GIFT OF 
 
 ?'rs . !' . H . '.Vood
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 A. D. MELVIN, CHIEF OF BUREAU. 
 
 SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 ON 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE 
 
 BY 
 
 Drs. PEARSON, MICHENER, LAW, HARBAUGH, TRUMBOWER, LIAUTARD, 
 HOLCOMBE, HUIDEKOPER, STILES, MOHLER, AND ADAMS. 
 
 REVISED EDITION. 
 
 WASHINGTON : 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 I9II.

 
 I 
 
 vS 
 
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT or AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BUREAU or ANIMAL, INDUSTRY, 
 
 Washington, D. C., July 20, 1911. 
 
 SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a copy of the Special 
 Report on Diseases of the Horse prepared for reprinting in accord- 
 ance with the following resolution, approved March 4, 1911 : 
 
 Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of 
 America in Congress assembled, That there be printed and bound in cloth one 
 hundred thousand copies of the Special Report on the Diseases of the Horse, the 
 same to be first revised and brought to date under the supervision of the Sec- 
 retary of Agriculture; seventy thousand copies for use of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, thirty thousand copies for use of the Senate. 
 
 As the work was thoroughly revised in 1903 and slightly revised in 
 1907, it has been found necessary to make only a few minor changes 
 and additions at this time. 
 
 x This report was first issued in 1890 and was at once accorded a 
 
 ^ hearty reception by the horse owners of the country. The limited 
 
 * edition that the department was able to publish was very soon ex- 
 
 * hausted, and the demand was then turned upon Members of Congress. 
 
 V As a result of the continuous demand, Congress has ordered reprints 
 
 ^ 
 
 time to time until the total editions, including the present, 
 amount to about 1,000,000 copies. 
 
 Very respectfully, A. D. MELVIN, 
 
 Chief of Bureau. 
 Hon. JAMES WILSON, 
 
 /Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 3 
 
 374048
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 The examination of a sick horse. By Leonard Pearson 9 
 
 Methods of administering medicines. By Ch. B. Michener 28 
 
 Diseases of the digestive organs. By Ch. B. Michener 34 
 
 Diseases of the urinary organs. By James Law 75 
 
 Diseases of the respiratory organs. By \V. H. Harbaugh. . 104 
 
 Diseases of the generative organs. By James Law 143 
 
 Diseases of the nervous system. By M. R. Trumbower 190 
 
 Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics. By M. R. Trumbower. 225 
 
 Diseases of the eye. By James Law 251 
 
 Lameness. By A. Liautard 274 
 
 Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot. By A. A. Holcombe 369 
 
 Diseases of the skin. By James Law 431 
 
 Wounds and their treatment. By Ch. B. Michener 459 
 
 General diseases. By Rush Shippen Huidekoper 483 
 
 Shoeing. By John W. Adams 565 
 
 Index 589 
 
 5
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Page. 
 
 PLATB I. Digestive apparatus 74 
 
 II. Bote 74 
 
 III. Intestinal worms 74 
 
 IV. Longitudinal section through kidney 76 
 
 V. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 88 
 
 VI. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 88 
 
 VII. Calculi and instrument for removal 88 
 
 VIII. Position of the left lung 128 
 
 IX. Instruments used in difficult labor 166 
 
 X. Normal presentations 166 
 
 XI. Abnormal presentations 166 
 
 XII. Abnormal presentations 166 
 
 XIII. Abnormal presentations 176 
 
 XIV. Abnormal presentations 176 
 
 XV. Anterior presentations 176 
 
 XVI. The nervous system - 192 
 
 XVII. Interior of chest, showing position of heart and diaphragm 228 
 
 XVIII. Circulatory apparatus 228 
 
 XIX. Theoretical section of the horse's eye 256 
 
 XX. Skeleton of the horse 288 
 
 XXI. Superficial layer of muscles 288 
 
 XXII. Splint 288 
 
 XXIII. Ringbone 304 
 
 XXIV. Various types of spavin 304 
 
 XXV. Bonespavin 336 
 
 XXVI. Bonespavin 336 
 
 XXVII. Dislocation of shoulder and elbow, Bourgelat's apparatus 336 
 
 XXVIII. Theslingin use 336 
 
 XXIX. Anatomy of foot 372 
 
 XXX . Anatomy of foot 372 
 
 XXXI. Quarter crack and remedies 372 
 
 XXXII. Sound and contracted feet 372 
 
 XXXIII. Foundered feet 416 
 
 XXXIV. Ringbone and navicular disease 416 
 
 XXXV. Diseases of the skin 432 
 
 XXXVI. Mites that infest the horse 448 
 
 XXXVII. General diseases. Inflammation 488 
 
 XXXVIII. General diseases. Inflammation 488 
 
 XXXIX. Glanders, nasal septum of horse, right side, showing acute lesions. 532 
 
 XL. Glanders, middle region of nasal septum, left side, showing ulcers. 532 
 XLI. Glanders, posterior half of nasal septum, right side, showing 
 
 cicatrices 532 
 
 XLII. Age of horses as indicated by teeth .- 564 
 
 7
 
 g ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 TBXT 
 
 Page. 
 
 Flo. L Gforod rorfare of aright fore hoof of the "regular" form .......... 572 
 
 J. Pair of fore fret of regular form in regular standing jioeition ........ 573 
 
 3. Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide standing position ..... 573 
 
 4. Pair of fore feet of baae narrow form in toe-narrow standing position. 574 
 
 6. Side view of an acute-angled fore foot, of a regular fore foot, and of a 
 
 tumpy fore foot ............................................... 574 
 
 a. Hide view of foot with the foot-azu broken backward as a result of too 
 
 loan a toe ...................................................... 576 
 
 7. lxft fore hoof of a regular form, shod with a plain fullertxl shoe ..... 580 
 
 8. Side view of hoof and fullered t hoe ................................ 581 
 
 9. An acute-angled left fore hoof ohod with a bar shoe ................ 583 
 
 10. A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roudctrr ................... 583 
 
 11. Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber jwid and " three- 
 
 quarter" ahoe ................................................. 584 
 
 12. A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide standing potation nhod with 
 
 a plain "dropped create " shoe ................................. 584 
 
 13. HI " if nurfacf of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering ........... 585 
 
 14. (iround mirface of shoe shown in fig. 13 ........................... 585 
 
 16. Hide view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the "breaking over" 
 
 in a "forger" .................................................. 586 
 
 16. Wde view of a nhort-toed hind hoof of a forger ..................... 586 
 
 17. A toe- weight Bhoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet ........ 587 
 
 1ft. M<t common form of punched heel- weight shoe to induce high action 
 
 In forefeet ..................................... 587
 
 SPECIAL REPORT 
 
 ON 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 
 
 By LEONARD PEARSON, B. S., V. M. D., 
 
 Dean of the Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, and State 
 Veterinarian of Pennsylvania. 
 
 In the examination of a sick horse it is important to have a method, 
 or system. If a definite plan of examination is followed one may feel 
 reasonably sure when the examination is finished that no important 
 point has been overlooked and that the examiner is in a position to 
 arrive at an opinion that is as accurate as is possible for him. Of 
 course, an experienced eye can see, and a trained hand can feel, slight 
 alterations or variations from the normal that are not perceptible to 
 the unskilled observer. A thorough knowledge of the conditions that 
 exist in health is of the highest importance, because it is only by a 
 knowledge of what is right that one can surely detect a condition that 
 is wrong. A knowledge of anatomy, or of the structure of the body, 
 and of physiology, or the functions and activities of the body, lie at 
 the bottom of accuracy of diagnosis. It is important to remember 
 that animals of different races or families deport themselves differ- 
 ently under the influence of the same disease or pathological process. 
 The sensitive and highly organized Thoroughbred resists cerebral 
 depression more than does the lymphatic draft horse. Hence a de- 
 gree of fever that does not produce marked dullness in a Thorough- 
 bred may cause the most abject dejection in a coarsely bred heavy 
 draft horse. This and similar facts are of vast importance in the 
 diagnosis of disease and in the recognition of its significance. 
 
 The order of examination, as given below, is one that has proved to 
 be comparatively easy of application and sufficiently thorough for the 
 purpose of the readers of this work. It is recommended by several 
 writers. 
 
 9
 
 |0 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 IIISTOIT. 
 
 It is important to know, first of all, something of the origin and/ 
 development of the disease, therefore the cause should be looked for. 
 The oiiiBe of a diimim is important, not only in connection with diag- 
 noak, but also in connection with treatment. The character of food 
 that the horse has had, the use to which he has been put, and the kind 
 of care he has received should all be inquired into closely. It may be 
 found by this investigation that the horse has been fed on damaged 
 food, such as brewer's grains or moldy silage, and this may be suffi- 
 cient to explain the profound depression and weakness that are char- 
 acteristic of forage poisoning. If it is learned that the horse has 
 been kept in the stable without exercise for several days and upon 
 full rations and that he became suddenly lame in his back and hind 
 lega, and finally fell to the ground from what appeared to be partial 
 paralysis, this knowledge, taken in connection with a few evident 
 symptoms, will be enough to establish a diagnosis of azoturia. If it 
 is learned that the horse has been recently shipped in the cars or has 
 been through a dealer's stable, we have knowledge of significance in 
 connection with the causation of a possible febrile disease, which is, 
 under these conditions, likely to prove to be influenza, or edematous 
 pneumonia. 
 
 It is also important to know whether the particular horse that is 
 tinder examination re the only one in the stable or on the premises 
 that is similarly afflicted. If it is found that several horses are 
 tUfcf^d much in the same way, we have evidence here of a common 
 cause of disease which may prove to be of an infectious nature. 
 
 Another item of importance in connection with the history of the 
 case relates to the treatment that the horse may have had before he 
 is examined. It sometimes happens that medicine given in excessive 
 quantities produces Bymptoms resembling those of disease, so it is 
 important that the examiner shall be fully informed as to the medica- 
 tion that has been employed. 
 
 ATTITUDE AND OEXERAL CONDITION. 
 
 Before beginning the special examination attention should be paid 
 to the attitude and general condition of the animal. Sometimes 
 bone* awume positions that are characteristic of a certain disease. 
 For example, in tetanus, or lockjaw, the muscles of the face, neck, 
 and shoulders are stiff and rigid, as well as the muscles of the jaw. 
 Thi* condition produces a peculiar attitude, that once seen is subse- 
 quently recognized a* rather characteristic of this disease. A horse 
 with tetanua stand* with his muscles tense and his legs in a somewhat 
 bracing position, as though he were gathered to repel a shock. The 
 neck is stiff and hard, the head is slightly extended upon it, the face 
 is drawn, and the nostrils are dilated. The tail is usually held up a 
 little, and when pressed down against the thighs it springs back to its
 
 EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 11 
 
 I 
 
 '. 
 
 previous position. In inflammation of the throat, as in pharyngo- } 
 laryngitis, the head is extended upon the neck, and the angle between 
 the jaw and the lower border of the neck is opened as far as possible 
 to relieve the pressure that otherwise would fall upon the throat. 
 In dumminess, or immobility, the hanging position of the head and 
 the stupid expression are rather characteristic. In pleurisy, perito- 
 nitis, and some other painful diseases of the internal organs, the 
 rigid position of the body denotes an effort of the animal to avoid 
 pressure upon and to protect the inflamed sensitive region. 
 
 The horse may be down in the stall and unable to rise. This condi- 
 tion may result from paraplegia, from azoturia, from forage poison- 
 ing, from tetanus, or from painful conditions of the bones or feet, 
 such as osteoporosis or founder. Lying down at unusual times or in 
 unusual positions may indicate disease. The first symptom of colic 
 may be a desire on the part of the horse to lie down at a time or place 
 that is unusual or inappropriate. Sometimes disinclination to lie 
 down is an indication of disease. Where there is difficulty in breath- 
 ing, the horse knows that he can manage himself better upon his feet 
 than upon his breast or his side. It happens, therefore, that in nearly 
 all serious diseases of the respiratory tract the horse stands persist- 
 ently, day and night, until recovery has commenced and breathing is 
 easier, or until the animal falls from sheer exhaustion. Where there 
 is stiffness and soreness of the muscles, as in rheumatism, inflamma- 
 tion of the muscles from overwork, or of the bones in osteoporosis, or 
 of the feet in founder, or where the muscles are stiff and beyond con- 
 trol of the animal, as in tetanus, a standing position is maintained, 
 because the horse seems to realize that when he lies down he will be 
 unable to arise. 
 
 Abnormal attitudes are assumed in painful diseases of the digestive 
 organs (colic). A horse with colic may sit upon his haunches, like a 
 dog, or may stand upon his hind feet and rest upon his knees in front, 
 or may endeavor to balance himself upon his back, with all four feet 
 in the air. These positions are assumed because they give relief from 
 pain by lessening pressure, or tension, upon the sensitive structures. 
 
 Under the general condition of the animal it is necessary to observe 
 the condition, or state, of nutrition ; the conformation, so far as it may 
 indicate the constitution; and the temperament. By observing the 
 condition of nutrition one may be able to determine to a certain extent' 
 the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to esti- 
 mate the amount of strength that remains and that will be available 
 for the repair of the diseased tissues. A good condition of nutrition' 
 is shown by the rotundity of the body, the pliability and softness of 
 the skin, and the tone of the hair. If the subcutaneous fat has disap- 
 peared and the muscles are wasted, allowing the bony prominences to 
 stand out ; if the skin is tight and inelastic and the coat dry and harsh, 
 we have evidence of a low state of nutrition. This may have resulted
 
 12 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 from a aavere and long-continued disease or from lack of proper food 
 and care. Where an animal is emaciated that is, becomes thin 
 there IB first a loss of fat and later the muscles shrink. By observing 
 tin amount of shrinkage in the muscles one has some indication as to 
 the duration of the unfavorable conditions that the animal has lived 
 under. 
 
 By coMtititilon we understand the innate ability of the animal to 
 withstand disease or unfavorable conditions of life. The constitution 
 depends largely upon the conformation. The type of construction 
 that usually accompanies the best constitution is deep, broad chest, 
 allowing plenty of room for the lungs and heart, indicating that 
 these vital organs are well developed; capacious abdomen, allowing 
 pufficient space for well-developed organs of digestion; the loins 
 .should be short that is, the space should be short between the last rib 
 ami the point of the hip; the head and neck should be well molded, 
 without superfluous or useless tissue; this gives a clear-cut throat. 
 The ears, eyes, and face should have an expression of alertness and 
 good breeding. The muscular development should be good; the 
 shoulder*, forearms, croup, and thighs must have the appearance of 
 Ktrength. The withers are sharp, which means that they are not 
 loaded with useless, superfluous tissue; the legs are straight and their 
 axes are parallel ; the knees and hocks are low, which means that the 
 forearms and thighs are long and the cannons relatively short. The 
 cannon* are broad from in front to behind and relatively thin from 
 hide to side. This means that the bony and tendinous structures of 
 the legs arc well developed and well placed. The hoofs are compact, 
 !-. firm structures, and their soles are concave and frogs large. 
 Such a horse is likely to have a good constitution and to be able to 
 resist hard work, fatigue, and disease to a maximum degree. On the 
 other hand, a poor constitution is indicated by a shallow, narrow chest, 
 Htnall bones, long loins, coarse neck and head, with thick throat, 
 -mall, bony, and muscular development, short thighs and forearms. 
 small joints, long, round cannons, and hoofs of ooen texture with 
 flat wles. 
 
 The temperament is indicated by the manner in which the horse 
 responds to external stimuli. When the horse is spoken to, or when 
 he *ees or feels anything that stimulates or gives alarm, if he responds 
 actively, quickly, and intelligently, he is said U> be of lively, or nery- 
 oiw, temperament. On the other hand, if he responds in a slow, 
 aliiggiMh manner, he is said to have a sluggish, or lymphatic, tempera- 
 ment. The temperament is indicated by the gait, by the expression 
 of the fare, and by the carriage of the head and ears. The nature of 
 the temperament should be taken into consideration in an endeavor to 
 ascertain the severity of a given case of illness. because the general 
 expression of an animal in disease as well as in health depends to a 
 large extent on the temperament.
 
 EXAMINATION OF A SICK HOESE. 13 
 
 THE SKIN AND THE VISIBLE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. 
 
 The condition of the skin is a fair index to the condition of the 
 animal. The effect of disease and emaciation upon the pliability of 
 the skin have been referred to above. There is no part of the body 
 that loses its elasticity and tone as a result of disease sooner than the 
 skin. The practical herdsman or flockmaster can gain a great deal of 
 information as to the condition of an animal merely by grasping tho 
 coat and looking at and feeling the skin. Similarly, the condition of 
 the animal is shown to a certain extent by the appearance of the 
 mucous membranes. For example, when the horse is anemic as a 
 result of disease or of inappropriate food the mucous membranes 
 become pale. This change in the mucous membranes can be seen most 
 readily in the lining of the eyelids and in the lining of the nostril. 
 For convenience of examination the eyelids can readily be everted. 
 Paleness means weak circulation or poor blood. Increased redness 
 occurs physiologically in painful conditions, excitement, and follow- 
 ing severe exertion. Under such conditions the increase of circula- 
 tion is transitory. In fevers there is an increased redness in the 
 mucous membrane, and this continues so long as the fever lasts. In 
 some diseases red spots or streaks form in the mucous membrane. 
 This usually indicates an infectious disease of considerable severity, 
 and occurs in blood poisoning, purpura hemorrhagica, hemorrhagic 
 septicemia, and in urticaria. When the liver is deranged and does 
 not operate, or when the red-blood corpuscles are broken down, as 
 in serious cases of influenza, there is a yellowish discoloration of the 
 mucous membrane. The mucous membranes become bluish or blue 
 when the blood is imperfectly oxidized and contains an excess of 
 carbon dioxide. This condition exists in any serious disease of the 
 respiratory tract, as pneumonia, and in heart failure. 
 
 The temperature of the skin varies with the temperature of the 
 body. If there is fever the temperature of the skin is likely to be 
 increased. Sometimes, however, as a result of poor circulation and 
 irregular distribution of the blood, the body may be warmer than 
 normal, while the extremities (the legs and ears) may be cold. 
 Where the general surface of the body becomes cold it is evident that 
 the small blood vessels in the skin have contracted and are keeping 
 the blood away, as during a chill, or that the heart is weak and is 
 unable to pump the blood to the surface, and that the animal is on the 
 verge of collapse. 
 
 The skin is moist, to a certain degree, at all times in a healthy horse. 
 This moisture is not in the form of a perceptible sweat, but it is 
 enough to keep the skin pliable and to cause the hah* to have a soft, 
 healthy feel. In some chronic diseased conditions and in fever, the 
 skin becomes dry. In this case the hair has a harsh feel that is quite 
 different from the condition observed in health, and from the fact of
 
 14 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 its being so dry the individual hairs do not adhere to one another, 
 they stand apart, and the animal has what is known as " a staring 
 coat" Whrn. during a fever, sweating occurs, it is usually an indi- 
 cation that the crisis is passed. Sometimes sweating is an indication 
 of pain. A horse with tetanus or azoturia sweats profusely. Horses 
 sweat freely when there is a serious impediment to respiration ; they 
 sweat under excitement, and, of course, from the well-known physio- 
 logical causes of heat and work. Local sweating, or sweating of a 
 restricted area of the body, denotes some kind of nerve interference. 
 
 Swellings of the skin usually come from wounds or other external 
 causes and have no special connection with the diagnosis of internal 
 rjjia^aim There are, however, a number of conditions in which the 
 swelling of the skin is a symptom of a derangement of some other 
 part of the body. For example, there is the well-known " stocking," 
 or swelling of the legs about the fetlock joints, in influenza. There is 
 the soft swelling of the hind legs that occurs so often in draft horses 
 when standing still and that comes from previous inflammation (lym- 
 phangitis) or from insufficient heart power. Dropsy, or edema of the 
 skin, may occur beneath the chest or abdomen from heart insuffi- 
 ciency or from chronic collection of fluid in the chest or abdomen 
 (hydrothorax, ascites, or anemia). In anasarca or purpura hemor- 
 rhagica large soft swellings appear on any part of the skin, but 
 usually on the legs, side of the body, and about the head. 
 
 Gas collects under the skin in some instances. This comes from a 
 local inoculation with an organism which produces a fermentation 
 beneath the skin and causes the liberation of gas which inflates the 
 skin, or the gas may be air that enters through a wound penetrating 
 some air-containing organ, as the lungs. The condition here de- 
 scribed IH known as emphysema. Emphysema may follow the frac- 
 ture of a rib when the end of a bone is forced inward and caused to 
 penetrate the lung, or it may occur, when, as a result of an ulcerat- 
 ing process, an organ containing air is perforated. This accident is 
 more common in cattle than it is in horses. Emphysema is recog- 
 nized by the fact that the swelling that it causes is not hot or sensi- 
 tive on pressure. It emits a peculiar crackling sound when it is 
 stroked or pressed upon. 
 
 Wounds of the skin may be of importance in the diagnosis of 
 internal disease. Wounds over the bony prominence, as the point 
 of the hip, the point of the shoulder, and the greatest convexity of 
 the ribs, occurs when a horse is unable to stand for a long time and, 
 through continually lying upon his side, has shut off the circulation 
 to the portion of the akin that covers parts of the body that carry the 
 greatest weight, and in this way has caused them to mortify. Little, 
 round, soft, doughlike swellings occur on the skin and may be 
 scattered freely over the surface of the body when the horse is
 
 EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 15 
 
 afflicted with urticaria. Similar eruptions, but distributed less gen- 
 erally, about the size of a silver dollar, may occur as a symptom of 
 dourine, or colt distemper. Hard lumps, from which radiate welt- 
 like swellings of the lymphatics, occur in glanders, and blisterlike 
 eruptions occur around the mouth and pasterns in horsepox. 
 
 THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 
 
 The first item in this portion of the examination consists in taking 
 the pulse. The pulse may be counted and its character may be de- 
 termined at any point where a large artery occupies a situation 
 close to the skin and above a hard tissue, such as a bone, cartilage, or 
 tendon. The most convenient place for taking the pulse of the horse 
 is at the jaw. The external maxillary artery runs from between the 
 jaws, around the lower border of the jawbone and up on the outside 
 of the jawbone to the face. It is located immediately in front of the 
 heavy muscles of the cheek. Its throb can be felt most distinctly 
 just before it turns around the lower border of the jawbone. The 
 balls of the first and second or of the second and third fingers should 
 be pressed lightly on the skin over this artery when its pulsations are 
 to be studied. 
 
 The normal pulse of the healthy horse varies in frequency as 
 follows : 
 
 Stallion 28 to 32 beats per minute. 
 
 Gelding 33 to 38 beats per minute. 
 
 Mare 34 to 40 beats per minute. 
 
 Foal 2 to 3 years old 40 to 50 beats per minute. 
 
 Foal 6 to 12 months old 45 to 60 beats per minute. 
 
 Foal 2 to 4 weeks old 70 to 90 beats per minute. 
 
 The pulse is accelerated by the digestion of rich food, by hot 
 weather, exercise, excitement, and alarm. It is slightly more rapid 
 in the evening than it is in the morning. Well-bred horses have a 
 slightly more rapid pulse than sluggish, cold-blooded horses. The 
 pulse should be regular ; that is, the separate beats should follow each 
 other after intervals of equal length, and the beats should be of equal 
 fullness, or volume. 
 
 In disease, the pulse may become slower or more rapid than in 
 health. Slowing of the pulse may be caused by old age, great exhaus- 
 tion, or excessive cold. It may be due to depression of the central 
 nervous system, as in dumminess, or be the result of the administra- 
 tion of drugs, such as digitalis or strophantus. A rapid pulse is 
 almost always found in fever, and the more severe the infection and 
 the weaker the heart the more rapid is the pulse. Under these con- 
 ditions, the beats may rise to 80, 90, or even 120 per minute. When 
 the pulse is above 100 per minute the outlook for recovery is not 
 promising, and especially if this symptom accompanies high tempera-
 
 ](J DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ture or occurs late in tin infectious disease. In nearly all of the dis- 
 ranfii of the heart and in anemia the pulse becomes rapid. 
 
 The pulse is irregular in diseases of the heart, and especially where 
 the valves are affected. The irregularity may consist in varying inter- 
 vals between the beats or the dropping of one or more beats at regu- 
 lar or irregular intervals. The latter condition sometimes occurs in 
 chronic diseases of the brain. The pulse is said to be weak, or soft, 
 when the beats are indistinct, because little blood is forced through 
 the artery by each contraction of the heart. This condition occurs 
 when there is a constriction of the vessels leading from the heart and 
 it occurs in certain infectious and febrile diseases, and is an indication 
 of heart weakness. 
 
 In examining the heart itself it is necessary to recall that it lies in 
 the anterior portion of the chest slightly to the left of the median line 
 ami that it extends from the third to the sixth rib. It extends almost 
 to the breastbone, and a little more than half of the distance between 
 the breastbone and the backbone. In contracting, it rotates slightly 
 on its axis, so that the point of the heart, which lies below, is pressed 
 gainst the left chest wall at a place immediately above the point of 
 the elbow. The heart has in it four chambers two in the left and 
 two in the right side. The upper chamber of the left side (left auri- 
 cle) receives the blood as it comes from, the lungs, passes it to the 
 lower chamber of the left side (left ventricle), and from here it is sent 
 with great force (for this chamber has very strong, thick walls) 
 through the aorta and its branches (the arteries) to all parts of the 
 lx>dy. The blood returns through the veins to the upper chamber of 
 the right side (right auricle), passes then to the lower chamber of the 
 right side (right ventricle), and from this chamber is forced into the 
 lungs to be oxidi/ed. The openings between the chambers of each 
 side and into the aorta are guarded by valves. 
 
 I f the horse is not too fat, one may feel the impact of the apex of 
 
 the heart against the chest wall with each contraction of the heart by 
 
 placing the hand on the left side back of the fifth rib and above the 
 
 point of the elbow. The thinner and the better bred the horse is the 
 
 linrtly this impact is felt. If the animal is excited, or if he 
 
 : lj?n exercised, the impact is stronger than when the horse is 
 
 If the horse is weak, the impact is reduced in force. 
 
 Phe examination of the heart with the ear is an important matter in 
 
 is connection. Certain sounds are produced by each contraction of 
 
 mrnial heart. It is customary to divide these into two, and to 
 
 first and second sounds. These two sounds are heard 
 
 Isalion, and any deviation of the normal indicates some 
 
 structure or the functions of the heart. In making 
 
 ition, one may apply the left ear over the heavy muscles 
 
 back of the shoulder joint, and just above the point of
 
 EXAMINATION OF A SICK HOESE. 17 
 
 the elbow, or, if the sounds are hot heard distinctly, the left fore leg 
 may be drawn forward by an assistant and the right ear placed 
 against the lower portion of the chest wall that is exposed in this 
 manner. 
 
 The first sound of the heart occurs while the heart muscle is con- 
 tracting and while the blood is being forced from the heart and the 
 valves are rendered taut to prevent the return of the blood from the 
 lower to the upper chambers. The second sound follows quickly after 
 the first and occurs during rebound of blood in the arteries, caus- 
 ing pressure in the aorta and tensions of the valves guarding its open- 
 ing into the left ventricle. The first sound is of a high pitch and is 
 longer and more distinct than the second. Under the influence of 
 disease these sounds may be altered in various ways. It is not profit- 
 able, in a work such as this, to describe the details of these alterations. 
 Those who are interested will find this subject fully discussed in the 
 veterinary text-books. 
 
 TEMPERATURE. 
 
 The temperature of the horse is determined roughly by placing the 
 fingers in the mouth or between the thighs or by allowing the horse 
 to exhale against the cheek or back of the hand. In accurate examina- 
 tion, however, these means of determining temperature are not relied 
 upon, but recourse is had to the use of the -thermometer. The ther- 
 mometer used for taking the temperature of a horse is a self -register- 
 ing clinical thermometer, similar to that used by physicians, but 
 larger, being from 5 to 6 inches long. The temperature of the animal 
 is measured in the rectum. 
 
 The normal temperature of the horse varies somewhat under differ- 
 ent conditions. It is higher in the young animal than in the old, and 
 is higher in hot weather than in cold. The weather and exercise de- 
 cidedly influence the temperature physiologically. The normal tem- 
 perature varies from 99.5 to 101 F. If the temperature rises to 
 102.5 the horse is said to have a low fever; if the temperature reaches 
 104 the fever is moderate ; if it reaches 106 it is high, and above this 
 point it is regarded as very high. In some diseases, such as tetanus 
 or sunstroke, the temperature goes as high as 108 or 110. In the 
 ordinary infectious diseases it does not often exceed 106. A tem- 
 perature of 107.5 and above is very dangerous and must be reduced 
 promptly if the horse is to be saved. 
 
 THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 
 
 In examining this system of organs and their functions it is custom- 
 ary to begin by noting the frequency of the respiratory movements. 
 This point can be determined by observing the motions of the nostrils 
 or of the flanks; on a cold day one can see the condensation of the 
 moisture of the warm air as it comes from the lungs. The normal 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 2
 
 lg DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 rate of respiration for a healthy horte at rest is from 8 to 1C per min- 
 ute. The rate is faster in young animals than in old, and is increased 
 by work, hot weather, overfilling of the stomach, pregnancy, lying 
 upon the side, etc. Acceleration of the respiratory rate where no 
 physiological cause operates is due to a variety of conditions. Among 
 these is fever; restricted area of active lung tissue, from filling of por- 
 tions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia; com- 
 pression of the lungs or loss of elasticity; pain in the muscles con- 
 trolling the respiratory movements; excess of carbon dioxide in the 
 blood; and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs. 
 
 Difficult or labored respiration is known as dyspnea. It occurs 
 when it is difficult, for any reason, for the animal to obtain the 
 amount of oxygen that it requires. This may be due to filling of the 
 lungs, as in pneumonia ; to painful movements of the chest, as in rheu- 
 matism or pleurisy; to tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat, 
 swellings of the throat, foreign bodies, or weakness of the respiratory 
 passages, fluid in the chest cavity, adhesions between the lungs and 
 chest walls, loss of elasticity of the lungs, etc. Where the difficulty 
 is great the accessory muscles of respiration are brought into play. 
 In great dyspnea the horse stands with his front feet apart, with his 
 neck straight out, and his head extended upon his neck. The nostrils 
 re widely dilated, the face has an anxious expression, the eyeballs 
 protrude, the up-and-down motion of the larynx is aggravated, the 
 amplitude of the movement of the chest walls increased, and the 
 flank.s heave. 
 
 The expired air is of about the temperature of the body. It con- 
 tains considerable moisture, and it should come with equal force from 
 each nostril and should not have an unpleasant odor. If the stream 
 of air from one nostril is stronger than from the other, there is an in- 
 dication of an ol>structiori in a nasal chamber. If the air possesses a 
 h;nl odor, it is usually an indication of putrefaction of a tissue or 
 secret ion in some part of the respiratory tract. A bad odor is found 
 where there is necrosis of the bone in the nasal passages or in chronic 
 catarrh. An ulcerating tumor of the nose or throat may cause the 
 breath to have an offensive odor. The most offensive breath occurs 
 where there Ls necrosis, or gangrene, of the lungs. 
 
 In some diseases there is a discharge from the nose. In order to 
 determine the significance of the discharge it should be examined 
 closely. One should ascertain whether it comes from one or both 
 nostrils. If but from one nostril, it probably originates in the head. 
 The color hhould be noted. A thin, watery discharge may be com- 
 posed of serum, and it occurs in the earlier stages of coryza, or nasal 
 catarrh. An opalescent, slightly tinted discharge is composed of 
 mucus and indicates a little more severe irritation. If the discharge 
 is sticky and pus-like, a deeper difficulty or more advanced irritation
 
 EXAMINATION OP A SICK HORSE. 19 
 
 is indicated. If the discharge contains flakes and clumps of more or 
 less dried, agglutinated particles, it is probable that it originates 
 within a cavity of the head, as the sinuses or guttural pouches. The 
 discharge of glanders is of a peculiar sticky nature and adheres 
 tenaciously to the wings of the nostrils. The discharge of pneumonia 
 is of a somewhat red or reddish brown color, and, on this account, 
 has been described as a prune- juice discharge. The discharge may 
 contain blood. If the blood appears as clots or as streaks in the dis- 
 charge, it probably originates at some point in the upper part of the 
 respiratory tract. If the blood is in the form of a fine froth, it comes 
 from the lungs. 
 
 In examining the interior of the nasal passage one should remem- 
 ber that the normal color of the mucous membrane is a rosy pink and 
 that its surface is smooth. If ulcers, nodules, swellings, or tumors 
 are found, these indicate disease. The ulcer that is characteristic of 
 glanders, is described fully in connection with the discussion of that 
 disease. 
 
 Between the lower jaws there are several clusters of lympathic 
 glands. These glands are so small and so soft that it is difficult to 
 find them by feeling through the skin, but when a suppurative dis- 
 ease exists in the upper part of the respiratory tract these glands 
 become swollen and easy to feel. They may become soft and break 
 down and discharge as abscesses; this is seen constantly in strangles. 
 On the other hand, they may become indurated and hard from the 
 proliferation of connective tissue and attach themselves to the jaw- 
 bone, to the tongue, or to the skin. This is seen in chronic glanders. 
 If the glands are swollen and tender to pressure, it indicates that the 
 disease causing the enlargement is acute; if they are hard and insen- 
 sitive, the disease causing the enlargement is chronic. 
 
 The manner in which the horse coughs is of importance in diagno- 
 sis. The cough is a forced expiration, following immediately upon a 
 forcible separation of the vocal cords. The purpose of the cough is 
 to remove some irritant substance from the respiratory passages, and 
 it occurs when irritant gases, such as smoke, ammonia, sulphur vapor, 
 or dust, have been inhaled. It occurs from inhalation of cold air if 
 the respiratory passages are sensitive from disease. In laryngitis, 
 bronchitis, and pneumonia, cough is very easily excited and occurs 
 merely from accumulation of mucus and inflammatory product upon 
 the irritated respiratory mucous membrane. If one wishes to deter- 
 mine the character of the cough, it can easily be excited by pressing 
 upon the larynx with the thumb and finger. The larynx should be 
 pressed from side to side and the pressure removed the moment the 
 horse commences to cough. A painful cough occurs in pleurisy, also 
 in laryngitis, bronchitis, and bronchial pneumonia. Pain is shown 
 by the effort the animal exerts to repress the cough. The cough is 
 not painful, as a rule, in the chronic diseases of the respiratory tract.
 
 20 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The force of the cough is considerable when it is not especially pain- 
 ful and when the lungs are not seriously involved. When the lungs 
 are so diseased that they can not be filled with a large volume of nir, 
 and in heaves, the cough is weak, as it is also in weak, debilitated 
 animals. If mucus or pus is coughed out, or if the cough is accom- 
 panied by a gurgling sound, it is said to be moist; it is dry when 
 these characteristics are not present that is, when the air in passing 
 out passes over surface not loaded with secretion. 
 
 In the examination of the chest we resort to percussion and aus- 
 cultation. When a cask or other structure containing air is tapped 
 upon, or percussed, a hollow sound is given forth. If the cask con- 
 tains fluid, the sound is of a dull and of quite a different character. 
 Similarly, the amount of air contained in the lungs can be estimated 
 by tapping upon, or percussing, the walls of the chest. Percussion is 
 practiced with the fingers alone or with the aid of a special percussion 
 hammer and an object to strike upon known as a pleximeter. If the 
 fingers are used, the middle finger of the loft hand should be pressed 
 firmly against the side of the horse and should be struck with the 
 ends of the fingers of the right hand bent at a right angle so as to 
 form a hammer. The percussion hammer sold by instrument makers 
 is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter, 
 which is placed against the side, is struck the impact will not bo 
 accompanied by a noise. After experience in this method of exami- 
 nation one can determine with a considerable' degree of accuracy 
 whether the lung contains a normal amount of air or not. If, as in 
 pneumonia, air has been displaced by inflammatory product occupy- 
 ing the air space, or if fluid collects in the lower part of the chest, 
 the percussion sound becomes dull. If, as in emphysema or in pneu- 
 mothorax, there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, the percussion 
 round becomes abnormally loud and clear. 
 
 Auscultation consists in the examination of the lungs with the ear 
 applied closely to the chest wall. As the air goes in and out of the 
 lungs a certain soft sound is made which can IK* heard distinctly, 
 especially upon inspiration. This sound is intensified by anything 
 that accelerates the rate of respiration, such as exercise. This soft, 
 rustling sound is known as vesicular murmur, and wherever it is 
 heard it signifies that the lung contains air and is functionally active. 
 The vesicular murmur is weakened when there is an inflammatory 
 infiltration of the lung tissue or when the lungs are compressed lv 
 fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur disappears when air 
 IS excluded by the accumulation of inflammatory product, as in pneu- 
 monia, and when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest 
 cavity. The vesicular murmur becomes rough and harsh in the early 
 .stages of inflammation of the lungs, and this is often the first sign of 
 the beginning of pneumonia.
 
 EXAMINATION OP A SICK HORSE. 21 
 
 By applying the ear over the lower part of the windpipe in front of 
 the breastbone a somewhat harsh, blowing sound may be heard. This 
 is known as the bronchial murmur and is heard in normal conditions 
 near the lower part of the trachea and to a limited extent in the ante- 
 rior portions of the lungs after sharp exercise. When the bronchial 
 murmur is heard over other portions of the lungs, it may signify that 
 the lungs are more or less solidified by disease and the blowing bron- 
 chial murmur is transmitted through this solid lung to the ear from a 
 distant part of the chest. The bronchial murmur in an abnormal 
 place signifies that there exists pneumonia or that the lungs are com- 
 pressed by fluid in the chest cavity. 
 
 Additional sounds are heard in the lungs in some diseased condi- 
 tions. For example, when fluid collects in the air passages and the 
 air is forced through it or is caused to pass through tubes containing 
 secretions or pus. Such sounds are of a gurgling or bubbling nature 
 and are known as mucous rales. Mucous rales are spoken of as being 
 large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the 
 quantity of fluid that is present and the size of the tube in which this 
 sound is produced. Mucous rales occur in pneumonia after the solid- 
 ified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease. They occur 
 in bronchitis and in tuberculosis, where there is an excess of secretion. 
 
 Sometimes a shrill sound is heard, like the note of a whistle, fife, or 
 flute. This is due to a dry constriction of the bronchial tubes and it 
 is heard in chronic bronchitis and in tuberculosis. 
 
 A friction sound is heard in pleurisy. This is due to the rubbing 
 together of roughened surfaces, and the sound produced is similar 
 to a dry rubbing sound that is caused by rubbing the hands together 
 or by rubbing upon each other two dry, rough pieces of leather. 
 
 THE EXAMINATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT. 
 
 The first point in connection with the examination of the organs of 
 digestion is the appetite and the manner of taking food and drink. A 
 healthy animal has a good appetite. Loss of appetite does not point 
 to a special diseased condition, but comes from a variety of causes. 
 Some of these causes, indeed, may be looked upon as being physio- 
 logical. Excitement, strange surroundings, fatigue, and hot weather 
 may all cause loss of appetite. Where there is cerebral depression, 
 fever, profound weakness, disorder of the stomach, or mechanical 
 difficulty in chewing or swallowing, the appetite is diminished or 
 destroyed. Sometimes there is an appetite or desire to eat abnormal 
 things, such as dirty bedding, roots of grass, soil, etc. This desire 
 usually comes from a chronic disturbance of nutrition. 
 
 Thirst is diminished in a good many mild diseases unaccompanied 
 by distinct fever. It is seen where there is great exhaustion or depres- 
 sion or profound brain disturbance. Thirst is increased after pro-
 
 J_> DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 fuse sweating, in diabetes, diarrhea, in fever, at the crisis of infec- 
 tious diseases, and when the mouth is dry and hot. 
 
 Some diseases of the mouth or throat make it difficult for the horse 
 to chew or swallow his food. Where difficulty in this respect is expe- 
 rienced, the following-named conditions should be borne in mind and 
 carefully looked for: Diseases of the teeth, consisting in decay, frac- 
 ture, abscess formation, or overgrowth ; inflammatory conditions, or 
 wounds or tumors of the tongue, cheeks, or lips ; paralysis of the mus- 
 cles of chewing or swallowing; foreign bodies in upper part of the 
 mouth between the molar teeth; inflammation of throat. Difficulty 
 in swallowing is sometimes shown by the symptom known as " quid- 
 ding." Quidding consists in dropping from the mouth well-chewed 
 and insalivated boluses of food. A mouthful of hay, for example, 
 after being ground and masticated, is carried to the back part of the 
 mouth. The horse then finds that from tenderness of the throat, or 
 from some other cause, swallowing is difficult or painful, and the 
 bolus is then dropped from the mouth. Another quantity of hay is 
 similarly prepared, only to be dropped in turn. Sometimes quidding 
 is due to a painful tooth, the bolus being dropped from the mouth 
 when the tooth is struck and during the pang that follows. Quid- 
 ding may be practiced so persistently that a considerable pile of 
 boluses of food accumulate in the manger or on the floor of the stall. 
 In pharyngitis one of the symptoms is a return through the nose of 
 fluid that the horse attempts to swallow. 
 
 ! some brain diseases, and particularly in chronic internal hydro- 
 cephalus, the horse has a most peculiar manner of swallowing and of 
 taking food. A similar condition is seen in hyperemia of the brain. 
 In eating the horse will sink his muzzle into the grain in the feed 
 box and eat for a while without raising the head. Long pauses are 
 made while the food is in the mouth. Sometimes the horse will eat 
 very rapidly for a little while and then slowly; the jaws may be 
 brought together so forcibly that the teeth gnash. In eating hay 
 the horse will stop at times with hay protruding from the mouth and 
 Maud stupidly, as though he has forgotten what he was about. 
 
 In examining the mouth one should first look for swellings or for 
 evidence of abnormal conditions upon the exterior; that is, the front 
 and Hides of the face, the jaws, and about the muzzle. By this means 
 wounds, fractures, tumors, abscesses, and disease accompanied by 
 eruptions about the muzzle may be detected. The interior of the 
 mouth is examined by holding the head up and inserting the fingers 
 through the interdental space in such a way as to cause the mouth to 
 open. The mucous membrane should l>e clean and of a light-pink 
 color, excepting on the back of the tongue, where the color is a yel- 
 lowish gray. As abnormalities of this region, the chief are diffuse 
 inflammation, characterized by redness and catarrhal discharge ; local
 
 EXAMINATION OP A SICK HORSE. 23 
 
 inflammation, as from eruptions, ulcers, or wounds; necrosis of the 
 lower jawbone in front of the first back tooth; and swellings. For- 
 eign bodies are sometimes found embedded in the mucous membrane 
 lining of the mouth or lodged between the teeth. 
 
 The examination of the pharynx and of the esophagus is made 
 chiefly by pressing upon the skin covering these organs in the region 
 of the throat and along the left side of the neck in the jugular gutter. 
 Sometimes, when a more careful examination is necessary, an esoph- 
 ageal tube or probang is passed through the nose or mouth down the 
 esophagus to the stomach. 
 
 Vomiting is an act consisting in the expulsion of all or part of the 
 contents of the stomach through the mouth or nose. This act is more 
 difficult for the horse than for most of the other domestic animals, 
 because the stomach of the horse is small and does not lie on the floor 
 of the abdominal cavity, so that the abdominal walls in contracting do 
 not bring pressure to bear upon it so directly and forcibly, as is the 
 case in many other animals. Beside this, there is a loose fold of 
 mucous membrane at the point where the esophagus enters the stom- 
 ach, and this forms a sort of valve which does not interfere with the 
 passage of food into the stomach, but does interfere with the exit of 
 food through the esophageal opening. Still, vomiting is a symptom 
 that is occasionally seen in the horse. It occurs when the stomach is 
 very much distended with food or with gas. Distention stretches the 
 mucous membrane and eradicates the valvular fold referred to, and 
 also makes it possible for more pressure to be exerted upon the stom- 
 ach through the contraction of the abdominal muscles. Since the 
 distention to permit vomiting must be extreme, it not infrequently 
 happens that it leads to rupture of the stomach walls. This has 
 caused the impression in the minds of some that vomiting can not 
 occur in the horse without rupture of the stomach, but this is incor- 
 rect, since many horses vomit and afterwards become entirely sound. 
 Ajlter rupture of the stomach has occurred vomiting is impossible. 
 
 In examination of the abdomen one should remember that its size 
 depends largely upon the breed, sex, and conformation of the animal, 
 and also upon the manner in which the animal has been fed and the 
 use to which it has been put. A pendulous abdomen may be the result 
 of an abdominal tumor or of an accumulation of fluid in the abdom- 
 inal cavity; or, on the other hand, it may merely be an indication 
 of pregnancy, or of the fact that the horse has been fed for a long 
 time on bulky and innutritious food. Pendulous abdomen occurring 
 in a work horse kept on a concentrated diet is an abnormal condi- 
 tion. The abdomen may increase suddenly in volume from accu- 
 mulation of gas in tympanic colic. The abdomen becomes small and 
 the horse is said to be " tucked up " from long-continued poor appe- 
 tite, as in diseases of the digestive tract and in fever. This condi-
 
 24 DISEASES OF THE HOB8B. 
 
 lion also occurs in tetanus from the contraction of the abdominal 
 walls and in diarrhea from emptiness. 
 
 In applying the ear to the flank, on either the right or left side, 
 certain bubbling sounds may be heard that are known as peristaltic 
 sounds, because they are produced by peristalsis, or wormlike con- 
 traction of the intestines. These sounds are a little louder on the 
 right side than on the left on account of the fact that the large intes- 
 tines lie in the right flank. Absence of peristaltic sounds is always an 
 indication of disease, and suggests exhaustion or paralysis of the 
 intestines. This may occur in certain kinds of colic and is an un- 
 favorable symptom. Increased sounds are heard where the intes- 
 tfnm are contracted more violently than in health, as in spasmodic 
 colic, and also where there is an excess of fluid or gas in the intestinal 
 canal. 
 
 The feces show, to a certain extent, the thoroughness of digestion. 
 They should show that the food has been well ground, and should, in 
 the horse, be free from offensive odor or coatings of mucus. A coat- 
 ing of mucus shows intestinal catarrh. Blood on the feces indicates 
 severe inflammation. Very light color and bad odor may come from 
 inactive liver. Parasites are sometimes in the dung. 
 
 Rectal examination consists in examination of the organs of the 
 pelvic cavity and posterior portion of the abdominal cavity by the 
 hand inserted into the rectum. This examination should be attempted 
 by a veterinarian only, and is useless except to one who has a good 
 knowledge of the anatomy of the parts concerned. 
 
 THK EXAMINATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 The groat brain, or cerebrum, is the seat of intelligence, and it con- 
 tains the centers that control motion in many parts of the body. 
 The front |M>rtion of the brain is believed to be the region that is most 
 important in governing the intelligence. The central and posterior 
 portion* of the cerebrum contain the centers for the voluntary motions 
 of the face and of the front and hind legs. The growth of a tumor or 
 an inflammatory change in the region of a center governing the 
 motion of a certain part of the body has the effect of disturbing 
 motion in that part by causing excessive contraction known as cramps, 
 or inability of the muscles to contract, constituting the condition 
 known as paralysis. The nerve paths from the cerebrum, and hence 
 from the**- centers to the spinal cord and thence to the muscles, pans 
 beneath the small brain, or the cerebellum, and through the medulla 
 oblongata to the spinal cord. Interference with these paths has the 
 effect of disturbing motion of the parts reached by them. If all of 
 the paths on one side are interfered with, the result is paralysis of one 
 side of the Ixxly. 
 
 The small brain, or cerebellum, governs the regularity, or coordi-
 
 EXAMINATION OP A SICK HORSE. 25 
 
 nation, of movements. Disturbances of the cerebellum cause a totter- 
 ing, uncertain gait. In the medulla oblongata, which lies between the 
 spinal cord and the cerebellum, are the centers governing the circula- 
 tion and breathing. 
 
 The spinal cord carries sensory messages to the brain and motor 
 impressions from the brain. The anterior portions of the cord con- 
 tain the motor paths, and the posterior portions of the cord contain 
 the sensory paths. 
 
 Paralysis of a single member or a single group of muscles is known 
 as monoplegia and results from injury to the motor center or to a 
 nerve trunk leading to the part that is involved. Paralysis of one- 
 half of the body is known as hemiplegia and results from destruction 
 or severe disturbances of the cerebral hemisphere of the opposite side 
 of the body or from interference with nerve paths between the cere- 
 bellum, or small brain, and the spinal cord. Paralysis of the poste- 
 rior half of the body is known as paraplegia and results from de- 
 rangement of the spinal cord. If the cord is pressed upon, cut, or 
 injured, messages can not be transmitted beyond that point, and so the 
 posterior part becomes paralyzed. This is seen when the back is 
 fractured. 
 
 Abnormal mental excitement may be due to congestion of the brain 
 or to inflammation. The animal so afflicted becomes vicious, pays no 
 attention to commands, cries, runs about in a circle, stamps with the 
 feet, strikes, kicks, etc. This condition is usually followed by a dull, 
 stupid state, in which the animal stands with his head down, dull and 
 irresponsive to external stimuli. Cerebral depression also occurs in 
 the severe febrile infectious diseases, in chronic hydrocephalus, in 
 chronic diseases of the liver, in poisoning with a narcotic substance, 
 and with chronic catarrh of the stomach and intestines. 
 
 Fainting is a symptom that is not often seen in horses. When it 
 occurs it is shown by unsteadiness of gait, tottering, and, finally, in- 
 ability to stand. The cause usually lies in a defect of the small brain, 
 or cerebellum. This defect may be merely in respect of the blood 
 supply, to congestion, or to anemia, and in this case it is likely to pass 
 away and may never return, or it may be due to some permanent 
 cause, as a tumor or an abscess, or it may result from a hemorrhage, 
 from a defect of the valves of the heart, or from poisoning. 
 
 Loss of consciousness is known as coma. It is caused by hemor- 
 rhage in the brain, by profound exhaustion, or may result from a 
 saturation of the system with the poison of some disease. Coma may 
 follow upon cerebral depression, which occurs as a secondary state 
 of inflammation of the brain. 
 
 Where the sensibility of a part is increased the condition is known 
 as hyperesthesia, and where it is lost that is, where there is no feel- 
 ing or knowledge of pain the condition is known as anesthesia. The
 
 26 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 former usually accompanies some chronic diseases of the spinal cord 
 or the earlier stages of irritation of a nerve trunk. Hyperesthesia is 
 difficult to detect in a nervous, irritable animal, and sometimes even 
 in a horse of less sensitive temperament. An irritable, sensitive spot 
 may be found surrounded by skin that is not sensitive to pressure. 
 This is sometimes a symptom of beginning of inflammation of the 
 brain. Anesthesia occurs in connection with cerebral and spinal 
 paralysis, section of a nerve trunk leading to a part, in severe mental 
 depression, and in narcotic poisoning. 
 
 URINARY AND SEXUAL ORGANS. 
 
 In considering the examination of the urinary and sexual organs 
 we may consider, at the beginning, a false impression that prevails to 
 an astonishing extent. Many horsemen are in the habit of pressing 
 upon the back of a horse over the loins or of sliding the ends of the 
 fingers along on either side of the median line of this region. If the 
 horse depresses his back it is at once said " his kidneys are weak." 
 Nothing could be more absurd or further from the truth. Any 
 healthy horse any horse with normal sensation and with a normally 
 flexible back will cause it to sink when manipulated in this way. If 
 the kidneys are inflamed and sensitive, the back is held more rigidly 
 and is not depressed under this pressure. 
 
 To examine the kidneys by pressure the pressure should be brought 
 to bear over these organs. The kidneys lie beneath the ends of the 
 transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins and beneath the hind- 
 most ribs. If the kidneys are actually inflamed and especially sensi- 
 tive, pressure or light blows applied here may cause the horse to 
 shrink. 
 
 The physical examination of the sexual and generative organs is 
 made in large part through the rectum, and this portion of the exami- 
 nation should be carried out by a veterinarian only. By this means 
 it is possible to discover or locate cysts of the kidneys, urinary 
 calculi in the ureters, bladder, or upper urethra, malformations, and 
 acute inflammations accompanied by pain. The external genital 
 organs are swollen, discolored, or show a discharge as a result of 
 local disease or from disease higher in the tract. 
 
 The manner of urinating is sometimes of considerable diagnostic 
 importance. Painful urination is shown by frequent attempts, dur- 
 ing which but a small quantity of urine is passed; by groaning, by 
 constrained attitude, etc. This condition comes from inflammation 
 of the bladder or urethra, urinary calculi (stones of the bladder or 
 urethra), hemorrhage, tumors, bruises, etc. The urine is retained 
 from spasms of the muscle at the neck of the bladder, from calculi, 
 inflammatory growths, tumors, and paralysis of the bladder. 
 
 The urine dribbles without control when the neck of the bladder 
 is weakened or paralyzed. This condition is seen after the bladder is
 
 EXAMINATION OP A SICK HORSE. 27 
 
 weakened from long-continued retention and where there is a partial 
 paralysis of the hind quarters. 
 
 Horses usually void urine five to seven times a day, and pass from 4 
 to 7 quarts. Disease may be shown by increase in the number of 
 voidings or of the quantity. Frequent urination indicates an irri- 
 table or painful condition of the bladder or urethra or that the quan- 
 tity is excessive. In one form of chronic inflammation of the kidneys 
 (interstitial nephritis) and in polyuria the quantity may be increased 
 to 20 or 30 quarts daily. Diminution in the quantity of urine comes 
 from profuse sweating, diarrhea, high fever, weak heart, diseased and 
 nonsecreting kidneys, or an obstruction to the flow. 
 
 The urine of the healthy horse is a pale or at times a slightly red- 
 dish yellow. The color is less intense when the quantity is large, and 
 is more intense when the quantity is diminished. Dark -brown urine 
 is seen in azoturia and in severe acute muscular rheumatism. A 
 brownish-green color is seen in jaundice. Red color indicates admix- 
 ture of blood from a bleeding point at some part of the urinary tract, 
 usually in the kidneys. 
 
 The urine of the healthy horse is not clear and transparent. It 
 contains mucus, which causes it to be slightly thick and stringy, and 
 a certain amount of undissolved carbonates, causing it to be cloudy. 
 A sediment collects when the urine is allowed to stand. The urine of 
 the horse is normally alkaline. If it becomes acid the bodies in sus- 
 pension are dissolved and the urine is made clear. The urine may be 
 unusually cloudy from the addition of abnormal constituents, but to 
 determine their character a chemical or microscopic examination is 
 necessary. Red or reddish flakes or clumps in the urine are always 
 abnormal, and denote a hemorrhage or suppuration in the urinary 
 tract. 
 
 The normal specific gravity of the urine of the horse is about 1.040. 
 It is increased when the urine is scanty and decreased when the 
 quantity is excessive. 
 
 Acid reaction of the urine occurs in chronic intestinal catarrh, in 
 high fever, and during starvation. Chemical and microscopic tests 
 and examinations are often of great importance in diagnosis, but 
 require special apparatus and skill. 
 
 Other points in the examination of a sick horse require more discus- 
 sion than can be afforded in this connection, and require special train- 
 ing on the part of the examiner. Among such points may be men- 
 tioned the examination of the prgans of special sense, the examination 
 of the blood, the microscopic examination of the secretions and excre- 
 tions, bacteriological examinations of the secretions, excretions, and 
 tissues, specific reaction tests, and diagnostic inoculation.
 
 METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 
 
 By On. B. MICHENER, V. S. 
 [KerlMd In 19O3 by Leonard 1'earson, B. 8., V. M. D.] 
 
 Medicine may enter the body through any of the following desig- 
 nated channels: First, by the mouth; second, by the air passages; 
 third, by the skin ; fourth, by the tissue beneath the skin (hypodermic 
 methods) ; fifth, by the rectum; sixth, by the genito-urinary passages; 
 and, seventh, by the blood (intravenous injections). 
 
 (1) BY TIIK MOUTH. Medicines can be given by the mouth in the 
 form of solids, as powders or pills; liquids, and pastes, or electuaries. 
 
 Solids administered as powders should be as finely pulverized as 
 possible, in order to secure rapid solution and absorption. Their 
 action is in this way facilitated and intensified. Powders must be 
 free from any irritant or caustic action upon the mouth. Those that 
 are without any disagreeable taste or smell are readily eaten with the 
 fowl or taken in the drinking water. When placed with the feed they 
 should first be dissolved or suspended in water and thus sprinkled on 
 the feed. If mixed dry the horse will often leave the medicine in 
 the bottom of his manger. Nonirritant powders may be given in 
 capsules, as balls are given. 
 
 Pill. or "ball*? when properly made, are cylindrical in shape, 2 
 inches in length and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. 
 They should be fresh, but if necessary to keep them some time they 
 should be made up with glycerin, or some such agent, to prevent 
 their becoming too hard. Very old, hard balls are sometimes passed 
 whole with the manure without being acted upon at all. Paper is 
 sometimes wrapped around balls when given, if they are so sticky as 
 to adhere to the fingers or the balling gun. Paper used for this pur- 
 pose should be thin but firm, as the tougher tissue paj)ers. Balls are 
 preferred to drenches when the medicine is extremely disagreeable or 
 nauseating; when the dose is not too large; when the horse is difficult 
 to drench; or when the medicine is intended to act slowly. Certain 
 medicines can not or should not be made into balls, as medicines 
 requiring to be given in large doses, oils, caustic substances, unless in 
 small dose and diluted and thoroughly mixed with the vehicle, deli- 
 quescent, or efflorescent salts. Substances suitable for balls can be 
 made up by the addition of honey, sirup, soap, etc., when required 
 .-
 
 METHODS OF ADMINISTEEING MEDICINES. 29 
 
 for immediate use. Gelatin capsules of different sizes are now obtain- 
 able and are a convenient means of giving medicines in ball form. 
 
 Liquids may be given as drenches when the dose is large, or they 
 may, when but a small quantity is administered, be injected into the 
 mouth with a hard-rubber syringe or be poured upon the tongue from 
 a small phial. 
 
 Pastes, or electuaries, are medicines mixed with licorice-root pow- 
 der, ground flaxseed, molasses, or sirup to the consistency of honey, or 
 a " soft solid." They are intended, chiefly, to act locally upon the 
 mouth and throat. They are given by being spread upon the tongue, 
 gums, or teeth with a wooden paddle or strong long-handled spoon. 
 
 When balls are to be given we should observe the following direc- 
 tions: In shape they should be cylindrical, of the size above men- 
 tioned, and soft enough to be easily compressed by the fingers. If 
 made round or egg-shaped, if too long or too hard, they are liable to 
 become fixed in the gullet and cause choking. Balls may be given 
 with the " balling gun " (obtainable at any veterinary instrument 
 maker's) or by the hand. If given by the hand a mouth speculum or 
 gag may be used to prevent the animal from biting the hand or crush- 
 ing the ball.' Always loosen the horse before attempting to give a 
 ball; if tied he may break his halter and injure himself or the one 
 giving the ball. With a little practice it is much easier to give a ball 
 without the mouth gag, as the horse always fights more or less against 
 having his mouth forced open. The tongue must be firmly grasped 
 with the left hand and gently pulled forward ; the ball, slightly moist- 
 ened, is then to be placed with the tips of the fingers of the right hand 
 as far back into the mouth as possible ; as the tongue is. loosened it is 
 drawn back into the mouth and carries the ball backward with it. 
 The mouth should be kept closed for a minute or two. We should 
 always have a pail of water at hand to offer the horse after 'balling. 
 This precaution will often prevent him from coughing out the ball or 
 its becoming lodged in the gullet. 
 
 It is, very often, impossible to get balls properly made, or to induce 
 owners or attendants to attempt to give them, and for these reasons 
 medicines by the mouth are mostly given in the form of liquids. 
 When medicine is to be given as a drench we must be careful to use 
 enough water or oil to dissolve or dilute it thoroughly ; more than this 
 makes the drench bulky and is unnecesary. -Insoluble medicines, if 
 not irritant or corrosive, may be given simply suspended in water, 
 the bottle to be well shaken immediately before giving the drench. 
 The bottle used for drenching purposes should be clean, strong, and 
 smooth about its neck ; it should be without shoulders, tapering, and 
 of a size to suit the amount' to be given. A horn or tin bottle may be 
 better, because they are not so easily broken by the teeth. If the dose 
 is a small one the horse's head may be held up by the left hand, while
 
 30 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the medicine is poured into the mouth by the right. The left thumb 
 is to be placed in the angle of the lower jaw, and the fingers spread 
 out in such a manner as to support the lower lip. Should the dose 
 be large, the horse ugly, or the attendant unable to support the head 
 as directed above, the head is then to be held up by running the tines 
 of a long-handled wooden fork under the noseband of the halter or 
 the halter strap or a rope may be fastened to the noseband and thrown 
 over a limb, beam, or through a pulley suspended from the ceiling. 
 Another way of supporting the head is to place a loop in the end of a 
 rope, and introduce this loop into the mouth just behind the upper 
 front teeth or tusks of the upper jaw, the free end to be run through 
 a pulley, as before described, and held by an assistant. It is never to 
 be fastened, as the horse might in that case do himself serious injury. 
 The head is to be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from 
 throwing the liquid out of his mouth. The line of the face should be 
 horizontal, or only the least bit higher. If the head is drawn too high 
 the animal can not swallow with ease or even with safety. (If this is 
 doubted, just fill your mouth with water, throw back the head as far 
 as possible, and then try to swallow.) The person giving the drench 
 should stand on some object in order to reach the horse's mouth on 
 a level, or a little above it The bottle or horn is then to be intro- 
 duced at the side of the mouth, in front of the molar teeth, in an 
 upward direction. This will cause the horse to open his mouth, when 
 the base of the bottle is to be elevated, and about 4 ounces of the 
 liquid allowed to escape on the tongue as far back as possible, care 
 being taken not to get the neck of the bottle between the back teeth. 
 The bottle is to be immediately removed, and if the horse does not 
 swallow this can be encouraged by rubbing the fingers or neck of the 
 bottle against the roof of the mouth, occasionally removing them. 
 As soon as this is swallowed repeat the operation until he has taken 
 all the drench. If coughing occurs, or if, by any mishap, the bottle 
 should I* crushed in the mouth, lower the head immediately. 
 
 Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat nor draw out the tongue 
 when giving a drench. These processes in no way aid the horse to 
 swallow and of toner do harm than good. In drenching, swallowing 
 may be hastened by pouring into the nose of the horse, while the head 
 is high, a few teaspoon fuls of clean water, but drenches must never le 
 ffoen through the nose. Large quantities of medicine given by pour- 
 ing into the nose are liable to strangle the animal, or, if the medicine 
 is irritating, it sets up an inflammation of the nose, fauces, windpipe, 
 and sometimes the lungs. 
 
 Cattle are easily drenched by holding them by the nose with the 
 left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth with the right, 
 Balls are not to be given to cattle, for they are likely to become
 
 METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 31 
 
 embedded in the great mass of food in the stomach and act tardily if 
 at all. 
 
 (2) Medicines are administered to the lungs and upper air passages 
 by insufflation, inhalation, injection, and nasal douche. 
 
 Insufflation consists of blowing an impalpable powder directly into 
 the nose. It is but rarely resorted to. 
 
 Gaseous and volatile medicines are given by inhalation, as is also 
 medicated steam, or vapor. Of the gases used there may be men- 
 tioned, as the chief ones, sulphurous acid gas and, occasionally, chlo- 
 rine. The animal or animals are to be placed in a tight room, where 
 these gases are generated until the atmosphere is sufficiently impreg- 
 nated with them. Volatile medicines as the anesthetics (ether, chlo- 
 roform, etc.) are to be given by the attending surgeon only. Medi- 
 cated vapors are to be inhaled by placing a bucket containing hot 
 water, vinegar and water, scalded hay or bran, to which carbolic acid, 
 iodine, creolin, compound tincture of benzoin, or other medicines 
 have been added, in the bottom of a long grain bag. The horse's nose 
 is to be inserted into the top of the bag, and he thus inhales the 
 " medicated steam." Care must be taken not to have this hot enough 
 to scald the animal. The vapor from scalding bran or hay is often 
 thus inhaled to favor discharges in sore throat or " distemper." 
 
 Injections are made into the trachea by means of a hypodermic 
 syringe. This method of medication is used for the purpose of treat- 
 ing local diseases of the trachea and upper bronchial tubes. It has 
 also been used as a mode of administering remedies for their constitu- 
 tional effect, but is now rarely used for this purpose. 
 
 The nasal douche is employed by the veterinarian in treating some 
 local diseases of the nasal chambers. Special appliances and profes- 
 sional knowledge are necessary when using liquid medicines by this 
 method. It is not often resorted to, even by veterinary surgeons, 
 since, as a rule, the horse objects very strongly to this mode of medi- 
 cation. 
 
 (3) BY THE SKIN. Medicines are often administered to our hair- 
 covered animals by the skin, yet care must be taken in applying some 
 medicines as tobacco water, carbolic-acid solutions, strong creolin 
 solutions, mercurial ointment, etc. over the entire body, as poison- 
 ing and death follow in some instances from absorption through the 
 skin. For the same reasons care must also be exercised and poisonous 
 medicines not applied over very large raw or abraded surfaces. With 
 domestic animals medicines are only to be applied by the skin to allay 
 local pain or cure local disease. 
 
 (4) BY THE TISSUE BENEATH THE SKIN (HYPODERMATIC METHOD). 
 
 Medicines are frequently given by the hypodermic syringe under the 
 skin. It is not safe for any but medical or veterinary practitioners
 
 32 DISEASES OF THE HORSE 
 
 to use this form of medication, since the medicines thus given are pow- 
 erful poisons. There are many precautions to be observed, and a 
 knowledge of anatomy is indispensable. One of the chief precautions 
 has to do with the sterilization of the syringe. If it is not sterile an 
 .,'!,-. , . !; ,.i\ !- produced. 
 
 (5) BY TiiK RECTI-M. Medicines may be given by the rectum when 
 they can not be given by the mouth, or when they are not retained in 
 the stomach: when we want a local action on the last gut ; when it is 
 desired to destroy the small worms infesting the large bowels or to 
 stimulate the peristaltic motion of the intestines and cause evacuation. 
 Medicines are in such cases given in the form of suppositories or as 
 liquid injections (enemas). Foods may also be given in this way. 
 
 Suppotitories are conical bodies made up of oil of theobroma and 
 opium (or whatever medicine is indicated in special cases), and are 
 introduced into the rectum or vagina to allay irritation and pain of 
 these parts. They are not much used in treating horses. 
 
 Enema*) when given for absorption, should be small in quantity, 
 neutral or slightly acid in reaction, and of a temperature of from 90 
 to 100 F. These, like foods given by the rectum, should be intro- 
 duced only after the last bowel has been emptied by the hand or by 
 copious injections of tepid water. Enemas, or clysters, if to aid the 
 action of physics, should be in quantities sufficient to distend the 
 bowel and cause the animal to eject them. Simple water, salt and 
 water, or soap and water, in quantities of a gallon or more, may be 
 given every half hour. It is best that the horse retain them for some 
 little time, as the liquid serves to moisten the dung and favor a pas- 
 sage. Stimulating enema*, as glycerin, should be administered after 
 those already mentioned have emptied the last bowel, with the pur- 
 pow of still further increasing the natural motion of the intestines 
 and aiding the purging medicine. 
 
 Liquids may be thrown into the rectum by the means of a lar^e 
 syringe or a pump. A very good " irrigator " can lx i bought of any 
 tinsmith at a trifling cost, and should lx constantly at hand on every 
 stork farm. It consists of a funnel alwut fi inches deep and 7 inches 
 in diameter, which is to be furnished with a prolongation to which a 
 pieor of rubber hose, such as small garden hose, 4 feet long may bo 
 attached. The hose, well oiled, is to IK; inserted gently into the rec- 
 tum about 2 feet. The liquid to be injected may then be poured in 
 the funnel and the pressure of the atmosphere will force it into the 
 bowels. This appliance is better than the more complicated and 
 expensive ones. 
 
 Ordinary cold water or even ice-cold water is highly recommended 
 by many as a rectal injection for horses overcome by the excessive 
 heat of summer, and may be given by this simple pipe.
 
 METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 33 
 
 (6) BY THE GENITO-URINARY PASSAGES. This method of medication 
 is especially useful in treating local diseases of the genito-urinary 
 organs. It finds its chief application in the injection and cleansing 
 of the uterus and vagina. For this purpose a large syringe or the 
 irrigator described above may be used. 
 
 (7) BY THE BLOOD. Injections directly into veins are to be prac- 
 ticed by medical or veterinary practitioners only, as are probably 
 some other means of giving medicines intratracheal injections, etc. 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 3
 
 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 By CH. B. MICHENER, V. S. 
 [Revised In 1003 by Leonard Pearson, B. 8., V. M. !>.] 
 
 It will not prove an easy task to write " a plain account of the 
 common diseases, with directions for preventive measures, hygienic 
 care, and the simpler forms of medical treatment," of the digestive 
 organs of the horse. This study includes a careful consideration of 
 the food and drink of our animals, their quality, quantity, analyses, 
 etc. This, of itself, is material for a book. Being limited as to 
 space, the endeavor must be made to give simply an outline to state 
 the most important facts leaving many gaps, and continually check- 
 ing the disposition to write anything like a full description as to 
 cause, prevention, and modes of treatment of disease. 
 
 These articles are addressed entirely to farmers and stock owners, 
 and I must ask my professional brethren to bear this in mind when 
 they are disposed to complain of a want of scientific treatment of 
 the subjects. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 It is generally held, at least in practice, that any water that stock 
 can be induced to drink is sufficiently pure for their use. This prac- 
 tice occasions losses that would startle us if statistics were at hand. 
 Water that is impure from the presence of decomposing organic mat- 
 tor, such as is found in wells and ponds in close proximity to manure 
 heap* ami cesspools, is frequently the cause of diarrhea, dysentery, 
 and many other diseases of stock, while water that is impregnated 
 with different poisons and contaminated with specific media of con- 
 tagion produces death in very many instances. 
 
 Considering fir>t the quantity of water required by the horse, it 
 
 may lie Mated that when our animals have access to water continually 
 
 they never drink to excess. Were the horse subjected to ship voyages 
 
 or any other circumstances where he must depend upon his attendant 
 
 the supply of water, it may !* roughly stated that each horse 
 
 a daily average of about 8 gallons of water. This will vary 
 
 xnewhat upon the character of his food; if ,,,, green food less 
 
 I needed than wh.-n fe<l upon dry hay and grain 
 
 me of giving wafer should be carefully studied. At' rest, the 
 
 J receive water at least three times a day; when at work, 
 
 frequently. The rule should be to ^ive in small quantities and 
 
 Pheiv is a popular fallacy that if a horse is warm he should 
 
 e allowed to drink, many claiming that the first swallow of water 
 
 34
 
 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 35 
 
 " founders " the animal or produces colic. This is erroneous. No 
 matter how warm a horse may be, it is always entirely safe to allow 
 him from six to ten swallows of water. If this is given on going into 
 the stable, he should be given at once a pound or two of hay and 
 allowed to rest about an hour before feeding. If water be now offered 
 him it will in many cases be refused, or at least he will drink but 
 sparingly. The danger, then, is not in the " first swallow " of water, 
 but is due to the excessive quantity that the animal will take when 
 warm if he is not restrained. 
 
 Water should never be given to horses when it is ice cold. It may 
 not be necessary to add hot water, but we should be careful in placing 
 water troughs about our barns to have them in such position that the 
 sun may shine upon the water during the winter mornings. Water, 
 even though it be thus cold, seldom produces serious trouble if the 
 hcrse has not been deprived for a too great length of time. 
 
 In reference to the purity of water, Smith, in his " Veterinary Hy- 
 giene," classes spring water, deep-well water, and upland surface 
 water as wholesome; stored rain water and surface water from culti- 
 vated land, as suspicious; river water to which sewage gains access 
 and shallow-well water, as dangerous. The water that is used for 
 drinking purposes for stock so largely throughout some States can 
 not but be impure. I refer to those sections where there is an imper- 
 vious clay subsoil. It is the custom to scoop, or hollow out, a large 
 basin in the pastures. During rains these basins become filled with 
 water. The clay subsoil, being almost impervious, acts as a jug, and 
 there is no escape for the water except by evaporation. Such water 
 is stagnant, but would be kept comparatively fresh by subsequent 
 rains were it not for the fact that much organic matter is carried 
 into it by surface drainage during each succeeding storm. This or- 
 ganic matter soon undergoes decomposition, and, as the result, we 
 find diseases of different kinds much more prevalent where this water 
 is drunk than where the water supply is wholesome. Again, it must 
 not be lost sight of that stagnant surface water is much more certainly 
 contaminated than is running water by one diseased animal of the 
 herd, thus endangering the remainder. 
 
 The chief impurities of water may be classified as organic and 
 inorganic. The organic impurities are either animal or vegetable 
 substances. The salts of the metals are the inorganic impurities. 
 Lime causes hardness of water, and occasion will be taken to speak of 
 this when describing intestinal concretions. Salts of lead, iron, and 
 copper are also frequently found in water, and will be referred to 
 hereafter. 
 
