,) (T) € D O O Cs ^ Ci^ CD Gs D D Q O 3 Q CI Q ? ) O Q ( s B G^ CD G 58 passed through the nose. She places one of the pupil's hands against her throat, and the other against her nose, and produces the sound of the letter in. The pupil sees the closure of the lips and feels a vibration in the throat and nose. 2. The second symbol in the eighth line, "Point shut, Voice, Nose," represents the position of the organs in forming the letter n. The pupil sees the point of the tongue shut against the upper gum and feels a vibration in the throat and nose. 4. The last symbol in the eighth line, "Back shut. Voice, Nose," expresses the position of the organs when producing iig in such a word as sing. Here the pupil sees that the back of the tongue is raised, and feels a vibration in the throat and nose. The objed of this exemplification is simply to make the pupils under- stand what the symbols mean, and not to get them to make the sounds themselves. Still, the children generally try to imitate what the teacher does, and of course, in some cases they fail because they have not yet acquired control over their vocal organs. As it is not the objed of their teacher at this stage to cause the pupil to make sounds, she should not take any notice of their f^iilures for fear of discouraging them. She should be satisfied with evidences of com- prehension as to the meaning of the symbols. Most children are able to take Charts 1. and II. in one lesson. After reviewing these at a subsequent time the third Chart is explained. CHART 111. The pupil's attention is directed to the symbol "Lip centre- aperture" (see the first symbol in Chart II.), which he describes by touching the under lip and then holding the thumb and forefinger close together without touching. The teacher then directs attention to the mouth, and shows that there is only one small hole through which the air passes. She then holds her lips together in the mid- dle and allows air to escape through two side apertures, one at each corner of the mouth, showing the pupil that now there are two holes through which the air escapes instead of one. This fad she symbolizes by writing two "Lip centre-aperture " symbols one above the other, ^ thus, forming a charader somewhat like the Arabic numeral 3. This the pupil describes by touching his lip, and then holding near the thumb two tlngers, instead of one alone, indicating that the aperture is divided into two parts. Thus the thumb and forefiiiger held together indicate one central aperture, and the thumb held near th'^ fore and middle fingers indicates "divided aperture." Turning now to Chart III. the symbols are described as follows: 59 First line. — i. Lip divided-aperture. 2. Point divided-aperture, 3. Front divided-aperture. 4. Back divided-aperture Second line. — i. Lip divided-aperture, Voice. 2. Point di- vided-aperture, Voice. 3. Front divided-aperture. Voice. 4. Back divided-aperture, Voice. The second symbol in the second line, " Point divided-aperture, Voice," expresses the position of the tongue in forming the sound of / in such a word as love. The point of the tongue is placed against the upper gum, and the voice is passed through two side apertures, one on each side of the tongue. The symbols in the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth lines are what my father terms "mixed" symbols, involving two positions of the organs assumed simulta- neously. The first svmbol in the the third line is composed of a large "Lip centre-aperture" symbol with a small "Back centre- aperture " hooked on to one end of the curve. For the sake of symmetry another small " Back centre-aperture " is attached to the other end of the curve, but this has no organic significance. This compound symbol expresses the position of the organs in sounding the English element represented by the letters wh in such a word as ■whistle. The back of the tongue is in the position for the German ch (Back centre-aperture), while at the same time a small centre- aperture is formed by the lips. The labial aperture being more obstrudive than the back aperture, characterizes the sound as a labial letter. For this reason the " Lip centre-aperture sign is made the most prominent part of the compound symbol. Deaf pupils describe this symbol as "Lip centre-aperture, Back centre-aper- ture." Proceeding now with the description of the remaining symbols upon Chart 111. we have: — Third line. — i. Lip ceritre-aperture, Back centre-aperture. 2. Point centre-aperture. Front centre-aperture. 3. Front centre-aperture, Point centre-aperture. 4. Back centre- aperture, Lip centre-aperture. Fourth line. — i. Lip centre-aperture, Back centre-aperture, Voice. 2. Point centre-aperture, Front centre-aperture. Voice. 3. Front centre-aperture, Point centre-aperture, Voice. 4. Back centre-aperture. Lip centre-aperture, Voice. Fifth line. — i. Lip divided-aperture. Back centre-aperture. 2. Point divided-aperture. Front centre-aperture. 3. Front divided-aperture, Point centre-aperture. 4. Back divided- aperture. Lip centre-aperture. 6o Sixth line. — i. Lip divided-aperture, Back centre-aperture, Voice. 2. Point divided-aperture, Front centre-aperture, Voice. 3. Front divided-aperture, Point centre-aperture. Voice. 4. Back divided-aperture. Lip centre-aperture, Voice. Numerous other compound symbols might be built up out of the elementary signs shown in Chart I., expressing both possible and impossible positions of the organs. The forms shown in Charts II. and III. are not intended to be pronounced by the pupil, but are given simply as exercises in analysis. If the pupil can be made to understand the meaning of the compound symbols by analyzing them into their elementary forms, Visible Speech become a symbolic language, whereby any imaginable position of the vocal organs may be expressed, so as to be understood by the children. The remaining symbols on Chart III. seventh line, are throat symbols. They picture various conditions of the glottis. 1. The first charafter, shaped like the letter O, piftures a wide aperture in the throat. The vocal cords are wide apart, leaving a large opening between them through which air may freely pass without obstrudion. This is the condition of the glottis in uttering the letter h, and all non-vocal or breath consonants. The letter h may, indeed, be considered as the non-vocal or breath form of a vowel. It has just as many different sounds as there are vowels. Pronounce such words as he, hay, ha, hoe, and who; it will be observed that the mouth-position for the sound of h is different in each word. H only occurs as an element of speech before a vowel. Under such circumstances the mouth position for h is the same as for the succeeding vowel, but the opening in the glottis is so wide as to allow the breath to pass into the mouth without sensible obstruction in the throat. 2, The second symbol in the seventh line, pictures a smaller aperture in the throat than the first. The vocal cords are brought near enough together to obstruft in some degree the passage of air between them, giving rise to a rustling sort of sound which is uni- versally denominated "whisper." This is the condition of the glottis when we whisper vowel sounds. This position of the throat also may be assumed in uttering consonants, thus giving rise to the "whispered" consonants, which in some languages are significant elements of speech, quite distinct in meaning from the "breath " and " voiced " consonants of similar formation occurring in the same languages. 6i 3. We have already become familiar with the third symbol in the seventh line, as the representative of voice. It pictures a still smaller aperture in the throat than either of the preceding. The vocal cords are placed parallel to one another, and the aperture between themjs reduced to a mere slit (pictured by a straight line). In this condition of the glottis the passage of air through the slit- like aperture occasions a vibration of the vocal cords, producing voice. This is the condition of the glottis in uttering vocal conso- nants and vowels. 4. The fourth symbol in the seventh line, piftures complete closure of the glottis. The vocal cords are pressed together so as completely shut the aperture between them, and prevent the escape of air. This is the condition of the glottis aimed at by singers in pra6licing what is called the "coup de glotte.'' It also occurs as an element of speech in certain diale(?ts. For example: In the Scotch dialeft as spoken in Glasgow, "Throat shut" is substituted for/ (Point shut) in such words as butter, water, etc. In English also it occurs as an unrecognized element of speech in words commencing with vowels. In ordinary utterance every syllable really commences with a consonant. When words are supposed to begin with vowels, the "Throat shut" consonant really precedes the vowel sound, although it is not usually recognized as an element of speech by orthoepists. Pronounce with considerable force the names of the five vowel letters a, e, i,o, u. A closure of the glottis takes place before each vowel, excepting the last. The "Throat shut" conso- nant precedes the vowels a, e, i, and 0; but 11 is preceded by the consonant y. Indeed, the name of the vowel might have been spelled you without affefting the pronunciation. The ''Throat shut" consonant, followed by a forcible emission of air from the lungs, is familiar to every one in the form of a cough. The meaning of the throat symbols shown in the seventh line, is explained to deaf children in the following way: 1. Touch the throat, and then hold the two hands together palm to palm, curving the fingers so as to cause the space between the hands to assume the shape of the first symbol. The idea to be conveyed is, that the aperture in the throat is somewhat of that shape, and very large. 2. Touch the throat, and then hold the hands together palm to palm, as before, but reduce the space between the hands so as to cause the aperture to assume the shape of the second symbol. The CHART III 3 U o C 3 GJ rn C D V n C 3 W n D (J n c3 gJ r^ e O I 63 idea to be conveyed, is that the aperture in the throat is more con- trafted than in the former case. 3. Touch the throat, and hold the hands together palm to palm, as before, so that the aperture between the hands is reduced to a mere slit. At the same time give a quivering or trembling motion to the hands. The idea to be conveyed, is that the aperture in the throat is a mere slit, and that a trembling or quivering motion occurs in the throat which the pupil may perceive for himself by placing his hand upon the teacher's throat while the teacher produces voice. 4. Touch the throat, and then press the two hands together palm to palm, with a shutting adion, causing the hands to assume the appearance of the fourth symbol in the seventh line. We may translate these gestures into words, and give names to these symbols, in the following manner: — Seventh line. — i. Throat open. 2. Throat contrafted. 3. Throat a-slit (Voice). 4. Throat shut. CHART IV. When we compare the symbols shown on Charts II. and III. with those on Chart V., we notice a radical difference between them. The most prominent feature of the symbols on Charts II. and III. is a curve of some sort, whereas the chara6teristic of those on Chart V. is a straight line. By reference to Chart I. it will be seen that a curve is indicative of some part of the mouth, and that a straight line represents voice. The symbols on Charts II. and III. represent positions of the organs that yield consonant, and those on Chart V., positions that yield vowel, sounds. The generic difference between consonants and vowels is thus portrayed in the symbols. In conso- nant symbols the mouth position is made the charaderistic feature of the symbol, the voice where it occurs being written subordin- ately by a straight line within the curve. In vowel symbols, on the other hand, the voice sign is made the charaderistic feature, and the mouth position is represented subordinately by curves, or dots or other marks appended to the voice line. Chart IV. is used for the purpose of explaining to deaf children the meaning of these appen- dages. The chief parts of the tongue employed in forming vowel sounds are the back and the front parts of the tongue. When we drawa vertical line centrally through the diagram on Chart IV., we find that a dot or other mark on the right-hand side of the line rests on the front part of the tongue, whereas a mark on the left-hand side of the line rests on the back of the tongue. In vowel symbols a •CHART IV 1 1 J nx L r i 65 mark on the right-hand side of the voice line indicates the front part of the tongue, a mark on the left indicates the back of the tongue, and a short horizontal line drawn across the vowel stem indicates that the lips aie employed. Thus the symbols at the bottom of Chart IV. indicate (i) the voice; (2) the back of the tongue; (3) the back of the tongue; (4) both back and front of the tongue used simultaneously; [this is what my father terms a "mixed' position]. (5) Back and front ["mixed"]; (6) back and front ["mixed"]; (7) the front of the tongue; (8) the front of the tongue; (9) the lips. it will be observed that the appendages are placed sometimes at the top of the vowel stem, sometimes at the bottom, and some- times at both ends. This pictures the elevation of the tongue in the mouth. When the mark is at the top of the vowel stem the part of the tongue indicated is placed high up in the mouth, leaving a small aperture between the tongue and the palate; when the mark is at the bottom the tongue is low with a large aperture; and when the mark is at both ends the tongue occupies an intermediate posi- tion with an intermediate aperture. Reading again the symbols at the bottom of Chart IV., we have (i) the voice; (2) back of the tongue high ; (3) back of the tongue low ; (4) back and front both high ["high mixed"]; (s) back and front both mid positions ["mid mixed"]; (6) back and front both low ["low mixed"]; (7) front low ; (8) front high ; (9) this symbol means not only that the lips are used but that the aperture between them is of a rounded form. The deaf child is taught to indicate the small aperture formed by the high position of the tongue, by holding his thumb and fore- finger close together without touching. (This is the same sign for- merly described as meaning "centre aperture.") The low tongue position with large aperture, is indicated by holding the finger and thumb far apart. ; and the intermediate position is represented by a half-way position of the thumb and forefinger. Thus, degrees of aperture are indicated by degrees of separation of the thumb and the forefinger. We are now prepared to analyze the symbols on Chart V. CHART v.— Vowels. The vowels on Chart V. may be divided into four groups of nine symbols each : — First Group. — Primary bowels. Reading downwards we have: — First line.— 1. High Back. 2. Mid Back. 3. Low Back. Second line. — i. High Mixed. 2. Mid Mixed. 3. Low Mixed. Third line. — i. High Front. 2. Mid Front. 3. Low Front. Second Group. — Wide yowels. Reading downwards we have: — First line. — i. High Back Wide. 2. Mid Back Wide. 3. Low Back Wide. Second line. — i. High mixed Wide. 2. Mid Mixed Wide. 3. Low Mixed Wide. Third line. — i. High Front Wide. 2. Mid Front Wide. 3. Low Front Wide, Third Group. — Primary Round yowels. Reading downwards we have: — First line. — i. High Back Round. 2. Mid Back Round. 3. Low Back Round. Second line. — i. High Mixed Round. 2. Mid Mixed Round. 3. Low Mixed Round. Third Line. — i. High Front Round. 2. Mid Front Round. 3. Low Front Round. Fourth Group. — Wide Round Vowels. Reading downwards we have: — First line. — i. High Back Wide Round. 2. Mid Back Wide Round. 3. Low Back Wide Round. Second line. — i. High Mixed Wide Round. 2. Mid Mixed Wide Round. 3. Low Mixed Wide Round. Third line. — i. High Front Wide Round. 2. Mid Front Wide Round. 3. Low Front Wide Round. ■ Wide vowels differ from primary vowels by a slight widening of the oral passage; for example: Contrast the "high front" vowel {ea in the word eat), with the "high front wide" vowel (/in the word //). The oral passage for the latter is slightly larger than for f^, and Prof. Melville Bell believes also that the back part of the mouth, or the cavity of the pharynx, is more expanded in wide vowels than in primary. Widening the oral passage is indicated by a hook instead of a dot. Groups 111. and IV. are rounded vowels, that is, the passage between the lips is of a rounded form. Deaf children describe these symbols by using the signs already mentioned in describing Chart IV., and we may translate their signs for the symbols on Chart V. as follows: 67 First Group. — Primary Vowels. Reading downwards we have: — First line. — i. Voice, Back small-aperture. 2. Voice, Back mid-aperture. 3. Voice, Back large-aperture. Second line. — i. Voice, Back small-aperture, Front small-aper- ture. 2. Voice, Back mid-aperture. Front mid-aperture. 3. Voice, Back large-aperture, Front large-aperture. Third line. — i. Voice, Front small-aperture. 2. Voice, Front mid-aperture. 3. Voice, Front large-aperture. Second Group. — Wide Vowels. In teaching deaf children, the symbols of this group are con- sidered as identical with those of Group 1., and are described in the same manner. When the pupils have become familiar with the analysis of Visible Speech symbols, they are shown, by means of the thumb and forefinger, that the position symbolized in Group II. have a slightly wider aperture than the corresponding positions in Group I. Prof. Melville Bell's conception of the expansion of the pharynx during the utterance of wide vowels, is a difficult one to convey to deaf children who know no language; I have, therefore, not at- tempted to do more than convey the idea that the mouth passage for wide vowels, is slightly wider than for primary vowels, so that the primary and wide symbols, taken together, represent six degrees of aperture; for example: Take the front vowels, commencing with the smallest aperture and ending with the largest, we have the following series of apertures: — 1. High Front. 2. High Front Wide. 3. Mid Front. 4. Mid Front Wide. 5. Low Front. 6. Low Front Wide. Third Group. — Primary Round Vowels. Reading downwards wc have: — First line. — 1. Voice, Back small-aperture, Lip, small-aperture. 