 About the only examination of water that can be made by the aver- 
 age stock raiser is to observe its taste, color, smell, and clearness. 
 Pure water is clear and is without taste or smell.
 
 36 
 
 Chemical and microscopic examination will frequently be neces- 
 mry in order to detect the presence of certain poisons, bacteria, etc., 
 ami can, of course, be conducted by experts only. 
 
 FOODS AND FEEDING. 
 
 In this place one can not attempt anything like a comprehensive 
 discussion of the subject of foods and feeding, and I must content my- 
 self with merely giving a few facts as to the different kinds of food, 
 preparation, digestibility, proper time of feeding, quality, and quan- 
 tity. Improper feeding and watering will doubtless account for over 
 one-half of the digestive disorders met with in the horse, and hence 
 the reader can not fail to see how very important it is to have some 
 proper ideas concerning these subjects. 
 
 KINDS OF FOOD. 
 
 In this country horses are fed chiefly upon hay, grass, corn fodder, 
 roots, oats, corn, wheat, and rye. Many think that they could be fed 
 on nothing else. Stewart, in " The Stable Book," gives the following 
 extract from London's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, which is of 
 interest at this point : 
 
 In some sterile countries they [horses] are forced to subsist on dried fish, and 
 even on vegetable mold; in Arabia, on milk, flesh balls, eggs, broth. In India 
 horses are variously fed. The native grasses are judged very nutritious. Few, 
 perha|w no, oats are grown ; barley is rare, and not commonly given to horses. 
 In Itcngul a vetch, something like the tare, is used. On the western side of 
 India a sort of pigeon pea, called gram (Ctccr arictinum), forms the ordinary 
 food, with grasH while in season, and hay all the year round. Indian corn or 
 rice Is Heldom given. In the West Indies maize, guinea corn, sugar-corn tops, 
 nnl sometimes molasses are given. In the Mahratta country salt, pepper, and 
 other Kplce* are made into balls, with flour and butter, and these are supposed 
 to i>nxluc*> animation and to flne the coat. Broth made from sheep's head is 
 *ometlmofl given. In France, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the leaves 
 of lltneft, vine*, the tojm of acacia, and the seeds of the carob tree are given to 
 bonML 
 
 For information as to the nutritive value, chemistry, and classifica- 
 tion of the different kinds of food, I will refer the reader to Jordan's 
 or Arnihby's book on feeding animals, or to " Smith's Veterinary 
 Hygiene.*' 
 
 We can not, however, leave aside entirely here a consideration of 
 the digestibility of f<xxis; and by this we mean the readiness with 
 which foods undergo those changes in the digestive canal that fit 
 them for absorption and deposition as integral parts of the animal 
 economy. 
 
 The api> and health of the animal will, of course, modify the diges- 
 tibility of foods, as will also the manner and time of harvesting, pre- 
 serving, and preparing the foods. 
 
 In the horse digestion takes place principally in the intestines, and 
 here, as in all other animals and with all foods, it is found that a
 
 FOODS AND FEEDING. 37 
 
 certain part only of the provender is digested; another portion is 
 indigested. This proportion of digested and undigested food must 
 claim passing notice at least, for if the horse receives too much food, 
 or bulky food containing much indigestible waste, a large portion of 
 food must pass out unused, entailing not only the loss of this unused 
 food, but also calling for an unnecessary expenditure of vital force 
 on the part of the digestive organs of the horse. It is thus that, in 
 fact, too much food may make an animal poor. 
 
 In selecting food for the horse we should remember the anatomical 
 arrangement of the digestive organs, as well as the physiological 
 functions performed by each one of them. Foods must be whole- 
 some, clean, and sweet, the hours of feeding regular, the mode of 
 preparation found by practical experience to be the best must be 
 adhered to, and cleanliness in preparation and administration must 
 be observed. 
 
 The length of time occupied by stomach digestion in the horse 
 varies with the different foods. Hay and straw pass out of the stom- 
 ach more rapidly than oats. It would seem to follow, then, that oats 
 should be given after hay, for if reversed the hay would cause the 
 oats to be sent onward into the intestines before being fully acted 
 upon by the stomach, and as a result produce indigestion. Experi- 
 ence confirms this. There is another good reason why hay should be 
 given first, particularly if the horse is very hungry or if exhausted 
 from overwork, namely, it requires more time in mastication (insur- 
 ing proper admixture of saliva) and can not be bolted, as are the 
 grains. In either instance water must not be given soon after feed- 
 ing, as it washes or sluices the food from the stomach before it is fitted 
 for intestinal digestion. 
 
 The stomach begins to empty itself very soon after the commence- 
 ment of feeding, and continues rapidly while eating. Afterwards 
 the passage is slower, and several hours are required before the stom- 
 ach is entirely empty. The nature of the work required of the horse 
 must guide us in the selection of his food. Rapid or severe labor can 
 not be performed on a full stoniach. For such labor food must be 
 given in small quantity and about two hours before they go to work. 
 Even horses intended for slow work must never be engorged with 
 bulky, innutritions food immediately before going to labor. The 
 small stomach of the horse would seem to lead us to the conclusion 
 that this animal should be fed in small quantities and often, which, in 
 reality, should be done. The disproportion between the size of the 
 stomach and the amount of water drank tells us plainly that the 
 horse should always be watered before feeding. One of the common 
 errors of feeding, and the one that produces more digestive disorders 
 than any other, is to feed too soon after a hard day^s irork. This 
 must never be done. If a horse is completely jaded, it will be found
 
 38 DISEASES OP THE HOESE. 
 
 beneficial to give him an alcoholic stimulant on going into the stable. 
 A small quantity of hay may then be given, but his grain should be 
 withheld for one or two hours. These same remarks will apply with 
 equal force to the horse that for any reason has been fasting for a 
 long time. After a fast, feed less than the horse would eat ; for if 
 allowed too much the stomach becomes engorged, its walls paralyzed, 
 and " colic " is almost sure to follow. The horse should be fed 
 three or four times a day. It will not answer to feed him entirely 
 upon concentrated food. Bulky food must be given to detain the 
 grains in their passage through the intestinal tract ; bulk also favors 
 distent ion, and thus mechanically aids absorption. For horses that 
 do slow work for the greater part of the time, chopped or cut hay 
 fed with crushed oats, ground corn, etc., is the best manner of feed- 
 ing, as it gives the required bulk, saves time-, and half the labor of 
 feeding. 
 
 Sudden changes of diet are always dangerous. When desirous of 
 changing the food, do so very gradually. If a horse is accustomed to 
 oats, a sudden change to a full meal of corn will almost always sicken 
 him. If we merely intend to increase the quantity of the usual feed, 
 this also must be done gradually. The quantity of food given must 
 always be in proportion to the amount of labor to be performed. If 
 a horse is to do a small amount of work, or rest entirely from work 
 for a few days, see that he receives a proportionate amount of feed. 
 If this should be observed even on Saturday night and Sunday, there 
 would be fewer cases of " Monday morning sickness," such as colics 
 and lymphangitis. 
 
 Foods should also be of a more laxative nature when the horse is to 
 stand for some days. 
 
 MUSTY OR MOLDY FOODS. Above all things, avoid feeding musty or 
 moldy foods. These are very frequent causes of disease of different 
 kinds. Lung trouble, such as bronchitis and " heaves," often follows 
 the use of such food. The digastive organs always suffer from moldy 
 or musty foods. Musty hay is generally considered to produce dis- 
 order of the kidneys; and all know of the danger to pregnant ani- 
 mals from feeding upon ergotized grasses or grains. It has often 
 been said to produce that peculiar disease known variously as cere- 
 bro-epinal meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper. 
 
 Leaving these somewhat general considerations, I will refer briefly 
 to the different kinds of foods: 
 
 HAY. The best hay for horses is timothy. It should be about one 
 year old, of a greenish color, crisp, clean, fresh, and possessing a 
 sweet, pleasant aroma. Even this good hay, if kept for too great a 
 length of time, loses part of its nourishment, and, while it may not 
 be positively injurious, it is hard, dry, and indigestible. New hay is 
 difficult to digest, produces much salivation (slobbering) and occa-
 
 FOODS AND FEEDING. 39 
 
 sional purging and irritation of the skin. If fed at all, it should be 
 mixed with old hay. 
 
 Second crop, or aftermath. This is not considered good hay for 
 horses, but it is prized by some farmers as a good food for milch 
 cows, the claim being made that it increases the flow of milk. The 
 value of hay depends upon the time of cutting, as well as care in the 
 curing. Hay should be cut when in full flower, but before the seeds 
 fall ; if left longer, it becomes dry and woody and lacks in nutrition. 
 An essential point in making hay is that when the crop is cut it 
 should remain as short a time as possible in the field. If left too 
 long in the sun it loses color, flavor, and dries or wastes. Smith 
 asserts that one hour more than is necessary in the sun causes a loss 
 of 15 to 20 per cent in the feeding value of hay. It is impossible to 
 state any fixed time that hay must have to cure, this depending, of 
 course, upon the weather, thickness of the crop, and many other cir- 
 cumstances ; but it is well known that, in order to preserve the color 
 and aroma of hay, it should be turned or tedded frequently and 
 cured as quickly as possible. On the other hand, hay spoils in the 
 mow if harvested too green, or when not sufficiently dried. Mow- 
 burnt hay produces disorder of the kidneys and bowels and causes the 
 horse to fall off in condition. 
 
 The average horse on grain should be allowed from 10 to 12 pounds 
 of good hay a day. It is a mistake of many to think that horses at 
 light work can be kept entirely on hay. Such horses soon become 
 pot-bellied, fall off. in flesh, and do not thrive. The same is true of 
 colts; unless the latter are fed with some grain they grow up to be 
 long, lean, gawky creatures, and never make as good horses as those 
 accustomed to grain with, or in addition to, their hay. 
 
 STRAW. The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and 
 when used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay and ground 
 or crushed grain. Wheat, rye, and oat straw are the ones most 
 used, and of these oat straw is most easily digested and contains the 
 most nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to 
 horses, the pea being preferable, according to most writers. 
 
 CHAFF. Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a food for 
 horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat 
 and are productive of more or less serious trouble. In the stomach 
 and intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the " soft concre- 
 tions," which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the 
 digestive tract. 
 
 Oat chaff, if fed in small quantities and mixed with cut hay or 
 corn fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in 
 large quantities, as I have repeatedly witnessed a troublesome and 
 sometimes fatal diarrhea following the practice of allowing horses 
 or cattle free access to a pile of oat chaff.
 
 40 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 GRAINS. Oats take precedence of all grains as a food for horses, 
 as the ingredients necessary for the complete nutrition of the body 
 exist in them in the best proportions. Oats are, besides, more easily 
 digested and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the 
 various tissues of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats. 
 According to Stewart, the best oats are one year old, plump, short, 
 hard, clean, bright, and sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln- 
 dried oats are to be refused, as a rule, for even though originally good 
 this drying process injures them. Oats that have sprouted or fer- 
 mented are injurious and should never be fed. Oats are to be given 
 either whole or crushed whole in the majority of instances ; crushed 
 to old horses and those having defective teeth. Horses that bolt their 
 feed are also best fed upon crushed oats and out of a manger large 
 enough to permit of spreading the grain in a thin layer. 
 
 The average horse requires, in addition to the allowance of hay 
 above mentioned, about 12 quarts of good oats daily. The best oats 
 are those cut about one week before being fully ripe. Not only is the 
 grain richer in nutritive materials at this time, but there is also less 
 waste from " scattering " than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy 
 oats, like hay and straw, not only produce serious digestive disorders, 
 but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease 
 in horses, already referred to, characterized by inability to eat or 
 drink, sudden paralysis, and death. 
 
 WHEAT AND RYE. These grains are not to be used as food for 
 horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed 
 with other grains or hay. If fed alone, in any considerable quanti- 
 ties, they are almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis 
 (founder), and similar troubles. They should never constitute more 
 than one- fourth of the grain allowance, and should always be ground 
 or crushed. 
 
 BRAN. The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a 
 feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if 
 given alone, but may l>e fed with other grains. It serves to keep the 
 bowels o[M>n. Sour bran is not to be given. It disorders the stomach 
 and intestines and may even produce serious results. 
 
 MAIKK (CORN). This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for 
 young horses, as it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. 
 Corn on the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with 
 * lampas." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should 
 le soaked in pure, clean water for ten or twelve hours. Corn is bet- 
 ter giv-n ground, and fed in quantities of from 1 to 2 quarts at a 
 meal mixo<l with crushed oats or wheat bran. Be very particular in 
 giving rorn to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be 
 commenced in small quantities and very gradually increased. I
 
 PREPARATION CF FOODS. 41 
 
 know of no grain more likely to produce what is called acute indiges- 
 tion than corn if these directions are not observed. 
 
 LINSEED. Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to 
 keep the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is 
 of particular service during convalescence, when the bowels are slug- 
 gish in their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or 
 inflamed conditions of the digestive organs. 
 
 POTATOES. These are used as an article of food for the horse in 
 many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce 
 indigestion. Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling. 
 They possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties. 
 
 BEETS. These are not much used as food for horses. 
 
 CARROTS. These make a most excellent food, particularly during 
 sickness. They improve the appetite and slight!} 7 increase the action 
 of the bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative prop- 
 erties. The coat becomes smooth and glossy when carrots are fed. 
 Some veterinary writers claim that chronic cough is cured by giving 
 carrots for some time. The roots may be considered, then, as an 
 adjunct to the regular regimen, and if fed in small quantities are 
 highly beneficial. 
 
 GRASSES. Grass is the natural food of horses. It is composed of 
 a great variety of plants, differing widely as to the amount of nour- 
 ishment contained, some being almost entirely without value as foods 
 and only eaten when there is nothing else obtainable, while others are 
 positively injurious, or even poisonous. None of the grasses are suf- 
 ficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed 
 are " soft," sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at 
 hard work. To growing stock grass is indispensable, and there is 
 little or no doubt but that it acts as an alterative when given to 
 horses accustomed to grain and hay. It must be given to such horses 
 in small quantities at first. The stomach and intestines undergo rest, 
 and recuperate if the horse is turned to grass for a time each year. 
 It is also certain that during febrile diseases grass acts almost as a 
 medicine, lessening the fever and favoring recovery. Wounds heal 
 more rapidly than when the horse is on grain, and some chronic dis- 
 orders (chronic cough, for instance) disappear entirely when at grass. 
 In my experience, grass does more good when the horse crops it him- 
 self. This may be due to the sense of freedom he enjoys at pasture, 
 to the rest to his feet and limbs, and for many other similar reasons. 
 When cut for him it should be fed fresh or when but slightly wilted. 
 
 PREPARATION OF FOODS. 
 
 Foods are prepared for feeding for any of the following reasons: 
 To render the food more easily eaten; to make it more digestible; to 
 economize in amount; to give it some new property; and to pre-
 
 42 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 serve it We have already spoken of the preparation of drying, and 
 need not revert to this again, as it only serves to preserve the different 
 foods. Drying does, however, change some of the properties of food, 
 t. ., removes the laxative tendency of most of them. 
 
 The different grains are more easily eaten when ground, crushed, or 
 even boiled. Rye or wheat should never be given whole, and even of 
 corn it is found that there is less waste when ground, and, in common 
 with all grains, it is more easily digested than when fed whole. 
 
 Hay and fodder are economized when cut in short pieces. No< 
 only will the horse cat the necessary amount in a shorter time, but it 
 will be found that there is less waste, and the mastication of the grains 
 (whole or cnished) fed with them is insured. 
 
 Reference has already been made to those horses that bolt their 
 food, and we need only remark here that the consequences of such 
 ravenous eating may be prevented if the grains are fed with cut hay, 
 straw, or fodder. Long or uncut hay should also be fed, even though 
 a certain amount of hay or straw is cut and fed mixed with grain. 
 
 One objection to feeding cut hay mixed with ground or crushed 
 grains, and wetted, must not be overlooked during the hot months. 
 Such food is apt to undergo fermentation if not fed directly after it 
 is mixed ; and the mixing trough even, unless frequently scalded and 
 cleaned, becomes sour and enough of its scrapings are given with the 
 food to produce flatulent (wind) colic. A small amount of salt 
 should always be mixed with such food. Bad hay should never be 
 cut simply because it insures a greater consumption of it; bad foods 
 are dear at any price and should never be fed. 
 
 I have l)efore spoken of the advantage of boiling roots. Not only 
 does this render them less liable to produce digestive disorders, but it 
 also makes them clean. Boiling or steaming grains is to be recom- 
 mended when the teeth are poor, or when the digestive organs are 
 weak. Of ensilage as a food for horses I have no experience, but am 
 inclined to think that (and this opinion is based upon the imperfect 
 manner in which the crop is often stored) disordered digestion would 
 be more frequent were it extensively fed. 
 
 DISEASES OF TUB TEETH. 
 
 Dentition. This covers the period during which the young horse 
 in cutting his teeth from birth to the age of five years. With the 
 horse more difficulty is experienced in cutting the second or per- 
 manent teeth than with the first or milk teeth. There is a tendency 
 among farmers and many veterinarians to pay too little attention to 
 the teeth of young horses. Percivall relates an instance illustrative 
 of this that i.s best told in his own words: 
 
 I wn requested to Rive my opinion concerning a borne, then In his fifth year, 
 who bad fed HO sparingly for the InHt fortnight, and HO rapidly declined in con- 
 
 Th> mothod of d*>UTminlng the age of a borne by the teeth is illustrated in 
 Plate XLII. p. W)4.
 
 DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 43 
 
 dition in consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light 
 apprehensions about his life. He had himself examined his mouth without 
 having discovered any defect or disease, though another veterinary surgeon 
 was of opinion that the difficulty or inability manifested in mastication, and 
 the consequent cudding, arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of 
 the molar teeth, which were, in consequence, filed, but without beneficial result. 
 It was after this that I saw the horse, and I confess I was, at my first examina- 
 tion, quite as much at a loss to offer any satisfactory interpretation as others 
 had been. While meditating, however, after my inspection, on the apparently 
 extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me that I had not seen the tusks. I 
 went back into the stable and discovered two little tumors, red and hard, in the 
 situation of the inferior tusks, which, when pressed, gave the animal insuffer- 
 able pain. I instantly took out my pocketknife and made crucial incisions 
 through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse 
 recovered his appetite and, by degrees, his wonted condition. 
 
 The mouths of young horses should be examined from time to time 
 to see if one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long, 
 causing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first 
 teeth should be removed with the forceps. 
 
 Irregularities of teeth. There is quite a fashion of late years, espe- 
 cially in large cities, to have horses' teeth regularly " floated," or 
 " rasped," by " veterinary dentists." In some instances this is very 
 beneficial, while in most cases it is entirely unnecessary. From the 
 character of the food, the rubbing, or grinding, surface of the horse's 
 teeth should be rough. Still, we must remember that the upper jaw 
 is somewhat wider than the lower, and that, from the fact of the 
 teeth not being perfectly apposed, a sharp ridge is left unworn on the 
 inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may 
 excoriate the tongue or cheeks to a considerable extent. This condi- 
 tion can readily be felt by the hand, and these sharp ridges when 
 found should be rasped down by a guarded rasp. In some instances 
 the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing to the fact 
 that its fellow in the opposite jaw has been lost or does not close per- 
 fectly against it. Should it be the last molar that is thus elongated, 
 it will require the aid of the veterinary surgeon, who has the neces- 
 sary forceps or chisel for cutting it. The front molar may be rasped 
 down, if much patience is taken. In decay of the teeth it is quite 
 common to find the tooth corresponding to the decayed one on the 
 opposite jaw very much elongated, sometimes to such an extent that 
 the mouth can not be perfectly closed. Such teeth must also be 
 shortened by the tooth forceps, chisel, tooth saw, or rasp. In all 
 instances where horses " quid " their food, where they are slobbering, 
 or where they evince pain in mastication, shown by holding their 
 head to one side while chewing, the teeth should be carefully exam- 
 ined. Horses whose teeth have unduly sharp edges are likely to drive 
 badly; they pull to one side, do not bear on the bit, or bear on too 
 hard and " big," toss the head, and start suddenly when a tender spot 
 is touched. If, as is mostly the case, all the symptoms are referable
 
 44 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 to sharp corners or projections of the teeth, these must be removed by 
 the rasp. If decayed teeth are found, or other serious difficulty 
 detected, or if the cause of the annoying symptoms is not discovered, 
 an -.\|H-rt should be called. 
 
 Toothache. This is rare in the horse and is mostly witnessed where 
 there is decay of a tooth or inflammation about its root. Toothache 
 is to be discovered in the horse by the pain expressed by him while 
 feeding or drinking cold water. I have seen horses affected with 
 toothache that would suddenly stop chewing, throw the head to one 
 side, and slightly open the mouth. They behave as though some 
 rharp body had punctured the mouth. If upon examination there is 
 no foreign Ixxly found, we must then carefully examine each tooth. 
 If this can not be done with the hand in the mouth, we can, in most 
 instances, discover the aching tooth by pressing each tooth from 
 without. By tapping the teeth in succession with a hard object, such 
 as a small hammer, the one that is tender may be located. The horse 
 will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed or tapped upon. In most 
 cases there is nothing to be done but extract the decayed tooth, and 
 this, of course, is only to be attempted by the veterinarian. 
 
 There is a deformity, known as parrot-mouth, that interferes with 
 prehension, mastication, and, indirectly, with digestion. The upper 
 incisors project in front of and beyond the lower ones. The teeth of 
 both jaws become unusually long, as they are not worn down by fric- 
 tion. Such horses experience much difficulty in grazing. Little can 
 be done except to occasionally examine the teeth, and if those of the 
 lower jaw Ijecome so long that they bruise the " bars " of the upper 
 jaw, they must be shortened by the rasp or saw. Horses with this 
 deformity should never be left entirely at pasture. 
 
 IMSKASKS OK TIIK MOl'TH. 
 
 I^AMPAR. Laiii|.:i- is the name given to a swelling of the mucous 
 membrane covering the hard palate arid projecting in a more or less 
 prominent ridge immediately In-hind the upper incisors. The hard 
 palate is composed of spongy tissue that fills with blood when the 
 horw is feeding, and this causes the ridges to become prominent, ami 
 they then help to keep food from dropping from the mouth. This 
 Dwelling i entirely natural and occurs in every healthy horse. Where 
 there in *omo irritation in the mouth, as in stomatitis or during teeth- 
 ing, the prominence of the hard palate may persist, due to the in- 
 rreaMMl blood supply. In such eases the cause of the irritation should 
 Iw wmjfht for and removed. By way of direct treatment, slight scari- 
 fication in the inont that will Ix; required. Burning the luinpas is bar- 
 barous and injurious, and it should never be tolerated. 
 
 It i quite a common opinion among owners of horses and stable- 
 men that lampas s a disease that very frequently exists. In fact 
 whenever a horn; fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked
 
 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 45 
 
 symptoms of a severe illness, they say at once " he has the lampas." 
 It is almost impossible to convince them to the contrary; yet it is 
 not the case. It may be put down, then, as an affliction of the stable- 
 man's imagination rather than of the horse's mouth. 
 
 STOMATITIS. This in an inflammation of the mucous membrane 
 lining the mouth and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or 
 other substances. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which 
 is also hot and painful to the touch; there is a copious discharge of 
 saliva; the mucous membrane is reddened, and in some cases there 
 are observed vesicles or ulcers in the mouth. The treatment is simple, 
 soft feed alone often being all that is necessary. A bucket of fresh 
 cold water should be kept constantly in the manger so that the horse 
 may drink or rinse his mouth at will. In some instances it may be 
 advisable to use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax, or alum, about 
 one-half ounce to a pint of water. Hay, straw, or oats should not be 
 fed unless steamed or boiled. A form of contagious stomatitis some- 
 times occurs that is characterized by the formation within the mouth 
 of small vesicles, or blisters. In this disease the horse should be 
 isolated from other horses, and his stall, especially the feed box, and 
 his bit should be disinfected. 
 
 GLOSSITIS, or inflammation of the tongue, is very similar to the 
 above, and mostly exists with it and is due to the same causes. In- 
 juries to the tongue may produce this simple inflammation of its 
 covering membrane, or, if severe, may produce lesions much more 
 extensive, such as lacerations, abscesses, etc. These latter would re- 
 quire surgical treatment, but for the simpler forms of inflammation 
 of the tongue the treatment recommended for stomatitis should be 
 followed. 
 
 PTYALISM, or salivation, consists in an abnormal and excessive se- 
 cretion of saliva. This is often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth ; 
 inflammation of the mouth or tongue, or of the use of such medicines 
 as lobelia, mercury, and many others. Some foods produce this, such 
 as clover, and particularly second crop ; foreign bodies, such as nails, 
 wheat chaff, and corncobs becoming lodged in the mouth. If the 
 cause is removed no further attention is necessary, as a rule. Astrin- 
 gent washes may be applied to the mouth as a gargle or by means of 
 a sponge. 
 
 PHARYNGITIS is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining 
 of the pharynx or throat. It rarely exists unless accompanied . by 
 stomatitis or laryngitis, especially the latter. In those rare instances 
 in which the inflammation is mostly confined to the pharynx are 
 noticed febrile symptoms difficulty of swallowing either liquids or 
 solids ; there is but little cough except when trying to swallow ; there 
 is no soreness on pressure over larynx (head of the windpipe). In- 
 creased ftow of saliva, difficulty of swallowing liquids in particular,
 
 46 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 and cough only when attempting to swallow are the symptoms best 
 marked in pharyngitis. In some cases the throat becomes gangrenous 
 and the disease ends in death. For treatment wrap a wet sheet 
 ii round the throat and cover this with rubber sheeting and a warm 
 blanket. This should be changed three times daily; or the region of 
 the throat may be rubbed with mercurial ointment twice daily until 
 the skin becomes irritated, but no longer; chlorate of potash may be 
 given in quantities of 2 drams four times daily, mixed with flaxseed 
 meal or liquorice-root powder and honey, as an electuary. Soft foods 
 should be given, and fresh water should be constantly before the 
 horse. 
 
 PARALYSIS OF THE PHARYNX, or, as it is commonly called, " paralysis 
 of the throat," is a rare but very serious disease. The symptoms are 
 as follows: The horse will constantly try to eat or drink, but will be 
 unable to do so; if water be offered him from a pail he will appar- 
 ently drink with avidity, but the quantity of water in the pail will 
 remain about the same ; he will continue trying to drink by the hour ; 
 if he can succeed in getting any fluid into the back part of the mouth 
 it will come out at once through the nose. Foods also return through 
 the nose, or are dropped from the mouth, quidded. An examination 
 of the mouth by inserting the hand fails to find any obstruction or 
 any abnormal condition. These cases go on from bad to worse; the 
 horse constantly and rapidly loses in condition, becomes very much 
 emaciated, the eyes are hollow and lusterless, and death occurs from 
 inanition. 
 
 Treatment is very unsatisfactory. A severe blister should be ap- 
 plied behind and under the jaw; the mouth is to be frequently 
 swabbed out with alum or chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a pint of 
 water, by means of a sponge fastened to the end of a stick. Strych- 
 nia may be given in 1-grain doses two or three times a clay. 
 
 This disea.se may I* mistaken at times for foreign bodies in the 
 mouth or for the so-called cerebro-spinal meningitis. It is to be dis- 
 tinguished from the former, upon a careful examination of the 
 mouth, by the absence of any offending body and by the flabby feel 
 of the mouth; and from the latter by the animal appearing in per- 
 fect health in every particular except this inability to eat or drink. 
 
 AMCMSM. Abscesses sometimes form back of 'the pharynx and 
 give nae to symptoms resembling those of laryngitis or distemper 
 
 terference with breathing that is of recent origin and progression, 
 
 ithout any observable swelling or soreness about the throat will 
 MIC suspect the formation of an abscess in this location But 
 
 Itto oin be done by the owner in the way of treatment, save to hurry 
 
 e ripening of the abscess and its discharge by steaming with hops 
 similar substances and by poulticing the throat. The opera-' 
 r opening an abscess in this region necessitates an intimate 
 knowledge of the complex anatomy of the throat region
 
 DISEASES OP THE GULLET. 47 
 
 DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS, OR GUL.LET. 
 
 It is rare to find diseases of this organ, except as a result of the 
 introduction of foreign bodies too large to pass or to the administering 
 of irritating medicines. Great care should be taken in the administra- 
 tion of irritant or caustic medicines that they be thoroughly diluted. 
 If this is not done erosions and ulcerations of the throat ensue, and 
 this again is prone to be followed by constriction (narrowing) of 
 the gullet. The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It 
 may occur when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples 
 or roots, and we should be careful never to approach suddenly or 
 put a dog after horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances. 
 If left alone these animals very rarely attempt to swallow the object 
 until it is sufficiently masticated. 
 
 Choking also arises from feeding oats in a deep, narrow manger to 
 such horses as eat very greedily or bolt their food. Wheat chaff is 
 also a frequent cause of choke. This accident may result from the 
 attempts to force eggs down without breaking or from giving balls 
 that are too large or not of the proper shape. 
 
 Whatever object causes the choking, it may lodge in the upper 
 part of the esophagus, at its middle portion, or close to the stomach, 
 giving rise to the designations of pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic 
 choke. In some cases where the original obstruction is low we find 
 all that part of the gullet above it to be distended with food. 
 
 The symptoms vary somewhat according to the position of the 
 body causing choke. In pharyngeal choke the object is lodged in the 
 upper portion of the esophagus. The horse will present symptoms 
 of great distress, hurried breathing, frequent cough, excessive flow 
 of saliva, sweating, trembling, or stamping with the fore feet. The 
 abdomen rapidly distends with gas. The diagnosis is completed by 
 manipulating the upper part of the throat from without and by the 
 introduction of the hand into the back part of the mouth, finding the 
 body lodged here. In cervical choke (where the obstruction is 
 situated at any point between the throatlatch and the shoulder) the 
 protrusion caused by the object can be seen and the object can be felt. 
 The symptoms here are not so severe; the horse will be seen occa- 
 sionally to draw himself up, arch his neck, and make retching 
 movements as though he wished to vomit. The abdomen may be 
 tympanitic. Should there be any question as to the trouble a con- 
 clusion may be reached by pouring water into the throat from a 
 bottle. If the obstruction is complete you can see the gullet become 
 distended with each bottle of water by standing on the left side of the 
 horse and watching the course of the esophagus, just above the wind- 
 pipe. This is not always a sure test, as the obstruction may be an 
 angular body, in which case liquids would pass it. Solids taken 
 would show in these cases; but solids should not, however, be given,
 
 Is DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 us they serve to increase the trouble by rendering the removal of the 
 Ixxly more difficult. 
 
 In thoracic choke the symptoms are less severe. Food or water 
 may be ejected through the nose or mouth after the animal has taken 
 a few swallows. There will be some symptoms of distress, fullness 
 of the abdomen, cough, and occasionally retching movements. Some- 
 times a horse that is choking is heard to emit groans. The facial 
 expression always denotes great anxiety and the eyes are bloodshot. 
 The diagnosis is complete if, upon passing the probang (a flexible 
 tube made for this purpose), an obstruction is encountered. 
 
 Treatment. If the choke is at the beginning of the gullet (pharyn- 
 geal) an effort must be made to remove the obstacle through the 
 mmith. A mouth-gag, or speculum, is to be introduced into the 
 mouth to protect the hand and arm of the operator. Then, while an 
 assistant, with his hands grasped tightly behind the object, presses 
 it upward and forward with all his force, the operator must pass his 
 hand into the mouth until he can seize the obstruction and draw it 
 outward. This mode of procedure must not be abandoned with the 
 first failure, as we may get the obstacle farther toward the mouth by 
 continued efforts. If we fail with the hand, forceps may be intro- 
 duced through the mouth and the object seized when it is just beyond 
 the reach of the fingers. Should our efforts entirely fail, we must 
 then endeavor to force the obstruction downward by means of the 
 probang. This instrument, which is of such signal service in remov- 
 ing choke in cattle, is decidedly more dangerous to use for the horse; 
 and I can not pass this point without a word of caution to those who 
 have been known to introduce into the horse's throat such objects as 
 whipstalks, shovel handles, etc. These are always dangerous, and 
 more than one horse has been killed by such barbarous treatment* 
 
 CKHVK AI. riinKR. In this, as well as in thoracic choke, we must 
 h'r*t of all endeavor to soften or lubricate the obstruction by pouring 
 oil or mucilaginous drinks down the gullet. After this has been done 
 endeavor to move the object by gentle manipulations with the hands. 
 If choked with oats or chaff (and these are the objects that most fre- 
 quently produce choke in the horse), begin by gently squeezing the 
 lower portion of the. impacted mass and endeavor to work it loose a 
 little at a time. This is greatly favored at times if .we apply hot 
 fomentation* immediately about the obstruction. Persist in these 
 efforts for at least an hour lieforu deciding to resort to other and more 
 dangerous modes of treatment. If unsuccessful, however, the pro- 
 Iniif; may lo uwd. In the al>sence of the regular instrument, use a 
 pince of inch hose. 6 feet long, or a piece of new three-quarter-inch 
 manilii rope well wrapped at the end with cotton twine and thor- 
 oughly greawd with tallow. The mouth is to be kept open by a gag 
 of wood or iron and the head slightly raised and extended. The pro-
 
 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 49 
 
 bang is then to be carefully guided by the hand into the upper part of 
 the gullet and gently forced downward until the obstruction is 
 reached. Pressure must then be gradual and firm. Do not at first 
 attempt too much force, or the esophagus will be ruptured. Simply 
 keep up this firm, gentle pressure until you feel the object moving, 
 after which you are to follow it rapidly to the stomach. If this mode 
 of treatment is unsuccessful, a veterinarian or physician is to be called 
 in, who can remove the object by cutting down upon it. This should 
 scarcely be attempted by a novice, as a knowledge of the anatomy of 
 the parts is essential to avoid cutting the large artery, vein, and nerve 
 that are closely related to the esophagus in its cervical portion. 
 
 THORACIC CHOKE. Thoracic choke can be treated only by means of 
 the introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks, and the careful use 
 of the probang. 
 
 STRICTURE OF THE ESOPHAGUS. This is due to corrosive medicines, 
 previous choking (accompanied by lacerations, which, in healing, nar- 
 row the passage), or pressure on the gullet by tumors. In the major- 
 ity of cases of stricture, dilatation of the gullet in front of the con- 
 stricted portion soon occurs. This dilatation is due to the frequent 
 accumulation of solid food above the constriction. Little can be done 
 in either of these instances except to feed on sloppy or liquid food. 
 
 SACULAR DILATATION OF THE ESOPHAGUS. This follows choking, and 
 is due to stretching or rupture of the muscular coat of the gullet, 
 allowing the internal, or mucous, coat to protrude through the lacer- 
 ated muscular walls. Such a dilatation, or pouch, may gradually 
 enlarge from the frequent imprisonment of food. When liquids are 
 taken, the solid materials are partially washed out of the pouch. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are as follows: The horse is able to 
 swallow a few mouthfuls of food without apparent difficulty; then 
 he will stop feeding, paw, contract the muscles of 'his neck, and eject 
 a portion of the food through his nose or mouth, or it will gradually 
 work down to the stomach. As the dilatation thus empties itself the 
 symptoms gradually subside, only to reappear when he has again 
 taken solid food. Liquids pass without any, or but little, inconven- 
 ience. Should this dilatation exist in the cervical region, surgical in- 
 terference may sometimes prove effectual; if in the thoracic por- 
 tion, nothing can be done, and the patient rapidly passes from hand 
 to hand by " swapping," until, at no distant date, the contents of the 
 sac become too firm to be dislodged as heretofore, and the animal 
 succumbs. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 
 
 As a rule it is most difficult to distinguish between diseases of the 
 stomach and of the intestines of the horse. The reason for this is 
 that the stomach is relatively small. It lies away from the abdominal 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 i
 
 50 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 wall, and so pressure from without can not be brought to bear upon. 
 it to reveal sensitiveness or pain. Nor does enlargement, or disten- 
 tion, of the stomach produce visible alteration in the form of the 
 abdomen of the horse. Moreover, it is a rule to which there are few 
 exceptions that an irritant or cause of disease of the stomach acts 
 likewise upon the intestines, so that it is customary to find them 
 similarly deranged. For these reasons it is logical to discuss together 
 the diseases of the stomach and intestines and to point out such 
 localizations in one organ or another as are of importance in recog- 
 nizing and treating the diseases of the digestive organs of the horse. 
 It should be understood that gastritis signifies an inflammation of 
 the stomach and enteritis an inflammation of the intestines. The two 
 terms may be used together to signify a disease of the stomach and 
 intestines, as gastro-enteritis. 
 
 COLIC. The disease of the horse that is most frequently met with is 
 what is termed " colic," and many are the remedies that are reputed to 
 be u sure cures " for this disease. Let us discover, then, what the word 
 " colic " means. This term is applied loosely to almost all diseases of 
 the organs of the abdomen that are accompanied by pain. If the 
 horse evinces abdominal pain, he is likely to be put down as suffering 
 with colic, no matter whether the difficulty be a cramp of the bowel, 
 an internal hernia, overloading of the stomach, or a painful disease 
 of the bladder or liver. Since these conditions differ so much in their 
 causation and their nature, it is manifestly absurd to treat them alike 
 and to expect the same drugs or procedures to relieve them all. 
 Their fore it is important that the various diseased states that are so 
 roughly classed together as colic shall, so far as possible, be separated 
 and individualized in order that appropriate treatments may be pre- 
 With this object in view, colics will be considered under 
 the following headings: (1) Engorgement colic, (2) obstruction colic, 
 
 tympanitic colic, (4) spasmodic colic, (5) worm colic. 
 
 The general symptoms of abdominal pain, and therefore of colic, 
 
 , cessation of whatever the horse is about, lying down, 
 
 ing around toward the flank, kicking with the hind feet upward 
 
 ward toward the Wily, jYrky switching of the tail, stretching 
 
 rinate. frequent change, of position, and groaning. In 
 
 nlcn.se forms the horse plunges about, throws himself down, 
 
 s unnatural positions, as sitting on the haunches, and 
 
 '-..ally the pain is not constant, and during the inter- 
 
 lorse may eat and appear normal. During the period 
 
 H poiiml out freely. Sometimes the horse moves con- 
 
 a circle. The respirations are accelerated, and usually 
 
 there is no fever. 
 
 (1) Exi S oRr.MKXT mi.ir._This form of colic consists in an over- 
 tho stomach with food. The horse may have been overfed
 
 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 51 
 
 or the food may have collected in the stomach through failure of this 
 organ to digest it and pass it backward into the intestines. Even a 
 normal amount of food that the horse is unaccustomed to may cause 
 disease. Hence a sudden change of food may produce engorgement 
 colic. Continued full rations while the horse is resting for a day or 
 two or working too soon after feeding may serve as a cause. New 
 oats, corn, or hay, damaged food, or food difficult of digestion, such 
 as barley or beans, may incite engorgement colic. This disease may 
 result from having fed the horse twice by error or from its having 
 escaped and taken an unrestricted meal from the grain bin. Ground 
 feeds that pack together making a sort of dough may cause engorge- 
 ment colic if they are not mixed with cut hay. Greedy eaters are 
 predisposed to this disease. 
 
 Symptoms. The horse shows the general signs of abdominal pain, 
 which may be long continued or of short duration. Retching or vom- 
 iting movements are made; these are shown by labored breathing, 
 upturned upper lip, contraction of the flank, active motion at the 
 throat, and drawing in of the nose toward the breast, causing high 
 arching of the neck. The horse may assume a sitting position on his 
 haunches, like a dog. At times the pain is very great and the horse 
 makes the most violent movements, as though mad. At. other times 
 there is profound mental depression, the horse standing in a sleepy, 
 or dazed, way, with the head down, tjie eyes closed, and leaning his 
 head against the manger or wall. There is, during the struggles, pro- 
 fuse perspiration. Following retching, gas may escape from the 
 mouth, and this may be followed by a sour froth and some stomach 
 contents. The horse can not vomit except when the stomach is vio- 
 lently stretched, and, if the accumulation of food or gas is great 
 enough to stretch the stomach so that vomiting is possible, it may be 
 great enough to rupture this organ. So it happens not infrequently 
 that a horse will die from ruptured stomach after vomiting. But 
 after the stomach ruptures vomiting is impossible. The death rate 
 in this form of colic is high. 
 
 Treatment. The bowels should be stimulated to contraction by the 
 use of clysters of large quantities of water and of glycerin. Veteri- 
 narians use hypodermic injections of eserin or arecolin or intra- 
 venous injections of barium chloride, but these have to be employed 
 with great caution. It is not profitable to give remedies by the 
 stomach, for they can not be absorbed. But small doses of morphine 
 (5 grains) or of the fluid extract of Indian hemp (2 drams) may be 
 placed in the mouth and are absorbed in part, at least, without pass- 
 ing to the stomach. These drugs lessen pain and thus help to over- 
 come the violent movements that are dangerous, because they may be 
 the means of causing rupture of the diaphragm or stomach. If
 
 52 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 facilities are available, relief may bo afforded by passing an esoph- 
 ageal tube through which some of the gaseous and liquid contents of 
 the stomach may escape. 
 
 Kupture of the stomach. This mostly occurs as a result of en- 
 gorged or tympanitic stomach (engorgement colic) and from the horse 
 violently throwing himself when HO affected. It may result from 
 disea.se of the coats of the stomach, gastritis, stones, or calculi, tumors, 
 or anything that closes the opening of the stomach into the intes- 
 tines, and very violent pulling or jumping immediately after the 
 animal has eaten heartily of bulky food. These or similar causes 
 may lend to this accident. 
 
 The symptom* of rupture of the stomach are not constant or always 
 reliable. Always make inquiry as to what and how much the horse 
 has been fed at the last meal. Vomiting may precede rupture of this 
 organ, as stated above. This accident appears to be most likely to 
 occur in heavy draft horses. A prominent symptom observed 
 (though it may also occur in diaphragmatic hernia) is where the horse, 
 if |>os.sible, gets the front feet on higher ground than the hind ones or 
 sits on his haunches, like a dog. This position affords relief to some 
 extent, and it will be maintained for some minutes; it is also quickly 
 regained when the horse has changed it for some other. Colicky 
 symptoms, of course, are present, and these will vary much and pre- 
 sent no diagnostic value. As the case progresses "the horse will 
 often stretch forward the fore legs, lean backward and downward 
 until the lxlly nearly touches the ground, and then rise up again 
 with a groan, after which the fluid from his nostrils is issued in 
 increased quantity." The pulse is fast and weak, breathing hurried, 
 Inxly bathed in a clammy sweat, limbs tremble violently, the horse 
 rwls or staggers from side to side, and death quickly ends the scene. 
 
 In the absence of any pathognomonic symptom we must take into 
 account the history of the case; the symptoms of colic that cease sud- 
 denly and are succeeded by cold sweats and tremors; the pulse quick 
 and small and thready, growing weak and more frequent, and at 
 length ninning down and becoming altogether imperceptible; looking 
 back nt the flank and groaning; sometimes crouching with the hind 
 quarters; with or without eructation and vomiting. 
 
 There is no tn-ntmcnt that can lx> of any use whatever. Could we 
 
 be sure of our diagnosis it would be letter to destroy the anim:il at 
 
 Since, however, there is always the possibility of a mistake in 
 
 . we may give powdered opium in 1-dram doses every two 
 
 with the object of keeping the stomach as quiet as 
 
 possible. 
 
 -The stomach or bowels may be obstructed 
 
 r accumulation* of partly digested food (fecal matter), by foreign 
 lisplacemonts, by paralysis, or by abnormal growths.
 
 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 53 
 
 Impaction of the large intestines. This is a very common bowel 
 trouble and one which, if not promptly recognized and properly 
 treated, results in death. It is caused by overfeeding, especially of 
 bulky food containing an excess of indigestible residue ; old, dry, hard 
 hay, or stalks when largely fed ; deficiency of secretions of the intesti- 
 nal tracts ; lack of water ; want of exercise, medicines, etc. 
 
 Symptoms. Impaction of the large bowels is to be diagnosed by a 
 slight abdominal pain, which may disappear for a day or two to reap- 
 pear with more violence. The feces are passed somewhat more fre- 
 quently, but in smaller quantities and more dry ; the abdomen is full, 
 but not distended with gas; the horse at first is noticed to" paw and 
 soon begins to look back at his sides. Probably one of the most char- 
 acteristic symptoms is the position assumed when down. He lies flat 
 on his side, head and legs extended, occasionally raising his head to 
 look toward his flank ; he remains on his side for from five to fifteen 
 minutes at a time. Evidently this position is the one giving the most 
 freedom from pain. He rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, 
 looks at his sides, backs up against the stall, which he presses with his 
 tail, and soon lies down again, assuming his favored position. The 
 intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear to the flank, are dimin- 
 ished, or there is no sound, indicating absence of motion of the bowels. 
 The bowels may cease entirely to move. The pressure of the distended 
 intestine upon the bladder may cause the horse to make frequent 
 attempts to urinate. The pulse is but little changed at first, being 
 full and sluggish ; later, if this condition is not overcome, it becomes 
 rapid and feeble. Horses may suffer from impaction of the bowels 
 for a week, yet eventually recover, and cases extending two or 
 even three weeks have ended favorably. As a rule, however, they sel- 
 dom last over four or five days, many, in fact, dying sooner than this. 
 
 The treatment consists of efforts to produce movement of the bowels 
 and to prevent inflammation of the same from arising. A large 
 cathartic is to be given as early as possible. Either of the follow- 
 ing is recommended: Powdered Barbados aloes 1 ounce, calomel 2 
 drams, and powdered nux vomica 1 dram; or linseed oil 1 pint and 
 croton oil 15 drops; or from 1 pint to 1 quart of castor oil may be 
 given. Some favor the administration of Epsom or Glauber's salts, 
 1 pound, with one-quarter pound of common salt, claiming that this 
 causes the horse to drink largely of water, and thus mechanically 
 softening the impacted mass and favoring its expulsion. "Whichever 
 physic is selected, it is essential that a full dose be given. This is 
 much better than small and repeated doses. It must be borne in mind 
 that horses require about twenty-four hours in which to respond to a 
 physic, and under no circumstances are physics to be repeated sooner 
 than this. If aloes has been given and has failed to operate at the 
 proper time, oil or some different cathartic should then be adminis- 
 tered. Allow the horse all the water he will drink. Calomel may be
 
 54 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 administered in half-dram doses, the powder being placed on the 
 tongue, one dose every two hours until four doses are given. 
 
 Enemas of glycerin, 2 to 4 ounces, are often beneficial. Rubbing 
 or kneading of the abdominal walls and the application of stimulat- 
 ing liniments or strong mustard water will also, at times, favor the 
 expulsion of this mass. Walking exercise must occasionally be given. 
 If this treatment is faithfully carried out from the start the majority 
 of cases will terminate favorably. Where relief is not obtained in- 
 flammation of the bowels may ensue, and death follow from this 
 cause. 
 
 Constipation, or costivencss. This is often witnessed in the horse, 
 and particularly in the foal. Many colts die every year from failure 
 on the part of the attendant to note the condition of the bowels soon 
 after birth. Whenever the foal fails to pass any feces, and in partic- 
 ular if it presents any signs of colicky pains straining, etc. imme- 
 diate attention must be given it. As a rule, it will only be necessary 
 to give a few injections of soapy water in the rectum and to introduce 
 the finger through the anus to break down any hardened mass of dung 
 found there. If this is not effective, a purgative must be given. Oils 
 are the best for these young animals, and preferably castor oil, giving 
 from 2 to 4 ounces. The foal should always get the first of the 
 mother's milk, as this milk, for a few days, possesses decided laxative 
 properties. If a mare, while suckling, is taking laudanum, morphine, 
 atropia, or similar medicines, the foal should be fed during this time 
 by hand and the mare milked upon the ground. Constipation in 
 ndult horses is often the result of long feeding on dry, innutritious 
 food, deficiency of intestinal secretions, scanty water supply, or lack 
 of oxerriso. If the case is not complicated with colicky symptoms, a 
 change to light, sloppy diet, linseed gruel or tea, with plenty of exer- 
 is all that is required. If colic exists, a cathartic is needed. In 
 very many instances the constipated condition of the bowels is due 
 ecretions, and when so due, may be treated by 
 d extract of Mladonna three times a clay in 2-dram doses, 
 s daily of Epsom salts in the feed. It is always 
 lion j>ossible. to overcome this trouble by a change of diet 
 the use of medicines. For the relief of constipation 
 foods ,,s roots, grass, or green forage are recommended, 
 r-vcr. should be fed sparingly, and not at all unless it is 
 t condition. Moldy silage may cause; fatal disease. 
 
 *) //i the *toinarh). There are prob- 
 
 rrnptoms exhibit,.,! l,y the horse that will lead one to 
 
 < of p ,,tric calculi, and possibly none by which we 
 
 Ks.. rt their presence. Stones in the stomach have 
 
 'nnd in millers' horses fed sweepings from 
 
 ill. A depraved and capricious appetite is common in horses
 
 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 55 
 
 that have a stone forming in their stomach. There is a disposition to 
 eat the woodwork of the stable, earth, and, in fact, almost any sub- 
 stance within their reach. This symptom must not, however, be con- 
 sidered as pathognomonic, since it is observed when calculi are not 
 present. Occasional colics may result from these " stomach stones," 
 and when these lodge at the outlet of the stomach they may give rise 
 to symptoms of engorged stomach, already described. There is, of 
 course, no treatment that will prove effective. Give remedies to move 
 the bowels, to relieve pain, and to combat inflammation. 
 
 Intestinal concretions (calculi (stones} in the intestines). These 
 concretions are usually found in the large bowels, though they are 
 occasionally met with in the small intestines. They are of various 
 sizes, weighing from 1 ounce to 25 pounds; they may be single or 
 multiple, and differ in composition and appearance, some being soft 
 (composed mostly of animal or vegetable matter), while others are 
 porous, or honeycombed (consisting of animal and mineral matter), 
 and others are entirely hard and stonelike. The hair balls, so 
 common to the stomach and intestines of cattle, are very rare in the 
 horse. Intestinal calculi form around some foreign body, as a rule 
 a nail or piece of wood whose shape they may assume to a certain 
 extent. Layers are arranged concentrically around such nucleus until 
 the sizes above spoken of are attained. These stones are also often 
 found in millers' horses, as well also as in horses in limestone districts, 
 where the water is hard. When the calculi attain a sufficient size and 
 become lodged or blocked in some part of the intestines, they cause 
 obstruction, inflammation of the bowels, colicky symptoms, and death. 
 There are no certain signs or symptoms that reveal them. Recurring 
 colics of the type of impaction colic, but more severe, may lead one to 
 suspect the existence of this condition. Examination through the 
 rectum may reveal the calculus. 
 
 The symptoms will be those of obstruction of the bowels. Upon 
 post-mortem examinations these stones will be discovered mostly in 
 the large bowels; the intestines will be inflamed or gangrenous about 
 the point of obstruction. Sometimes calculi have been expelled by the 
 action of a physic, or they may be removed by the hand when found 
 to occupy the rectum. 
 
 As in concretions of the stomach, there can be but little done in the 
 way of treatment more than to overcome spasm (if any exists), and 
 to give physics with the hope of dislodging the stone or stones and 
 carrying them on and outward. 
 
 Intussusception, or invagination. This is the slipping of a portion 
 of the intestine into another portion immediately adjoining, like a 
 partially turned glove finger. This may occur at any part of the 
 bowels, but is most frequent in the small guts. The invaginated por- 
 tion may be slight 2 or 3 inches only or extensive, measuring as
 
 55 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 many feet In intussusception, the inturned bowel is in the direction 
 of the anus. There are adhesions of the intestines at this point, con- 
 gestion, inflammation, or even gangrene. This accident is most likely 
 to occur in horses that are suffering from spasm of the bowel, or in 
 those where a small portion of the gut is paralyzed. The natural 
 wormlike or ringlike contraction of the gut favors the passage of 
 the contracted or paralyzed portion into that immediately behind it. 
 It may occur during the existence of almost any abdominal trouble, as 
 diarrhea, inflammation of the bowels, or from injuries, exposure to 
 cold, etc. A fall or leaping may give the initial maldirection. Foals 
 are most likely to be thus afflicted. 
 
 Symptoms. Unless the invaginated portion of the gut becomes 
 strangulated, probably no symptoms will be appreciable, except con- 
 stipation. Strangulation of the bowel may take place suddenly, and 
 the horse die within twenty-four hours, or it may occur after several 
 days a week even and death follow at this time. There are no 
 fevmptoms positively diagnostic. Colicky pains, more or less severe 
 and continuous, are observed, and there may be at first diarrhea fol- 
 lowed by constipation. Severe straining occurs in some instances of 
 intussusception, and this should be given due credit when it occurs. 
 As death approaches the horse sweats profusely, sighs, presents an 
 anxious countenance, the legs and ears become cold, and there is often 
 freedom from pain immediately before death. In some rare in- 
 stances the horse recovers, even though the invaginated portion of 
 the gut has become strangulated. In this case the imprisoned portion 
 sloughs away so gradually that a union has taken place between the 
 intestines at the point where one portion has slipped into that behind 
 it. The piece sloughing off is found passed with the manure. Such 
 cases are exceedingly rare. Nonirritating laxatives, such as castor 
 oil, sweet oil, or calomel in small doses should be given, and creolin 
 in ti-dram closes in a pint of warm water. Soft feed and mucilag- 
 inous ami nourishing drinks should be given during these attacks. 
 
 . May hew Michener has ojx-rated successfully on a foal with intus- 
 
 bUMception by owning the. abdomen and releasing the imprisoned gut. 
 
 Iridux, f/nf-tif. or twinting of the bowel*. These are the terms 
 
 1 to the Ixiwels when twisted or knotted. This accident is 
 
 rather a common one, and frequently results from the violent manner 
 
 in which a horse throws himself alxiut when attacked by spasmodic 
 
 colir. 'I he Ki/ni/>foHm are the same as those of intussusception and 
 
 tions of ih,. howels; the same directions as to treatment are 
 
 therefore to IK; observed. 
 
 <'tin<>. This occurs in old, debilitated animals 
 
 '<! on coarse innutritions fodder. This produces 
 
 ion of dilatation so pronounced as to make it impossible for 
 
 'ontents, and so obstruction results. The 
 
 symptoms are .,- f onns O f obstruction colic. The history of
 
 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 57 
 
 the case is of much service in diagnosing the trouoie. The treatment 
 consists in the administration of laxatives. One may give 1 quart of 
 raw linseed oil and follow it the next day with 1 pound of Glauber's 
 salts dissolved in a quart of warm water. Strychnia may be given in 
 doses of 1 grain two or three times daily. If the stagnant mass of 
 feces is in the rectum, it must be removed with the hand. 
 
 Abnormal growths, such as tumors or fibrous tissue, producing 
 contraction or stricture may be causes of obstruction. The colic 
 caused by these conditions is chronic. The attacks occur at gradually 
 shortening intervals and become progressively more severe. Relief is 
 afforded by the use of purgatives that render the feces soft and thin 
 and thus enable them to pass the obstruction. But in time the con- 
 tracted place is likely to close so far that passage is impossible and 
 the horse will die. 
 
 (3) FLATULENT COLIC (TYMPANITIC COLIC, WIND COLIC, OR BLOAT). 
 Among the most frequent causes of this form of colic are to be men- 
 tioned sudden changes of food, too long fasting, food then given 
 while the animal is exhausted, new hay or grain, large quantities of 
 green food, food that has lain in the manger for some time and become 
 sour, indigestible food, irregular teeth, crib-biting, and, in fact, any- 
 thing that produces indigestion may produce flatulent colic. 
 
 The symptoms of wind colic are not so suddenly developed nor so 
 severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, 
 paws slightly, and may or may not lie down. The pains from the 
 start are continuous. The belly enlarges, and by striking it in front 
 of the haunches a drumlike sound results. If not soon relieved the 
 above symptoms are aggravated, and in addition there are noticed 
 difficult breathing, bloodshot eyes, and red mucous membranes, loud 
 tumultuous heart beat, profuse perspiration, trembling of front legs, 
 sighing respiration, staggering from side to side, and, finally, plung- 
 ing forward dead. The diagnostic symptom of flatulent colic is the 
 distention of the bowels with gas, detected by the bloated appearance 
 and resonance on percussion. 
 
 The treatment for wind colic differs very materially from that of 
 cramp colic. Absorbents are of some service, and charcoal may be 
 given in any quantity. Relaxants and antispasmodics are also bene- 
 ficial in this form of colic. Chloral hydrate not only possesses these 
 qualities, but it also is an antiferment and a pain reliever. It is then 
 particularly well adapted to the treatment of wind colic, and should 
 be given in the same-sized doses and in the manner directed for spas- 
 modic colic. Diluted alcohol or whisky may be given, or aromatic 
 spirits of ammonia in 1-ounce doses at short intervals. 
 
 A physic should always be given in flatulent colic as early as possi- 
 ble, the best being Barbados aloes in the dose already mentioned. 
 Injections, per rectum, of turpentine 1 to 2 ounces, linseed oil 8 ounces, 
 may be given frequently to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the
 
 58 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 bowels and favor the escape of wind. Blankets wrung out of hot 
 water do much to afford relief; they should be renewed every five 
 or ten minutes and covered with a dry woolen blanket. This form of 
 colic is much more fatal than cramp colic, and requires prompt and 
 persistent treatment It is entirely unsafe to predict the result, some 
 apparently mild attacks going on to speedy death, while others that 
 appear at the onset to be very severe yielding rapidly to treatment. 
 Do not cease your efforts until you are sure the animal is dead. In 
 these severe cases puncturing of the bowels in the most prominent 
 (distended) part by means of a small trocar and cannula or with a 
 needle of a hypodermic syringe, thus allowing the escape of gas, has 
 often saved life, and such punctures, if made with a clean, sharp in- 
 strument that is not allowed to remain in the horse too long, are 
 accompanied by little danger and do more to quickly relieve the 
 patient than any other treatment. 
 
 (4) SPASMODIC, OR CRAMP, COLIC. This is the name given to that 
 form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the 
 small intestines. It is produced by indigestible food; large drinks of 
 cold water when the animal is warm ; driving a heated horse through 
 deep streams; cold rains; drafts of cold air, etc. Unequal distribu- 
 tion of or interference with the nervous supply here produces cramp 
 of the bowels, the same as external cramps are produced. Spasmodic 
 colic is much more frequently met with in high-bred, nervous horses 
 than in coarse, lymphatic ones. 
 
 Symptom*. These should be carefully studied in order to diagnose 
 this from other forms of colic requiring quite different treatment 
 Spasmodic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse is seen 
 to stop abruptly, stamp impatiently, and probably look back. He 
 Mxm evinces more acute pain, and this is shown by pawing, suddenly 
 lying down, rolling, and getting up. During the period of pain the 
 intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear over the flank, are 
 louder than in health. There is then an interval of ease; he will 
 resume feeding and appear to bo entirely well. In a little while, how- 
 ever, the pains return and are increased in severity, only to again pass 
 off for a time. As the attack progresses these intervals of ease become 
 hhorter and shorter, and pain may be continuous, though even now 
 there are exacerbations of pain. Animals suffering from this form of 
 rohc evince the most inten.se pain; they throw themselves down, roll 
 
 ver and over, jump up, whirl about, drop clown again, paw, or strike 
 
 with the front feet, steam and sweat, and make frequent 
 
 rnpts to pass their urine. Only a small amount of water is passed 
 
 , and this is due to the bladder being so frequently emptied. 
 
 attempts to urinate are often regarded by horsemen as symp- 
 
 t rouble of the kidneys or bladder. In Veality they are only 
 
 ways in which the horse expresses the presence of
 
 SPASMODIC COLIC. 59 
 
 pain. As a matter of fact, diseases of the bladder or kidneys of the 
 horse are exceedingly rare. 
 
 To recapitulate the symptoms of spasmodic colic : Keep in mind the 
 history of the case, the type of horse, the suddenness of the attack, 
 the increased intestinal sounds, the intervals of ease (which become of 
 shorter duration as the case progresses) , the violent pain, the normal 
 temperature and pulse during the intervals of ease, the frequent 
 attempts to urinate, etc., and there is but little danger of confounding 
 this with other forms of colic. 
 
 Treatment. Since the pain is due to spasm, or cramp, of the 
 bowels, medicines that overcome spasms antispasmodics are the 
 ones indicated. Chloral hydrate may be used. This is to be given in 
 a dose of 1 ounce in a pint of water as a drench. As his drug is 
 irritant to the throat and stomach, it has to be well 'dilut/ed. A com- 
 mon and good remedy is sulphuric ether and laudanum; of each 2 
 ounces in a half pint of linseed oil. Another drench may be com- 
 posed of 2 ounces each of sulphuric ether and alcohol in 8 ounces of 
 water. If nothing else is at hand give whisky, one-half pint in hot 
 water. Jamaica ginger is useful. If relief is not obtained in one 
 hour from any of the above doses, they may then be repeated. The 
 body should be warmly clothed and perspiration induced. Blankets 
 dipped in very hot water to which a small quantity of turpentine has 
 been added should be placed around the belly and covered with dry 
 blankets, or the abdomen may be rubbed with stimulating liniments 
 or mustard water. The difficulty, however, of applying hot blankets 
 and keeping them in place forces us in most instances to dispense with 
 them. If the cramp is due to irritants in the bowels, a cure is not 
 complete until there is given a cathartic of 1 ounce of aloes or 1 pint 
 of linseed oil. Injections into the rectum of warm soapy water or 
 salt and water aid the cure. 
 
 Rectal injections, clysters, or enemas as a rule should be lukewarm, 
 and from 3 to 6 quarts are to be given at a time. The}' may be 
 repeated every half hour if necessary. Great care is to be taken not 
 to injure the rectum in giving such injections. A large syringe or a 
 piece of rubber hose 4 or 5 feet long, with a funnel attached at one 
 end, affords the best means by which to give them. The pipe of the 
 syringe or the hose introduced into the rectum must be blunt, rounded, 
 and smooth. It is to be thoroughly oiled and then carefully pushed 
 through the anus in a slightly upward direction. Much force must 
 be avoided, for the rectum may be lacerated and serious complications 
 or even death result. Exercise will aid the action of the bowels in this 
 and similar colicky troubles, Ibut severe galloping or trotting is to be 
 avoided. If the horse can have a loose box or paddock, it is the best, 
 as he will then take what exercise he wants. If the patient be ex- 
 tremely violent, it is often wise to restrain him by leading him with a
 
 90 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 baiter, since rupture of the stomach or displacement of the bowels 
 may result and complicate the trouble. 
 
 (5) WORM COLIC. Parasites of many kinds reside in the intestinal 
 canal of horses. There are three kinds of tapeworms, one long round- 
 worm, and several kinds of smaller roundworms. Besides these are 
 the bot-fly grubs and larva'. The intestinal worm most commonly 
 oen is the long round worm, known as Ascaris equorum. They are 
 white or reddish in color and measure from 4 to 12 inches in length. 
 In thickness they vary from the size of a rye straw to that of a lady's 
 little finger, being thickest at the middle and tapering at both ends. 
 They arc found singly or in groups or masses, and infest chiefly the 
 small intestines. (See PI. III.) 
 
 Of the smaller roundworms, there may be mentioned Spiroptera 
 microstoma, which causes ulcers in the stomach; Cyliclinostomum 
 tttraranthnm, Strongylus equinus, and Strongylus vulgaris, which 
 live in the large, intestines. The larva) of the last named burrow in 
 the walls of the great mesenteric artery, causing aneurisms. 
 
 The tapeworms, once seen, are easily recognized. They are white, 
 flat, thin, broad, and jointed. The head is found at the smaller end 
 of the worm. Tapeworms of the horse measure from a few inches to 
 a foot in length. 
 
 Symptoms. Symptoms of intestinal worms are not always ob- 
 served, even when many parasites are present. If the infestation is 
 extreme, there may be slight colicky pains at times, or there may only 
 be switching of the tail, frequent passages of manure, and some slight 
 straining, itching of the anus, and rubbing of the tail or rump against 
 the stall or fences; the horse is in poor condition; does not shed his 
 rout; is hidebound and potbellied; the appetite is depraved, licking 
 , biting the wooden work of the stalls, licking parts of his 
 body, rating earth, and Ix-ing particularly fond of salt; the bowels 
 an* irregular, constipation or diarrhea being noticed. Some place 
 much de|xn<1ence upon the symptom of itching of the upper lip, as 
 y the horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the 
 Others again declare that whenever we see the adhor- 
 v of u dried whitish substance about the anus, worms are present, 
 symptom, however, that we should always look for, and cer- 
 the only one that may not deceive us, is seeing the worms or 
 their eggs (by the use of a microscope.) in the dung. 
 
 -Remedies to destroy intestinal worms are much more 
 
 "n after a long f ast , an( i then the worm medicine must 
 
 by u physir to carry out the worms. Among the 
 
 < mentioned santonin, turpentine, tartar 
 
 fusion of tobacco, and bitter tonics. To destroy 
 
 U n.alcfern, and pumpkin seeds are the best. If 
 
 long roundworms, the plan of treatment is to
 
 INDIGESTION. 61 
 
 give twice daily for three or four days a drench composed of turpen- 
 tine or creolin 1 ounce and linseed oil 2 or 3 ounces, to be followed on 
 the fourth day by a physic of Barbados aloes 1 ounce, or one may give 
 santonine ^ to 2 drams, with calomel 1 to 2 drams. This dose should 
 not be repe'ated, and should be followed in six hours by 1 quart of lin- 
 seed oil. If worms infesting the large bowels are present, injections 
 into the rectum of infusions of tobacco, infusions of quassia chips, 
 one-half pound to a gallon of water, once or twice daily for a few 
 days, and follow by a physic, are most beneficial. It should be borne 
 in mind that intestinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in 
 poor condition, and an essential part of treatment then is to improve 
 the appetite and powers of digestion. This is best done by giving 
 the vegetable tonics. One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, gin- 
 ger, quassia, etc., is to be given twice a day in the feed or as a drench. 
 
 To improve the general condition one may give artificial Carlsbad 
 salts, 1 tablespoonful in each feed, and each dose to have added to it 
 3 to 5 grains of arsenious acid. 
 
 Bot-fly larvae do not require special treatment unless they lodge in 
 the rectum, in which case they may be dislodged by injecting tobacco 
 water. If plenty of rock salt is allowed for horses to lick, they will 
 thus be protected against intestinal parasites to a slight but useful 
 degree. 
 
 INDIGESTION OR GASTRO-INTESTINAL CATARRH. There is ample rea- 
 son for considering these conditions together from the facts that they 
 merge insensibly into each other and usually occur simultaneously. 
 This condition may be acute that is, of sudden onset or it may be 
 chronic. The changes of structure produced by this disease occur 
 in the mucous-membrane lining of the stomach and intestines. This 
 membrane becomes red from increased blood supply or from hemor- 
 rhage into it, it is swollen, and is covered by a coating of slimy 
 mucus. In some especially severe cases the membrane is destroyed 
 in spots, causing the appearance of ulcers or of erosions. 
 
 The causes of indigestion are numerous, but nearly all are the 
 result of errors in feeding. 
 
 Some horses are naturally endowed with weak digestive organs, 
 and such are predisposed to this condition. Anything that irritates 
 the stomach or intestines may cause this disease. Foods that the 
 animal is unaccustomed to, sudden changes of diet, imperfectly cured, 
 unripe, or damaged foods are all fruitful causes, and so are worms. 
 In suckling foals this condition may come from some disease of the 
 dam that renders her .milk indigestible or from overexertion or over- 
 heating of the mare. Another prolific cause is bad teeth, making 
 mastication imperfect, and thus causing the horse to swallow his food 
 in a condition unfit for the action of the digestive juices. Working a 
 horse too soon or too hard after feeding may cause either colic or
 
 52 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 indigestion. Any condition that reduces the vitality of the horse, 
 such as disease, overwork, poor food, or lack of care, may indirectly 
 bring on indigestion by weakening the digestive organs. 
 
 Symptoms. Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite; 
 refusing all food at times, and at others eating ravenously, the appe- 
 tite is not only irregular, but is often depraved ; there is a disposition 
 on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, such as wood, 
 soiled bedding, or even his own feces ; the bowels are irregular to-day, 
 loose and bad smelling, to-morrow bound ; grain is often passed whole 
 in the feces, and the hay passed in balls or impacted masses, under- 
 going but little change; the horse frequently passes considerable 
 quantities of wind that has a sour odor. The animal loses flesh, the 
 skin presents a hard, dry appearance and seems very tight (hide- 
 bound). If the stomach is very seriously involved, the horse may 
 yawn by stretching the head forward and upward and by turning 
 outward the upper lip. There may be more or less colicky pain. In 
 the chronic cases there is mental depression ; the horse is sluggish and 
 dull. The abdomen gradually becomes small, giving a " tucked up " 
 appearance, or, on the other hand, it becomes flaccid and pendulous. 
 
 Treatment. One should commence with the food its quality, 
 quantity, and time of feeding; examine the water supply, and see, 
 besides, that it is given before feeding; then carefully observe the 
 condition of the mouth and teeth ; and, continuing the observations as 
 l>est we may, endeavor to locate the seat of the trouble. If the teeth 
 are sharp or irregular they must be rasped down; if any are decayed 
 Jhey must be extracted; if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or 
 lx>lting, the feed must then be given from a large manger where the 
 grain can be spread and the horse thus compelled to eat slowly. 
 
 Any irritation, such as worms, undigested food, etc., that is 
 operating as causes are to be removed by appropriate treatment, as 
 advised elsewhere. If there is a tendency to distention of the stomach 
 and bowels, with gas, during indigestion, the following may be used: 
 Baking soda, jxwdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. 
 These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping tablespoonful 
 doses, twice a day, l>cforo feeding. This powder is best given by 
 
 laaolving the above quantity in a half pint of water and given as a 
 drench. 
 
 As a digestive tonic the following is good: Glauber's salts, 2 
 jxMmds; common salt, 1 pound; baking soda, one-half pound. Of 
 s a heaping table-spoonful may be given in each feed. If diarrhea 
 exists, the treatment advised In-low may be used. 
 
 Diarrhea is due to indigestion or intestinal catarrh or 
 
 on of the lx>wels from eating moldy or musty food, drinking 
 
 water, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating sub- 
 
 , to being kept on low, marshy pastures, and exposure during
 
 STJPERPUBGATIO3ST. 63 
 
 cold nights, or low, damp stables. Some horses are predisposed to 
 scour and are called " washy " by horsemen ; they are those with long 
 bodies, long legs, and narrow, flat sides. Horses of this build are 
 almost sure to scour if fed or watered immediately before being put to 
 work. Fast or road work, of course, aggravates this trouble. Diar- 
 rhea may exist as a complication of other diseases as pneumonia and 
 influenza, for instance, and again during the diseases of the liver. 
 
 The symptoms are the frequent evacuations of liquid stools, with or 
 without pronounced abdominal pain, loss of appetite, emaciation, etc. 
 
 Treatment is at times very simple, but requires the utmost care and 
 judgment. If due to faulty food or water it is sufficient to change 
 these. If it results from some irritant in the intestines, this is best 
 gotten rid of by the administration of an oleaginous purge, for which 
 nothing is better than castor oil, although raw linseed oil may be used 
 if the case is not severe. The diarrhea often disappears with the ces- 
 sation of the operation of the medicine. If, however, purging con- 
 tinues, it may be checked by giving wheat flour in water, starch 
 water, white-oak bark tea, chalk, opium, or half-dram doses of sul- 
 phuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or thrice daily. Good 
 results follow the use of powdered opium 2 drams and subnitrate of 
 bismuth 1 ounce, repeated three times a day. It should be remem- 
 bered in all cases to look to the water and feed the horse is receiving. 
 If either of these is at fault it is at once to be discontinued. We 
 should feed sparingly of good, easily digested foods. With that 
 peculiar build of nervous horses that scour on the road but little can 
 be done, as a rule. They should be watered and fed as long as possi- 
 ble before going on a drive. If there is much flatulency accompany- 
 ing diarrhea, baking soda or other alkaline medicines may effect a 
 cure, while if the discharges have a very disagreeable odor, this can 
 be corrected by 1 ounce of sulphite of soda or dram doses of creolin in 
 water, repeated twice a day. Be slow to resort to either the vege- 
 table or mineral astringents, since the majority of cases will yield to 
 change of food and water or the administration of oils. Afterwards 
 feed upon wheat- flour gruel or other light foods. The body should 
 be warmly clothed. 
 