2. Voice, Back mid-aperture, Lip mid-aperture. 3. Voice, Back large-apertuie, Lip large-aperture. Second line. — i. Voice, Back small-aperture, Front small-aper- ture, Lip small-aperture. 2. Voice, Back mid-aperture, Front mid-apertuie, Lip mid-apertuic. 3. Voice, Back large-aperturc, Front large-aperture. Lip large-aperture. CHART V nt Jit 69 Third line. — I. Voice, Front small-aperture, Lip small-aperture. 2. Voice, Front mid-aperture, Lip mid-aperture, 3. Voice, Front large-aperture, Lip large-aperture. The labial apertures described are of a rounded form, but as the pupils can see for themselves the shape of the labia! apertures, it has not been considered necessary to give them a distinct sign for a rounded aperture; they simply describe the size of aperture by the separation of finger and thumb. Fourth Group. — 'Vide Round bowels. In teaching deaf children, the symbols of this group are con- sidered as identical with those of Group 111., and are described in a similar manner. The differences are explained later on. The sym- bols of Group IV. bear the same relation to those of Group III., that the symbols of Group 11. bear to those of Group I. (See note above relating to Group II. CHART VL Chart VI. shows the mechanism or the English consonants as explained to the deaf. First line: — (1) "Lip shut," followed by a "puff of air." We have here two symbols, the first of which (Lip shut), represents/), as in put, cup, etc. It is not advisable to teach "shut" consonants as sepa- rate elements. They are best taught in connexion with vowels. The most elementary form of p taught, is the final p, as in cup, where the "Lip shut" position is followed by a puff of air, as shown in the Chart. (2) "Lip shut, Voice," followed by "voice." The first of these symbols (Lip shut, voice), represents h in but, cub, etc. This is not taught elementarily, but in connexion with a vo.wel. The simplest form is that shown in the Chart where the "Lip shut, Voice" position is followed by an indefinite murmur of voice, form- ing a syllable somewhat like bir in bird. (3) "Lip shut, Voice, Nose," represents m in man, come, etc. (4) " Lip divided-aperture," represents /in file, luff, etc. The upper organ in this case is the edge ot the teeth, instead of the upper lip. Second line: — (I) " Point shut," followed by "a puff of air." The first sym- bol (Point shut), represents / as in to, not, etc. When / occurs as a final letter, as in not, the "Point shut" position is followed by a purf of air, as shown in the Chart. 70 (2) "Point shut, Voice," followed by "Voice." The first symbol (Point shut, Voice), represents d, as in do, nod, etc. In the symbols shown in the Chart, the "Point shut. Voice" position is followed by an indefinite murmur of voice, thus representing a syl- lable somewhat like dir in dirk. (3) " Point shut. Voice, Nose " represents n, as in no, nun, etc. (4) "Lip divided-aperture. Voice" represents v, as in vie, love, etc. Third line: — (i) " Back shut" followed by a "puff of air." The first sym~ bol (Back shut), represents k, as in key, sick, etc. When k occurs as a final letter, as in sick, the " Back shut" position is followed by a puff of air, as shown in the Chart. (2) "Back shut, Voice," followed by "Voice." The first o these symbols ( Back shut. Voice, represents g, as in go, log, etc. The " Back shut, Voice" position is followed by an indefinite mur- mur of Voice, forming a syllable somewhat like gir in girl. (3) "Back shut Voice, Nose," represents ng, as in limg, tongue, etc. (4) " Lip centre-aperture, Back centre-aperture," represents wh, as in whet. It is taught to the deaf as "Back centre-aperture" (German ch), with the lips rounded as in the aft of whistling. In obtaining this sound from a deaf child, it is found essential to direct attention to the " Back centre-aperture position." Fourth line : — (i) "Point divided-aperture, Voice" represents /, in /////. (2) "Point divided-aperture. Front centre-aperture " represents //? as in thin, kith, etc. (3) " Point divided-aperture. Front centre-aperture. Voice " rep- resents th as in then, with, etc. (4) "Lip centre-aperture, Back centre-aperture, Voice" repre- sents zv in the word ivet. In teaching the deaf it is essential to direft attention to the "Back centre-aperture" position, and the sound is taught as identical with the vowel 00 in pool. Fifth line: — (i) "Point centre-aperture, Front centre-aperture" represents 5. as in sown, hiss, etc. (2) "Point centre-aperture, Front centre-aperture, Voice, rep- resents I in ^one, and 5 in his. CHART VI C> 31 B 3 0> 01 ® 3 o> ai G D o o on (jO U (jO 3 13 lij ^ C^ \m/ \^ GO O O O (T) U CO O 72 (3) "Front centre-aperture. Point centre-aperture" represents sh as in she, and 5, in assure. It also occurs after " Point shut" in such a word as church (tshurtsh). (4) "Front centre-aperture, Point centre-aperture, Voice" rep- resents 5 in measure, and { in a:(ure. It is heard in / and in g soft, after " Point shut Voice" in such a word as jud^e (dzhudzh). Si'xlh line: — (i) " Front centre-aperture " represents the sound given to h in hue, for which we have no letter. As it is the non-vocal form of the consonant y, it may be represented by yh. It also occurs after non-vocal consonants, as in few {{yhoo), tune (tv^oon), cue ( kyhoo). (2) "Front centre-aperture. Voice" represents ji^ in the word vou. In teaching the deaf it is considered as identical with the vowel e. (3) "Point centre-aperture." This sound has no letter, and may be represented by rh, as it is the non-vocal form of r. The deaf are taught that the letter r has this sound when it comes after a non-vocal consonant, as in pry (prhy), try (trhy), cry ( crhy). (4) "Point centre-aperture, Voice" represents r in such a word as run, also r after a vocal consonant, bride, dry, etc. Seventh line: — "Throat large-aperture" represents h in such words heat, hit, hate, head, hat, hoot, hook, hope, hall, hot, half, hurl, hut» high, how, hoist, etc. CHART VII. The symbols in Chart Vll. represent the positions for English vowel sounds. First line: — (i) "High Back Wide, Round " represents the vowel heard in the following words : foot, put, etc. (2) "High Back, Round" represents the vowel heard in pool, move, through, true, flew, etc. (3) "High Front represents the vowel heard in eel, eat, field, hey, sei^e, etc. (4) "High Front Wide" represents the vowel heard in ill, build, etc. Second line: — (i) " Mid Back, Round," followed by a glide towards "High Back, Round," represents the diphthongal vowel heard in pole, coal, soul, dough, bowl, etc. 73 (2) "Mid Front," followed by a glide towards "High Front," r presents the diphthongal vowei heard in ale, ail, eight, great, lay, they, etc. Third line: — (i) "Low Back Wide, Round" represents the vowel heard in doll, what, etc. (2) " Low Back, Round " represents the vowel heard in all, paul, paiv, thought, etc. (3) " Low Front " represents the vowel heard in shell, head, said, etc. (4) " Low Front Wide " represents the vowel heard in shall, hat, can, and, etc. Fourth line: — (i) "Low Back Wide" represents the vowel heard in ah, father, etc. (2) "Mid Back Wide" represents the vowel heard in ask, path, etc. (3) "Low Mixed Wide " represents the vowel heard in her, pearl, girl, fur, etc. (4) "Mid Back" represents the vowel heard in gull, come, rough, etc. Fifth line: — (i) " Mid Back Wide," followed by a glide towards "High Front," represents the diphthongal vowel heard in pile, sleight, buy, eye, etc. (2) "Mid Back Wide," followed by a glide towards "High Back Round," represents the diphthongal vowel heard in cow, bough, round, etc. (5) "Low Back Round, " followed by a glide towards "High Front," represents the diphthongal vowel heard in oil, boy, etc. The sound of h only occurs before a vowel, and it is advisable to give the deaf pupil the idea that there are as many sounds of h as there are vowel sounds. Defective pronunciation results from the attempt to give a uniform value to the sound. The deaf pupil is taught that the mouth position for h is always the same as that of the succeeding vowel; in faft, that h is the breath form of the succeeding vowel. For example: Contrast h in he, with that in CHART VII 75 who (hoo). In the former case the mouth position lor h is the same as that for the vowel ee, in the latter it is the same as that for the vowel oo. Do you describe the word "Mixed?" We do not use the word "Mixed" in teaching the deaf, but describe in detail the positions that are mixed. Thus, we describe my father's "Lip-mixed" consonant as "Lip centre-aperture. Back centre-aperture." What do you mean by "divided-aperture?" An aperture divided in the middle so as to leave two orifices. For example: In assuming the position for the letter / (CO), the point of the tongue is placed against the upper gum, and the air passes out over both sides of the tongue. Can a person realize by any feeling the muscular condition represented by your symbols? Certainly. Familiarity with the organs through the use of a mirror leads to a perception of muscular feeling of the positions assumed by the vocal organs. Indeed, in talking we are all guided more or less by muscular feeling. For example, we can talk with- out making any noise so that a deaf pupil can understand what we say by watching the mouth. How do we know that our vocal organs are in the correft position when we make no sound? Surely by muscular feeling. The deaf child also, through training, becomes conscious of the movements of his vocal organs and can tell by muscular feeling exactly what he does. Why do you begin with lip positions instead of back positions? The lip positions are the most visible. The deaf child under- stands what the symbols mean when applied to the lips, because he can see the positions assumed. This knowledge he applies to the interior positions that cannot be so easily seen. Now in teaching a deaf child you present to him the symbol for some difficult sound. If he has been taught to analyze the sym- bols in the manner shown, the symbol conveys to his mind a direction what to do with his mouth. That is what your pupil has to aim at, but in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred he may not get it, at least at the first shot. Now what are you going to do? Are you going to say "No, no! that's not right. Try again?" Let him try once more and the chances are that he fails again to give the sound intended. The No-No method only aggravates the difficulty by discouraging the pupil and disgusting him with articulation. 76 Learning to speak is like learning to shoot. Now, suppose you aim at a target for the first time, and fail to hit it, and you are simply told "No, no; that's not right. Try again." Well, suppose you do try again. The chances are that you fail, and if you were simply told once more that you didn't hit the bull's eye, you are no further advanced than you were before. That's not the way to learn to shoot. You must know where your bullet struck when you failed, so as to see the relation between the point struck and the point you intended to hit. The knowledge of that relation will guide your next shot. For example: If you know that you hit too far to the right, why your next shot is aimed more to the left, and perhaps flies clear of the target on the other side. If, then, you are told the result of this shot also, you make due allowances the next time you try. You may fail a hundred times. Now you go a little to the right, now a little to the left, sometimes too high, sometimes too low; but your knowledge of the elTeft of each shot causes you to make unconscious allowances, so that, little by little, you come nearer the bull's eye until at last you hit it. When you can hit the bull's eye every time, you have mastered your instrument — the gun — and can hit any other bull's eye with equal ease. The No-No method, besides discouraging the beginner fails to give the very information that is necessary for his progress. The deaf child must know what he did when he failed, and the relation of the position struck to the bull's eye. The knowledge of that relation will guide him in his next attempt. For example: If he knows that his tongue was too far forward in the mouth, in his next attempt he aims at having his tongue further back and probably gets too f^ir in that direction. If, then, he is told the result of this attempt also, he makes due allowances the next time he tries. He may fail a hundred times. Now the position may be a little too far forward, now a little too far back, or the tongue may be too high or too low, but his knowledge of the effect of each effort causes him to approach more and more closely to the exaft position desired, till at last he gets it. The time spent in studying and representing the incorreft positions is not wasted, for it gives the pupil mastery over the instrument of speech itself, and the struggle to get exaditude of position with one difficult sound gives him power to get any other, just as the ability to hit one bull's eye qualifies a man to shoot at any mark. 77 I will now answer some of the questions that have been pro- pounded to me. The first question is: What is accent? I have found in my past experience that accent is length. At least that we get a more natural effect from a deaf child if we give him the idea of making the accented syllable longer than the others rather than louder. The attempt to make the accented syllables louder often leads to a jerky utterance very unlike the effeft we desire. To make my meaning clear 1 will say that 1 do not think that we give a jerk of the abdominal muscles for every accented syllable, any more than the piper gives a jerk of the arm to mark the accented notes. The pressure upon the bag is continuous and the rhythm of the music is brought out by the dif- fering durations of the notes. Of course the music may be made louder or softer by increasing or diminishing the pressure upon the bag, but this effeft corresponds more to emphasis than to accent. The fa£t that the effeft of accent can be produced by length- ening the duration of a syllable, without any change in the loud- ness or volume of the voice may be demonstrated by a simple experiment. Let a deaf child prolong the voice while you manipulate his lips so as to produce B\3\B\B\, etc. (Mama, mama, etc.) Now, although he makes no variation in the loudness of his voice you can with your fingers produce the effect of accent by prolonging the syllable you desire to bring out. For example: If you. prolong the open position you can make him say 9133 SiB], etc. (Mama, pronounced in the English way with the accent on the second syl- lable) or 93l 9391, etc., with the accent on the first syllable, as is very commonly heard in America. "But," you may ask, "May not syllables containing short vowels be accented, and how can you prolong the syllable if the vowel is short ?" Certainly, syllables of this kind can be accented. In such cases you do not prolong the vowel but the succeeding consonant. For example: You can by manipulation cause your pupil to say 91939 91939, etc., (mamum, mamum, etc.), by prolonging the closed position of the lips instead of the open. There is a great point here. Short vowels are succeeded by long consonants; for example: the consonant position is retained 78 for a much longer time in such words as come, cuff, it, sin, look, than in such words as, calm, calf, eat, seen, Luke. You can dem- onstrate this prolongation of the consonant position by emphasizing with great force the word " not " in the familiar quotation, "To be, or NOT to be; that is the question." The hiatus caused by the prolongation of the shut position (D ) of the / is so great as to occasion a perceptible silence in the midst of the sentence. Let your pupils pronounce with precision the accented syllables of words and slur over the others, articulating them rapidly, with indefinite vowels, and the effeft will be much more natural than a precise articulation of every syllable with loudness for accent. Miss McCowen: Have you ever thought of there being a differ- ence in pitch ? Dr. Bell: 1 don't see how that could come into the case. In natural speech the pitch of the voice is constantly varied in both accented and unaccented syllables. You can distinguish the element of accent even though the voice is on a monotone and without variation of loudness. The next question on my list is: " Please imitate Helen Keller's voice." I am sorry 1 have not a sufficiently distinft recollection to do that. Perhaps Miss Fuller can. Miss Fuller: I don't think I can. Dr. Bell: 1 will say it was distind; and perfedly intelligible to persons not accustomed to the deaf The next question on my list is: "How would you teach r and/.?" 1 have experienced so little difficulty in teaching r and / (Ci). and CO) that 1 am inclined to think that the very defecJtive manner in which these sounds are sometimes given by deaf children must be due to the mode of teaching. 