 SUPERPURGATION. This is the designation of that diarrhea, or flux 
 from the bowels, that, at times, is induced by and follows the action 
 of a physic. It is accompanied by much irritation or even inflamma- 
 tion of the bowels and is always of a serious character. Although in 
 rare instances it follows from a usual dose of physic and where every 
 precaution has been taken, it is most likely to result under the follow- 
 ing circumstances: Too large a dose of physic; giving physics to 
 horses suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating dis- 
 eases; riding or driving a horse when purging; exposure or drafts of 
 cold air ; or giving large quantities of cold water while the physic is
 
 54 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 operating. There is always danger of Riperpurgation if a physic is 
 Driven to a horse suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. 
 Small and often-repeated physics are also to be avoided, as they pro- 
 duce debility and great depression of the system and predispose to 
 this disorder. When a physic is to be given one should rest the horse 
 and give him sloppy food until the medicine begins to operate; clothe 
 the body with a warm blanket; keep out of drafts; give only warm 
 water in small quantities. After a horse has purged from twelve to 
 twenty-four hours it can mostly be stopped, or " set," as horsemen 
 say, by feeding on dry oats and hay. Should the purging continue, 
 however, it is l>fcst treated by giving demulcent drinks linseed tea 
 and oatmeal or wheat-Hour gruel. After this the astringents spoken 
 of for diarrhea may be given. Besides this the horse is to receive 
 brandy in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces, with milk and eggs, four or 
 rive times a day. 
 
 Laminitis " founder" is a frequent sequel of superpurgation and 
 is to be guarded against by removing the shoes and standing the horse 
 on moist sawdust or some similar bedding. 
 
 DYSKNTKRY. This disease, sometimes called "bloody flux," is an 
 intestinal disease attended with fever, occasional abdominal pains, 
 and fluid discharges mingled with blood. Discharges in dysentery 
 are coffee colored or bloody, liquid, and very offensive in odor, and 
 passed with much straining. It is rare in the horse, but is sometimes 
 quite prevalent among foals. 
 
 CanxcH. Probably the most common cause is keeping young horses 
 in particular for a long time on low, wet, marshy pastures, without 
 other feed (a diarrhea of long standing sometimes terminates in dys- 
 entery) ; exposure during cold, wet weather; decomposed foods; stag- 
 nant water that contains large quantities of decomposing vegetable 
 matter: low, dump, and dark stables, particularly if crowded; the 
 existence of some disease, as tiilx>rculosis of the abdominal form. In 
 Buckling foals it may come, from feeding the dam on irritant foods or 
 from disease of the udder. In other foals it may be produced by 
 exjxwure to cold and damp, to irritant food, or to worms. 
 
 -The initial symptom is a chill, which probably escapes 
 
 in the majority of instances. The discharges are offensive and 
 
 for the mst part liquid, although it is common to find lumps of solid 
 
 feral mutter floating in this liquid portion; shreds of mucous mem- 
 
 blood may I*, passed, or the evacuations may be muco-puru- 
 
 s much straining, and, rarely, symptoms of abdominal 
 
 ? down a great deal : 'the' pulse is quickened and 
 
 vated. Thirst is a prominent symptom. In the 
 
 s under two to three weeks, but in foals the 
 
 dineaM* nmy end in death after a few days. 
 
 is most unsatisfactory, and I am inclined to place
 
 GASTBO-ENTEEITIS. 65 
 
 more dependence upon the care and feed than any medication that 
 may be adopted. First of all the horse must be placed in a dry, 
 warm, yet well-ventilated stable ; the skin is to receive attention by 
 frequent rubbings of the surface of the body, with blankets, and 
 bandages to the legs. The water must be pure and given in small 
 quantities ; the food, that which is light and easily digested. Medic- 
 inally, give at first a light dose of castor oil, about one-half pint, to 
 which has been added 2 ounces of laudanum. The vegetable or min- 
 eral astringents are also to be given. Starch injections containing 
 laudanum often afford great relief. The strength must be kept up 
 :>y milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oatmeal gruel, etc. In spite of the 
 best care and treatment, however, dysentery is likely to prove fatal. 
 In the case of nurslings, the dam should be placed in a healthy con- 
 dition or, failing in this, "milk should be had from another mare or 
 from a cow. 
 
 GASTRO-ENTERITIS. This condition consists in an inflammation of 
 the stomach and intestines. Instead of being confined to the mucous, 
 3r lining, membrane, as in gastro-intestinal catarrh, the inflammatory 
 process extends deeper and may even involve the entire thickness of 
 the wall of the organ. 
 
 This disease may be caused by irritant food, hot drinks, sudden 
 chilling, moldy or decayed foods, foul water, parasites, or by chemical 
 poisons. It may also complicate some general diseases, especially 
 infectious diseases, as anthrax, influenza, rabies, or petechial fever. 
 Long-continued obstruction of the bowels or displacement resulting 
 in death are preceded by enteritis. 
 
 The symptoms differ somewhat with the cause and depend also, to 
 some extent, upon the chief location of the inflammation. In general 
 the animal stops eating or eats but little; it shows colicky pain; 
 fever develops ; the pulse and respiration become rapid ; the mucous 
 membrane becomes red; the mouth is hot and dry. Pressure upon 
 the abdomen may cause pain. Intestinal sounds can not be heard at 
 the flank. There is constipation in the earlier stages that is followed 
 later by diarrhea. The extremities become cold. Sometimes the 
 feces are coated with or contain shreds of fibrin, looking like scraps 
 of dead membrane, and they have an evil, putrid odor. If the disease 
 is caused by moldy or damaged food there may be great muscular 
 weakness with partial paralysis of the throat, as shown by inability 
 to swallow. If chemical poisons are the cause, this fact may be 
 shown by the sudden onset of the disease, the history of the adminis- 
 tration of a poison or the entire absence of known cause, the rapid 
 development of threatening symptoms, the involvement of a series of 
 animals in the absence of a contagious disease, and the special symp- 
 toms and alterations known to be produced by certain poisons. To 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 5
 
 (J(5 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 make this chain of evidence complete, the poison may be discovered 
 in the organs of the horse by chemical analysis. In nearly all cases 
 of Castro-enteritis there is nervous depression. 
 
 The poisons that are most irritant to the digestive tract are arsenic, 
 corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, sulphate of copper, sulphate or 
 chloride of zinc, lye or other strong alkalies, mineral acids, and, 
 among the vegetable poisons, tobacco, lobelia, and water hemlock. 
 
 The treatment will depend upon the cause, but if this can not be 
 detected, certain general indications may be observed. In all cases 
 food should be given in small amounts and should be of the most 
 soothing description, as oatmeal gruel, flaxseed tea, hay tea, fresh 
 grass, or rice water. The skin should be well rubbed with wisps of 
 straw and alcohol, to equalize the distribution of the blood; the legs, 
 after being rubbed until warm, should be bandaged in raw cotton or 
 with woolen bandages. The horse should be warmly blanketed. It is 
 well to apply to the abdomen blankets wrung out of hot water and 
 frequently changed ; or mustard paste may be rubbed on the skin of 
 the tally. Internally, opium is of service to allay pain, check secre- 
 tion, and soothe the inflamed membrane. The dose is from 1 to 2 
 drams, given every three or four hours. If there is constipation, the 
 opium should be mixed with 30 grains of calomel. Subnitrate of 
 bismuth may be given with the opium or separately in 2-dram doses. 
 Stimulants, such as alcohol, aromatic spirits of ammonia, or camphor 
 may ta given in 2-ounce doses, mixed with warm water to make a 
 drench. 
 
 If putrid food lias been consumed, creolin may be administered in 
 
 doses of ii drams, mixed with 1 pint of warm water or milk. If there 
 
 .s obstinate constipation and a laxative must be employed, it should 
 
 ta sweet or castor oil, from 1 pint to 1 quart. For the various 
 
 poisons the remedies are as follows: Arsenic, oxyhydrate of iron 
 
 solution, 1 pint to 1 quart, or calcined magnesia one-half ounce in 1 
 
 pint of water; corrosive sublimate, the whites of a dozen eggs or 2 
 
 ounces of flowers of sulphur; sugar of lead, Glauber's salts, 1 pound 
 
 1 quart of warm water, to ta followed with iodide of potash, 3 
 
 drains at a dose, in water, three times daily for five days; sulphate of 
 
 '. milk, the whites of eggs, or reduced iron; sulphate of chlo- 
 
 >.inc, milk, the whites of eggs, or calcined magnesia; lye or 
 
 'c pot<i*h or *oda, vinegar, dilute sulphuric acid, and 
 
 ith opium, 3 drams; mineral acids, chalk, or calcined 
 
 sia, or baking soda ; later give linseed tea and opium. 
 
 oins, OR I.,I.KS. -These are rare, comparatively, in horses. 
 
 liapiosed by (lie appearance of bright-red irregular tumors 
 
 -ration, which may remain visible, at all times or ta seen only 
 
 is down or after passing his manure. They are mostly 
 
 constipation, to irritation, or injuries, or follow from the
 
 HERNIA, OE EUPTUEE. 67 
 
 severe straining during dysentery* I have observed them to follow 
 from severe labor pains in the mare. 
 
 Treatment. Attention must be paid to the condition of the bowels ; 
 they should be soft, but purging is to be avoided. The tumors 
 should be washed in warm water and thoroughly cleansed, after which 
 scarify them and gently but firmly squeeze out the liquid that will be 
 seen to follow the shallow incisions. After thus squeezing these 
 tumors and before replacing through the anus, bathe the parts with 
 some anodyne wash. For this purpose the glycerite of tannin and 
 laudanum in equal parts is good. Mucilaginous injections into the 
 rectum may be of service for a few days. 
 
 HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. There are several different kinds of hernias 
 that require notice, not all of which, however, produce serious symp- 
 toms or results. Abdominal hernias, or ruptures, are divided into 
 reducible, irreducible, and strangulated, according to condition; and 
 into inguinal, scrotal, ventral, umbilical, and diaphragmatic, accord- 
 ing to their situation. A hernia is reducible when the displaced organ 
 can be returned to its natural location. It consists of a soft swelling, 
 without heat, pain, or any uneasiness, generally larger on full feed, 
 and decreases in size as the bowels become empty. An irreducible 
 hernia is one that can not be returned into the abdomen, and yet does 
 not cause any pain or uneasiness. Strangulated hernia is one where 
 the contents of the sac are greatly distended, or where from pressure 
 upon the blood vessels of the imprisoned portion the venous circula- 
 tion is checked or stopped, thereby causing congestion, swelling, in- 
 flammation, and, if not relieved, gangrene of the part and death of 
 the animal. According to the time or mode of origin, hernias may be 
 congenital or acquired. 
 
 Congenital scrotal hernia. Not a few foals are noticed from birth 
 to have an enlarged scrotum, which gradually increases in size until 
 about the sixth month, sometimes longer. Sometimes the scrotum of 
 a six-months-old colt is as large as that of an adult stallion, and 
 operative treatment is considered. This is unnecessary in the great 
 majority of cases, as this enlargement often disappears by the time 
 the colt has reached his second year. Any interference, medicinal or 
 surgical, is worse than useless. If the intestine contained within the 
 scrotum should at any time become strangulated, it must then be 
 treated the same as in an adult horse. 
 
 Scrotal hernia is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle, 
 combined with relaxation of the fibrous tissues surrounding the in- 
 guinal ring, thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum. 
 At first this is intermittent, appearing during work and returning 
 when the horse is at rest. For a long time this form of hernia may 
 not cause the least uneasiness or distress. In course of time, however, 
 the imprisoned gut becomes filled with feces, its return into the ab-
 
 (J$ DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 dominal cavity is prevented, and -it becomes strangulated. While 
 the gut is thus filling the horse often appears dull, is disinclined to 
 move, appetite is impaired, and there is rumbling and obstruction of 
 the bowels. Colicky symptoms now supervene. Strangulation and 
 its consequent train of symptoms do not always follow in scrotal 
 hernia, for often horses have this condition without suffering incon- 
 venience for years. 
 
 Inguinal hernia is but an incomplete scrotal hernia, and, like the 
 latter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or, again, it may be- 
 come strangulated and cause the death of the animal. Inguinal hernia 
 is seen mostly in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the 
 mare. Bearing in mind that scrotal hernia is seen only in entire 
 horses, we can proceed to detail the symptoms of both strangulated, 
 inguinal, and scrotal hernia at the same time. When, during the 
 existence of colicky symptoms, we find a horse kicking with his hind 
 feet while standing or lying upon his back, we should look to the 
 inguinal region and scrotum. If scrotal hernia exists the scrotum 
 will IK? enlarged and lobulated; by pressure we may force a portion of 
 the contents of the gut back into the abdomen, eliciting a gurgling 
 sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold upon the enlarged scrotum 
 and then have an assistant cause the horse to cough, the swelling will 
 be felt to expand and as quickly contract again. 
 
 The history of these cases will materially aid us, as the owner can 
 often assure us of preceding attacks of " colic," more or less severe, 
 that have l*>en instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccounta- 
 ble manner. The colicky symptoms of these hernias are not diagnos- 
 tic, but, probably, more closely resemble those of enteritis than any 
 other lx>wel diseases. The diagnosis can, in many cases, be made only 
 by a veterinarian, when he has recourse to a rectal examination; the 
 bowels can here be felt entering the internal abdominal ring. 
 
 Treatment of inguinal hernia. If the reader can be sure of the 
 existence of hernia, he should secure the horse upon its back, and, 
 *ith ti hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of the wandering 
 bowel and pull it gently back into the cavity of the abdomen. Pres- 
 Hiire should 1*> made upon the scrotum during this time. If these 
 means fail a veterinarian must l>e called to reduce the hernia by 
 means of inc.isirig the inguinal ring, replacing the intestines, and 
 castrate, using clamps and performing the " covered operation." 
 
 , rnia. In this form of hernia the protrusion is through 
 
 ' accidental opening or rupture of the abdominal wall. It may 
 
 v part of the belly except at the umbilicus, and is caused 
 
 severe jumping or pulling, etc. Ventral 
 
 s most common in pregnant mares, and is here due to the 
 
 the fHus or some degenerative changes taking place in the 
 
 s recognized by the appearance of a swelling,
 
 HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. 69 
 
 at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the abdominal 
 tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the intestines , 
 can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a favorable 
 position. 
 
 Treatment of ventral hernia. In many instances there is no occa- 
 sion for treatment, and again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treat- 
 ment is of no avail. If the hernia is small, a cure may be attempted 
 by the methods to be described in treating of umbilical hernia. If 
 one is fortunate enough to be present when the hernia occurs, and 
 particularly if it is not too large, he may, by the proper application 
 of a pad and broad bandage, effect a perfect cure. 
 
 Umbilical hernia is the passing of any portion of the bowel or 
 omentum (" caul ") through the navel, forming a " tumor " at this 
 point. This is often congenital in our animals, and is due to the im- 
 perfect closure of the umbilicus and to the position of the body. 
 Many cases of umbilical hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the con- 
 genital kind, disappear entirely by the time the animal reaches its 
 second or third year. Advancing age favors cure in these cases from 
 the fact that the omentum (swinging support of the bowels) is pro- 
 portionally shorter in adults than in foals, thus lifting the intestines 
 out of the hernial sac and allowing the opening in the walls to close. 
 Probably one of the most frequent causes of umbilical hernia in foals 
 is the practice of keeping them too long from their dams, causing 
 them to fret and worry, and to neigh, or cry, by the hour. The con- 
 traction of the abdominal muscles and pressure of the intestines dur- 
 ing neighing seem to open the umbilicus and induce hernia. Acci- 
 dents may cause umbilical hernia in adults in the same manner as 
 ventral hernia is produced, though this is very rare. 
 
 Treatment of umbilical hernia. In the treatment of umbilical 
 hernia it should be remembered that congential hernias are often 
 removed with age, but probably congenital umbilical hernias less fre- 
 quently than others. Among the many plans of treatment are to be 
 mentioned the application of a pad over the tumor, the pad being 
 held in place by a broad tight bandage placed around the animal's 
 body. The chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping the pad 
 in its place. Blisters are often applied over the swelling, and, as 
 the skin hardens and contracts by the formation of scabs, an artificial 
 bandage or pressure is produced that at times is successful. Another 
 treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years consists 
 in first clipping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is then 
 applied by a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin. 
 This sets up a deep-seated adhesive inflammation, which, in very 
 many cases, closes the opening in the navel. Still another plan is to 
 inject a solution of common salt by means of the hypodermic syringe 
 at three or four points about the base of the swelling. This acts in
 
 70 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the same manner as the preceding, but may cause serious injury if 
 the syringe or solution is not sterile. 
 
 Others, again, after keeping the animal fasting for a few hours, 
 cast and secure it upon its back ; the bowel is then carefully returned 
 into the abdomen. The skin over the opening is pinched up and one 
 or two skewers are run through the skin from side to side as close as 
 possible to the umbilical opening. These skewers are kept in place 
 by passing a cord around the skin between them and the abdomen 
 and securely tied. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords 
 too tight, as this would cause a speedy slough of the skin, the intes- 
 tines would extrude, and death result. If properly applied, an adhe- 
 sion is established between the skin and the umbilicus which effectually 
 closes the orifice. Special clamps are provided for taking up the 
 fold of the skin covering the hernial sac and holding it until the ad- 
 hesion is formed. 
 
 Diaphragmatic hernia. This consists of the passage of any of the 
 abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff) into 
 the cavity of the thorax. It is rather a rare accident and one often 
 impossible to diagnose during life. Colicky symptoms, accompanied 
 by great difficulty in breathing, and the peculiar position so often 
 assumed (that of sitting upon the haunches) are somewhat character- 
 istic of this trouble, though these symptoms, as we have already seen, 
 may be present during diseases of the stomach or anterior portion of 
 the bowels. Even could we pronounce, with certainty, this form of 
 hernia, there is little or nothing that can be done. Leading the horse 
 up a very steep gangway or causing him to rear up may possibly cause 
 the hernial portion to return to its natural position. This is not 
 enough, however; it must be kept there. 
 
 PERITONITIS. Peritonitis is an inflammation of the serous mem- 
 brane lining the cavity of and covering the viscera contained within 
 the abdomen, It is very rare to see a case of primary peritonitis. It 
 , however, somewhat common as a secondary disease from extension 
 iflammatory action involving organs covered by the perito- 
 ieum. Peritonitis is often caused by injuries, as punctured wounds of 
 thf abdomen, severe, blows or kicks, or, as is still more common, fol- 
 x'mg the operation of castration. It follows strangulated hernia, 
 mvagination, or rupture of the stomach, intestines, liver, or womb. 
 
 -Peritonitis s mostly preceded by a chill; the horse is 
 
 i*j*>socl to move, and, if compelled to do so, moves with a stiff or 
 
 : he paws with the front feet and may strike at his belly with 
 
 lies down very carefully; as the pain is increased while 
 
 p maintains during most of the time the standing position; he 
 
 r alKmt the stall. Constipation is usually present. Pres- 
 
 ranses acute pain, and the horse will bite, strike, or 
 
 turbed; the abdomen is tucked up; the extremities are
 
 DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN. 71 
 
 fine and cold. The temperature is higher than normal, reaching from 
 102 to 104 F. The pulse in peritonitis is rather characteristic; it is 
 quickened, beating from seventy to ninety beats per minute, and is 
 hard and wiry. This peculiarity of the pulse occurs in inflammation 
 of the serous membrane, and if accompanied by colicky symptoms, 
 and, in particular, if following any injuries, accidental or surgical, of 
 the peritoneum, there is reason to think that peritonitis is present. 
 Peritonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it is at all extensive. If 
 death does not occur in a short time, the inflammation assumes a 
 chronic form, in which there is an extensive effusion of water in the 
 cavity of the belly, constituting what is known as ascites, and which, 
 as a rule, results in death. 
 
 The treatment of peritonitis is to be somewhat like that of enteri- 
 tis. Opium in powder, 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is 
 to be given every two, three, or four hours, and constitutes the main 
 dependence in this disease. Extensive counterirritants over the belly, 
 consisting of mustard plasters, applications of mercurial ointment, 
 turpentine stupes, or even mild blisters, are recommended. Purga- 
 tives must never be given during this complaint. Should we desire to 
 move the bowels, it can be done by gentle enemas, though it is seldom 
 necessary to resort even to this. 
 
 ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN. This is seen as a result of 
 subacute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the 
 liver, kidneys, heart, or lungs. There will be found, on opening the 
 cavity of the belly, a large collection of yellowish or reddish liquid; 
 from a few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear 
 in color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains 
 numerous loose flakes of coagulable lymph. 
 
 Symptoms. There is slight tenderness on pressure; awkward gait 
 of the hind legs ; the horse is dull, and may have occasional very slight 
 colicky pains, shown by looking back and striking at the belly with 
 the hind feet. Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent. 
 Diarrhea often precedes death, but during the progress of the disease 
 the bowels are alternately constipated and loose. On percussing the 
 abdominal walls we find that dullness exists to the same height on 
 both sides of the belly ; by suddenly pushing or striking the abdomen 
 we can hear the rushing or flooding of water. If the case is an ad- 
 vanced one, the horse is potbellied to the extreme, and dropsical 
 swellings are seen under the belly and upon the legs. 
 
 Treatment is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Ep- 
 som or Glauber's salts, and diuretics, ounce doses of saltpeter, may be 
 given. If a veterinarian is at hand he will withdraw the accumula- 
 tion of water by tapping and then endeavor to prevent its recurrence 
 (though this is almost sure to follow) by giving three times a day 
 saltpeter, 1 ounce, and iodide of potash, 1 dram, and by the applica-
 
 72 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 tion of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, min- 
 eral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one 
 consisting of powdered sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal 
 parts; a heaping tablespoonful of the mixture is given as a drench or 
 mixed with the feed, twice a day. Good nutritious foods and gentle 
 exercise complete the treatment. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 
 
 The liver of the horse is, in the United States, but rarely the seat 
 of disease, and when we consider how frequently the liver of man is 
 affected this can not but appear strange. The absence of the gall 
 bladder may account to a certain extent for his freedom from liver 
 diseases; as overdistention of this and the presence in it of calculi 
 (stones) in man is a frequent source of trouble. In domestic animals, 
 as in man, hot climates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in 
 cold climates lung diseases prevail. Not only are diseases of the liver 
 rare in horses in temperate climates, but they are also very obscure, 
 and in many cases pass totally unobserved until after death. There 
 are some symptoms, however, which, when present, should make us 
 examine the liver as carefully as possible. These are jaundice 
 (yellowness of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes) 
 and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty in 
 apjK-a ranee. 
 
 HEPATITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. This disease may be 
 general or local, and may assume an acute or chronic form. 
 
 The Kymptom* of acute hepatitis are: Dullness; the horse is suffer- 
 ing from some internal pain, but not of a severe type; constipated and 
 clay-colored dung balls; scanty and high-colored urine; and general 
 febrile symptoms. If lying down, he is mostly found on the left side ; 
 looks occasionally toward the right side, which, upon close inspection, 
 may 1*> found to l>e slightly enlarged over the posterior ribs, where 
 pnin u|x>n pressure is also evinced. Obscure lameness in front, of the 
 right l f 'K mostly, may be a symptom of hepatitis. The horse, toward 
 the la^t. reels or staggers in his gait and falls backward in a fainting 
 fit, during one of which he finally succumbs. Death is sometimes due 
 t<> rupture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood 
 vetwls. 
 
 *. Among tho causes that lead to this disease we must men- 
 tion first the .stimulating effect of overfeeding, particularly during 
 weather. Horse* that are well fed and receive but little exercise 
 Ix-st subjects for diseases of this organ. We must add to 
 raus** the more mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side 
 the liver, worm-; in the liver, gallstones in the biliary ducts, for- 
 ~as needle- or nails that have been swallowed and in their 
 have entered the liver and, lastly, in some instances, the
 
 DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 73 
 
 jxtension of inflammation from neighboring parts, thus involving 
 ;his organ. Acute hepatitis may terminate in chronic inflammation, 
 ibscesses, rupture of the liver, or may disappear, leaving behind no 
 ;race of disease whatever. 
 
 Treatment. This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1 
 mnce of Barbados aloes or other physic. General blood-letting, if 
 lad recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in acute inflamma- 
 tion of the liver. The vein in the neck (jugular) must be opened, 
 ind from 4 to 6 quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medicines, as 
 jlauber's salts or the artificial Carlsbad salt, is indicated. These 
 nay be given with the feed in tablespoonful doses. The horse is to 
 3e fed sparingly on soft food, bran mashes chiefly. If treatment 
 proves successful and recovery takes place, see to it that the horse 
 ifterwards gets regular exercise and that his food is not of a too 
 lighly nutritious character and not excessive. 
 
 JAUNDICE, ICTERUS, OR THE YELLOWS. This is a condition caused 
 by the retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was for- 
 merly considered to be a disease of itself, but is now regarded as a 
 symptom of disorder of the liver. " The yellows " is observed by 
 looking at the eyes, nose, and mouth, when it will be seen that these 
 parts are yellowish instead of the pale-pink color of health. In white 
 or light-colored horses the skin even may show this yellow tint. The 
 urine is saffron colored, the dung is of a dirty-gray color, and con- 
 stipation is usually present. Jaundice may be present as a symptom 
 of almost any inflammatory disease. We know that when an animal 
 has fever the secretions are checked, the bile may be retained and 
 absorbed throughout the system, and yellowness of the mucous mem- 
 branes follows. Jaundice may also exist during* the presence of 
 simple constipation, hepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening 
 of the liver, etc. 
 
 Treatment. When jaundice exists we must endeavor to rid the 
 system of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished by giving 
 purgatives that act upon the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, 7 
 drams, should be given. Glauber's salts in handful doses once or 
 twice a day for a week is also effective. May apple, rhubarb, castor 
 oil, and other cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels may 
 be selected. We must be careful to see that the bowels are kept open 
 by avoiding hard, dry, bulky foods. 
 
 RUPTURE OF THE LIVER. This is known to occur at times in the 
 horse, most frequently in old fat horses and those that get but little 
 exercise. Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for 
 years eventually present symptoms of colic and die quite suddenly. 
 Upon post-mortem examination we discover that the liver had rup- 
 tured. The cicatrices, or scars, that are often found upon the liver 
 indicate that this organ may suffer small rupture and yet the horse
 
 74 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 recover from it. This result can not obtain, however, if the rent or 
 tear is extensive, since in such cases death must quickly follow from 
 hemorrhage, or, later, from peritonitis. Enlarged liver is particu- 
 larly liable to rupture. 
 
 Cewes. The immediate causes of rupture appear to be excessive 
 muscular exertion, as leaping a fence, a fall, a blow from a collision, a 
 kick from a horse, or sudden distention of the abdomen with gas. 
 
 The symptoms of rupture of the liver will depend upon the extent 
 of the laceration. If slight, there will be simply the symptoms of 
 abdominal pain, looking back to the sides, lying down, etc. ; if exten- 
 sive, the horse is dull and dejected, has no appetite, breathing be- 
 comes short and catching, he sighs or sobs, visible mucous mem- 
 branes are pale, extremities cold, pulse fast, small, and weak or 
 running down. Countenance now shows much distress, he sweats 
 profusely, totters in his gait, props his legs wide apart, reels, stag- 
 gers, and falls. He may get up again, but soon falls dead. The rapid 
 running-down pulse, paleness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, sighing, 
 ftertorous breathing, tottering gait, etc., are symptoms by which we 
 know that the animal is dying from internal hemorrhage. 
 
 Treatment. But little can be done in the way of treatment. Opium 
 in powder, in doses of 2 drams every two or three hours, may be 
 given, with the idea of preventing as much as possible all movements 
 of internal organs. If there is reason to suspect internal bleeding, 
 we should give large and frequent doses of white-oak bark tea, dram 
 doses of tannic or gallic acid, or the same quantity of sugar of lead, 
 even' half hour or hour. Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the 
 chloride of iron, in ounce doses, may be selected. Cold water dashed 
 upon the right side or injected into the rectum is highly spoken of as 
 a means of checking the hemorrhage. 
 
 BILIARY CALCULI, OR GALLSTONES. These are rarely found in the 
 horse, but may occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and 
 to colicky pains. There are no absolutely diagnostic symptoms, but 
 should one find a horse that suffers from repeated attacks of colic, 
 accompanied by symptoms of violent pain, and that during or follow- 
 ing these attacks the animal is jaundiced, it is possible that gallstones 
 are present There is little or nothing to be done except to give 
 medicines to overcome pain, trusting that these concretions may pass 
 on to the tmwnl.s, where, from their small size, they will not occasion 
 any inconvenience. 
 
 DiftKASKH OF THE PANCREAS AND SPLEEN. Diseases of the pancreas 
 
 nnd spleen are so rare, or their symptoms so little understood, that it 
 
 *ble to write anything concerning either of these organs and 
 
 simple diseases that will convey to the reader information of 
 
 practical value.
 
 MEN &CO.N V 
 
 B O T S . 
 L Bots in the si'omac'h. 
 2 Bots in (he (l.uo(l<Minm
 
 PLATE HI. 
 
 OJcvuris eg ui 
 
 CvlicHnostomum r<*tra en n tHittn 
 
 .v rijitoruin 
 
 STIJSTAL WORMS.
 
 DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 
 
 By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S-, 
 Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. 
 
 [Revised in 1903 by the author.] 
 USES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 
 
 The urinary organs constitute the main channel through which are 
 excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid principles, whether derived 
 directly from the food or from the muscular and other nitrogenized 
 tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through 
 which are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the 
 mouth or skin or developed in connection with faulty or natural 
 digestion, blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction; or, finally, 
 poisons that are developed within the body, as the result of normal 
 cell life or of the life of bacteria or other germs that have entered the 
 body from without. Bacteria themselves largely escape from the 
 body through the kidneys. To a large extent, therefore, these organs 
 are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the system, and when 
 their functions are impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly 
 show their presence in resulting disorders of the skin and connective 
 tissue beneath it, of the nervous system, or other organs. Nor is this 
 influence one-sided. Scarcely an important organ of the body can 
 suffer derangement without entailing a corresponding disorder of the 
 urinary system. Nothing can be more striking than the mutual bal- 
 ance maintained between the liquid secretions of the skin and kidneys 
 during hot and cold weather. In summer, when so much liquid ex- 
 hales through the skin as sweat, comparatively little urine is passed, 
 whereas in winter, when the skin is inactive, the urine is correspond- 
 ingly increased. This vicarious action of skin and kidneys is usually 
 kept within the limits of health, but at times the draining off of the 
 water by the skin leaves too little to keep the solids of the urine safely 
 in solution, and these are liable to crystallize out and form stone and 
 gravel. Similarly the passage in the sweat of some of the solids that 
 normally leave the body, dissolved in the urine, serves to irritate the 
 skin and produce troublesome eruptions. 
 
 PROMINENT CAUSES OF URINARY DISORDERS. 
 
 A disordered liver contributes to the production, under different 
 circumstances, of an excess of biliary coloring matter, which stains 
 
 75
 
 76 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 the urine; of an excess of hippuric acid and allied products, which 
 being less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change), 
 favor the formation of stone, of taurocholic acid, and other bodies 
 that tend, when in excess, to destroy the blood globules and to cause 
 irritation of the kidneys by the resulting hemoglobin excreted in the 
 urine, and of glycogen too abundant to be burned up in the system, 
 which induces saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to 
 impaired functional activity of the lungs is causative of an excess of 
 hippuric acid and allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc., in the 
 urine, which irritate the kidneys even if they do not produce solid 
 deposits in the urinary passages. Diseases of the nervous system, 
 and notably of the base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce 
 various urinary disorders, prominent among which are diabetes, 
 chylous urine, and albuminuria. Certain affections, with imperfect 
 nutrition or destructive waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the 
 urine with phosphates of lime and magnesia, and endanger the forma- 
 tion of stone and gravel. In all extensive inflammations and acute 
 fevers the liquids of the urine are diminished, while the solids (waste 
 products), which should form the urinary secretion, are increased, 
 and the surcharged urine proves irritant to the urinary organs or the 
 retained waste products poison the system at large. 
 
 Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free onward 
 flow of the. blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that 
 liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood 
 strongly tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken 
 with the f(x>d and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone 
 and those found in irritant diuretic plants, are especially injurious to 
 the kidneys, as are also various cryptogams, whether present in musty 
 hay or oats. The kidneys may be irritated by feeding green vege- 
 tables covered with hoar frost or by furnishing an excess of food rich 
 in phosphates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, lentils, rape cake, 
 cotton-seed cake) or by a privation of water, which entails a concen- 
 trated condition and high density of the urine. Exposure in cold 
 rain or snow storms, cold drafts of air, and damp beds are liable to 
 further disorder an already overworked or irritable kidney. Finally, 
 sprains of th< back and loins may cause bleeding from the kidneys or 
 inflammation. 
 
 weighing 23J ounces, is shaped like a French 
 
 , and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the 
 
 wo ribs. Tho left kidney (Plate IV) resembles a heart of cards, 
 
 tomls from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib 
 
 Knph consists of throe distinct parts (a) the external (corti- 
 
 ilnr part, in which the blood vessels form elaborate 
 
 within the Hilatod globular sacs which form the 
 
 ecrt'ting (uriuiferous) tubes and on the surface
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 ri,Cortic*zl lor \ -n&r*il.tiri portion / b. Medullary' for tubular ) portion 
 GI Peripheral, portion, of the latter-, d. , Interior of the pelvis ; dW. 
 Arms of thf' pelvis ; e, Border of the crc&t; f,In fitn rtibtihitn ,- (/, ('refer. 
 
 <Vo.Marx.del.after U'Arbovnl.p.669. 
 
 LOXGITt'DlNAL SKfTION THROl'OH KIDXKY
 
 DISEASES OF THE ITRINAKY ORGANS. 77 
 
 of the sinuous secreting tubes leading from the sacs inward toward 
 the second, or medullary, part of the organ; (b) the internal (medul- 
 lary) part, made up in the main of blood vessels, lymphatics, and 
 nerves extending between the notch on the inner border of the kid- 
 ney to and from the outer vascular portion, in which the secretion 
 of urine is almost exclusively carried on; and (d) a large saccular 
 reservoir in the center of the kidney, into which all uriniferous tubes 
 pour their secretions and from which the urine is carried away through 
 a tube g (ureter), which passes out of the notch at the inner border of 
 the kidney and which opens by a valve-closed orifice into the roof of 
 the bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a dilatable 
 reservoir for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of its 
 presence causes its voluntary discharge. It is kept closed by circu- 
 lar muscular fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by 
 looped muscular fibers extending in all directions forward from the 
 neck around the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder 
 the urine escapes through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends 
 from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis, and 
 in the male through the penis to its free end, where it opens through 
 a pink conical papilla. In the mare the urethra is not more than an 
 inch in length, and is surrounded by the circular muscular fibers 
 closing the neck of the bladder. Its opening may be found directly 
 in the median line of the floor of the vulva, about 4r| inches from its 
 external opening. 
 
 GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE. 
 
 These apply especially to acute inflammations and the irritation 
 caused by stone. The animal moves stiffly on the hind limbs, strad- 
 dles, and makes frequent attempts to pass urine, which may be in 
 excess, deficient in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite of the 
 straining, passed in driblets, or entirely suppressed. Again, it may 
 be modified in density or constituents. Difficulty in making a sharp 
 turn, or in lying down and rising with or without groaning, drop- 
 ping the back when mounted or when pinched on the loins is sugges- 
 tive of kidney disease, and so to a less extent are swelled legs, dropsy, 
 and diseases of the skin and nervous system. The oiled hand intro- 
 duced through the rectum may feel the bladder beneath and detect 
 any overdistention, swelling, tenderness, or stone. In ponies the kid- 
 neys even may be reached. 
 
 EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
 
 In some cases the changes in the urine are the sole sign of disease. 
 In health the horse's urine is of a deep amber color and has a strong 
 odor. On a feed of grain and hay it may show a uniform transpar-
 
 yg DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 cucy, while on a green ration there is an abundant -white deposit of 
 carbonate of lime. Of its morbid changes the following are to be 
 l(x>ked for: (1) Color: White from deposited salts of lime; brown or 
 red from blood clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile 
 or blood pigment; pale from excess of water; or variously colored 
 from vegetable ingredients (santonin makes it red; rhubarb or senna, 
 brown; tar or carbolic acid, green). (2) Density: The horse's urine 
 may be 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatly exceed this in diabetes and 
 may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) Chemical reaction, as ascertained 
 by blue litmus or red test papers. The horse on vegetable diet has 
 alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the sucking colt 
 and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissues (in starvation or ab- 
 stinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. (4) 
 Organic constituents, as when glairy from albumen coagulable by 
 strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts 
 of the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar, 
 blood, or bile. (5) In its salts, which may crystallize out spontane- 
 ously, or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical reagents. 
 
 Albuminous urine in the horse is usually glairy, so that it may be 
 drawn out in threads, but its presence can always be tested as follows: 
 If the liquid is opaque, it may be first passed through filter paper; if 
 very dense and already precipitating its salts, it may be diluted with 
 distilled water: add to the suspected liquid acetic acid drop by drop 
 until it reddens the blue litmus paper; then boil gently in a test tube; 
 if a precipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add 
 strong nitric acid. If the precipitate is not dissolved, it is albumen; 
 if dissolved it was probably urate or hippurate of ammonia. Albu- 
 men is normally present in advanced gestation ; abnormally it is seen 
 in diseases in which there occurs destruction of blood globules 
 (anthrax, low fevers, watery states of the blood, dropsies), in diseases 
 of the heart and liver which prevent the free escape of blood from the 
 veins and throw back venous pressure on the kidneys, in inflamma- 
 tion of the lungs and pleura?, and even tympany (bloating), doubtless 
 from the- same cause, and in all congestive or inflammatory diseases of 
 the kidneys, acute or chronic. 
 
 f'nsls of the uriniferous tubes can only be seen by placing the sus- 
 pected urine under the microscope. They are usually very elastic 
 ml mobile, waving about in the liquid when the cover-glass is 
 touched, and showing a uniform clear transparency (waxy) or entan- 
 circulnr epithelial cells or opaque granules or flattened red-blood 
 nle* or dear refranjjcnt oil globules. They may be even densely 
 opaque from crystals of earthy salts. 
 
 f found in the urine associated with albumen, and 
 y clearing up. when treated with acetic acid, so that 
 ch cell shows two or three nuclei.
 
 DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 79 
 
 DIURESIS (POLYURIA, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, OR EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF 
 
 URINE). 
 
 This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a 
 low specific gravity (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a 
 rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit. 
 
 Causes. Its causes may be any agent medicinal, alimentary, or 
 poisonous which unduly stimulates the kidneys ; the reckless admin- 
 istration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack 
 horse powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still 
 imperfectly cured; an excess of roots or other very watery food; a 
 full allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond 
 of it; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not 
 been properly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. 
 Thus hay, straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the rick 
 or stack is especially injurious. Hence this malady, like coma som- 
 nolentum (sleepy staggers), is widespread in wet seasons, and espe- 
 cially in rainy districts. 
 
 Symptoms. The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and 
 passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being 
 pale, watery, of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a 
 great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So 
 great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of 
 solids in any given specimen amounts in twenty-four hours to far 
 more than the normal a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of 
 the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up, 
 the fat disappears, the bones and muscles stand out prominently, 
 the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurfy, 
 and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the spirits 
 are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, sweats on the slightest 
 exertion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months, 
 or he may die early of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when the 
 cause ceases to operate, he may make a somewhat tardy recovery. 
 
 Treatment. This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty 
 drugs, poisons, or food, and supplying sound hay and grain free from 
 all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed 
 in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to 
 sheathe and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or 
 phosphate of iron (2 drams morning and evening) and powdered 
 gentian or Peruvian bark (4 drams) help greatly by bracing the 
 system and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calcu- 
 lated to destroy the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products. 
 In that form which depends on musty food nothing acts better than 
 large doses of iodide of potassium (2 drams), while in other cases 
 creosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), or oil of turpentine (4 drams) 
 properly diluted, may be resorted to.
 
 80 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 K\ IIARINK DIABETES (DIABETES MELLITU8, GLYCOSURIA, OR INO8T7RIA). 
 
 This is primarily a disease of the nervous system or liver rather 
 than of the kidneys, yet, as the most prominent symptom is the sweet 
 urine, it may be treated here. 
 
 Cannes. Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves largely into 
 disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the most 
 prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a prin- 
 ciple allied to grape sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in 
 the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the 
 resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in 
 the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective, 
 as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not 
 undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also 
 in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar produced is 
 more than can be disposed of in the natural way, and it appears in the 
 urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a 
 hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to the super- 
 abundant supply of the sugar-forming food, lasts for a few hours 
 only, and has no pathological significance. In many cases of fatal 
 glycosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and 
 it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by 
 agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver. 
 Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at 
 the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve, 
 which happens to be also the nerve center (vaso-motor) which presides 
 over the contractions of the minute blood vessels. The pricking and 
 irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the exces- 
 sive production of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the 
 pneumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and, in keeping with 
 this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this malady. The com- 
 plete removal of the pancreas, however, determines glycosuria, the 
 orpin having in health an inhibitive action on sugar production by 
 the liver. The same result follows the reflection of irritation from 
 other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic thalami, 
 ponn, cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced by 
 interruption of the nervous control along the vaso-motor tracts, as in 
 destruction of the up{x>r or lower cervical sympathetic ganglion, by 
 cutting the nervous branch connecting these two, in injury to the 
 Hpinal marrow in the interval between the brain and the second or 
 fourth dorsal vertebra, or in disease of the celiac plexus, which 
 directly proddes over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause 
 harine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric 
 alcohol. c-th.-r. |uinij, chloroform, ammonia, arsenic, and 
 phlorijsin. 
 
 ! symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion
 
 SACCHAEINE DIABETES (SWEET TJRINE). 81 
 
 of a pale urine of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of 
 condition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the 
 bowels, indigestion, and the presence in the urine of a sweet princi- 
 ple grape-sugar or inosite, or both. This may be most promptly de- 
 tected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be 
 detected simply by adding a teaspoonful of liquid yeast to 4 ounces of 
 the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70 
 to 80 F. for twelve hours, when the sugar will be found to have been 
 changed into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The loss of density will 
 give indication of the amount of sugar transformed ; thus a density of 
 1.035 in a urine which was formerly 1.060 would indicate about 15 
 grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. 
 
 Inosite, or muscle sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and 
 even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be 
 indicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation or by Gal- 
 lois's test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to 
 dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evapo- 
 rate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue is left that is 
 changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose color, which dis- 
 appears on cooling and reappears on heating. 
 
 In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and 
 belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the 
 lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted. 
 
 Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable 
 disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a 
 run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well- 
 aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda, 
 1 ounce daily) and alkalies (carbonate of potassium, one-fourth 
 ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, 
 or even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas 
 may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be 
 mainly albuminous, such as wheat bran or middlings, pease, beans, 
 vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very 
 best remedial agencies. It may be given as skimmed milk or butter- 
 milk, and in the last case combines an antidiabetic remedy in the lactic 
 acid. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often 
 entirely restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheumatism. 
 Codeia, one of the alkaloids of opium, is strongly recommended by 
 Doctor Tyson. The dose for the horse would be 10 to 15 grains thrice 
 daily. In cases in which there is manifest irritation of the brain, 
 bromide of potassium, 4 drams, or ergot one-half ounce, may be re- 
 sorted to. Salicylic acid and salicylate of sodium have proved useful 
 in certain cases; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter tonics (especially 
 nux vomica one-half dram) are useful in improving the digestion and 
 general health. 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 6
 
 82 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 BLOODY URINE, OR HEMATURIA. 
 
 Cause. As seen in the horse, bloody urine is usually the direct 
 result of mechanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, 
 lacerations of the sublumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by 
 stone in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however, 
 occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its sub- 
 stance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder. 
 Acrid diuretic plants present in the food may also lead to the escape 
 of blood from the kidney. The predisposition to this affection is, 
 however, incomparably less than in the case of the ox or the sheep, 
 the difference being attributed to the greater plasticity of the horse's 
 blood in connection with the larger quantity of fibrin. 
 
 The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate 
 admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication 
 as to its source ; thus, if from the kidneys it is more likely to be uni- 
 formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder 
 or passages clots are more likely to be present. Again, in bleeding 
 from the kidney, minute cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules 
 and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the micro- 
 scope. Precision also may be approximated by observing whether 
 there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, or stone or tumor in 
 the bladder or urethra. 
 
 Treatment. The disease being mainly due to direct injury, treat- 
 ment will consist, first, in removing such cause whenever possible, and 
 then in applying general and local styptics. Irritants in food must be 
 avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or 
 urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, lin- 
 seed tea) freely, and styptics (tincture of chloride of iron 3 drams, 
 acetate of lead one-half dram, tannic acid one-half dram, or oil of 
 turpentine 1 ounce). If the discharge is abundant, apply cold water 
 to the loins and keep the animal perfectly still. 
 
 HEMOGLOBIN! HI A (AZOTURIA, AZOTEMIA, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS). 
 
 Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-form- 
 ing functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss 
 of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and dark- 
 colored urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary 
 organs. It is a complex affection directly connected with a plethora 
 -in the blood of nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nervous and 
 muscular disorder and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish 
 urine. It is directly connected with high feeding, especially on 
 highly nitrogenized food (oats, beans, pease, vetches, cotton-seed 
 meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall under full rations. 
 The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely under constant daily work,
 
 BLOODY URINE, OB HEMATURIA. 83 
 
 even though the feeding be high, and the attack is usually precipi- 
 tated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exercise 
 or work. The poisoning is not present when taken from the stable, as 
 the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will 
 usually succumb under the first hundred yards or half mile of exer- 
 cise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of the chest under the 
 sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the 
 gorged liver and .abdominal ^eins (portal) the accumulated store of 
 nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condi- 
 tion, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, was unable 
 to maintain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and muscles. 
 It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses, 
 attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat, 
 and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable 
 than the docile gelding. 
 
 Lignieres has found in hemoglobinuria a streptococcus which pro- 
 duced nephritis, bloody urine, and paraplegia in experimental ani- 
 mals, including horses. 
 
 Symptoms. In the milder forms this affection may appear as a 
 lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sud- 
 den exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes 
 of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. 
 The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full 
 ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred 
 paces or more. The fire and life with which he had left the stable 
 suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving 
 flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling 
 body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, 
 the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs 
 being carried semiflexed, and he soon drops, unable to support him- 
 self. When down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but 
 there is no power of coordination of movement in the muscles. The 
 pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of 
 brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark 
 brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules. 
 The color is mainly due to hemoglobin and other imperfectly elabo- 
 rated constituents of the blood. 
 
 It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, 
 which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early 
 stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind 
 limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is 
 an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the 
 stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve) and a complete inability to 
 stand. 
 
 Prevention. The prevention of this serious affection lies in re-
 
 g4 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 striding the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at 
 work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for 
 a single dav in the stall or barnyard. When a horse has been con- 
 demned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative 
 (one-half to 1 pound Glauber's salts), and have graduated exercise, 
 beginning with a short walk and increasing day by day. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of the mild cases may consist in a laxa- 
 tive, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce). 
 Sudden attacks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the in- 
 stant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of 
 potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The 
 latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys. 
 Iodide of potassium in one-half ounce doses every four hours has 
 succeeded well in some hands. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desira- 
 ble to begin treatment by a dose of aloes (4 to 6 drams) with the 
 above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be 
 continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to 
 calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over 
 the loins are always useful in calming the excitable conditions of the 
 spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secre- 
 tion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be re- 
 sorted to, such as saltpeter one-half ounce, and powdered colchicum 
 one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be re- 
 peated in three or four days should the bowels seem to demand it, 
 and as the nervous excitement disappears any remaining muscular 
 weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-half dram doses of nux 
 voniica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and 
 sweet oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles. 
 
 During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful, and 
 in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along 
 the line of the affected muscles. When the patient can not stand he 
 must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side 
 at least every twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he 
 may IH> helj>ed up and even supported in a sling. 
 
 ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, OR ACUTE NEPHRITIS. 
 
 Inflammations of the kidneys have been differentiated widely, ac- 
 ... j * 
 
 I a they were acute or chronic, parenchymatous or tubal, sup- 
 purative or not, with increased or shrunken kidney, etc.; but in a 
 work like the present utility will be consulted by classing all under 
 acute or Chronic inflammation. 
 
 -The onuses of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely 
 varied. Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products 
 passed through these organs during recovery from inflammations of 
 other organs and during fevers. This may last only during the exist-
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 85 
 
 ence of its cause, or may persist 'and become aggravated. Heart dis- 
 ease, throwing the blood pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is 
 another cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, preventing the 
 escape of urine from the kidney and causing increased fullness and 
 tension in its pelvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decom- 
 position of the detained urine in such cases and the production of 
 ammonia and other irritants must also be named. In elimination of 
 bacteria through the kidney, the latter is liable to infection with con- 
 sequent inflammation. The advance of bacteria upward from the 
 bladder to the kidneys is another cause. The consumption in hay or 
 other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorp- 
 tion of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the 
 reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the 
 kidney, exposure of the surface to cold and wet, and the infliction of 
 blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver 
 disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant 
 products, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are car- 
 ried, to be arrested in the small blood vessels of the kidney, and 
 injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiff- 
 ness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficulty in 
 lying down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes 
 groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the 
 flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky pain, and ten- 
 derness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony 
 processes 6 inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed 
 frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes 
 mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows the 
 microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by 
 acetic acid, boiling, and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the 
 resulting and persistent precipitate indicates the amount of albumen. 
 The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts 
 beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within 
 the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alternate drawing up 
 and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in 
 small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the) 
 kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. 
 
 Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause. 
 Then, if the suffering and fever are high, 2 to 4 quarts of blood may 
 be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in 
 high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys so far 
 as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint 
 of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kid- 
 neys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be 
 supplemented by dram doses of Dover's powder. Pain may be
 
 ^; DISEASES OP THE HOBSE. 
 
 soothed by dram doses of bromide' of potassium. Boiled flaxseed 
 may bo added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum 
 as an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be per- 
 sistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin 
 pulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in 
 against the direction of the hair and covered up with paper and a 
 blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens 
 and the hair stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and 
 the blanket reapplied. When the action of the bowels has been 
 started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of 
 Glauber's salts. 
 
 During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple, 
 ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should 
 also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some 
 time after all active symptoms have subsided. 
 
 CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 
 
 Cause*. Chronic inflammation of the kidneys is more commonly 
 associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, 
 and in some instances these conditions of the urine may be the only 
 prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on 
 blows, injuries, arid exposures, it is much more commonly connected 
 with faulty conditions of the system as indigestion, heart disease, 
 lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation, or assimilation; in 
 short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on 
 a simple local injury. 
 
 It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidneys, as 
 Khrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red conges- 
 tion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases 
 rather than a disease by itself. 
 
 Xymptonw. The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and 
 increased sensibility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine 
 (increase or suppression), or the flow may be natural. Usually it 
 contains albumen, the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the grav- 
 ity of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad 
 cases. Dropsy, manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom, 
 and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body or in 
 chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty 
 skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe or continued exer- 
 tion. i>oor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the 
 musHes, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So 
 ere skin eruptions of various kinds. Any one or more of these symp- 
 toms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and 
 cast.H, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation. 
 
 Treatment of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is
 
 DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 87 
 
 liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs else- 
 where. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function 
 can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with 
 this affection of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the 
 general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given 
 (phosphate of iron 2 drams, nux vomica 20 grains, powdered gentian 
 root 4 drams, daily) or 60 drops of sulphuric acid or nitromuriatic 
 acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any ele- 
 vated temperature of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomenta- 
 tions may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute 
 inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mus- 
 tard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few days. 
 In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infu- 
 sion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping 
 over the loins may also benefit. To apply a cup, shave the skin and 
 oil it; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by 
 introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper 
 and instantly apply the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it 
 closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass 
 and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. 
 
 As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to 
 secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. 
 
 TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS. 
 
 Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to symptoms 
 resembling some form of inflammation, and are not likely to be recog- 
 nized during life. 
 
 PARASITES. 
 
 To parasites of the kidney belong the eckinococcus, the larval, or 
 bladder worm, stage of the small echinococcus tapeworm of the dog; 
 also the Cysticercus fistularis, another bladder worm of an unknown 
 tapeworm; in these there is the possibility of the passage with the 
 urine of a detached head of the bladder worm or of some of its micro- 
 scopic hooklets, which might be found in the sediment of the urine 
 and thus establish a diagnosis. Dioctophyme renale, the largest of 
 roundworms, has been found in the kidney of the horse. Its presence 
 can only be certified by the passage of its microscopic eggs or of the 
 entire worm. Immature stages of roundworms, either Strongylus 
 equinus or a related species, may be found in the renal artery or in 
 the kidney itself. 
 
 SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. 
 
 This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the 
 bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may 
 be accompanied by a painful contraction of the muscles on the body
 
 gg DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of the bladder; or, if the organ is already unduly distended, these 
 will be affected with temporary paralysis. It is most frequent in the 
 horse, but by no means unknown in the mare. 
 
 Causes. The causes are usually hard and continuous driving with- 
 out opportunity for passing urine, cold rainstorms, drafts of cold air 
 when perspiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanish fly or 
 the application of extensive blisters of the same, abuse of diuretics, 
 the presence of acrid diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence 
 of stone in the bladder. As most mares refuse to urinate while in 
 harness, they should be unhitched at suitable times for urination. 
 Spasms of the bowels are always attended by spasm of the bladder, 
 hence the free passage of water is usually a symptom of relief. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are frequent stretching and straining 
 to urinate, with no result or a slight dribbling only. These vain 
 efforts are attended by pain and groaning. On resuming his natural 
 ]>osition the animal is not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily, 
 paws, shakes the tail, kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks 
 buck to the flank, lies down and rises, arches the back, and attempts 
 to urinate as before. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum 
 the greatly distended bladder may be felt beneath, and the patient 
 will often shrink when it is handled. 
 
 It is important to notice that irritation of the urinary organs is 
 often present in impact ion of the colon with solid matters, because 
 the impacted intestine under the straining of the patient is forced 
 backward into the pelvis and presses upon and irritates the bladder. 
 In such cases the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the 
 hind ones stretched back beyond the natural posture, and makes fre- 
 quent efforts to urinate, with varying success. Unpracticed observers 
 naturally conclude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and 
 only one, and the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often 
 neglected until it is irremediable. In cases where the irritation has 
 caused spasm of the neck of the bladder and overdistention of that 
 organ, the mistake is still more easily made; hence it is important in 
 all cases to examine for the impacted bowel, forming a bend, or loop, 
 at the entrance of the pelvis and usually toward the left side. The 
 impacted intestine feels soft and doughy, and is easily indented with 
 the knuckles, forming a marked contrast with the tense, elastic, resil- 
 ient, overdistended bladder. 
 
 It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined 
 by a stone or sebaceous mass, or stricture obstructing the urethra, or 
 in the newborn by thickened mucus in that duct and by the pressure 
 of hardened, impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, the hard, 
 impacted body can usually be felt by tracing the urethra along the 
 lower and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median 
 line of the floor of the pelvis to the neck of the bladder. That part
 
 PLATK V. 
 
 \ 
 
 Structure oMhr Kidney. I)iaramniHtic . 
 
 it , Mi'itiilltirv !<iyrr; />, fion/tdfU'y \'>rtt' ; c, ('<>rttc/ /<r\'/>r. /. /:'((/;/(>/] fn/>c, '.'.ityic/i 
 in </ an tin* ,^iiiiinnf of'rt'iHti pafiifttt. . i, /'i/\t( hnuifji o/ {ii/iir<-ittr on; 'i ,Si-ft'ntt t>i tt/irn 
 <>f hi furcation , .'i.Tlu'rtl ft/-ft/>c/t of hi lurc<t/(On i>,Mii-r<i/f/tt tf^/lr<-(i/t</ !ut>t' ,".////,." 
 tiorinl lut>uir : H.. [scenelint/ portion r/'//r/i/r* /r>n/) : .'), />r,vr iu(t/i</ />orttr>;i </' !/<-:i!<- . s 
 
 lc>Of>; l(>, Ll>O/> (if flcillf ; ll,('()IS\'olllfc<{ f/fbH/<- ; !<', Ml llf>l(f/l !<,' fl f<if/>lf.vc/f ; i. 'I fl'ffi'ii It/' 
 
 tery: /{, Urtincfi Mupplyirtff th? ft/ont<*ri</t ; I, >, A/'/'rr -fttf ir',s-.sv/ (>f't/i<- ;/lt>in<rn/i l(> . 
 Hrrtnch r/oin<? directly to the cufiill{irir&;17,Strrrif/tit rtrtefi<yt<\\ <>'//////</ <irf;-//\- 
 I'rnm tin' renal art fiy; 18, Straight artefiolr roiniricr from the ,ii't<-rrt<t ic.^r/ ,/'//>< 
 (ft(>titrriilu,<i; I9,$tra{flht arteriolf corni/M/ frc>tn f/ir <-<ifHifiry /'/<--.///,% ;'o \',/.\-, n,'ur 
 loop of the pyrw.mic(&;J?l, Efferent ve&ssel ni'tJic f/lotneridiix f/oi/it/ 1<> ///< d/>;//<(ry 
 p!e.>-u,\i ??,('tipil.Jury pl<;cn.<i oft/if (/iomrrulttr part ot't/le inr/tcul .vttJvtfa'ur: 
 '','i,('<(/>ill(iry i>l<\fn<s of I fie pyrnntitfa of' Frrr-t'tn , '^"/.('oriit-at ;>/<: ftt.v oft/if knftiry, 
 [','>, I '<//'! r s(<'/(<i(iif ; ?(>. I 't'in cumin f/ from th< c<t//f//tiri<\v cf t/tc rorfc. > J7. in/rr 
 <off it lar \cui : .?', I'cin rec<i\'in</ t./ie \-trntr r.rfu/' ''V, Ir/itrc /.'</,/, 
 
 Xt'li' : The .shaded part o/'tJtc urftit/ry ditctx ir/vwttwt tfir /Jt;rf //,- n /(/<// tin 
 cptt/ieliiltn /.s' r(><l<lc<i utnf nfft f//-riu/fi/- ttf>/>c<ir,< u . 
 
 AXA'l'ONH' OF KIDXKY.
 
 VI. 
 
 Renal GlonuM'ulus . 
 
 a, Art cry of' th? (fln/ricfiihi.y; h, Hrci/tch .v///y>/i -intf f/tr affcrrnf 
 vessel of the fflorn crufiuv; c, Afferent \i'ssel oft/ie t/lvrnfrute; 
 
 d, Artery ffoin</ dircctiy fo the cafJtUrv plc.fii^ nfthc cordmi 
 
 tiitlwtttjirc ; c., Cfipiflary plfjrtis; f, Glomcriilit,? . 
 
 Kciiiil d i( in u-ri this willi its offemitvps.sclsuiulctTeroMls. 
 a , Hnuxii ot'rcnttl (irfft-y; />. .l/'/i'rr/tf \~iwsc / o/'tlif 
 </ fa/, /<'! I/In, v ; <' . (ita/ncrit/its .- (/ , . ITterrnt iv.v,s- ( y ut> 
 ituf intc <;>// >//.vf/c i .ft' M(il/>i<//ii 
 
 (,t-o. Marx.tillcr D'-VH.ovai p 37^. 371 . 
 
 MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF KIDNEY.
 
 fief mi <</. v/.v. Sonic deprivrd o 
 r/n'f/1 ffiui/i . 7'ti'o asv deeper col OT 
 frntn t/tr /jnwsirv ofiirate of'- 
 
 JULiJS Bit-. & .-.:> 
 
 CALCULI ANW INKTRl'MENT FOR REMOV.U. .
 
 PAEALYSIS OF THE BLADDEE. 89 
 
 of the urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is 
 usually distended with urine, and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctu- 
 ating. 
 
 Treatment. Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of 
 harness. This failing, spread clean litter beneath the belly or turn 
 the patient out on the dung heap. Some seek to establish sympa- 
 thetic action by pouring water from one vessel into another with 
 dribbling noise. Others soothe and distract the attention by slow 
 whistling. Friction of the abdomen with wisps of straw may suc- 
 ceed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia and oil. These failing, an 
 injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an infusion of 1 ounce of 
 tobacco in water may be tried. In the mare the neck of the bladder is 
 easily dilated by inserting two oiled fingers and slightly parting them. 
 In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may press 
 from before backward on the anterior or blind end of the bladder. 
 Finally, a well-oiled gum-elastic catheter may be entered into the 
 urethra through the papilla at the end of the penis and pushed on 
 carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis 
 must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end 
 of the catheter has reached the bend of the urethra beneath the anus 
 it must be guided forward by pressure with the hand, which guidance 
 must be continued onward into the bladder, the oiled hand being 
 introduced into the rectum for this purpose. The horse catheter, 3 
 feet long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical 
 instrument maker. 
 
 PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. 
 
 Paralysis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has 
 been described under the last heading, and may occur in the same way 
 from overdistention in tetanus, acute rheumatism, paraplegia, and 
 hemiplegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to stale, and 
 in cystitis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all 
 these cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of 
 disease of the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken 
 back, and is then associated with palsy of the tail, and, it may be, of 
 the hind limbs. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are a constant dribbling of urine when 
 the neck is involved, the liquid running down the inside of the thighs 
 and irritating the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is 
 retained until the bladder is greatly overdistended, when it may be 
 expelled in a gush by the active contraction of the muscular walls of 
 the abdomen ; but this never empties the bladder, and the oiled hand 
 introduced through the rectum may feel the soft, flabby organ still 
 half full of urine. This retained urine is liable to decompose and 
 give off ammonia, which dissolves the epithelial cells, exposing the
 
 90 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 raw mucous membrane and causing the worst type of cystitis. Sup- 
 pression and incontinence of urine are common also to obstruction 
 of the urethra by stone or otherwise; hence this source of fallacy 
 should be excluded by manual examination along the whole course 
 of that duct. 
 
 Treatment. Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the de- 
 termining cause can be abated. In remedial sprains of the back or 
 disease of the spinal cord these must have appropriate treatment, and 
 the urine must be drawn off frequently with a catheter to prevent 
 overdistention and injury to the bladder. If the paralysis persists 
 after recovery of the spinal cord, or if it continues after relief of 
 spasm of the neck of the bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water 
 over the back part of the belly in front of the udder, and cover with 
 a nig until the hair stands erect. In the male the mustard may be 
 applied between the thighs from near the anus downward. Daily 
 doses of 2 drams extract of belladonna or of 2 grains powdered 
 Spanish fly may serve to rouse the lost tone. These failing, a mild 
 current of electricity daily may succeed. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER ( CYSTITIS, OR UROCYSTITIS). 
 
 Cystitis may be slight or severe, acute or chronic, partial or general. 
 It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritat- 
 ing (cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.), by the presence of 
 a stone or gravel in the bladder, the irritation of a catheter or other 
 foreign body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bac- 
 terium) introduced on a filthy catheter, the overdistention of the 
 bladder by retained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained 
 decomposing urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and 
 irritation of the raw surface, and a too concentrated and irritating 
 urine. The application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too ex- 
 tensive surface, sudden exposure of a perspiring and tired horse to 
 cold or wet, and the presence of acrid plants in the fodder may cause 
 cystitis, as they may nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend 
 from a diseased vagina or urethra to the bladder. 
 
 Symptom*. The symptoms are slight or severe colicky pains; the 
 animal moves his hind feet uneasily or even kicks at the abdomen, 
 looks around at his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently. 
 More characteristic are frequently rej>eated efforts to urinate, result- 
 ing in the discharge of a little clear, or red. or more commonly floc- 
 culent urine, always in jets, and accompanied by signs of pain, which 
 persist after the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groan- 
 ing, and perhaps in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs 
 from the sheath, or in the mare the vulva is frequently opened and 
 closed, as after urination. The animal winces when the abdomen is 
 pressed in the region of the sheath or udder, and the bladder is found
 
 DISEASES OF THE BLADDEB. 91 
 
 to be sensitive and tender when pressed with the oiled hand intro- 
 duced through the rectum or vagina. In the mare the thickening of 
 the walls of the bladder may be felt by introducing one finger through 
 the urethra. The discharged urine, which may be turbid or even oily, 
 contains an excess of mucus, with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly 
 epithelial cells, and pus corpuscles, each showing two or more nuclei 
 when treated with acetic acid, but there are no microscopic tubular 
 casts, as in nephritis. If due to stone in the bladder, that will be 
 found on examination through rectum or vagina. 
 
 Treatment implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons 
 in food or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering 
 agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the 
 urine has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evac- 
 uated through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed 
 out with a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. This 
 must be repeated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes, 
 because so long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting 
 layer of epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw 
 and irritable. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh 
 grass), and the drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of 
 slippery elm or marsh mallow. The same agents may be used to 
 inject into the rectum, or they may even be used along with borax and 
 opium to inject into bladder (gum arabic 1 dram, opium 1 dram, 
 tepid water 1 pint). Fomentations over the loins are often of great 
 advantage, and these may be followed or alternated with the appli- 
 cation of mustard, as in paralysis ; or the mustard may be applied on 
 the back part of the abdomen below or between the thighs from the 
 anus downward. Finally, when the acute symptoms have subsided, 
 a daily dose of buchu 1 dram and nux vomica one-half dram will 
 serve to restore lost tone. 
 
 IRRITABLE BLADDER. 
 
 Some horses, and especially mares, show an irritability of the blad- 
 der and nerve centers presiding over it by frequent urination in small 
 quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in character 
 and no more than the natural amount is passed in the twenty- four 
 hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as frequently 
 in the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome 
 and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all 
 control by the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually prove 
 docile if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases 
 the excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is a pow- 
 erful determining cause. The condition is marked in many mares 
 during the period of " heat" 
 
 An oleaginous laxative (castor oil 1 pint) will serve to remove any
 
 TJ DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will 
 avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder 
 should be examined to see that there is no stone or other cause of irri- 
 tation, and the sheath and penis should be washed with soapsuds, any 
 sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the 
 penis, and the whole lubricated with sweet oil. Irritable mares should 
 be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch 
 the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords 
 on its lower surface, or it may be prevented getting over the reins by 
 having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those 
 proving troublesome when " in heat " may have 4-dram doses of bro- 
 mide of potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated. 
 Sometimes irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna 
 extract (1 dram), or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam 
 copaiba (1 dram). 
 
 DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER. 
 
 These may be of various kinds, malignant or simple. In the horse 
 I have found villous growths from the mucous membrane especially 
 troublesome. They may be attached to the mucous membrane by a 
 narrow neck or by a broad base covering a great part of the organ. 
 
 Symptoms, The symptoms are frequent straining, passing of urine 
 and blood with occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder 
 with the hand in the rectum will detect the new growth, which may 
 l)e distinguished from a hard resistant stone. In mares, in which the 
 finger can be inserted into the bladder, the recognition is still more 
 satisfactory. The polypi attached by narrow necks may be removed 
 by surgical operation, but for those with broad attachments treatment 
 is eminently unsatisfactory. 
 
 DIHCIIAKCK OK I'RINK HV THE NAVEL, OR PERSISTENT URACHUS. 
 
 This occurs only in the newborn, and consists in the nonclosure of 
 the natural channel (urachus), through which the urine is discharged 
 into the outer water bag (allantois) in fetal life. At that early stage 
 of the animal existence the bladder resembles a long tube, which is 
 prolonged through the navel string and opens into the outermost of 
 the two water bags in which the fetus floats. In this way the urine 
 is prevented from entering the inner water bag (amnion), where it 
 would mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the fetus and cause 
 irritation. At birth this channel closes up, and the urine takes the 
 course normal to extra-uterine life. Imperfect closure is more fre- 
 quent in males than in females, because of the great length and small 
 caliU'r of the male urethra and its consequent tendency to obstruction. 
 In the female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a time, 
 while in the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets comcidently 
 with the contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen.
 
 DISEASES OF THE BLADDEB. 93 
 
 The first care is to ascertain if the urethra is pervious by passing a 
 human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly 
 closed by a stout waxed thread, carried with a needle through the tis- 
 sues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little 
 skin as possible. If a portion of the navel string remains, the tying 
 of that may be all sufficient. It is important to tie as early as possible 
 so as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine. 
 In summer a little carbolic-acid water or tar water may be applied to 
 keep off the flies. 
 
 EVER8ION OF THE BLADDER. 
 
 This can only occur in the female. It consists in the turning of the 
 organ outside in through the channel of the urethra, so that it appears 
 as a red, pear-shaped mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and 
 protruding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist, 
 or it may swell up to the size of an infant's head. On examining its 
 upper surface the orifices of the urethra may be seen, one on each side, 
 a short distance behind the neck, with the urine oozing from them 
 drop by drop. 
 
 This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the 
 bladder, the result of paralysis, overdistention, or severe compression 
 during a difficult parturition. 
 
 The protruding organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of 
 laudanum and a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and 
 returned by pressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and 
 directing it into the urethra, while careful pressure is made on the 
 surrounding parts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it 
 may be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about 2 inches broad 
 to express the great mass of blood and exudate and diminish the bulk 
 of the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This 
 method has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against 
 bruises and lacerations in the effort made to return it. After the 
 return, straining may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 2 
 ounces) and by applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva. 
 (See Eversion of the womb.) The patient should be kept in a stall a 
 few inches lower in front than behind, so that the action of gravity 
 will favor retention. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA (URETHRITIS, OR GLEET). 
 
 This affection belongs quite as much to the generative organs, yet 
 it can not be entirely overlooked in a treatise on urinary disorders. 
 It may be induced by the same causes as cystitis (which see) ; by the 
 passage and temporary arrest of small stones, or gravel ; by the irri- 
 tation caused by foreign bodies introduced from without ; by blows on 
 the penis by sticks, stones, or by the feet of a mare that kicks while 
 being served; by an infecting inflammation contracted from a mare
 
 94 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 served in the first few days after parturition or one suffering from 
 leucorrhea ; by infecting matter introduced on a dirty catheter, or by 
 the extension of inflammation from an irritated bilocular cavity filled 
 with hardened sebaceous matter, or from an uncleansed sheath. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are swelling, heat, and tenderness of 
 the sheath and penis; difficulty, pain, and groaning in passing urine, 
 which is liable to sudden temporary arrests in the course of micturi- 
 tion, and later a whitish mucopurulent oozing from the papilla on the 
 end of the penis. There is a tendency to erection of the penis, and in 
 cases contracted from a mare the outer surface of that organ will 
 show more or less extensive sores and ulcers. Stallions suffering in 
 this way will refuse to mount, or having mounted will fail to com- 
 plete the act of coition. If an entrance is effected infection of the 
 mare is liable to follow. 
 
 Treatment in the early stages consists in a dose of physic (aloes 6 
 drams) and fomentations of warm water to the sheath and penis. If 
 there is reason to suspect the presence of infection, inject the urethra 
 twice daily with borax 1 dram, water 1 quart, using it tepid. Where 
 the mucopurulent discharge indicates the supervention of the second 
 stage, a more astringent injection may be employed (nitrate of silver 
 20 grains, water 1 quart), and the same may be applied to the surface 
 of the penis and inside the sheath. Balsam of copaiba (1 dram daily) 
 may also be given with advantage after the purulent discharge has 
 appeared. 
 
 Every stallion suffering from urethritis should be withheld from 
 service, as should mares with leucorrhea. 
 
 STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA. 
 
 This is n permanent narrowing of the urethra at a given point, the 
 result of previous inflammation, caused by the passage or arrest of a 
 stone, or gravel, by strong astringent injections in the early nonsecret- 
 ing stages of urethritis, or by contraction of the lining membrane 
 occurring during the healing of ulcers in neglected inflammations of 
 that canal. The trouble is shown by the passage of urine in a fine 
 stream, with straining, pain, and groaning, and by frequent painful 
 erections. It must be remedied by mechanical dilatation, with cathe- 
 ters just large enough to pass with gentle force, to be inserted once a 
 day, and to be used of larger size as the passage will admit them. 
 The catheter should be kept perfectly clean, and washed in a borax 
 solution and well oiled before it is introduced. 
 
 URINAKY CALCULI ( STONE, OR GRAVEL). 
 
 These consist in some of the solids of the urine that have been pre- 
 cipitated from the urine in the form of crystals, which remain apart 
 as a fine powdery mass, or magma, or aggregate into calculi, or stones, 
 of varying size. Their composition is therefore determined in differ-
 
 STONE, OR GRAVEL. 95 
 
 ent animals by the salts or other constituents found dissolved in the 
 healthy urine, and by the additional constituents which may be 
 thrown off in solution in the urine in disease. In this connection it is 
 important to observe the following analysis of the horse's urine in 
 health : 
 
 Water___ 918. 5 
 
 Urea 13.4 
 
 Uric acid and urates ,1 
 
 Hippuric acid 20. 4 
 
 Lactic acid and lactates 1. 2 
 
 Mucus and organic matter 22.0 
 
 Sulphates (alkaline) 1.2 
 
 Phosphates (lime and soda) .2 
 
 Chlorides (sodium) 1.0 
 
 Carbonates (potash, magnesia, lime) 16.0 
 
 1000.0 
 
 The carbonate of lime, which is present in large amount in the urine 
 of horses fed on green fodder, is practically insoluble, and therefore 
 forms in the passages after secretion, and its microscopic rounded 
 crystals give the urine of such horses a milky whiteness. It is this 
 material which constitutes the soft, white, pultaceous mass that some- 
 times fills the bladder to repletion and requires to be washed out. In 
 hay-fed horses carbonates are still abundant, while in those mainly 
 grain- fed they are replaced by hippurates and phosphates the prod- 
 ucts of the wear of tissues the carbonates being the result of oxida- 
 tion of the vegetable acids in the food. Carbonate of lime, therefore, 
 is a very common constituent of urinary calculi in herbivora, and in 
 many cases is the most abundant constituent. 
 
 Oxalate of lime, like carbonate of lime, is derived from the burning 
 up of the carbonaceous matter of the food in the system, one impor- 
 tant factor being the less perfect oxid'ation of the carbon. Indeed, 
 Fiistenberg and Schmidt have demonstrated on man, horse, ox, and 
 rabbit that, under the full play of the breathing (oxidizing) forces, 
 oxalic acid, like other organic acids, is resolved into carbonic acid. 
 In keeping with this is the observation of Lehmann, that in all cases 
 in which man suffered from interference with the breathing oxalate 
 of lime appeared in the urine. An excess of oxalate of lime in the 
 urine may, however, claim a different origin. Uric and hippuric 
 acids are found in the urine of carnivora and herbivora, respectively, 
 as the result of the healthy wear (disassimilation) of nitrogenous tis- 
 sues. But if these products are fully oxidized, they are thrown out 
 in the form of the more soluble urea rather than as these acids. 
 When uric acid out of the body is treated with peroxide of lead it is 
 resolved into urea, allantoin, and oxalic acid, and Wcehler and Frer- 
 richs found that the administration of uric acid not only increased
 
 96 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 the excretion of urea, but also of oxalic acid. It may therefore be 
 inferred that oxalic acid is not produced from the carbonaceous food 
 nlone, but also from the disintegration of the nitrogenous tissues of 
 the body. An important element of its production is, however, the 
 imperfect performance of the breathing functions, and hence it is 
 liable to result from diseases of the chest (heaves, chronic bronchitis, 
 etc.). This is, above all, likely to prove the case if the subject is fed 
 to excess on highly carbonaceous foods (grass and green food generr 
 ally, {>otatoes, etc.). 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia, another almost constant ingredient of the 
 urinary calculi of the horse, is formed the same way as the carbon- 
 ate of lime from the excess of carbonaceous food (organic acids) 
 becoming oxidized into carbon dioxide, which unites with the mag- 
 nesia derived from the food. 
 
 The phosphates of lime and magnesia are not abundant in urinary 
 calculi of the horse, the phosphates being only present to excess in 
 the urine in two conditions (a) when the ration is excessive and 
 specially rich in phosphorus (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, rape 
 cake, oil cake, cotton-seed cake) ; and (b) when, through the morbid 
 destructive changes in the living tissues, and especially of the bones, 
 a great amount of phosphorus is given off as a waste product. Under 
 these conditions, however, the phosphates may contribute to the for- 
 mation of calculi, and this is, above all, likely if the urine is retained 
 in the bladder until it has undergone decomposition and given off 
 ammonia. The ammonia at once unites with the phosphate of mag- 
 nesia to form a double salt phosphate of ammonia and magnesia 
 which, l>eing insoluble, is at once precipitated. The precipitation of 
 tliis salt is, however, rare in the urine of the horse, though much 
 more frequent in that of man and sheep. 
 
 These are the chief mineral constituents of the urine which form 
 ingredients in the horse's calculi, for though iron and manganese are 
 usually present it is only in minute quantities. 
 
 The excess of mineral matter in a specimen of urine unquestion- 
 ably contributes, to the formation of calculi, just as a solution of such 
 matters out of the l>o<ly is increasingly disposed to throw them down 
 in the form of crystals as it becomes more concentrated and ap- 
 proaches nearer to the condition of saturation. Hence, in consider- 
 ing the causes of calculi we can not ignore the factor of an excessive 
 ration, rich in mineral matters and in carbonaceous matters (the 
 source of carl>onates and much of the oxalates), nor can we overlook 
 the concentration of the urine that comes from dry food and priva- 
 
 on of water, or from the existence of fever which causes suspension 
 
 of the secretion of water. In these cases, at least the usual amount of 
 
 s thrown off by the kidneys, and as the water is diminished 
 
 there is danger of its approaching the point of supersaturation, when
 
 STONE, OR GRAVEL. 97 
 
 the dissolved solids must necessarily be thrown down. Hence, calculi 
 are more common in stabled horses fed on dry grain and hay, in those 
 denied a sufficiency of water or that have water supplied irregularly, 
 in those subjected to profuse perspiration (as in summer), and in 
 those suffering from a watery diarrhea. On the whole, calculi are 
 most commonly found in winter, because the horses are then on dry 
 feeding, but such dry feeding is even more conducive to them in 
 summer when the condition is aggravated by the abundant loss of 
 water by the skin. 
 
 In the same way the extreme hardness of the water in certain dis- 
 tricts must be looked upon as contributing to the concentration of the 
 urine and correspondingly to the production of stone. The carbon- 
 ates, sulphates, etc., of lime and magnesia taken in the water must be 
 again thrown out, and just in proportion as these add to the solids of 
 the urine they dispose it to precipitate its least soluble constituents. 
 Thus, the horse is very obnoxious to calculi on certain limestone soils, 
 as over the calcareous formations of central and western New York, 
 Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in America ; of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire, 
 Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England ; of Poitou and Landes, 
 in France ; and Munich, in Bavaria. 
 
 But the saturation of the urine from any or all of these conditions 
 can only be looked on as an auxiliary cause, and not as in itself an 
 efficient one, except on the rarest occasions. For a more direct and 
 immediate cause we must look to the organic matter which forms a 
 large proportion of all urinary calculi. This consists of mucus, albu- 
 men, pus, hyaline casts of the uriniferous tubes, epithelial cells, blood, 
 etc., mainly agents that belong to the class of colloid or noncrystallme 
 bodies. A horse may live for months and years with the urine habit- 
 ually of a high density and having the mineral constituents in excess 
 without the formation of stone or gravel ; and again one with dilute 
 urine of low specific gravity will have a calculus. 
 
 Rainey, Ord, and others furnish the explanation. They not only 
 show that a colloid body, like mucus, albumen, pus, or blood, deter- 
 mined the precipitation or the crystalline salts in the solution, but 
 they determined the precipitation in the form of globules, or spheres, 
 capable of developing by further deposits into calculi. Heat intensi- 
 fies this action of the colloids, and a colloid in a state of decomposition 
 is specially active. The presence, therefore, of developing fungi and 
 bacteria must be looked upon as active factors in causing calculi. 
 
 In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of calculi we must 
 consider especially all those conditions which determine the presence 
 of albumen, blood, and excess of mucus, pus, etc., in the urine. Thus 
 diseases of distant organs leading to albuminuria, diseases of the kid- 
 neys and urinary passages causing the escape of blood or the forma- 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 7
 
 9$ DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 tion of mucus or pus, become direct causes of calculi. Foreign bodies 
 of all kinds in the bladder or kidney have long been known as deter- 
 mining causes of calculi and as forming the central nucleus. This is 
 now explained by the fact that these bodies are liable to carry bacte- 
 ria into the passages and thus determine decomposition, and they are 
 further liable to irritate the mucous membrane and become enveloped 
 in a coating of mucus, pus, and perhaps blood. 
 
 The fact that horses appear to suffer from calculi, especially on the 
 magnesian limestones, the same districts in which they suffer from 
 goiter, may be similarly explained. The unknown poison which pro- 
 duces goiter presumably leads to such changes in the blood and urine 
 as will furnish the colloid necessary for precipitation of the urinary 
 salts in the form of calculi. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF UBINABY CALCULI. 
 
 These have been named according to the place where they are 
 found, renal (kidney), uretral (ureter), vesical (bladder), urethral 
 (urethra), and preputial (sheath, or prepuce). They have been 
 otherwise named according to their most abundant chemical constit- 
 uent, carbonate of lime, oxalate of lime, and phosphate of lime calculi. 
 The stones formed of carbonates or phosphates are usually smooth 
 on the surface, though they may be molded into the shape of the 
 cavity in which they have been formed; thus those in the pelvis of 
 the kidney may have two or three short branchlike prolongations, 
 while those in the bladder are round, oval, or slightly flattened upon 
 each other. Calculi containing oxalate of lime, on the other hand, 
 have a rough, open, crystalline surface, which has gained for them 
 the name of mulberry calculi, from a supposed resemblance to that 
 fruit. These are usually covered with more or less mucus or blood, 
 produced by the irritation of the mucous membrane by their rough 
 surfaces. The color of calculi varies from white to yellow and deep 
 brown, the shades depending mainly on the amount of the coloring 
 matter of blood, bile, or urine which they may contain. 
 
 Kcnal calculi. These may consist of minute, almost microscopic, 
 deposits in the uriniferous tubes in the substance of the kidney, but 
 more commonly they are large masses and lodged in the pelvis. The 
 larger calculi, sometimes weighing 12 to 24 ounces, are molded in the 
 jH'lvis of the kidney into a cylindroid mass, with irregular rounded 
 
 iwellings at intervals. Some have a deep brown, rough, crystalline 
 surface of oxalate of lime, while others have a smooth, pearly white 
 
 spH-t from carbonate of lime. A smaller calculus, which has been 
 
 called coralline, is also cylindroid, with a number of brown, rough, 
 
 sUlline oxalate of lime branches and whitish depressions of car- 
 
 rhese vary in size from 15 grains to nearly 2 ounces. Less 
 
 frequently are found masses of very hard, brownish white, rounded,
 
 STONE, OB GRAVEL. 99 
 
 pealike calculi. These are smoother, but on the surface crystals of 
 oxalate of lime may be detected with a lens. Some renal calculi are 
 formed of more distinct layers, more loosely adherent to each other, 
 and contain an excess of mucus, but no oxalate of lime. Finally, a 
 loose aggregation of small masses, forming a very friable calculus, 
 is found of all sizes within the limits of the pelvis of the kidney. 
 These, too, are in the main carbonate of lime (84 to 88 per cent) and 
 without oxalate. 
 
 Symptoms of renal calculi are violent colicky pains, appearing sud- 
 denly, very often in connection with exhausting work or the drawing 
 of specially heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal 
 suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is 
 associated with stiffness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage 
 of urine, and, above all, the passage of gravel with the urine, espe- 
 cially at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and 
 pus in the urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kid- 
 ney goes on to active inflammation, then the symptoms of nephritis 
 are added. 
 
 Uretral calculi. These are so called because they are found in the 
 passage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply 
 small renal calculi which have escaped from the pelvis of the kidney 
 and have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to symptoms 
 almost identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that 
 the colicky pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the 
 impacted calculus, are more violent, and if the calculus passes on 
 into the bladder the relief is instantaneous and complete. If the 
 ureter is completely blocked for a length of time, the retained urine 
 may give rise to destructive inflammation in the kidney, which may 
 end in the entire absorption of that organ, leaving only a fibrous 
 capsule containing an urinous fluid. If both the ureters are similarly 
 blocked, the animal will die of uremic poisoning. 
 
 Treatment of renal and uretral calculi. Treatment is unsatisfac- 
 tory, as it is only the small calculi that can pass through the ureters 
 and escape into the "bladder. This may be favored by agents which 
 will relax the walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and 
 even lessening their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery 
 fluids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from 
 behind. One or 2 ounces of laudanum, or 2 drams of extract of bella- 
 donna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of 
 the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the 
 same end use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be 
 kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not alone by 
 soothing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also 
 favor the freer secretion of a more watery urine, and thus tend to 
 carry off the smaller calculi. To further secure this object give cool
 
 100 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 water freely, and let the food be only such as contains a large propor- 
 tion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins, 
 ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and 
 the presence of the calculus is manifested only by the frequent passage 
 of urine with gritty particles, by stiffness of the loins and hind limbs, 
 and by tenderness to pressure, the most promising resort is a long run 
 at pasture where the grasses are fresh and succulent. The long- 
 continued secretion of a watery urine will sometimes cause the break- 
 ing down of a calculus, as the imbibition of the less dense fluid by the 
 organic spongelike framework of the calculus causes it to swell and 
 thus lessens its cohesion. The same end is sought by the long-con- 
 tinued use of alkalies (carbonate of potassium), and of acids 
 (muriatic), each acting in a different way to alter the density and 
 cohesion of the stone. But it is only exceptionally that any of these 
 methods is entirely satisfactory. If inflammation of the kidneys 
 develops, treat as advised under that head. 
 
 Stone in the Madder (vesical calculus, or cystic calculus}. These 
 may be of any size up to over a pound in weight. One variety is 
 rough and crystalline and has a yellowish white or deep-brown color. 
 These contain about 87 per cent carbonate of lime, the remainder 
 being carbonate of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter. 
 The phosphatic calculi are smooth and white and formed of thin 
 concentric layers of great hardness extending from the nucleus out- 
 ward. Besides the phosphate of lime these contain the carbonates of 
 lime and magnesia and organic matter. In some cases the bladder 
 contains and may be even distended by a soft pultaceous mass made 
 up of minute round granules of carbonates of lime and magnesia. 
 This, when removed and dried, makes a firm, white, and stony mass. 
 Sometimes this magma is condensed into a solid mass in the bladder 
 by reason of the binding action of the mucus and other organic 
 matter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearly uniform con- 
 sistency and without stratification. 
 
 Symptoms of stone in the bladder. The symptoms of stone in the 
 
 bladder are more obvious than those of renal calculus. The rough 
 
 mulberry calculi especially lead to irritation of the mucous membrane 
 
 and frequent passing of urine in small quantities and often mingled 
 
 with mucus or blood or containing minute gritty particles. At times 
 
 the flow is suddenly arrested, though the animal continues to strain 
 
 and the bladder is not quite emptied. In the smooth phosphatic 
 
 variety the irritation is much less marked and may even be altogether 
 
 With the piiltaccous deposit in the bladder there is incon- 
 
 inence of urine, which dribbles away continually and keeps the hair 
 
 on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft magma. In all cases 
 
 ralriilus may be felt by the examination of the bladder with 
 
 the oiled hand in the rectum. The pear-shaped outline of the bladder
 
 STONE, OR GRAVEL. 101 
 
 can be felt beneath, and within it the solid oval body. It is most 
 easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as then it is not 
 grasped by the contracting walls of the bladder, but may be made to 
 move from place to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous mass is 
 present it has a soft, doughy feeling, and when pressed an indentation 
 is left. 
 
 In the mare the hard stone may be touched by the finger introduced 
 through the short urethra. 
 
 Treatment of stone in the bladder. The treatment of stone in the 
 bladder consists in the removal of the offending body. In the mare 
 this is easily effected with the lithotomy forceps. These are slightly 
 warmed and oiled, and carried forward along the floor of the passage 
 of the vulva for 4 inches, when the orifice of the urethra will be felt 
 exactly in the median line. Through this the forceps are gradually 
 pushed with gentle oscillating movement until they enter the bladder 
 and strike against the hard surface of the stone. The stone is now 
 grasped between the blades, care being taken to include no loose fold 
 of the mucous membrane, and it is gradually withdrawn with the 
 same careful oscillating motions as before. Facility and safety in 
 seizing the stone will be greatly favored by having the bladder half 
 full of liquid, and if necessary one oiled hand may be introduced 
 into the rectum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation may be 
 treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce in a pint of tepid water. 
 
 The removal of the stone in the horse is a much more difficult pro- 
 ceeding. It consists in cutting into the urethra just beneath the anus 
 and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the 
 bladder, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the urethra with 
 tepid water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon 
 which the incision may be made, and in case of a large stone it may 
 be needful to enlarge the passage by cutting in a direction upward 
 and outward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid 
 along in the groove of a director until it enters the bladder. 
 
 The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being 
 simply pressed against the wall by a pole passed from before back- 
 ward along the other side of the body. The tepid water is injected 
 into the end of the penis until it is felt to fluctuate under the pressure 
 of the finger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus. 
 The incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, and 
 from above downward. When a sound or catheter is used as a guide 
 it is inserted through the penis until it can be felt through the skin 
 at the point where the incision is to be made beneath the anus. The 
 skin is then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand 
 pressing on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed 
 with a scalpel, cuts downward onto the catheter. This vertical in- 
 cision into the canal should escape wounding any important blood
 
 102 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 vessel. It is in making the obliquely lateral incision in the subse- 
 quent dilatation of the urethra and neck of the bladder that such 
 danger is to be apprehended. 
 
 If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra it may 
 be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted piecemeal with the 
 forceps. The lithotrite is an instrument composed of a straight stem 
 bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an 
 obtuse angle, and having on the same side a sliding bar moving in a 
 groove in the stem and operated by a screw so that the stone may b3 
 seized between the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again 
 and again into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required 
 to avoid injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular frag- 
 ments, and the gravel or powder that can not be removed in this way 
 must be washed out as advised below. 
 
 When a pultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the 
 bladder it must be washed out by injecting water through a catheter 
 by means of a force pump or a funnel, shaking it up with the hand 
 introduced through the rectum and allowing the muddy liquid to flow 
 out through the tube. This is to be repeated until the bladder is 
 empty and the water comes away clear. A catheter with a double 
 tube is sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube 
 and escaping through the other. But the advantage is more ap- 
 parent than real, as the retention of the water until the magma has 
 been shaken up and mixed with it hastens greatly its complete evacu- 
 ation. 
 
 To prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding 
 (dry grain and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, pease, 
 wheat bran, etc.) and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must 
 be corrected. Give abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging 
 the animal to drink by a handful of salt daily; let the food be laxa- 
 tive, consisting largely of roots, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, and give 
 daily in the drinking water a dram of carbonate of potash or soda. 
 Powdered gentian root (3 drams daily) will also serve to restore the 
 tone of the stomach and system at large. 
 
 Urethral calculus (stone in the urethra). This is less frequent in 
 horses than in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra 
 in the horse and the absence of the S-shaped curve and vermiform 
 appendix. The calculi arrested in the urethra are never formed 
 there, but consist of cystic calculi which have been small enough to 
 pass through the neck of the bladder, but too large to pass through 
 the whole length of the urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore 
 are primarily formed either in the bladder or kidney, and have the 
 chemical composition of the other calculi found in those organs. 
 They may IK> arrested at any point of the urethra, from the neck of 
 the bladder back to the bend of the tube beneath the anus, and from
 
 STONE, OR GRAVEL. 103 
 
 that point down to the extremity of the penis. I have found them 
 most frequently in the papilla on the extreme end of the penis, and 
 immediately behind this. 
 
 Symptoms of urethral calculus. The symptoms are violent strain- 
 ing to urinate, but without any discharge, or with the escape of water 
 in drops only. Examination of the end of the penis will detect the 
 swelling of the papilla or the urethra behind it, and the presence of 
 a hard mass in the center. A probe inserted into the urethra will 
 strike against the gritty calculus. If the stone has been arrested 
 higher up, its position may be detected as a small, hard, sensitive 
 knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line of the lower surface 
 of the penis, or on the floor of pelvis in the median line from the 
 neck of the bladder back to the bend of the urethra beneath the anus. 
 In any case the urethra between the neck of the bladder and the point 
 of obstruction is likely to be filled with fluid, and to feel like a dis- 
 tended tube fluctuating on pressure. 
 
 Treatment of urethral calculus may be begun by an attempt to 
 extract the calculi by manipulation of the papilla on the end of the 
 penis. This failing, the calculus may be seized with a pair of fine- 
 pointed forceps and withdrawn from the urethra ; or, if necessary, a 
 probe-pointed knife may be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated, 
 or even laid open, and the stone removed. If the stone has been 
 arrested higher up it must be extracted by a direct incision through 
 the walls of the urethra and down upon the nodule. If in the free 
 (protractile) portion of the penis, that organ is to be withdrawn from 
 its sheath until the nodule is exposed and can be incised. If behind 
 the scrotum, the incision must be made in the median line between 
 the thighs and directly over the nodule, the skin having been rendered 
 tense by the fingers and thumb of the left hand. If the stone has 
 been arrested in the intrapelvic portion of the urethra, the incision 
 must be made beneath the anus and the calculus extracted with for- 
 ceps, as in stone in the bladder. The wound in the urethra may be 
 stitched up, and usually heals slowly but satisfactorily. Healing will 
 be favored by washing two or three times daily with a solution of a 
 teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint of water. 
 
 Preputial calculus (calculus in the sheath, or ~bilocular cavity}. 
 These are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also 
 applied to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the 
 blind pouches (bilocular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end 
 of the penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy- 
 like sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate, 
 phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and organic 
 matter. These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the 
 sheath should be washed out with castile soap and warm water, and 
 smeared with sweet oil.
 
 DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 By W. H. HABBAUQH, V. S. 
 [Revised In 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. 8., V. M. D.J 
 
 The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be enu- 
 merated in natural order as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; 
 the nasal chambers, through which the air passes in the head; the 
 sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the 
 pharynx, common to the functions of breathing and swallowing; 
 the larynx, at the top of the windpipe; the trachea, or windpipe; the 
 bronchi (into which the windpipe divides), two tubes leading from 
 the windpipe to the right and left lungs, respectively; the bronchial 
 tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs; the 
 lungs. 
 
 The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and lines the 
 walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure, 
 completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those 
 of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration, 
 and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of 
 respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do 
 with the diseases under consideration. 
 
 Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per- 
 ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane. Near 
 the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting 
 the appearance of having been made with a punch; this is the 
 opening of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from 
 the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities, or 
 fissures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely 
 separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition, the 
 nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous 
 compartments by two thin, scrolllike turbinated bones. 
 
 The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the 
 entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently 
 liseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. 
 The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with 
 the nasal chamlK>rs nnd are lined with a continuation of the same 
 membrane that linos the nasal chambers; their presence increases the 
 volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its 
 weight. 
 
 Tho horw, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the 
 The organs of respiration are more liable to disease than 
 104
 
 DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 105 
 
 the organs connected with any other function of the animal, and, as 
 many of the causes can be avoided, it is both important and profitable 
 to know and study the causes. 
 
 CAUSES OF DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 The causes of many of the diseases of these organs may be given 
 under a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or 
 badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and 
 terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are 
 changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract 
 disease, and consequently care should be taken at those periods to 
 prevent other exciting causes. 
 
 Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a 
 mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than 
 city stables. Stables on some, farms are so faultily constructed that it 
 is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables 
 should have a sufficient supply of pure air, and be so arranged that 
 strong drafts can not blow directly on the animals. In ventilating a 
 stable, it is best to arrange to remove air from near the floor and admit 
 it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason 
 for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near 
 the floor while that which is warmest and purest, and therefore can 
 least be spared is near the top of the room. In summer, top exits and 
 cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot 
 stables are almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a 
 cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature 
 that a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of tem- 
 perature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease. 
 
 A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as 
 much as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold 
 to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed 
 from a warm to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than 
 warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the 
 stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more econom- 
 ical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress 
 of pure air in order to make the stable warm. 
 
 Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers 
 allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is 
 a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves 
 gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. When a 
 horse is overheated, it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation ; 
 rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treat- 
 ment. When a horse is hot covered with sweat it is dangerous to 
 allow him to stand in a draft; it is the best plan to walk him until his 
 temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over
 
 106 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often 
 causes the most fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid pro- 
 longed or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccus- 
 tomed to it Animals that have been working out in cold rains should 
 be dried and cooled out and not left to dry by evaporation. When 
 the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or 
 cold, diseases of the organs of respiration are most frequent. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the par- 
 ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but 
 they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will 
 often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly con- 
 siders his interests, he will study the welfare of his horses so that he 
 may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable management. 
 
 WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. 
 
 Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused 
 by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse ; or 
 by getting " run into," or by running against something. Occasion- 
 ally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impossible to 
 effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the 
 majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is due to the want of con- 
 servative treatment. As soon as possible after the accident the parts 
 should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much 
 time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably 
 interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging, 
 or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct apposi- 
 tion and place the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apart, as cir- 
 cumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special surgeons' 
 silk and needles for this operation; good linen thread or ordinary silk 
 thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept 
 clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed 
 away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in water 40 
 parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object 
 on account of the irritability, his head should be tied by means of two 
 halter ropes attached to the opposite sides of the stall to prevent him 
 rubbing the wound open. The head should be so tied about ten days, 
 except when at work or eating. 
 
 TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS. 
 
 A small globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril, 
 undor that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a 
 horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of 
 a cheesy consistency. 
 
 If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed 
 out, nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the out-
 
 COLD IN THE HEAD (NASAL CATARRH ). 107 
 
 side through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but 
 much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the 
 animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and 
 you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to 
 be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse 
 to quiet him ; run the index finger of your left hand against the tumor ; 
 now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by running the 
 back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the 
 tumor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the 
 blade quickly and surely into the tumor; make the opening large. 
 A little blood may flow for a while, but it is of no consequence. 
 Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean. 
 
 COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH. 
 
 Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accom- 
 panied by excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation 
 may extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the in- 
 side of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the general causes 
 of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in 
 young horses and in horses not acclimated. 
 
 Symptoms. The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, 
 congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish 
 red or red. Soon a watery discharge from the nostrils makes its 
 appearance ; the eyes may also be more or less affected and tears flow 
 over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily 
 detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum 
 or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat 
 conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural. 
 
 To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temper- 
 ature in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the 
 mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus- 
 tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will 
 have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. 
 The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough 
 unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his 
 nostrils, very often in a manner that may be aptly called " blowing 
 his nose." A few days after the attack begins the discharge from 
 the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous 
 state, of a yellowish white color, and may be more or less profuse. 
 Often the appetitie is lost and the animal becomes debilitated. 
 
 Treatment. This disease is not serious but inasmuch as neglect or 
 bad treatment may cause it to lead to 3omething worse or become 
 chronic, it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be 
 worked for a time. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good 
 food, will be of greater benefit than most medication. The value of
 
 1 1 IS DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 pure air can not be overestimated, but drafts must be avoided. The 
 benefit derived from the inhalation of steam is considerable. This 
 is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful of boiling 
 water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with 
 every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay 
 causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. One may cause tho 
 horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot 
 water has been poured, the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket, 
 but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunny sack, or, if of canvas, 
 holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air. 
 
 The horse may be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, 
 about fifteen or twenty minutes each time. 
 
 Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, 
 scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the horse 
 evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of 
 food he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on 
 short rations. 
 
 If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections 
 (enemas) of warm water into the rectum three of four times a day, 
 but do not administer purgative medicines, excepting of a mild 
 character. 
 
 For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the 
 appetite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 
 ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of pow- 
 dered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a 
 day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench ; do not pound 
 the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be patient, and take 
 time, and do it right. 
 
 If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- 
 fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, 
 to he described hereafter. 
 
 If. after ten days or two weeks, the discharge from the nostrils con- 
 tinues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This 
 may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should be thoroughly 
 understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent more danger- 
 ous diseases. 
 
 CHRONIC CATARRH (OR NASAL GLEET, OR COLLECTION IN THE SINUSES). 
 
 This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the 
 membrane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is 
 manifested by a persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish 
 white matter from one or both nostrils. The commonest cause is a 
 neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases 
 srhere the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not 
 received proper food, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated.
 
 CHRONIC CATARRH (NASAL GLEET). 109 
 
 Other but less frequent causes for this affection are: Fractures of 
 the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows 
 on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus 
 and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is 
 said to have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a 
 cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to 
 have caused it. It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated 
 bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has 
 been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them and by tumors 
 filling up the cavity. 
 
 Symptoms. Great caution must be -exercised when examining these 
 cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand, 
 horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was 
 nothing ailing them but nasal gleet. This affection is not contagious. 
 It may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In 
 most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, which may signify 
 that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge 
 may be intermittent, that is, quantities may be discharged at times 
 and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent dis- 
 charge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under 
 and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The pecul- 
 iar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the mem- 
 brane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there. 
 If there is any doubt about it, study well the symptoms of glanders 
 to enable you to be at least competent to form a safe opinion. 
 
 The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar 
 appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an 
 enlargement, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone 
 over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may 
 be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones, 
 or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the 
 horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the 
 food from the mouth after partly chewing it. When you tap on 
 the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth 
 of the upper jaw, a hollow, drumlike sound is emitted, but if the 
 sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted 
 will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means 
 the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may 
 be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to 
 the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an impres- 
 sion where it is pressed upon with the finger. 
 
 Treatment. The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before 
 treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in 
 poor condition (in fact, in all cases) he should have the most nutri-
 
 HO DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 tive food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing it, 
 should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head 
 favors the discharge. 
 
 The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule, 
 have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medica- 
 tion are of the most value. For eight days give the following mix- 
 ture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered nux vomica, 1 ounce. Mix 
 and make into sixteen powders. Give one powder mixed with the 
 food twice a day. Arsenious acid (white arsenic) in doses of from 
 3 to G grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur 
 burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also 
 a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the 
 burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air, so as not to suffocate 
 the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also 
 keep a quantity of the chloride under the hay in the manger, so that 
 the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay 
 while eating. Keep the nostrils washed, and keep the discharge 
 cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused 
 to inhale creolin vapor or the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin 
 by pouring 2 ounces of these drugs into hot water and fumigating in 
 the usual way. 
 
 If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the tooth must 
 be removed. The operation of trephining is the best possible way to 
 remove the tooth in such cases, as it immediately opens the cavity 
 which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet 
 where sinuses contain either collections of pus or tumors, the only 
 relief is by the trephine; and, no matter how thoroughly described, 
 this is an operation that will be very seldom attempted by the non- 
 professional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modus 
 opera ndi. . 
 
 An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection 
 of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved by trephining. 
 
 THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANE. 
 
 This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the 
 breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common 
 cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, 
 namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium, 
 etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only 
 is the rule; and the affected side may be easily detected by holding 
 the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is 
 closed in this manner, the breathing through the affected side will 
 demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction.
 
 TUMORS IN NOSE AND PHARYNX. Ill 
 
 NASAL POLYPUS. 
 
 Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasion- 
 ally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are 
 obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located. 
 They vary much in size ; some are so small that their presence is not 
 manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber, 
 thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem, 
 or base, of the tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber, 
 and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in 
 size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of 
 hanging down toward the nasal opening, it falls back into the phar- 
 ynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy 
 snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of 
 blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can 
 be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the 
 affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened mem- 
 brane. 
 
 The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other 
 operations, should be done by an expert when it is possible to secure 
 one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor 
 with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn 
 from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The 
 resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, 
 such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or by packing the nostrils 
 with surgeon's gauze. 
 
 PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS. 
 
 This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, 
 the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the 
 tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as 
 before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the 
 back part of the mouth), and the body of the tumor then falls into 
 the pharynx. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breath- 
 ing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming 
 symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from 
 the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and 
 accompanied by a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and 
 often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx 
 the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing was ailing. 
 These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the 
 trouble. The examination must be made by holding the animal's 
 mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand 
 back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be re- 
 moved in the same manner as though it were in the nose.
 
 112 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. 
 
 This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, namely, 
 influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it 
 also occurs independent of other affections; and, as before mentioned, 
 is a symptom of polypus, or tumor, in the nose. 
 
 Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing causing a rupture 
 of a small blood vessel also induce it. The bleeding is almost inva- 
 riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood 
 escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream) and is not frothy, as when 
 the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs, 
 p. 136.) In most cases bathing the head and washing out the nostril 
 with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known, you 
 will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, 
 pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over 
 the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to 
 the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemor- 
 rhage continues, try plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum. 
 Tie a string around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, 
 so that it can be safely withdrawn after four or five hours. If both 
 nostrils are bleeding, plug only one nostril at a time. If the hemor- 
 rhage is profuse and persistent, give a drench composed of 1 dram of 
 acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint of water ; or ergot, 1 ounce. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX. 
 
 As already stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both 
 respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes into the 
 larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the 
 pharynx is the superior extremity of the gullet, the canal through 
 which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the 
 pharynx is a complication of other diseases namely, influenza, 
 strangles, etc. and is probably always more or less complicated with 
 inflammation of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent 
 affection (hero is no reason to doubt, and it is discussed as such with 
 the diseases of the digestive tract. 
 
 SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 
 
 The Inrynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just 
 hack of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (some- 
 what depressed on each side), composed principally of cartilages and 
 small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the 
 respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is contin- 
 uous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords 
 being situated within it: but in the horse this function is of little con- 
 sequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain extent, thus regulating 
 the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining
 
 SOEE THROAT, OK LARYNGITIS. 113 
 
 it internally is so highly sensitive that if the smallest particle of food 
 happens to drop into it from the pharynx violent coughing ensues 
 instantly and is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. 
 This is a provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gaining 
 access to the lungs. That projection called Adam's apple in the neck 
 of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the 
 larynx. 
 
 Inflammation of the larynx is a serious and sometimes a fatal dis- 
 ease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation 
 of the pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as " sore 
 throat." The chief causes are chilling and exposure. 
 
 Symptoms. About the first symptom noticed is cough, followed by 
 difficulty in swallowing, which may be due to soreness of the mem- 
 brane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or to 
 the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel 
 the food or water onward to the gullet; or this same contraction of 
 the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce pain. In 
 many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that water, and 
 in some cases food, is returned through the nose. This, however, 
 does not occur from laryngitis alone, but only when the pharynx is 
 involved in the inflammation. The glands between the lower jaw- 
 bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx 
 induces coughing. The head is more or less " poked out," and has 
 the appearance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the 'nose 
 becomes red. A discharge from the nostrils soon appears. As the 
 disease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisy char- 
 acter ; sometimes a harsh rasping snore is emitted with every respira- 
 tion, the breathing becomes hurried, and occasionally the animal 
 seems threatened with suffocation. 
 
 Treatment. In all cases steam the nostrils, as has been advised for 
 cold in the head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continu- 
 ously for hours until relief is afforded. Have a fresh bucketful of 
 boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of 
 water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, or compound tincture 
 of benzoin, the vapor of which will be carried along with the steam to 
 the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild cases steaming 
 the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suffice. 
 
 The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dry stall (a box stall 
 preferred), and should have a pure atmosphere to breathe. The body 
 should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet 
 should consist of soft food bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, 
 and. best of all, grass, if in season, which should be fresh. The man- 
 ger, or trough, should not be too high nor too low, but a temporary 
 one should be constructed at about the height he carries his head. 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 8
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Having to reach too high or too low may cause so much pain that the 
 animal would rather forego satisfying what little appetite he might 
 have than inflict pain by craning his head for food or water. A sup- 
 ply of fresh water should be before him all the time; he will not drink 
 too much, nor will the cold water hurt him. Constipation (if pres- 
 ent) must be relieved by enemas of warm water, administered three or 
 four times during the twenty-four hours. 
 
 A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil and 1 ounce each of 
 solution of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken to- 
 gether, may be thoroughly rubbed in about the throat from ear to 
 ear, and about 6 inches down over the windpipe, and in the space be- 
 tween the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for 
 two or three days. 
 
 If the animal is breathing with great difficulty, persevere in steam- 
 ing the nostrils, and dissolve 2 drams of chlorate of potassium in 
 every gallon of water he will drink ; even if he can not swallow much 
 of it, and even if it is returned through the nostrils, it will be of some 
 benefit to the pharynx as a gargle. 
 
 An electuary of acetate of potash, 2 drams, honey, and licorice pow- 
 der may be spread on the teeth with a paddle every few hours. If 
 the pain of coughing is great, 2 or 3 grains of morphine may be added 
 to the electuary. 
 
 When the breathing begins to be loud relief is afforded in some cases 
 by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jaborandi 
 in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may be 
 repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause 
 a free flow of saliva from the mouth. 
 
 In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the operation of 
 tracheotomy must be performed. To describe this operation in words 
 that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a more 
 difficult task than performing the operation, which, in the hands of 
 the expert, is simple and attended with little danger. 
 
 The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be 
 purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, 
 a sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected 
 for opening the windpipe is that part which is found, upon examina- 
 tion, to be least covered with muscles, about 5 or 6 inches below the 
 throat. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. Have an 
 assistant hold the animal's head still. Grasp your knife firmly in 
 the right hand, select the spot and make the cut from above to below 
 directly on the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe. 
 Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe; this necessitates 
 cutting throe or four rings. One bold stroko is usually sufficient, but 
 if it is necessary to make several other cute to finish the operation, do
 
 SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 115 
 
 not hesitate. Your purpose is to make a hole in the windpipe suffi- 
 ciently large to admit the tracheotomy tube. It is quickly manifested 
 when the windpipe is severed; the hot air rushes out, and when air 
 is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may 
 result (it never amounts to much) , which is easily controlled by wash- 
 ing the wound with a sponge and cold water, but use care not to get 
 any water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant 
 to hold the head down immediately after the operation, so that the 
 neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the blood getting 
 into the windpipe and allow it to drop directly on the ground. If 
 you have the self -adjustable tube, it retains its place in the wound 
 without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires 
 to be secured in position by means of two tapes or strings tied around 
 the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated, sponge the 
 blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it, 
 directing the tube downward toward the lungs. 
 
 The immediate relief this operation affords is gratifying to behold. 
 The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffoca- 
 tion, emitting a loud wheezing sound with every breath, with haggard 
 countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath, 
 now breathes tranquilly, and may be in search of something to eat. 
 
 The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with the car- 
 bolic acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the 
 wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water. 
 Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the 
 tube to test the animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as 
 soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the 
 natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly 
 cleansed with the carbolic acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by in- 
 serting four or five stitches through the skin and muscle. Do not 
 include the cartilages of the windpipe in the stitches. Apply the 
 carbolic acid solution to the wound three or four times a day until 
 healed. When the tube is removed to clean it the lips of the wound 
 may be pressed together to ascertain whether or not the horse can 
 breathe through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discon- 
 tinued as soon as possible. 
 
 It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, 
 and especially when most urgently required. In such instances there 
 is nothing left to be dore but, with a strong needle, pass a wax end 
 or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the 
 cartilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound open by tying the 
 strings over the neck. 
 
 During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must 
 not be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 becomes thicker and more profuse. This is a good symptom and sig- 
 nifies that the acute stage has passed. At any time during the attack, 
 if the horse becomes weak, give whisky or aromatic spirits of ammo- 
 nia, 2 ounces in water. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal back 
 to work, but give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and 
 gradually increasing exercise may be given as soon as the horse is able 
 to stand it. The food should be carefully selected and of good qual- 
 ity. Tonics, as iron or arsenic, may be employed. 
 
 If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be 
 opened to allow the escape of pus, but do not rashly plunge a knife 
 into swollen glands ; wait until you are certain the swelling contains 
 pus. The formation of pus may be encouraged by the constant appli- 
 cation of poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the 
 purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a 
 thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the 
 attack, rub well over them an application of the following: Biniodide 
 of mercury, 1 dram ; lard, 1 ounce ; mix well. This may be applied 
 once every day until the part is blistered. 
 
 Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, 
 strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be con- 
 sulted under their proper headings. 
 
 After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous 
 membrane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of 
 the part may ensue, either of which is liable to produce a chronic 
 cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can 
 neither be diagnosed nor topically treated by the nonprofessional. 
 
 If a chronic cough remains after all the other symptoms have dis- 
 appeared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dis- 
 solved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before feeding, 
 three times a day for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the 
 preparation of iodide of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) 
 about the throat, from ear to ear, and in the space between the lower 
 jaw bones. The application may be repeated every third day until 
 the part is blistered. 
 
 SPASM OF THE LARYNX. 
 
 The symptoms are as follows: Sudden seizure by a violent fit of 
 coughing; the horse may reel and fall, and after a few minutes re- 
 cover and be as well as ever. The treatment recommended is this: 
 Three drams of bromide of potassium three times a day, dissolved in 
 the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half pint of water 
 for a week. Then give 1 dram of powdered mix vomica (either on 
 the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for a few 
 weeks.
 
 DISEASES OF THE THROAT. 117 
 
 CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA. 
 
 Neither of these diseases affects the horse. But these names are 
 sometimes wrongly applied to severe laryngitis or pharyngitis, or to 
 forage poisoning, in which the throat is paralyzed and becomes exces- 
 sively inflamed and gangrenous. 
 
 THICK WIND AND ROARING. 
 
 Horses that are affected with a chronic disease that causes a loud 
 unnatural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind," or to be 
 roarers. This class does not include those affected with severe sore 
 throat, as in these cases the breathing is noisy only during the attack 
 of the acute disease. 
 
 Thick wind is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the 
 air in some part of the respiratory tract. Nasal polypi, thickening of 
 the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the 
 wing of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing 
 of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due 
 to any disease and is only temporary. Very often a nervous, excitable 
 horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally 
 caused by the cramped position in which the head and neck are forced 
 in order to hold him back. 
 
 Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermitting, or per- 
 manent noisy respiration, but chronic roaring is caused by paralysis 
 of the muscles of the larynx ; and almost invariably it is the muscles 
 of the left side of the larynx that are affected. 
 
 In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the 
 lungs ; and only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced 
 when the air is expelled, and even then it is not near so loud as during 
 inspiration. 
 
 In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx 
 by moving outward the cartilage and vocal cord, allowing a sufficient 
 volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed 
 the cartilage and vocal cord that are normally controlled by the 
 affected muscles lean into the tube of the larynx, so that when the air 
 rushes in it meets this obstruction and the noise is produced. When 
 the air is expelled from the lungs its very force pushes the cartilage 
 and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not produced in the 
 expiratory act. 
 
 The paralysis of the muscles is due to derangement of the nerve 
 that supplies them with energy. The muscles of both sides are not 
 supplied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each 
 supplying its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the 
 left side are the ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in
 
 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 the anatomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much 
 longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve. 
 
 In chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the larynx 
 other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The 
 disease of the nerve is generally located far from the larynx. Dis- 
 ease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course 
 may interfere with its proper function. Enlargement of lymphatic 
 glands within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way 
 back to the larynx is the most frequent interruption of nervous sup- 
 ply, and consequently roaring. When roaring becomes confirmed, 
 medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the 
 wasted muscle and at the same time remove the cause of the interrup- 
 tion of the nervous supply. Before roaring becomes permanent the 
 condition may be benefited by a course of iodide of potassium, if 
 caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used 
 with indifferent success. Blistering or firing over the larynx is, of 
 course, not worthy of trial if the disease is due to interference of the 
 nerve supply. The administration of strychnia (nux vomica) on the 
 ground that it is a nerve tonic with the view of stimulating the af- 
 fected muscles is treating only the result of the disease without con- 
 sidering the cause, and is therefore useless. The operation of extir- 
 pating the collapsed cartilage and vocal cord is believed to be the 
 only relief, and, as this operation is critical and can only be per- 
 formed by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here. 
 
 From the foregoing description of the disease it will be seen that 
 the name " roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only 
 a symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many 
 cases accompanied by a cough. The best way to test whether a horse 
 is a " roarer " is either to make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or 
 over a sandy road or soft ground ; or, if he is a saddle horse, gallop 
 him up a hill or over soft ground. The object is to make him exert 
 himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than others 
 before the characteristic sound is emitted. The greater the distance 
 he is forced, the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in 
 bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is 
 rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the fullest extent, and the 
 animal appears as if suffocation was imminent. 
 
 An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding pur- 
 poses. The taint is transmissible in many instances. 
 
 Grunting. A common test used by veterinarians when examining 
 u the wind " of a horse is to see if he is a " grunter." This is a sound 
 emitted during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or 
 startled, or struck at. If he grunts he is further tested for roaring. 
 Grunters are not always roarers, but, as it is a common thing for a 
 roarer to grunt, such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion
 
 CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. 119 
 
 until he is thoroughly tried by pulling a load or galloped up a hill. 
 The test should be a severe one. 'Horses suffering with pleurisy, 
 pleurodynia, or rheumatism, and other affections accompanied with 
 much pain, will grunt when moved, or when the pain is aggravated, 
 but grunting under these circumstances does not justify the term of 
 " grunter " being applied to the horse, as the grunting ceases when 
 the animal recovers from the disease that causes the pain. 
 
 High blowing. This term is applied to a noisy breathing made by 
 some horses. It is distinctly a nasal sound, and must not be con- 
 founded with " roaring." The sound is produced by the action of the 
 nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring, 
 when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An ani- 
 mal that emits this sound is called a " high-blower." Some horses 
 have, naturally, very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit 
 sounds louder than usual in their breathing when exercised. 
 
 Whistling is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a 
 horse called a " roarer," and therefore needs no further notice, except 
 to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during 
 an attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which 
 passes away with the disease that causes it. 
 
 CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. 
 
 This may be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis or it may 
 follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to 
 be converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This 
 chronic affection in most instances is associated with thickening of 
 the walls of the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not 
 accompanied with as much fever as the acute form. If the animal is 
 exerted, the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of 
 exhaustion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and 
 appearances moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost, 
 flesh gradually disappears, and he becomes emaciated and debilitated. 
 It is accompanied by a persistent cough, which in some cases is husky, 
 smothered, or muffled, while in other cases it is hard and clear. A 
 whitish matter is discharged from the nose, which may be curdled in 
 some instances. If the ear is placed against the chest behind the 
 shoulder blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus can be 
 heard within. 
 
 Treatment. Rest is necessary, as even under the most favorable 
 circumstances a cure is difficult to effect. The animal can not stand 
 exertion and should not be compelled to undergo it. The animal 
 should have much the same general care and medical treatment pre- 
 scribed for the acute form. Arsenious acid in tonic doses (3 to 7 
 grains) three times daily may be given. As arsenic is irritant, it must 
 be mixed with a considerable bulk of moist feed and never given
 
 120 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 alone. Arsenic may be given in the form of Fowler's solution, 1 
 ounce three times daily in the "drinking water. An application of 
 mustard applied to the breast is a beneficial adjunct. The diet should 
 be the most nourishing. Avoid bulky food. Linseed mashes, 
 scalded oats, and, if in season, grass and green-blade fodder are the 
 best diet. * ; 
 
 THE LUNGS. 
 
 The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They consist of 
 two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the "lights," 
 situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the 
 space taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Externally, 
 they are completely covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung 
 consists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably elastic tissue, 
 which can only be torn with difficulty. Each lung is divided into a 
 certain number of lobes, which are subdivided into numberless 
 lobules (little lobes). A little bronchial tube terminates in every 
 one of these lobules. The little tube then divides into minute 
 branches which open into the air cells (pulmonary vesicles) of the 
 lungs. The air cells are little sacs having a diameter varying from 
 one-seventieth to one two-hundredth of an inch; they have but one 
 opening, the communication with the branches of the little bronchial 
 tubes. Small blood vessels ramify in the walls of the air cells. The 
 air cells are the consummation of the intricate structures forming 
 the respiratory apparatus. They are of prime importance, all the 
 rest being complementary. It is here that the exchange of gases takes 
 place. As before stated, the walls of the cells are very thin ; so, also, 
 arc the walls of the blood "vessels. Through these walls escapes from 
 the blood the carbonic acid gas that has been absorbed by the blood 
 in its circulation through the different parts of the body; and through 
 these walls is absorbed by the blood, from the air in the air cells, the 
 oxygen gas which is the life-giving element of the atmosphere. 
 
 CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 Congestion is essentially an excess of blood in the vessels of the 
 
 parts affected. Congestion of the lungs in the horse, when it exists 
 
 as an independent affection, is generally caused by overexertion when 
 
 the animal is not in a fit condition to undergo more than moderate 
 
 Tcise. Very often what is recognized as congestion of the lungs 
 
 >ut a symptom of exhaustion or dilatation of the heart. 
 
 The methods practiced by the trainers of running and trotting 
 
 II give an idea of what is termed " putting a horse in condi- 
 
 to stand severe exertion. The animal at first gets walking 
 
 then after some time he is made to go faster and farther 
 
 the amount of work is daily increased until the horse is
 
 CONGESTION OP THE LUNGS. 121 
 
 said to be "in condition." An animal so prepared runs no risk of 
 being affected with congestion of the lungs, if he is otherwise healthy. 
 On the other hand, if the horse is kept in the stable for the purpose 
 of laying on fat or for want of something to do, the muscular system 
 becomes soft, and the horse is not in condition to stand the severe 
 exertion of going fast or far, no matter how healthy he may be in 
 other respects. If such a horse be given a hard ride or drive, he may 
 start off in high spirits, but soon becomes exhausted, and if he is 
 pushed he will slacken his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stag- 
 ger or even fall. Examination will show the nostrils dilated, the 
 flanks heaving, the countenance haggard, and the appearance of suf- 
 focation. The heart and muscles were not accustomed to the sudden 
 and severe strain put upon them ; the heart became unable to perform 
 its work; the blood accumulated in the vessels of the lungs, which 
 eventually became engrossed with the stagnated blood, constituting 
 congestion of the lungs. 
 
 The animal, after having undergone severe exertion, may not 
 exhibit alarming symptoms until returned to the stable ; then he will 
 be noticed standing with his head down, legs spread out, the eyes 
 wildly staring or dull and sunken. The breathing is very rapid and 
 almost gasping ; the body is covered with perspiration in most cases, 
 which, however, may soon evaporate, leaving the surface of the body 
 and the legs and ears cold ; the breathing is both abdominal and tho- 
 racic ; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerfully brought 
 into action. If the pulse can be felt at all it will be found beating 
 very frequently, one hundred or so to a minute. The heart may be 
 felt tumultuously thumping if the hand is placed against the chest 
 behind the left elbow, or it may be scarcely perceptible. The animal 
 may tremble all over the body. If the ear is placed against the side 
 of the chest a loud murmur will be heard and perhaps a fine crackling 
 sound. 
 
 One can scarcely fail to recognize a case of congestion of the lungs 
 when brought on by overexertion, as the history of the case indicates 
 the nature of the ailment. In all cases of suffocation the lungs are 
 congested. It is also seen in connection with other diseases. 
 
 Treatment. If the animal is attacked by the disease while on the 
 road, stop him immediately. Do not attempt to return to the stables. 
 If he is in the stable, make arrangements at once to insure an unlim- 
 ited supply of pure air. If the weather is warm, out in the open air 
 is the best place, but if too cold let him stand with head to the door. 
 Let him stand still ; he has all he can do, if he obtains sufficient pure 
 air to sustain life. If he is encumbered with harness or saddle, 
 remove it at once and rub the body with cloths or wisps of hay or 
 straw. This stimulates the circulation in the skin, and thus aids in 
 relieving the lungs of the extra quantity of blood that is stagnated
 
 122 DISEASES OP THE HOBSE. 
 
 there. If you have three or four assistants, let them rub the body 
 and legs well until the skin feels natural ; rub the legs until they are 
 warm, if possible. When the circulation is reestablished, put band- 
 ages on the legs from the hoofs up as far as possible. Throw a blan- 
 ket over the body and let the rubbing be done under the blanket. 
 Diffusible stimulants are the medicines indicated brandy, whisky 
 (or even ale or beer if nothing else is at hand), ether, and aromatic 
 spirits of ammonia. Two ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether and 
 alcohol, given as a drench diluted with a pint of water, every hour 
 until relief is afforded, is among the best remedies. Or, give a quarter 
 of a pint of whisky in a pint of water every hour, or the same quan- 
 tity of brandy as often, or a quart of ale every hour, or 1 ounce of 
 tincture of arnica in a pint of water every hour until five or six doses 
 have been given. If none of these remedies is at hand, 2 ounces of 
 oil of turpentine, shaken with a half pint of milk, may be given once, 
 but not repeated. The animal may be bled from the jugular vein. 
 Do not take more than 5 or 6 quarts from the vein, and do not repeat 
 the bleeding. The blood thus drawn will have a tarry appearance. 
 
 When the alarming symptoms have subsided active measures may 
 be stopped, but care must be used in the general treatment of the ani- 
 mal for several days, for it must be remembered that congestion may 
 be followed by pneumonia. The animal should have a comfortable 
 stall, where he will not be subjected to drafts or sudden changes of 
 temperature; he should be blanketed and the legs kept bandaged. 
 The air should be pure, a plentiful supply of fresh cold water always 
 in the stall, and a diet composed principally of bran mashes, scalded 
 oats, and, if in season, grass. When ready for use again the horse 
 should at first receive moderate exercise only, which may be daily 
 increased until he may safely be put to regular work. 
 
 PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 
 
 Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs. The chief varieties of 
 pneumonia are catarrhal later discussed in connection with bron- 
 chitis, under the name of broncho-pneumonia and the fibrinous or 
 croupous variety. The latter form receives its name from the fact 
 that the air spaces are choked with coagulated fibrin thrown out from 
 the blood. This causes the diseased portions of the lungs to become 
 as firm as liver, in which condition they are said to be hepatized. As 
 air is excluded by the inflammatory product, the diseased lung will 
 not float in water. 
 
 The inflammation usually begins in the lower part of the lung and 
 extends upward. The first stage of the disease consists of conges- 
 tion, or engorgement, of the blood vessels, followed by leakage of 
 serum containing fibrin from the blood vessels into the air passages.
 
 PNEUMONIA. OR LUNG FEVER. 123 
 
 The fluids thus escaping into the air cells and in the minute branches 
 of the little bronchial tubes become coagulated. 
 
 The pleura covering the affected parts may be more or less inflamed. 
 A continuance of the foregoing phenomena is marked by a further 
 escape of the constituents of the blood, and a change in the membrane 
 of the cells, which become swollen. The exudate that fills the air 
 cells and minute bronchial branches undergoes disintegration and 
 softening when healing commences. 
 
 The favorable termination of pneumonia is in resolution, that is, a 
 restoration to health. This is gradually brought about by the exuded 
 material contained in the air cells and lung tissues becoming broken 
 down and softened and absorbed or expectorated through the nostrils. 
 The blood vessels return to their natural state, and the blood circu- 
 lates in them as before. In the cases that do not terminate so hap- 
 pily the lung may become gangrenous (or mortified), or an abscess 
 may form, or the disease may be merged into the chronic variety. 
 
 Pneumonia may be directly induced by any of the influences named 
 as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, but in 
 many instances it is due to neglect. A common cold or sore throat 
 may be followed by pneumonia if neglected or improperly treated. 
 An animal may be debilitated by a cold, and when in this weakened 
 state may be compelled to undergo exertion beyond his strength; or 
 he may be kept in bad quarters, such as a badly ventilated stable, 
 where the foul gases are shut in and the pure air is shut out ; or the 
 stable may be so open that parts of the body are exposed to drafts of 
 cold air. An animal is predisposed to pneumonia when debilitated 
 by any constitutional disease, and especially during convalescence if 
 exposed to any of the exciting causes. Foreign bodies, such as food, 
 accidentally getting in the lungs by way of the windpipe, as well as 
 the inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, ofttimes produce fatal 
 attacks of inflammation of the lung and bronchial tubes. Pneumonia 
 is frequently seen in connection with other diseases, such as influenza, 
 purpura hemorrhagica, strangles, glanders, etc. Pneumonia and 
 pleurisy are most common during cold, damp weather, and especially 
 during the prevalence of the cold north and northeasterly winds. 
 Wounds puncturing the thoracic cavity may cause pneumonia. 
 
 Symptoms. Pneumonia, when a primary disease, is ushered in by 
 a chill, more or less prolonged, which in many cases is seen neither 
 by the owner nor the attendant, but is overlooked. The breathing 
 becomes accelerated, and the animal hangs its head and has a very 
 dull appearance. The mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the 
 touch; the heat conveyed to the finger in the mouth demonstrates a 
 fever; if the thermometer is placed in the rectum the temperature 
 will be found to have risen to 103 F. or higher. The pulse is fre- 
 quent, beating from fifty or sixty to eighty or more a minute. There
 
 124 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 is usually a dry cough from the beginning, which, however, changes 
 in character as the disease advances; for instance, it may become 
 moist, or if pleurisy sets- in, the cough will be peculiar to the latter 
 affection ; that is, cut short in the endeavor to suppress it. In some 
 cases the discharge from the nostrils is tinged with blood, while in 
 other cases it has the appearance of muco-pus. The appetite is lost 
 to a greater or less extent, but the desire for water is increased, par- 
 ticularly during the onset of the fever. The membrane within the 
 nostrils is red and at first dry, but sooner or later becomes moist. The 
 legs are cold. The bowels are more or less constipated, and what 
 dung is passed is usually covered with a slimy mucus. The urine is 
 passed in smaller quantities than usual and is of a darker color. 
 
 The animal prefers to have the head where the freshest air can be 
 obtained. "When affected with pneumonia a horse does not lie down, 
 but persists in standing from the beginning of the attack. However, 
 if pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy, the horse may appear rest- 
 less and lie down for a few moments to gain relief from the pleuritic 
 pains, but he soon rises. In pneumonia the breathing is rapid and 
 difficult, but when the pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the 
 ribs are kept as still as possible and the breathing is abdominal ; that 
 is, the abdominal muscles are now made to do as much of the work as 
 they can perform. If pleurisy is not present there is little pain. 
 To the ordinary observer the animal may not appear dangerously 
 ill, as he does not show the seriousness of the ailment by violence, as 
 in colic, but a careful observer will discover at a glance that the 
 trouble is something more serious than a cold. By percussion it will 
 be shown that some portions of the chest are less resonant than in 
 health, indicating exclusion of air. If the air is wholly excluded the 
 percussion is quite dull, as that elicited by percussion over the thigh. 
 By auscultation important information may be gained. When the 
 car is placed against the chest of a healthy horse, the respiratory 
 murmur is heard more or less distinctly, according to the part of the 
 chest that is beneath the ear. In the very first stage of pneumonia 
 this murmur is louder and hoarser; and, also, there is heard a fine 
 rrackling sound something similar to that produced when salt is 
 thrown in a fire. After the affected part becomes solid there is an 
 absence of nound over that particular part. After absorption begins 
 one may again hear sounds that are of a more or less moist character 
 and resemble n bubbling or gurgling noise, which gradually change 
 until the natural sound is heard announcing return to health. 
 
 When a fatal termination is approaching all the symptoms become 
 intensified. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult; the 
 flanks heave: the animal stares wildly about as if seeking aid to drive 
 off the feeling of suffocation : the body is bathed with sweat; the horse 
 staggers, but quickly recovers his balance ; he may now, for the first
 
 PNEUMONIA, OB LUNG FEVER. 125 
 
 time during the attack, lie down ; he does so, however, in the hope of 
 relief , which he fails to find, and with difficulty struggles to his feet ; 
 he pants; the nostrils flap; he staggers and sways from side to side 
 and backward and forward, but still tries to retain the standing 
 position, even by propping himself against the stall. It is no use, as 
 after an exhausting fight for breath he goes down ; the limbs stretch 
 out and become rigid. In fatal cases death usually occurs in from 
 ten to twenty days after the beginning of the attack. On the other 
 hand, when the disease is terminating favorably the signs are ob- 
 vious. The fever abates and the animal gradually improves in appe- 
 tite ; he takes more notice of things around him ; his spirits improve ; 
 he has a general appearance of returning health, ami he lies down 
 and rests. In the majority of cases pneumonia, if properly treated, 
 terminates in recovery. 
 
 Treatment. The comfort and surroundings of the patient must be 
 attended to first. The quarters should be the best that can be pro- 
 vided. Pure air is essential. Avoid placing the animal in a stall 
 where he may be exposed to drafts of cold air and sudden changes of 
 temperature. It is much better for the animal if the air is cold and 
 pure than if it is warm and foul. It is better to make the animal com- 
 fortable with warm clothing than to make the stable warm by shut- 
 ting off the ventilation. The animal should have an unlimited supply 
 of fresh cold drinking water from the start. Blanket the body. Rub 
 the legs until they are warm and then put bandages on them from the 
 hoofs up to the knees and hocks. If warmth can not be reestablished 
 in the legs by hand rubbing alone, apply dry ground mustard and rub 
 well in. The bandages should be removed once or twice every day, 
 the legs well rubbed, and the bandages replaced. Much harm is often 
 done by clipping off hair and rubbing in powerful blistering com- 
 pounds. They do positive injury and retard recovery, and should not 
 be allowed. Much benefit may be derived from hot applications to 
 the sides of the chest if the facilities are at hand to apply them. If 
 the weather be not too cold, and if the animal is in a comfortable 
 stable, the following method may be tried: Have a tub of hot water 
 handy to the stable door; soak a woolen blanket in the water, then 
 quickly wring as much water as possible out of it and wrap it around 
 the chest. See that it fits closely to the skin ; do not allow it to sag 
 down so that air may get between it and the skin. Now wrap a dry 
 blanket over the wet hot one and hold in place with three girths. 
 The hot blanket should be renewed every half hour, and while it is 
 off being wetted and wrung the dry one should remain over the wet 
 part of the chest to prevent reaction. The hot applications should be 
 kept up for three or four hours, and when stopped the skin should be 
 quickly rubbed as dry as possible, an application of alcohol rubbed 
 over the wet part, and a dry blanket snugly fitted over the animal.
 
 126 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 If the hot applications appear to benefit, they may be tried on three 
 or four "consecutive days. Unless every facility and circumstance 
 favors the application of heat in the foregoing manner, do not attempt 
 it. If the weather is very cold or any of the details are omitted, more 
 harm than good may result. Mustard may be applied by making a 
 paste with a pound of freshly ground mustard mixed with warm 
 water. This is to be spread evenly over the sides back of the shoulder 
 blades and down to the median line below the chest. Care should be 
 taken to avoid rubbing the mustard upon the thin skin immediately 
 back of the elbow. The mustard-covered area should be covered with 
 a paper and this with a blanket passed up from below and fastened 
 over the back.^ The blanket and paper should be removed in from 
 one to two hours. When pneumonia follows another disease, the sys- 
 tem is always more or less debilitated and requires the careful use of 
 stimulants from the beginning. To still further weaken the animal 
 by bleeding him is one of the most effectual methods of retarding 
 recovery, even if it does not hasten a fatal termination. 
 
 Another and oftentimes a fatal mistake made by the nonprofes- 
 sional is the indiscriminate and reckless use of aconite. This drug is 
 one of the most active poisons, and should not be handled by anyone 
 who does not thoroughly understand its action and uses. It is only 
 less active than prussic acid in its poisonous effects. It is a common 
 opinion, often expressed by nonprofessionals, that aconite is a stimu- 
 lant. Nothing could be more erroneous; in fact, it is just the reverse. 
 It is one of the most powerful sedatives used in the practice of medi- 
 cine. In fatal doses it kills by paralyzing the very muscles used in 
 breathing; it weakens the action of the heart, and should not be used. 
 Do not give purgative medicines. If constipation exists, overcome it 
 by an allowance of laxative diet, such as scalded oats, bran, and lin- 
 seed mashes, and, if in season, grass. If the costiveness is not relieved 
 by the laxative diet, give an enema of about a quart of warm water 
 three or four times a day. 
 
 A diet consisting principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and, 
 when in season, grass or corn fodder is preferable if the animal 
 retains an appetite; but if no desire is evinced for food of this par- 
 ticular description, then the animal must be allowed to eat anything 
 that will be taken spontaneously. Hay tea, made by pouring boiling 
 water over good hay in a large bucket and allowing it to stand until 
 cool, then straining off the liquid, will sometimes create a desire for 
 food. The animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he 
 desires. Corn on the cob is often eaten when everything else is 
 refused. Bread may be tried ; also apples or carrots. If the animal 
 can be persuaded to drink milk, it may be supported by it for days. 
 Three or 4 gallons of sweet milk may be given during the day, in 
 which may be stirred 3 or 4 fresh eggs to each gallon of milk. Some
 
 PNEUMONIA, OB LUNG FEVER. 127 
 
 horses will drink milk, while others will refuse to touch it. It 
 should be borne in mind that all food must be taken by the horse as 
 he desires it. No food should be forced down him. If the animal 
 will not eat, you will only have to wait until a desire is shown for 
 food. All kinds may be offered, first one thing and then another, 
 but food should not be allowed to remain long in trough or manger; 
 the very fact of it constantly being before him will cause him to 
 loathe it. When the animal has no appetite for anything the 
 stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it is poured 
 or drenched into him it will only cause indigestion and aggravate 
 the case. It is a good practice to do nothing when there is nothing 
 to be done that will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as food. 
 Nothing is well done that is overdone. 
 
 There are many valuable medicines used for the different stages 
 and different types of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer 
 it is useless to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use 
 of those who are- not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to 
 recognize its various types and stages; therefore they would only 
 confuse. If you can administer a ball or capsule, or have anyone at 
 hand who is capable of doing it, a dram of sulphate of quinine in a 
 capsule, or made into a ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses, 
 given every three hours during the height of the fever, will do good 
 in many cases. The ball of carbonate of ammonia, as advised in 
 tile treatment of bronchitis, may be tried if the animal is hard to 
 drench. The heart should be kept strong by administering digitalis 
 in doses of 2 drams of the tincture every three hours, or strychnia 
 1 grain, made into a pill with liquorice powder, three times daily. 
 
 If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more 
 pronounced character are required. The following drench is useful: 
 Rectified spirits, 3 ounces ; spirits of nitrous ether ? 2 ounces ; water, 1 
 pint. This may be repeated every four or five hours if it seems to 
 benefit; or 6 ounces of good whisky diluted with a pint of water 
 may be given as often, instead of the foregoing. 
 
 During the period of convalescence good nutritive food should be 
 allowed in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be substi- 
 tuted for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised 
 for the convalescing period of bronchitis are equally efficient in this 
 case, especially the iodide of potash. Likewise, the same general 
 instructions apply here. 
 
 The chief causes of death in pneumonia are heart failure from 
 exhaustion, suffocation, or blood poisoning from death (gangrene) of 
 lung tissue. The greater the area of lung tissue diseased the greater 
 the danger, hence double pneumonia is more fatal than pneumonia of 
 one lung.
 
 128 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 THE WINDPIPE. 
 
 The windpipe, or trachea, as it is technically called, is the flexible 
 tube that extends from the larynx, which it succeeds at the throat, 
 to above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates by 
 dividing into the right and left bronchi the tubes going to the right 
 and left lung, respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty 
 incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer 
 is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube 
 is lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the 
 entire respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in 
 contrast to that lining the larynx, which is endowed with exquisite 
 sensitiveness. 
 
 The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or 
 less affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis, 
 etc., and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left 
 in a thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the 
 rings may be accidentally fractured, or the tube mayl>e distorted or 
 malformed as the result of violent injury. After the operation of 
 tracheotomy it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as 
 a result, or sequel, of the operation. In passing over this section 
 attention is merely called to these defects, as they require no partic- 
 ular attention in the way of treatment. However, it may be stated 
 that any one of the before-mentioned conditions may constitute one 
 of the causes of noisy respiration described as " thick wind." 
 
 GUTTURAL POUCHES. 
 
 These two sacs are situated above the throat, and communicate 
 with the pharynx, as well as with the cavity of the tympanum of 
 the ear. They are peculiar to solipeds. Normally, they contain air. 
 Their function is unknown. 
 
 One or both guttural pouches may contain pus. The symptoms are 
 as follows: Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent 
 discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the 
 head is depressed. 
 
 The swelling is soft, and, if pressed upon, matter will escape from 
 the nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these 
 pouches communicate with the pharynx, and through this small open- 
 ing matter may escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is 
 turned out to graze, or if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent 
 position of the head favors the escape of matter from the pouches. 
 In addition to this, give the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If 
 this treatment fails, an operation must be performed, which should 
 not be attempted by any one unacquainted with the anatomy of the 
 part.
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. 129 
 
 BRONCHITIS AND BRONCHO-PNETJMONIA. 
 
 Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. When this 
 inflammation extends to the air sacs at the termini of the smallest 
 branches of the bronchial tubes, the disease is broncho-pneumonia. 
 Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than when the 
 smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic. 
 The causes are generally much the same as for other diseases of the 
 respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The 
 special causes are these : The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke 
 and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occa- 
 sionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also 
 supervenes on common cold or sore throat. 
 
 Symptoms. The animal appears dull ; the appetite is partially or 
 wholly lost ; the head hangs ; the breathing is quickened ; the cough, 
 at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a " barking 
 cough," is succeeded in a few days by a moist, rattling cough; the 
 mouth is hot; the visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse 
 is frequent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as 
 the disease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. There is a 
 discharge from the nostrils that is at first whitish, but later becomes 
 creamy or frothy, and still later it is sometimes tinged with blood, 
 and occasionally it may be of a brownish or rusty color. By auscul- 
 tation, or placing the ear to the sides of the chest, unnatural sounds 
 can now be heard. The air passing through the diseased tubes causes 
 a wheezing sound when the small tubes are affected, and a hoarse, 
 cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes are involved. After 
 one or two days the dry stage of the disease is succeeded by a moist 
 state of the membrane. The ear now detects a different sound, 
 caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the air passes through the 
 fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and the augmented mu- 
 cous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted in 
 great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause a col- 
 lapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is 
 expectorated; that is, discharged through the nose. Th matter is 
 coughed up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swal- 
 lowed, and some is discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not 
 spit, like the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access 
 to the mouth. If in serious cases all the symptoms become aggra- 
 vated, the breathing is labored, short, and quick, it usually indicates 
 that the inflammation has reached the breathing cells and that catar- 
 rhal pneumonia is established. In this case the ribs rise and fall 
 much more than natural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the 
 idea that the animal may be affected with pleurisy, because, in pleu- 
 risy, the ribs are as nearly fixed as in the power of the animal to do 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 9
 
 130 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 
 
 so, and the breathing accomplished to a great extent by aid of the 
 abdominal muscles. The horse persists in standing throughout the 
 attack. He prefers to stand with head to a door or window to gain 
 all the fresh air possible, but may occasionally wander listlessly 
 about the stall if not tied. The bowels most likely are constipated ; 
 the dung is covered with slimy mucus. The urine is decreased in 
 quantity and darker in color than usual. The animal shows more or 
 less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. The discharge 
 from the nose increases in quantity as the disease advances and in- 
 flammation subsides. This is rather a good symptom, as it shows one 
 stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, the cough 
 becomes less rasping, but of more frequent occurrence, until it grad- 
 ually disappears with the return of health. 
 
 Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal 
 diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must 
 be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a 
 nonexpert to discriminate between the two forms, and, further, it 
 may as well be said here that the nonexpert will have difficulty in 
 discriminating between bronchitis and pneumonia. 
 
 Treatment. The matter of first importance is to insure a pure at- 
 mosphere to breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as com- 
 fortable as possible. A well-ventilated box stall serves best for all 
 purposes. Cover the body with a blanket, light or heavy, as the 
 season of the year demands. Hand rub the legs until they are warm, 
 then wrap them in cotton and apply flannel or Derby bandages from 
 the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs can not be made warm 
 with hand rubbing alone, apply dry mustard. Rub in thoroughly and 
 then put on the bandages. Also rub mustard paste well over the side 
 of the chest, covering the space beginning immediately behind the 
 shoulder blade and running back about eighteen inches, and from the 
 median line beneath the breast to within ten inches of the ridge of the 
 backbone. Repeat the application to the side of the chest about three 
 days after the first one is applied. 
 
 Compel the animal to inhale steam from a bucketful of boiling 
 water containing a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and spirits of 
 camphor, as advised for cold in the head. In serious cases the steam 
 should be inhaled every hour, and in any case the oftener it is done 
 the greater will be the l>eneficial results. Three times a day admin- 
 ister an electuary containing acetate of potash (2 drams), with lico- 
 rice and molasses or honey. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold 
 water before the animal all the time. If the horse is prostrated and 
 has no appetite, give the following drench : Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 
 ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Repeat the dose 
 every four or five hours if it-appears to benefit. When the horse is 
 hard to drench, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia,
 
 PLEURISY. 131 
 
 3 drams ; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into 
 a stiff mass ; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and give as a 
 ball. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. When giv- 
 ing the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in the mouth, 
 as in case of such accident it will make the mouth sore, which may 
 prevent the animal from eating. If the bowels are constipated, give 
 enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. Do not 
 bleed the animal. 
 
 If the animal retains an appetite, a soft diet is preferable, such as 
 scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass, if in season. If he refuses 
 cooked food, allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, 
 cob corn, oats, bread, apples, and carrots may all be tried in turn. 
 Some horses will drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of 
 food, and especially is this the case if the drinking water is withheld 
 for a while. One or 2 gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will 
 support life. Bear in mind that when the disease is established re- 
 covery can not occur in less than two or three weeks, and more time 
 may be necessary. Good nursing and patience are required. 
 
 When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the dis- 
 ease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all 
 other medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treat- 
 ment pursued. Give the following mixture : Reduced iron, 3 ounces ; 
 powdered gentian, 8 ounces ; mix well together and divide into sixteen 
 powders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran 
 and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of flax- 
 seed tea and administered as a drench. 
 
 If the cough remains after the horse is apparently well, give 1 
 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking 
 water one hour before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary. 
 Do not put the animal to work too soon after recovery. Allow ample 
 time to regain strength. This disease is prone to become chronic and 
 may run into an incurable case of thick wind. 
 