1 always commence with the non- vocal forms U and CO. 1 would recommend you to adopt this plan generally in dealing with consonants as the non-vocal forms are usually more easily acquired than the others. It is especially advis- able in the case of r and /, as you then avoid the common fault of too large aperture. When the non-vocal forms have been mastered, the vocal forms follow as a matter of course by the addition of voice In forming O (non-vocal r) the point of the tongue is applied to the upper gum just at the part where the palate begins to arch, and the breath is allowed to escape through a central aperture. Deaf 79 children acquire the sound very readily by imitation, as the whole mechanism can be seen in a mirror. In any case of difficulty 1 manipulate the sound from U (fh) or ^ (5) in the manner described to you the other day. It is quite unnecessary to attempt a "trill" that is, to cause a vibration or trembling of the point of the tongue. Such an effect is un-English. The defecftive variety of r most commonly met with results from placing the point of the tongue too far back in the mouth. For example: It is often applied to the top of the hard palate (Ci)"); and in some cases it is coiled up within the mouth so as to approximate the soft palate (OJ^). The defective form of / so common in schools for the deaf results from an exaggerated narrowing of the tongue (COv) (too large aperture) and from opening the jaws too widely. Sometimes the tip of the tongue is placed against the upper teeth and the under side of the tongue is actually protruded from the mouth. The correct position for CO (/) is so nearly the same as that for CC (/;) that the deaf have difficulty in distinguishing one from the other by the eye. This leads some children to substitute CO for CO (n for /). In forming CO (/), the point of the tongue should be placed against the upper gum, and air allowed to escape through two side apertures. The lingual position for CD (//) is the same, excepting that the two side apertures are closed. Thus, the tongue appears slightly broader for CC ( // ) than for CO (/). The exaggerated narrow- ing of the tongue so commonly associated with / results in side apertures that are much too large. This defed is avoided, if you commence by teaching the sound non-vocally (CO) with quite small side apertures. Even pupils who give n for / readily acquire the non-vocal form (CO). After this has once been mastered, the vocal form follows as a matter of course by the addition of voice (CO). Even though CO and CO ( r and /) may be given corretWy as ele- mentary sounds, deaf children produce an effect that is not heard in ordinary utterance when they attempt to give these sounds after non-vocal consonants. Thus, DCOl (tree), QCOrD> (sleep), etc., sound as if there were two syllables in each word, and if any defed of combination exist, the vocality of the r or / causes the introduc- tion of a voice glide after the non-vocal consonant. Thus, CClCOl, QlCOlD> (turee, sCileep), etc. 8o I have found that deaf children give the proper vernacular effedt when they attempt to make the sounds non-vocally. Thus, DUl, U2jrD> (tree, sleep). The same may be said of the sounds 59 and (^ (iv and J') after non-vocal consonants; for example, when deaf children attempt to sav DJ3tG3Dr. QC^i (twenty, cue, /. e., kyou), they are apt to give DilCCOf, Oli (too-enty, kee-oo), although the distindtion between the consonant and vowel forms J3— i and (f)—L (w-oo and y-ee) may have been fully explained to them. The ver- nacular effeft, however, is at once produced when they try to give the sound non-vocally, 10 and O (wh, yh). For example, DJOCCCOf and aoi (twh-enty and k-hue). I would adopt the rule of teach- ing deaf children to give r, /, zv, and y without voice (O, CO, D, and O), where they follow non-vocal consonants in the same syllable, for example, in such words as pry, try, cry, try, thrice, shrine; play clay, flay, slay; twin, queen, swim; pew, tune, cute, few, thews, sue. Vocal consonants, when they occur as final elements, are pro- nounced by the deaf in such a manner as to offend the ordinary ear, and I think it worth while, therefore, to dired your attention to a simple expedient by which the effeft may be much improved. For example: — take such words as love, nose, smooth, rub, good, bag, etc., when they occur by themselves or at the end of a phrase. The vocality of the last element produces an effed that is at once recognized as peculiar. The effeft is much improved when the pupil is taught to finish off with the non-vocal form of the con- sonant softly uttered. Thus C0]33> (luvf) Ci5}16Sy> (noze) 239l&5U> (smoodhth) Ci))DD> (rubp) QiQO (goodt) Dl€ia> (bagk), etc. When two vocal consonants end the last syllable uttered, it is better to give the last consonant non-vocally. Thus: ICDQ>, (edge), instead of IQ3S^; (edsh, instead of edzh); OC3y>, instead of 0]365, (duvs instead of duvz), etc. When such words occur in the middle of a phrase the latter pronunciation is correct. Miss Barton: How do you get pupils to give long e easily ? Dr. Bell: I always teach first the non-vocal form O (^ in hzie). If a pupil does not give this readily, I manipulate it from IS (fh) or U (s) in the manner I have already described. When O has been well fixed — that is, when a pupil can give it readily without manipulation, I add voice. At once we get I (ee) or, what is practically the same thing, 8 1 The next question on my list is this: — " Please demonstrate the teaching of tn in cotton." in this word, (QJ-OCD) the sound of n alone (CC) constitutes a distind; syllable. Indeed 3 (w) CD (;/) S {iig) and also CO (/,) when prolonged, are in reality vowels. That is, the aperture through which the voice is passed is so large as to be non-obstru(5live. We fail to hear any rustling or hissing or puifing sound from the mouth position. The fricative noise which is charafteristic of a consonant is not heard excepting at the moment of the relinquishment of the position. These sounds can be used both as consonants and vow- els. If the positions are assumed only momentarily so that the sound of the removal of the position is the chief effed; perceived, then we recognize the sounds as consonant elements of speech. If on the other hand the chief effeft perceived is due to the retention of the position, and* not to its removal, we hear only a quality of voice, that is, a vowel sound, and this sound may constitute a dis- tinct syllable by itself. In the English language 03 («) and CO (/) are often employed as vowels. 9 {m) is more rarely used, €5 {ng) not at all. A vowelized S (;«) is not usually recognized as constituting a distin6l syllable by itself, but surely such words as Ct)l2^D (rhythm) and 2^f2i5B (schism) are as really dis-syllabic as lOCD (eaten), QJOCC (cotton), or IDCO (apple). The termination, "ful," which is so often murdered by deaf children is pronounced by most people simply as 3C0 (fl). For example: J3C0 (awH), Q3UIQ53C0 (dreadful), D(T)iOl3C0 (beautiful), etc. Surely the word i3C0 (awfl) would be more acceptable to ordinary ears than the J3l3*ICt) pronunciation commonly heard from the deaf. It is difficult to teach the sound of tn in such a word as cotton without the use of symbols. The pupil associates the single char- after / with a double adion of the organs (0>). Hence, he tries to give this double adion to the / in cotton; that is, D>CD for OCD. The vocality of the CD (;;), however, usually causes him to fail in his aim, so that the puff of air (>) is vocalized (I). Thus, QJOICD. In our pronunciation of the word the point of the tongue is not removed from the upper gum between the positions for / and n, ajOCD. The point-shut position is common to the two sounds DCD. The soft palate is closed against the back of the pharynx (D) during the production of the / and drops (D) during the production of the 82 n (see dotted lines in Figure i6), thus allowing the voice to pass through the nose. Fig. i6. Aftion of the soft palate in foiming tii (DCC) in "cotton." First Position. 0+0=: D Second Position. C4-D=C5 D + (Dq=OC5 Repeat the sound of tn a number of times without voice (DDODDCJ, etc.), and you will feel that the whole action consists in the alternate elevation and depression of the soft palate [DCDC etc]. The point of the tongue is not moved at all, but is shut continuously against the upper gum. DC50CJOC5=D+(acacaC, etc.). There is only one point-shut position. Now, such an aftion presents no difficulty to a child who has been taught to elevate and depress his soft palate at will, but does present enormous difficulties to one who has not, for the whole adion is invisible. All you can do in such a case is to use symbols, and show that the shut-position (D) of / (D>) is alone assumed, followed by CC (//) without moving the tongue. The combinations DCC (///), CCD> (///), ©CC (,///), ©=-0 {nd), DCi30> (/;;/), and ©CDCD> {dud), occur in English words, some of them quite frequently; and I think therefore that deaf children should be taught to control the movement of the soft palate so as to be able to produce these combinations at will. For example : The words: IDCC (eaten), ICiiO> (ant), SIQCC (madden), XCCCD> (and), DIDCCD=> (patent), and StCDCD0> (maddened), involve these actions, actions. The word " abandoned," as pronounced by some people IDICCG5aj0> adually involves four point-shut sounds successively uttered, or rather one point-shut position, and four successive posi- tions of the soft palate. CD0CD® = 0-t-(CDCa>). In difficult cases I would recommend the following plan : Give ^3 your pupil a hand mirror and teach him to elevate and depress his soft palate (QCDC, etc.), in the manner described in my second ledure. When he can do this at will without looking in the mirror, ask him to repeat the exercise with his lips shut all the time. This results in D+(a£:acaC, etc.)=DDDDDD, etc. Then repeat the exercise with the point of the tongue shut against the upper gum : D+(acaEac, e{c.,)=oaD^oa, etc. Then with the back of the tongue shut against the soft palate: a+(DcacDC)=aGaGaa, etc. Then let him repeat these exercises with the voice sounded intermittently through the nose: DSD9, etc. (pm, pm, etc.) DCCDCC, etc. (tn, tn, etc.) QGOG, etc. (kng, kng, etc.) Then with the voice continuously sounded: D9D9, etc. (bm, bm, etc.) 0CCQCD, etc. (dn, dn, etc.) eeee, etc. (gng, gng, etc.) If a pupil is taught to control the movement of his soft palate at will, such combinations as that of in in cotton will present no difficulty. [Dr. Bell here illustrated his method with Mr.Kiesel]. CONSONANTS. I propose in my lefture to-day to deal with the mechanism of speech. In my demonstrations I shall make use of Monroe's school- room charts, "Sounds Of The English Language," which contain good diagrams of the positions of the vocal organs in uttering English sounds. As you are professionally familiar with the subject it will be unnecessary for me to describe the correcft positions unless in answer to questions. I shall therefore consider the mechanism of common defeats. We shall consider first the defeds of shut consonants. DEFECTS OF SHUT CONSONANTS. * The labial letters, p, b, m, are not liable to errors of position. In forming /, d, ;/, slight changes of position do not offend the ordinary ear and may therefore be passed lightly by. The point of the tongue should be placed against the upper gum. but it may be shut against the teeth, even to the th position without producing a defeft sufficient to attraft the attention of any one but an articulation teacher. In forming h, g, ng, also, considerable latitude may be allowed so long as the position is too far forward. When it is too far back the defeft at once attracts attention, and should be corrected. If you try to form a k, with your mouth opened as widely as pos- sible, you will find it very difficult to raise the back of the tongue into contact with the soft palate. It is much more easv to produce the shutting adion lower down by the approximation of the base of the tongue to the back of the pharynx. This produces the defective sound of k to which I have alluded (Q<), a sound quite commonly given by deaf children. I am inclined to think that the defeat is due to the mode of teaching. The teacher is very apt to open her mouth as widely as possible to show her pupils the position of the tongue. They imitate the action, and this naturally leads them to give too 84 85 low a position. It is very difficult to corred a position that is too far back. I think the best way is to teach the sound anew. Take a position which is too far forward, for example, / (D), then manip- ulate the tongue. The same remarks, of course, apply to g (Q). The shut consonants, though generally pronounced well by deaf children, are liable to a defeft of a very extraordinary nature. In nearly every school for the deaf some pupils may be found who give clicks in place of these consonants. For example: p will be pronounced like the sound of a kiss, and / like the clicking sound we make as a sign of impatience, or like the cluck with which we hurry up a horse. 1 may not be able to tell you exadly what to do, but of one thing you may be sure, — the first step in the correcffion of a defe(5t is to understand the mechanism of the defective sound. "Knowledge is power," and when we know the nature of a defe(5l, ingenuity will find a remedy. The first step then is to study the mechanism of the defective sound. How are you to investigate it } Imitate the defed ive sound yourself and then study your own vocal organs. Your pupil, we shall suppose, gives a kiss instead of the sound of p. Let us study the mechanism together. When the lips are opened you observe that air goes into the mouth instead of coming out. Let us examine into the cause. But first, let us express by means of symbols and diagrams the condition of our knowledge at each stage of the investigation, so 'hat we may realize as clearly as possible what we are about. Fig. II. First Position. Second Position. D< The first diagram in Fig. ii. illustrates the closure of the lips (D). The second shows, by means of an arrow-head, the direction of the air when the lips are opened (<). Can it be that the pupil makes an effort of inspiration while he is trying to say p .^ How can we satisfy ourselves on this point } 86 Shut your lips then open them with an effort of inspiration. Thus, (D<). At once you notice that the effeft is very different from the sound of a kiss. In forming the kiss, then, the air does not enter the lungs (<), but only goes into the mouth as far as some point [<] yet to be determined, [The symbol D< now becomes D<], Repeat the kissing sound many times — D< D< D<, etc., — while you observe what you do with your lungs. You will find that you can go on kissing for any length of time without stopping to take breath. You can breathe freely through the nose. What conclusion can we draw from this .^ [i] The soft palate is depressed [S]. [2] You can breathe freely through the nose thus showing that no constaiftion exists between the soft palate and the lungs. Let us express this knowledge upon the diagrams we have made. Figure 11 now becomes Figure 12, and the symbol D< becomes S -\- [D<]. £- Fig. 12. First Position. Second Position. [) + D] [) + <] = )[D<] Is anything further to be discovered ? Think for one moment. If no other constriction exists than is shown on the diagram, then there must be an open passage-way into the mouth from the lungs, and air should escape through the mouth as well as throug the nose. Does it do so ? We know it does not, for when the lips are opened air enters the month in just the opposite diredion [< and not t>]. The passage-way, then, must be closed somewhere between the soft palate and the lips. What organs are there in the mouth by 87 which the closure could be effeded ? We are limited in our choice to the point of the tongue, the "top" or "front" of the tongue, the back of the tongue, or to intermediate parts. If you repeat the sound of a kiss, 1 think you will feel that the concealed shut position must be pretty far back in the mouth. Cer- tainly the point of the tongue is not involved, and we are limited therefore, to the top or back of the tongue, with the probabilities in favor of the back. How can you decide the matter ? Make a hypothesis, and then experiment upon your mouth to test the truth of your assumption. For example: Assume that the back of the tongue is shut against the soft palate (Q). Fill in this position upon the diagrams. Figure 12 now becomes Figure 13, and the expres- sion S + (D<) becomes G + (D<) Fig. n. First Position. Second Position. (j + a + D) () + a + <) = G + (D<) Now study the diagrams and the symbols and try to establish some relation between the hypothetical position (G) and some sound of known formation. Then experiment upon the mouth to see if that relation holds good. Now we know that G + 1 = &(iig). If then your hypothetical position (G) is corred, you should get G (iig), by adding voice to a kiss. Test the matter. Sound the voice continuously while vou repeat the sound of a kiss: — i+a+(D< D<-D<- etc.) = G+ (D< D< D< etc). You at once recognize the familiar effect 6 (//«), continuously sounded — like the drone of a bagpipe — accompanied by the equally familiar sound of kissing. This is proof that your assumption is correct. 88 A kiss:^G + (D<). The defed, then, consists in the assumption of the ng position without voice (G) while the pupil is trying to say D> (/>). But why does the air go into the mouth when the lips are opened ? The f:i6l indicates that a partial vacuum exists there. This means that the cavity of the mouth had been enlarged while the shut positions were assumed, thus causing rarefaftion of the con- tained air. The tongue, therefore, must have been moved before Fig. 14. i + Q+I+D 5+a+L+D G+[D + (rT)T] or G+ (D<) i+a+i+D 1+ l+o D+ra+dDL] orD+(a<) the lips were opened. Any movement of the tongue that will en- large the cavity, will produce a partial vacuum in the mouth, and thus lead to the produdion of the sound. The symbol < (air going into a cavity) expresses the effect independently of the exa6l 89 positions assumed. Hence: G-f (D<), is a general expression and covers any change of position inside the mouth that will produce a partial vacuum there. As a clear understanding of the cause of the click effe6l in this case will throw light upon the nature of clicks in general, it may be well to show some specific movement of the tongue that will produce the effect. For example: Suppose that the front of the tongue is elevated in the position for e in eel thus f (high front) when the shut positions are assumed. (See Fig. 14). If then the front of the tongue is lowered into the position for e in pet (as shown by a dotted line in Fig. 14) thus \ (low front), without changing the other positions, the cavity of the mouth is enlarged. As a partial vacuum then exists, air will rush in if an opening is made anywhere. For example: — 1. If you keep the back of the tongue closed against the soft palate and open the lips, air will rush in between the lips ; G + (D<). 