 PLEURISY. 
 
 The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each 
 containing one lung and a part of the heart. Each lung has its sepa- 
 rate pleural membrane, or covering. The pleura is the thin glisten- 
 ing membrane that covers the lung and also completely covers the in- 
 ternal walls of the chest. It is very thin, and to the ordinary ob- 
 server appears to be part of the lung, which, in fact, it is for all 
 practical purposes. The smooth, shiny surface of the lung, as well as 
 the smooth, shiny surface so familiar on the rib, is the pleura. In 
 health this surface is always moist. A fluid is thrown off by the 
 pleura, which causes the surface to be constantly moist. This is to 
 prevent the effects of friction between the lungs and the walls of the
 
 132 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 chost and other contiguous parts which come in contact. It must be 
 remembered that the lungs are dilating each time a breath is taken 
 in, and contracting each time a breath of air is expelled. It may be 
 readily seen that if it were not for the moistened state of the surface 
 of the pleura the continual dilatation and contraction and the conse- 
 quent rubbing of the parts against each other would cause serious 
 friction. 
 
 Inflammation of this membrane is called pleurisy. Being so closely 
 united with the lung, it can not always escape participation in the 
 disease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same 
 predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of 
 this work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, 
 such as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confinement in 
 damp stables, etc. It may be caused by wounds that penetrate the 
 chest, for it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily 
 pierce the pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The 
 inflammation following such wounds may be circumscribed, that is, 
 confined to a small area surrounding the wound, or it may spread 
 from the wound and involve a large portion of the pleura. The 
 pleura may be involved secondarily when the heart or its membrane 
 is the primary seat of the disease. It may occur in conjunction with 
 bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases. Diseased growths that 
 interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy. The most frequent 
 cause of pleurisy is an extension of inflammation from adjacent dis- 
 eased lung. It is a common complication of pneumonia. Pleurisy 
 will be described here as an independent affection, although it should 
 be remembered that it is very often associated with the foregoing 
 diseases. 
 
 The first lesion of pleurisy is overfilling of the blood vessels that 
 ramify in this membrane, and dryness of the surface. This is fol- 
 lowed by the formation of a coating of coagulated fibrin on the 
 diseased pleura and the transudation of serum which collects in the 
 chest. This serum may contain flakes of fibrin and it may be straw 
 colored or red from an admixture of blood. The quantity of this 
 accumulation may amount to several gallons. 
 
 Symptom*. When the disease exists as an independent affection it 
 is ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the 
 first thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn 
 round. When made to do so he grunts or groans with pain. He 
 stands stiff; the ribs are fixed, that is, the ribs move very little in the 
 act of breathing, but the abdomen works more than natural ; both the 
 fore, feet and elbows may be turned out; during the onset of the 
 attack the animal may be restless and act as if he had a slight colic; 
 he may even lie down, but does not remain long down, for when he 
 finds no relief he soon gets up. After effusion begins these signs of
 
 PLEURISY. 133 
 
 restlessness disappear. Every movement of the chest causes pain, 
 therefore the cough is peculiar ; it is short and suppressed, and comes 
 as near being no cough as the animal can make it in his desire to sup- 
 press it. The breathing is hurried, the mouth is hot, the temperature 
 being elevated from 102 or 103 to 105 F. The usual symptoms 
 that accompany fever are present, such as costiveness, scanty dark- 
 colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent, perhaps 70 or more a 
 minute, and is hard and wiry. The legs and ears are cold. 
 
 Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. After effusion 
 occurs, the sound produced by percussing over the lower part of the 
 chest is dull. By striking different parts one may come to a spot of 
 greater or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be evinced. 
 The animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. Another 
 method of detecting the affected part is to press the fingers between 
 the ribs, each space in succession beginning behind the elbow, until 
 you arrive at a place where the pressure causes more flinching than at 
 any other part. Auscultation is also useful. In the first stage, when 
 the surfaces are dry and rough, one may hear a friction sound very 
 much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper 
 together. The sound appears immediately under the ear and is dis- 
 tinct. No such friction sound occurs when the membrane is healthy, 
 as the natural moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction. 
 In many cases this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by 
 placing the hand over the affected part. When the dry stage is suc- 
 ceeded by the exudation of fluid, this friction sound disappears. 
 After the effusion into the cavity takes place there sometimes is 
 heard a tinkling or metallic sound, due to dropping of the exudate 
 from above into the collected fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the 
 collected fluid more or less separates the lung from the chest walls. 
 
 Within two or three days the urgent symptoms may abate owing 
 to the exudation of the fluid and the subsidence of the pain. The 
 fluid may now undergo absorption, and the case terminate favorably 
 within a week or ten days. 
 
 If the quantity of the effusion is large, its own volume retards the 
 process of absorption to a great extent, and consequently convales- 
 cence is delayed. In severe cases the pulse becomes more frequent, 
 the breathing more hurried and labored, the flanks work like bellows, 
 the nostrils flap, the eyes stare wildly, the countenance expresses 
 much anxiety, and general signs of dissolution are plain. After a 
 time swellings appear under the chest and abdomen and down the 
 legs. The accumulation in the chest is called hydrothorax, or dropsy 
 of the chest. When this fluid contains pus the case usually proves 
 fatal. The condition of pus within the cavity is called empyema. 
 
 Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side or it may affect 
 both sides. It is oftener confined to the right side.
 
 134 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Treatment. The instructions in regard to the general management 
 of bronchitis and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of 
 pleurisy.. Comfortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body 
 and bandages to the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water, the 
 laxative food, etc., in this case are equally necessary and efficacious. 
 The hot applications applied to the chest as directed in the treatment 
 of pneumonia are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up 
 while the symptoms show the animal to be in pain. 
 
 During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness, 
 apply hot packs to the sides diligently. After four or five days, when 
 the svmptoms show that the acute stage has somewhat subsided, mus- 
 tard may be applied as recommended for pneumonia. From the 
 beginning the following drench may be given every six hours, if the 
 horse takes a drench kindly: Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 
 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 ounce; bicarbonate of potassium, 
 3 drams; water, 1 pint. 
 
 If the patient becomes debilitated, the stimulants as prescribed for 
 pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The 
 same attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will par- 
 take of the bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best; but 
 if he refuses the laxative diet, then he should be tried with different 
 kinds of food and allowed whichever kind he desires. 
 
 In the beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the 
 animal to lie down or paw, morphine may be given by the mouth in 
 5-grain doses, or the fluid extract of Cannabis indica may be used in 
 doses of 2 to 4 drams. 
 
 If the case is not progressing favorably in ten or twelve days after 
 the beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in 
 the chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull and weak 
 and evinces little or no desire for food. The breathing becomes 
 still more rapid and difficult. An effort must now be made to excite 
 the absorption of the effusion. An application of liniment or mild 
 blister should be rubbed over the lower part of both sides and the 
 bottom of the chest. The following drench may be given three times 
 a day, for seven or eight days, if it is necessary and appears to bene- 
 fit: Tincture of the perchloride of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 
 2 ounces; water. 1 pint. Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium, 
 dissolved in the drinking water, an hour before feeding every night 
 and morning for a week or two. 
 
 Hydrothorax is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use 
 of medicines alone, when the operation is performed of tapping the 
 chest to allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is 
 performed with a combined instrument called the trocar and canula. 
 The punrture is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space 
 between the eighth and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal
 
 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 135 
 
 artery is avoided by inserting the instrument as near as possible to 
 the anterior edge of the rib. If the operation is of benefit, it is only 
 so when performed before the strength is lowered beyond recovery. 
 The operation merely receives a passing notice here, as it is not pre- 
 sumed that the nonprofessional will attempt it, although it is attended 
 with little danger or difficulty in the hands of the expert. 
 
 There have been described here bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy 
 mainly as they occur as independent diseases, but it should be remem- 
 bered that they merge into each other and may occur together at one 
 time. While it is true that much more might have been said in regard 
 to the different stages and types of the affections, and also in regard 
 to the treatment of each stage and each particular type, the plan 
 adopted of advising plain, conservative treatment is considered the 
 wisest on account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of 
 which the reader is supposed to know very little. 
 
 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 
 
 This is the state in which an animal is affected with pleurisy and 
 pneumonia combined, which is not infrequently the case. At the 
 beginning of the attack only one of the affections may be present, but 
 the other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is 
 closely adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently 
 more or less affected by the spreading of the inflammation from the 
 lung tissue. There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases, 
 but to the ordinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most 
 obvious. The course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner 
 from that given for the affections when they occur independently. 
 The symptoms will be your guide as to the advisability of giving oil 
 and laudanum for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe. Do not 
 resort to it unless it is necessary to allay the pain. 
 
 BRONCHO-PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 
 
 This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and 
 pneumonia all exist at once. It is impossible for one who is not an 
 expert to diagnose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms 
 are the same as when the animal is affected with pleuro-pneumonia. 
 
 SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG. 
 
 There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the 
 patient have been bad or the disease is of an especially severe type, 
 when pneumonia terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes, 
 when the inflammation has been extreme, suppuration in a large por- 
 tion of the lung takes place. Impure air, the result of improper ven- 
 tilation, is among the most frequent causes of this termination. The
 
 l;;r, DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 symptoms of suppuration in the lung are chronic pneumonia, a solidi- 
 fied area of lung tissue, continued low fever, and, in some cases, offen- 
 sive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the 
 nostrils. 
 
 MORTIFICATION. 
 
 Gangrene, or mortification, means the death of the part affected. 
 Occasionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treat- 
 ment, pneumonia and pleuro-pneumonia terminate in mortification, 
 which is soon followed by the death of the animal. Perhaps the most 
 common cause of this complication is the presence of a foreign body 
 in the lung, as food particles or medicine. Rough drenching or 
 drenching through the nostrils may cause this serious condition. 
 
 HEMOPTYSIS, OR BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. 
 
 Bleeding from the lungs may occur during the course of congestion 
 of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, 
 or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel. 
 Plethora and hypertrophy of the heart predispose to it. Following 
 the rupture of a vessel the blood may escape into the lung tissue and 
 cause a serious attack of pneumonia, or it may fill up the bronchial 
 tubes and prove fatal by suffocating the animal. When the hemor- 
 rhage is from the lung it is accompanied by coughing; the blood is 
 frothy, of a bright red color, and comes from both nostrils; whereas 
 when the bleeding is merely from a rupture of a vessel in some 
 part of the head (heretofore described as bleeding from the nose) the 
 blood is most likely to issue from one nostril only, and the discharge 
 is not accompanied by coughing. The ear may be placed against 
 the windpipe along its course, and if the blood is from the lungs a 
 gurgling or rattling sound will be heard. When it occurs in connec- 
 tion with another disease it seldom requires special treatment. When 
 caused by accident or overexert ion the animal should be kept quiet. 
 If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues for several hours, 1 dram 
 of the acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water may be given as a 
 drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the perchloride of iron, diluted 
 with a pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare 
 that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal remedies. 
 But hemorrhage into the lung may occur and cause death by suffo- 
 cation without the least manifestation of it by the discharge of 
 blood from the nose. 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 Pulmonary consumption or tuberculosis has been recognized in 
 the horse in a number of instances. The symptoms are as of chronic 
 pneumonia or pleurisy. There is no treatment for the disease.
 
 DISEASES OP THE LUNGS. 137 
 
 HEAVES, BROKEN WIND, OR ASTHMA. 
 
 Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature 
 of heaves. Many horsemen loosely apply the term to all ailments 
 where the breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are 
 well acquainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but 
 there is a great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause. 
 Asthma is generally thought to be due to spasm of the small circular 
 muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence 
 of this affection of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, and the 
 forced breathing to emphysema, which always accompanies heaves. 
 
 Heaves is usually associated with disorder of the function of diges- 
 tion or to an error in the choice of food. Feeding on clover hay or 
 damaged hay or straw, too bulky and innutritions food, and keeping 
 the horse in a dusty atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable produce 
 or predispose to heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low level 
 are predisposed. 
 
 In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally 
 caused by an affection closely connected with it. After death, if the 
 organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length 
 of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very 
 few changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken- 
 winded for a long time the changes are well marked. The lungs are 
 paler than natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the vol- 
 ume, as evidenced by floating them in water. The walls of the small 
 bronchial tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. 
 The right side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The 
 stomach is enlarged and its walls stretched. The important change 
 found in the lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary em- 
 physema. This is of two varieties: First, what is termed vesicular 
 emphysema, which consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the 
 air cells (air vesicles) by dilation of their walls. The second form 
 is called interlobular, or interstitial, emphysema, and follows the 
 first. In this variety the air finds its way into the lung tissue be- 
 tween the air cells or the tissue between the small lobules. 
 
 Symptoms. Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect 
 heaves. The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point out 
 the ailment at once. But in recent cases the affected animal does not 
 always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a certain 
 extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it. 
 It is difficult to describe, but the sound is short, and something like a 
 grunt. When air is inspired that is, taken in it appears to be done 
 in the same manner as in health; it may possibly be done a little 
 quicker than natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when 
 the act of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is per-
 
 138 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 formed that the great change in the breathing is perceptible. It must 
 be remembered that the lungs have lost much of their elasticity, and, 
 in consequence, of their power of contracting on account of the de- 
 generation of the walls of the air cells, and also on account of the 
 paralysis of muscular tissue before mentioned. The air passes into 
 them freely, but the power to expel it is lost to a great extent by the 
 lungs ; therefore the abdominal muscles are brought into play. These 
 muscles, especially in the region of the flank, are seen to contract, 
 then pause for a moment, then complete the act of contracting, thus 
 making a double bellowslike movement at each expiration, a sort of 
 jerky motion with every breath. The double expiratory movement 
 may also be detected by allowing the horse to exhale against the face 
 or back of the hand. It will be observed that the expiratory current 
 is not continuous, but is broken into two jets. When the animal is 
 exerted a wheezing noise accompanies the breathing. This noise 
 may be heard to a less extent when the animal is at rest if the ear be 
 applied to the chest. 
 
 As before remarked, indigestion is often present in these cases. 
 The animal may have a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat 
 dirt and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the 
 clean food in the trough or manger. The stomach is liable to be 
 overloaded with indigestible food. The abdomen may assume that 
 form called " potbellied." The animal frequently passes wind of a 
 very offensive odor. When first put to work dung is passed fre- 
 quently; the bowels are often loose. The animal can not stand much 
 work, as the muscular system is soft. Round-chested horses are said 
 to be predisposed to the disease, and it is certain that in cases of long 
 standing the chest usually becomes rounder than natural. 
 
 Certain individuals become very expert in managing a horse 
 affected with heaves in suppressing the symptoms for a short time. 
 They take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier 
 when the stomach and intestines are empty. They also resort to the 
 use of medicines that have a depressing effect. When the veterina- 
 rian is examining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the 
 animal has been " fixed," he usually gives the horse as much water as 
 he will drink and then has him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or 
 on a heavy road. This will bring out the characteristic breathing 
 of heaves if the horse is so afflicted, but will not cause the symptoms 
 of heaves in a healthy horse. All broken-winded horses have the 
 cough peculiar to the affection, but it is not regular. A considerable 
 time may elapse before it is heard and then it may come on in 
 paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the stable into the 
 cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of cold water. 
 The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease. 
 
 Treatment. When the disease is established there is no cure for it. 
 Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symp-
 
 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 139 
 
 toms to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly- reappear in their 
 intensity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is al- 
 lowed food of bad quality. Clover hay or bulky food which contains 
 but little nutriment have much to do with the cause of the disease, 
 and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal is affected, 
 as well as before. It has been asserted that the disease is unknown 
 where clover hay is never used. The diet should be confined to food 
 of the best quality and in the smallest quantity. The bad effect of 
 moldy or dusty hay, fodder, or food of any kind can not be over- 
 estimated. A small quantity of the best hay once a day is sufficient. 
 This should be cut and dampened. The animal should invariably be 
 watered before feeding ; never directly after a meal. The animal 
 should not be worked immediately after a meal. Exertion, when the 
 stomach is full, invariably aggravates the symptoms. Turning on 
 pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped ard 
 mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Half a pint to a pint of 
 thick, dark molasses with each feed is useful. 
 
 Arsenic is efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is best ad- 
 ministered in the form of the solution of arsenic, as Fowler's solu- 
 tion or as the white powdered arsenious acid. Of the former the 
 dose is 1 ounce to the drinking water three times daily. Of the 
 latter one may give 3 grains in each feed. These quantities may be 
 cautiously increased as the animal becomes accustomed to the drug. 
 If the bowels do not act regularly, a pint of raw linseed oil may be 
 given once or twice a month, or a handful of Glauber's salt may 
 be given in the feed twice daily, so long as necessary. It must, 
 however, be borne in mind that all medical treatment is of secondary 
 consideration ; careful attention paid to the diet is of greatest impor- 
 tance. Broken-winded animals should not be used for breeding pur- 
 poses. A predisposition to the disease may be inherited. 
 
 CHRONIC COUGH. 
 
 A chronic cough may succeed the acute diseases of the respiratory 
 organs, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, etc. It accom- 
 panies chronic roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind. It may 
 succeed influenza. As previously stated, cough is but a symptom 
 and not a disease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionally associated 
 with diseases other than those of the organs of respiration. It 
 may be a symptom of chronic indigestion or of worms. In such 
 cases it is caused by a reflex nervous irritation. The proper treat- 
 ment in all cases of chronic cough is to ascertain the nature of the 
 disease of which it is a symptom, and then cure the disease if possible, 
 and the cough will cease. 
 
 The treatment of the affections will be found under their appro- 
 priate heads, to which the reader is referred.
 
 ]40 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 PLEURO-DYNIA. 
 
 This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles; 
 that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are 
 very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not in- 
 clined to turn around; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as 
 possible. If the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side 
 struck with the hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed 
 with the fingers, the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or 
 groan expressive of much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy 
 by the absence of fever, cough, the friction sound, the effusion into 
 the chest, and by the existence of rheumatism in other parts. The 
 treatment for this affection is the same as for rheumatism affecting 
 other parts. 
 
 WOUNDS PENETRATING THE WALLS OF THE CHEST. 
 
 A wound penetrating the wall of the chest admits air into the tho- 
 racic cavity outside of the lung. This condition is known as pneumo- 
 thorax and may result in collapse of the lung. The wound may be so 
 made that when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is 
 sucked in, but during the contraction of the wall the contained air 
 presses against the torn part in such a manner as entirely to close 
 the wound; thus a small quantity of air gains access with each in- 
 spiration, while none is allowed to escape until the lung is pressed into 
 a very small compass and forced into the anterior part of the chest. 
 The same thing may occur from a broken rib inflicting a wound in 
 the lung. In this form the air gains access from the lung, and there 
 may not even be an opening in the walls of the chest. In such cases 
 the air may be absorbed, when a spontaneous cure is the result. But 
 when the symptoms are urgent it is recommended that the air be 
 removed by a trocar and canula or by an aspirator. 
 
 It is evident that the treatment of wounds that penetrate the tho- 
 racic cavity should be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained 
 whether or not a foreign body remains in the wound, then it should be 
 thoroughly cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part in water 40 
 parts. The wound should then be closed immediately. If it is an 
 incised wound, it should be closed with sutures or with adhesive plas- 
 ters ; if torn or lacerated, adhesive plaster may be used or a bandage 
 around the chest over the dressing. At all events, air must be pre- 
 vontod from getting into the chest as soon and as effectually as pos- 
 ^il>l<>. The after treatment of the wound should principally consist in 
 Keeping tho parts clean with a solution of carbolic acid, and applying 
 fresh dressing as often as required to keep the wound in a healthy 
 condition. Care should be taken that the discharges from the wound
 
 THUMPS. 141 
 
 have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See Wounds and their 
 treatment, p. 459.) If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated as 
 advised under that head. 
 
 THUMPS, OR SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 
 
 " Thumps " is generally thought by the inexperienced to be a pal- 
 pitation of the heart. While it is true that palpitation of the heart 
 is sometimes called " thumps," it must not be confounded with the 
 affection under consideration. 
 
 In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of 
 respiration, the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and 
 essential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions 
 of it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs. 
 Thumps in the horse is similar to hiccoughs in man, although the 
 peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse in all cases. 
 
 There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from 
 palpitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body, 
 and is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed 
 on the body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand 
 is placed over the heart behind the left elbow, it will be easily demon- 
 strated that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking 
 of the diaphragm and the beating of the heart. In fact, when the 
 animal is affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the 
 heart is usually much weaker and less perceptible than natural. 
 Thumps is produced by causes similar to those that produce conges- 
 tion of the lungs and dilatation or palpitation of the heart, and may 
 occur in connection with these conditions. If not relieved, death 
 usually results from congestion or edema of the lungs, as the breath- 
 ing is interfered with by the inordinate action of this important 
 muscle of inspiration so much that proper aeration of the blood can 
 not take place. The treatment should be as prescribed for congestion 
 of the lungs, and, in addition, antispasmodics, such as 1 ounce of 
 sulphuric ether in warm water or 3 drams of asafetida. 
 
 RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 
 
 Post-mortem examinations after colic or severe accident sometimes 
 reveal rupture of the diaphragm. This may take place after death, 
 from the generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, which dis- 
 tend the intestines so that the diaphragm is ruptured by the great 
 pressure against it. The symptoms are intenselv difficult respiration 
 and great depression. There is no treatment.
 
 DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., 
 Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. 
 
 [Revised In 1903 by the author.] 
 CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICIES, OR ORCHITIS. 
 
 In the prime of life, in vigorous health, and on stimulating food, 
 stallions are subject to congestion of the testicles, which become 
 swollen, hot, and tender, but without any active inflammation. A 
 reduction of the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or 2 ounces 
 of Glauber's salts daily in the food, and the bathing of the affected 
 organs daily with tepid water or alum water will usually restore them 
 to a healthy condition. 
 
 When the factors producing congestion are extraordinarily potent, 
 when there has been frequent copulation and heavy grain feeding, 
 when the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and 
 when the proximity of other horses or mares excites the generative 
 instinct without gratification, this congestion may grow to actual 
 inflammation. Among the other causes of orchids are blows and pen- 
 etrating wounds implicating the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by 
 a chain or rope passing inside the thigh, contusions and frictions on 
 the gland under rapid paces or heavy draft, compression of the blood 
 vessels of the spermatic cord by the inguinal ring under the same cir- 
 cumstances, and, finally, sympathetic disturbance in cases of disease 
 of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Stimulants of the generative 
 functions, like rue, savin, tansy, cantharides, and damiana, may also 
 be accessory causes of congestion and inflammation. Finally, certain 
 specific diseases like maladie du coi't, glandersj and tuberculosis, local- 
 ized in the testicles, will cause inflammation. 
 
 Symptoms. Apart from actual wounds of the parts, the symptoms 
 of orchitis are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the testicles, strad- 
 dling with the hind legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness and 
 dragging of the hind limbs or of the limb on the affected side, arching 
 of the loins, abdominal pain, manifested by glancing back at the flank, 
 with more or less fever, elevated body temperature, accelerated pulse 
 and breathing, inappetence, and dullness. In bad cases the scanty 
 urine may be reddish and the swelling may extend to the skin and 
 envelopes of the testicle, which may become thickened and doughy, 
 pitting on pressure. The swelling may be so much greater in the 
 convoluted excretory duct along the upper border of the testicle as to 
 
 142
 
 DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 143 
 
 suggest the presence of a second stone. Even in the more violent 
 attacks the intense suffering abates somewhat on the second or third 
 day. If it lasts longer it is likely to give rise to the formation of 
 matter (abscess). In exceptional cases the testicle is struck with 
 gangrene, or death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete 
 recovery, or the malady may subside into a subacute and chronic form 
 with induration. Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the presence 
 of a soft spot, where pressure with two fingers will -detect fluctuation 
 from one to the other. When there is liquid exudation into the 
 scrotum, or sack, fluctuation may also be felt, but the liquid can be 
 made out to be around the testicle and can be pressed up into the 
 abdomen through the inguinal canal. When abscess occurs in the 
 cord the matter may escape into the scrota! sac and cavity of the abdo- 
 men and pyemia may follow. 
 
 Treatment consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration 
 of a purgative (1 to 1 pounds Glauber's salts), and the local appli- 
 cation of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 2 drams, extract of 
 belladonna 2 drams, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool, 
 kept in contact with the part by a suspensory bandage. This band- 
 age, of great value for support, may be made nearly triangular and 
 tied to a girth around the loins and to the upper part of the same sur- 
 cingle by two bands carried backward and upward between the 
 thighs. In severe cases scarifications one-fourth inch deep serve to re- 
 lieve vascular tension. When abscess is threatened its formation may 
 be favored by warm, fomentations or poultices, and on the occurrence 
 of fluctuation the knife may be employed to give free escape to the 
 pus. The resulting cavity may be injected daily with a weak car- 
 bolic-acid lotion, or salol may be introduced. The same agents may 
 be used on a gland threatened with gangrene, but its prompt removal 
 by castration is to be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely to 
 the resulting cavity. 
 
 SARCOCELE. 
 
 This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland, resulting 
 from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a 
 specific deposit, like glanders. In this condition the natural struc- 
 ture of the gland has given place to embryonal tissue (small round 
 cells, with a few fibrous bundles) , and its restoration to health is very 
 improbable. Apart from active inflammation, it may increase very 
 slowly. The diseased testicle is enlarged, firm, nonelastic, and com- 
 paratively insensible. The skin of the scrotum is tense, and it may 
 be edematous (pitting on pressure), as are the deeper envelopes and 
 spermatic cord. If liquid is present in the sac, the symptoms are 
 masked somewhat. As it increases it causes awkward, straddling, 
 dragging movement of the hind limbs, or lameness on the affected 
 side. The spermatic cord often increases at the same time with the
 
 144 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 testicle, and the inguinal ring being thereby stretched and enlarged, 
 a portion of intestine may escape into the sac, complicating the dis- 
 ease with hernia. 
 
 The only rational and effective, treatment is castration, and even 
 this may not succeed when the disease is specific (glanders, tuber- 
 culosis). 
 
 HYDROCELE, OR DROPSY OF THE SCROTUM. 
 
 This may be merely an accompaniment of dropsy of the abdomen, 
 the cavity of which is continuous with that of the scrotum in horses. 
 It may be the result, however, of local disease in the testicle, sper- 
 matic cord, or walls of the sac. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are enlargement of the scrotum, and 
 fluctuation under the fingers, the testicle being recognized as floating 
 in water. By pressure the liquid is forced, in a slow stream and with 
 a perceptible thrill, into the abdomen. Sometimes the cord or the 
 scrotum is thickened and pits on pressure. 
 
 Treatment may be the same as for ascites, yet when the effusion has 
 resulted from inflammation of the testicle or cord, astringent applica- 
 tions (chalk and vinegar) may be applied to these. Then, if the 
 liquid is not reabsorbed under diuretics and tonics, it may be drawn 
 off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe which has been first 
 passed through carbolic acid. In geldings it is best to dissect out the 
 sacs. 
 
 VARICOCELE. 
 
 This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic 
 cord, and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the tes- 
 ticle up to the ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as 
 in hydrocele, and, this failing, castration may be resorted to. 
 
 ABNORMAL NUMBER OF TESTICLES. 
 
 Sometimes one or both testicles are wanting; in most such cases, 
 however, they are merely partially developed, and retained in the 
 inguinal canal or abdomen (cryptorchid). In rare cases there may 
 be a third testicle, the animal becoming to this extent a double mon- 
 ster. Teeth, hair, and other indications of a second fetus have like- 
 wise been found in the testicle or scrotum. 
 
 DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES. 
 
 The testicles may bocome the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, carti- 
 laginous, or cystic degeneration, for all of which the appropriate 
 treatment is castration. They also become the seat of cancer, glan- 
 ders, or tuberculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope 
 of arresting the disease. Finally, they may become infested with 
 cystic tapeworms or larval stages of the armed roundworm 
 (Stronyylux equinus).
 
 DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 145 
 
 WARTS ON THE PENIS. 
 
 These are best removed by seizing them between the thumb and 
 forefinger and twisting them off. Or they may be cut off with 
 scissors and the roots cauterized with nitrate of silver. 
 
 DEGENERATION OF PENIS (PAPILLOMA, OR EPITHELIOMA.) . 
 
 The penis of the horse is subject to great cauliflower-like growths 
 on its free end, which extend back into the substance of the organ, 
 obstruct the passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The 
 only resort is to cut them off, together with whatever portion of the 
 penis has become diseased and indurated. The operation, which 
 should be performed by a veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting 
 through the organ from its upper to its lower aspect, twisting or 
 tying the two dorsal arteries, and leaving the urethra longer by half 
 an inch to 1 inch than the adjacent structures. 
 
 EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN THE PENIS. 
 
 As the result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the yard on 
 the thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may 
 become the seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood 
 vessels. This gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or 
 more sides, followed by some heat and inflammation, and on recovery 
 a serious curving of the organ. The treatment in the early stages 
 may be the application of lotions, of alum, or other astringents, to 
 limit the amount of effusion and favor absorption. The penis should 
 be suspended in a sling. 
 
 PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS. 
 
 This results from blows and other injuries, and also in some cases 
 from too frequent and exhausting service. The yard hangs from the 
 sheath, flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine 
 occurs with lessened force, and especially without the final jets. In 
 cases of local injury the inflammation should first be subdued by 
 astringent and emollient lotions, and in all cases the system should 
 be invigorated by nourishing diet, while 30-grain doses of mix vomica 
 are given twice a day. Finally, a weak current of electricity sent 
 through the penis from just beneath the anus to the free portion of 
 the yard, continued for ten or fifteen minutes and repeated daily, 
 may prove successful. 
 
 SELF-ABUSE, OR MASTURBATION. 
 
 Some stallions acquire this vicious habit, stimulating the sexual 
 instinct to the discharge of semen by rubbing the penis against the 
 belly or between the fore limbs. The only remedy is a mechanical 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 10
 
 146 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 one, the fixing of a net under the penis in such fashion as will prevent 
 the extension of the penis, or so prick the organ as to compel the_ 
 animal to desist through pain. 
 
 M AI.AIUK DU COIT, OR DOIJRINE. 
 
 This is propagated, like syphilis, by the act of copulation and 
 affects stallions and mares. It has long been known in northern 
 Africa, Arabia, and Continental Europe. It was imported into 
 Illinois in 1882 in a Percheron horse. 
 
 From one to ten days after copulation, or in stallions it may be 
 after some weeks, there is irritation, swelling, and a livid redness of 
 the external organs of generation, sometimes followed by the erup- 
 tion of small blisters one-fifth of an inch across on the penis, the 
 vulva, clitoris, and the vagina, and the consequent rupture of these 
 vesicles and the formation of ulcers or small open sores. Vesicles 
 have not been noticed in this disease in the dry climate of Illinois. 
 In the mare there is frequent contraction of the vulva, urination, and 
 the discharge of a watery and later a thick viscid liquid of a whitish, 
 yellowish, or reddish color, which collects on and soils the tail. The 
 swelling of the vulva increases and decreases alternately, affecting 
 one part more than another and giving a distorted appearance to the 
 opening. The affection of the skin leads to the appearance of circu- 
 lar white spots, which may remain distinct or coalesce into extensive 
 patches which persist for months. This, with the soiled tail, red, 
 swollen, puckered, and distorted vulva, and an increasing weakness 
 and paralysis of the hind limbs, serves to characterize the affection. 
 The mare rarely breeds, but will take the male, and thus propagate 
 the disease. The disease winds up with great emaciation and stu- 
 pidity and death in four months to two years. In horses which serve 
 few mares there may be only swelling of the sheath for a year, but 
 with frequent copulation the progress is more rapid. The penis may 
 IK? enlarged, shrunken, or distorted; the testicles are usually pendent 
 and may lx> enlarged or wasted and flabby; the skin, as in the mare, 
 shows white spots and patches. Later the penis becomes partially 
 paralyzed and hangs out of the sheath; swelling of the adjacent 
 lymphatic glands (in the groin), and even of distant ones, and of the 
 skin appears, and the hind limbs become weak and unsteady. In 
 some instances the glands under the jaw swell, and a discharge flows 
 from the nose, as in glanders. In other cases the itching of the skin 
 I'-ads to gnawing and extensive sores. Weakness, emaciation, and 
 stupidity increase until death, in fatal cases, yet the sexual desire 
 does not seem to fail. A stallion without sense to eat, except when 
 food was put in his mouth, would still neigh and seek to follow mares. 
 In mild cases an apparent recovery may ensue, and through such 
 
 limals the disease is propagated to new localities to be roused into
 
 CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. 147 
 
 activitv and extension under the stimulus of service. The diseased 
 
 I 
 
 nerve centers are the seat of cryptogamic growths. (Thannhoffer.) 
 
 Treatment of the malady has proved eminently unsatisfactory. It 
 belongs to the purely contagious diseases, and should be stamped out 
 by the remorseless slaughter or castration of every horse or mare that 
 has had sexual congress with a diseased animal. 
 
 CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. 
 
 This is usually done at one year old, but may be accomplished at a 
 few weeks old at the expense of an imperfect development of the 
 fore parts. The simplicity and safety of the operation are greatest in 
 the young. The delay till two, three, or four years old will secure a 
 better development and carriage of the fore parts. The essential 
 part of castration is the safe removal or destruction of the testicle 
 and the arrest or prevention of bleeding from the spermatic artery 
 found in the anterior part of the cord. Into the many methods of 
 accomplishing this limited space forbids us to enter here, so that the 
 method most commonly adopted, castration by clamps, will alone be 
 noticed. The animal having been thrown on his left side, and the 
 right hind foot drawn up on the shoulder, the exposed scrotum, 
 penis, and sheath are washed with soap and water, any concretion of 
 sebum being carefully removed from the bilocular cavity in the end 
 of the penis. The left spermatic cord, just above the testicle, is now 
 seized in the left hand, so as to render the skin tense over the stone, 
 and the right hand, armed with the knife, makes an incision from 
 before backward, about three- fourths of an inch from and parallel to 
 the median line between the thighs, deep enough to expose the testicle 
 and long enough to allow that organ to start out through the skin. 
 At the moment of making this incision the left hand must grasp the 
 cord very firmly, otherwise the sudden retraction of the testicle by 
 the cremaster muscle may draw it out of the hand and upwards 
 through the canal and even into the abdomen. In a few seconds, 
 when the struggle and retraction have ceased, the knife is inserted 
 through the cord, between its anterior and posterior portions, and the 
 latter, the one which the muscle retracts, is cut completely through. 
 The testicle will now hang limp, and there is no longer any tendency 
 to retraction. It should be pulled down until it will no longer hang 
 loose below the wound and the clamps applied around the still attached 
 portion of the cord, close up to the skin. The clamps, which may be 
 made of any tough wood, are grooved along the center of the surfaces 
 opposed to each other, thereby fulfilling two important indications 
 (a) enabling the clamps to hold more securely and (&) providing for 
 the application of an antiseptic to the cord. For this purpose a dram 
 of sulphate of copper may be mixed with an ounce of vaseline and
 
 148 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 pressed into the groove in the face of each clamp. In applying the 
 clamp over the cord it should be drawn so close with pincers as to press 
 out all blood from the compressed cord and destroy its vitality, and 
 the cord applied upon the compressing clamps should be so hard- 
 twined that it will not stretch later and slacken the hold. When the 
 clamp has been fixed the testicle is cut off one-half to 1 inch below it, 
 and the clamp may be left thus for twenty-four hours; then, by cut- 
 ting the cord around one end of the clamp, the latter may be opened 
 and the stump liberated without any danger of bleeding. Should the 
 stump hang out of the wound it should be pushed inside with the finger 
 and left there. The wound should begin to discharge white matter 
 on the second day in hot weather or the third in cold, and from that 
 time a good recovery may be expected. 
 
 CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SUCCESSFUL CASTRATION. 
 
 The young horse suffers less from castration than the old, and very 
 rarely perishes. Good health in the subject is all important. Castra- 
 tion should never be attempted during the prevalence of strangles, 
 influenza, catarrhal fever, contagious pleurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia, 
 purpura hemorrhagica, or other specific disease, nor on subjects that 
 have been kept in close, ill ventilated, filthy buildings, where the 
 system is liable to have been charged with putrid bacteria or other 
 products. Warm weather is to be preferred to cold, but the fly time 
 should Ixj avoided or the flies kept at a distance by the application of 
 a watery solution of tar, carbolic acid, or camphor to the wound. 
 
 CASTRATION OF CRYPTORCHIDS (RIDGLINGS). 
 
 This is the removal of a testicle or testicles that have failed to 
 descend into the scrotum, but have been detained in the inguinal 
 canal or inside the abdomen. The manipulation requires an accurate 
 anatomical knowledge of the parts, and special skill, experience, and 
 manual dexterity, and can not be made clear to the unprofessional 
 mind in a short notice. It consists, however, in the discovery and 
 removal of the missing gland by exploring through the natural chan- 
 nel (the inguinal canal), or, in case it is absent, through the inguinal 
 ring or through an artificial opening made in front and above that 
 channel between the abdominal muscles and the strong fascia on the 
 inner side of the thigh (Poupart's ligament). Whatever method is 
 used, the skin, hands, and instruments should be rendered aseptic 
 with a solution of mercuric chloride 1 part, water 2,000 parts (a car- 
 bolic acid lotion for the instruments), and the spermatic cord is best 
 torn through by the ecraseur. In many such cases, too, it is desirable 
 to sew up the external wound and keep the animal still, to favor 
 healing of the wound by adhesion.
 
 CASTRATION OP STALLIONS. 149 
 
 PAIN AFTER CASTRATION. 
 
 Some horses are pained and very restless for some hours after cas- 
 tration, and this may extend to cramps of the bowels and violent colic. 
 This is best kept in check by carefully rubbing the patient dry when 
 he rises from the operation, and then leading him in hand for some 
 time. If the pain still persists a dose of laudanum (1 ounce for an.- 
 adult) may be given. 
 
 BLEEDING AFTER CASTRATION. 
 
 Bleeding from the wound in the scrotum and from the little artery 
 in the posterior portion of the spermatic cord always occurs, and in 
 warm weather may appear to be quite free. It scarcely ever lasts, 
 however, over fifteen minutes, and is easily checked by dashing cold 
 water against the part. 
 
 Bleeding from the spermatic artery in the anterior part of the cord 
 may be dangerous when due precaution has not been taken to prevent 
 it. In such case the stump of the cord should be sought for and 
 the 1 artery twisted with artery forceps or tied with a silk thread. 
 If the stump can not be found, pledgets of tow wet with tincture of 
 muriate of iron may be stuffed into the canal to favor the formation 
 of clot and the closure of the artery. 
 
 STRANGULATED SPERMATIC CORD. 
 
 If in castration the cord is left too long, so as to hang out of the 
 wound, the skin wound in contracting grasps and strangles it, pre- 
 venting the free return of blood and causing a steadily advancing 
 swelling. In addition the cord becomes adherent to the lips of the 
 wound in the skin, whence it derives an increased suppty of blood, 
 and is thereby stimulated to more rapid swelling. The subject walks 
 stiffly, with straddling gait, loses appetite, and has a rapid pulse and 
 high fever. Examination of the wound discloses the partial closure 
 of the skin wound and the protrusion from its lips of the end of the 
 cord, red, tense, and varying in size from a hazelnut upward. If 
 there is no material swelling and little protrusion, the wound may be 
 enlarged with the knife and the end of the cord broken loose from 
 any connection with the skin and pushed up inside. If the swelling 
 is larger, the mass constitutes a tumor and must be removed. (See 
 below.) 
 
 SWELLING OF THE SHEATH, PENIS, AND ABDOMEN. 
 
 This occurs in certain unhealthy states of the system, in unhealthy 
 seasons, as the result of operating without cleansing the sheath and 
 penis, or of keeping the subject in a filthy, impure building, as the 
 result of infecting the wound by hands or instruments bearing septic
 
 150 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 bacteria, or as the result of premature closure of the wound, and 
 imprisonment of matter. 
 
 Pure air and cleanliness of groin and wound are to be secured. 
 Antiseptics, like the mercuric chloride lotion (1 part to 2,000) are to 
 be applied to the parts; the wound, if closed, is to be opened anew, 
 any accumulated matter or blood washed out, and the antiseptic 
 liquid freely applied. The most tense or dependent parts of the 
 swelling in sheath or penis, or beneath the belly, should be pricked at 
 intervals of 3 or 4 inches, and to a depth of half an inch, and anti- 
 septics freely used to the surface. Fomentations with warm water 
 may also be used to favor oozing from the incisions and to encourage 
 the formation of white matter in the original wounds, which must not 
 be allowed to close again at once. A free, creamlike discharge im- 
 plies a healthy action in the sore, and is the precursor of recovery. 
 
 PHYMOSIS AND PARAPHYMOSIS. 
 
 In cases of swelling, as above, the penis may be imprisoned within 
 the sheath (phymosis) or protruded and swollen so that it can not be 
 retracted into it (para phymosis). In these cases the treatment indi- 
 cated above, and especially the scarifications, will prove a useful pre- 
 liminary resort. The use of astringent lotions is always desirable, 
 and in case of the protruded penis the application of an elastic or 
 simple linen bandage, so as to press out the blood and accumulated 
 fluid, will enable the operator to return it. 
 
 TUMORS ON THE SPERMATIC CORD. 
 
 These are due to rough handling or dragging upon the cord in 
 castration, to strangulation of unduly long cords in the external 
 wound, to adhesion of the end of the cord to the skin, to inflammation 
 of the cord succeeding exposure to cold or wet, or to the presence 
 of infection (Staphylococcus botriomyces) . These tumors give rise 
 to a stiff, straddling gait, and may be felt as hard masses in the groin 
 connected above with the cord. They may continue to grow slowly 
 for many years until they reach a weight of 15 or 20 pounds, and 
 contract adhesions to all surrounding parts. If disconnected from 
 the skin and inguinal canal they may be removed in the same manner 
 as the testicle, while if larger and firmly adherent to the skin and 
 surrounding parts generally, they must be carefully dissected from 
 tlu- parts, the arteries being tied as they are reached and the cord 
 finally torn through with an ecraseur. When the cord has become 
 swollen and indurated up into the abdomen such removal is impos- 
 sible, though a partial destruction of the mass may still be attempted 
 by passing white-hot pointed irons upward toward the inguinal ring 
 in the center of the thickened and indurated cord.
 
 CASTRATION OP THE MARE. 151 
 
 CASTRATION BY THE COVERED OPERATION. 
 
 This is only required in case of hernia or protrusion of bowels or 
 omentum into the sack of the scrotum, and consists in the return of 
 the hernia and the application of the caustic clamps over the cord and 
 inner walls of the inguinal canal, so that the walls of the latter become 
 adherent above the clamps, the canal is obliterated, and further pro- 
 trusion is hindered. For the full description of this and of the opera- 
 tion for hernia in geldings, see remarks on hernia. 
 
 CASTRATION OF THE MARE. 
 
 Castration is a much more dangerous operation in the mare than in 
 the females of other domesticated quadrupeds and should never be 
 resorted to except in animals that become unmanageable on the recur- 
 rence of heat and that will not breed or that are utterly unsuited to 
 breeding. Formerly the operation was extensively practiced in 
 Europe, the incision being made through the flank, and a large pro- 
 portion of the subjects perished. By operating through the vagina 
 the risk can be largely obviated, as the danger of unhealthy inflam- 
 mation in the wound is greatly lessened. The animal should be 
 fixed in a trevis, with each foot fixed to a post and a sling placed 
 under the body, or it may be thrown and put under chloroform. 
 The manual operation demands special professional knowledge and 
 skill, but it consists essentially in making an opening through the 
 roof of the vagina just above the neck of the womb, then following 
 with the hand each horn of the womb until the ovary on that side 
 is reached and grasped between the lips of forceps and twisted off. 
 It might be torn off by an ecraseur especially constructed for the 
 purpose. The straining that follows the operation may be checked 
 by ounce doses of laudanum, and any risk of protrusion of the bowels 
 may be obviated by applying the truss advised to prevent eversion 
 of the womb. To further prevent the pressure of the abdominal con- 
 tents against the vaginal wound the mare should be tied short and 
 high for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, after which I have found 
 it best to remove the truss and allow the privilege of lying down. 
 Another important point is to give bran mashes and other laxative 
 diet only, and in moderate quantity, for a fortnight, and to unload 
 the rectum by copious injections of warm water in case it should 
 threaten to become impacted. 
 
 STERILITY. 
 
 Sterility may be in the male or in the female. If due to the stal- 
 lion, then all the mares put to him remain barren; if due to the mare, 
 she alone fails to conceive.
 
 152 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 In the stallion sterility may be due to the following causes: (a) 
 Imperfect development of the testicles, as in cases in which they are 
 retained within the abdomen; (6) inflammation of the testicles, re- 
 sulting in induration; (c) fatty degeneration of the testicles, in stal- 
 lions liberally fed on starchy food and not sufficiently exercised; (d) 
 fatty degeneration of the excretory ducts of the testicles (vasa defe- 
 rentia)', (e) inflammation or ulceration of these ducts; (/) inflam- 
 mation or ulceration of the mucous membrane covering the penis; 
 (</) injuries to the penis from blows (often causing paralysis) ; (A) 
 warty growths on the end of the penis; (z) tumors of other kinds 
 (largely pigmentary), affecting the testicles or penis; (_/') nervous 
 diseases which abolish the sexual appetite or that control the muscles 
 which are essential to the act of coition; (k) azoturia with resulting 
 weakness or paralysis of the muscles of the loins or the front of the 
 thigh (above the stifle) ; (I) ossification (anchylosis) of the joints 
 of the back or loins, which render the animal unable to rear, or mount; 
 (M) spavins, ringbones, or other painful affections of the hind limbs, 
 the pain of which in mounting causes the animal to suddenly stop 
 short in the act. In the first three of these only (a, 6, and c) is there 
 real sterility in the sense of the nondevelopment or imperfect devel- 
 opment of the male vivifying element (spermatozoa). In the other 
 examples the secretion may be perfect in kind and amount, but as 
 copulation is prevented it can not reach and impregnate the ovum. 
 
 In the mare barrenness is equally due to a variety of causes. In a 
 numlH'r of breeding studs the proportion of sterile mares has varied 
 from i!0 to 40 per cent. It may be due to: (a) Imperfect develop- 
 ment of the ovary and nonmaturation of ova; (b) cystic or other 
 tumors of the ovary; (c) fatty degeneration of the ovary in very 
 ol>ese, pampered mares; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretory 
 tubes of the ovaries (Fallopian tubes) ; (e) catarrh of the womb, 
 with mucopurulent discharge; (/) irritable condition of the womb, 
 with profuse secretion, straining, and ejection of the semen; (g) 
 nervous irritability, leading to the same expulsion of the male ele- 
 ment; (A) high condition (plethora), with profuse secretion and 
 excitement; (/) low condition, with imperfect maturation of the ov;i 
 and lack of sexual desire; (j) poor feeding, overwork, and chronic 
 debilitating diseases, as leading to the condition just named; (k) 
 closure of the neck of the womb, temporarily by spasm or perma- 
 nently by inflammation and induration; (I) closure of the entrance 
 to the vagina through imperforate hymen, a rare, though not un- 
 known, condition in the mare; (m) acquired indisposition to breed, 
 seen in old, hard-worked mares which are first put to the stallion 
 when aged; (;i) change of climate has repeatedly been followed by 
 barrenness; (o) hybridity, which in male and female alike usually 
 entails sterility.
 
 STERILITY. 153 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of the majority of these conditions 
 will be found dealt with in other parts of this work, so that it is only 
 necessary here to name them as causes. Some, however, must be 
 specially referred to in this place. Stallions with undescended 
 testicles are beyond the reach of medicine, and should be castrated 
 and devoted to other uses. Indurated testicles may sometimes bo 
 remedied in the early stages by smearing with a weak iodine ointment 
 daily for a length of time, and at the same time invigorating the 
 system by liberal feeding and judicious work. Fatty degeneration 
 is best met by an albuminoid diet (wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, 
 rape cake) and constant well-regulated work. Saccharine, starchy, 
 and fatty food (potatoes, wheat, corn, etc.) are to be specially 
 avoided. In the mare one diseased and irritable ovary should b3 
 removed, to do away with the resulting excitability of the remainder 
 of the generative organs. An irritable womb, with frequent strain- 
 ing and the ejection of a profuse secretion, may sometimes be cor- 
 rected by a restricted diet and full but well-regulated work. Even 
 fatigue will act beneficially in some such cases, hence the practice of 
 the Arab riding his mare to exhaustion just before service. The 
 perspiration in such a case, like the action of a purgative or the 
 abstraction of blood just before service, benefits, by rendering the 
 blood vessels less full, by lessening secretion in the womb and else- 
 where, and thus counteracting the tendency to the ejection and loss 
 of semen. If these means are ineffectual, a full dose of camphor (2 
 drams) or of salacin may at times assist. Low condition and anemia 
 demand just the opposite kind of treatment rich, nourishing, albumi- 
 noid food, bitter tonics (gentian), sunshine, gentle exercise, libenil 
 grooming, and supporting treatment generally are here in order. 
 
 Spasmodic closure of the neck of the womb is common and is 
 easily remedied in the mare by dilatation with the fingers. The 
 hand, smeared with belladonna ointment and with the fingers drawn 
 into the form of a cone, is introduced through the vagina until 
 the projecting, rounded neck of the womb is felt at its anterior end. 
 This is opened by the careful insertion of one finger at a time, until 
 the fingers have been passed through the constricted neck into the 
 open cavity of the womb. The introduction is made with a gentle, 
 rotary motion, and all precipitate violence is avoided, as abrasion, 
 laceration, or other cause of irritation is likely to interfere with the 
 retention of the semen and with impregnation. If the neck of the 
 womb is rigid and unyielding from the induration which follows in- 
 flammation a rare condition in the mare, though common in the 
 cow more force will be requisite, and it may even be needful to in- 
 cise the neck to the depth of one-sixth of an inch in four or more 
 opposite directions prior to forcible dilatation. The incision may be 
 made with a probe-pointed knife, and should be done by a profes-
 
 154 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 gional man if possible. The subsequent dilatation may be best effected 
 by the slow expansion of sponge or seaweed tents inserted into the 
 narrow canal. In such cases it is best to let the wounds of the neck 
 heal before putting to horse. An imperforate hymen may be freely 
 incised in a crucial manner until the passage will admit the human 
 hand. An ordinary knife may be used for this purpose, and after 
 the operation the stallion may be admitted at once or only after the 
 wounds have healed. 
 
 INDICATIONS OF PREGNANCY. 
 
 As the mere fact of service by the stallion does not insure preg- 
 nancy, it is important that the result should be determined, to save 
 the mare from unnecessary and dangerous work or medication when 
 actually in foal and to obviate wasteful and needless precautions when 
 she is not. 
 
 The cessation and nonrecurrence of the symptoms of heat (horsing) 
 are most significant though not an infallible sign of conception. If 
 the sexual excitement speedily subsides and the mare persistently 
 refuses the stallion for a month, she is probably pregnant. In very 
 exceptional cases a mare will accept a second or third service after 
 weeks or months, though pregnant, and some mares will refuse the 
 horse persistently, though conception has not taken place, and this in 
 spite of warm weather, good condition of the mare, and liberal feed- 
 ing. The recurrence of heat in the pregnant mare is most likely to 
 take place in hot weather. If heat merely persists an undue length of 
 time after service, or if it reappears shortly after, in warm weather 
 and in a comparatively idle mare, on good feeding, it is less signifi- 
 cant, while the persistent absence of heat under such conditions may 
 l>e usually accepted as proof of conception. 
 
 An unwonted gentleness and docility on the part of a previously 
 irritable or vicious mare, and supervening on service, is an excellent 
 indication of pregnancy, the generative instinct which caused the 
 excitement having been satisfied. 
 
 An increase of fat, with softness and flabbiness of muscle, a loss of 
 energy, indisposition for active work, a manifestation of laziness, 
 indeed, and of fatigue early and easily induced, when preceded by 
 service, will usually imply conception. 
 
 Enlargement of the abdomen, especially in its lower third, with 
 slight falling in beneath the loins and hollowness of the back are sig- 
 nificant symptoms, though they may be entirely absent. Swelling and 
 firmness of the udder, with the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a 
 suggestive sign, even though it appears only at intervals during ges- 
 tation. 
 
 A steady increase in weight (1 pounds daily) about the fourth or 
 fifth month is a useful indication of pregnancy. So is a swollen and 
 red or bluish-red appearance of the vaginal mucous membrane.
 
 PREGNANCY. 155 
 
 From the seventh or eighth month onward the foal may be felt by 
 the hand (palm or knuckles) pressed into the abdomen in front of the 
 left stifle. The sudden push displaces the foal toward the opposite 
 side of the womb, and as it floats back its hard body is felt to strike 
 against the hand. If the pressure is maintained the movements of 
 the live foal are felt, and especially in the morning and after a drink 
 of cold water or during feeding. A drink of cold water will often 
 stimulate the fetus to movements that may be seen by the eye, but 
 an excess of iced water may prove injurious, even to the causing of 
 abortion. Cold water dashed on the belly has a similar effect on the 
 fetus and equally endangers abortion. 
 
 Examination of the uterus with the oiled hand introduced into the 
 rectum is still more satisfactory, and if cautiously conducted no more 
 dangerous. The rectum must be first emptied and then the hand car- 
 ried forward until it reaches the front edge of the pelvic bones below, 
 and pressed downward to ascertain the size and outline of the womb. 
 In the unimpregnated state the vagina and womb can be felt as a sin- 
 gle rounded tube, dividing in front to two smaller tubes (the horns of 
 the womb) . In the pregnant mare not only the body of the womb is 
 enlarged, but still more so one of the horns (right or left), and on 
 compression the latter is found to contain a hard, nodular body, float- 
 ing in a liquid, which in the latter half of gestation may be stimulated 
 by gentle pressure to manifest spontaneous movements. By this 
 method the presence of the fetus may be determined as early as the 
 third month. If the complete natural outline of the virgin womb can 
 not be made out, careful examination should always be made on the 
 right and left side for the enlarged horn and its living contents. 
 Should there still be difficulty the mare should be placed on an in- 
 clined plane, with her hind parts lowest, and two assistants, standing 
 on opposite sides of the body, should raise the lower part of the 
 abdomen by a sheet passed beneath it. Finally the ear or stethoscope 
 applied on the wall of the abdomen in front of the stifle may detect 
 the beating of the fetal heart (one hundred and twenty-five per 
 minute) and a blowing sound (the uterine sough), much less rapid 
 and corresponding to the number of the pulse of the dam. It is 
 heard most satisfactorily after the sixth or eighth month and in the 
 absence of active rumbling of the bowels of the dam. 
 
 DURATION OF PREGNANCY. 
 
 Mares usually go about eleven months with young, though first 
 pregnancies often last a year. Foals have lived when born at the 
 three hundredth day, so with others carried till the four hundredth 
 day. With the longer pregnancies there is a greater probability of 
 male offspring.
 
 156 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 HYGIENE OF TILE PREGNANT MARE. 
 
 The pregnant mare should not be exposed to teasing by a young 
 and ardent stallion, nor should she be overworked or fatigued, par- 
 ticularly under the saddle or on uneven ground. Yet exercise is bene- 
 ficial to both mother and offspring, and in the absence of moderate 
 work the breeding mare should be kept in a lot where she can take 
 exercise at will. 
 
 The food should be liberal, but not fattening oats, bran, sound 
 hay, and other foods rich in the principles which form flesh and bone 
 being especially indicated. All aliments that tend to indigestion are 
 to be especially avoided. Thus rank, aqueous, rapidly growing 
 grasses and other green food, partially ripe rye grass, millet, hun- 
 garian grass, vetches, pease, beans, or maize are objectionable, as is 
 overripe, fibrous, innutritious hay, or that which has been injured and 
 rendered musty by wet, or that which is infested with smut or ergot. 
 Food that tends to costiveness should be avoided. "Water given often, 
 and at a temperature considerably above freezing, will avoid the 
 dangers of indigestion and abortion which result from taking too 
 much ice-cold water at one time. Very cold or frozen food is objec- 
 tionable in the same sense. Severe surgical operations and medicines 
 that act violently on the womb, bowels, or kidneys are to be avoided 
 as being liable to cause abortion. Constipation should be corrected, 
 if possible, by bran mashes, carrots, or beets, seconded by exercise, 
 and if a medicinal laxative is required it should be olive oil or other 
 equally bland agent. 
 
 The stall of the pregnant mare should not be too narrow, so as to 
 cramp her when lying down or to entail violent effort, in getting up, 
 and it should not slope too much from the front backward, as this 
 throws t-he weight of the uterus back on the pelvis and endangers pro- 
 trusions and even abortion. Violent mental impressions are to be 
 avoided, for though the majority of mares are not affected thereby, 
 yet a certain numl>er are so profoundly impressed that peculiarities 
 and distortions are entailed on the offspring. Hence, there is wisdom 
 shown in banishing particolored or objectionably tinted animals, and 
 those that show deformities or faulty conformation. Hence, too, the 
 importance of preventing prolonged acute suffering by the pregnant 
 mare, as certain troubles of the eyes, feet, and joints in the foals have 
 l>een clearly traced to the concentration of the mother's mind on cor- 
 responding injured organs in herself. Sire and dam alike tend to 
 reproduce their individual defects which predispose to disease, but 
 the dam is far more likely to perpetuate the evil in her progeny which 
 was carried while she was individually enduring severe suffering 
 caused by such defects. Hence, an active bone spavin or ringbone,
 
 PREGNANCY. 157 
 
 causing lameness, is more objectionable than that in which the in- 
 flammation and lameness have both passed, and an active ophthalmia 
 is more to be feared than even an old cataract. For this reason all 
 active diseases in the breeding mare should be soothed and abated at 
 as early a moment as possible. 
 
 EXTRA-UTERINE GESTATION. 
 
 It is rare in the domestic animals to find the fetus developed else- 
 where than in the womb. The exceptional forms are those in which 
 the sperm of the male, making its way through the womb and Fallo- 
 pian tubes, impregnates the ovum prior to its escape, and in which 
 the now vitalized and growing ovum, by reason of its gradually in- 
 creasing size, becomes imprisoned and fails to escape into the womb. 
 The arrest of the ovum may be in the substance of the ovary itself 
 (ovarian pregnancy), in the Fallopian tube (tubal pregnancy), or 
 when by its continuous enlargement it has ruptured its envelopes so 
 that it escapes into the cavity of the abdomen, it may become attached 
 to any part of the serous membrane and draw its nourishment di- 
 dectly from that (abdominal pregnancy). In all such cases there is 
 an increase and enlargement of the capillary blood vessels at the 
 point to which the embryo has attached itself so as to furnish the 
 needful nutriment for the growing offspring. 
 
 All appreciable symptoms are absent, unless from the death of the 
 fetus, or its interference with normal functions, general disorder and 
 indications of parturition supervene. If these occur later than the 
 natural time for parturition, they are the more significant. There 
 may be general malaise, loss of appetite, elevated temperature, acceler- 
 ated pulse, with or without distinct labor pains. Examination with 
 the oiled hand in the rectum will reveal the womb of the natural 
 unimpregnated size and shape and with both horns of one size. Fur- 
 ther exploration may detect an elastic mass apart from the womb, and 
 in the interior of which may be felt the characteristic solid body of 
 the fetus. If the latter is still alive and can be stimulated to move, 
 the evidence is even more perfect. The fetus may die and be carried 
 for years, its soft structures becoming absorbed so as to leave only the 
 bones, or by pressure it may form a fistulous opening through the 
 abdominal walls, or less frequently through the vagina or rectum. In 
 the latter cases the best course is to favor the expulsion of the foal and 
 to wash out the resulting cavity with a solution of carbolic acid 1 part 
 to water 50 parts. This may be repeated daily. Where there is no 
 spontaneous opening it is injudicious to interfere, as the danger from 
 the retention of the fetus is less than that from septic fermentation 
 in the enormous fetal sac when that has been opened to the air.
 
 158 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 MOLES, OR ANIDIAN MONSTERS. 
 
 These are evidently products of conception, in which the impreg- 
 nated ovum has failed to develop naturally, and presents only a cha- 
 otic mass of skin, hair, bones, muscles, etc., attached to the inner 
 surface of the womb by an umbilical cord, which is itself often shriv- 
 eled and wasted. They are usually accompanied by a well-developed 
 fetus, so that the mole may be looked upon as a twin which has under- 
 gone arrest and vitiation of development. They are expelled by the 
 ordinary process of parturition, and usually at the same time with the 
 normally developed offspring. 
 
 CYSTIC DISEASE OF THE WALLS OF THE WOMB, OR VESICULAR MOLE. 
 
 This condition appears to be due to hypertrophy (enlargement) of 
 the villi on the inner surface of the womb, which become greatly 
 increased in number and hollowed out internally into a series of cysts, 
 or pouches, containing liquid. Unlike the true mole, therefore, they 
 appear to be disease of the maternal structure of the womb rather 
 than of the product of conception. Rodet, in a case of this kind, 
 which had produced active labor pains, quieted the disorder with ano- 
 dynes and secured a recovery. Where this is not available attempts 
 may be made to remove the mass with the ecraseur or otherwise, fol- 
 lowing this up with antiseptic injections, as advised under the last 
 heading. 
 
 DROPSY OF THE WOMB. 
 
 This appears as a result of some disease of the walls of the womb, 
 but has been frequently observed as the result of infection after sex- 
 ual congress, and has, therefore, been confounded with pregnancy. 
 The symptoms are those of pregnancy, but without any movements of 
 the fetus and without the detection of any solid body in the womb 
 when examined with the oiled hand in the rectum. At the end of 
 four or eight months there are signs of parturition or of frequent 
 straining to pass urine, and after a time the liquid is discharged clear 
 arid watery, or muddy, thick, and fetid. The hand introduced into 
 the womb can detect neither fetus nor fetal membrane. If the neck 
 of the womb closes, the liquid may accumulate a second time, or even 
 a third, if no means are taken to disinfect it or to correct the tendency. 
 The lx>st resort is to remove any diseased product that may be found 
 attached to the walls of the womb, and to inject it daily with a warm 
 solution of carbolic acid 2 drams, chloride of zinc one-half dram, 
 water 1 quart. A course of bitter tonics (gentian 2 drums, sulphate 
 of iron 2 drams, daily) should be given, and a nutritious, easily^' 
 digested, and slightly laxative diet allowed.
 
 DISEASES OF THE WOMB. 159 
 
 DROPSY OF THE AMNION. 
 
 This differs from simple dropsy of the womb in that the fluid col- 
 lects in the inner of the two water bags (that in which the foal floats) 
 and not in the otherwise void cavity of the womb. This affection 
 can occur only in the pregnant animal, while dropsy of the womb 
 occurs in the unimpregnated. The blood of the pregnant mare con- 
 tains an excess of water and a smaller proportion of albumen and red 
 globules, and when this is still further aggravated by poor feeding 
 and other unhygienic conditions there is developed the tendency to 
 liquid transudation from the vessels and dropsy. As the watery con- 
 dition of the blood increases with advancing pregnancy, so dropsy of 
 the amnion is a disease of the last four or five months of gestation. 
 The abdomen is large and pendulous, and the swelling fluctuates 
 under pressure, though the solid body of the fetus can still be felt to 
 strike against the hand pressed 'into the swelling. If the hand is 
 introduced into the vagina, the womb is found to be tense and round, 
 with the projecting rounded neck effaced, while the hand in the 
 rectum will detect the rounded swollen mass of the womb so firm and 
 tense that the body of the fetus can not be felt within it. The mare 
 moves weakly and unsteadily on her limbs, having difficulty in sup- 
 porting the great weight, and in bad cases there may be loss of appe- 
 tite, stocking (dropsy) -of the hind limbs, difficult breathing, and 
 colicky pains. The tension may lead to abortion, or a slow, labo- 
 rious parturition may occur at the usual time. 
 
 Treatment consists in relieving the tension and accumulation by 
 puncturing the fetal membrane with a canula and trocar introduced 
 through the neck of the womb and the withdrawal of the trocar so 
 as to leave the canula in situ. Or the membranes may be punctured 
 with the finger and the excess of liquid allowed to escape. This may 
 bring on abortion, or the wound may close and gestation continue to 
 the full term. A course of tonics (gentian root 2 drams, sulphate of 
 iron 2 drams, daily) will do much to fortify the system and counteract 
 further excessive effusion. 
 
 DROPSY OF THE LIMBS, PERINEUM, AND ABDOMEN. 
 
 The disposition to dropsy often shows itself in the hind and even 
 in the fore limbs, around and beneath the vulva (perineum), and be- 
 neath the abdomen and chest. The affected parts are swollen and 
 pit on pressure, but are not especially tender, and subside more or 
 less perfectly under exercise, hand rubbing, and bandages. In ob- 
 stinate cases rubbing with the following liniment may be resorted to: 
 Compound tincture of iodine, 2 ounces; tannic acid, one-half dram; 
 water, 10 ounces. It does not last over a day or two after parturition.
 
 1(50 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS. 
 
 The pressure of the distended womb on the nerves and blood vessels 
 of the pelvis, besides conducing to dropsy, occasionally causes cramps 
 of the hind limbs. The limb is raised without flexing the joints, the 
 front of the hoof being directed toward the ground, or, the spasms 
 occurring intermittently, the foot is kicked violently against the 
 ground several times in rapid succession. The muscles are felt to be 
 firm and rigid. The cramp may be promptly relieved by active rub- 
 bing, or by walking the animal about, and it does not reappear after 
 oarturition. 
 
 CONSTIPATION. 
 
 This may result from compression by the gravid womb, and is best 
 corrected by a gradr.ated allowance of boiled flaxseed. 
 
 PARALYSIS. 
 
 The pressure on the nerves of the 'pelvis is liable to cause paralysis 
 of the hind limbs, or in the mare of the nerve of sight. These are 
 obstinate until after parturition, when they recover spontaneously, or 
 under a course of nux vomica and (locally) stimulating liniments. 
 
 PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS (FOAL). 
 
 In the mare, though far less frequently than in the cow, parturition 
 may not be completed at term, and the foal may continue to be carried 
 in the womb for a number of months, to the serious or even fatal 
 injury of the mare. Hamon records one case in which the mare died 
 after carrying the fetus for seventeen months, and Caillier a similar 
 result after it had been carried twenty-two months. In these cases 
 the fetus retained its natural form, but in one reported by Gohier, the 
 bones only were left in the womb amid a mass of apparently purulent 
 matter. 
 
 Cause. The cause may be any effective obstruction to the act of 
 parturition, such as lack of contractile power in the womb, unduly 
 strong, (inflammatory) adhesions between the womb and the fetal 
 membranes, wrong presentation of the fetus, contracted pelvis (from 
 fracture or disease of the bones), or disease and induration of the 
 neck of the womb. 
 
 The mere prolongation of gestation does not necessarily entail the 
 death of the foal ; hence the latter has been born alive at the four 
 hundredth day. Even when the foal has perished, putrefaction does 
 not set in unless the membranes (water bags) have been ruptured and 
 j-eptic bacteria have been admitted to the interior of the womb. In 
 the latter case a fetid decomposition advances rapidly, and the marc, 
 usually perishes from poisoning with the putrid matters absorbed. 
 
 At the natural period of parturition preparations are apparently 
 made for that act. The vulva swells and discharges much mucus, the 
 udder enlarges, the belly becomes more pendent, and the animal
 
 ABORTION. 161 
 
 strains more or less. No progress is made, however; there is not 
 even opening of the neck of the womb, and after a time the symptoms 
 subside. The mare usually refuses the male ; yet there are exceptions 
 to this rule. If the neck of the womb has been opened and putrefy- 
 ing changes have set in in its contents, the mare loses appetite and 
 condition, pines, discharges an offensive matter from the generative 
 passages, and dies of inflammation of the womb and putrid infection. 
 In other cases there is a slow wearing out of the strength, and the 
 mare finally dies of exhaustion. 
 
 The treatment is such as will facilitate the expulsion of the fetus 
 and its membranes and the subsequent washing out of the womb with 
 disinfectants. So long as the mouth of the womb is closed time 
 should be allowed for its natural dilatation, but if this does not come 
 about after a day or two of straining, the opening may be smeared 
 with extract of belladonna, and the oiled hand, with the fingers and 
 thumb drawn into the form of a cone, may be inserted by slow oscil- 
 lating movements into the interior of the womb. The water bags 
 may now be ruptured, any malpresentation rectified (see " Difficult 
 parturition"), and delivery effected. After removal of the mem- 
 branes wash out the womb first with tepid water and then with a solu- 
 tion of 2 ounces of borax in half a gallon of water. 
 
 This injection may have to be repeated if a discharge sets in. The 
 same course may be pursued even after prolonged retention. If the 
 soft parts of the fetus have been absorbed and the bones only left, 
 these must be carefully sought for and removed, and subsequent daily 
 injections will be required for some time. In such cases, too, a course 
 of iron tonics (sulphate of iron, 2 drams daily) will be highly bene- 
 ficial in restoring health and vigor. 
 
 ABORTION. 
 
 .Abortion is, strictly speaking, the expulsion of the impregnated 
 ovum at any period from the date of impregnation until the foal can 
 survive out of the womb. If the foal is advanced enough to live, it 
 is premature parturition, and in the mare this may occur as early as 
 the tenth month (three hundredth day). 
 
 The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that very pro- 
 foundly disturbs the system. Hence very violent inflammations of 
 important internal organs (bowels, kidneys, bladder, lungs) may 
 induce abortion. Profuse diarrhea, whether occurring from the reck- 
 less use of purgatives, the consumption of irritants in the food, or a 
 simple indigestion, is an effective cause. No less so is acute indiges- 
 tion with evolution of gas in the intestines (bloating). The presence 
 of stone in the kidneys, uterus, bladder, or urethra may induce so 
 much sympathetic disorder in the womb as to induce abortion. In 
 exceptional cases wherein mares come in heat during gestation, service 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 11
 
 162 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 bv the stallion may cause abortion. Blows or pressure on the abdo- 
 men, rapid driving or riding of the pregnant mare, especially if she 
 ir soft and out of condition from idleness, the brutal use of the spur 
 or whip, and the jolting and straining of travel by rail or boat are 
 prolific causes. Bleeding the pregnant mare, a painful surgical oper- 
 ation, and the throwing and constraint resorted to for an operation 
 are other causes. Traveling on heavy, muddy roads, slips and falls 
 on ice, and jumping must be added. The stimulation of the abdom- 
 inal organs by a full drink of iced water may precipitate a miscar- 
 riage, as may exposure to a cold rainstorm or a very cold night after a 
 warm day. Irritant poisons that act on the urinary or generative 
 organs, such as Spanish flies, rue, savin, tansy, cotton-root bark, 
 ergot of rye or other grasses, the smut of maize and other grain, and 
 various fungi in musty fodder are additional causes. Frosted food, 
 indigestible food, and, above all, green succulent vegetables in a 
 frozen state, have proved effective factors, and filthy, stagnant water 
 is dangerous. Low condition in the dam and plethora have in oppo- 
 site ways caused abortion, and hot, relaxing stables and lack of 
 exercise strongly conduce to it. The exhaustion of the sire by too 
 frequent service, entailing debility of the offspring and disease of 
 the fetus or of its envelopes, must be recognized as a further cause. 
 
 The symptoms vary mainly according as the abortion is early or 
 late in pregnancy. In the first month or two of pregnancy the mare 
 may miscarry without observable symptoms, and the fact only 
 appears by her coming in heat. If more closely observed a small clot 
 of blood may be found behind her, in which a careful search reveals 
 the rudiments of the foal. If the occurrence is somewhat later in 
 gestation, there will be some general disturbance, inappetence, neigh- 
 ing, and straining, and the small body of the fetus is expelled, en- 
 veloped in its membranes. Abortions during the later stages of 
 pregnancy are attended with greater constitutional disturbance, and 
 the process resembles normal parturition, with the aggravation that 
 more effort and straining is requisite to force the fetus through the 
 comparatively undilatable mouth of the womb. There is the swelling 
 of the vulva, with mucus or even bloody discharge; the abdomen 
 droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, the mare looks at her flanks, 
 paws with the fore feet and kicks with the hind, switches the tail, 
 moves around uneasily, lies down and rises, strains, and, as in natural 
 foaling, expels first mucus and blood, then the waters, and finally the 
 fetus. This may occupy an hour or two, or it may be prolonged for 
 a day or more, the symptoms subsiding for a time, only to reappear 
 with renewed energy. If there is malpresentation of the fetus it will 
 hinder progress until rectified, as in difficult parturition. Abortion 
 may also be followed by the same accidents, as flooding, retention of 
 the placenta, and leucorrhea.
 
 ABORTION. 163 
 
 The most important object in an impending abortion is to recog- 
 nize it at as early a stage as possible, so that it may, if possible, be cut 
 short and prevented. Any general indefinable illness in a preg- 
 nant mare should lead to a close examination of the vulva as regards 
 swelling, vascularity of its mucous membrane, and profuse mucus 
 secretion, and, above all, any streak or staining of blood; also the 
 condition of the udder, if that is congested and swollen. Any such 
 indication, with colicky pains, staining, however little, and active 
 movement of the fetus or entire absence of movement, are suggestive 
 symptoms and should be duly counteracted. 
 