2. If you keep the lips closed and open the passage-way be- between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, air will rush in the cavity from behind D + (a<). Suppose again that instead of starting with the tongue elevated you commence with it depressed I (as shown by dotted line Fig. 14,) and then elevate the tongue into the position for e in ee\ f, the cavity between the two shut positions is reduced in size and the contained air compressed. Then : — 3. If you keep the back of the tongue closed against the soft palate and open the lips, air will rush out of the cavity through the labial aperture G + (D>) ; or 4. If you keep the lips closed and open the passage-way between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, air will rush out of the cavity into the pharynx SO + (Q>). Numbers i and 2 are suction clicks. Numbers } and 4 are ex- pulsion clicks. Numbers i and 3 are both given by deaf children instead of p (D>), In order to have a click sound it is necessary that you should have a cavity in which the air is of different density from that out- side. There must, therefore, be two constricftions of the passage- way which we may call x, y, with a cavity between them. If the air in that cavity is of less density than the air outside, the opening of the passage-way at either end will result in a sudden in-rush of air, forming a suction click. 90 It the air in the cavity is of greater density, an expulsion click will be produced. Double positions are, therefore, capable of pro- ducing two sudion clicks, and two expulsion clicks which may be thus symbolized : — Su^ion Clicks. 2. y-\-{x<)\ , / [ [ Expulsion Clicks. 4. y +{x>)\ In my use of the syrribols — > means air going out from the lungs ; < means air going into the lungs; > means air going out from a cavity ; < means air going into a cavity. I have alluded to two labial clicks made by deaf children instead of P. There is still a third which is quite common X + (D>)- Fig. 15. X + D +(D<) X +(□<)+ D (X<)+ D + D Sii^ion Clicks. 4. X + a +(D->) 5. X +(a>)+ D (X>)+ D + D The inner shut position is produced by the c.osure of the glottis ( X ) (See Fig. 15), and the cavity between the two shut positions is \ Expulsion Clicks. 91 larger than in the case shown in Fig. 14. The sound therefore has a lower pitch than any of the clicks resulting from the positions shown in Fig. 14. The pupil also is unable to breathe through the nose while pro- ducing the sound. The closure of the soft palate against the back 01 the pharynx (D) is of course assumed though not expressed in the symbol X + {0>). There are really in this case three shut positions, and theory therefore indicates the possibility of producing three expulsion and three suction clicks from the positions shown. Below Fig. 15 I give the symbols for the six clicks alluded to for the benefit of those who desire to study them. 1 need not describe them further in detail, as we meet with only one of them — the fourth — in our work. The fourth click X + (D->) is sometimes given by deaf children in place of D> (p). We meet with three click forms of D> (/), G+(D<) ; G+ (D>) ; and X + (0>) The inner shut positions in each case is the same as that already noted for p. K is subjed to only one click X+ (Q>)- zM is often given as a vocalized kiss G+ (D<) — such a word as "mamma " for example, being pronounced as two kisses with the voice passing continuously through the nose. 6+ (D) I + (D>) For /. G + (D<) G + (D>) X + (0>) For k. X + (a>) For /;/. e + (D<) For «. G+(D<) For nff. For b. I + (D<) For d. ■ I + (D<) For^. l + (a<) If you have followed me so far, you will recognize the fatt that clicks result from double positions of the vocal organs. When, therefore, you hear a click, you know that there is a constriction somewhere which is concealed from dired observation. In study- ing the defeat, therefore, your first object should be to discover where that concealed position is. The clicks most commonly given by deaf children result either from the closure of the back of the tongue against the soft palate (O), or from the closure of the glottis (X). If the pupil can breathe through the nose, you may assume at once that the concealed position is G {ng, without voice). If he does not breathe through the nose, the location is more uncertain (either Q or X)- The pitch of the sound may help you here, for a click which is due to the closure of the glottis is lower in pitch than one due to the closure of the back of the tongue against the soft palate, because the cavity is larger. Perhaps the most certain plan of ascertaining the location is to cause the pupil to repeat the click for as long a time as possible without stopping. If he is not breathing through the nose, nature will sooner or later force him to relinquish the concealed position in order to take breath. Watch for that moment. At the moment of relinquishment a sound will be heard which will enable you to determine by ear the location of the concealed position. For example: If the back of the tongue is involved you will hear the sound of k (Q< or a>). 9} pronounced either with the air going in or out of the lungs. If the glottis is closed you will hear ( X> or X<) the effeft of throat shut followed by a puff of air. If you are uncertain whether or not the pupil can breathe through the nose, hold the nostrils closed with your fingers until the pupil's breath gives out. If the concealed position was G {ng without voice) you should hear the sound of A (a> or a<) for Cf> — 'i—(J. The first step in the correction of a defeft is a knowledge of the cause. With this knowledge the teacher can not only devise means (i) of correcting the defed, but (2) of utilizing it in the production of other sounds. Let us take as a typical case of a click defeat, the sound of a kiss given instead of^. How can we correal it and how can we utilize it ? (1) Correction of the defeSt. In this case the cause consists in the assumption of a shut position (G) which prevents the breath from reaching the lips. If then, we can devise any method of caus- ing air from the lungs to press against the lips the assumption of the concealed position becomes impossible. For example: You can make your pupil blow feathers or pieces of paper away from his lips, or inflate his cheeks while trying to pronounce/). These are simple expedients that are usuallv successful; but they may fail because it is perfe6tly possible to produce inflation of the cheeks and expulsion of air from the mouth, and yet have the back of the tongue shut against the soft palate when the lips are opened. The characteristic puff heard during the production of a click is necessarily of very short duration. Then get your pupil to make a continuous effort of expiration. For example: Let him shut his lips and blow continuously through a very fine orifice between them (DDi) as though he were blowing to cool something. In producing a prolonged emission of this kind the air can only come from the lungs, and the assumption of any interior shut posi- tion is therefore impossible. It is true that the inflation of the cheeks suggested above, and the too small aperture between the lips just alluded to, themselves constitute defeCts; but they are easily cor- redled, because the aCtions are visible. A skillful teacher. will not hesitate to substitute a defed that is easy of corredion for one that is more difficult. 94 (2) UtiIi{atiOfi of the defeSlive sound. The moment you realize that the concealed shut position is G you will recognize the possi- bility of producing ng (6) from a kiss. For example: Get the pupil to add voice to the kiss. [a+(D<)]+l = S+(D<) and at once you obtain ng combined with a labial aftion. By ma- nipulation of the pupil's mouth you can prevent the lips from closing, [65+ (D<)] - (D<) =e and you then get ng alone. If the pupil has not already acquired the sound of ng, you can thus utilize the kiss as a means of teaching it to him ; and if he already has the sound and knows its symbol (6) then the presentation of the symbol for the kiss will convey to his mind an idea of the mechanism of the click. In corre(5ling de- feds, it is surely advisable, if possible, that the pupil as well as the teacher should know the cause and understand the mechanism of the defe(5live sound. If then your little pupil should happen to give the sound of a kiss instead of the letter p, don't frown at him and say, "No, no, that is not right." Give him the symbol 0+ (D<) and encourage him by a sign of approval. He has tried his best and it is not his fault that he failed to give the sound you wanted. All sounds are but positions to him and he was right in his attempt — not wrong — for he imitated corredly the position which alone he could see — the position of the lips. Why then should we express disapproval } He had done nothing worthy of censure. The "No-no method " does not help him to corre6t the defeft — and it does throw cold water upon honest attempts to please. Give him a sign for his sound, and reward his effort by approbation. If you do not know how to write the sound properly give him x as a provisional symbol — or invent a chara(5ter to repre- sent it. Say, "That is what you did, now do it again." The "No-no method" gives him the idea that it is wrong to make a noise of that kind. On the contrary, encourage him to repeat the sound so that you may study it and find out how best to utilize it in his instruiftion. If the sound is unfamiliar to your ear and you do not know how it is formed, that itself is a reason why you should hold on to it and not throw it away. When you have analyzed its 95 composition you may find it to contain gold where you only asked for lead. Let your pupil repeat the sound until you can imitate it yourself. Then study your own mouth. In the meantime do not let him forget the sound. Fix it by reference to the letter x, or some other mark, and when you have satisfied yourself how it should be expressed, substitute for x the proper symbol. The meaning of the symbol need not be explained to a young child. It may be treated as an arbitrary sign. The expression G+ (D<) need only mean to him, " That's what you did, now do it again." The deaf child soon comes to understand the application of the symbols even though he may not understand their full mean- ing. For example: When he knows that G-|-(D<) represents the sound he makes, then if you change the symbol to G+(D<) he will at once attempt to vocalize the kiss. He will do this even though he may be unable to analyze or understand the full significance of the expression. The symbols of Visible Speech are invaluable as a means of cor- reding and utilizing defedive sounds. Indeed, I think their chief value lies in their ability to express the mechanism of the sounds the children make, so as to show in a graphical manner their relation to the English sounds we wish them to give. The methods suggested above are applicable to the correction of all the clicks of t and k. (See Table of Clicks). DEFECTIVE COMBINATIONS OF P, T, K. Pupils who are taught by means of Visible Speech have many ad- vantages over those taught only by means of Roman letters and diacritical marks. Defeds of combination, which are inevitable upon the latter plan, and which require the expenditure of much time and labor on the part of the teacher in order to correct them, need not arise at all when symbols are employed, and if they do arise are easily correded. Let me illustrate by a common case. The position for p (D) by itself yields no sound, because the lips are closed. It is usual, therefore, to teach it in combination with an open position. Thus, D>. The lips are first shut and then opened to allow of the escape of a puff of air. Here we have two successive positions represented by only one character p. This leads at once to a defect when p is com- bined with other letters, for the child naturally attempts to give 96 both positions (D>) wherever/) occurs. Thus, ps becomes 0>U in- stead of DU (a puff of air appears between the/) and s). So also with / and h. Ts becomes D>^ instead of 0^. Ks becomes 0>13 instead of QO. Tsh{ch) becomes D>Q instead of DQ, etc. These defeds are inevitable upon the Roman letter plan. Without the use of symbols it is difficult to explain the nature of the defe(?t to a deaf child who knows no language. The teacher usually imitates the defedive sound and exclaims, " Don't say D>Q, but DQ (tsh), " trusting to the quickness of the pupil's eye to discern the difference in her mouth. Your chief reliance is upon imitation, and if that fails you, where are you .? Now, these defects need not arise at all when the sounds are taught by symbols; and when they do occur, they are easily corrected, because we can express the incorreft as well as the correct effect so as to exhibit the differ- ence. In teaching these sounds by means of visible speech we com- mence in the same way as that just described — by teaching/), / and k, as D>, D>, and a> but we employ two characters to express the two positions instead of one. Then when the sound of s (y)is ac- quired we combine as follows: 1. "Say D>" "That is right." 2. "Now sav U" "Right." 3. "Now say D>U " " Right again." (Observe the difference in the attitude of the teacher towards her pupil. Here is the very defective combination of ts alluded to above. But the teacher of visible speech, having expressed the po- sitions actually assumed by her pupil, can truthfully say, "That's right," with an approving nod— where the Roman letter teacher could only say, "No, no, that's wrong.") 4. " Now try first Q>U and then DO." Here the pupil's attention is directed to the difference between the two effefts, and his aim is to give the last combination without the puff af air (>). Whatever he does, therefore, his aim is right — which is not the case on the Roman letter plan. And whatever he does, the teacher can give him a symbol for his sound and say, "That's what you did, now do it again." In a little time quite a number of variations upon the sound of ts may be obtamed. Anxiety to avoid the puff of air often leads 97 him to put it in — now in one place, now in another; for example, the pupil may say, D>y or >DU or >D>y, etc. It is not the teacher's objed to have him forget the incorreft sounds but to remember them and contrast them one with the other. The greater the number of slight variations that can be pro- nounced at will by the pupil the more power does he obtain over his vocal organs. A good marksman should be able to hit one mark just as well as* another. The sound of ch (tsh) presents exceptional difficulties to a dea. child. Even when the / is properly combined with sh without any puff of air between the two (thus OQ) your ear usually tells you that there is something wrong when the combination is uttered in a word. 1 think the fault lies in the undue prolongation of the sh position (DQ»). If you observe your own utterance of such words as chair, cheese, church, such, much, touch, watch, etc., you will notice that the tongue does not remain for any length of time in the sh position. Ihtsh indeed constitutes a non-vocal glide, a mere transitional effect, between / and the succeeding element. The unnatural effed pro- duced by prolongation is most marked when sh occurs finally, as in much, touch, etc. (Q]OQ* D]DQi, etc.). I have rarely failed to ob- tain the vernacular effeft from a deaf child by expressing the sound oich final asDQ> instead of DQ. Indeed, as a general rule a non- vocal consonant occurring as a final element is most naturally given by a deaf child when the symbol for the sound is followed by >. For example: (cuff) a]3> (us) ]y> (both) B}-\U^ (wish) 3fQ> (cup) a]D> (nut) CD]D> (sick) Ora> (maps) 91D^> (cuffs) a]3y> (nuts) CC]DU> (deaths) W\UU> (books) 0iaO> (watch) 3JDQ> Of course, when these words occur in the middle of a phrase, the puff of air must be omitted, for the phrase is pronounced as one word and the consonant is then no longer final. CORRECTION OF THE DEFECTS OF 'B, D, G, M AND N. it is difficult to pronounce the sound of /' (B), without opening the lips and when a deaf child attempts to do this a defedive sound arises which, when combined in a word with other sounds, produces the click form o( h [l+(D<)] alluded to in the table of clicks. T) and g are subject to a similar defed. 1 would recommend combining these consonants with vowels from the very first. 