 The changes in the vulva and udder, with a soiled and bloody con- 
 dition of the tail, may suggest an abortion already accomplished, and 
 the examination with the hand in the vagina may detect the mouth 
 of the womb soft and dilatable and the interior of the organ slightly 
 filled with a bloody liquid. 
 
 Treatment should be preventive if possible, and would embrace the 
 avoidance of all causes mentioned, and particularly of such as may 
 seem to be particularly operative in the particular case. Where abor- 
 tions have already occurred in a stud, the especial cause in the matter 
 of food, water, exposure to injuries, overwork, lack of exercise, etc., 
 may often be identified and removed. A most important point is to 
 avoid all causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, bloating, vio- 
 lent purgatives, diuretics or other potent medicines, painful opera- 
 tions, and slippery roads, unless well frosted. 
 
 When abortion is imminent, the mare should be placed alone in a 
 roomy, dark, quiet stall, and have the straining checked by some 
 sedative. Laudanum is usually at hand and may be given in doses of 
 1 or 2 ounces, according to size, and repeated after two or three hours, 
 and even daily if necessary. Chloroform or chloral hydrate, 3 drams, 
 may be substituted if more convenient. These should be given in a 
 pint or quart of water, to avoid burning the mouth and throat. Or 
 Viburnum prunifolium, 1 ounce, may be given and repeated if neces- 
 sary to prevent straining. 
 
 When all measures fail and miscarriage proceeds, all that can be 
 done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its membranes, as in 
 ordinary parturition. As in the case of retention of the fetus, it may 
 be necessary after delivery to employ antiseptic injections into the 
 womb to counteract putrid fermentation. This, however, is less 
 requisite in the mare than in the cow, in which the prevalent con- 
 tagious abortion must be counteracted by the persistent local use of 
 antiseptics. After abortion a careful hygiene is demanded, especially 
 in the matter of pure air and easily digestible food. The mare should 
 not be served again for a month or longer, and in no case until after 
 all discharge from the vulva has ceased.
 
 154 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 SYMPTOMS OF PARTURITION. 
 
 As the period of parturition approaches, the swelling of the udder 
 bespeaks the coming event, the engorgement in exceptional cases 
 extending forward on the lower surface of the abdomen and even -into 
 the hind limbs. For about a week a serous fluid oozes from the teat 
 and concretes as a yellow, waxlike mass around its orifice. About 
 twenty- four hours before the birth this gives place to a whitish, 
 milky liquid, which falls upon and mats the hairs on the inner sides 
 of the legs. Another symptom is enlargement of the vulva, with red- 
 ness of its lining membrane, and the escape of glairy mucus. The 
 belly droops, the flanks fall in, and the loins may even become de- 
 pressed. Finally the mare becomes uneasy, stops feeding, looks anx- 
 ious, whisks her tail, and may lie down and rise again. In many 
 mares this is not repeated, but the mare remains down ; violent con- 
 tractions of the abdominal muscles ensue; after two or three pains 
 the water bags appear and burst, followed by the fore feet of the foal, 
 with the nose between the knees, and by a few more throes the fetus 
 is expelled. In other cases the act is accomplished standing. The 
 whole act may not occupy more than five or ten minutes. This, to- 
 gether with the disposition of the mare to avoid observation, renders 
 the act one that is rarely seen by the attendants. 
 
 The navel string, which connects the foal to the membranes, is 
 ruptured when the fetus falls to the ground, or when the mare rises, 
 if she has been down, and the membranes are expelled a few minutes 
 later. 
 
 NATURAL PRESENTATION. 
 
 When there is a single foal, the common and desirable presentation 
 is with the fore feet first, the nose between the knees, and with the 
 front of the hoofs and knees and the forehead directed upward toward 
 the anus, tail, and croup. (Plate X, fig. 1.) In this way the natural 
 curvature of the body of the fetus corresponds to the curve of the 
 womb and genital passages, and particularly of the bony pelvis, and 
 the foal passes with much greater ease than if it were placed with its 
 back downward toward the udder. When there is a twin birth the 
 second foal usually comes with its hind feet first, and the backs of the 
 legs, the points of the hocks, and the tail and croup are turned 
 upward toward the anus and tail of the mare. (Plate X, fig. 2.) In 
 this way, even with a posterior presentation, the curvature of the 
 body of the foal still corresponds to that of the passages, and its 
 expulsion may be quite as easy as in anterior presentation. Any 
 presentation aside from these two may be said to be abnormal and 
 will be considered under " Difficult parturition."
 
 DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 165 
 
 DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 
 
 With natural presentation this is a rare occurrence. The great 
 length of the fore limbs and face entail, in the anterior presentation, 
 the formation of a long cone, which dilates and glides through the 
 passages with comparative ease. Even with the hind feet first a simi- 
 lar conical form is presented, and the process is rendered easy and 
 quick. Difficulty and danger arise mainly from the act being brought 
 on prematurely before the passages are sufficiently dilated, from nar- 
 rowing of the pelvic bones or other mechanical obstruction in the pas- 
 sages, from monstrous distortions or duplications in the fetus, or from 
 the turning back of one of the members so that the elongated conical 
 or wedge-shaped outline is done away with. But prompt as is the 
 normal parturition in the mare, difficult and delayed parturitions are 
 surrounded by special dangers and require unusual precautions and 
 skill. From the proclivity of the mare to unhealthy inflammations of 
 the peritoneum and other abdominal organs, penetrating wounds of 
 the womb or vagina are liable to prove fatal. The contractions of the 
 womb and abdominal walls are so powerful as to exhaust and benumb 
 the arm of the assistant, and to endanger penetrating wounds of the 
 genital organs. By reason of the looser connection of the fetal mem- 
 branes with the womb, as compared with those of ruminants, the 
 violent throes early detach these membranes throughout their whole 
 extent, and the foal, being thus separated from the mother and thrown 
 on its own resources, dies at an early stage of any protracted parturi- 
 tion. The foal rarely survives four hours after the onset of partu- 
 rient throes. From the great length of the limbs and neck of the foal 
 it is extremely difficult to secure and bring up limb or Jhead which has 
 been turned back when it should have been presented. When assist- 
 ance must be rendered the operator should don a thick woolen under- 
 shirt with the sleeves cut out at the shoulders. This protects the body 
 and leaves the whole arm free for manipulation. Before inserting the 
 arm it should be smeared with lard. This protects the skin against 
 septic infection, and favors the introduction of the hand and arm. 
 The hand should be inserted with the thumb and fingers drawn to- 
 gether like a cone. Whether standing or lying, the mare should be 
 turned with head downhill and hind parts raised as much as possible. 
 The contents of the abdomen gravitating forward leave much more 
 room for manipulation. Whatever part of the foal is presented 
 (head, foot) should be secured with a cord and running noose before 
 it is pushed back to search for the other missing parts. Even if a 
 missing part is reached no attempt should be made to bring it up 
 during a labor pain. Pinching the back will sometimes check the 
 pains and allow the operator to' secure and bring up the missing mem- 
 ber. In intractable cases a large dose of chloral hydrate (1 ounce in
 
 156 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 a quart of water) or the inhalation of chloroform and air (equal 
 proportions) to insensibility may secure a respite, during which the 
 missing members may be replaced. If 'the waters have been dis- 
 charged and the mucus dried up, the genital passages and body of the 
 fetus should be lubricated with lard or oil before any attempt at ex- 
 traction is made. When the missing member has been brought up 
 into position and presentation has been rendered natural, traction on 
 the fetus must be made only during a labor pain. If a mare is in- 
 clined to kick, it may be necessary to apply hobbles to protect the 
 operator. 
 
 PREMATURE LABOR PAINS. 
 
 These may be brought on by any violent exertion, use under the 
 saddle, or in heavy draft, or in rapid paces, or in travel by rail or sea, 
 blows, kicks, crushing by other animals in a doorway or gate. Ex- 
 cessive action of purgative or diuretic agents, or of agents that 
 irritate the bowels or kidneys, like arsenic, paris green, all caustic 
 salts and acids, and acrid and narcotico-acrid vegetables, is equally 
 injurious. Finally, the ingestion of agents that stimulate the action 
 of the gravid womb (ergot of rye or of other grasses, smut, various 
 fungi of fodders, rue, savin, cotton root, etc.) may bring on labor 
 pains prematurely. 
 
 Besides the knowledge that parturition is not yet due, there will be 
 less enlargement, redness, and swelling of the vulva, less mucous dis- 
 charge, less filling of the udder, and less appearances of wax and 
 probably none of milk from the ends of the teats. The oiled hand 
 introduced into the vulva will not enter with the ease usual at 
 full term, and the neck of the womb will be felt not only closed, but 
 with its projecting papillae, through which it is perforated, not yet 
 flattened down and effaced, as at full term. The symptoms are in- 
 deed those of threatened abortion, but at such an advanced stage of 
 gestation as is compatible with the survival of the offspring. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment consists in the separation of the mare 
 from all other animals in a quiet, dark, secluded place, and the free 
 use of antispasmodics and anodynes. Opium in dram doses every 
 two hours, or laudanum in ounce doses at similar intervals, will often 
 suffice. When the more urgent symptoms have subsided these doses 
 may be repeated thrice a day till all excitement passes off or until 
 the passages have become relaxed and prepared for parturition. 
 Vibwrnwn pruni folium, in ounce doses, may be added if necessary. 
 Should parturition become inevitable, it may be favored and any 
 necessary assistance furnished. 
 
 DIFFICULT PARTURITION FROM NARROW PELVIS. 
 
 A disproportion between the fetus got by a large stallion and the 
 pelvis of a small dam is a serious obstacle to parturition, sometimes
 
 IX. 
 
 ' 
 
 Hai.-u-s.del ntt 
 
 1NSTRUTMENTS USED IX D1FFIC17LT
 
 PJ.ATK X 
 
 after Fleming 
 
 Vertvb/v Sacral presentation 
 
 cnti prcsrnttHmit 
 
 X OH MAI, PHi;SI-;XTATIOXS
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 after Fleming 
 
 resentation -Ifoper view. 
 
 after KItMiiiiio 
 
 Stcrito-fibrtrtmfiirr/ presprtt'tfinn -Head and Pert enpnr/cd . 
 
 tfcunwt. (if'trr Fleming. 
 
 JUUtS BIEN &. 
 
 A H X C) \\ M AI, P \\ E S K X T ATI ON S .
 
 DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 167 
 
 seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to 
 birth usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam, as illustrated 
 in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustang mares. 
 If the disproportion is too great the only resort is embryotomy. 
 
 FRACTURED HIP BONES. 
 
 More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrow- 
 ing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plate XV, fig. 2.) 
 Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are 
 repaired with the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging 
 into the passage of the pelvis. The displacement of the ends of the 
 broken bone is another cause of constriction, and between the two con- 
 ditions the passage of the fetus may be rendered impossible without 
 embryotomy. Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the back- 
 bone forming the croup) leads to the depression of the posterior part 
 of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the pas- 
 sage from above downward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge 
 forward. 
 
 In all cases in which there has been injury to the bones of the pelvis 
 the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to 
 use her for work only. 
 
 If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvertently, 
 abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly 
 introducing the oiled finger through the neck of the womb and fol- 
 lowing this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been intro- 
 duced. Then the water bags may be broken, and with the escape of 
 the liquid the womb will contract on the solid fetus and labor pains 
 will ensue, The fetus being small will pass easily. 
 
 TUMORS IN THE VAGINA AND PELVIS. 
 
 Tumors of various kinds may form in the vagina or elsewhere 
 within the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the 
 passage of the fetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pig- 
 ment tumors (melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most 
 likely to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina 
 becomes relaxed, and being pressed by a mass of intestines will pro- 
 trude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part 
 of the bowels. Where a tumor is small it may only retard and not 
 absolutely prevent parturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of 
 the vagina may be pressed back and emptied, so that the body of the 
 fetus engaging in the passage may find no further obstacle. When 
 a tumor is too large to allow delivery the only resort is to remove it, 
 but before proceeding it must be clearly made out that the obstruc- 
 tion is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containing intestines.
 
 168 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 If the tumor hangs by a neck it can usually be most safely removed 
 by the ecraseur, the chain being passed around the pedicel and gradu- 
 ally tightened until that is torn through. 
 
 HERNIA OF THE WOMB. 
 
 The rupture of the musculo-fibrous floor of the belly and the escape 
 of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin 
 hanging toward the ground, is described by all veterinary obstetri- 
 cians, yet it is very rarely seen in the mare. The form of the fetus 
 can be felt through the walls of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize 
 the condition. Its cause is usually external violence, though it may 
 start from an umbilical hernia. When the period of parturition 
 arrives, the first effort should be to return the fetus within the proper 
 abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplished with the 
 aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the belly. This 
 failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation 
 brought to the aid of manipulation in securing the return. Even 
 after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and 
 abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturition, in which case the 
 oiled hand must be introduced through the vagina, the fetus brought 
 into position, and traction coincident with the labor pains employed 
 to secure delivery. 
 
 TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. 
 
 This condition is very uncommon in the mare, though occasionally 
 seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of 
 the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the womb on 
 its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward 
 (quarter revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and 
 the upper surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to 
 throw the narrow neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turn- 
 ing in the direction in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck 
 and rendering distention and dilatation impossible. 
 
 The period and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of contin- 
 ued efforts no progress is made, neither water bags nor liquids appear- 
 ing. The oiled hand introduced into the closed neck of the womb 
 will readily detect the spiral direction of the folds on its inner 
 surface. 
 
 The method of relief which I have successfully adopted in the cow 
 may be equally happy in the mare. The dam is placed (with her 
 head uphill) on her right side if the upper folds of the spiral turn 
 toward the right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left, 
 and the oiled hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a 
 limb or other part of the body of the fetus is seized and pressed 
 against the wall of the womb, while two or three assistants turn the
 
 DISEASES OP THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 169 
 
 animal over on her back toward the other side. The object is to keep 
 the womb stationary while the animal is rolling. If success attends 
 the effort, the constriction around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the 
 spiral folds are effaced, and the water bags and fetus press forward 
 into the passage. If the first attempt does not succeed it may be 
 repeated again and again until success crowns the effort. Among my 
 occasional causes of failure have been the prior death and decompo- 
 sition of the fetus, with the extrication of gas and overdistention of 
 the womb, and the supervention of inflammation and inflammatory 
 exudation around the neck of the womb, which hinders untwisting. 
 The first of these conditions occurs early in the horse from the detach- 
 ment of the fetal membranes from the wall of the womb, and as the 
 mare is more subject to fatal peritonitis than the cow, it may be con- 
 cluded that both these sources. of failure are more probable in the 
 equine subject. 
 
 When the case is intractable, though the hand may be easily intro- 
 duced, the instrument shown in Plate IX, figure 7, may be used. 
 Each hole at the small end of the instrument has passed through it a 
 stout cord with a running noose, to be passed around two feet or 
 other portion of the fetus which it may be possible to reach. The 
 cords are then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instru 
 ment ; then, by using the cross handle as a lever, the fetus and womb 
 may be rotated in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction. 
 During this process the hand must be introduced to feel when the 
 twist has been undone. . This method may be supplemented, if neces- 
 sary, by rolling the mare as described above. 
 
 EFFUSION OF BLOOD IX THE VAGINAL WALLS. 
 
 This is common as a result of difficult parturition, but it may occur 
 from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it. 
 This condition is easily recognized by the soft, doughy swelling so 
 characteristic of blood clots, and by the dark-red color of the mucous 
 membrane. I have laid open such swellings with the knife as late as 
 ten days before parturition, evacuated the clots, and dressed the 
 wound daily with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zinc 1 dram, 
 carbolic acid 1 dram, water 1 quart) . A similar resort might be had, 
 if necessary, during parturition. 
 
 CALCULUS (STONE) AND TUMOR IN THE BLADDER. 
 
 The pressure upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may 
 prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress the labor 
 pains. Examination of the bladder with the finger introduced 
 through the urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should 
 be extracted with forceps. (See " Lithotomy.") The large papillary
 
 170 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 tumors which I have met with in the mare's bladder have been inva- 
 riably delicate in texture and could be removed piecemeal by forceps. 
 Fortunately, mares affected in this way rarely breed. 
 
 IMPACTION OF THE RECTUM WITH FECES. 
 
 In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail 
 and rectum, the rectum may become so impacted with solid feces that 
 the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by 
 reason of the mechanical obstruction and the pain caused by pressure 
 upon it will impel the animal to cut short all labor pains. The 
 rounded swelling surrounding the anus will at once suggest the con- 
 dition, when the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or 
 well-soaped hand. 
 
 This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or 
 under particular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains, 
 though continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the neck of 
 the womb, which will be found firmly closed so as to admit but one or 
 two fingers, and this, although the projection at the mouth of the 
 womb may have been entirely effaced, so that a simple round, opening 
 is left, with rigid margins. 
 
 Treatment. The simplest treatment consists in smearing this part 
 with solid extract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the 
 hand with fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, ruptur- 
 ing the membranes and bringing the fetus into position for extrac- 
 tion, as advised under " Prolonged retention of the fetus." Another 
 mode is to insert through the neck of the womb an ovoid caoutchouc 
 bag, empty, and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet long. Carry 
 the free end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 feet, insert 
 a filler into it, and proceed to distend the bag with tepid or warm 
 water. 
 
 FIBROUS BANDS CONSTRICTING OR CROSSING THE NECK OP THE WOMB. 
 
 These, occurring as the result of disease, have been several times 
 observed in the mare. They may exist in the cavity of the abdomen 
 and compress and obstruct the neck of the womb, or they may extend 
 from side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the 
 womb. In the latter position they may be felt and quickly remedied 
 by cutting them across. In the abdomen they can only be reached by 
 incision, and two alternatives are presented: (1) To perform embry- 
 otomy and extract the fetus piecemeal and (2) to make an incision 
 into the abdomen and extract by the Ca?sarean operation, or simply to 
 cut the constricting band and attempt delivery by the usual channel.
 
 DIFFICULT PABTURITION. 171 
 
 FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OF VAGINA OR VULVA. 
 
 This is probably always the result of direct mechanical injury and 
 the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the re- 
 mainder of the passages at the approach of parturition. The pre- 
 sentation of the fetus in the natural way and the occurrence of suc- 
 cessive and active labor pains without any favorable result will direct 
 attention to the rigid and unyielding cicatrices which may be incised 
 at one, two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after 
 which the natural expulsive efforts will usually prove effective. The 
 resulting wounds may be washed frequently with a solution of 1 part 
 of carbolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 part of mercuric chloride 
 to 1,000 parts of water. 
 
 FETUS ADHERENT TO THE WALLS OF THE WOMB. 
 
 In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the 
 womb and implicating the fetal membranes, the resulting embryonic 
 tissue sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuity between 
 the womb and fetal membranes ; the blood vessels of the one commu- 
 nicate freely with those of the other and the fibers of the one are 
 prolonged into the other. This causes retention of the membranes 
 after birth, and a special risk of bleeding from the womb, and of 
 septic poisoning. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive 
 and binds a portion of the body of the foal firmly to the womb. In 
 such cases it has repeatedly been found impossible to extract the 
 foal until such adhesions were broken down. If they can be reached 
 with the hand and recognized, they may be torn through with the 
 fingers or with a blunt hook, after which delivery may be attempted 
 with hope of success. 
 
 EXCESSIVE SIZE OF THE FETUS. 
 
 It would seem that a small mare may usually be safely bred to a 
 large stallion, yet this is not always the case, and when the small size 
 is an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of 
 being very young, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is 
 always great danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped 
 female, and the dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the off- 
 spring tend to partake of the large race characteristics and to show 
 them eveii prior to birth. When impregnation has occurred in the 
 very young or in the dwarfed female, there are two alternatives to 
 induce abortion or to wait until there are attempts at parturition and 
 to extract by embryotomy if impracticable otherwise. 
 
 CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. 
 
 In man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord around 
 a member of the fetus sometimes leads to the amputation of the
 
 172 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 latter. It is also known to get wound around the neck or a limb at 
 birth, but in the mare this does not seriously impede parturition, as 
 the loosely attached membranes are easily separated from the womb 
 and no strangulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however, 
 die from the cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedily 
 delivered. 
 
 WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALTTS) OF THE FOAL. 
 
 This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ventricles 
 of the brain so that the cranial cavity is enlarged and constitutes a 
 great projecting rounded mass occupying the space from the eyes 
 upward. (See Plate XV, fig. 3.) With an anterior presentation 
 (fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress, 
 as the diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same 
 time with the forearms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet) 
 all goes well until the body and shoulders have passed out, when 
 progress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In 
 the first case, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the 
 enormous size of the head, which may be diminished by puncturing 
 it with a knife or trocar and cannula in the median line, evacuating 
 the water and pressing in the thin bony walls. With a posterior 
 presentation, the same course must be followed; the hand passed 
 along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, which may be punc- 
 tured with a knife or trocar. Oftentimes with an anterior presen- 
 tation the great size of the head leads to its displacement backward, 
 and thus the fore limbs alone engage in the passages. Here the first 
 object is to seek and bring up the missing head, and then puncture it 
 as above suggested. 
 
 DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN IN THE FOAL, OR ASCITES. 
 
 The accumulation of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is 
 less frequent, but when present it may arrest parturition as com- 
 pletely as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the 
 foal may pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail 
 to secure a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind 
 legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress 
 ceases. In either case the oiled hand, passed inward by the side of 
 the foal, will detect the enormous distention of the abdomen and its 
 soft, fluctuating contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity 
 and evacuate the liquid. With the anterior presentation this may 
 be done with a long trocar and cannula, introduced through the chest 
 and diaphragm; or with a knife an incision may be made between 
 the first two ribs and the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the 
 diaphragm will be felt projecting strongly forward, and may be 
 easily punctured. Should there not be room to introduce the hand
 
 DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 173 
 
 through the chest, the oiled hand may be passed along beneath the 
 breast bone and the abdomen punctured. With a posterior presenta- 
 tion the abdomen must be punctured in the same way, the hand, armed 
 with a knife protected in its palm, being passed along the side of the 
 flank or between the hind limbs. It should be added that moderate 
 dropsy of the abdomen is not incompatible with natural delivery, the 
 liquid being at first crowded back into the portion of the belly still 
 engaged in the womb, and passing slowly from that into the ad- 
 vanced portion as soon as that has cleared the narrow passage of the 
 pelvis and passed out where it can expand. 
 
 GENERAL DROPSY OF THE FETUS. 
 
 In this case the tissues generally are distended with liquid, and the 
 skin is found at all points tense and rounded, and pitting on pressure 
 with the fingers. In some such cases delivery may be effected after 
 the skin has been punctured at narrow intervals to allow the escape 
 of the fluid and then liberally smeared with fresh lard. More com- 
 monly, however, it can not be reached at all points to be so punctured 
 nor sufficiently reduced to be extracted whole, and resort must be had 
 to embryotomy. 
 
 SWELLING OF THE FETUS WITH GAS, OR EMPHYSEMA. 
 
 This has been described as occurring in a living fetus, but I have 
 only met with it in the dead and decomposing foal after futile 
 efforts have been made for several days to effect delivery. These 
 cases are very difficult ones, as the foal is inflated to such an extent 
 that it is impossible to advance it into the passages, and the skin of 
 the fetus and the walls of the womb and vagina have become so .dry 
 that it is impracticable to cause the one to glide on the other. The 
 hair comes off any part that may be seized, and the case is rendered 
 the more offensive and dangerous by the very fetid liquids and gases. 
 The only resort is embryotomy, by which I have succeeded in saving 
 a valuable mare that had carried a colt in this condition, for four 
 days. 
 
 CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES. 
 
 
 
 The foal is not always developed symmetrically, but certain groups 
 of muscles are liable to remain short, or to shorten because of per- 
 sistent spasmodic contraction, so that even the bones become distorted 
 and twisted. This is most, common in the neck. The bones of this 
 part and even of the face are drawn to one side and shortened, the 
 head being held firmly to the flank and the jaws being twisted to the 
 right or left. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore limbs are 
 contracted so that these members are strongly bent at the knee. In 
 neither of these cases can the distorted part be extended and straight-
 
 174 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ened, so that body or limbs must necessarily present double, and 
 natural delivery is rendered impossible. The bent neck may some- 
 times be straightened after the muscles have been cut on the side to 
 which it is turned, and the bent limbs after the tendons on the back 
 of the shank bone have been cut across. Failing to accomplish this, 
 the next resort is embryotomy. 
 
 TUMORS OF THE FETUS, OR INCLOSED OVUM. 
 
 Tumors or diseased growths may form on any part of the foal, 
 internal or external, and by their size impede or hinder parturition. 
 In some cases what appears as a tumor is an imprisoned and undevel- 
 oped ovum, which has grafted itself on the fetus. These are usually 
 sacculated, and may contain skin, hair, muscle, bone, and other natural 
 tissues. The only course to be pursued in such cases is to excise the 
 tumor, or, if this is not feasible, to perform embryotomy, 
 
 MONSTROSITIES. 
 
 Monstrosity in the foal is an occasional cause of difficult parturi- 
 tion, especially such monsters as show excessive development of some 
 part of the body, a displacement or distortion of parts, or a redun- 
 dancy of parts, as in double monsters. Monsters may be divided 
 into 
 
 (1) Monsters with absence of parts absence of head, limb, or 
 other organ. 
 
 (2) Monsters with some part abnormally small dwarfed head, 
 limb, trunk, etc. 
 
 (3) Monsters through unnatural division of parts cleft head, 
 trunk, limbs, etc. 
 
 (4) Monsters through absence of natural divisions absence of 
 mouth, nose, eyes, anus, confluent digits, etc. 
 
 (5) Monsters through fusion of parts one central eye, one nasal 
 opening, etc. 
 
 (6) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts curved 
 spine, face, limb, etc. 
 
 (7) Monsters through excess of formation enormous head, super- 
 numerary digits, etc. 
 
 (8) Monsters through imperfect differentiation of sexual organs 
 hermaphrodites. 
 
 (9) Double monsters double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs, 
 etc. 
 
 Causes. The causes of monstrosities appear to be very varied. 
 Some monstrosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tail, etc., 
 run in families and are produced almost as certainly as color or form. 
 Others are associated with too close breeding, the powers of symmet-
 
 DIFFICULT PAKTUBITION. 175 
 
 rical development being interfered with, just as in other cases a sex- 
 ual incompatibility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with 
 each other. Mere arrest of development of a part may arise from 
 accidental disease of the embryo ; hence vital organs are left out, or 
 portions of organs, like the dividing Vails of the heart, are omitted. 
 Sometimes an older fetus is inclosed in the body of another, each 
 having started independently from a separate ovum, but the one 
 having become embedded in the semifluid mass of the other and hav- 
 ing developed there simultaneously with it, but not so largely nor 
 perfectly. In many cases of redundance of parts, the extra part or 
 member has manifestly developed from the same ovum and nutrient 
 center with the normal member to which it remains adherent, just as 
 a new tail will grow out in a newt when the former has been cut off. 
 In the early embryo, with its great powers of development, this fac- 
 tor can operate to far greater purpose than in the adult animal. Its 
 influence is seen in the fact pointed out by St. Hilaire that such 
 redundant parts are nearly always connected with the corresponding 
 portions in the normal fetus. Thus superfluous legs or digits are 
 attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are connected to a 
 common neck or rump, and double bodies are attached to each other 
 by corresponding points, navel to navel, breast to breast, back to 
 back. All this suggests the development of extra parts from the 
 same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The 
 effect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to 
 the developmental forces is well shown in the experiments of St. 
 Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, and otherwise break- 
 ing up the natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the 
 formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and 
 other injuries that detach the fetal membranes from the walls of the 
 womb or that modify their circulation by inducing inflammation are 
 at times followed by the development of a monster. The excitement, 
 mental and physical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a simi- 
 lar way, acting probably through the same channels. 
 
 The monstrous forms likely to interfere with parturition are such 
 as, from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be presented 
 double ; where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the 
 passages with the natural ones; where a head or other member has 
 attained to an unnatural size ; where the body of one fetus has become 
 inclosed in or attached to another, etc. 
 
 Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and 
 securing such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its 
 smallest and most wedgelike dimensions. To effect this it may be 
 needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the 
 side of a twisted neck or body ; and one or more of the manipulations 
 necessary to secure and bring up a missing member may be required.
 
 176 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to 
 remove the superfluous parts, in which case the general principles 
 employed for embryotomy must be followed. The Csesarean section, 
 by which the fetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of 
 the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the 
 sacrifice of the mare, which should never be done for the sake of a 
 monster. (See " Embryotomy," p. 182.) 
 
 ENTRANCE OF TWINS INTO THE PASSAGE* AT ONCE. 
 
 Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of 
 both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recog- 
 nized by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the 
 passage at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned 
 upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to 
 one foal they would be turned in the same direction. Once recog- 
 nized, the condition is easily remedied by passing a rope with a run- 
 ning noose round each foot of the foal that is farthest advanced or 
 that promises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of 
 the other fetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one 
 fetus is fully engaged in the passage it will hold its place and its 
 delivery will proceed in the natural way. 
 
 TABLE OF WRONG PRESENTATIONS. 
 
 Anterior pres- 
 entations. 
 
 Posterior pres- 
 entations. 
 
 Fore limlw. 
 
 Haul. 
 
 Incompletely extended. Flexor tendons short- 
 ened. 
 
 Crossed over the neck. 
 Bent back at the knee. 
 Bent back from the shoulder. 
 'Bent downward on the neck. 
 Head and neck turned back beneath the breast 
 Turned to one side. 
 
 Turned upward and backward on the back. 
 
 Hind liml)s Hind feet engaged in the pelvis. 
 
 Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. 
 
 Inverted Back of foal to floor ofpelvis. 
 
 TT- j i; m v u /Bent on itself at the hock. 
 
 Hind limbs . ---{ B ent at the hip. 
 Transverse. . . Back of foal to side of pelvia. 
 
 Inverted . . ....... Back of foal to floor 01 pelvis. 
 
 T*- pr^tation o< 
 
 FORE LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED. 
 
 In cases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the 
 knee and shank bone unduly short, but the sinew extending from the 
 front of the shoulder blade over the front of the elbow and down to 
 the head of the shank bone is also shortened. The result is that the 
 fore limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. The 
 condition obstructs parturition by the feet becoming pressed against 
 the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brim. 
 Belief is to be obtained by forcible extension. A rope with a running
 
 PL, ATE. Kill. 
 
 urtfl croujj 
 
 ft in- Kloiains 
 
 wiui' prcs<'7it(ttion . ffir.id -litnh rfvviotion , 
 
 AB XO l{ MAI. PH K S KXTATIOXS .
 
 DIFFICULT PAETURITION. 177 
 
 noose is passed around each fetlock and a repeller (see Plate IX) 
 planted in the breast is pressed in a direction upward and backward 
 while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby 
 raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may be 
 placed beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have 
 advanced sufficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a 
 repeller, a smooth rounded fork handle may be employed. If the 
 shortening is too great to allow of the extension of the limbs in this 
 way, the tense tendons may be cut across behind the shank bone and 
 in front of the elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out. 
 This is most easily done with an embryotomy knife furnished with a 
 ring for the middle finger, so that the blade may be protected in the 
 palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) 
 
 ONE FORE LIMB CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK. 
 
 With the long fore limbs of the foal this readily occurs, and the 
 resulting increase in thickness, both at the head and shoulder, oft'ers 
 a serious obstacle to progress. (See Plate XI, fig. 2.) The hand 
 introduced into the passage detects the head and one fore foot, and 
 farther back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which 
 the limb may be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. 
 
 If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot may 
 bruise and lacerate the vagina. By seizing the limb above the fetlock 
 it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when partu- 
 rition will proceed normally. 
 
 FORE LIMB BENT AT THE KNEE. 
 
 The nose and one fore foot present, and on examination the knee of 
 the missing fore limb is found farther back. (Plate XI, fig. 1.) First 
 place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push 
 back the body of the fetus with a repeller, while the operator seizing 
 the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee and 
 bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little by 
 little the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fetlock, 
 and finally that is secured and brought up into the passage, when 
 parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore limbs are 
 bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as above, 
 one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand for the 
 right fore limb, and the right hand for the left fore limb. 
 
 FORE LIMB TURNED BACK FROM THE SHOFLDER. 
 
 In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and presenting 
 
 limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. , ( Plate XI, fig. 4.} 
 
 By noosing the head and presenting fore limb, these may be drawn 
 
 forward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 12
 
 178 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 shoulder in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and 
 seize the forearm just below the elbow. The body is now pushed 
 back by the assistants pressing on the head and presenting limb or 
 on a repeller planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up 
 into the pelvis, after which the procedure is the same as described in 
 the last paragraph. 
 
 HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN THE FORE LIMBS. 
 
 This may be so that the poll or nape of the neck, with the ears, can 
 be felt far back between the fore limbs, or so that only the upper 
 border of the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back 
 beneath the body. With the head only bent on the neck, noose the 
 two presenting limbs, then introduce the hand between them until 
 the nose can be seized in the palm of the hand. Next have the assist- 
 ants push back the presenting limbs, while the nose is strongly lifted 
 upward over the brim of the pelvis. This accomplished, it assumes 
 the natural position and parturition is easy. 
 
 When both head and neck are bent downward it may be impossible 
 to reach the nose. If, however, the labor has only commenced, the 
 limbs may be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, by 
 dragging on which the head may be so far advanced that the fingers 
 may reach the orbit ; traction upon this while the limbs are being 
 pushed back may bring the head up so that it bends on the neck only, 
 and the further procedure will be as described in the last paragraph. 
 
 If the labor has been long in progress and the fetus is jammed into 
 the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters and firmly contracted on 
 its solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare 
 may be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts ele- 
 vated, and the womb may be injected with sweet oil. Then, if the 
 ear can l>e reached, the correction of the malpresehtation may be at- 
 tempted as above described. Should this fail, one or more sharp 
 hooks may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be reached, 
 and rojxs attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the 
 foal is pushed back by the fore limbs or by a repeller. Such repul- 
 sion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins 
 of the mother, so as to rotate the fetus in such a way as to bring the 
 head up. As this is accomplished a hold should be secured nearer 
 and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can be 
 straightened out on the neck. 
 
 All means failing, it becomes necessary to remove the fore limbs 
 (embryotomy) so as to make more space for bringing up the head. 
 If. cvon then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to 
 push the body backward and upward with the repeller until the hind 
 limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and 
 delivery effected with the posterior presentation.
 
 DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 179 
 
 HEAD TURNED BACK ON THE SHOULDER. 
 
 In this case the fore feet present, and the oiled hand passed along 
 the forearms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck 
 turned to one side, the head being perhaps entirely out of reach. 
 (Plate XIV, fig. 1.) To bring forward the head it may be desirable 
 to lay the mare on the opposite side to that to which the head is 
 turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being 
 noosed, the body of the fetus is pushed by the hand or repeller for- 
 ward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the 
 head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such 
 displacement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free 
 use of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized it can be brought into 
 the passage, as when the head is turned down. . If it can not be 
 reached, the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward until 
 the nose can be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In very difficult 
 cases a rope may be passed around the neck by the hand or with the 
 aid of a curved carrier (Plate IX), and traction may be made upon 
 this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same 
 way in bad cases a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between 
 the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into 
 position. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore limbs may be 
 resorted to as advised under the last heading. 
 
 HEAD TURNED UPWARD ON TICK BACK. 
 
 This differs from the last malpresentation only in the direction of 
 the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and 
 is to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate 
 XIV, fig. 2.) If a rope can be passed around the neck it will prove 
 most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is 
 straightened and ends by bringing the head within easy reach. 
 
 HIND FEET ENGAGED IN THE PELVIS. 
 
 In this case fore limbs and head present naturally, but the hind 
 limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind 
 feet also to enter the passages, and the further labor advances the 
 more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis. 
 (Plate XIII, fig. 2.) The condition is to be recognized by introduc- 
 ing the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet 
 will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push 
 them back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing 
 in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head downhill, and the 
 attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope car- 
 rier, a noose passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the 
 repulsion thereby made more effective. In case of continued failure
 
 1 v DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 the anterior presenting part of the body may be skinned and cut off 
 as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see " Embryotomy ") ; then 
 nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these 
 while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the re- 
 maining: portion is brought away by the posterior presentation. 
 
 ANTERIOR PRESENTATION WITH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE. 
 
 The greatest diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic 
 passages, is from above downward, and when thp fetus enters the 
 pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the nar- 
 row diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impos- 
 sible. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the 
 passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard, 
 the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a move- 
 ment of rotation effected in the fetus until its face and back are 
 turned up toward the croup of the mother; then parturition becomes 
 natural. 
 
 BACK OF THE FOAL TURNED TO THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS. 
 
 In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturi- 
 tion, yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the 
 Ixxly of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head 
 and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis. 
 Lubrication of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and 
 head will usually suffice with, or without the turning of the mare on 
 her back. 
 
 In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: First, to turn the 
 foal, pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to 
 make a posterior presentation, and, second, the amputation of the fore 
 limbs, after which extraction will usually be easy. 
 
 HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEG BENT AT HOCK. 
 
 In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind legs bent up 
 beneath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis by 
 reason of their bulk. (Plate XI, fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced 
 can recognize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in 
 the center and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a 
 rope around each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller push 
 the buttocks backward and upward, until the feet can be brought up 
 into the passages. The great length of the shank and pastern in the 
 foal is a serious obstacle to this, and in all cases the foot should be 
 protortod in the palm of the hand while being brought up over the 
 brim of the pelvis. Otherwise the womb may be torn. When the 
 pains arc too violent and constant to allow effective manipulation,
 
 DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 181 
 
 some respite may be obtained by the use of chloroform or morphia 
 and by turning the mare on her back, but too often the operator 
 fails and the foal must be sacrificed. Two courses are still open: 
 First, to cut through the cords behind and above the hock and extend 
 the upper part of the limb, leaving the hock bent, and extract in 
 this way, and, second, to amputate the hind limbs at the hip joint 
 and remove them separately, after which the body may be extracted. 
 
 HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEGS BENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP. 
 
 This is merely an aggravated form of the presentation last de- 
 scribed. (Plate XIII, fig. 1.) If the mare is roomy, a rope may be 
 passed around each thigh and the body pushed upward and forward, 
 so as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accom- 
 plished, nooses are placed on the limb farther and farther down until 
 the fetlock is reached and brought into position. If failure is met 
 with, then amputation at the hips is the last resort. 
 
 HIND PRESENTATIONS WITH THE BACK TURNED SIDEWAYS OR 
 
 DOWNWARD. 
 
 These are the counterparts of similar anterior presentations and 
 are to be managed in the same way. 
 
 PRESENTATION OF THE BACK. 
 
 This is rare, yet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with 
 the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the 
 entrance of the pelvis and the head and all four feet turned back into 
 the womb. (Plate XII, fig. 1.) The body of the fetus may be ex- 
 tended across the opening transversely, so that the head corresponds 
 to one side (right or left), or it may be vertical, with the head above 
 or below. 
 
 In any such position the object should be to push the body of the 
 fetus forward and upward or to one side, as may best promise to bring 
 up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage 
 so as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This 
 turning of the fetus may be favored by a given position of the mother, 
 by the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the fetus, and by the 
 use of a propeller. 
 
 PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN. 
 
 This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended 
 across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the belly turned toward 
 the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate 
 XII, fig. 2.) The most promising course is to secure the hind feet 
 with nooses and then push the fore feet forward into the womb. As
 
 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 soon as the fore feet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the 
 pelvis, traction is made on the hind feet so as to bring the thighs into 
 the passage and prevent the reentrance of the fore limbs. If it 
 prove difficult to push back the fore limbs a noose may be passed 
 around the fetlock of each and the cord drawn through the eye of a 
 rope carrier, by means of which the members may be easily pushed 
 back. 
 
 EMBRYOTOMY. 
 
 This consists in the dissection of the fetus, so as to reduce its bulk 
 and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its adop- 
 tion have been furnished in the foregoing pages. The operation will 
 van' in different cases according to the necessity for the removal of 
 one or more parts in order to secure the requisite reduction in size. 
 Thus it may be needful to remove head and neck, one fore limb or 
 lx>th, one hind limb or both, to remove different parts of the trunk, or 
 to remove superfluous (monstrous) parts. Some of the simplest opera- 
 tions in embryotomy (incision of the head in hydrocephalus, incision 
 of the belly in dropsy) have already been described. It remains to 
 notice the more difficult procedures which can be best undertaken by 
 the skilled anatomist. 
 
 Amputation of the head. This is easy when both fore limbs are 
 turned back and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more 
 difficult when the head is still retained in the passages or womb, as 
 in double-headed monsters. The head is secured by a hook in the 
 lower jaw, or in the orbit, or by a halter, and the skin is divided 
 circularly around the lower part of the face or at the front of the 
 ears, according to the amount of head protruding. Then an incision 
 is made backward along the line of the throat, and the skin dissected 
 from the neck as far back as possible. Then the muscles and other 
 soft parts of the neck are cut across, and the bodies of two vertebrae 
 (neck bones) are severed by cutting completely across the cartilage 
 of the joint. The bulging of the ends of the bones will serve to indi- 
 cate the seat of the joint. The head and detached portion of the neck 
 may now be removed by steady pulling. If there is still an obstacle, 
 the knife may l>e again used to sever any obstinate connections. In 
 the case of a double-headed monster, the whole of the second neck 
 must be removed with the head. When the head has been detached, 
 a rope should be passed through the eyeholes, or through an artificial 
 opening in the skin, and tied firmly around the skin, to be employed 
 as a means of traction when the missing limbs or the second head have 
 been brought up into position. 
 
 Amputation of the hind limb. This may be required when there 
 are extra hind limbs or when the hind limbs are bent forward at hock 
 or hip joint. In the former condition the procedure resembles that 
 for removal of a fore limb, but requires more anatomical knowledge.
 
 DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 183 
 
 Having noosed the pastern, a circular incision is made through the 
 skin around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that up to the 
 groin, and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be 
 reached, over the croup, if possible. Then cut through the muscles 
 around the hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments 
 of the joint (pubio-femoral and round), and extract the limb by 
 strong dragging. 
 
 Amputation of the fore limbs. This may usually be begun on the 
 fetlock of the limb projecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife 
 is desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly 
 hooked point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large 
 enough to fit on the middle finger, while the blade is protected in the 
 palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) Another form has the 
 blade inserted in a mortise in the handle, from which it is pushed 
 out by a movable button when wanted. First place a noose around 
 the fetlock of the limb to be amputated, cut the skin circularly en- 
 tirely around the fetlock, then make an incision on the inner side of 
 the limb from the fetlock up to the breastbone. Next dissect the skin 
 from the limb, from the fetlock up to the breastbone on the inner side, 
 and as far up on the shoulder blade as possible on the outer side. 
 Finally, cut through the muscles attaching the limb to the breast- 
 bone, and employ strong traction on the limb, so as to drag out the 
 whole limb, shoulder blade, included. The muscles around the upper 
 part of the shoulder blade are easily torn through and need not be 
 cut, even if that were possible. In no case should the fore limb be 
 removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with it, as that furnishes 
 the greatest obstruction to delivery, above all when it is no longer 
 advanced by the extension of the fore limb, but is pressed back so as 
 to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the chest. The 
 preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advantageous in 
 various ways; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock than at 
 the shoulder; it covers the hand and knife in making the needful 
 incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a 
 means of traction on the body afte,r the limb has been removed. In 
 dissecting the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at all 
 points; much of it may be stripped off with the fingers or knuckles, 
 or by a blunt iron spud pushed up inside the hide, which is mean- 
 while held tense to render the spud effective. 
 
 In case the limb is bent forward at the hock, a rope is passed round 
 that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lips 
 of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the hock 
 are now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the 
 lower end of the long bone above (tibia). In case it is still needful 
 to remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the 
 same as described in the last paragraph.
 
 Ig4 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 In case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the fetus so 
 wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very 
 difficult. I have repeatedly succeeded by cutting in on the hip joint 
 and disarticulating it, then dissecting the muscles back from the 
 upper end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of 
 the bone and pulled on forcibly, while any unduly resisting struc- 
 tures were cut with the knife. 
 
 Cartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints 
 and tear through the muscles when they can not be cut; then with 
 cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in 
 the floor of the pelvis to drag out the pelvic bones; then put cords 
 around the heads of the thigh bones and extract them; then remove 
 the intestines; and finally, by means of the loose, detached skin, 
 draw out the body with the remainder of the hind limbs bent forward 
 beneath it. 
 
 ReufF cuts his way into the pelvis of the foal, and with a knife 
 separates the pelvic bones from the loins, then skinning the quarter 
 draws out these pelvic lx>nes by means of ropes and hooks, and along 
 with them the hind limbs. 
 
 The hind limbs having been removed by one or the other of these 
 procedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means 
 of traction and delivery is effected. If it has been a monstrosity with 
 extra hind limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage 
 and utilize them for traction. 
 
 Removal of the abdominal viscera. In case the belly is unduly 
 large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful 
 to lay it oj>en with the knife and cut or tear out the contents. 
 
 /femoral of the thoracic viscera. To diminish the bulk of the chest 
 it has lx?en found advisable to cut out the breastbone, remove the 
 heart and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free 
 ends overlapping each other. 
 
 Dissection of the trunk. In case it becomes necessary to remove 
 other portions of the trunk, the general rule should be followed of 
 preserving the skin so that all manipulations can be made inside this 
 as a protector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising 
 traction on the remaining part of the body, and as a covering to 
 protect the vaginal walls against injuries from bones while such 
 part is passing. 
 
 FLOODING, OR HLEEDINO FROM THE WOMB. 
 
 This is rare in the mare, but not unknown, in connection with a 
 failure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with 
 eversion of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or lacera- 
 tion. If the blood accumulates in the flaccid womb, the condition 
 may only be suspected by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness,
 
 DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 185 
 
 swaying, unsteady gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and other 
 mucous membranes, and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand in- 
 troduced into the womb detects the presence of the blood partly 
 clotted. If the blood escapes by the vulva, the condition is evident. 
 Treatment consists in evacuating the womb of its blood clots, giv- 
 ing a large dose of powdered ergot of rye, and in the application of 
 cold water or ice to the loins and external generative organs. Besides 
 this, a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still 
 better, with tincture of muriate of iron,, may be introduced into the 
 womb and squeezed so as to bring the liquid in contact with the 
 walls generally. 
 
 EVERSION OF THE WOMB. 
 
 If the womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the after- 
 pains will sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the 
 organ and passing through that and the vagina until the whole 
 inverted organ appears externally and hangs down on the thighs. 
 The result is rapid engorgement and swelling of the organ, impaction 
 of the rectum with feces, and distention of the bladder with urine, all 
 of which conditions seriously interfere with the return of the mass. 
 In returning the womb the standing is preferable to the recumbent 
 position, as the abdomen is more pendent and there is less obstruc- 
 tion to the return. It may, however, be necessary to put hobbles on 
 the hind limbs to prevent the mare from kicking. A clean sheet 
 should be held beneath the womb, and all filth, straw, and foreign 
 bodies washed from its surface. Then with a broad, elastic (india 
 rubber) band, or in default of that a long strip of calico 4 or 5 inches 
 wide, wind the womb as tightly as possible, beginning at its most 
 dependent part (the extremity of the horn). This serves two good 
 ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the enormous mass 
 of blood which engorged and enlarged the organ, and it furnishes a 
 strong protective covering for the now delicate friable organ, through 
 which it may be safely manipulated without danger of laceration. 
 The next step may be the pressure on the general mass while those 
 portions next the vulva are gradually pushed in with the hands; or 
 the extreme lowest point (the -end of the horn) may be turned within- 
 itself and pushed forward into the vagina by the closed fist, the 
 return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, and even 
 by those of assistants. By either mode the manipulations may be 
 made with almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely 
 wrapped in the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into 
 the vagina the rest will usually follow with increasing ease, and the 
 operation should be completed with the hand and arm extended the 
 full length within the womb and moved from point to point so as to 
 straighten out all parts of the organ and insure that no portion still
 
 I si i DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 remains inverted within another portion. Should any such partial 
 inversion be left it will give rise to straining, under the force of which 
 it will gradually increase until the whole mass will be protruded as 
 before. The next step is to apply a truss as" an effectual me- 
 chanical barrier to further escape of the womb through the vulva. 
 The simplest is made with two inch ropes, each about 18 feet long. 
 These are each doubled and interwoven at the bend, as seen in Plate 
 IX, figure 4. The ring formed by the interlacing of the two ropes is 
 adjusted around the vulva, the two ends of the one rope are carried 
 up on the right and left of the tail and along the spine, being wound 
 round each other in their course, and are finally tied to the upper 
 part of the collar encircling the neck. The remaining two ends, 
 belonging to the other rope, are carried downward and forward 
 between the thighs and thence forward and upward on the sides of 
 the belly and chest to be attached to the right and left sides of the col- 
 lar. These ropes are drawn tightly enough to keep closely applied to 
 the opening without chafing, and will fit still more securely when the 
 mare raises her back to strain. It is desirable to tie the mare short so 
 that she may be unable to lie down for a day or two, and she should 
 be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent 
 straining may be checked by full doses of opium (one-half dram), 
 and any costiveness or diarrhea should be obviated by a suitable laxa- 
 tive or binding diet. 
 
 In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return 
 of the womb, and full doses of opium one-half dram, laudanum 2 
 ounces, or chloral hydrate 1 ounce, may be demanded, or the mare 
 must be rendered insensible by ether or chloroform. 
 
 * 
 
 RUPTURE, OR LACERATION, OF THE WOMB. 
 
 This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or 
 from ill-directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take 
 place in the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant 
 dangers are bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through 
 the opening and their fatal injury by the mare's feet or otherwise, and 
 peritonitis from the extension of inflammation from the wound and 
 'from the poisonous action of the septic liquids of the womb escaping 
 into the abdominal cavity. The first object is to close the wound, 
 but unless in eversion of the womb this is practically impossible. In 
 the last-named condition the wound must be carefully and accurately 
 sewed up lxfore the womb is returned. After its return, the womb 
 must be injected daily with an antiseptic solution (borax, one-half 
 ounce, or carbolic acid, 3 drams to a quart of tepid water). If in- 
 flammation threatens, the abdomen may be bathed continuously with 
 hot water by means of a heavy woolen rag. and large doses of opium 
 (one-half dram) may be given twice or thrice daily.
 
 DIFFICULT PAKTUBITION. 187 
 
 RTIPTUBES OF THE VAGINA. 
 
 These are attended by dangers similar to those belonging to rup- 
 ture of the womb, and in addition by the risk of protrusion of the 
 bladder, which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red pyri- 
 form mass. Sometimes such lacerations extend downward into the 
 bladder, and in others upward into the terminal gut (rectum). In 
 still other cases the anus is torn so that it forms one common orifice 
 with the vulva. 
 
 Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least "a recovery is not at- 
 tained, and urine or feces or both escape freely into the vagina. The 
 simple laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the 
 muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is 
 never fully reacquired. The successful stitching up of the wound 
 communicating with the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill 
 and care, and though I have succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I 
 can not advise the attempt by unprofessional persons. 
 
 BLOOD CLOTS IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA. 
 
 (See " Effusion of blood in the vaginal walls," p. 169.) 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB AND PERITONEUM. 
 
 These may result from injuries sustained by the womb during or 
 after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irritant 
 infective action of putrid products within the womb. Under the 
 inflammation the womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposi- 
 tion of its secretions almost always occurs, so that the inflammation 
 tends to assume a putrid character and general septic infection is 
 likely to occur. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring 
 coat, small rapid pulse, elevated temperature, accelerated breathing, 
 inappetence, with arched back, stiff movement of the body, looking 
 back at the flanks, and uneasy motions of the hind limbs, discharge 
 from the vulva of a liquid at first watery, reddish, or yellowish, and 
 later it may be whitish or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases. 
 Tenderness of the abdomen shown on pressure is especially character- 
 istic of cases affecting the peritoneum or lining of the belly, and is 
 more marked lower down. If the animal survives, the inflammation 
 tends to become chronic and attended by a whitish muco-purulent 
 discharge. If, on the contrary, it proves fatal, death is preceded by 
 extreme prostration and weakness from the general septic poisoning. 
 
 Treatment. In treatment the first thing to be sought is the removal 
 of all offensive and irritant matters from the womb through a caout- 
 chouc tube introduced into the womb, and into which a funnel is 
 fitted. Warm water should be passed until it comes away clear. To
 
 188 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 insure that all of the womb has been washed out, the oiled hand 
 may be introduced to carry the end of the tube into the two horns 
 successively. When the offensive contents have been thus removed, 
 the womb should be injected with a quart of water holding in solu- 
 tion 1 dram permanganate of potash, or, in the absence of the latter, 
 2 teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid. Repeat twice daily. Fomentation 
 of the abdomen, or the application of a warm flaxseed poultice, may 
 greatly relieve. Acetanilid, in doses of half an ounce, repeated twice 
 or thrice a day, or sulphate of quinia in doses of one-third ounce, 
 may be employed to reduce the fever. If the great prostration indi- 
 cates septic poisoning, large doses (one-half ounce) bisulphite of 
 soda, or salicylate of soda, or sulphate of quinine may be resorted to. 
 
 LEUCORRHEA. 
 
 This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a contin- 
 ued subacute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the womb. 
 Like the discharge of acute inflammation, it contains many forms of 
 bacteria, by some of which it is manifestly inoculable on the penis of 
 the stallion, producing ulcers and a specific gonorrheal discharge. 
 
 Treatment may consist in the internal use of tonics (sulphate of 
 iron, 3 drams, daily) and the' washing out of the womb, as described 
 under the last heading, followed by an astringent antiseptic injection 
 (carbolic acid 2 teaspoonfuls, tannic acid one-half dram, water 1 
 quart). This may be repeated two or three times a day. 
 
 LAMIN1TI8, OR FOUNDER, FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 
 
 This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it fre- 
 quently does on disorder of the stomach. Its symptoms agree with 
 those of the common form of founder, and treatment need not differ. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. 
 C'OMJESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER. 
 
 This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the 
 udder becomes painfully engorged before parturition, and a doughy 
 swelling, pitting on pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of 
 the abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation, one or both 
 of the glands become enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is 
 dried up or replaced by a watery or reddish serous fluid, which at 
 times becomes fetid ; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows 
 general disorder and fever. The condition may end in recovery, in 
 abscess, induration, or gangrene, and in some cases may lay the foun- 
 dation for a tumor of the gland. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment is simple so long as there is only con- 
 gestion. Active rubbing with lard or oil, or, better, camphorated
 
 DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. 189 
 
 oil, and the frequent drawing off of the milk, by the foal or with 
 the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. When 
 active inflammation is present, fomentation with warm water may be 
 kept up for an hour and followed by the application of the cam- 
 phorated oil, to w T hich has been added some carbonate of soda and 
 extract of belladonna. A dose of laxative medicine (4 drams Bar- 
 bados aloes) will be of service reducing fever, and one-half ounce 
 saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk coagulates 
 in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or when the liquid becomes 
 fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 drops carbolic 
 acid dissolved in an ounce of water should be injected into the teat. 
 In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate ducts 
 opening on the summit of each teat and each must be carefully in- 
 jected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a 
 small milking tube, or spring teat dilator designed by the writer. 
 (Plate VIII, figs. 2 and 3.) When pus forms and points externally 
 and can not find a free escape by the teat, the spot where it fluctu- 
 ates must be opened freely with the knife and the cavity injected 
 daily with the carbolic-acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard 
 and indolent, it may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment 1 part, 
 vaseline G parts. 
 
 TUMORS OF THE UDDER. 
 
 As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat 
 of an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seri- 
 ously interfere with the movement of the hind limbs. If such swell- 
 ings will not give way in their early stages to treatment by iodine, 
 the only resort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often 
 implicated and has to be removed, such mares can not in the future 
 suckle their colts and therefore should not be bred. 
 
 SORE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, WARTS. 
 
 By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are sub- 
 ject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irrita- 
 tion, or independently, warts sometimes grow and prove troublesome. 
 The warts should be clipped off with sharp scissors and their roots 
 burned with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done before 
 parturition to secure healing before suckling begins. For sore teats 
 use an ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu 5 grains, and 
 sulphate of zinc 5 grains.
 
 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 By M. R. TBUM BOWER, V. S. 
 [Revised In 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.J 
 
 THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 The nervous system may be regarded as consisting of two sets of 
 organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish 
 a communication between the centers and the different parts of the 
 body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole 
 may be arranged under two divisions: First, the cerebro-spinal 
 system; second, the sympathetic, or ganglionic system. Each is 
 possessed of its own central and peripheral organs. 
 
 In the first, the center is made up of two portions one large and 
 expanded (the brain) placed in the cranial cavity; the other elon- 
 gated (spinal cord), continuous with the brain, and lodged in the 
 canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral portion of this sys- 
 tem consists of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in 
 symmetrical pairs, and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary 
 muscles, and the organs. 
 
 In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con- 
 nected by nerve cords which extends from the head to the rump on 
 each side of the spine. The nerves of this system are distributed to 
 the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels. 
 
 The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at 
 the junctions. 
 
 Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the forma- 
 tion of nervous matter, namely, the white or medullary, and the gray 
 or cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in 
 consequence of which the principal nervous centers are well protected 
 by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two distinct 
 forms nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells 
 constitutes a nerve ganglion. 
 
 The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to 
 
 place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end 
 
 organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act 
 
 as physiological centers for automatic, or reflex, movements, and also 
 
 190
 
 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 191 
 
 for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A 
 nerve consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a dense 
 areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath the neurilemma. 
 Nerve fibers possess no elasticity, but are very strong. Divided nerves 
 do not retract. 
 
 Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and 
 are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The 
 stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon, any part of the nerve. 
 Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure being applied. 
 When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting 
 up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of 
 them; they retain their individuality from their source to their 
 termination. 
 
 Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory, 
 or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to 
 organs of motion are termed motor, or centrifugal. The function of 
 the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms, 
 as follows : It is intended to associate the different parts of the body 
 in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ may excite or 
 depress the activity of another. 
 
 The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra- 
 nium, which may be divided into four parts the medulla oblongata, 
 the cerebellum, the pans Varolii, and the cerebrum and it is cov- 
 ered by three membranes, called the meninges. The outer of these 
 membranes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which 
 lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of 
 the bones ; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the 
 canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and 
 loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord ; it forms two layers, leav- 
 ing between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebro- 
 spinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain 
 from pressure. The third, or inner, the pia mater, is closely adher- 
 ent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more 
 vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord, which it also envelops, 
 and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves. 
 
 The medulla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord, 
 extending to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very 
 large in the horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part join- 
 ing the cord. 
 
 The pons Varolii is the transverse projection on the base of the 
 brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the 
 cerebrum. 
 
 The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity, 
 immediately above the medulla oblongata ; it is globular or elliptical
 
 192 DISEASES OP THE HOBSE. 
 
 in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the 
 cerebellum is composed of gray matter externally and of white matter 
 in the center. The cerebellum has the function of coordinating move- 
 ments ; that is, of so associating them as to cause them to accomplish a 
 definite purpose. Injuries to the cerebellum cause disturbances of tha 
 equilibrium, but do not interfere with the will power or intelligence. 
 
 The cerebrum, or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the 
 cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irregular flattened base, 
 and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of 
 the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the 
 cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psychical activities. 
 Only when they are intact are the process of feeling, thinking, and 
 willing possible. After they are destroyed, the organism comes to be 
 like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of 
 the internal and external stimuli which act upon it. 
 
 The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, is that part of the cerebro- 
 spinal system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone, 
 and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind 
 the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two 
 lateral symmetrical halves by fissures. The spinal cord terminates 
 posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of 
 nerve trunks cauda, equincp. A transverse section of the cord reveals 
 that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray matter 
 internally. The spinal cord does not fill up the whole spinal canal. 
 The latter contains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the 
 membranes of the cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid. 
 
 The spinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each 
 by two roots, a superior, or sensory, and an inferior, or motor. The 
 nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and 
 arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting 
 from before backward. They also receive special names, according 
 to their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz : 
 
 1. Olfactory. 7. Facial. 
 
 2. Optic. 8. Auditory. 
 
 3. Oculo-iuotor. 0. (iloHKo-pharyngeal. 
 
 4. Pathetic. 10. PneumogUKtric. 
 6. Trlfaclal. 11. gpinal-acrcraory. 
 6. Abducent 12. IIyix>gloss:il. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF TIIF, BRAIN AND ITS MKMBKANE8. 
 
 Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any one of the 
 anatomical divisions of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole 
 at once. Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary 
 inflammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct 
 mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bones of the era-
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 193 
 
 nium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflamma- 
 tion, except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonly 
 the seat of inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate 
 relation with the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes 
 involved in the morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate in- 
 flammation of the pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflam- 
 mation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses 
 the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the 
 brain without involving the surface. When, therefore, inflamma- 
 tion invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is properly 
 called encephalitis,' when the membranes alone are affected, it is 
 called meningitis; or the brain substance alone, cerebritis. Since all 
 of the conditions merge into each other and can scarcely be recognized 
 separately during the life of the animal, they may here be considered 
 together. 
 
 ENCEPHALITIS, MENINGITIS, AND CEBEBBITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS 
 
 MEMBBANES). 
 
 Causes. Exposure to extreme heat or cold, sudden and extreme 
 changes of temperature, excessive continued cerebral excitement, over- 
 feeding with nitrogenous foods, direct injuries to the brain, such as 
 concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, overexertion, sometimes 
 as sequelae to influenza, pyemia, poisons having a direct influence upon 
 the encephalic mass, extension of inflammation from neighboring 
 structures, food poisoning, tumors, parasites, metastatic abscesses, etc. 
 
 Symptoms. The diseases here grouped together are accompanied 
 by a variety of symptoms almost none of which, however, are asso- 
 ciated so definitely with a special pathological process as to point 
 unmistakably to a given lesion. Usually the first symptoms indicate 
 mental excitement, and these are followed by symptoms indicating 
 depression. Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased 
 sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contrac- 
 tion of the pupils of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute 
 attacks these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condi- 
 tion will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or 
 spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The 
 animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and 
 delirium will develop, with inability of muscular control, or stupor and 
 coma may supervene. Where the membranes are greatly implicated, 
 convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but where 
 the brain substances are principally affected stupor and coma will be 
 the prominent symptoms. In the former condition the pulse will 
 be quick and hard; in the latter, soft or depressed with often a dila- 
 tation of the pupils, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The 
 H. DoO. 795, 59-2 13
 
 194 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 symptoms? may follow one another in rapid succession, and the disease 
 approach a fatal termination in less than twelve hours. In subacute 
 attacks the symptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies 
 before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improve- 
 ment may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paral- 
 ysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise 
 in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to 
 increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, succeeded by a 
 decrease when coma becomes manifest. The violence and character 
 of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the 
 structures involved. Thus, in some cases there may be marked paral- 
 ysis of certain muscles, while in others there may be spasmodic 
 rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal be- 
 comes extremely violent early in the attack, and by rearing up, strik- 
 ing with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury. 
 Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, prop- 
 ping himself against the manger or wall, until he falls from inability 
 of muscular control or unconsciousness. Occasionally he may go 
 through a series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as 
 trotting or walking, and, if loose in a stall, will move around in a 
 circle persistently. Early and persistent constipation of the bowels 
 is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affections of the brain; re- 
 tention of the urine, also, is frequently observed. 
 
 Following these symptoms there are depression, loss of power and 
 consciousness, lack of ability or desire to move, and usually fall of 
 temperature. At this stage the horse stands with legs propped, the 
 head hanging or resting on the manger, the eyes partly closed, and 
 does not respond when spoken to or when struck with a whip. 
 
 Chronic encephalitis or meningitis may succeed the acute stage, or 
 may be due to stable miasma, blood poison, narcotism, lead poison- 
 ing, etc. This form may not be characterized in its initial stages by 
 excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal 
 usually appears sit first stupid ; eats slowly; the pupil of the eye does 
 not le.spond to light quickly; the animal often throws up his head or 
 shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and 
 sluggish in his movements, or there may l>e partial paralysis of one 
 limb, one side of the face, nock, or lx>dy. Those symptoms, with some 
 variations, may be present for several days and then subside, or the 
 disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic 
 encephalitis may affect an animal for ten days or two weeks without 
 much variation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. If im- 
 provement commences, the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse 
 order in which they developed, with the exception of the paralytic 
 effeot. which remain intractable or permanent. Paralysis of certain 
 sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 195 
 
 acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain or to exuda- 
 tion into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space. 
 
 Softening and abscess of the brain is one of the terminations of 
 cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a 
 result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplexy. The symptoms 
 are drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or 
 fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect 
 control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some 
 cases the symptoms are analogous to those of apoplexy. The char- 
 acter of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or 
 abscess within the brain. 
 
 Cerebral sclerosis sometimes follows inflammation in the struct- 
 ure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually 
 become h'ypertrophied and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing 
 their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. 
 This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis and may extend 
 along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Complete 
 paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. 
 
 Lesions. On making post-mortem examinations of horses which 
 have died in the first stages of either of these diseases we will find an 
 excessive engorgement of the capillaries and small blood vessels, with 
 correspondingly increased redness and changes in both the contents 
 and the walls of the vessels. If death has occurred at a later period 
 of the disease it will be found that, in addition to the redness and en- 
 gorgement, an exudation of the contents of the blood vessels into the 
 tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened. 
 If the case has been one of encephalitis, there will usually be found 
 more or less watery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the 
 brain), in the subarachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the 
 convolutions and interstitial spaces of the gray matter under the 
 membranes of the brain. The amount of fluid varies in different 
 cases. Exudations of a membranous character may be present and 
 are found attached to the surface of the pia mater. 
 
 In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, in addition to the serous 
 effusion, there are changes which may be regarded as characteristic in 
 the formation of a delicate and highly vascular layer or layers of 
 membrane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater, 
 and also indications of hemorrhages in connection with the membra- 
 nous formations. Hematoma, or blood tumors, may be found em- 
 bedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious, 
 causing paralysis or apoplexy, followed by speedy death. The menin- 
 gitis may be suppurative. In this case, a puslike exudate is found 
 between the membranes covering the brain. 
 
 In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there 
 is a tendency to softening and suppuration and the formation of
 
 196 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, sur- 
 rounded with a softened condition of the brain matter, and some- 
 times we may find one large abscess. In cases of recent development 
 the walls of the abscesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining 
 membrane. In older or chronic cases, the walls of the abscesses are 
 generally lined with a strong membrane, often having the appearance 
 of a sac, or cyst, and the contents have a very offensive odor. 
 
 Treatment. In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the 
 membranes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended 
 and engorged blood vessels and the rapid accumulation of inflamma- 
 tory products that endangers the life of the animal in even the very 
 early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to 
 lessen the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood vessels, 
 the less amount of inflammatory products and effusion w'e have to 
 contend with later on. The leading object, then, to be accomplished 
 in the treatment of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cere- 
 britis is to relieve the engorgement of the blood vessels before a dan- 
 gerous degree of effusion or exudation has taken place, and thereby 
 lessen the irritation or excitability of the affected structures. If the 
 yttempt to relieve the engorgement in the first stage has been only 
 partially successful, and the second stage with its inflammatory prod- 
 ucts and exudations, whether serous or plastic, has set in, then the 
 main objects in further treatment are to keep up the strength of the 
 animal and hasten the absorption of the exudative products as much 
 as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the 
 initial stage of the disease, where there is unnatural excitability or 
 stupor with increase of temperature and quickened pulse, we should 
 apply cold to the head in the form of cold water or ice. For this pur- 
 pose cloths or bags may be used, and they should be renewed as often 
 as necessary. If the disease is still in its early stages and the animal 
 is strong, bleeding from the jugular vein may be beneficial. Good 
 results are to be expected only during the stage of excitement, while 
 there is a strong, full pulse and the mucous membranes of the head 
 are red from a plentiful supply of blood. The finger should be kept 
 on the pulse and the blood allowed to flow until there is distinct 
 softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat 
 from the shock of the bleeding, the following medicine should be 
 made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water and be given 
 at one dose: Barbados aloes, 7 drams; calomel, 2 drams; powdered 
 ginger, 1 dram ; tincture of aconite, 20 drops. 
 
 The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from 
 noise as possible. When the animal Incomes thirsty half an ounce of 
 bromide of potash may be dissolved in his drinking water every six 
 hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the 
 action of the purgative. Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride, in
 
 DISEASES OP THE BEAIN. 197 
 
 20-drop doses, should be given every hour and 1 dram of solid extract 
 of belladonna every four hours until the symptoms become modified 
 and the pulse regular and full. 
 
 If this treatment fails to give relief, the disease will pass into the 
 advanced stages, or, if the animal has been neglected in the early 
 stages, the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injec- 
 tion of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in 1 dram of water, every 
 six hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mus- 
 tard. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be observed 
 in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration. 
 
 If the disease becomes chronic (encephalitis or meningitis) , we must 
 place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental 
 treatment as special symptoms may demand. Iodide of potassium in 
 2-dram doses should be given three times a day and 1 dram of calo- 
 mel once a day to induce absorption of effusions or thickened mem- 
 branes. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in 1-dram doses, to 
 which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given 
 every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. 
 After the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides 
 ointment) may be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects 
 remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of 
 strychnia in 2-grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, may 
 be given twice a day, and be continued until it produces muscular 
 twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, bene- 
 fit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric battery. 
 Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early 
 treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predis- 
 posed to subsequent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed 
 to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. 
 When the disease depends upon mechanical injuries, they have to be 
 treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due 
 to stable miasma, uremic poisoning, pyemia, influenza, rheumatism, 
 toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their 
 removal or mitigation. 
 
 Cerebral softening, abscess, and sclerosis are practically inaccess- 
 ible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by 
 the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the 
 diagnosis is largely presumptive. 
 
 CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, OR MEGRIMS. 
 
 Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the 
 vessels, also called hyperemia, or engorgement. It may be active or 
 passive active when there is an undue determination of blood or 
 diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the 
 vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins.
 
 198 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 Causes. Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of 
 the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of 
 extreme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc. 
 Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction 
 which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the 
 heart, such as a small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the 
 blood current, tumors or abscesses pressing on the vein in its course, 
 and organic lesions of the heart with regurgitation. 
 
 Extremely fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject 
 to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, is 
 merely a functional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree 
 involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the con- 
 trary, may be followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries 
 and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a 
 stroke of apoplexy. 
 
 Symptoms. Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani- 
 festation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly 
 and shake his head or stand quietly braced on his legs, then stagger, 
 make a plunge, and fall. The eyes are staring, breathing hurried and 
 stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by 
 coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however, 
 the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and 
 giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or 
 to disease of the blood vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may 
 be of slow development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or im- 
 perfect vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensi- 
 bility of the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In 
 milder cases effusion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and 
 ventricles of the brain, followed by paralysis and other complications. 
 
 Pathology. In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are 
 loaded with blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme 
 degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes actual 
 compression, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On post- 
 mortem examinations this engorgement is found universal through- 
 out the brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from 
 inflammations of these structures, in which the engorgements are 
 confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged con- 
 gestion may, however, lead to active inflammation, and in that case 
 we will find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the briin. 
 In addition to the intensely engorged condition of the vessels we find 
 the gray matter of the brain redder in color than natural. In cases 
 where several attacks have occurred the blood vessels are often found 
 permanently dilated. 
 
 Treatment. Prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the 
 circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar,
 
 SUNSTROKE. 199 
 
 the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. The horse 
 should be bled freely from the jugular vein. If due to tumors or 
 abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To 
 revive the animal if he becomes partially or totally unconscious, cold 
 water should be dashed on the head. Give a purge of Glauber's 
 salts. If the limbs are cold, tincture of capsicum or strong mustard 
 water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain 
 after two or three days, an active cathartic and iodide of potassa will 
 be indicated, to be given as prescribed for inflammation of the brain. 
 Prevention. Well-adjusted collar, with strap running from the 
 collar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling upgrade; 
 regular feed and exercise, without allowing the animal to become ex- 
 cessively plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free-and-easy 
 movement of the head; well-ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness, 
 pure water, etc. 
 
 SUNSTROKE, HEAT STROKE, OR HEAT EXHAUSTION. 
 
 The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclu- 
 sively by exposure to the sun's rays, as the word signifies, but by the 
 action of great heat combined generally with humid atmosphere. 
 Exhaustion produced by a long-continued heat is often the essential 
 factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track un- 
 dergoing protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb 
 to heat exhaustion. Draft horses exposed to the direct rays of the 
 sun for many hours, which do not receive proper care in watering, 
 feeding, and rest in shady places, suffer very frequently from sun- 
 stroke. 
 
 Symptoms. Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops, 
 drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon- 
 scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very 
 slow and irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of 
 the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness. 
 The temperature becomes very high, reaching 105 to 109 F. 
 
 In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some 
 time previous to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally 
 perspiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the 
 breathing hurried or panting, eyes watery or bloodshot, nostrils 
 dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color ; the pulse 
 is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousness 
 and death. If recovery takes place, convalescence extends over a 
 long period of time, during which incoordination of movement may 
 persist. 
 
 Pathology. Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain, 
 often accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes 
 this condition, with* often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital
 
 200 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 functions. The death may be due in many instances to the complete 
 stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing anemia, or want 
 of nourishment of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due 
 to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the 
 heart's action, and cause paralysis of that organ. There are also 
 changes in the composition of the blood. 
 
 Treatment. Under no circumstances is bloodletting permissible in 
 sunstroke. Ice or very cold water should be applied to the head and 
 along the spine, and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6 
 ounces of whisky should be given in 1 pint of water. Cold water 
 should be showered upon the body of the horse from the hose or 
 otherwise. This should be continued until the temperature is down 
 to 103 F. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits 
 of camphor often yield good results. The administration of the stim- 
 ulants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become 
 stronger and slower. In either case, when reaction has occurred, 
 preparations of iron and general tonics may be given during conva- 
 lescence: Sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian, 3 drams; red cinchona 
 bark, 2 drams; mix and give in the feed morning and evening. 
 
 Prevention. In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges 
 or light sunshades on the head when at work, or the head may DC 
 sponged with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper 
 attention should be given to feeding and watering, never in excess. 
 During the warm months all stables should be cool and well ven- 
 tilated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or 
 disease he should receive such treatment as will tend to build up the 
 system. Horses should be permitted to drink as much water as they 
 want while they are at work during hot weather. 
 
 An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is very liable to 
 have subsequent attacks when exposed to the necessary exciting 
 causes. 
 
 APOPLEXY, OR CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. 
 
 Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true 
 apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood vessels, with 
 blood extravasation and formation of blood clot. 
 
 Causes. Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy, 
 the predisposing and the exciting. The predisposing cause is degen- 
 eration, or disease which weakens the blood vessel ; the exciting cause 
 is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion. 
 
 Symptoms. Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensa- 
 tion and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breath- 
 ing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon be- 
 comes slower, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases. 
 If the rupture is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited,
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 201 
 
 sudden paralysis of some part of the body is the result. The extent 
 and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the 
 brain which is functionally deranged by the pressure of the extrava- 
 sated blood ; hence these conditions are very variable. 
 
 In the absence of any premonitory symptoms or an increase of tem- 
 perature in the early stage of the attack, we may be reasonably certain 
 in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the 
 brain, or sunstroke. 
 
 Pathology. In apoplexy there is generally found an atheromatous 
 condition of the cerebral vessels, with weakening and degeneration of 
 their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually fol- 
 lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere- 
 brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible 
 pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing 
 local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may 
 recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes 
 place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substances may follow, or 
 softening and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render 
 the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death. 
 
 Treatment. Place the animal in a quiet, cool place and avoid all 
 stimulating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams 
 of the iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary. 
 Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be 
 harmful than of benefit, and bloodletting in an apoplectic fit is 
 extremely hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to 
 diseased or weakened blood vessels, the animal remains subject to 
 subsequent attacks. 
 
 COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 Causes. In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone 
 may press upon the brain, and, according to its size, the brain is 
 robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due 
 to an extravasation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arach- 
 noid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through 
 compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct 
 cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. 
 
 Symptoms. Impairment of all the special senses and localized 
 paralysis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the 
 brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be 
 our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the 
 paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body from the location of 
 the injury, and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert 
 veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering 
 compression. 
 
 Treatment. Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of
 
 202 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign 
 bodies. When the symptoms of compression follow other acute 
 diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such 
 as the exigencies of the case demands. 
 
 CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 Causes. This is generally caused by an animal falling over back- 
 ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose; 
 by a blow on the head, etc. Train accidents during shipping often 
 cause concussion of the brain. 
 
 Symptoms. Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness, 
 stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding imme- 
 diately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The 
 animal may rally quickly or not for hours; death may occur on the 
 spot or after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or 
 stunning, the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more 
 severe, insensibility may be complete and continue for a considerable 
 time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible 
 to light; the pulse fluttering or feeble; the surface of the body cold, 
 muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a 
 variable interval partial recovery may take place, which is marked 
 by paralysis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear, 
 etc. Convalescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent im- 
 pairment of some organs remains. 
 
 Pathology. Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at 
 least a jarring of the nervous elements, which, if not sufficiently severe 
 to produce sudden death, may lead to softening or inflammation, with 
 their respective symptoms of functional derangement. 
 
 Treatment. The first object in treatment will be to establish reac- 
 tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be 
 accomplished by dashing cold water on the head and body of the ani- 
 mal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil 
 and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases 
 this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more 
 severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and 
 above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness 
 stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given. 
 Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the pos- 
 sible rupture of blood vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction 
 may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then 
 have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants 
 should not be administered too freely, and they must be abandoned 
 as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further 
 treatment unless complications develop as a secondary result. Bleed- 
 ing, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 203 
 
 this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is 
 never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when 
 he is unconscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the 
 lungs in inspiration. 
 
 Prevention. Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first 
 few times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it fre- 
 quently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their 
 balance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus 
 causing brain concussion when they strike the ground. 
 
 ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 This is a physiological condition in sleep. 
 
 Causes. It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when 
 the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with. 
 In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anemic, and fainting 
 fits occur, with temporary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing 
 within the cranium may press npon one or more arteries and stop the 
 supply of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anemia, 
 ultimately atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probably the most 
 frequent cause is found in plugging, or occlusion, of 'the arteries by 
 a blood clot. 
 
 Symptoms. Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently 
 a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or 
 epileptic fits occur. 
 
 Pathology. The exact opposite of cerebral hyperemia. The blood 
 vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain sub- 
 stance softened. 
 
 Treatment. Removal of the remote cause when possible. General 
 tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous 
 excitement. 
 
 HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 This condition consists in an unnatural collection of fluid about or 
 in the brain. Depending upon the location of the fluid, we speak of 
 external and internal hydrocephalus. 
 
 External hydrocephalus is seen chiefly in young animals. It con- 
 sists in a collection of fluid under the meninges, but outside of the 
 brain proper. This defect is usually congenital. It is accompanied 
 by an enlargement of the skull, especially in the region of the fore- 
 head. The pressure of the fluid may cause the bones to soften. The 
 disease is incurable and usually fatal. 
 
 Internal hydrocephalus is a disease of mature horses, and consists 
 in the accumulation of an excessive quantity of fluid in the cavities 
 or ventricles of the cerebrum. The cause of this accumulation may 
 be a previous inflammation, a defect in the circulation of blood
 
 204 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 through the brain, heat stroke, overwork, excessive nutrition, or long- 
 continued indigestion. Common, heavy-headed draft horses are pre- 
 disposed to this condition. 
 
 The symptoms are an expression of dullness and stupidity, and 
 from their nature this disease is sometimes known as " dumminess " 
 or " immobility." A horse so afflicted is called a " dummy." Among 
 the symptoms are loss of intelligence, stupid expression, poor mem- 
 ory, etc. The appetite is irregular; the horse may stop chewing with 
 a wisp of hay protruding from his lips; he seems to forget that it is 
 there. Unnatural positions are sometimes assumed, the legs being 
 placed in clumsy and unusual attitudes. Such horses are difficult to 
 drive, as they do not respond readily to the word, to pressure of the 
 bit, or to the whip. Gradually the pulse becomes weaker, respiration 
 becomes faster, and the subject loses weight. Occasionally there are 
 periods of great excitement due to temporary congestion of the brain. 
 At such times the horse becomes quite uncontrollable. A horse so 
 afflicted is said to have " staggers." Jhe outlook for recovery is not 
 good. 
 
 Treatment is merely palliative. Regular work or exercise and nutri- 
 tious food easy of digestion, with plenty of fresh water, are strongly 
 indicated. Intensive feeding should not be practiced. The bowels 
 should l)e kept open by the use of appropriate diet or by the use of 
 small regular doses of Glauber's salts. 
 
 TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM. 
 
 Tumors within the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infre- 
 quently, and give rise to a variety of symptoms, imperfect control of 
 voluntary movement, local paralysis, epilepsy, etc. Among the more 
 common tumors are the following: 
 
 Osseous tumors, growing from the walls of the cranium, are not 
 very uncommon. 
 
 Dentifjcrous cysts, containing a formation identical to that of a 
 tooth, growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found lying 
 loose within the cranium. 
 
 Tumors of the choroid plexus, known as brain sand, are frequently 
 met with on post-mortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any 
 appreciable symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all 
 ages, and are of slow development. They are found in one or both 
 of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus. 
 
 Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in 
 the form of small, black nodules in gray horses, and in one instance 
 are believed to have induced the condition known as stringhalt. 
 
 Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal struc- 
 tures of the brain.
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 205 
 
 Gliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the 
 structure of the cerebellum. 
 
 Treatment for tumors of the brain is impossible. 
 
 SPASMS, OR CRAMPS. 
 
 Causes. Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain 
 and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the 
 motor nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of any 
 part of the sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate 
 an excessive action of the reflex motor centers. Spasms may be 
 induced by various medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by 
 effete materials in the circulation, such as nux vomica or its alkaloid 
 strychnia, lead preparations, or an excess of the urea products in the 
 circulation, etc. Spasms may be divided into two classes: Tonic 
 spasm, when the cramp is continuous or results in persistent rigidity, 
 as in tetanus; clonic spasm, when the cramping is of short duration, 
 or is alternated with relaxations. Spasms may affect involuntary 
 as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines, 
 and even the heart. They are always sudden in their development. 
 
 Spasm of the glottis. This is manifested by a strangling respira- 
 tion ; a wheezing noise is produced in the act of inspiration ; extreme 
 anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the 
 body profusely perspiring; pulse very rapid; soon great exhaustion 
 becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very 
 dark colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time. 
 
 Spasms of the intestines. (See " Cramp colic," p. 58.) 
 
 Spasms of the neck of the bladder. This may be due to spinal irri- 
 tation or a reflex from intestinal irritation, and is manifested by fre- 
 quent but ineffectual attempts to urinate. 
 
 Spasm of the diaphragm, or thumps. Spasmodic contraction of 
 the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally 
 occasioned by extreme and prolonged speeding on the race track or 
 road. The severe strain thus put upon this muscle finally induces 
 irritation of the nerves controlling it, and the contractions become 
 very forcible and violent, giving the jerking character known among 
 horsemen as " thumps." This condition may be distinguished from 
 violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at the angle of 
 the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking movement of the 
 body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no relation to each 
 other. (See " Palpitation of the heart," p. 236.) 
 
 Spasm of the thigh, or cramp of a hind limb. This is frequently 
 witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank floors generally in 
 cold weather or it may come on soon after severe exercise. It is 
 probably due. to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps 
 of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, and attempts to flex
 
 206 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 the leg are unsuccessful ; the animal stands on the affected limb, but 
 is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, however, 
 appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change 
 position. This cramp may be of short duration a few minutes or 
 it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a 
 dislocation of the stifle joint. In the latter the foot is extended back- 
 ward, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after 
 him. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form. 
 Spasms may affect the eyelids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of 
 the sterno-maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was 
 unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed. 
 
 Treatment of spasms. An anodyne liniment, composed of chloro- 
 form 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscles 
 will usually cause relaxation. This may be used where single exter- 
 nal muscles are affected. In spasms of the glottis, inhalation of sul- 
 phuric ether will give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest 
 and the administration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of 
 whisky, with a pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring 
 relief, or if this fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypo- 
 dermic injection. If spasms result from organic disease of the nerv- 
 ous system, the latter should receive such treatment as its character 
 demands. In cramp of the leg compulsory movement usually causes 
 relaxation very quickly; therefore the animal should be led out of 
 the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden nervous excitement 
 caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow, will often bring about 
 immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be 
 used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or lauda- 
 num given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will cer- 
 tainly relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may 
 return soon after the effect has passed off, which in many cases it 
 does very quickly. 
 
 Convulsions. Although there is no disease of the nervous system 
 which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the 
 word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often 
 such a prominent symptom that a few words may not be out of place. 
 General, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body, 
 with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions, 
 and like ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irrita- 
 tion of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is 
 required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self- 
 limited in its duration. Suspending, as it does, respiratory move- 
 ments, checking the oxygenation and decarbonization of the blood, 
 the rapid accumulation of carbonic-acid gas in the blood and the 
 exclusion of oxygen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce 
 the most reliable and speedy sedative effect upon the nerve excitabil-
 
 DISEASES OP THE BRAIN. 207 
 
 ity that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy 
 so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned. 
 Whatever treatment is instituted must be directed toward a removal 
 of the cause of the convulsive paroxysm. 
 
 CHOREA, OR ST. VITUS DANCE. 
 
 Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary 
 muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to 
 pressure upon a nerve, cerebral, or spinal sclerosis, small aneurisms 
 in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting 
 granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and 
 other forms of convulsions simulate chorea in appearance. 
 
 Stringhalt is by some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sud- 
 den jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking. 
 This symptom may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency 
 to increase with the age of the animal. In some the catching up of 
 the affected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground 
 the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the 
 ground like a pile dri'ver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect 
 one of the fore legs, or the muscles of one side of the neck or the 
 upper part of the neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the 
 hip or thigh is seen occasionally, and is termed " shivering " by 
 horsemen. 
 
 Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so 
 frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary 
 muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce 
 much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be 
 regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion. 
 
 Treatment. In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affec- 
 tion, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodide of iron, 1 
 dram ; pulverized nux vomica, 1 dram ; pulverized scutellaria, 1 ounce. 
 Mix and give in the feed once a day for two weeks. Arsenic in the 
 form of Fowler's solution is often beneficial. If the cause is con- 
 nected with organic brain lesions, treatment is usually unsuccessful. 
 
 EPILEPSY, OR FALLING FITS. 
 
 The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions. 
 In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary body, which is 
 located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain 
 may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice 
 a year or they may be of frequent recurrence. 
 
 Symptoms. No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit. 
 The animal suddenly staggers; the muscles become cramped; the 
 jaws may be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue be-
 
 208 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 come lacerated between the teeth; he foams at the mouth and falls 
 down in a spasm. The urine flows away involuntarily, and the 
 breathing may be temporarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes 
 off, and the animal gets on his feet in a few minutes after the return 
 of consciousness. 
 
 Treatment, Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm. 
 After the recovery, 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed 
 twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the 
 tonic prescribed for chorea. 
 
 PARALYSIS, OR PALSY. 
 
 Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction, 
 by diminution of loss of the conducting power or stimulation of the 
 motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the complete and 
 the incomplete. The former includes those in which both motion and 
 sensibility are affected ; the latter those in which only one or the other 
 is lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial. The 
 latter is divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small 
 portion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is desig- 
 nated by the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from 
 the periphery of the center it is termed reflex paralysis. 
 
 Causes. They are very varied. Most of the acute affections of the 
 brain and spinal cord may lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease 
 of the blood vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce 
 suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures. 
 Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the 
 parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed 
 a general paralysis, and in nonfatal attacks is a frequent cause of the 
 various forms of palsy. 
 
 General paralysis. This can not take place without producing 
 immediate death. The term is, however, usually applied to paralysis 
 of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the body are 
 involved or not. This form of palsy is due to compression of the 
 brain by congestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexy, 
 concussion, or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure 
 is involved in functional disturbance. 
 
 Hemiplegia, or paralysis of one side, or half, of the body. Hemi- 
 plegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles of 
 the brain, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure from 
 extravasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to poi- 
 sons in the blood or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or 
 the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflamma- 
 tory character, it is seldom complete; it may affect only one limb and 
 one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off 
 in a few days after the disappearance of all the other evidences of the
 
 PARALYSIS. 209 
 
 primary affection. In the majority of cases, however, hemiplegia 
 arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood vessels of the brain, 
 or the rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened 
 by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most 
 cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well 
 as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in 
 the paralysis. 
 
 Symptoms. In hemiplegia the attack may be very sudden, and the 
 animal fall down powerless to move one side of the body, one side of 
 the lips will be relaxed ; the tongue may hang out on one side of the 
 mouth ; the tail curved around sideways ; an inability to swallow food 
 or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as 
 it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may be 
 entirely lost or only partial; the limbs may be cold and sometimes 
 unnaturally warm. In cases wherein the attack is not so severe the 
 animal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have 
 great difficulty in moving the affected side. In such cases the animal 
 may recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is 
 complete loss of power of movement, recoveries are rare. 
 
 Paraplegia, or transverse paralysis of the hind extremities. Pa- 
 ralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury or inflam- 
 mation affecting the spinal cord. (See " Spinal meningitis," p. 211, 
 and " Myelitis, p. 213.) It may also be due to a reflex irritation 
 from disease of peripheral nerves, to spinal irritation or congestion 
 caused by blood poisons, etc. 
 
 Symptoms. When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord, 
 from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive 
 in its character, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by 
 agents in the blood, it may be intermittent or recurrent. 
 
 Paraplegia is not difficult to recognize, for it is characterized by a 
 weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs and powerless tail. 
 The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is 
 pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages 
 may cease entirely. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill- 
 conditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and 
 bruising, which have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and 
 necessitate his destruction. 
 
 Locomotor ataxia, or incoordination of movement. This is charac- 
 terized by an inability to control properly the movement of the limbs. 
 The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but when he is led out 
 of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement, and he will stumble or 
 stagger, especially in turning. When this is confined to the hind 
 parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, but often it 
 may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when they are 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 14
 
 '210 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure exerted on 
 the base of the brain. 
 
 Local paralysis. This is frequently met with in horses. It may 
 affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very 
 frequently overlooked in diagnosis. 
 
 Facial paralysis. This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is 
 due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial 
 muscles, the portio dura. The cause may exist at the base of the 
 brain, compression along its course after it leaves the medulla oblon- 
 gata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle. 
 
 Symptoms. A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous 
 lips, inability to grasp the food, often a slow and weak movement in 
 chewing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking. 
 
 Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring. This condition is character- 
 ized by roaring, and is usually caused by an inflamed or hypertro- 
 phied bronchial gland pressing against the left recurrent laryngeal 
 nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. A similar con- 
 dition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the recurrent 
 nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by 
 plastic exudation. 
 
 Paralysis of the rectum and tail. This is generally the result of a 
 blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone 
 and injury to the nerves supplying the tail and part of the rectum 
 and muscles belonging thereto. This fracture would not be suspected 
 were it not for the loss of motion of the tail. 
 
 Intestinal paralysis. Characterized by persistent constipation; 
 frequently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the 
 movement of the bowels. In the absence of symptoms of indigestion, 
 or special diseases implicating the intestinal canal, torpor of the 
 bowels must be attributed to deficient innervation. This condition 
 may depend upon brain affections or be due to reflex paralysis. Sud- 
 den checks of perspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels 
 or paralysis. 
 
 Paralysis of the bladder. This usually affects the neck of the blad- 
 der, and is characterized by incontinence of urine; the urine dribbles 
 away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin, 
 disease of the rectum, tumors growing within the pelvic cavity, injury 
 to the spinal cord, etc. 
 
 Paralysis of the optic nerve, or amaurosis. A paralysis of eyesight 
 may occur very suddenly from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, 
 acute local congestion of the brain, the administration of excessive 
 doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia. <>to. In amaurosis the 
 pupil is dilated to its full extent, the eye looks clear, but does not 
 respond to light.
 
 SPINAL MENINGITIS. 211 
 
 Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial 
 paralysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels 
 from injury to the vaso-motor nerves of the esophagus, or loss of 
 deglutition, palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the 
 supply of nervous influence is impaired or suspended. 
 
 Treatment for 'paralysis. In all paralytic affections there may be 
 anesthesia, or impairment of sensibility, in addition to the loss of 
 motion, or there may be hyperesthesia, or increased sensibility, in 
 connection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for 
 special treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. Where 
 hyperesthesia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve 
 suffering. Chloroform liniment or hypodermic injections of from 
 3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is 
 marked anesthesia, or loss of sensibility, it may become necessary to 
 secure the animal in such a way that he can not suffer serious 
 injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treat- 
 ment of any form of paralysis we must always refer to the cause, and 
 attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases where the 
 cause can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general 
 external and internal treatment. Externally, fly blisters or strong 
 irritant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemi- 
 plegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the 
 neck ; in paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot-water cloths 
 will be beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of 
 powdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia twice a 
 day until twitching of some of the voluntary muscles occurs; then 
 discontinue it for several days, and then commence again with a 
 smaller dose, gradually increasing it until twitching recurs. Iodide 
 of potash in 1 to 2 dram doses two or three times daily may be em- 
 ployed with the hope that it will favor the absorption of the clot or 
 obstruction to the nervous current. In some cases Fowler's solution 
 of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day in the drinking water 
 proves beneficial. Occasionally benefit may be derived from the 
 application of the electric current, especially in cases of roaring, 
 facial paralysis, paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not 
 too bulky food, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise 
 if the animal is capable of taking it, good grooming, etc., should 
 be observed in all cases. 
 
 SPINAL MENINGITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOPING 
 
 THE SPINAL CORD. 
 
 Causes. This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood 
 poisons, exhaustion and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of 
 injury to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebrre, rheumatism, etc. 
 
 Symptoms. A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or
 
 212 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convul- 
 sive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity 
 along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly 
 and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or para- 
 plegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes 
 sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the 
 beginning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead 
 us to suspect spinal meningitis or myelitis. These two conditions 
 usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the 
 meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate the two; 
 practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about 
 the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic, 
 and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts 
 of it, posterior to the seat of the disease. 
 
 Pathology. In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same 
 condition as in cerebral meningitis; there will be an effusion of serum 
 between the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent 
 to the pia mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time 
 after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord. 
 Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the 
 cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses. 
 
 Treatment. Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine, 
 to be followed later on by strong blisters. The fever should be con- 
 trolled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture 
 of veratrum viride every hour until the desired result is obtained. 
 One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vas- 
 cular excitement of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six 
 hours until the pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the 
 pain is very intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected 
 hypodermically. The animal must be kept as free from excitement 
 as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn 
 off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease gener- 
 ally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better 
 some form of paralysis is apt to remain for a long time, and the 
 treatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exuda- 
 tive products and a strengthening of the system and stimulation of 
 the nervous functions. To induce absorption, iodide of potassa in 
 2-dram doses may be given, dissolved in the drinking water, twice a 
 day. To strengthen the system, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day 
 and 1 dram of nux vomica once a day may be given in the feed. 
 Electricity to the paralyzed and weakened muscles is advisable; the 
 current should be weak, but be continued for half an hour two or 
 three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of 
 the vertebrae, or some other irremediable cause, the animal should be 
 destroyed at once.
 
 DISEASES OF THE SPINAL COED. 213 
 
 MYELITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD. 
 
 This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin- 
 gitis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, 
 "phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. 
 Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may involve 
 the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess, 
 or degeneration. 
 
 Symptoms. The attack may begin with a chill or convulsions ; the 
 muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the 
 bladder usually is affected at the outset, in which there may be either 
 retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by 
 complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of 
 the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The 
 paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper 
 circulation; the joints may swell and become edematous; vesicular 
 eruptions appear on the skin; and frequently gangrenous sloughs 
 form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery 
 takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when 
 all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time, 
 until septicemia, pyemia, or exhaustion causes death. 
 
 Pathology. The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length 
 of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others ; 
 when due to mechanical injury, the inflammation may remain con- 
 fined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened, 
 often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements 
 are degenerated. 
 
 Treatment. Similar to that of spinal meningitis. 
 
 SPINAL CONGESTION. 
 
 This condition consists in an excess of blood. As the blood vessels 
 of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord, 
 peremia of the cord and of the meninges usually go together. The 
 symptoms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis 
 and congestion. When the pia mater is diseased, the spinal cord is 
 almost invariably affected also. 
 
 Cause. Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, 
 blows, and falls. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case, 
 and closely resemble the first symptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal 
 tumors, and myelitis. First,- some disturbance in movement, lower- 
 ing of the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the 
 seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region, it may cause inter- 
 ference in breathing and the action of the heart. When in the region 
 of the loins, there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the
 
 214 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia 
 may be complete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or. 
 muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal 
 congestion from spinal meningitis. 
 
 Treatment. Hot-water applications to the spine, 1-dram doses 
 fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture 
 of aconite root 20 drops every hour until the symptoms become amel- 
 iorated. If no inflammatory products occur, the animal is likely to 
 recover. 
 
 SPINAL ANEMIA. 
 
 This may be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal 
 embolism or plugging of a spinal blood vessel, an interference with 
 the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, 
 thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel; the spinal vessels may be 
 caused to contract through vase-motor influence, a result of periph- 
 eral irritation of some nerve. 
 
 Symptoms. Spinal anemia causes paralysis of the muscles used in 
 extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected, it precedes the 
 weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and in- 
 creased sensibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal con- 
 gestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. 
 
 Treatment. If the exciting cause can be removed, the animal re- 
 covers; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. 
 
 SPINAL COMPRESSION. 
 
 When caused by tumors or otherwise, when pressure is slight, it 
 produces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and con- 
 traction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes 
 complete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed 
 part of the cord. 
 
 Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, 
 disturbance of the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an in- 
 creased sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed sec- 
 tion, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite 
 side. 
 
 Treatment. When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflam- 
 matory disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics are indicated. 
 When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure 
 from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. 
 
 SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. 
 
 This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood vessels, in 
 connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The 
 blood may escape through the pia mater into the subarachnoid cavity, 
 and large clots be formed.
 
 DISEASES OF THE SPINAL COBD. 215 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat 
 and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally due to the com- 
 pression of the cord. A large clot may produce sudden paraplegia, 
 accompanied by severe pain along the spine; usually, however, the 
 paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; 
 on the second or third day fever is apt to appear, and increased or 
 diminished sensibility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot. 
 When the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indi- 
 cates that the spinal cord is compressed. 
 
 Treatment. In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse, 
 whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to 
 apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or 
 congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of 
 tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have 
 been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce doses 
 may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of 
 sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and 
 lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should 
 be kept perfectly quiet. 
 
 SPINAL CONCUSSION. 
 
 This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently 
 severe to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. 
 It may occur in saddle horses from jumping, or it may be produced 
 by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches 
 may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or 
 spinal hemorrhage ; generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and 
 some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic 
 effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until 
 the animal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary 
 effects follow from hemorrhage or compression, they have to be 
 treated as heretofore directed. 
 
 SPINAL TUMORS. 
 
 Within the substance of the cord glioma or the mixed gliosarco- 
 mata are found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the 
 meninges and the vertebrae, being of a fibrous or bony nature, and 
 affect the spinal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we 
 may find glioma, cancers, and psammoma, fibromata ; and aneurisms 
 of the spinal arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal. 
 
 Symptoms. Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal 
 irritation or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow develop- 
 ment of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain 
 muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis 
 induced is progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the
 
 216 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 muscles or increased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is 
 within the spinal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be 
 present. 
 
 Treatment. General tonics and 1-dram doses of nux vomica may 
 be given; iodide of iron or iodide of potassa in 1-dram doses, three 
 times a day in feed, may, in a very few cases, give some temporary 
 benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal. 
 
 NEURITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE. 
 
 This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve or by strangulation 
 in a ligature when the nerve is included in the ligation of an artery. 
 The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of 
 the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infil- 
 tration of serum mixed with pus. 
 
 Symptoms. Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve and 
 absence of swelling or increased heat of the part. 
 
 Treatment. Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of mor- 
 phia to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an 
 inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided above and below 
 the ligature. 
 
 NEUROMA, OR TUMOR OF A NERVE. 
 
 Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve 
 or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or 
 wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation 
 of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it may appear after the lapse of 
 months or even years. Neuroma usually develops within the sheath 
 of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. It is oval, 
 running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more 
 especially after resting a while and when pressure is -made upon the 
 tumor it causes extreme suffering. 
 
 Treatment. Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve 
 above and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound. 
 
 INJURIES TO NERVES. 
 
 These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching, 
 compression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend 
 upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may 
 quickly take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or 
 cerebral irritation, which may result in tetanus, paralysis, and other 
 serious derangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some 
 form of external violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are necessa- 
 rily involved, and sometimes it is to a primary injury of them that the 
 principal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a part is due.
 
 FORAGE POISONING. 217 
 
 It is often difficult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve 
 has been inflicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to 
 remedy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treat- 
 ment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations, 
 the application of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part, 
 and rest. 
 
 FORAGE POISONING, OR SO-CALLED CEREBRO- SPINAL MENINGITIS. 
 
 This disease prevails among horses in nearly all parts of the United 
 States. It is most common in Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North 
 Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Kansas, Missouri, 
 Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Certain localities are visited by it 
 almost every year. This condition consists in a poisoning and de- 
 pression of the nervous system from eating or drinking food or water 
 containing poison generated by mold or bacteria. It has been shown 
 to be due to eating damaged ensilage, corn, brewers' grains, oats, etc., 
 or to drinking stagnant pond water or water from a well contami- 
 nated by surface drainage. Horses at pasture may contract this dis- 
 ease when the growth of grass is so profuse that it mats together and 
 the lower part dies and ferments or becomes moldy. 
 
 In England a similar disease has been called " grass staggers," due 
 to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten 
 while it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Penn- 
 sylvania it was formerly known by the name of " putrid sore throat " 
 and " choking distemper." A disease similar in many respects, which 
 is very prevalent in Virginia, especially along the eastern border, is 
 commonly known by the name of " blind staggers," and in many of 
 the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of 
 worm-eaten corn. Horses of all ages and mules are subject to this 
 disease. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms which typify sporadic, or epidemic, 
 cerebro-spinal meningitis in man are not witnessed among horses, 
 namely, excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular rigidity. In 
 the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symp- 
 toms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks the animal 
 may first indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inabil- 
 ity to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight; twitching of 
 the muscles, and slight cramps may be observed. As a rule, the tem- 
 perature is not elevated indeed, it is sometimes below normal. This 
 is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, 
 delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of auto- 
 matic movements as if trotting or running; the delirium may become 
 very violent and the animal in his unconsciousness may bruise his head 
 in his struggles very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him 
 quiet until he expires. Death in these cases usually takes place in
 
 218 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 from four to twenty-four hours from the time the first symptoms be- 
 come manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the dis- 
 ease; it may be almost imperceptible at times, and then again very 
 rapid and irregular; the respirations generally are quick and catch- 
 ing. In the next form in which this disease may develop it first be- 
 comes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastica- 
 tion, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the 
 tail ; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when 
 we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than 
 normal. There is no evidence of pain ; the respirations are unchanged, 
 and the temperature little less than normal ; the bowels may be some- 
 what constipated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two 
 or three days and then gradual improvement take place, or the power 
 to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty 
 in gait more and more perceptible; then sleepiness or coma may ap- 
 pear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow, and weak, the breathing 
 stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to 
 stand, and some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of 
 the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from six to ten 
 days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is 
 no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress 
 of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death fol- 
 lows, painless and without a struggle. 
 
 In the last or mildest form the inability of voluntary control of the 
 limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never 
 entirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious move- 
 ments. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth 
 day and recovers. 
 
 In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may 
 be the most prominent symptoms; in others they may be altogether 
 absent and the main symptoms be difficulty in mastication and swal- 
 lowing; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases where coma 
 remains absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover. 
 When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually 
 leave in the reverse order in which they developed, but local paralysis 
 may remain for some time, rarely persistent. 
 
 One attack does not give immunity, for it may recur at some later 
 time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to pass through three 
 attacks, being affected for a week or longer each time. 
 
 Treatment. In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom 
 successful, and it is dangerous to attempt the administration of medi- 
 cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swal- 
 low. If the condition of the animal will admit of a drench, give 4 to 
 6 ounces of whisky in 2 pints of milk; the inhalation of ammonia
 
 TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 219 
 
 vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute aqua ammonia may arouse 
 consciousness. 
 
 In the second class of cases a purge should always be given, and 
 the further treatment recqnimended is to give strychnia in 2-grain 
 doses twice or three times daily. If there is twitching of the shoulder 
 muscles or gnashing of the teeth, this should be discontinued. The 
 strength of the heart should be kept up with carbonate of ammonia 
 or whisky. When the animal is unable to swallow, one- fourth-grain 
 doses of sulphate of atropia may be injected under the skin every 
 four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a 
 heart stimulant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and 
 excitability. When the most prominent symptoms abate give such 
 food as they may be able to eat, and keep fresh, cool water constantly 
 before them, supporting them in slings if necessary; clean stabling 
 and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance. 
 
 Pathology. Post-mortem examination reveals, in some cases, more 
 or less congestion of the blood vessels at the base of the brain and 
 effusion in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space, both in the 
 cranial and the spinal cavities. The brain and cord appear softened 
 in some cases where the greatest evidence of inflammatory action 
 existed. In other cases the post-mortem examination is entirely 
 negative, no gross lesions being visible. 
 
 Hygienic measures needful. Whenever this disease appears in a 
 stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They 
 should be provided with clean, well-ventilated, and well-drained 
 stables, and each animal should receive a laxative and be fed food 
 and given water from a new, clean source. The abandoned stable 
 should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat 
 of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon of 
 water, and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are 
 replaced. A complete change of food is of the very greatest im- 
 portance, on account of the belief that the cause resides in diseased 
 grain, hay, and grass. 
 
 TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 
 
 This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of 
 the face, neck, body, and limbs, and of all the muscles supplied by 
 the cerebro-spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are 
 rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense con- 
 tractions of convulsive violence. 
 
 Causes. This disease is caused by a bacillus that is often found in 
 the soil, in manure and in dust. This germ grows only in the ab- 
 sence of oxygen. It produces a powerful nerve poison, which causes 
 the symptoms of tetanus. The germ itself multiplies at the point
 
 220 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 where it is introduced, but its poison is absorbed, and is carried by 
 the blood to all parts of the body, and thus the nervous system is 
 poisoned. Deep wounds infected by this germ are more dangerous 
 than superficial wounds, because in them, the germ is more remote 
 from the oxygen of the air. Hence, nail pricks, etc., are especially 
 dangerous. In the majority of instances the cause of tetanus can be 
 traced to wounds, especially pricks and wounds of the feet or of 
 tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the 
 introduction of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may 
 come on a long time after the wound is healed three or four months. 
 In some countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presump- 
 tion is that it is due to a specific germ. Horses with a nervous, ex- 
 citable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more slug- 
 gish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the 
 result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares. 
 
 Symptoms. The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute 
 attack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms 
 which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and 
 swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner 
 part of the eye of the membrana nictitans, or haw. An examination 
 of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full 
 extent, and the endeavor to do so will produce great nervous excita- 
 bility and increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw and neck. The 
 muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are 
 moved in a stiff manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws 
 the animal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail 
 is usually elevated and held immovable; the bowels become consti- 
 pated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much 
 changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggra- 
 vated until all the muscles are rigid in a state of tonic spasm with 
 a continuous tremor running through them; a cold perspiration 
 breaks out on the body; the breathing becomes painful from the 
 spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are completely 
 set, eyebal's retracted, lips drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils di- 
 lated, and the animal presents a picture of the most extreme agony 
 until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much 
 affected, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the 
 spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws 
 may never become entirely locked ; the nervous excitability and rigid- 
 ity of the muscles are not so great. There is, however, always some 
 stiffness of the neck or spine manifest in turning; the haw is turned 
 over the eyeball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for 
 owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after 
 the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may grad- 
 ually increase in severity for a period of ten days, and then gradually
 
 TETANUS, OE LOCKJAW. 221 
 
 diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage 
 wherein all the characteristics of acute tetanus become developed. In 
 some cases, however, we find the muscular cramps almost solely con- 
 fined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In 
 such cases we have complete trismus (lockjaw), and all the head 
 symptoms are acutely developed. On the contrary, we may find the 
 head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs per- 
 fectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling. 
 
 Tetanus may possibly be confounded with spinal meningitis, but 
 the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the 
 difficulty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx, 
 and above all. the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the 
 distinction. 
 
 Prevention. Where a valuable horse has sustained a wound that it 
 is feared may be followed by tetanus, it is well to administer a dose of 
 tetanus antitoxin. This is injected beneath the skin with a hypoder- 
 mic syringe. A very high degree of protection may in this way be 
 afforded. 
 
 Treatment. The animal should be placed in a box stall without 
 bedding, as far. away as possible from other horses. If in a country 
 district, the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where 
 the noise of other animals will not reach him ; if the place is moder- 
 ately dark it is all the better ; in fly time he should be covered with a 
 light sheet. The attendant must be very cayeful and quiet about him, 
 to prevent all unnecessary excitement and increase of spasm. Teta- 
 nus antitoxin appears to be useful as a remedy in some cases, if given 
 in very large quantities early in the disease; otherwise it is useless. 
 Subcutaneous injections of carbolic acid in glycerin and water (car- 
 bolic acid 30 grains, glycerin and water each 1 ounce) appear to be 
 useful in some cases. Injections should be given twice daily. 
 
 A cathartic, composed of Barbados aloes 6 to 8 drams, with which 
 may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be 
 given at once. This is best given in a ball form ; if, however, the ani- 
 mal is greatly excited by the attempt or can not swallow, the ball may 
 be dissolved in 2 ounces of olive oil and thrown on the back of the 
 tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, an attempt 
 to administer medicine by the mouth should not be made. In such 
 cases one-quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of 
 morphia, should be dissolved in 1 dram of pure water and injected 
 under the skin. This should be repeated sufficiently often to keep the 
 animal continually under its effect. This will usually mitigate the 
 severity of the spasmodic contraction of the affected muscles and 
 lessen sensibility to pain. Good results may be obtained sometimes 
 by the injection per rectum of the fluid extract of belladonna and of 
 cannabis indica, of each 1 dram, every four or six hours. This may
 
 222 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 be diluted with a quart of milk. When the animal is unable to swal- 
 low liquids, oatmeal gruel and milk should be given by injection per 
 rectum to sustain the strength of the animal. A pailful of cool water 
 should be constantly before him, placed high enough for him to reach 
 it without special effort ; even if he can not drink, the laving of the 
 mouth is refreshing. Excellent success frequently may be obtained 
 by clothing the upper part of the head, the neck, and greater part of 
 the body in woolen blankets kept saturated with very warm water. 
 This treatment should be continued for six or eight hours at a time. 
 It often relaxes the cramped muscles and gives them rest and the ani- 
 mal almost entire freedom from pain ; but it should be used every day 
 until the acute spasms have permanently subsided in order to be of 
 any lasting benefit. 
 
 Recently subcutaneous injections of brain emulsion have been rec- 
 ommended. It is thought that the tetanus toxin will attach itself to 
 the brain cells so injected and thus free the system of this poison. 
 When it is due to a wound, the wound should be thoroughly cleaned 
 and disinfected with carbolic acid. If from a wound which has 
 healed, an excision of the cicatrix may be beneficial. In all cases it 
 is not uncommon to have a partial recovery followed by relapse when 
 the animal becomes excited from any cause. 
 
 RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNESS. 
 
 This disease does not arise spontaneously among horses, but is the 
 (result of a bite from a rabid animal generally a dog or cat. The 
 1 development of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to 
 three months very rarely in two weeks. (See also page 548.) 
 
 Symptoms. The first manifestation of the development of this dis- 
 ease may be an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight 
 noises or the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike, 
 or bite at any object near him. Very often the horse will bite his own 
 limbs or sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes 
 appear staring, bloodshot; the ears are on the alert to catch all 
 sounds; the head is held erect. In some cases the animal will con- 
 tinually rub and bite the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid 
 animal. This symptom may precede all others. Generally the 
 bowels become constipated and he makes frequent attempts at urina- 
 tion, which is painful, and the urine very dark colored. The furious 
 symptoms appear in paroxysms; at other times the animal may eat 
 and drink, although swallowing appears to become painful toward 
 the latter stage of the disease, and may cause renewed paroxysms. 
 The muscles of the limbs or back may be subject to intermittent 
 spasms, or spasmodic tremors; finally, the hind limbs become para- 
 lyzed, breathing very difficult, and convulsions supervene, followed
 
 LEAD POISONING. 223 
 
 by death. The pulse and respirations are increased in frequency 
 from the outset of the attack. Rabies may possibly be mistaken for 
 tetanus. In the latter disease we find tonic spasms of the muscles of 
 the jaws, or stiffness of the neck or back very early in the attack, and 
 evidence of viciousness is absent. 
 
 Treatment. As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained 
 the animal should be killed. 
 
 Prevention. When a horse is known to have been bitten by a 
 rabid animal, immediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot 
 iron may possibly destroy the virus before absorption of it takes place. 
 
 PLUMBISM, OR LEAD POISONING. 
 
 This disease is not of frequent occurrence. It may be due to habit- 
 ually drinking water which has been standing in leaden conductors 
 or in old paint barrels, etc. It has been met with in enzootic form 
 near smelting works, where, by the fumes arising from such works, 
 lead in the form of oxide, carbonate, or sulphate was deposited on 
 the grass and herbage which the horses ate. 
 
 Symptoms. Lead poisoning produces derangement of the func- 
 tions of digestion and locomotion, or it may affect the lungs princi- 
 pally. In whatever system of organs the lead is deposited mostly 
 there will we have the symptoms of nervous debility most manifest. 
 If in the lungs, the breathing becomes difficult and the animal gets 
 out of breath very quickly when he is compelled to run. Roaring, 
 also, is very frequently a symptom of lead poisoning. When it 
 affects the stomach, the animal gradually falls away in flesh, the hair 
 becomes rough, the skin tight, and colicky symptoms develop. When 
 the deposit is principally in the muscles, partial or complete paralysis 
 gradually develops. When large quantities of lead have been taken 
 in and absorbed, symptoms resembling epilepsy may result, or coma 
 and delirium develop and prove fatal. In lead poisoning there is 
 seldom any increase in temperature. A blue line forms along the 
 gums of the front teeth, and the breath assumes a peculiarly offensive 
 odor. Lead can always be detected in the urine by chemical tests. 
 
 Treatment. The administration of 2-dram doses of iodide of 
 potassa three times a day. This will form iodide of lead in the sys- 
 tem, which is rapidly excreted by the kidneys. If much muscular 
 weakness or paralysis is present, sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses 
 and strichnia in 2-grain doses may be given twice a day. In all cases 
 of suspected lead poisoning all utensils which have entered into the 
 supply of feed or water should be examined for the presence of 
 soluble lead. If it occurs near lead works, great care must be given 
 to the supply of uncontaminated fodder, etc.
 
 224 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 UREMIA. 
 
 Uremic poisoning may affect the brain in nephritis, acute albumi- 
 nuria, or when, from any cause, the functions of the kidneys become 
 impaired or suppressed and urea (a natural product) is no longer 
 eliminated from these organs, causing it to accumulate in the system 
 and give rise to uremic poisoning. 
 
 Symptoms. Uremic poisoning is usually preceded by dropsy of 
 the limbs or abdomen ; a peculiar fetid breath is often noticed ; then 
 drowsiness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Sud- 
 denly extreme stupor or coma develops; the surface of the body 
 becomes cold; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse slow and 
 intermitting; the breathing labored, and death supervenes. The 
 temperature throughout the disease is seldom increased, unless the 
 disease becomes complicated with acute inflammatory disease of the 
 brain or respiratory organs, which often occur as a result of the urea 
 in the circulation. Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found 
 in the urine. The disease almost invariably proves fatal. 
 
 Treatment. This must be directed to a removal of the cause. 
 
 ELECTRIC SHOCK. 
 
 Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becom- 
 ing a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect 
 upon the animal system as a shock from lightning. Two degrees of 
 electric or lightning shock may be observed, one producing temporary 
 contraction of muscles and insensibility, from which recovery is pos- 
 sible, the other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous 
 and general insensibility. In shocks which are not immediately fatal 
 the animal is usually insensible, the respiration slow, labored, or gasp- 
 ing, the pulse slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and 
 not sensitive, or they may be contracted and sensitive. The tempera- 
 ture is lowered. There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms. 
 The predominating symptoms are extreme cardiac and respiratory 
 depression. 
 
 Treatment. Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically in 
 one-quarter grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats 
 are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased, 
 and consciousness returns. Stimulating injections per rectum may 
 also be useful in arousing the circulation; for this purpose whisky or 
 ammonia water may be used.
 
 DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, 
 AND LYMPHATICS. 
 
 By M. R. TRUMBOWEB, V. S. 
 
 [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 
 
 The heart is a hollow, muscular organ, situated a little to the left of 
 the center of the chest. Its impulse is felt on the left side on account 
 of its location and from the rotary movement of the organ in action. 
 It is cone-shaped, with the base upward ; the apex points downward, 
 backward, and to the left side. It extends from about the third to 
 the sixth ribs, inclusive. The average weight is about 7 to 8 pounds. 
 In horses used for speed the heart is relatively larger, according to 
 the weight of the animal, than in horses used for slow work. It is 
 suspended from the spine by the large blood vessels, and held in posi- 
 tion below by the attachment of the pericardium to the sternum. It 
 is inclosed in a sac, the pericardium, which is composed of a dense 
 fibrous membrane lined by a delicate serous membrane, which is 
 reflected over the heart; the inner layer is firmly adherent to the 
 heart, the outer to the fibrous sac, and there is an intervening space, 
 known as the pericardial space, in which a small amount of serum a 
 thin translucent liquid is present constantly. 
 
 The heart is divided by a shallow fissure into a right and left side ; 
 each of these is again subdivided by a transverse partition into two 
 compartments which communicate. Thus there are four cardiac 
 cavities the superior, or upper, ones called the auricles ; the inferior, 
 or lower, ones the ventricles. These divisions are marked on the out- 
 side by grooves, which contain the cardiac blood vessels, and are 
 generally filled with fat. 
 
 The right side of the heart may be called the venous side, the left 
 the arterial side, named from the kind of blood which passes through 
 them. The auricles are thin-walled cavities placed at the base, and 
 are connected with the great veins the venae cavse and pulmonary 
 veins through which they receive blood from all parts of the body. 
 The auricles communicate with the ventricles each by a large aper- 
 ture, the auricula-ventricular orifice, which is furnished with a 
 remarkable mechanism of valves, allowing the transmission of blood 
 from the auricles into the ventricles, but preventing a reverse course. 
 The ventricles are thick-walled cavities, forming the more massive 
 portion of the heart toward the apex. They are separated by a par- 
 tition, and are connected with the great arteries the pulmonary 
 artery and the aorta by which they send blood to all parts of the 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 15 225
 
 226 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 i 
 
 body. At the mouth of the aorta and at the mouth of the pulmonary 
 artery is an arrangement of valves in each case which prevents the 
 reflux of blood into the ventricles. The auriculo- ventricular valves 
 in the left side are composed of two flaps, hence it is called the 
 bicuspid valve; in the right side this valve has three flaps and is 
 called the tricuspid valve. The flaps which form these valves are 
 connected with a tendinous ring between the auricles and ventricles; 
 and each flap of the auriculo-ventricular valves is supplied with 
 tendinous cords, which are attached to the free margin and under- 
 surface, so as to keep the valves tense when closed a condition which 
 is produced by the shortening of muscular pillars with which the 
 cords are connected. The arterial openings, both on the right and 
 on the left side, are provided with three-flapped semilunar-shaped 
 valves, to prevent the regurgitation of blood when the ventricles 
 contract. The veins emptying into the auricles are not capable of 
 closure, but the posterior vena cava has an imperfect valve at its 
 aperture. 
 
 The inner surface of the heart is lined by a serous membrane, the 
 endocardium, which is smooth and firmly adherent to the muscular 
 structure of the heart. This membrane is continuous with the lining 
 membrane of the blood vessels, and it enters into the formation of 
 the valves. 
 
 The circulation through the heart is as follows: The venous blood 
 is carried into the right auricle by the anterior and posterior venae 
 cavae. It then passes through the right auriculo-ventricular opening 
 into the right ventricle, thence through the pulmonary artery to the 
 lungs. It returns by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then is 
 forced through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ven- 
 tricle, which propels it through the aorta and its branches into the 
 system, the veins returning it again to the heart. The circulation, 
 therefore, is double, the pulmonary, or lesser, being performed by the 
 right side, and the systemic, or greater, by the loft side. 
 
 As the blood is forced through the heart by forcible contractions of 
 its muscular walls, it has the action of a force pump, and gives the 
 impulse at each beat, which we call the pulse the dilatation of the 
 arteries throughout the system. The contraction of the auricles is 
 quickly followed by that of the ventricles, and then a slight pause 
 occurs; this takes place in regular rhythmical order during health. 
 
 The action of the heart is governed and maintained by the pneumo- 
 gastric nerve (tenth pair of cranial nerves) ; it is the inhibitory nerve 
 of the heart, and regulates, slows, and governs its action. When the 
 nerve is cut, the heart-beats increase rapidly, and in fact the organ 
 works without control. When the nerve is unduly irritated the hold- 
 back, or inhibitory force, is increased, and the heart slows up in the 
 same measure. The left cavities of the heart, the pulmonary veins,
 
 ANATOMY OF THE HEART. 227 
 
 and the aorta, or systemic artery, contain red or florid blood, fit to cir- 
 culate through the body. The right cavities of the heart, with the 
 vena3 cavse, or systemic veins, and pulmonary artery, contain dark 
 blood, which must be transmitted through the lungs for renovation. 
 
 The arteries, commencing in two great trunks, the aorta and the 
 pulmonary artery, undergo division, as in the branching of a tree. 
 Their branches mostly come off at acute angles, and are commonly of 
 uniform diameter in each case, but successively diminish after and in 
 consequence of division, and in this manner gradually merge into the 
 capillary system of blood vessels. As a general rule, the combined 
 area of the branches is greater than that of the vessels from which 
 they emanate, and hence the collective capacity of the arterial system 
 is greatest at the capillary vessels. The same rule applies to the 
 veins. The effect of the division of the arteries is to make the blood 
 move more slowly along their branches to the capillary vessels, and 
 the effect of the union of the branches of the veins is to accelerate the 
 speed of the blood as it returns from the capillary vessels to the 
 venous trunks. 
 
 In the smaller vessels a frequent running together, or anastomosis, 
 occurs. This admits of a free communication between the currents of 
 blood, and must tend to promote equability of distribution and of 
 pressure, and to obviate the effects of local interruption. The arteries 
 are highly elastic, being extensile and retractile both in length and 
 breadth. During life they are also contractile, being provided with 
 muscular tissue. When cut across they present, although empty, an 
 open orifice; the veins, on the other hand, collapse. 
 
 In most parts of the body the arteries are inclosed in a sheath 
 formed of connective tissue, but are connected so loosely that, when 
 the vessel is cut across, its ends readily retract some distance within 
 the sheath. Independently of this sheath, arteries are usually de- 
 scribed as being formed of three coats, named, from their relative 
 positions, external, middle, and internal. This applies to their struc- 
 ture so far as it is discernible by the naked eye. The internal, serous, 
 or tunica intima, is the thinnest, and is continuous with the lining 
 membrane of the heart. It is made up of two layers an inner, con- 
 sisting of a layer of epithelial scales, and an outer, transparent, 
 whitish, highly elastic, and perforated. The middle coat, tunica 
 media, is elastic, dense, and of a yellow color, consisting of nonstriated 
 muscular and elastic fibers, thickest in the largest arteries and be- 
 coming thinner in the smaller. In the smallest vessels it is almost 
 entirely muscular. The external coat, tunica adventitia, is com- 
 posed mainly of fine and closely woven bundles of white connective 
 tissue, which chiefly run diagonally or obliquely round the vessel. 
 In this coat the nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum, form a capillary 
 network, from which a few penetrate as far as the muscular coat.
 
 228 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The veins differ from arteries in possessing thinner walls, less 
 elastic and muscular tissue, and for the most part a stronger tunica 
 adventitia. They collapse when cut across or when they are empty. 
 The majority of veins are provided with. valves; these are folds of 
 the lining membrane, strengthened by fibrous tissue. They favor the 
 course of the blood and prevent its reflux. The nerves which supply 
 both the arteries and the veins come from the sympathetic system. 
 The smaller arteries terminate in the system of minute vessels known 
 as the capillaries, which are interposed between the termination of the 
 arteries and the commencement of the veins. Their average diameter 
 is about one three-thousandth of an inch. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 
 
 In considering diseases of the heart we meet with many difficulties, 
 depending much upon the position which this organ occupies in the 
 animal. The shoulders cover so much of the anterior portion of the 
 chest, and often in very heavy-muscled horses the chest walls are so 
 thick that a satisfactory examination of the heart is attended with 
 difficulty. Diseases of the heart are not uncommon among horses; 
 the heart and its membranes are frequently involved in diseases of 
 the respiratory organs, diseases of the kidneys, rheumatism, influenza, 
 etc. Some of the diseases of this organ are never suspected by the 
 ordinary observer during life, and are so difficult to diagnose with 
 any degree of certainty that we will have to confine ourselves to a 
 general outline, giving attention to such symptoms as may serve to 
 lead to a knowledge of their existence, with directions for treatment, 
 care, etc. 
 
 Nervous affections often produce prominent heart symptoms by 
 causing functional disturbance of that organ, which, if removed, will 
 leave the heart restored to perfect vigor and normal action. Organic 
 changes involving the heart or valves, however, usually grow worse 
 und eventually prove fatal. Therefore it is necessary that we arrive 
 at an appreciation of the true nature and causes, so that we may be 
 able to form a true estimate of the possibilities for recovery or en- 
 couragement for medical treatment 
 
 Disease of the heart may occur at any age, but it is witnessed most 
 frequently in young horses, which, when being trained for fast work, 
 are often subjected to excessive hardship and fatigue. Nervous or 
 timid animals also suffer from such diseases more frequently than 
 those of a sluggish disposition. Any cause which induces a violent 
 or sudden change in the circulation may result in injury to the heart. 
 Symptoms which may frequently denote disease of the heart are diffi- 
 cult breathing or short-windedness, dropsies of the limbs, habitual 
 coldness of the extremities, giddiness or fainting attacks, inability to 
 stand work, although the general appearance would indicate strength 
 and ability, etc.
 
 DISEASES OF THE HEART. 229 
 
 INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE HEART. 
 
 This will embrace myocarditis, endocarditis, and pericarditis. 
 
 MYOCABDITIS, OB INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCULAR STBUCTUBE OF THE HEABT. 
 
 The heart muscle sometimes becomes inflamed as a complication or 
 result of the existence of general or febrile and of infectious diseases. 
 Severe influenza or infectious pneumonia is not infrequently followed 
 by myocarditis. By extension of inflammation of the endocardium 
 or pericardium the muscle of the heart may become involved. Over- 
 exertion or especially hard work continued for a long time may cause 
 this muscle to become inflamed. 
 
 Symptoms. Inflammation of the heart muscle is shown by inabil- 
 ity to contract forcibly; this results in a rapid but weak, soft pulse 
 and irregular heart sounds. The pulse may be quite irregular as a 
 result of the irregular, tumultuous action of the heart. There is 
 great general weakness, shortness of breath, and rapid respiratory 
 movements. In some cases, where the muscle is very mu'ch softened 
 and weakened, or, perhaps when an abscess forms in the wall of the 
 heart, the course of the disease is very rapid and terminates suddenly 
 from paralysis or rupture of the heart. 
 
 Alterations. The heart muscle has a brownish or yellowish, boiled 
 appearance, and is so brittle that it tears easily. There may be a 
 spotted appearance of the muscle from the intense changes in struc- 
 ture in small areas; these small areas may be due to suppuration, in 
 which case they have the characteristics of small abscesses. This last 
 condition is seen in pyemia (blood poisoning). If the disease is of 
 long duration, the fibrous tissue in the wall of the heart may increase 
 to such an extent as to produce an unnatural hardness of the wall. 
 
 Treatment. In this disease the nutrition and strength of the heart 
 should be kept up as much as possible with good food, good care, 
 and heart tonics and stimulants. The horse should be tempted to eat 
 such foods as he will take; he should be kept in an airy box stall; his 
 legs should be well rubbed as often as necessary to keep them warm 
 and bandaged loosely with flannel bandages. Internally, the horse 
 may have strychnia in 2-grain doses twice daily, whisky in 4-ounce 
 doses every two to four hours, digitalis in the form of the tincture in 
 doses of 1 dram every three to six hours. Artificial Carlsbad salts in 
 heaping tablespoonful doses in the feed may be given three times daily 
 for a couple of weeks. Rest is of the greatest importance and should 
 be allowed for a few weeks after recovery seems to be complete. 
 
 ENDOCARDITIS, OB INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE HEAET, 
 USUALLY INVOLVING THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 
 
 Endocarditis frequently occurs as a complication of rheumatism, 
 some of the specific or zymotic fevers, specific poisoning, etc. This 
 is a more frequent disease among horses than is generally known,
 
 230 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 and of ton gives rise to symptoms which, at first, are obscure and 
 unnoticed. . 
 
 In influenzn we may find the heart becoming involved in the dis- 
 ease, in consequence of the morbid material conveyed through the 
 heart in the blood stream. In view of the fact that many affections, 
 in even remote portions of the body, may be traced directly to a 
 primary endocardial disease, we shall feel justified in inviting special 
 attention to this disease. 
 
 Endocarditis may be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute inflam- 
 mation we find a thickening and a roughened appearance of the endo- 
 cardium throughout the cavities of the heart. This condition may be 
 followed by a coagulation of fibrin upon the inflamed surface, which 
 adheres to it, and by attrition soon becomes worked up into shreddy- 
 like granular elevations; this may lead to a formation of fibrinous 
 clots in the heart and sudden death early in the disease, the second or 
 third day. 
 
 Subacute -endocarditis, which is the most common form, may not 
 become appreciable for several days after its commencement. It is 
 characterized by being confined to one or more anatomical divisions 
 of the heart, and all the successive morbid changes follow each other 
 in a comparatively slow process. Often we would not be led to sus- 
 pect heart affection were it not for the distress in breathing, which 
 it generally occasions when the animal is exercised, especially if the 
 valves are much involved. When coagula or vegetations form upon 
 the inflamed membrane, either in minute shreds or patches, or when 
 formation of fibrinous clots occurs in the cavity affected, some of these 
 materials may be carried from the cavity of the heart by the blood 
 current into remote organs, constituting emboli that are liable to sud- 
 denly plug vessels and thereby interrupt important functions. In 
 the great majority of either acute or subacute grades of endocarditis, 
 whatever the exciting cause, the most alarming symptoms disappear 
 in a week or ten days, often leaving, however, such changes in the 
 interior lining or valvular structures as to cause impairment in the 
 circulation for a much longer period of time. These changes usually 
 consist of thickening or induration of the inflamed structures. But 
 while the effects of the inflammation in the membrane lining the 
 walls of the ventricles may subside to such a degree as to cause little 
 or no inconvenience, or even wholly disappear, yet after the valvular 
 structures have been involved, causing them to be thicker, less flexible 
 than normal, they usually remain, obstructing the free passage of the 
 blood through the openings of the heart, thereby inducing secondary 
 changes, which take place slowly at first, but ultimately seriously im- 
 pair the animal's usefulness. What was but a slight obstruction to 
 the circulation during the first few -weeks after the subsidence of the 
 cardiac inflammatory attack becomes in process of time so much in-
 
 DISEASES OF THE HEART. 231 
 
 creased as to induce increased growth in the muscular structure of 
 the heart, constituting hypertrophy of the walls of the ventricles, 
 more particularly of the left, with corresponding fullness of the left 
 auricle and pulmonary veins, thereby producing fullness of the cap 
 illaries in the lungs, pressure upon the air cells, difficult or asth- 
 matic breathing greatly increased in attempts to work until in a 
 few months many of these cases become entirely disabled for work. 
 Sometimes, too, dropsical effusions in the limbs or into the cavities of 
 the body result from the irregular and deficient circulation. De- 
 rangement of the urinary secretion, with .passive congestion of the 
 kidneys, may also appear. 
 
 Endocardial inflammation is seldom fatal in its early stages, but 
 in many cases the recovery is incomplete, for a large proportion is 
 left with some permanent thickening of the valves, which constitutes 
 the beginning of valvular disease. 
 
 Symptoms. Endocarditis may be ushered in by a chill, with sud- 
 den and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly decreases in 
 strength or may become irregular, while the heart beats more or less 
 tumultuously. In the early stages soft-blowing sounds may be heard 
 by placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which correspond 
 in number and rhythm to the heart's action. Excessive pain, though 
 not so great as in acute pleuritis, is manifested when the animal is 
 compelled to trot; very often difficulty in breathing, or shortness of 
 breath, on the slightest exertion develops early in the attack. When 
 the valves are involved in the inflammatory process the visibL 
 mucous membranes become either very pale or very dark colored, 
 and fainting may occur when the head is suddenly elevated. When 
 the valves of the right side are affected we may find a regurgitant 
 pulsation in the jugular vein. Occasionally it happens that the heart 
 contracts more frequently than the pulse beats that is, there may be 
 twice as many contractions of the heart in a minute as there are pulse 
 waves in the arteries. The pulse is always very fast. In some cases 
 we find marked lameness of the left shoulder, and when the animal 
 is turned short to the left side he may groan with pain, and the heart's 
 action become violently excited, although pressure against the chest 
 wall will not produce pain unless roughly applied. The animal is 
 not disposed to eat or drink much; the surface of the body and legs 
 is cold rarely excessively hot and frequently the. body of the ani- 
 mal is in a subdued tremor. In nearly all cases there is partial sup- 
 pression of the urinary secretion. The symptoms may continue 
 with very little modification for three or four days, sometimes seven 
 days, without any marked changes. If large fibrinous clots form 
 in the heart the change will be sudden and quickly prove fatal unless 
 they become loosened and are carried away in the circulation; then 
 apoplexy may result from the plugging of arteries too small to give
 
 232 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 further transmission. If the animal manifests symptoms of im- 
 provement, the changes usually are slow and- steady until he feels 
 apparently as well as ever, eats well, and moves freely in his stall 
 or yard. When he is taken out, however, the seeming strength often 
 proves deceptive, as he may quickly weaken if urged into a fast gait, 
 the breathing becomes quickened with a double flank movement as 
 in heaves, and all the former symptoms reappear in a modified degree. 
 An examination at this stage may reveal valvular insufficiency, car- 
 diac hypertrophy, or pulmonary engorgement. 
 
 In fatal cases of endocariditis death often occurs about the fourth 
 day, from the formation of heart clot or too great embarrassment of 
 the circulation. Endocarditis may be suspected in all cases where 
 plain symptoms of cardiac affection are manifested in animals af- 
 fected with influenza, rheumatism, or any disease in which the blood 
 may convey septic matter. 
 
 Acute endocardial inflammation may be distinguished from pleu- 
 ritis by the absence of any friction murmur, absence of pain when the 
 chest wall is percussed, and the absence of effusion in the cavity of 
 the chest. It may be distinguished from pericarditis by the absence 
 of the friction sounds and want of an enlarged area of dullness on 
 percussion. 
 
 Treatment. The objects to be attained by treatment will be to 
 remove or mitigate as much as possible the cause inducing the disease; 
 to find a medicine which will lessen the irritability of the heart with- 
 out weakening it; and, last, to maintain a free urinary secretion and 
 prevent exudation and hypertrophy. So long as there is an increase 
 of temperature, with some degree of scantiness of the urine, it may be 
 safe to believe that there is some degree of inflammatory action exist- 
 ing in the cardiac structures, and as long as any evidence of inflam- 
 matory action remains, however moderate in degree, there is a ten- 
 dency to increase or hypertrophy of the connective tissue of the heart 
 or valves, thereby rendering it almost certain that the structural 
 changes will become permanent unless counteracted by persistent 
 treatment and complete rest. 
 
 The tincture of digitalis, in 20-drop doses, repeated every hour, is 
 perhaps the most reliable agent we know to control the irritability of 
 the heart, and this also has a decided influence upon the urinary 
 secretion. After the desired impression upon the heart is obtained 
 the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case may 
 demand. Tincture of strophanthus, in 2-dram doses, will quiet the 
 tumultuous action of the heart in some cases where the digitalis fails. 
 Bleeding, blistering, and stimulating applications to the chest should 
 be avoided. They serve to irritate the animal and can do no possible 
 good. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be given in the 
 drinking water every four hours for the first five or six days, and then
 
 DISEASES OF THE HEART. 233 
 
 be superseded by the nitrate of potassa, in half-ounce doses, for the 
 following week, or until the urinary secretion becomes abnormally 
 profuse. Where the disease is associated with rheumatism, 2-dram 
 doses of salicylate of soda may be substituted for the chlorate of 
 potassa. To guard against chronic induration of the valves, the 
 iodide of potassa, in 1 to 2 dram doses, should be given early in the 
 disease, and may be repeated two or three times a day for several 
 weeks. When chronic effects remain after the acute stage has passed 
 this drug becomes indispensable. 
 
 When dropsy of the limbs develops, it is due to weakened circula- 
 tion or functional impairment of the kidneys. When there is much 
 weakness in the action of the heart, or general debility is marked, the 
 iodide of iron, in 1-dram doses, combined with hydrastis, 3 drams, 
 may be given three times a day. Arsenic, in 5-grain doses twice a 
 day, will give excellent results in some cases of weak heart associated 
 with difficult breathing. In all cases absolute rest and warm stabling, 
 with comfortable clothing, become necessary, and freedom from 
 work should be allowed for a long time after all symptoms have dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 PERICARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OP THE SAC INCLOSING THE HEART. 
 
 Causes. Pericarditis may be induced by cold and damp stabling, 
 exposure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. Gen- 
 erally, however, it is associated with an attack of influenza, rheuma- 
 tism, pleuritis, etc. 
 
 Symptoms. Usually the disease manifests itself abruptly by a 
 brief stage of chills coincident with pain in moving, a short painful 
 cough, rapid and short breathing, and high temperature, with a 
 rapid and hard pulse. In the early stages of the disease the pulse is 
 regular in beat; later, when there is much exudation present in the 
 pericardial sac, the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be of a double 
 or rebounding character. By placing the ear against the left side 
 of the chest behind the elbow a rasping sound may be heard, cor- 
 responding to the frequency of the heart-beat. This is known as a 
 friction sound. Between the second and fourth days this sound may 
 disappear, due to a distension of the pericardium by an exudate or 
 serous effusion. As soon as this effusion partly fills the pericardium, 
 percussion will reveal an abnormally increased area of dullness over 
 the region of the heart, the heart-beats become less perceptible than in 
 health, and in some cases a splashing or flapping sound may become 
 audible. 
 
 If the effusion becomes absorbed, the friction sound usually recurs 
 for a short time; this friction may often be felt by applying the 
 hand to the side of the chest. In a few cases clonic spasms of the 
 muscles of the neck may be present. In acute pericarditis, when the 
 effusion is rapid and excessive, the animal may die in a few days or
 
 234 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 recovery may begin equally as early. In subacute or in chronic cases 
 the effusion may slowly become augmented until the pressure upon 
 the lungs and interference with the circulation becomes so great that 
 death will result. Whether the attack is acute, subacute, or chronic, 
 the characteristic symptoms which will guide us to a correct diagnosis 
 are the friction sound, which is always synchronous with the heart's 
 action, the high temperature with hard, irritable pulse, and, in cases 
 of pericardial effusion, the increased area of dullness over the cardiac 
 region. When the disease is associated with influenza or rheumatism, 
 some of the symptoms may be obscure, but a careful examination 
 will reveal sufficient evidence upon which to base a diagnosis. When 
 pericarditis develops as a result of or in connection with pleuritis, the 
 distinction may not be very tlearly definable, neither will many 
 recover. When it results from a wound or broken rib, it almost in- 
 variably proves fatal. 
 
 Pathology. Pericarditis may at all times be regarded as a very 
 serious affection. At first we will find an intense injection or accu- 
 mulation of blood in the vessels of the pericardium, giving it a red 
 and swollen appearance, during which we have the friction sound. 
 In twenty-four to forty -eight hours this engorgement is followed by 
 an exudation of sero-fibrinous fluid, the fibrinous portion of which 
 may soon form a coating over the internal surface of the pericardial 
 sac, and may ultimately form a union of the opposing surfaces. 
 Generally this adhesion will only be found to occupy a portion of the 
 surfaces. As the serous or watery portion of this effusion is ab- 
 sorbed, the distinctness of the friction sound recurs, and may remain 
 perceptible in a varied degree for a long time. When the serous 
 effusion is very great, the pressure exerted upon the heart weakens its 
 action, and may produce death soon ; when it is not so great, it may 
 cause dropsies pf other portions of the body. When the adhesions 
 of the pericardial sac to the body of the heart are extensive, they gen- 
 erally lead to increased growth, or hypertrophy, of the heart, with or 
 without dilatation of its cavities ; when they are but slight, they may 
 not cause any inconvenience. 
 
 Treatment. In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of digi- 
 talis may be given in 20 to 30 drop doses every hour until the pulse 
 and temperature become reduced. Whisky or carbonate of ammonia 
 may be given regularly as stimulants. Bandages should be applied 
 to the legs; if the legs are very cold, tincture of capsicum should be 
 first applied ; the body should be warmly clothed in blankets, to pro- 
 mote perspiration. When the suffering from pain is very severe, 10 
 grains of morphine may be given by the mouth once or twice a day ; 
 nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in drinking water, every six hours; 
 after the third day, iodide of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be sub- 
 stituted. Cold packs to the chest in the early stages of the disease
 
 DISEASES OF THE HEART. 235 
 
 may give marked relief, or, late in the disease, smart blisters may be 
 applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes 
 chronic, iodide of iron and gentian to support the strength will be 
 indicated, but the iodide of potassa, in 1 or 2 dram doses, two or three 
 times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of 
 effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac. 
 Where the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, 
 tapping by an expert veterinarian may save the animal. 
 
 VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE HEART. 
 
 Acute valvular disease can not be distinguished from endocarditis, 
 and chronic valvular affections are generally the result of endocar- 
 dial inflammation. The valves of the left side are the most subject 
 the bicuspid or mitral and the aortic or semilunar. The derange- 
 ment may consist of mere inflammation and swelling, or the edges of 
 the valves may become covered by the organization of the exudation, 
 thus narrowing the passage. Valvular obstruction and adhesions 
 may occur or the tendinous cords may be lengthened or shortened, 
 thus obstructing the orifices and permitting the regurgitation of 
 blood. In protected cases the fibrous tissue of the valves may be 
 transformed into fibre-cartilage or bone, or there may be deposits of 
 salts of lime beneath the serous membrane, which may terminate in 
 ulceration, rupture, or fissures. Sometimes the valves become cov- 
 ered by fibrinous, fleshy, or hard vegetations, or excrescences. In 
 cases of considerable dilatation of the heart there may be atrophy and 
 shrinking of the valves. 
 
 Symptoms. Valvular disease may be indicated by a venous pulse, 
 jerking pulse, intermittent pulse, irregular pulse; palpitation; con- 
 stant abnormal fullness of the jugular veins; difficulty of breathing 
 when the animal becomes excited or is urged out of a walk or into a 
 fast trot ; attacks of vertigo ; congestion of the brain ; dropsical swell- 
 ing of the limbs. A blowing, cooing, or bubbling murmur may some- 
 times be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side of the 
 chest. 
 
 Hypertrophy, or dilatation, or both, usually follow valvular disease. 
 
 Treatment. When the pulse is irregular or irritable, tonics, such 
 as preparations of iron, gentian, and ginger, may be given. When 
 the action of the heart is jerking or violent, 20 to 30 drop doses of 
 tincture of digitalis or of veratrum viride may be given until these 
 symptoms abate. As the disease nearly always is the result of endo- 
 carditis, the iodide of potassa and general tonics, sometimes stimu- 
 lants, when general debility supervenes, may be of temporary benefit. 
 Very few animals recover or remain useful for any length of time 
 after once marked organic changes have taken place in the valvular 
 structure of the heart.
 
 236 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ADVENTITIOUS GROWTHS IN THE HEART. 
 
 Fibrous, cartilaginous, and bony formations have been observed in 
 some rare instances in the muscular tissue. Isolated calcareous masses 
 have sometimes been embedded in the cardiac walls. Fibrinous 
 coagula and polypous concretions may be found in the cavities of the 
 heart. The former consist of coagulated fibrin, separated from the 
 mass of blood, of a whitish or yellowish white color, translucent, of a 
 jellylike consistence, and having a nucleus in the center. They may 
 slightly adhere to the surface of the cavity, from which they can 
 easily be separated without altering the structure of the endocardium. 
 They probably result from an excess of coagulability of fibrin, which 
 is produced by an organization of the lymph during exudation. They 
 are usually found in the right auricle and ventricle. 
 