1 commence with an indefinite vowel (I), which 98 may be er her, // in up, or any indefinite vowel sound that the child can make. For example: B, d, g may be taught as 31 01 Ql (ber, der, ger, or bu, du, gu, etc.) There is really no difficulty in teaching b in combination, for it can be manipulated while the child produces the vowel sound. Let the child prolong an indefinite vowel sound with his lips pretty close together. Now place your thumb and finger under his lower lip and move the lip rapidly up and down so as to close and open the labial aperture. This results in DI3IDI etc. (ber, ber, ber, etc.) Care should be taken to make the movement an opening not a closing adion. The closure should be only momentary. The under lip should instantly rebound from the upper lip as a hammer rebounds from an anvil. Now teach the child himself to move his lip up and down with his finger. His attempt should be to pronounce the vowel (I) continuously and make no muscular effort with the lips. After he can do this well let him try to move his lip rapidly up and down in the same way without the assistance of his hand. There should be no muscular tension, but on the contrary the lips should feel soft and loose. You cannot manipulate the point of the tongue in this way, but when the pupil can pronounce DIDIBI, etc., analogy leads him to give OlOl0letc., (der der der, etc.) and QIQIQI etc., {gu gu gil etc.) The clicks of ;// and ;/ are more difficult of correflion. After the child can give DIBIDI etc., or 010101 etc.. it is well to try whether analogy will not lead him to give QI9I9I or CCICCiCCl etc. This often succeeds, but in difficult cases the back of the tongue remains closed against the soft palate, thus converting the sound into 6+(D); or too far back (Ol or too high up. There may be too much compression of the passage-way ( a ) ; or too little compression (v). My plan of correction is — to write what the pupil does, using these modifiers according to the character of the defeft to be sym- bolized. For example: Q< Q> Qv Qa etc. I then get the pupil to vary the position slightly and contrast the new position with the old making him pronounce both sounds alter- nately so as to observe their difference. In difficult cases it is well to manipulate the non-vocal forms s, sh, and y/i, {U,Q, and O,) from t/i (15) in the manner I have already described in answer to a question. When these are well tlxed the vocal forms follow as a matter of course by the addition of voice. VOWELS, GLIDES, AND COMBINATIONS. Dr. a. Graham Bell : 1 have advocated the very general use of an indefinite, in place of a definite vowel sound in unaccented syllables. You must not, however, suppose from this that I under- value vowels, or deem accuracy of vowel quality of no practical importance in our work. Far from it. I only mean to insist that vowels are of secondary importance to consonants. Consonants give intelligibility to.speech, but vowels give beauty of utterance. Consonants constitute the back-bone of spoken language— vowels the flesh and blood. You cannot do without them. We want our pupils to acquire, not merely an intelligible articu- lation, but also, if possible, a natural and pleasant quality of speech. We must, therefore, attend to the vowels. It is neither necessary, however, nor advisable, that every vowel in a phrase should be given its full value. Unaccented syllables should be toned down like the shaded portions of a pidure thus bringing out by contrast, the accented parts of words. Beauty of utterance depends as much upon shading as upon form — as much upon the due subordination of the unaccented syl- lables as upon accuracy of vowel quality. It is a very difficult thing, even for hearing persons, to give un- accented vowels their proper sounds without bringing them out too prominently, so as to produce that pedantic style of pronunciation which is often mistaken for elocution. The really good speaker gives the proper value to unaccented vowels without italicizing them to the ear. The mass of the deaf, however, are no more able to do this, than the mass of the hearing. Indeed, the attempt results in a much more unnatural effect than iOO 101 the utterance of the pedantic speaker — because the vowel quality it- self is usually defedive. Under such circumstances indefiniteness is of importance. It produces, not a worse, but a better efifecl;. You must not suppose, when I advocate a careless utterance of un- accented syllables, that I am_ urging you to teach worse speech than your pupils now possess; on the contrary, I believe that the result will be recognized as a great improvement. You will tone down sounds that are usually defedive so that they will not come out so prominently to the ear; and accent, which is now conspicuous chiefly by its absence, will be produced by the subordination of the unimportant parts of words. Give as definite vowels as possible in the accented syllables, but don't be too precise about the others. Vowels are the most difficult elements we are called upon to teach. Why is this so ? The discovery of the cause may perhaps enable us to devise a remedy. Let us examine into the matter. How do vowel positions differ from the positions that yield con- sonant sounds ? They result from larger apertures. Can this have anything to do with the difficulty of the acquirement ? It seems so, for wide-aperture vowels are more difficult to obtain in perfection than the others. Get a pupil to prolong a small-aperture vowel. The sound, even when defedive, has a definite quality of its own. A lower po- sition of the tongue, however, yields an effect of indefinite kind. The oral aperture is usually too large and the sound, when prolonged, is unstable and variable in quality, showing that the pupil finds diffi- culty in retaining the position unchanged. Sometimes the attempt results in a visible trembling of the tongue. In forming consonants and small-aperture vowels, the tongue makes actual contact with the upper part of the mouth at one or more points; but in lower positions it is hung in the air, so to speak, without anything against which to press. Extend your arm and you can easily retain it in a fixed position if you press your hand against the under surface of a table or shelf, but extend it in the air and I fancy you will find more difficulty in keeping it still. Your hand — if you do not watch it — is apt to waver like the unsteady tongue of the deaf child, and a constant tendency exists to a lower position. Your ear aids you in the retention of a /owel position, because any change affects the qi'jlily of the sound. 102 Try to keep your tongue still, without making any noise, and you will appreciate the ditficulty experienced by your pupil. He lacks a guide. Give him a mirror and at once he becomes conscious of the movement of his tongue. The sound is your guide, and if you merely think of the sound, that helps you to retain the position. His guide must be sight, and by seeing he will learn control. The thought of the image he has seen in the mirror will help him, as the thought of the sound helps you. I cannot overestimate the value and importance of a mirror in articulation work. It is not enough that a pupil should watch his teacher's mouth, he must see his own. Accuracy and defmiteness of sound depend upon the ability to retain a position unchanged. Indeed, as I said in my second lecture, control over the vocal organs is gained not so much by moving them as by keeping them still. Clearness of pronunciation depends upon the ability to enunciate every element in a word with clearness and deliberation. A poor speaker finds difficulty in uttering a word slowly or separating it into its component parts. Give your pupil a mirror and let him learn to keep his tongue still. It doesn't much matter what he does, so long as he assumes different positions of the tongue, retaining each for some time with- out motion. Little children delight to puzzle one another by assuming unusual positions of the tongue which the others cannot imitate. They should be encouraged in this, for all exercises of that kind are of value as a preparation for speech. By such exercises they unconsciously gain control over their vocal organs and become better able to imitate positions of the mouth. They feel a certain muscular exertion and see the effect in the mirror, and this constant association of seeing and feeling ultimately enables them to realize by muscular sensation alone exactly what the tongue is doing. I consider a looking glass as a necessity in the schoolroom. You can no more expeft to teach a deaf child good speech without a mirror than you can hope to teach a hearing child to paint well without letting him see the result of his efforts. I would especially recommend as an exercise before a mirror alternately narrowing and broadening the tongue. The attempt to narrow the tongue causes it to become stiff and hard to the touch, with a rounded surface. When it is broadened the surface becomes 103 flat and soft. The most common fault, I think, among deaf children is an exaggerated muscular adion leading to a stiffening and narrow- ing of the tongue. For example: Many children in trying to form X (ee) make so much muscular effort that the tongue feels hard. The tongue is narrowed and fits up into the arch of the palate, making contacl with the top of the hard palate, and though a centre aperture exists over the front of the tongue the effeft of the vowel I is not produced. 1 have found C (the German cii) to be a very important position. It forms, indeed, the key note to the vowels. As a general rule if a child can pronounce C you can teach him to glide the tongue forward (C>) and backward (C<), retaining the small centre aperture, and by getting him to do this as far back and as far forward as possible, the latter position generally gives O, which, by the addition of voice, becomes a good I (ee). In difficult cases I have found it a good plan to give the pupil the idea that O is C modified by expansion of the tongue so as to press sideways against the molar teeth on each side instead of pressing up into the arch of the palate. In some cases the simple direction to broaden the tongue will corred the defective f (ee). Pupils sometimes give X ov even 1 for f (ee), and sometimes f T or 1. These defeats arise from the attempt to say ee with the teeth too far apart. You cannot pronounce (ee) properly with the mouth wide open. A teacher, however, is apt to separate the teeth as much as possible in order to show her pupil the position of the tongue. The pupil imitates the opening of the jaws, and this is apt to result in a position of the tongue too far back (I or 1) or in a position having too wide an aperture (IT or 1). 1 give below a tabulated list of the elementary vowels used in the English language arranged in such a manner as to show their place in the complete vowel scheme elaborated by my father. Melville Bell's Vowel Scheme. 1 T f 1 T f ] I C 3 I C J 1 I J I I i T f Iff } \ i } I i ill ill 104 English Vowels. I I 3 C 3 I - i — I J I I i J J Some one has observed that you may at any time produce a Scotch air by striking at random the black notes of the piano. The musical scale of the Celts is defective. Examine the gamut of vowel sounds as given by my father, and you will notice that the English ear seems to be as defective for vowel sounds as the Scotch ear is for musical notes. Only three of the back series of vowels are used in the English language; two of the mixed series, and five of the front series. Out of the eighteen round vowels, only five in all are em- ployed in our language. You will observe a curious likeness between the peculiarities of the "front " and "back-round " series of vowels. The first one of each series (I and 1) is always of long duration in English, and the seconn (I and i) always short. The third (C and }) never occurs by itself, but is used simply as the initial part of a diphthong. The sound ends with the gliding of the tongue to the high vowel of its series. Thus C is pronounced as f (a), finishing off with the gliding of the tongue towards the position for I (ee) ; and }; oh is given as H fin- ishing off with a glide towards the position for i (oo.) The fourth vowel of each series is wanting in English. The fifth vowel of the front series I {e in pet) is sometimes long and sometimes short. The fifth of the back-round series, however, J {aw) is always long. In both series the sixth vowel (J or X) is always of short duration. It may also be noted that the mid-back vowel ] (// in 7tp) also is always short. These peculiarities of duration do not necessarily pertain to the vowels, but are mere matters of English usage. Many persons have the mistaken idea that the vowels in the words eat, and /// pool and pull; caught and cot; calm and come, are the long and short forms of the same vowels, but if you sing these words you will recognize that the vowels remain distin6t to the ear when equally prolonged; and you can shorten the vowels in the words eat, pool, caught and calm, without producing //, pull, cot and come. In faft, this is the pronunciation given for these words by French speakers of English. I05 I am inclined to think that there is some natural cause for the analogous peculiarities appearing in the front and back-round series of vowels, because I notice in both dialectic and individual utterance that variations from the standard, appearing in one series, have their analogues in the other. For example : where [r (a) is pronounced C without any gliding of the tongue toward r as in Scotch and in Con- tinental pronunciation, you find also that }^ (o) is pronounced 3" without the ^ glide. So, too, where individual speakers give [f or ir for [f (J) they also usually say H or J^ for }'\ (o), etc. Examine the table of English vowels and you will see that the front and back-round series are nearly complete, and you will recog- nize at once the importance of I (ee) and ^ (oo), for from them the other vowels of their series can be developed by simply enlarging the aperture. The mixed vowels (land I) and the bacl^ vowels (3 3 and J) pre- sent no difficulties, for the following reason : any sort of an indefi- nite sound will pass for I (er in her) and 1 (the sound of the indefi- nite article a in a sentence) differs so slightly from this that there is no need of distinguishing between them. In unaccented syllables I would express these two sounds indiscriminately by (I) the voice sign. 3 {a in ask, path, etc.) also differs so slightly from J {, and you get the effect of "calf" (033 = 03*3 •). \A'hereas, let the child attempt to give the same vowel sound, but prolong the 3 position, jumping as quickly as possible io6 from the Q to the 3 position and you get the effeft of "cuff" (a]3 = a33*>.) So with calm and come. If he tries to give the same vowel sound to both, prolonging the 3 in the latter word, passing quickly from the G to the B position, you will, as a matter of fad get a]9 although he tried to say Cl39 with a shortened vowel and a prolonged consonant. 1 find in the case of the other short vowels i J and f that deaf children generally produce the proper effect by attempting to pronounce them as i J and I, passing quickly over the vowel to the succeeding consonant and prolonging it. Thus if a child pronounces DiCO {pool) corredly, let him prolong the W passing as quickly as possible from the D to the CO and he produces the effect of DlOO {pull). So with the word foot. Let him try to pronounce it as 3iD>, prolonging the shut position D of the /, and passing as quickly as possible from the 3 to the D>, and you get the proper vernacular effect 3iO>. So with J. You can con- vert caught into cot by prolonging the shut position (D) of the /, (D>) or gaud mto god, by prolonging the d (CD.) The vov^el I is the most frequent vowel in the English language. It is rarely necessary, however, to explain to a deaf child that it differs from I in any other respect than length. As a general rule, if the deaf child prolongs the shut position (D) of the / (D>) in the word eat, passing quickly over the vowel position, the vernacu- lar effed of it is produced (lD> = r04>). Indeed, in all short vowels the succeeding consonant is prolonged. Mr. Lyon: How would you distinguish the final ^j' in words; would you use that same sound .? Dr. Bell: Yes. Mr. Lyon : In that case you would not have a consonant fol- lowing. Dr. Bell: That's true. The other short vowels i J and ] are always succeeded by consonants. I think this is also true of I and perhaps of I except when followed by I {er). I do not think any of the short vowels excepting f occur as final elements. The correct sound of final v is T (/ in it). As a general rule the pupil will give the effect correctly if he tries to make the sound X {ee) carelessly, with little muscular exertion. I, therefore, begin by getting him to try to say X {ee) softly. If the effeft of T results, well and good. I leave it alone. If, however, we obtain too pronounced an X (ee) I then explain that the aperture is too small. The great trouble is that if you tell a deaf child that X has a larger aperture than X he is apt to exaggerate the difference and give too large an aperture. I07 Whereas, if you don't say anything at all about the aperture the attempt to say I with little muscular exertion usually results in a satisfadory I. I give below a table of the English vowels, as I teach them to the deaf, arranging them so as to show their place in my father's complete vowel system already given. - - I - I — I — - - - — J - — — — — The short vowels f 1 J and 3, as 1 have already explained, may be considered as identical with I i J and 3, save in exceptional cases, where the organic difference must be explained. The medium aperture vowels [ and } are only used in English as the initial parts of the diphthongs Cr (a) and 3-^ (d). They are usually so difficult of acquirement that we are generally forced to accept If and J^ for Cf and }}. The distindion of sound is so slight, however, that the error is surely immaterial. £ (ee) and 1 {oo) in unaccented syllables become f (i) and ^ (66) in ordinary speech. For example: the word tlw by itself is 2i5r (thee), but when unaccented becomes 65l; 2*5lDjr 2»5fO[f3C0, ' thi boy, thi table," etc. The word to by itself is Di, but in unaccented positions becomes Di, as "1 gave a book Di^ASrDjr [loo thi boyj." We are so accustomed to give indefinite vowels in unaccented syllables that any sort of indefinite vowel effect is more acceptable than a precise pronunciation such as would be given if the syllables were accented. For example: DI65I Djr (tu thCi boy) rapidly and indefinitely uttered would be more acceptable to ordinary ears than Di2»5r0jr (too thee boy) precisely uttered. In fad, in all unaccented syllables I is better than a precise vowel. I and i should be given or r and 1, but I is better than an incorred I or i. Mr. Lyon: That does not differ materially from the sound of u in up as we usuiiily hear it. Dr. Bell: It is an indefinite sound, somewhat like that, but more like er in her. Mr. Crouter: Dont we get that effed in the word "carpet" by dropping out the vowels ? io8 Dr. Bell: Yes, we can use this indefinite sound (I) in place of the r. Mr. Crouter : I was not speaking of r, but take any case, the consonants may be held together in a word and you pass over from one consonant to the other and this indefinite vowel sound is produced. Dr. Bell: Yes, it usually occurs as a transitional effeft. For example: In the last syllable of " carpet " carelessly uttered. Miss Black: What sound do you give the final y ? Dr. Bell: Give me a word, Miss Black. Miss Black: Well, "Mary." Dr. Bell: T (/in it). 1 would write the word Blld)!, al- though many Americans say SCfCi)!. When the letter r occurs be- tween two vowels, and the first one is long, English usage de- mands the insertion of voice-glide (I) between the long vowel and the medial r, thus fairy (3IICi)f) weary (^Iiul) fiery (33riCi)f) fury (3011(1)1), etc. When the letter r occurs finally or before a consonant, for ex- ample — ear, poor, farm, warm, etc. ; the r () is not pronounced. Even elocutionists demand only a gliding of the tongue toward the position for r (i). Thus L'i Oh 3hB ^hB etc. When deaf children, however, attempt to give glide r («), they exaggerate the effed and produce a consonant sound. ((i>), thus XCi) DlCi) 33Ci)9 m(j)B, etc. The effect is at once recognized as peculiar. Defe(5live combina- tions usually result in such words as 33Ci)IQ (farum) 9JCi)l3 (warum), etc. When the consonant r itself is defective, as it often is, for example: Ci)" or Ci)*=, the effed; is so unnatural that it would be better to omit the r altogether. Many hearing people fail to give an r of any sort in such words as the above, and 1 would recommend the omission of the glide r (y.) in teaching the deaf. The voice glide (I) answers every purpose and is easily uttered. When a deaf child gives that in place of (!i!) no one but an elocutionist could tell the difference. For example: Let the child give II (ear) Dil (poor) 33l3 (farm) J3JIQ (warm). Indeed, in the last cases even the voice glide itself may be omitted without any very marked peculiarity. Thus: 339 (fahm) ^}B (wawm). This surely would be more acceptable than the pronunciation usually given by deaf children, for these words. When r occurs as a final and the next word begins with a vowel, a consonant r is usually required. IjSy would be to ordinary 109 ears a satisfadory pronunciation of the word "there," but if you put that into a sentence where the next word commences with a vowel (for example, "there is," etc.), then 2»5tl Ii5 would not prove acceptable, and we must introduce a consonant r thus 63i;iCi)f2i5. Now it is a difficult thing for a teacher to get a deaf child to say D]DXi! without an exaggeration of the glide r element that produces an unnatural effect, but any child can give 3]Oi which is perfe(5tly satisfactory to most ears. If you didn't know there was no r there, you would never find it out. I would have the deaf child give simply the indefinite vowel (I) for the whole syllable er in such words. In English utterance two other glides (« and i) are employed in the diphthongal vowels. In forming s the tongue glides towards the position for H) (j^*) or I ((v) ; and in forming i the glide is towar.ds the position for 53 (w)ori(oo. ) Diphthongal sounds present great difficulties to the deaf and are rarely given corredly. Both the initial and final posi- tions are apt to be wrong, and a strong tendency is manifested to prolong the final instead of the initial part of the diphthong. My plan of correction is to write what the pupils do, so that they may see the difference between the sounds they actually utter and those we wish them to give. My father has not provided a sufficient number of glide symbols to enable us to represent the incorreft sounds uttered by our pupils, and I have, therefore, found it advisable to express glides by vowel symbols upon a small scale. This gives us a sufficient number of forms without introducing new symbols. For the deaf I write the diphthongs U 3^ Js }i 3i as Cf 3r Jf }> 3V The common defeat of prolongation ot the final element can be expressed as Cf 31 if }l3i. and when the combination is dis-syllabic this becomes Cr3rjl}i3i. In teaching such a diphthong as 3r, I commence in the following manner: Say 3. Now say I. Now 313131, etc. Now DlDlDl, etc. Now 3r3r3r, etc. Whatever variations occur during the course of the lesson are represented symbolically, and the pupil is requested to repeat them in contrast with the corred sound. Thus: " You said 3l. Doit again 31 31 31 etc." " Now give 3l3r 3l3r etc." •• Now you said If. Try it again HirXr etc. Now give 3r 3Llr etc." The principle of corredion is: ixritc icliat the pupil docs, and I lO then get him to repeat the incorrect sound in contrast with the sound voit wish hi 111 to utter. I do not think it is possible to obtain great accuracy of vowel quality without the use of symbols of some sort for incorred sounds, and the adoption of the principle referred to above. The symbols of visible speech are of great utility for this purpose. Indeed, I believe them to be essential. Without them vou can only hope for approximations to the corred vowel positions. Without them your great, and indeed your only reliance must be upon imitation. In any case the power of imitation should be developed by con- stant pra(5lice before a mirror. I always teach [r {a) and 3r (7) in contrast with one another, so as to make the pupil familiar with the difference. These diphthongs are apt to be pronounced alike as ir or •£. For example: A pupil will say iGiIajQiI. instead of i33fCi3Q[r (fine day). For the same reason 1 teach 3-^ and 3> in contrast. In giving Jr, pupils generally give too small an aperture between the lips for the initial position. I think this results chiefly from the spelling (o/). They try to give an 6 followed by short /. Indeed, very often the o is followed by glide oo, thus making a dis- syllabic compound something likeJ^X. For example: D}^! (bo-ee) for Djr (boy). Sounds that differ only slightly from one another should, I think, be taught together, in contrast, as the best means of securing a distinction. Thus : teach [r 3r and jr as one group, and 3-1 and 3^ as another. I would also pradice such compounds as [fi 3ri JFi (vowels in layer, liar and lawyer written COjri or Cl)J(T)|). 3-^i y\\ (vowels in sower and sour). In such words as sore and more there is no glide. Many persons say 233-I SJi. My father would write ^Ji! 93-!i:, but I should recommend a still larger aperture in teaching the deaf. I would write UJi and 9Ji (saw-er maw-er) for "sore " and "more," and D3->l and SJ^I (so-er and mo-er) for " sower " (one who sows) and "mower" (one who mows). It is very difficult to get a deaf child to distinguish I from I {e in pet, from a in pat). It is important, however, that the attempt should be made, as the slight difference of sound often makes a great difference in the sense. For example: Met, mat, bet, bat, etc. The distindion is best obtained, I think, by pradice before a mirror. Ill Vowels are so difficult of acquirement by the deaf with accu- racy and precision that we may consider it fortunate that usage tolerates considerable latitude in the pronunciation of these elements. The precise shade of vowel quality given in one part of the country is not heard in another. Travelers in England are startled by the cry QID ^l DID ^1 (" Keb, sir, keb, sir,") from the cabmen in London. The Irishman says "ai" for 1. Many Americans say 311 ya> for 3IiUD> (first) and everywhere we hear I^CCI> for 3-^CD} (oh, no). Certain defects are recognized as individual, or family peculiarities of speech; others are characteristic of whole commu- nities and constitute a provincial utterance or dialed; and still others reveal the nationality of the foreigner. 1 think I am pretty safe in saying that the "standard pronun- ciation," like the "average school boy," nowhere exists! We all depart from it in a greater or less degree. Study the character and extent of the variations that exist among educated people and don't be too critical of defects of your pupils if they fall within those limits. The pronunciation of the consonant elements of speech is so uniform in all English-speaking countries that very slight variations are received as foreign sounds, while greater departures from the standard convey the idea that the vocal organs are themselves defective. People speak of "curing" such defects, as though they were diseases, or the result of malformations, requiring the surgeon's care. Vowel peculiarities, on the other hand, fail to convey this idea and are more suggestive of provincial or foreign utterance. Small-aperture vowels, like i or I, are given everywhere with substantial uniformity, and any marked deviation from the standard is suggestive of foreign birth. Vowels of larger aperture are con- stantly mispronounced by the best educated people. Even culti- vated Bostonians, for example, sometimescall their own city 33DDiCC (Bahston). Unusual variations from the standard if of slight extent, are suggestive of provincialism, and where the departure is greater the speaker is supposed to be a foreigner. From this it will be seen that exaditude of pronunciation is more necessary with certain sounds than with others. Consonants and small-aperture vowels in accented syllables must be accurately given; whereas considerable latitude may be allowed in the pro- nunciation of medium and large-aperture vowels, and of diphthongal sounds wherever they occur. This is fortunate, for these are just the I 12 sounds that are most difficult of acquirement with definiteness by our pupils. I would direft your attention to the very great importance of training a child to retain a position unchanged, until dired:ed to re- linquish it. The common practice of pronouncing an element of speech and then immediately relinquishing the position leads the child to consider the relinquishment as an essential feature of the sound. In speaking he relinquishes one position before he assumes the next, thus producing a transitional effe6l or glide sound between the elements. This sound appears either in a vocal (i) or non-vocal (>) form, according as the elements themselves are vocal or non- vocal. Ask the average deaf child to say BLdLbL (bee-bee-bee) and you will obtain DiLBiLDiIi. The tongue is raised for I and de- pressed for 3 so that it moves up and down for every syllable. Pronounce BLbLbL yourself and you will find that the tongue does not move at all but remains continuously in the I position. The movement is entirely labial. This defeft of combination runs through all the elements. The great principle to be kept in mind is that positions do not merely succeed one another like the letters on a printed page, but overlap. A position must be retained until the mouth is in position for the next element. In teaching the principle of combination to a deat child, I would recommend you to commence with the vowel 1. Get your pupil to prolong I while you open and close his lips with your fin- gers. At once you get BLbIbL. Dired the child's attention to the faift that the tongue remains in the I position all the time, and in fa£t that it does not move at all. Then get him to manipulate his own lips and then to produce the effeft without manipulation. When he can do this well, try Ci5l0X, etc., and the analogy of the symbols will help him to give the correct effed. Let him have the idea ot retaining the f position continuously while he moves the point of the tongue. Then try QLqL, etc., retaining the I position while he moves the back of the tongue. The chief difficulties of articulation teaching lie not so much with the elementary sounds as with their combination into syllables. A deaf child may be perfectly able to give every element and yet be unable to utter a sentence that is in- telligible to ordinary people. The most important point, I think, in the whole of articulation teaching is the thorough comprehension by teachers and pupils of the law of combination. SPEECH-READING. The substance of this le6lure will be incorporated in a special Circular of Inforniation, regarding Speech reading, which Dr. Bell has been requested to prepare. After his remarks upon Speech-reading Dr. Bell said : I should like in conclusion to say a few words upon the general subjedl of articulation teaching. We don't know yet how best to teach speech to the deaf. If we did we wouldn't be here. We have come here to learn from one another in the hope of improving our methods of teaching. Now I am inclined to think that the more nearly we can pattern our methods of teaching after the method adopted by nature in teaching speech to hearing children, the better should be our results. It is certainly the case that the methods usually employed in schools for the deaf do not even approximate to the nursery method of the hearing child. Not one of the little hear- ing children whom you may have left at home commenced by learn- ing elementary sounds. Mothers do not begin with elementary sounds and then combine them into syllables and words. The mother speaks whole sentences even to the infant in arms. The child listens and listens, until a model is established in the mind. Then the child commences to imitate, not elementary sounds, but whole words. Indeed, people grow up to adult life without ever having uttered elementary sounds, and when they do come to study them, it is for the purpose of improving and perfeding their speech. With hearing persons the elements come last, not first. They con- stitute the final, not the initial, exercises of articulation. I would commend this fad to the serious attention of the members of this Association. The question is often in my mind whether we are not making a radical mistake, and whether it would not be better to commence with sentences and whole words, rather than with ele- ments, and accept imperfed speech from little deaf children as we do from hearing children. 113 114 If you copy the natural process, what you want first is the use of speech, and then perfect the articulation as the child grows up. In this conne(5tion I would commend to your notice the paper of Dr. Greenberger upon the Word Method, which constitutes the first Circular of Information. This is an entire reversal of the position I assumed when I entered upon the work of articulation teaching. But the more I think of it, the more I am convinced that a great principle is involved. Words first and elements afterwards. 1 re- cognize, however, that there are real practical difficulties in the way of its application to the deaf If you once allow a deaf child to speak in a defective manner is there not danger that the defective pronun- ciation will become habitual } This is a serious objection and should be carefully considered. In the case of the hearing child, a correct- ive element is always present, he hears. He hears the model pro- nunciation constantly used by those about him, and also hears his own imperfect babble. His ear forms a medium of comparison whereby he perceives the relation of the sounds he utters to those he desires to make. In the case of the deaf child we m.ight anticipate that a corrective element would also be present if he could see speech as others hear it. (i) He must see the model pronunciation constantly and clearly repeated so as to fix it in his mind, to take the place of the conver- sation that goes on in the presence of the hearing child ; and (2) He must see his own imperfed speech so that he may per- ceive the relation of the sounds he utters to the correct pronun- ciation. It may be well to consider how far it may be possible for us to bring about these conditions. I. Speech-reading fulfills the first condition only in part. The visible movements of the mouth may recall the model pronunci- ation to the mind of the deaf child, when once acquired, but it does not exhibit the pronunciation with clearness and definiteness to the eye. If we could supplement speech-reading by books and periodicals printed in phonetical type, a great advantage would be gained. In Germany and Italy, where oral methods are most suc- cessful, spelling corresponds to pronunciation, and this first condi- tion is, therefore, fulfilled by the ordinary literature of those countries. In English-speaking countries, however, ordinary literature is of comparatively little use in impressing upon the memory of the deaf child the corred pronunciation of the language. Our spelling is so irregular and unphonetical that even hearing people often have to 115 resort to a diftionary to ascertain how a word should be pro- nounced. What we most need is reading matter for our pupils in which the words are spelt as they are pronounced. In two hours a deaf child can read as many words as a hearing child hears in the course of a day, and if the spelling only corresponded to the pronunciation, reading would fix the model in his mind, and speech- reading would constantly recall it. Any kind of phonetical alpha- bet would do for this purpose ; but Visible Speech would be especi- ally advantageous because it would be possible through this agency to fulfill the second condition also. 2. The deaf child must see the relation between the sound he utters and the correcft sounds of speech. 1 know of no other means of accomplishing this end than Visible Speech or the Lyon Manual, — but they will do it. 1 think with these agencies we would have a corre(ftive element that would lead to improvement of speech as the child grows up and permit of the adoption of a more natural method of teaching than now exists. I throw out these thoughts as suggestions merely, for I recog- nize, of course, the great difficulty of carrying them pradically into execution, I would have you, however, appreciate the importance of the principle involved, and consider whether in the face of the difficulties that present themselves, it would be better to abandon the principle, or study the difficulties and attempt to remove them. I think that that method which conforms most nearly to the method whereby hearing children require speech, will be most worthy of adoption by teachers of the deaf. APPENDIX. VOWEL THEORIES. BY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. Read before the National Academy of Arts and Sciences, April 15, 1879, and reprinted from the American Journal of Otology, Vol. 1., July, 1879. Hemholtz has shown that an educated ear perceives a combina- tion of musical tones where an uneducated ear supposes a single sound ; and his theory, that the feeble, usually unheard, musical tones are the cause of the peculiar sensation we term the "quality" of a sound, seems now to be universally accepted as correct. According to this theory, a vowel is a musical compound, con- sisting of a mixture of musical tones of different pitches and vari- ous intensities. The lowest, or fundamental tone, gives the pitch to the whole, and is determined by the rate of vibration of the vocal cords. It is certainly the case that an attentive ear can perceive, in every vowel uttered, a number of distinct musical sounds ; but the hypothesis that the ear perceives them 07ily, and that it is unable to appreciate the qualit}^ of the vowel directh', should be received with caution. According to Helmholtz, the human ear is incapable of perceiving any other than simple pendular vibrations, and it is therefore under the necessity of splitting up a vowel into its con- stituent musical elements before it can perceive its quality. Thus Helmholz holds that vowels are itif erred from the pres- ence of certain musical tones, and that they do not give rise in the ear to distinct sensations of their own. The rods of Corti are supposed by him to analyze the vibrations imparted to the liquid of the internal ear, so as to split them up into the pendular motions of which they are theoretically com- posed; but it cannot be received as proven that the simultaneous vibration of certain of these rods gives rise to the perception of the quality of a sound ; for Pritchard and other comparative anat- omists have .shown that the rods of Corti are entirely wanting in parrots and other birds that imitate and therefore perceive the sounds of speech. Whether or not, however, there exi.sts in the human ear an apparatus for taking direct cognizance of the quality of a sound, Helmholtz has proved, by the synthesis of vowel sounds, that there exists the most intimate relation between certain combinations of musical tones and the qtiality of a sound. Not only arc such tones audible whenever a vowel is produced, but the converse is e(|ually true ; and we may therefore assume, at least as a working hypothesis, that vowels are 117 ii8 compound musical tones. I shall follow the example of Ellis' in terming the nuisical constituents of vowel sounds, "partial" tones, to designate their subordination to the compound as a whole. The illustrations of vowel-s^-nthesis given b}' Helmholtz show vowels composed of tones whose frequencies are multiples of the fundamental and the question arises: ''Are the upper partial tones, which are characteristic of vowel sounds, invariably har7nonics of the fundamental of the voice, or are they independent of it f Again: "if they are harni07iics, do they iifiiformly bear the same 1-elation to the fundamental, whatever the pitch of the voice may be?''' These questions at first sight seem to receive different answers, accordingly as we attempt to solve the problem (i) from a con- sideration of the organic formation of the vowel sounds, or from an examination of the records, (2) of the phonautograph, and (3) of the phonograph. The results common to all three methods of investi- gation, however, point to a theorj- of vowel sounds in close accordance with the ideas of Helmholtz, as expressed by Ellis in his "Earl}' English Pronunciation," Part IV., p. 1277. In examining these questions, it may be convenient to designate, by distinct names, two varieties of Helmholtz's vowel theor}-, concerning which there has been of late considerable discussion : Ihe fixed pitch hypothesis. — The upper partial tones characteristic of vowel sounds may be supposed to have fixed, invariable pitches, and the element of pitch may be considered the distinguishing feature. The harmonic hypothesis.- — According to this h3-pothesis, the upper partial tones characteristic of vowels are always harmonics of the fundamental, varying in pitch with it, the vowel characteristic lying in the predominance of certain harmonics. As an illustration of the difference between these hypotheses, let us consider for a moment the musical composition of the vowel 6. Helmholtz .states that he produced a ver}* fine b}- combining the sounds of certain tuning-forks whose rates of vibration were multiples of that of the lowest fork. The prime tone was B^; the 2d, 3d, and 5th forks were allowed to sound feebly, and the sound of the 4th fork was brought out much more strongly. In this experiment, then, the characteristic tone [b^f] was the double octave of the fundamental. Now, if the fixed pitch hypothesis be correct, the vowel 6 should always be distinguished by a partial tone of the [by') ; whereas, if the harmonic ■hypothesis be correct, the predominant partial should vary in pitch with the pitch of the voice, and be alwa^-s its double octave. I. lozc'c/ Theories, considered in Relation to the Organic For- mation of Wnvcl Sounds? When we examine the vocal organs we find numerous cavities located in the thorax, larynx, pharynx, nares, and in the mouth. The air in 1 The phraseology of Ellis will be used throughout this paper. For definitions, etc., see Ellis's translation, " The Sensations of Tone," footnote to page 3fi. - In all references to the organic formation of speech sounds, I adopt the phraseology of Melville Bell. For definitions, etc., see "Visible Speech : The Science of Universal Alphabetics." 119 each cavity has a tendency towards a definite rate of vibration, and when agitated in any way produces its resonance tone. In the act of speech the air is set in vibration in all these cavities, the resonance tones of the cavities mingle with the tones due to the vibration of the vocal cords, and thus produce the complex sounds of human speech. The movements of the tongue, lips, etc., modify the shape and size of some of these resonance cavities, and thus enable us to produce sounds the musical constituents of which are almost infinitely variable at will. The constant cavities of the vocal organs, the shapes of which are determined by nature, and are therefore inde- pendent of will, probably give to the speaker's voice that individuality of tone that enables us to pick out the voice of one speaker from a multitude of others, while the variable cavities give prominence to partials that characterize the elements of spoken language. The cavities of the mouth are chiefly concerned in the production of vowel quality. When a vowel position is assumed by the vocal organs, the mouth-passage is slightly constricted at some particular part (see Fig. i), and thus two resonance cavities, a and b, are estab- FlG. I. li.shed, the interior of the mouth somewhat resembling in shape the interior of a chamber formed by placing two bottles neck to neck, the two resonance chambers being represented by the bodies of the bottles, and the con.stricted passage between them by the necks. I have found that the resonance tones of these cavities can be readily studied in the following manner: To Study the Pitch of the Posterior Cavity : Clo.se the glottis, assume the vowel position, and tap genth' again.st the throat with the thumb-nail. (A .sound will be perceived .some- what similar to that produced by tapping against the side of an empty bottle). A double pitch will be noticed, but the tone due to the jjosterior cavity, a, will be much more fully produced than that due to the other. I have succeeded in making the sound audible to large audiences by placing the forefinger of the left hand against the throat, and tapping it very forcibly with the thumb-nail of the right hand. 120 A loud sound can also be produced by striking a piece of wood or cork held against the throat. To Study the Pitch of the A^iterior Cavity : Close the glottis, assume the vowel position, and strike gently a piece of wood, or cork, held in front of the mouth or against the cheek. I have found that an ordinary lead-pencil, held firmly against one side of the mouth, readily yields the resonance tone of the mouth cavity when struck with the thumb-nail. A double tone can be per- ceived, but that due to the anterior cavity is much more prominent than the other. The tone due to the anterior cavity may be studied alone, by depress- ing the soft palate until it touches the back of the tongue. (This is the position for " ng " in the word " sing.") Under such circumstances the soft palate cuts off all communication with the air in the posterior cavity, and a single resonance accompanies each vowel position. When the absolute pitch of the anterior cavity is sought, the former method is preferable, as the depression of the soft palate alters the tone. The tones of the cavities are best brought out by contrast. For instance, assume successively the positions for certain vowels, and observe the series of tones produced, first by the anterior cavit}^ and then by the posterior cavity. The difference will be found to be very striking. When the vowel positions are assumed in the order shown by Melville Bell, in his " Visible Speech," the tones of the cavities are found to be arranged in regular mvisical sequence. For instance, commencing with the high-front vowel (ee), assume successively the positions for the other vowels of the front group. A double series of resonances will be obtained, so arranged that the tones of one series fall in pitch while the tones of the other rise. The same rernark is true for all the organic groups of unrounded vowels. The pitch of the anterior cavity falls iti pitch as the vowel aperture is enlarged, and that of the posterior cavity rises. It is different, however, with rounded vowels. For in.stance, take the high- front-round vowel, (ii in German), and assume successively the positions for all the vowels of that group down to the low-front-wide-round vowel. The reso7iance tones of the anterior and posterior cavities both rise in pitch as the vowel aperture is enlarged. All the groups of rotinded vowels behave in a similar ynanner. Again, compare unrounded vowels of similar aperture, but of different organic formations. For instance, assume successively the high-front, high-mixed, and high-back vowel positions : the pitch of the anterior cavity falls and the pitch of the posterior rises. The same thing occurs when we compare ihe mid-front, mid-mixed, and mid-back vowels, or the low-front, low-mixed, and low-back vowels. Comparing in like manner rounded vowels of similar aperture, but of different organic formation, the same fact is noticed, namely, that the further back in the mouth the point of constrictioyi is located, the lozver is t/ie pitch of the anterior cavity and the higher the pitcli of the posterior. Comparing rounded and unrounded vowels of the same organic forma- tion and aperture, as, for instan^ie, the high-front vowel (ee) with the high- 121 front-rounded vowel (ii in German) : the pitch of the posterior cavity is the same for both vowels ; but the pitch of the anterior is lower for the rounded (ii) than for the unrounded vowel (ee). The changes of pitch produced in the anterior and posterior cavities of the mouth become intelligible by reference to familiar facts of resonance. Thus blow across the mouth of an empty bottle, and its resonance tone can be perceived in the rustling sound caused by the breath. Pour water into the bottle, and the pitch of the tone becomes higher. Place your fingers over the mouth of the bottle, so as to reduce the size of the open- ing, and the pitch falls. It will thus be seen that the pitch of a cavity falls when its interior capacity- is increased, and also when the exterior orifice is contracted. The depression of the tongue (see Fig. i) should, therefore, cause an elevation of the pitch of cavity a, and a lowering of that of cavity b ; for the air space in cavity b l>ecomes larger when the tongue is depressed ; and the width of the exterior opening [c] of cavitj' a is at the same time increased. Evety position assumed by the vocal orgatis deter7nines the shape and size of the cavities of the mouth, and thus determines the absolute pitch of the resonance tones proper to those cavities. When air is passed through the mouth, as in the act of speech, a new element enters into the inquiry : Is vowel quality due to the mouth position assumed by the organs, or is it caused by the vibration of the vocal cords ? If the former, we would expect that the characteristic upper partials would bear some relation to the resonance tones proper to the mouth cavities and be independent of the pitch of the voice. If the latter, we would expect them to bear some relation to the pitch of the voice and be independent of the pitch of the mouth cavities. The mere passage of air through the mouth is sufiicient to bring oi:t the characteristic tones of the mouth-cavities. Vowel quality is audible in a whisper, and can even be produced hy forcing air into the mouth by means of a pair of bellows. It should be noted, in this connection, that vowels are general h' pre- ceded in actual utterance by elements that approximate very closely to consonants in their organic formation ; "initial vowels" being preceded by the throat-shut consonant — an element belonging to the same general class as p — T — k, but for which we have no letter in the English language. Consonants result <"rom obstructive positions of the vocal organs. Dtiring the utterance of speech the air in the thorax is continually com- pressed by the action of the abdominal muscles, diaphragm, and muscles of the thorax, so that when the emission of breath is momentarily checked by the formation of some obstructive position, the cavities behind the point of constriction become inflated. Thus, when a vowel is preceded by a consonant — a sudden puff of air accompanies the relinquishment of the consonantal position — and this j)urf, passing through the vowel-configuration, is sufficient to bring out the characteristic tones of one oi more of the vowel-cavities quite independently of the vibration of the vocal cords. An interesting case may be mentionetl which bears u])on this i)oint. Dr. Moore, of Rochester, N. Y., had a patient whose glottis had become 122 closed by disease. For twenty-five years the man had been dependent for life upon air supplied through a tube inserted in the trachea. He could speak, although no particle of air could be forced into the mouth from the lungs. His speech was perfectly intelligible, distinct, and even loud, but of course peculiar, on account of the absence of voice. He could not pronounce vowel sounds by themselves, but they were distinctly audible when preceded by consonants. By long practice the man had acquired the power of contracting and expanding the cavity at the back part of the mouth to a wonderful extent. The air which was moulded into speech was alternately drawn into this cavity and expelled from it by the forcible action of the muscles of the pharynx, soft palate, and back part of the tongue. The cavity seemed to be continually in a state of change — alter- nately expanding and contracting during the whole progress of his articulation — so that the man could speak for any length of time without pausing for breath ! There seemed, however, to be an instinctive remem- brance of the connection between breathing and speech, for he was in the habit of expelling air through the tracheal tube while he was speaking, and of remaining silent when he drew air into the lungs. Another curious case has been made public by Dr. Moore.^ A patient had attempted suicide by cutting his throat. The epiglottis was severed trom the larynx, and, when the man attempted to articulate with his head thrown back, the air passed out through the opening in his throat instead of through the mouth. Under these circumstances the man could pronounce intelligibly certain vowel sounds. Dr. Moore satisfied himself and other observers that there was no passage of air through the mouth, by artificially closing the aperture between the epiglottis and back of the pharynx. Dr. Moore argued from this experiment that the vowels heard were produced in the larynx instead of in the mouth. This position, however, seems to be untenable ; for the mouth positions for these vowels might have been assumed during the production of the sounds, and the tones of the mouth cavities would be brought out by sympathetic resonance without the necessity of passing air directly through the mouth. In whistling, the resonance tone of the anterior cavity is brought out so loudly as to constitute a clearly recognizable musical tone. A careful observer will find that his tongue assumes a definite position for each note whistled, and a person can be made to whistle an air unintentionally by making him attempt to whistle certain vowels in succession. In whistling, it seems necessary that the constricted passage in the mouth should be much more narrowed than in actual articulation, and that the anterior orifice should also be small. Sing such a vowel as 6 and gradually contract the passage between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. The resonance tone of 6 will be observed to grow in intensity as the passage is contracted, until finally the vowel is converted into a vocalized whistle. By labializing the various vowel positions, the resonance tone of the anterior cavity can be brought into great prominence, and a whistle produced of definite fixed pitch for each vowel-position. ISee Trans. N. Y. State Medical Society for 1872 123 It is found that the pitch of the voice can be varied without appreciably affecting the pitch of the vowel-whistle. It is certainly difficult to bring out the whistle of 66 or o upon certain pitches of the voice, but the high- front and high-mixed vowels labialized can be easily retained in a whistlino- condition while the voice glides upwards or downwards. In studving the double resonance of the niouth-cavitj', I have been led to the belief that the fundamental of the anterior cavity is much more essential to the production of vowel quality than that of the posterior. If we prolong the sound of the voice, and study the effect of the movement of the different vocal organs in modifying the quality of the resultant sound, the attention will be arrested by the fact that movements of the organs further forward than the back of the tongue produce changes of vowel quality, but that motions of the parts behind the back of the tongue do not. The motions of such parts produce quite as marked, if not more marked, changes of quality than in the former case ; but the resultant sounds would not ordinarily be designated as vowel variations. We should rather speak of them as changes in the quality of the voice. For instance, the depression of the soft palate produces a nasal effect, and the movement of the base of the tongue towards the back of the pharynx produces a " guttural " quality of voice. If the passage between the base of the tongue and the back of the pharj-nx be contracted lateralh', bj^ approximation of the posterior pillars of the soft palate (shown b}- dotted lines in Fig. 2), a very curious change Fig. 2. of quality is produced. The voice acquires a metallic ring, somewhat like the tone of a brass wind instrument. When the posterior pillars of the soft palate approximate so closel}' as almost to touch, a very disagreeable reedy quality of voice results, which can perhaps be best described as a sort of " Punch-and-Judj- " effect. When these various motions are produced while a vowel position is assumed, the pitch of the posterior vowel cavity is affected, and the quality of voice accompanying the vowel is changed, but not the vowel itself. From this it seems evident that the anterior cavity is more important in determining the vowel qiiality than the posterior cavit}'. An examination of the mechanism of speech leaves the mind decidedly biased in favor of the fixed pitch theory of vowel sounds. II. Voiucl Theories, considered in /he LigJit of Experiments ivith the PJi onantograpli . If the harmonic hypothesis be correct, and vowels are composed of partial tones whose frequencies are multiples of that of the fundamental 124 of the voice, we should expect, from the researches of Fourier, that the tracings obtained from the phonautograph for vowel sounds should be invariablj- periodic curv-es, whatever the pitch of the voice might be. Whereas, if the fixed pitch hypothesis be correct, vowels should not yield periodic curves when tones of voice are used which do not contain the fundamentals of the mouth cavities amongst their harmonics. Fvirtliermore, if the harmonic theory be correct, the predominant partial tones, bearing always a fixed ratio to the fundamental in pitch and loudness, should produce for each vowel sound a definite form or forms of curve, which should be constant for the same vowels under different pitches of the voice. Early in 1874 I carried on a series of experiments with an improved form of phonautograph devised by Mr. Charles A. More}^ of the Institute of Technology, in Boston. Vowel sounds were sung to various pitches, and their tracings preserved for study and comparison. The results were briefly as follows : 1. Vowel sounds uniformly produced periodic curves, whatever pitch of voice was employed. 2. The form of vibration was not a constant characteristic. 3. Different vowels sung to different pitches often seem to produce similar curves. 4. Different vowels sung to the same pitch traced curves of different shapes, but they were not sufiiciently marked to enable the vowels to be certainly identified. 5. There seemed to be a relation between the complexity of the tracing and the vowel aperture ; close aperture vowels yielding curves that approximated very closelj'to simple pendular vibrations. Thinking that the results obtained with Mr. Morey's phonautograph might be influenced by the imperfection of the apparatus employed, I tried the tympanic membrane of a human ear as a phonautograph . Dr. Clarence J. Blake, of Boston, suggested this idea, and kindly prepared a specimen for me, with which I carried on experiments. The tympanic membrane and the ossicula were moistened with glycerine and water, and a stylus of hay attached to the incus enabled me to obtain tracings of vowel vibrations on sheets of smoked glass passed rapidly underneath. The results obtained with this apparatus were similar to those obtained with Mr. Morey's phonautograph, and I found it impossible to recognize the various vowel sounds by their tracings. I do not know the full results obtained by Prof. Eli W. Blake with his photographic phonautograph, but all the vowel curves drawn by him, that I have seen, were periodic curves, and seemed to support the conclusions noted above. The general indica- tions of all forms of phonautograph seem to favor the harmonic hypothesis much more than the other. The unstable character of the vibration -forms might be explained by supposing the phases of the harmonic partials to have varied at different times ; for Helmholtz has shown that the phases of the upper partial tones are immaterial to the perception of vowel quality. 125 III. Vowel Theories considered in the Light of Recent Experiments with the Phonograph. Mr. Edison's phonograph furnishes us with an instrument which fortunately can be utilized in the solution of acoustical problems that had before seemed insoluble b}' experimental methods. I believe that this instrument can be emploj-ed as a means of ascertaining the truth or falsity of the harmonic hypothesis. If the differences of vibration-forms obtained by the phonautograph for the same vowel, at different pitches, merely indicated a difference of phase of the upper partials — the same harmonics being predominant at each pitch of the voice — then, if the relative phases of the harmonic partials could be retained when the pitch of the voice was changed, the same vowel at different pitches should be characterized by the same curve ; and a vibration of uniform shape impressed upon the tinfoil of the phonograph should produce the same quality of vowel, whatever the speed of rotation of the cylinder might be. If, on the other hand, my observations with the phonautograph were correct, that different vowels could be found, which, when sung to different pitches, produced the same tracing, then a vowel sung to the phonograph, while the cylinder is turned at a certain rate of speed, should be repro- duced by the instrument as a different vowel when the speed was changed. When Mr. Preece exhibited the phonograph before the Physical Society of London, on the 2d of March, 1878, I suggested that this experiment should be tried, and stated my belief that the quality as well as the pitch of a vowel would be affected by the speed at which the cylinder was turned. The experiment was at once made, and the results were apparently as I had anticipated. (See Nature, Vol. XVII., p. 415.) Prof. Fleeming Jenkin and Prof. J. A. Ewing about the same time performed a similar experiment in Edinburgh, but arrived at quite different results. They .stated, in a letter, dated ]\Iarch nth, 1878, that " the pitch is, of course, altered, but the vowel sounds retain their quality when the barrel of the phonograpli is turned at ver}- different rates. "We have made this experiment at speeds var>nng from about three to one, and we can detect no alteration in the qualit}' of the sounds .' ' (See Nature, Vol. XVII., p. 384.) Such a result determined me to repeat the experiment carefully and at leisure. Mr. Stroh, the eminent mechanician of Hamp.stead Road, Lon- don, kindly permitted me to use his automatic phonograph, the C3'linder of which was moved by clock-work. Mr. Alexander J. Ellis was present, and a.ssisted during the experiments. We found it extremely difficult to use the phonograph in the observa- tion of minute phonetical distinctions. While we differed in our appre- ciation of some of the effects produced, we agreed in thinking that vowel quality was affected to .some extent by the .speed of rotation; but we were unable to determine either the amount or the nature of the change. Among other results of these experiments, the vowels in the words mC-an, mane, men were often reproduced to my ear as apj)roximately the vowels in moon, moan, mOrn; the reproduced ee sounding to me as 126 an extremely faint 65. Mr. Ellis, however, could not agree with me in this conclusion, although he admitted that the qualit}^ of these vowels was changed in the reproduction. The results of our experiments were communicated to Nature by Mr. Ellis, in a letter, dated the 3d of April, 1878. (See Vol. XVII., p. 485. ) Dr. Clarence J. Blake, of Boston, and Prof. Cross, of the Institute of Technology, in the same city, were as much struck as I had been by the .statements made by Fleeming Jenkin and J. A. Ewing concerning the fixity of vowel quality under varying speeds of rotation, and repeated the experiments alluded to. Very striking differences of vowel quality w^ere perceived by them. Prof Cross communicated the results to Nature, in a letter, dated Boston, April 29th, 1878. (See Vol. XVIII. , P-93) This called forth a response from Edinburgh, dated May 29th, 1878. Fleeming Jenkin and J. A. Ewing modified their former statements concerning the fixity of vowel quality, but stated that "the five vowels a, e, i, 0, u (Italian), pronounced in succession are, b}' contrast at least, thoroughly distinguishable when the instrument is run at various speeds, such as to reproduce the sounds at all the pitches within the compass of the average human voice. That no marked change is produced in the relative values of the vowels is confirmed by the fact that neither in public nor private exhibitions do the hearers of sentences, alternately run slow and fast, suggest that the vowels have changed with a change of speed. . . . We do not, however, think that our instrument speaks with sufficient distinctness to warrant our expressing an opinion as to the constancy of quality of any single vowel when the instrument is run at various speeds." (See Nature, Vol. XVIII., p. 167.) Since the publication of this letter no notice seems to have been taken of this most interesting subject until quite recently, when Mr. Preece and Mr. Stroh revived the discussion in The Electrician, for March 29, 1879. Amongst other results they observed that the vowel ah is con- verted by a slow rotation into 6, and that the converse is equally true. This fact has also been independently discovered in America by Mr. Fran- cis Blake and myself. I have at various times, during the past few months, made experi- ments with phonographs of different kinds to determine the question of vowel change or fixity; and all the instruments have answered the ques- tion of vowel fixity, under changing speeds of rotation, in the negative. Some experiments made by Mr. Francis Blake and mj'self, on the fifteenth day of March, 1879, "ot only demonstrated that vowel quality does change under varying speeds of rotation of the cjdinder of the phonograph, but also manifested the direction and nature of the change. The ordinary mode of conducting the experiment previously, was as follows : A vowel vi'as sung to the phonograph while the cylinder was turned at a uniform rate of speed. The sound was then reproduced from the instrument, while the barrel was turned at a uniform, but different rate of vSpeed. When the experiment was conducted in this way, the change of vowel quality was not marked, and very uncertain results were obtained. 12/ The experiment was now varied as follows: A vowel was sung into the phonograh in a high-pitched voice, while the cylinder was turned at a uniform but high rate of speed. When the sound was reproduced, the cylinder was started at a high rate of speed and allowed to come gradually to rest. At once the nature of the vowel change became manifest. The vowel iih changed b}- insensible degrees to awe, oh, and finally ob. (The same effect can be produced by gradually contracting and "rounding" the orifice between the lips, while at the same time the back of the tongue is slightly raised. ) The vowel ee was gradually converted into the German vowel ii. I am perfectly sure of the labial element of this change, but am uncertain whether there was not also a change in the lingual element. The repro- duction was ver}- faint, but to my ear the vowel finall)^ produced was either the " high-front-round " or the " high-mixed-round " vowel. The diptliongal vowel i long was reproduced approximately as "ow" in " now." The exact reproduction seemed to be as follows: The initial sound was the " low-back-wide-round " vowel, gliding finally to "high- mixed-round." A long series of experiments with various vowels satisfied us that the reduction of the speed of rotation below the original rate at which the cylinder was turned, occasions an effect analogous to that produced by labializing the original sound. It was also evident that there was a lingual element of change, espe- cially when vowels of the " front " and "mixed " series were tried; but it was extremely difficult to locate the resultant sounds. The fixed pitch h^'pothesis offers a clear undenstanding of the natvire of the change. With decreasing speed of rotation, the prime tone and the characteristic upper partials fall simultaneously in pitch. Upon our theory the char- acteristic partials correspond to the fundamentals of the cavities formed in the mouth by assuming some position of the vocal organs. Hence we might expect that as the speed of rotation decrea.sed, the sound produced would correspond to a vowel having anterior and posterior cavities of lower pitch than the original one. The pitch of the anterior cavity- can be lowered by gradually approxi- mating and rounding the lips, and the pitch of the posterior cavity can be similarly changed b}' contracting the passage between the two cavities. The change of vowel quality produced by decreasing the speed of rotation of the cylinder of the phonograph thus seems to correspond to the change pnxluced by gradually elevating the tongiie in the mouth and at the same time contracting and rounding the orifice between the lips. Effect of Iiicreasiiii^ the Speed of Rotation. A vowel was sung into the phonograph, in a low-pitched voice, while the cylinder was turned very slowly. When the .sound was reproduced, the cylinder was started slowly, and the rate of rotation gradually increased. The vowel u/i changed gradually to fi in ask, and then to a (in the word man). This change of vowel cfiect was accompanied by a remark- able change in the quality of the reproduced voice. The sound was 128 accompanied by a metallic twang. This disagreeable quality became more and more marked as the speed of rotation was increased, until a sort of " Punch and Judy" squeak was produced. Upon the fixed pitch hypothesis this change also becomes intelligible. Organically considered, the change corresponds to a gradual contrac- tion of the posterior cavity, accomplished by approximation of the posterior pillars of the soft palate (as in Fig. 2), accompanied by a gliding forward of the lingual position. This is exactly what one would expect upon the supposition that the posterior and anterior cavities were of higher pitch than in the original vowel. I was svirprised at first that I could detect no tendency in a (in aim) or e (in men) to glide upwards towards ee (in see), for the anterior cavity in ee is of smaller size and higher pitch than in the other vowels men- tioned; but I now see that the elevation of the tongue would tend to lower the pitch of the posterior cavity, which should theoretically be raised simultaneousl}' with the elevation of the pitch of the anterior cavity. Results obtained by Fleeming Jenkin and J. A. Ewing. Jenkin and Ewing have made a minute analysis of the records impressed upon the tinfoil of the phonograph hy vowel sounds, and have published the results of their researches in the columns of Nature, and in the Transactions of the Edinburgh Royal Society for 1878. Their analysis of the records of the vowel 6 brought out the fact that, whatever pitch of voice was employed, the predominant partial was b\, as fixed by Helmholtz, or within a few notes of that pitch. As the final result of their researches, Jenkin and J. A. Ewing say (see Nature, Vol. XVIII., p. 455): "We are thus brought back to our original statement, that in distinguishing vowels the ear is aided by two factors — one depending on the harmony or group of partials, and the other on the absolute pitch of the constituents We are forced to the conclusion, already adopted by Helmholtz and Bonders, that the ear recognizes the kind of cavity by which the reinforcement is pro. duced; that, although the sounds which issue differ so much that we fail, when they are graphically represented and mathematically analyzed, to grasp any one prominent common feature, nevetheless, by long practice, the ear is able to distinguish between the different sorts of cavities which are formed in pronouncing given vowels." General Rcs7tlts. Of the two hypotheses with which we started, it is certain that one (the harmonic) is wrong and the other only partly right. The balance of evidence inclines largely towards the fixed pitch hypothesis, the main argument against it being found in the periodic curves of the phonauto- graph. The solution of the difficulty seems to be that suggested by Ellis, namely, that, "what we call our vowels are not individuals, scarcely species, but rather genera, existing roughly in the speaker's intention. 129 but at present mainly artificially constituted by the habits of writing and reading." (See " Early English Pronunciation," Part IV., p. 1279.) I do not doubt that the distinguishing characteristic of the vowel- individual, if we could examine it critically, would be found to consist in the presence of partial tones of fixed pitch corresponding to the resonance cavities of some definite fixed position of the vocal organs. A resonance cavity, however, is found to be capable of reinforcing not only a tone corresponding to its fundamental or proper tone, but other tones that differ slightly in pitch from that. The reinforcement is greater or less as the exciting tone is more or less removed m pitch from the proper tone of the cavity. Thus^ when a vowel is sung or spoken, those harmonics of the voice which are nearest in pitch to the proper tones of the mouth cavities would be reinforced at the expense of the proper tones themselves. And althongh the ear may be guided in its recognition of vowel quality by a feeling of absolute pitch, the vowels would be recognized from the presence of partials of slightly different pitch— the ear locating, as it were, the distance of the fixed pitch b}- the loudness of the reinforced harmonic. In ordinary speech the voice is rarely on a level, but is constantly gliding upwards or downwards. When a vowel is spoken, the pitch of the voice is constantly changing. The reinforced partials must also change in pitch, swelling and dying away in intensity, as they approach or recede from the proper pitches of the mouth cavities. Thus, in the rapid succession of reinforced partial tones, accompanying an inflection of the voice, a point of maximum resonance should be perceived having the absolute pitch characteristic of the vowel uttered.' Treating vowels as we find them, as genera of sounds, instead of individuals, the most plausible theory seems to be what we ma}- term "the harmonic fixed pitch theory of vowel sounds," according to which a vowel is a musical compound, of partial tones, whose frequencies are multiples of the fundamental of the voice; the predominant partials being alwajs those that are nearest in pitch to the resonance cavities formed in the mouth by the position of the vocal organs assumed during the utterance of the vowel. ' It is well known that the duration of a v wel is an element in determining its quality. It is extremely difTicult to detect the quality of short vowels and they are often spoken of as "obscure." 3IOfVi£DlGAL LfBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CAijrnRWiA SAN DIEGO DATE DUE OCT ?j 4 RECn 'IP. APR 9.9. RfdB OCT 1 fi FCTJ ■ 'iM ^ ■■' DEC 6' M2 4 m CAYLORD PHINTEOIN USA l^A 000 221316 3 i I ^