 Polypous concretions are firmer than in the preceding, more opaque, 
 of a fibrous texture, and may be composed of successive layers. In 
 some instances they are exceedingly minute, while in others they 
 almost fill one or more of the cavities. Their color is usually white, 
 but occasionally red from the presence of blood. They firmly adhere 
 to the endocardium, and when detached from it give it a torn appear- 
 ance. Occasionally, a vascular communication seems to exist between 
 them and the substance of the heart. They may be the result of 
 fibrinous exudation from inflammation of the inner surface of the 
 heart or the coagulation of a portion of the blood which afterwards 
 contracts adhesion with the heart. These concretions prove a source 
 of great inconvenience and often danger, no matter how formed. 
 They cause a diminution in the cavity in which they are found, thus 
 narrowing the orifice through which the blood passes, or preventing a 
 proper coaptation of the valves, which may produce most serious 
 valvular disease. 
 
 Symptoms. These are frequently uncertain; they may, however, 
 be suspected when the action of the heart suddenly becomes embar- 
 rassed with irregular and confused pulsations, great difficulty of 
 breathing, and the usual signs dependent upon (he imperfect arterial- 
 ization of the blood. 
 
 Treatment. Stimulants, whisky, or carbonate of ammonia may be 
 of service. 
 
 PALPITATION OF THE IIKART. 
 
 This is a tumultuous and usually irregular beating of the heart. It 
 may be due to a variety of causes, both functional and organic. It 
 may occur as a result of indigestion, fright, increased nervousness, 
 sudden excitement, excessive speeding, etc. (See " Thumps," pp. 
 141, 205.) 
 
 Symptoms. The heart may act with such violence that each beat 
 may jar the whole body of the animal; very commonly it may be
 
 DISEASES OF THE HEART. 237 
 
 heard at a short distance away from the animal. It can usually be 
 traced very readily to the exciting cause, which we may be able to 
 avoid or overcome in the future and thereby obviate subsequent 
 attacks. Rest, a mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of digi- 
 talis or opium will generally give prompt relief. When it is due to 
 organic impairment of the heart it must be regarded as a symptom, 
 not as a matter of primary specific treatment. 
 
 SYNCOPE, OR FAINTING. 
 
 Actual fainting rarely occurs among horses. It may, however, be 
 induced by a rapid and great loss of blood, pain of great intensity, a 
 mechanical interference with the circulation of the brain, etc. 
 
 Symptoms. Syncope is characterized by a decrease or temporary 
 suspension of the action of the heart and respiration, with partial or 
 total loss of consciousness. It generally occurs suddenly, though 
 there may be premonitory symptoms, as giddiness, or vertigo, dilated 
 pupil, staggering, blanching of the visible mucous membranes, a rap- 
 idly sinking pulse, and dropping to the ground. The pulse is feeble 
 or ceases to beat; the surface of the body turns cold; breathing is 
 scarcely to be perceived, and the animal may be entirely unconscious. 
 This state is uncertain in duration generally it lasts only a few 
 minutes; the circulation becomes restored, breathing becomes more 
 distinct, and consciousness and muscular strength return. In cases 
 attended with much hemorrhage or organic disease of the heart, the 
 fainting fit may be fatal; otherwise it will prove but a transient 
 occurrence. In paralysis of the heart the symptoms may be exactly 
 similar to syncope. Syncope may be distinguished from apoplexy by 
 the absence of stertorous breathing and lividity of the visible mucous 
 membranes. 
 
 Treatment. Dash cold water on the head; administer a stimu- 
 lant 4 ounces of whisky or half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia. 
 Prevent the animal from getting up too soon, or the attack may 
 immediately recur. Afterwards, if the attack was due to weakness 
 from loss of blood, impoverished blood, or associated with debility, 
 general tonics, rest, and nourishing food are indicated. 
 
 HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART, OR CARDIAC ENLARGEMENT. 
 
 Hypertrophy of the heart implies augmentation of bulk in its 
 muscular substance, with or without dilatation or contraction of its 
 cavities. It may exist with or without other cardiac affections. In 
 valvular disease or valvular insufficiency hypertrophy frequently re- 
 sults as a consequence of increased demand for propelling power. 
 The difficulties with which it is most frequently connected are dilata- 
 tion and ossification of the valves. It may also occur in connection 
 with atrophied kidneys, weak heart, etc. It may be caused by an 
 increased determination of blood to the organ or from a latent form
 
 238 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of myocarditis, and it may arise from a long-continued increase of 
 action dependent upon nervous disease. All the cavities of the heart 
 may have their walls hypertrophied or the thickening may involve 
 one or more. While the wall of a ventricle is thickened, its cavity 
 may retain its normal size (simple hypertrophy) or be dilated (eccen- 
 tric hypertrophy), or it may be contracted (concentric hypertrophy). 
 Hypertrophy of both ventricles increases the length and breadth of 
 the heart. Hypertrophy of the left ventricle alone increases its 
 length; of the right ventricle alone increases its breadth toward the 
 right side. Hypertrophy with dilatation may affect the chambers 
 of the heart conjointly or separately. This form is by far the most 
 frequent variety of cardiac enlargement. When the entire heart is 
 affected, it assumes a globular appearance, the apex being almost 
 obliterated and situated transversely in the chest. The bulk may 
 become three or four times greater than the average heart. 
 
 Symptoms. In hypertrophy of the heart, in addition to the usual 
 symptoms manifested in organic diseases of the heart, there is a pow- 
 erful and heaving impulse at each beat, which may be felt on the left 
 side, often also on the right. These pulsations are regular, and when 
 full and strong at the jaw there is a tendency to active congestion of 
 the capillary vessels, which frequently gives rise to local inflamma- 
 tion, active hemorrhage, etc. If the pulse is small and feeble at the 
 jaw, we may conclude that there is some obstacle to the escape of the 
 blood from the left ventricle into the aorta, which has given rise to 
 the hypertrophy. In case of hypertrophy with dilatation, the im- 
 pulse is not only powerful and heaving, but it is diffused over the 
 whole region of the heart, and the normal sounds of the heart are 
 greatly increased in intensity. Percussion reveals an enlarged area 
 of dullness, while the impulse is usually much stronger than normal. 
 
 Dropsy of the pericardium will give the same wide space of dull- 
 ness, but the impulse and sound are lessened. An animal with a 
 moderate degree of enlargement may possibly live a number of years 
 and be capable of ordinary work; it depends largely upon con- 
 comitant disease. As a rule, an animal affected with hypertrophy 
 of the heart will soon be incapacitated for work, and it becomes 
 useless and incurable. 
 
 Treatment. If the cause can be discovered and is removable, it 
 should be done. The iodide of potassa, in cases of valvular thicken- 
 ing, may be of some benefit if continued for a sufficient length of 
 time; it may be given in 2-dram doses, twice a day, for a month or 
 more. The tincture of digitalis may l>e given, in cases where the 
 pulse is weak, in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls three times daily. This 
 remedy should not be continued if the pulse l>ecomes irregular. 
 General tonics, freedom from excitement or fatigue, avoidance of 
 bulky food, good ventilation, etc., are indicated. '
 
 DISEASES OF THE HEART. 239 
 
 DILATATION OF THE HEART. 
 
 This is an enlargement, or stretching, of the cavities of the heart, 
 and may be confined to one or extend to all. Two forms of dilata- 
 tion may be mentioned simple dilatation, where there is normal 
 thickness of the walls, and passive, or attenuated, dilatation, where 
 the walls are simply distended or stretched out without any addition 
 of substance. 
 
 Causes. Any cause producing constant and excessive exertion of 
 the heart may lead to dilatation. Valvular disease is the most fre- 
 quent cause. General anemia predisposes to it by producing relaxa- 
 tion of muscular fiber. Changes in the muscular tissue of the heart 
 walls, serous infiltration from pericarditis, myocarditis, fatty degen- 
 eration and infiltration, and atrophy of the muscular fibers may all 
 lead to dilatation. 
 
 Symptoms. The movements of the heart are feeble and prolonged, 
 a disposition to staggering or vertigo, dropsy of the limbs, very pale 
 or very dark-colored membranes, and difficult breathing on the slight- 
 est excitement. 
 
 Treatment. General tonics, rich food, and rest. 
 
 FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. 
 
 Fatty degeneration may involve the whole organ, or may be limited 
 to its walls, or even to circumscribed patches. The latter is situated 
 at the exterior, and gives it a mottled appearance. When generally 
 involved it is flabby or flaccid, and in extreme cases collapses when 
 emptied or cut. Upon dissection the interior of the ventricles is 
 observed to be covered with buff-colored spots of a singular zigzag 
 form. This appearance may be noticed beneath the pericardium, and 
 pervading the whole thickness of the ventricular walls, and in ex- 
 treme cases those of the fleshy columns in the interior of the heart. 
 These spots are found to be degenerated muscular fibers and colonies 
 of oil globules. Fatty degeneration is often associated with other 
 morbid conditions of the heart, such as obesity, dilatation, rupture, 
 aneurism, etc. It may be connected with fatty diseases of other 
 organs, such as the liver, kidneys, etc. When it exists alone its pres- 
 ence is seldom suspected previous to death. It may be secondary to 
 hypertrophy of the heart, to myocarditis, or to pericarditis. It may 
 be due to deteriorated conditions of the blood in wasting diseases, 
 excessive hemorrhages, etc., or to poisoning with arsenic and 
 phosphorus. 
 
 Symptoms. The most prominent symptoms of fatty degeneration 
 are a feeble action of the heart, a remarkably slow pulse, general 
 debility, and attacks of vertigo. It may exist for a long time, but is 
 apt to terminate suddenly in death upon the occurrence of other dis- 
 eases, surgical operations, etc. It may involve a liability '-3 sudden 
 death from rupture of the ventricular walls.
 
 240 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Treatment. Confinement in feed to oats, wheat or rye bran, and 
 timothy hay. Twenty drops of sulphuric acid may be given in drink- 
 ing water three times a day, and hypophosphite of iron in 2-dram 
 doses, mixed with the feed, twice a day. Other tonics and stimulants 
 as they may be indicated. 
 
 RUPTURE OF THE HEART. 
 
 This may occur as the result of some previous disease, such as 
 fatty degeneration, dilatation with weakness of the muscular walls, 
 etc. It may be caused by external violence, a crushing fall, pres- 
 sure of some great weight, etc. Usually death follows a rupture 
 very quickly, though an animal may live for some time when the 
 rent is not very large. 
 
 WEAKNESS OF THE HEART. 
 
 This may arise from general debility, the result of exhausting dis- 
 ease, overwork, or heart strain, or loss of blood. It is indicated by 
 a small, feeble, but generally regular pulse, coldness of the body, etc. 
 
 Treatment. This should be directed to support and increase the 
 strength of the animal by tonics, rest, and nutritious food. Car- 
 bonate of ammonia may be given to stimulate the heart's action and 
 to prevent the formation of heart clot. 
 
 CONGESTION OF THE HEART. 
 
 Congestion, or an accumulation of the blood in the cavities of the 
 heart, may occur in consequence of fibrinous deposits interfering with 
 the free movements of the valves, usually the product of endocar- 
 ditis or as ji result of excessive muscular exertion. 
 
 Symptoms. Great difficulty of breathing, paleness of the visible 
 mucous membranes, great anxiety, frequently accompanied by a gen- 
 eral tremor and cold perspiration, followed by death. It usually 
 results in death very quickly. 
 
 CYANOSIS OF NEWBORN FOALS. 
 
 This is a condition sometimes found in foals immediately after 
 birth, and is due to nonclosure of the foramen ovale, which allows a 
 mixture of the venous with the arterial blood in the left cavities of the 
 heart. It is characterized by a dark purple or bluish color of the 
 visible mucous membranes, shortness of breath, and general feeble- 
 ness. Foals thus affected generally live only a few hours after birth. 
 
 DISEASES OF ARTERIES, OR ARTERITIS AND ENDARTKRITIS. 
 
 Inflammation of arteries is rarely observed in the horse as a pri- 
 mary affection. Direct injuries, such as blows, may produce a con- 
 tusion and subsequent inflammation of the wall of an artery ; severe 
 muscular strain may involve an arterial trunk; hypertrophy of the 
 heart, by >icreasing arterial tension, may result in the production of 
 a general endarteritis. Septic infection may affect the inner coat
 
 DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 241 
 
 and ultimately involve all three, or it may be the result of an inflam- 
 mation in the vicinity of the vessels, etc. Inflammation of arteries, 
 whatever the cause may be, often leads to very serious results in the 
 development of secondary changes in their walls. Arteritis may be 
 acute, subacute, or chronic ; when the inner coat alone is affected it is 
 known as endarteritis. 
 
 Symptoms. Arteritis is characterized by a painful swelling along 
 the inflamed vessel, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts supplied by 
 the inflamed vessel, sometimes the formation of gangrenous sloughs, 
 suppuration, abscess, etc. In an inflammation of the iliac arteries we 
 find coldness and excessive lameness or paralysis of one or both hind 
 limbs. 
 
 Pathology. In acute arteritis we find swelling along the vessel, 
 loss of elasticity, friability, and thickening of the walls ; a roughness 
 and loss of gloss of the inner coat, with the formation of coagula or 
 pus in the vessel. Subacute or chronic arteritis may affect only the 
 outer coat (periarteritis) , both the outer and middle coat, or the 
 inner coat alone (endarteritis} ; and by weakening the respective 
 coats leads to rupture, aneurism, or to degenerations, such as bony, 
 calcareous, fatty, atheromatous, etc. It may also lead to sclerosis or 
 increase of fibrous tissue, especially in the kidneys, when it may result 
 in the condition known as arterio-capillary fibrosis. Chronic endar- 
 teritis is fruitful in the production of thrombus and atheroma. 
 Arteritis may be limited to single trunks, or it may affect, more or 
 less, all the arteries of the body. Arteries which are at the seat of 
 chronic endarteritis are liable to suffer degenerative changes, consist- 
 ing chiefly of fatty degeneration, calcification, or the breaking down 
 of the degenerated tissue, and the formation of erosions or ulcerlike 
 openings in the inner coat. These erosions are frequently called 
 atheromatous ulcers, and fragments of tissue from these ulcers may 
 be carried into the circulation, forming emboli. Fibrinous thrombi 
 are apt to form upon the roughened surface of the inner coat or upon 
 the surface of the erosions. 
 
 Fatty degeneration and calcification of the middle and outer coats 
 may occur, and large, hard, calcareous plates project inward, upon 
 which thrombi may form or may exist in connection with atheroma 
 of the inner coat. When there is much thickening and increase of 
 new tissue in the wall of the affected artery, it may encroach upon the 
 capacity of the vessel, and even lead to obliteration. This is often 
 associated with interstitial inflammation of glandular organs. 
 
 Treatment. Carbonate of potassa in 1-dram doses, to be given in 
 4 ounces liquor acetate of ammonia every six hours; scalded bran 
 sufficient to produce loosening of the bowels, and complete rest; 
 externally, applications of hot water or hot hop infusion. 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 16
 
 242 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 ATHEROMA. 
 
 Atheroma is a direct result of an existing chronic endarteritis, the 
 lining membrane of the vessels being invariably involved to a greater 
 or less degree. It is most frequently found in the arteries, although 
 the veins may develop an atheromatous condition when exposed to any 
 source of prolonged irritation. Atheroma may affect arteries in any 
 part of the body; in some instances almost every vessel is diseased, 
 in others only a few, or even parts of one vessel. It is a very common 
 result of endocarditis extending into the aorta, which we find perhaps 
 the most frequent seat of atheroma. As a result of this condition the 
 affected vessel becomes impaired in its contractile power, loses its 
 natural strength, and, in consequence of its inability to sustain its 
 accustomed internal pressure, undergoes in many cases dilatation at 
 the seat of disease, constituting aneurism. In an atheromatous vessel, 
 calcareous deposits soon occur, which render it rigid, brittle, and sub- 
 ject to ulceration or rupture. In such vessels the contractility is de- 
 stroyed, the middle coat atrophied and beyond repair. Atheroma in 
 the vessels of the brain is a frequent cause of cerebral apoplexy. No 
 symptoms are manifested by which we can recognize this condition 
 during life. 
 
 CONSTRICTION OF AN ARTERY. 
 
 This is usually the result of arteritis, and may partly or wholly be 
 impervious to the flow of blood. When this occurs in a large vessel 
 it may be followed by gangrene of the parts; usually, however, col- 
 lateral circulation will be established to nourish the parts previously 
 supplied by the obliterated vessel. In a few instances constriction of 
 the aorta has produced death. 
 
 ANEURISM. 
 
 Aneurism is usually described as true or false. True aneurism is a 
 dilatation of the coats of an artery over a larger or smaller part of its 
 course. Such dilatations are usually due to chronic endarteritis and 
 atheroma. False aneurism is formed after a puncture of an artery by 
 a dilatation of the adhesive lymph by which the puncture was united. 
 
 Symptoms. If the aneurism is seated along the neck or a limb it 
 appears as a tumor in the course of an artery and pulsating with it. 
 The tumor is round, soft, and compressible, and yields a peculiar 
 fluctuation upon pressure. By applying the ear over it a peculiar 
 purring or hissing sound may sometimes be heard. Pulsation, syn- 
 chronous with the action of the heart, is the diagnostic symptom. It 
 is of a slow, expansive, and heavy character, as if the whole tumor 
 were enlarging under the hand. Aneurisms seated internally may 
 occupy the cavity of the cranium, chest, or abdomen. As regards the
 
 DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 243 
 
 first, little is known during life, for all the symptoms which they pro- 
 duce may arise from other causes. Aneurism of the anterior aorta 
 may be situated very closely to the heart or in the arch, and it is very 
 seldom that we can distinguish it from disease of the heart. The 
 tumor may encroach upon the windpipe and produce difficulty in 
 breathing, or it may produce pressure upon the venae cavse or the 
 thoracic duct, obstructing the flow of blood and lymph. In fact, 
 whatever parts the aneurism may reach or subject to its pressure, may 
 have their functions suspended or disturbed. When the tumor in the 
 chest is large, we generally find much irregularity in the action of the 
 heart; the superficial veins of the neck are distended, and there is 
 usually dropsical swelling under the breast and of the limbs. There 
 may be a very troublesome cough without any evidence of lung affec- 
 tion. Sometimes pulsation of the tumor may be felt at. the lower 
 part of the neck where it joins the chest. When the aneurism occurs 
 in the posterior aorta no diagnostic symptoms are appreciable ; when 
 it occurs in the internal iliac arteries an examination per rectum will 
 reveal it. 
 
 There is one form of aneurism which is not unfrequently over- 
 looked, affecting the anterior mesenteric artery, primarily induced by 
 a worm Strongylus vulgaris. This worm produces an arteritis, with 
 atheroma, degeneration, and dilatation of the mesenteric arteries, asso- 
 ciated with thrombus and aneurism. The aneurism gives rise to colic, 
 which appears periodically in a very violent and often persistent 
 type. Ordinary colic remedies have no effect, and after a time the 
 animal succumbs to the disease. In all cases of animals which are 
 habitually subject to colicky attacks, parasitic aneurism of the an- 
 terior mesenteric artery may be suspected. 
 
 Pathology. Aneurisms may be diffuse or sacculated. The diffuse 
 consists in a uniform dilatation of all the coats of an artery, so that it 
 assumes the shape of a cylindrical swelling. The wall of the aneu- 
 rism is atheromatous, or calcified ; the middle coat may be atrophied. 
 The sacculated, or circumscribed, aneurism consists either in a dila- 
 tation of the entire circumference of an artery over a short portion of 
 its length, or in a dilatation of only a small portion of one side of the 
 wall. Aneurism may become very large; as it increases in size it 
 presses upon and causes the destruction of neighboring tissues. The 
 cavity of the aneurismal sac is filled with fluid or clotted blood or 
 with layers of fibrin which adhere closely to its wall. Death is pro- 
 duced usually by the pressure and interference of the aneurism with 
 adjoining organs or by rupture. In worm aneurism we usually find 
 large thrombi within the aneurisihal dilatation of the artery, which 
 sometimes plug the whole vessel or extend into the aorta. Portions of 
 this thrombus, or clot, may be washed away and produce embolism of 
 a smaller artery. The effect in either case is to produce anemia of the
 
 244 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 intestinal canal, serous or bloody exudation in its walls, which leads 
 to paralysis of the intestine and resultant colicky symptoms. 
 
 Treatment. The only treatment advisable is to extirpate or ligate 
 the tumor above and below. 
 
 RUPTURE OF AN ARTERY. 
 
 Endarteritis, with its subsequent change? in the walls of arteries, is 
 the primary cause of rupture in the majority of instances. The rup- 
 ture may be partial, involving only one or two coats, and will then 
 form an aneurism. If complete, it may produce death when it in- 
 volves a large vessel, especially if it is situated in one of the large 
 cavities permitting an excessive escape of blood. Rupture may be 
 produced by mechanical violence or accident. 
 
 Symptoms. In fatal rupture associated with profuse bleeding, the 
 animal becomes weak, the visible mucous membranes become blanched, 
 the breathing hurried or gasping, pupils dilated, staggering in gait, 
 syncope, death. When the hemorrhage is limited, the symptoms may 
 not become noticeable ; if it is near the surface of the body a round or 
 diffuse swelling or tumor may form, constituting a hygroma. If the 
 rupture is associated with an external wound the bleeding artery 
 should l>e ligated, or where a bandage is applicable, pressure may be 
 applied by tight bandaging. As a secondary result of rupture of an 
 artery we may have formation of abscess, gangrene of a part, etc. 
 
 Treatment. When rupture of a deep-seated artery is suspected, 
 large doses of fluid extract of ergot may be given to produce contrac- 
 tion of the blood vessels. Tannin and iron are also useful. The 
 animal should be allowed to have as much water as he desires. After- 
 wards stimulants and nourishing food are indicated. 
 
 THROMBUS AND EMBOLISM. 
 
 By thrombosis is generally understood the partial or complete clo- 
 sure of a vessel by a morbid product developed at the site of the 
 obstruction. The coagulum, which is usually fibririous, is known as 
 a thrombus. The term embolism designates an obstruction caused by 
 any body detached and transported from the interior of the heart or 
 of some vessel. Thrombi occur as the result of an injury to the wall 
 of the vessel or may follow its compression or dilatation; they may 
 result from some alteration of the wall of the vessel by disease or 
 by the retardation of the circulation. These formations may occur 
 during life, in the heart, arteries, veins, or in the portal system. 
 When a portion of fibrin coagulates in one of the arteries and is car- 
 ried along by the circulation, it will be arrested, of course, in the 
 capillaries, if not before; when in the veins, it may not be stopped 
 until it reaches the lungs; and when in the portal system, the capil- 
 laries of the liver will prevent its further progress. The formation of
 
 DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 245 
 
 thrombi may act primarily by causing partial or complete obstruc- 
 tion, and, secondarily, either by larger or smaller fragments becoming 
 detached from their end, and by being carried along by the circula- 
 tion of the blood to remote vessels, embolism; or by the coagulum 
 becoming softened and converted into pus, constituting suppurative 
 phlebitis. These substances occur most frequently in those affections 
 characterized by great exhaustion or debility, such as pneumonia, 
 purpura hemorrhagica, endocarditis, phlebitis, puerperal fever, 
 hemorrhages, etc. These concretions may form suddenly and pro- 
 duce instantaneous death by retarding the blood current, or they may 
 arise gradually, in which case the thrombi may be organized and 
 attached to the walls of the heart, or they may soften, and frag- 
 ments of them (emboli) may be carried away. The small, wartlike 
 excrescences occurring sometimes in endocarditis may occasionally 
 form a foundation on which a thrombi may develop. 
 
 Symptoms. When heart clot, or thrombus, exists in the right side, 
 the return of blood from the body and the aeration in the lungs is 
 impeded, and if death occurs, it is owing to syncope rather than to 
 strangulation in pulmonary respiration. There will be hurried and 
 gasping breathing, paleness and coldness of the surface of the body, a 
 feeble and intermittent or fluttering pulse, and fainting. When a 
 fibrinous coagulum is carried into the pulmonary artery from the 
 right side of the heart, the indications are a swelling and infiltration 
 of the lungs and pulmonary apoplexy. When the clot is situated in 
 the left cavities of the heart or in the aorta, death, if it occurs, takes 
 place either suddenly or at the end of a few hours from coma. 
 
 Pathology. When a coagulum is observed in the heart it may be- 
 come a question whether it was formed during life or after death. 
 The loose, dark coagula so often found after death are polypi. If 
 the deposition has taken place during the last moments of life, the 
 fibrin will be isolated and soft, but not adherent to the walls; if it 
 be isolated, dense, and adherent or closely intertwined with the 
 muscles of the papillae and tendinous cords, the deposition has oc- 
 curred more or less remote from the act of dying. Occasionally the 
 fibrin may be seen lining one of the cavities of the heart, like a false 
 endocardium, or else forming an additional coat to the aorta or other 
 large vessels without producing much obstruction. Thrombi, in 
 some instances, soften in their centers, and are then observed to con- 
 tain a puslike substance. If this softening has extended considerably 
 an outer shell, or cyst, only may remain. The sources of danger exist 
 not only in the interruption of the circulation of the blood, but also in 
 a morbid state of the system, produced by the disturbed nutrition of a 
 limb or organ, as well as the mingling of purulent and gangrenous 
 elements with the blood. 
 
 Treatment. The urgent symptoms should be relieved by rest,
 
 246 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 stimulants, and the use of agents which will act as solvents, to the 
 fibrinous clots. Alkalis are specially useful for this purpose. Car- 
 bonate of ammonia may be administered in all cases of thrombus, 
 and should be continued for a long time in small doses several times a 
 day. In cases of great debility associated with a low grade of fever, 
 stimulants and tonics, and mtro-muriatic acid as an antiseptic, may 
 be beneficial. 
 
 DISEASES OF VEINS, OR PHLEBITIS. 
 
 Inflammation of veins may be simple or diffuse. In simple phleb- 
 itis the disease of the vein is confined to a circumscribed or limited 
 portion of a vein ; in diffuse it involves the vein for a long distance ; 
 it may even extend from a limb or foot to the heart. 
 
 Causes. Phlebitis may be induced by contusions or direct injuries, 
 an extension of inflammation from surrounding tissue, such as in 
 abscess, formation of tumor, or malignant growth. It is often due 
 to embolism of infective material, gangrenous matter, etc. Blood- 
 letting from the jugular vein is occasionally followed by dangerous 
 phlebitis. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms vary according to the extent and sever- 
 ity of the inflammation. In most cases the vein is swollen, thick- 
 ened, and indurated to such a degree as to resemble an artery. A 
 diffused swelling, with great tenderness, may extend along the af- 
 fected vessel and the animal manifest all the symptoms connected 
 with acute fever and general functional disturbance. 
 
 Pathology. The disease is only serious when large veins are 
 affected. The coats undergo the same changes as in arteritis; clots 
 of blood and lymph plug the inflamed vessel, and, if the inflammatory 
 process continues, these are converted into pus, which ruptures the 
 vessel and produces a deep abscess; or it may be carried away in the 
 circulation and produce metastatic abscess in the lungs or other remote 
 organs. In mild cases the clots may become absorbed and the vessel 
 restored to health. Phlebitis in the course of the veins of the limbs 
 frequently leads to numerous abscesses, which may be mistaken for 
 farcy ulcenitions. A very common result of phlebitis is an oblitera- 
 tion of the affected portion of the vein, but as collateral circulation 
 is readily established this is seldom of any material inconvenience. 
 
 Treatment. Phlebitis should be treated by the application of a 
 smart blister along the course of the inflamed vessel; early opening 
 of any abscesses which may form; the animal should have complete 
 rest, and the bowels be kept loose with bran mashes. When the fever 
 runs high, half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassa may be given in the 
 drinking water, which may be changed in two .or three days for 
 1-dram doses of the iodide of potassa. If the animal becomes de- 
 bilitated, carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, and powdered gentian, 3 
 drams, may be given every six hours.
 
 DISEASES OF THE VEINS. 247 
 
 VARICOSE VEINS, VARIX, OR DILATATION OF VEINS. 
 
 This may be a result of weakening of the coats from inflammatory 
 disease and degeneration. It may also be due to mechanical obstruc- 
 tion from internal or external sources. It is sometimes found in the 
 vein which lies superficial over the inside of the hock joint, and may 
 be due to the pressure of a spavin. Occasionally it may be observed 
 in stallions, which are more or less subject to varicocele, or dilatation 
 of the veins of the testicular cord. Hemorrhoidal veins, or piles, are 
 occasionally met with, generally in horses which run at pasture. 
 Varicose veins may ulcerate and form an abscess in the surrounding 
 tissues, or they may rupture from internal blood pressure and the 
 blood form large tumors where the tissues are soft. 
 
 Treatment. Stallions which manifest a tendency to varicocele 
 should wear suspensory bags when they are exercised. Piles may 
 often be reduced by astringent washes tea made from white-oak 
 bark or a saturated solution of alum. The bowels should be kept 
 loose with bran mashes and the animal kept quiet in the stable. 
 When varicose veins exist superficially and threaten to produce incon- 
 venience, they may be ligated above and below and thus obliterated. 
 Sometimes absorption may be induced by constant bandages. 
 
 AIR IN VEINS, OR AIR EMBOLISM. 
 
 It was formerly supposed that the entrance of air into a vein at the 
 time of the infliction of a wound or in blood-letting was extremely 
 dangerous and very often produced sudden death by interfering with 
 the circulation of the blood through the heart and lungs. Danger 
 from air embolism is exceedingly doubtful, unless great quantities 
 were forced into a large vein by artificial means. 
 
 PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 
 
 Purpura hemorrhagica usually occurs as a sequel to debilitating 
 diseases, such as strangles, influenza, etc. It may, however, arise in 
 the absence of any previous disease in badly ventilated stables, among 
 poorly fed horses, and in animals subject to exhausting work and 
 extreme temperatures. The disease is probably due to some as yet 
 undiscovered infectious principle. Its gravity does not depend so 
 much upon the amount of blood extra vasated as it does upon the dis- 
 turbance or diminished action of the vaso-motor centers. 
 
 Symptoms. This disease becomes manifested by the occurrence of 
 sudden swellings on various parts of the body, on the head or lips, 
 limbs, abdomen, etc. These swellings may be diffused or very mark- 
 edly circumscribed, though in the advanced stages they cover large 
 areas. They pit on pressure and are but slightly painful to the touch. 
 The limbs may swell to a very large size, the nostrils may become 
 almost closed, and the head and throat may swell to the point of suf-
 
 248 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 focation. The swellings not infrequently disappear from one portion 
 of the body and develop on another, or may recede from the surface 
 and invade the intestinal mucous membrane. The mucous lining of 
 the nostrils and mouth show more or less dark-red or purple spots. 
 There may be a discharge of blood-colored serum from the nostrils ; 
 the tongue may be swollen so as to prevent eating or closing of the 
 jaws. In the most intense cases, within from twenty-four to forty- 
 eight hours bloody serum may exude through the skin over the 
 swollen parts, and finally large gangrenous sloughs may form. The 
 temperature is never very high, the pulse is frequent and com- 
 pressible, and becomes feebler as the animal loses strength. A cough 
 is usually present. The urine is scanty and high colored, and when 
 the intestines are much affected a bloody diarrhea may set in, with 
 colicky pains. Some of the internal organs become implicated in the 
 disease, the lungs may become edematous, extravasation may occur 
 in the intestinal canal, or effusion of serum into the cavity of the 
 chest or abdomen; occasionally the brain becomes affected. A few 
 cases run a mild course and recovery may commence in three or 
 four days ; generally, however, the outlook is unfavorable. In severe 
 cases septic poisoning is liable to occur, which soon brings the case 
 to a fatal issue. 
 
 Pathology. On section we find the capillaries dilated, the connec- 
 tive tissue filled with a coagulable or coagulated lymph, and frequently 
 we may discover gangrenous spots beneath the skin or involving 
 the skin. The lymphatic glands are swollen and inflamed. Exten- 
 sive extravasations of blood may be found embedded between the 
 coats of the intestines, or excessive effusion into the substance of 
 the lungs. 
 
 Treatment. Diffusible stimulants and tonics should be given from 
 the start. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, fluid extract of red cin- 
 chona bark, 2 drams, and tincture of ginger half an ounce, with half 
 a pint of water; thin gruel or milk should be given every four or six 
 hours. But especial care should be exercised to avoid injury by 
 drenching. If the horse has difficulty in getting the head up arid 
 swallowing, smaller doses must be given with a small hard-rubber 
 syringe. Sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses may be dissolved in water 
 and given every six hours. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-ounce doses, 
 may be given every eight or twelve hours. Colloidal silver may be 
 administered intravenously in doses of from 5 to 12 grains. Wash- 
 ings with lead and alum water are useful and may be repeated several 
 times each day. If the swellings are very great, they may be incised 
 freely and the resulting wounds should be washed at least twice daily 
 with a warm 3 per cent solution of creolin or other good antiseptic. 
 Tracheotomy may be necessary. Complications, when they arise, 
 must be treated with proper circumspection.
 
 DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 249 
 
 DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 
 
 The lymphatic, or absorbent, system is connected with the blood- 
 vascular system, and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and 
 convey to the blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to lymphatic 
 glands, through which the fluids pass to reach the right lymphatic 
 vein and thoracic duct, both of which enter the venous system near 
 the heart. Through the excessively thin walls of the capillaries the 
 fluid part of the blood transudes to nourish the tissues outside 
 the capillaries ; at the same time fluid passes from the tissues into the 
 blood. The fluid, after it passes into the tissues, constitutes the 
 lymph, and acts like a stream irrigating the tissue elements. Much of 
 the surplus of this lymph passes into the lymph vessels, which in their 
 commencement can hardly be treated as independent structures, since 
 their walls are so closely joined with the tissues through which they 
 pass, being nothing more than spaces in the connective tissue until 
 they reach the larger lymph vessels, which finally empty into lymph 
 glands. These lymph glands are structures so placed that the lymph 
 flowing toward the larger trunks passes through them, undergoing a 
 sort of filtration. From the fact of this arrangement lymph glands 
 are subject to inflammatory diseases in the vicinity of diseased struc- 
 tures, because infective material being conveyed in the lymph stream 
 lodges in the glands and produces irritation. 
 
 LOCAL. INFLAMMATION AND ABSCESS OF LYMPHATIC GLANDS. 
 
 Acute inflammation of the lymph glands usually occurs in connec- 
 tion with some inflammatory process in the region from which its 
 lymph is gathered. Several or all of the glands in a cluster may 
 become affected, as in strangles, nasal catarrh, or nasal gleet, diseased 
 or ulcerated teeth, the lymph glands between the branches of the 
 lower jaw almost invariably become affected, which may lead to sup- 
 puration or induration. Similar results obtain in other portions of 
 the body; in pneumonia the bronchial glands become affected; in 
 pharyngitis, the postpharyngeal glands lying above the trachea be- 
 come affected, etc. 
 
 Sym.ptoms. The glands swell and become painful to the touch, the 
 connective tissue surrounding them becomes involved, suppuration 
 usually takes place, and one or more abscesses form. If the inflam- 
 mation is of a milder type, resolution may take place and the swelling 
 recede, the exudative material being absorbed, and the glanrl restored 
 without the occurrence of suppuration. In the limbs a whole chain 
 of the glands along the lymphatic vessels may become affected, as in 
 farcy, phlebitis, or septic poisoning. 
 
 Treatment. Fomentation with hot water and the application of 
 camphorated soap liniment or camphorated oil may produce a revul-
 
 250 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 sive action and prevent suppuration. If there is any indication of 
 abscess forming, poultices of linseed meal and bran made into a paste 
 with hot water should be applied, or a mild blistering ointment 
 rubbed in over the swollen gland. As soon as fluctuation can be felt 
 a free opening must be made for the escape of the contained pus. 
 The wound may subsequently be washed out with a solution of chlo- 
 ride of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of water, three times a day, 
 
 LYMPHANGITIS. 
 
 Specific inflammation of the lymphatic structures usually affects 
 the hind legs ; very seldom a fore leg. This disease is very sudden in 
 its attack, exceedingly painful, accompanied by a high temperature 
 and great general disturbance. 
 
 Causes. Horses of lymphatic, or sluggish, temperament are pre- 
 disposed to this affection. It usually attacks well-fed animals, and in 
 such cases may be due to an excess of nutritive elements in the blood. 
 Sudden changes in work or in the habits of the animal may induce an 
 attack. 
 
 Symptoms. It is usually ushered in by a chill, rise in temperature, 
 and some uneasiness; in a very short time this is followed by lame- 
 ness in one leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The swelling 
 gradually surrounds the whole limb and continues on downward until 
 it reaches the foot. The limb is excessively tender to the touch, the 
 animal perspires, the breathing is accelerated, pulse hard and quick, 
 and the temperature may reach 106 F. The bowels early become 
 constipated and the urine scanty. The symptoms usually are on the 
 increase for about two days, then they remain stationary for the same 
 length of time; the fever then abates; the swelling recedes and be- 
 comes less painful. It is very seldom, though, that all the swelling 
 leaves the leg; generally it leaves some permanent enlargement, and 
 the animal becomes subject to recurrent attacks. Occasionally, the 
 inguinal lymphatic glands (in the groin) undergo suppuration, and 
 pyemia may supervene and prove fatal. In severe cases the limb be- 
 comes denuded of hair in patches, and the skin remains indurated 
 with a fibrous growth, which is known by the name of elephantiasis. 
 
 Treatment. The parts should be bathed freely and frequently with 
 water as hot as the hand can bear and then fomented with vinegar 
 and water, equal parts, to which add 2 ounces of nitrate of potassa 
 for each gallon. This should be applied frequently, after the hot 
 water for the first day. Afterwards, the leg may be dried with a 
 woolen cloth and bathed with camphorated soap liniment. Inter- 
 nally, administer artificial Carlsbad salts in 2 to 4 ounce doses three 
 times daily. Feed lightly and give complete rest. This treatment, 
 if instituted early in the attack, very frequently brings about a re- 
 markable change within twenty-four hours.
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 
 
 By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., 
 Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University. 
 
 [Revised In 1903 by the author.] 
 
 We can scarcely overestimate the value of sound eyes in the horse, 
 and hence all diseases and injuries which seriously interfere with 
 vision are matters of extreme gravity and apprehension, for should 
 they prove permanent they invariably depreciate the selling price to 
 a considerable extent. A blind horse is always dangerous in the sad- 
 dle or in single harness, and he is scarcely less so when, with partially 
 impaired vision, he sees things imperfectly, in a distorted form or in 
 a wrong place, and when he shies or avoids objects which are com- 
 monplace or familiar. When we add to this that certain diseases of 
 the eyes, like recurring inflammation (moon blindness), are habitu- 
 ally transmitted from parent to offspring, we can realize still more 
 fully the importance of these maladies. Again, as a mere matter of 
 beauty, a sound, full, clear, intelligent eye is something which must 
 always add a high value to our equine friends and servants. 
 
 THE EYEBALL. 
 
 A full description of the structure of the eye is incompatible with 
 our prescribed limits, and yet a short description is absolutely essen- 
 tial to the clear understanding of what is to follow. 
 
 The horse's eye is a spheroidal body, flattened behind, and with its 
 posterior four-fifths inclosed by an opaque, white, strong fibrous 
 membrane (the sclerotic), on the inner side of which is laid a more 
 delicate friable membrane, consisting mainly of blood vessels and 
 pigment cells (the choroid), and that in its turn is lined by the ex- 
 tremely delicate and sensitive expansion of the nerve of sight (the 
 retina). The anterior fifth of the globe of the eye bulges forward 
 from what would have been the direct line of the sclerotic, and thus 
 forms a segment of a much smaller sphere than is inclosed by the 
 sclerotic. Its walls, too, have in health a perfect translucency from 
 which it has derived the name of transparent cornea. This trans- 
 parent coat is composed, in the main, of fibers with lymph interspaces, 
 and it is to the condition of these and their condensation and com- 
 pression that the translucency is largely due. This may be shown 
 by compressing with the fingers the eye of an ox which has just been 
 killed, when the clear transparent cornea will suddenly become 
 
 251
 
 252 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 clouded over with a whitish blue opacity, and this will remain until 
 the compression is interrupted. The interior of the eye contains 
 three transparent media for the refraction of the rays of light on 
 their way from the cornea to the visual nerve. Of these media the 
 anterior one (aqueous humor) is liquid, the posterior (vitreous 
 humor) is semisolid, and the intermediate one (crystalline lens) is 
 solid. The space occupied by the aqueous humor corresponds nearly 
 to the portion of the eye covered by the transparent cornea. It is, 
 however, divided into two chambers, anterior and posterior, by the 
 iris, a contractile curtain with a hole in the center (the pupil), and 
 which may be looked on as in some sense a projection inward of the 
 vascular and pigmentary coat from its anterior margin at the point 
 where the sclerotic or opaque outer coat becomes continuous with tho 
 cornea or transparent one. This iris, or curtain, besides its abun- 
 dance of blood vessels and pigment, possesses two sets of muscular 
 fibers, one set radiating from the margin of the pupil to the outer 
 border of the curtain at its attachment to the sclerotic and choroid, 
 and the other encircling the pupil in the manner of a ring. The 
 action of the two sets is necessarily antagonistic, the radiating fibers 
 dilating the pupil and exposing the interior of the eye to view, 
 while the circular fibers contract this opening and shut out the rays 
 of light. The form of the pupil in the horse is ovoid, with its longest 
 diameter from side to side, and its upper border is fringed by several 
 minute black bodies (corpora nigra) projecting forward and serving 
 to some extent the purpose of eyebrows in arresting and absorbing 
 the excess of rays of light which fall upon the eye from above. These 
 pigmentary projections in front of the upper border of the pupil are 
 often mistaken for the products of disease or injury, in place of the 
 normal and beneficent protectors of the nerve of sight which they are. 
 They may, like all other parts, become the seat of disease, but so long 
 as they and the iris retain their clear, dark aspect, without any tints 
 of brown or yellow, they may be held to be healthy. 
 
 The vitreous or semisolid refracting medium occupies the posterior 
 part of the eye the part corresponding to the sclerotic, choroid, and 
 retina and has a consistency corresponding to that of the white of 
 an egg, and a power of refraction of the light rays correspondingly 
 greater than the aqueous humor. 
 
 The third or solid refracting medium is a biconvex lens, with its 
 convexity greatest on its posterior surface, which is lodged in a depres- 
 sion in the vitreous humor, while its anterior surface corresponds 
 to the opening of the pupil. It is inclosed in a membranous covering 
 (capsule) and is maintained in position by a membrane (suspensory 
 ligament) which extends from the margin of the lens outward to the 
 sclerotic at the point of junction of the choroid and iris. This liga- 
 ment is, in its turn, furnished with radiating muscular fibers, which
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 253 
 
 change the form or position of the lens so as to adapt it to see with 
 equal clearness objects at a distance or close by. 
 
 Another point which strikes the observer of the horse's eye is that 
 in the darkness a bright bluish tinge is reflected from the widely 
 dilated pupil. This is owing to a comparative absence of pigment 
 in the choroid coat inside the upper part of the eyeball, and enables 
 the animal to see and advance with security in darkness where the 
 human eye would be of little use. The lower part of the cavity 
 of the horse's eye, into which the dazzling rays fall from the sky, 
 is furnished with an intensely black lining, by which the rays 
 penetrating the inner nervous layer are instantly absorbed. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE EYE. 
 
 These consist of four straight muscles, two oblique and one re- 
 tractor. The straight muscles pass from the depth of the crbit 
 forward on the inner, outer, upper, and lower sides of the eyeball, 
 and are fixed to the anterior portion of the fibrous (sclerotic) coat, 
 so that in contracting singly they respectively turn the eye inward, 
 outward, upward, and downward. When all act together they draw 
 the eyeball deeply into its socket. The retractor muscle also consists 
 of four muscular slips, repeating the straight muscles on a smaller 
 scale, but as they are only attached on the back part of the eyeball 
 they are less adapted to roll the eye than to draw it down into its 
 socket. The two oblique muscles rotate the eye on its own axis, the 
 upper one turning its outer surface upward and inward, and the 
 lower one turning it downward and inward. 
 
 THE HAW (THE WINKING CARTILAGE, OR CARTILAGO NICTITANS). 
 
 This is a structure, which, like the retractor muscle, is not found in 
 the eye of man, but it serves in the lower animals to assist in remov- 
 ing foreign bodies from the front of the eyeball. It consists, in the 
 horse, of a cartilage of irregular form, thickened inferiorly and pos- 
 teriorly where it is intimately connected with the muscles of the eye- 
 ball and the fatty material around them, and expanded and flattened 
 anteriorly where its upper surface is concave, and, as it were, molded 
 on the lower and inner surface of the eyeball. Externally it is cov- 
 ered by the mucous membrane which lines the eyelids and extends 
 over the front of the eye. In the ordinary restful state of the eye the 
 edge of this cartilage should just appear as a thin fold of membrane 
 at the inner angle of the eye, but when the eyeball is drawn deeply into 
 the orbit the cartilage is pushed forward, outward, and upward over 
 it until the entire globe may be hidden from sight. This protrusion 
 of the cartilage, so as to cover the eye, may be induced in the healthy 
 eye by pressing the finger and thumb on the upper and lower lids, so 
 as to cause retraction of the eyeball into the socket. When foreign
 
 254 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 bodies, such as sand, dust, and chaff, or other irritants have fallen on 
 the eyeball or eyelids, it is similarly projected to push them off, their 
 expulsion being further favored by a profuse flow of tears. 
 
 This is seen, to a lesser extent, in all painful inflammations of the 
 eye, and to a very marked degree in lockjaw, when the spasm of the 
 muscles of the eyeball draws the latter deeply into the orbit and pro- 
 jects forward the masses of fat and the cartilage. The brutal practice 
 of cutting off this apparatus, whenever it is projected, necessitates 
 this explanation which, it is hoped, may save to many a faithful serv- 
 ant a most valuable appendage. That the cartilage and membrane 
 may become the seat of disease is undeniable, but so long as its edge 
 is thin and even, and its surface smooth and regular, the mere fact of 
 its projection over a portion or the whole of the eyeball is no evidence 
 of disease in its substance, nor any warrant for its removal. It is 
 usually but the evidence of the presence of some pain in another part 
 of the eye, which the suffering animal endeavors to assuage by the use 
 of this beneficent provision. For the diseases of the cartilage itself, 
 see " Encephaloid cancer." 
 
 LACHRYMAL APPARATUS. 
 
 This consists, first, of a gland for the secretion of the tears, and, 
 second, of a series of canals for the conveyance of the superfluous 
 tears into the cavity of the nose. 
 
 The gland is situated above the outer part of the eyeball, and the 
 tears which have flowed over the eye and reached the inner angle are 
 there directed by a small conical papilla (lachrymal caruncle) into 
 two minute orifices, and thence by two ducts (lachrymal) to a small 
 pouch (lachrymal sac) from which a canal leads through the bones 
 of the face into the nose. This opens in the lower part of the nose on 
 the floor of the passage and a little outside the line of union of the 
 skin which lines the false nostril with the mucous membrane of the 
 nose. In the ass and mule this opening is situated on the roof instead 
 of the floor of the nose, but still close to the external opening. 
 
 EXAMINATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 To avoid unnecessary repetition the following general directions are 
 given for the examination of the eye : The eye, and to a certain extent 
 the mucous membrane lining the eyelids, may be exposed to view 
 by gently parting the eyelids with the thumb and forefinger pressed 
 on the middle of the respective lids. The pressure, it is true, causes 
 the protrusion of the haw over a portion of the lower and inner part 
 of the eye, but by gentleness and careful graduation of the pressure 
 this may be kept within bounds, and oftentimes even the interior of 
 the eye can be seen. As a rule it is best to use the right hand for the 
 left eye, and the left hand for the right, the finger in each case being
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 255 
 
 pressed on the upper lid while the thumb depresses the lower one. In 
 cases in which it is desirable to examine the inner side of the eyelid 
 further than is possible by the above means, the upper lid may bo 
 drawn down by the eyelashes with the one hand and then everted 
 over the tip of the forefinger of the other hand, or over a probe laid 
 flat against the middle of the lid. Where the interior of the eye must 
 be examined it is useless to make the attempt in the open sunshine or 
 under a clear sky. The worst cases, it is true, can be seen under such 
 circumstances, but for the slighter forms the horse should be taken 
 indoors, where all light from above will be shut off, and should be 
 placed so that the light shall fall on the eye from the front and side. 
 Then the observer, placing himself in front of the animal, will receive 
 the reflected rays from the cornea, the front of the lens and the back, 
 and can much more easily detect any cloudiness, opacity or lack of 
 transparency. The examination can be made much more satisfactory 
 by placing the horse in a dark chamber and illuminating the eye by 
 a lamp placed forward and outward from the eye which is to be exam- 
 ined. Any cloudiness is thus easily detected, and any doubt may be 
 resolved by moving the lamp so that the image of the flame may be 
 passed in succession over the whole surface of the transparent cornea 
 and of the crystalline lens. Three images of the flame will be seen, 
 the larger one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the eye ; 
 a smaller one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the lens ; 
 and a second small one inverted from the back surface of the lens. 
 
 So long as these images are reflected from healthy surfaces they 
 will be clear and perfect in outline, but as soon as one strikes on an 
 area of opacity it will become diffused, cloudy, and indefinite. Thus, 
 if the large upright image becomes hazy and imperfect over a partic- 
 ular spot of the cornea, that will be found to be the seat of disease 
 and opacity. Should the large image remain clear, but the small 
 upright one become diffuse and indefinite over a given point, it indi- 
 cates opacity on the front of the capsule of the lens. If both upright 
 images remain clear while the inverted one becomes indistinct at a 
 given point, then the opacity is in the substance of the lens itself or in 
 the posterior part of its capsule. 
 
 If in a given case the pupil remains so closely contracted that the 
 deeper parts of the eye can not be seen, the eyelids may be rubbed 
 with extract of belladonna, and in a short time the pupil will be found 
 widely dilated. 
 
 DISEASES OF ^THE EYELIDS. 
 
 Congenital disorders. Some faulty conditions of the eyelids are 
 congenital, as division of an eyelid in two, after the manner of hare- 
 lip, abnormally small opening between the lids, often connected with 
 imperfect development of the eye, and closure of the lids by adhesion.
 
 256 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The first is to be remedied by paring the edges of the division and 
 then bringing them together, as in torn lids. The last two, if reme- 
 diable at all, require separation by the knife, and subsequent treat- 
 ment with a cooling astringent eyewash. 
 
 Nervous disorders. Spasm of eyelids may be owing to consti- 
 tutional susceptibility, or to the presence of local irritants (insects, 
 chemical irritants, sand, etc.) in the eye, to wounds or inflammation 
 of the mucous membrane, or to disease of the brain. When due to 
 local irritation, it may be temporarily overcome by instilling a few 
 drops of a 4 per cent solution of cocaine into- the eye, when the true 
 cause may be ascertained and removed. The nervous or constitu- 
 tional disease must be treated according to its nature. 
 
 Drooping eyelids, or ptosis. This is usually present in the upper 
 lid, or is at least little noticed in the lower. It is sometimes but a 
 symptom of paralysis of one-half of the face, in which case the ear. 
 lips, and nostrils on the same side will be found soft, drooping, and 
 inactive, and even the half of the tongue may partake of the palsy. 
 If the same condition exists on'both sides, there is difficult snuffling 
 breathing, from the air drawing in the flaps of the nostrils in inspira- 
 tion, and all food is taken in by the teeth, as the lips are useless. In 
 both there is a free discharge of saliva from the mouth during masti- 
 cation. This paralysis is a frequent result of injury, by a poke, to 
 the seventh nerve, as it passes over the back of the lower jaw. In 
 some cases the paralysis is confined to the lid, the injury having been 
 sustained by the muscles which raise it, or by the supraorbital nerve 
 which emerges from the bone just above the eye. Such injury to the 
 nerve may have resulted from fracture of the orbital process of the 
 frontal bone above the eyeball. 
 
 The condition may, however, be due to spasm of the sphincter 
 muscle, which closes the lids, or to inflammation of the upper lid, 
 usually a result of blows on the orbit. In the latter case it may run 
 a slow course with chronic thickening of the lid. 
 
 The paralysis due to the poke may be often remedied, first, by the 
 removal of any remaining inflammation by a wet sponge worn be- 
 neath the ear and kept in place by a bandage; second, when all in- 
 flammation has passed, by a blister on the same region, or by rubbing 
 it daily with a mixture in equal proportions of olive oil and strong 
 aqua ammonia. Improvement is usually slow, and it may be months 
 before complete recovery ensues. 
 
 In paralysis from blows above the eyes the same treatment may be 
 applied to that part. 
 
 Thickening of the lid may be treated by painting with tincture of 
 iodine, and that failing, by cutting out an elliptical .strip of the skin 
 from the middle of the upper lid and stitching the edges together.
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 257 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE EYELIDS. 
 
 The eyelids suffer more or less in all severe inflammations of the 
 eye, whether external or internal, but inasmuch as the disease some- 
 times starts in the lids and at other times is exclusively confined to 
 them, it deserves independent mention. 
 
 Among the causes may be named : Exposure to drafts of cold air, 
 or to cold rain or snow storms ; the bites or stings of mosquitoes, flies, 
 and other insects; snake bites, pricks with thorns, blows of whip or 
 club ; accidental bruises against the stall or ground, especially during 
 the violent struggles of colic, enteritis, phrenitis (staggers), and when 
 thrown for operations. It is also a result of infecting inoculations, as 
 of erysipelas, anthrax, boil, etc., and is noted by Leblanc as espe- 
 cially prevalent among horses kept on low marshy pastures. Finally, 
 the introduction of sand, dust, chaff, beards of barley and seeds of 
 the finest grasses, and the contact with irritant chemical powders, 
 liquids, and gases (ammonia from manure or factory, chlorine, 
 strong sulphur fumes, smoke, and other products of combustion, etc.) 
 may start the inflammation. The eyelids often undergo extreme 
 inflammatory and dropsical swelling in urticaria (nettlerash, sur- 
 feit) and in the general inflammatory dropsy known as purpura 
 hemorrhagica. 
 
 The affection will, therefore, readily divide itself into (1) inflam- 
 mations due to constitutional causes; (2) those due to direct injury, 
 mechanical or chemical; and (3) such as are due to inoculation with 
 infecting material. 
 
 (1) Inflammations due to constitutional causes are distinguished 
 by the absence of any local wound, and the history of a low, damp 
 pasture, exposure, indigestion from unwholesome food, or the pres- 
 ence elsewhere on the limbs or body of the general doughy swellings 
 of purpura hemorrhagica. The lids are swollen and thickened; it 
 may be slightly or it may be so extremely that the eyeball can not be 
 seen. If the lid can be everted to show its mucous membrane, that 
 is seen to be of a deep-red color, especially along the branching lines 
 of the blood vessels. The part is hot and painful, and a profuse flow 
 of tears and mucus escapes on the side of the face, causing irritation 
 and loss of the hair. If improvement follows, this discharge becomes 
 more tenacious, and tends to cause adhesion to the edges of the upper 
 and lower lids and to mat together the eyelashes in bundles. This 
 gradually decreases to the natural amount, and the redness and con- 
 gested appearance of the eye disappears, but swelling, thickening, 
 and stiffness of the lids may continue for a length of time. There 
 may be more or less fever according to the violence of the inflamma- 
 tion, but so long as there is no serious disease of the interior of the 
 eye or of other vital organ this is usually moderate. 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 17
 
 258 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The local treatment consists in astringent, soothing lotions (sugar 
 of lead 30 grains, laudanum 2 teaspoon fuls, rain water boiled and 
 cooled 1 pint), applied with a soft cloth kept wet with the lotion, 
 and hung over the eye by tying it to the headstall of the bridle on the 
 two sides. If the mucous membrane lining of the lids is the seat of 
 little red granular elevations, a drop of solution of 2 grains of nitrate 
 of silver in an ounce of distilled water should be applied with the soft 
 end of a clean feather to the inside of the lid twice a day. The 
 patient should be removed from all such conditions (pasture, faulty 
 food, exposure, etc.) as may have caused or aggravated, the disease, 
 and from dust and irritant fumes and gases. He should be fed from 
 a manger high enough to favor the return of blood from the head, 
 and should be kept from work, especially in a tight collar which 
 would prevent the descent of blood by the jugular veins. His diet 
 should be laxative and nonstimulating (grass, bran mashes, carrots, 
 turnips, beets, potatoes, or steamed hay), and any costiveness should 
 be corrected by a mild dose of raw linseed oil (1 to 1 pints). In 
 cold weather warm blanketing may be needful, and even loose flannel 
 bandages to the limbs, but heat should never be sought at the expense 
 of pure air. 
 
 (2) In inflammations due to local irritants of a noninfective kind 
 a careful examination will usually reveal their presence, and the first 
 step must be their removal with a pair of blunt forceps or the point 
 of a lead pencil. Subsequent treatment will be in the main the local 
 treatment advised above. 
 
 (3) In case of infective inflammation there will often be found a 
 prick or tear by which the septic matter has entered, and in such case 
 the inflammation will for a time be concentrated at that point. A 
 round or conical swelling around an insect bite is especially "character- 
 istic. A snake bite is marked by the double prick made by the two 
 teeth and by the violent and rapidly spreading inflammation. Ery- 
 sipelas is attended with much swelling, extending beyond the lids 
 and causing the mucous membrane to protrude beyond the edge of 
 the eyelid (chemosis). This is characterized by a bright, uniform, 
 rosy red, disappearing on pressure, or later by a dark, livid hue, but 
 with less branching redness than in noninfecting inflammation and 
 less of the dark, dusky, brownish or yellowish tint of anthrax. Lit- 
 tle vesicles may appear on the skin, and pus may be found without 
 any distinct limiting membrane, as in abscess. It is early attended 
 by high fever and marked general weakness and inappetence. An- 
 thrax of the lids is marked by a firm swelling, surmounted by a blis- 
 ter, with bloody serous contents, which tends to burst and dry up 
 into a slough, while the surrounding parts become involved in the 
 same way. Or it may show as a diffuse dropsical swelling, with less 
 of the hard central sloughing nodule, but, like that, tending to spread
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 259 
 
 quickly. In both cases alike the mucous membrane and the skin, if 
 white, assume a dusky brown or yellowish brown hue, which is 
 largely characteristic. This may pass into a black color by reason 
 of extravasation of blood. There appears early great constitutional 
 disturbance, with much prostration and weakness and generalized 
 anthrax symptoms. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of these will vary according to the 
 severity. Insect bites may be touched with a solution of equal parts 
 of glycerin and aqua ammonia, or a 10 per cent solution of carbolic 
 acid in water. Snake bites may be bathed with aqua ammonia, and 
 the same agent given in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls in a quart of water. 
 Or alcohol may be given in pint or quart dose.s, according to the size 
 of the animal. In erysipelas the skin may be painted with tincture 
 of muriate of iron, or with a solution of 20 grains of iodine in an 
 ounce of carbolic acid, and ope-half an ounce of tincture of muriate of 
 iron may be given thrice daily in a bottle of water. In anthrax the 
 swelling should be painted with tincture of iodine, or of the mixture 
 of iodine and carbolic acid, and if very threatening it may have the 
 tincture of iodine injected into the swelling with a hypodermic 
 syringe, or the hard mass may be freely incised to its depth with a 
 sharp lancet and the lotion applied to the exposed tissues. Internally, 
 iodide of potassium may be given in doses of 2 drams thrice a day, or 
 tincture of the muriate of iron every four hours. 
 
 STY, OR FURUNCLE (BOIL) OF THE EYELID. 
 
 This is an inflammation of limited extent, advancing to the forma- 
 tion of matter and the sloughing out of a small mass of the natural 
 tissue of the eyelid. It forms a firm, rounded swelling, usually near 
 the margin of the lid,which suppurates and bursts in four or five days. 
 Its course may be hastened by a poultice of camomile flowers, to 
 which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, the whole 
 applied in a very thin muslin bag. If the swelling is slow to open 
 after having become yellowish white, it may be opened by a lancet, 
 the incision being made at right angles to the margin of the lid. 
 
 ENTROPION AND ECTROPION, OR INVERSION AND EVERSION OF THE EYELID. 
 
 These are respectively caused by wounds, sloughs, ulcers, or other 
 causes of loss of substance of the mucous membrane on the inside of 
 the lid and of the skin on the outside; also of tumors, skin diseases, 
 or paralysis which leads to displacement of the margin of the eyelid. 
 As a rule, they require a surgical operation, with removal of an ellip- 
 tical portion of the mucous membrane or skin, as the case may be, but 
 which requires the skilled and delicate hand of the surgeon.
 
 260 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 TRICHIA8I8. 
 
 This consists in the turning in of the eyelashes so as to irritate the 
 front of the eye. If a single eyelash, it may be snipped off with scis- 
 sors close to the margin of the eyelid or pulled out by the root with a 
 pair of flat-bladed forceps. If the divergent lashes are more numer- 
 ous, the treatment may be as for entropion, by excising an elliptical 
 portion of. skin opposite the offending lashes and stitching the edges 
 together, so as to draw outward the margin of the lid at that point. 
 
 WARTS AND OTHER TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. 
 
 The eyelids form a favorite site for tumors, and above all, warts, 
 which consist in a simple diseased overgrowth (hypertrophy) of the 
 surface layers of the skin. If small, these may be snipped off with 
 scissors or tied around the neck with a stout waxed thread and left to 
 drop off, the destruction being completed, if necessary, by the daily 
 application of a piece of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), until any 
 unhealthy material has been removed. If more widely spread, the 
 wart may still be clipped off with curved scissors or knife, and the 
 caustic thoroughly applied day by day. 
 
 A bleeding wart, or erectile tumor, is more liable to bleed, and is 
 best removed by constricting its neck with the waxed cord or rubber 
 band, or if too broad for this it may be transfixed through its base by 
 a needle armed with a double thread, which is then to be cut in two 
 and tied around the two portions of the neck of the tumor. If still 
 broader, the armed needle may be carried through the base of the 
 tumor at regular intervals, so that the whole may be tied in moder- 
 ately sized sections. 
 
 In gray and in white horses black pigmentary tumors (melanotic) 
 are common on the black portions of skin, such as the eyelids, and are 
 to be removed by scissors or knife, according to their size. In the 
 horse these do not usually tend to recur when thoroughly removed, 
 but at times they prove cancerous (as is the rule in man), and then 
 they tend to reappear in the same site or in internal organs with, it 
 may be, fatal effect. 
 
 Encysted, honeylike (melicerous), sebaceous, and fibrous tumors of 
 the lids all require removal with the knife. 
 
 TORN EYELIDS OR WOUNDS OF EYELIDS. 
 
 The eyelids are torn by attacks with horns of cattle, or with the 
 teeth, or by getting caught on nails in stall, rack, or manger, on the 
 point of stumps, fences, or fence rails, on the barbs of wire fences, and 
 on other pointed bodies. The edges should lx> brought together as 
 promptly as possible, so as to secure union without the formation of 
 matter, puckering of the skin, and unsightly distortions. Great care 
 is necessary to bring the two edges together evenly without twisting
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 261 
 
 or puckering. The simplest mode of holding them together is by a 
 series of sharp pins passed through the lips of the wound at intervals 
 of not over a third of an inch, and held together by a thread twisted 
 around each pin in the form of the figure 8, and carried obliquely 
 from pin to pin in two directions, so as to prevent gaping of the 
 wound in the intervals. The points of the pins may then be cut off 
 with scissors, and the wound may be wet twice a day with a weak 
 solution of carbolic acid. 
 
 TUMOR OF THE HAW, OR CARIES OF THE CARTILAGE 
 
 Though cruelly excised for alleged " hooks," when itself perfectly 
 healthy in the various diseases which lead to retraction of the eye into 
 its socket, the haw may, like other bodily structures, be itself the seat 
 of actual disease. The pigmentary black tumors of white horses and 
 soft (encephaloid) cancer may attack this part primarily or extend to 
 it from the eyeball or eyelids ; hairs have been found growing from its 
 surface; and the mucous membrane covering it becomes inflamed in 
 common with that covering the front of the eye. These inflamma- 
 tions are but a phase of the inflammation of the external structures 
 of the eye, and demand no particular notice nor special treatment. 
 The tumors lead to such irregular enlargement and distortion of the 
 haw that the condition is not to be confounded with the simple pro- 
 jection of the healthy structure over the eye when the lids are pushed 
 apart with the finger and thumb, and the same remark applies to the 
 ulceration, or caries, of the cartilage. In the latter case, besides the 
 swelling and distortion of the haw, there is this peculiarity, that in 
 the midst of the red inflamed mass there appears a white line or mass 
 formed by the exposed edge of the ulcerating cartilage. The animal 
 having been thrown and properly fixed, an assistant holds the eyelids 
 apart while the operator seizes the haw with forceps or hook and care- 
 fully dissects it out with blunt-pointed scissors. The eye is then 
 covered with a cloth, kept wet with an eyewash, as for external 
 ophthalmia. 
 
 OBSTRUCTION OF THE LACHRYMAL APPARATUS, OR WATERING EYE. 
 
 The escape of tears on the side of the cheek is a symptom of exter- 
 nal inflammation of the eye, but it may also occur from any disease 
 of the lachrymal apparatus which interferes with the normal prog- 
 ress of the tears to the nose. Hence, in all cases when this symptom 
 is not attended by special redness or swelling of the eyelids, it is well 
 to examine the lachrymal apparatus. In some instances the orifice of 
 the lachrymal duct on the floor of the nasal chamber and close to its 
 anterior outlet will be found blocked by a portion of dry muco-puru- 
 lent matter, on the removal of which tears may begin to escape. This 
 implies an inflammation of the canal, which may be helped by occa-
 
 262 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 sional sponging out of the nose with warm water, and the application 
 of the same on the face. Another remedy is to feed warm mashes of 
 wheat bran from a nosebag, so that the relaxing effects of the water 
 vapor may be secured. 
 
 The two lachrymal openings, situated at the inner angle of the eye, 
 may fail to admit the tears by reason of their deviation outward in 
 connection with eversion of the lower lid, or by reason of their con- 
 striction in inflammation of the mucous membrane. The lachrymal 
 sac, into which the lachrymal ducts open, may fail to discharge its 
 contents by reason of constriction or closure of the duct leading to the 
 nose, and it then forms a rounded swelling beneath the inner angle 
 of the eye. The duct leading from the sac to the nose may be com- 
 pressed or obliterated by fractures of the bones of the face, and in 
 disease of these bones (osteosarcoma, so-called osteoporosis, diseased 
 teeth, glanders of the nasal sinuses, abscess of the same cavities). 
 
 The narrowed or obstructed ducts may be made pervious by a fine 
 silver probe passed down to the lachrymal sac, and any existing 
 inflammation of the passages may be counteracted by the use of steam- 
 ing mashes of wheat bran, by fomentations or wet cloths over the face, 
 and even by the use of astringent eyewashes and the .injection of 
 similar liquids into the lachrymal canal from its nasal opening. The 
 ordinary eyewash may be used for this purpose, or it may be injected 
 after dilution to half its strength. The fractures and diseases of the 
 bones and teeth must be treated according to their special demands 
 when, if the canal is still left pervious, it may be again rendered 
 useful. 
 
 EXTERNAL OPHTHALMIA, OR CONJUNCTIVITIS. 
 
 In inflammation of the outer parts of the eyeball the exposed vas- 
 cular and sensitive mucous membrane (conjunctiva) which covers the 
 ball, the eyelids, the haw, and the lachrymal apparatus, is usually the 
 most deeply involved, yet adjacent parts are more or less implicated, 
 and when disease is concentrated on these contiguous parts it consti- 
 tutes a phase of external ophthalmia which demands a special notice. 
 These have accordingly been already treated of. 
 
 Causes. The causes of external ophthalmia are mainly those that 
 act locally blows with whips, clubs, and twigs, the presence of for- 
 eign bodies like hay seed, chaff, dust, lime, sand, snuff, pollen of 
 plants, flies attracted by the brilliancy of the eye, wounds of the 
 bridle, the migration of the scabies (mange) insect into the eye, 
 smoke, ammonia rising from the excretions, irritant emanations from 
 drying marshes, etc. Road dust containing infecting microbes is a 
 common factor. A very dry air is alleged to act injuriously by drying 
 the eye as well as by favoring the production of irritant dust; and the 
 undue exposure to bright sunshine through a window in front of the
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 263 
 
 stall, or to the reflection from snow or water, is undoubtedly injurious. 
 The unprotected exposure of the eyes to sunshine through the use of 
 a very short overdraw check is to be condemned, and the keeping of 
 the horse in a very dark stall from which it is habitually led into the 
 glare of full sunlight, intensified by reflection from snow or white 
 limestone dust, must be set down among the locally acting causes. 
 But exposure to cold and wet, to wet and snow storms, to cold drafts 
 and wet lairs must also be accepted as causes of conjunctivitis, the 
 general disorder which they produce affecting the eye, if that happens 
 to be the weakest and most susceptible organ of the body, or if it has 
 been subjected to any special local injury, like dust, irritant gases, 
 or excess of light. Again, external ophthalmia is a constant con- 
 comitant of inflammation of the contiguous and continuous mucous 
 membranes, as those of the nose and throat. Hence the red, watery 
 eyes that attend on nasal catarrh, sore throat, influenza, strangles, 
 nasal glanders, and the like. In such cases, however, the affection 
 of the eye is subsidiary and is manifestly overshadowed by the pri- 
 mary and predominating disease. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are watering of the eye, swollen lids, 
 redness of the mucous membrane exposed by the separation of the 
 lids it may be a mere pink blush with more or less branching red- 
 ness, or it may be a deep, dark red, as from effusion of blood and a 
 bluish opacity of the cornea, which is normally clear and translucent. 
 But except when resulting from wounds and actual extravasation of 
 blood, the redness is seen to be superficial, and if the opacity is con- 
 fined to the edges, and does not involve the entire cornea, the aque- 
 ous humor behind is seen to be still clear and limpid. The fever is 
 always less severe than in internal ophthalmia, and only runs high in 
 the worst cases. The eyelids may be kept closed, the eyeball retracted, 
 and the haw protruded over one-third or one-half of the ball, but this 
 is due to the pain only and not to any excessive sensibility to light, as 
 shown by the comparatively widely dilated pupil. In internal oph- 
 thalmia, on the contrary, the narrow contracted pupil is the measure 
 of the pain caused by the falling of light on the inflamed and sensitive 
 optic nerve (retina) and choroid. 
 
 If the affection has resulted from a wound of the cornea, not only 
 is that the point of greatest opacity, forming a white speck or fleecy 
 cloud, but too often blood vessels begin to extend from the adjacent 
 vascular covering of the eye (sclerotic) to the white spot, and that 
 portion of the cornea is rendered permanently opaque. Again, if the 
 wound has been severe, though still short of cutting into the anterior 
 layers of the cornea, the injury may lead to ulceration that may pene- 
 trate more or less deeply and leave a breach in the tissue which, if 
 filled up at all, is repaired by opaque fibrous tissue in place of the 
 transparent cellular structure. Pus may form, and the cornea assumes
 
 264 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 a yellowish tinge and bursts, giving rise to a deep sore which is liable 
 to extend as an ulcer, and may be in its turn followed by bulging of 
 the cornea at that point (staphyloma) . This inflammation of the con- 
 junctiva may be simply catarrhal, with profuse Draco-purulent dis- 
 charge; it may be granular, the surface being covered with minute 
 reddish elevations, or it may become the seat of a false membrane 
 (diphtheria). 
 
 Treatment. In treating external ophthalmia the first object is the 
 removal of the cause. Remove any dust, chaff, thorn, or other for- 
 eign body from the conjunctiva, purify the stable from all sources of 
 ammoniacal or other irritant gas; keep the horse from dusty roads, 
 and, above all, from the proximity of a leading wagon and its attend- 
 ant cloud of dust; remove from pasture and feed from a rack which 
 is neither so high as to drop seeds, etc., into the eyes nor so low as to 
 favor the accumulation of blood in the head; avoid equally excess of 
 light from a sunny window in front of the stall and excess of darkness 
 from the absence of windows; preserve from cold drafts and rains 
 and wet bedding, and apply curative measures for inflammation of 
 the adjacent mucous membranes or skin.* If the irritant has been of a 
 caustic nature, remove any remnant of it by persistent bathing with 
 tepid water and a soft sponge, or with water mixed with white of egg, 
 or a glass filled with the liquid may be inverted over the eye so that 
 its contents may dilute and remove the irritant. If the suffering is 
 very severe, a lotion with a few grains of extract of belladonna or of 
 morphia in an ounce of water may be applied, or if it is available, 
 a few drops of 4 per cent solution of cocaine may be instilled into 
 the eye. 
 
 In strong, vigorous patients benefit will usually be obtained from a 
 laxative, such as 2 tablespoon fuls of Glauber's salts daily, and if the 
 fever runs high from a daily dose of half an ounce of saltpeter. As 
 local applications astringent solutions are usually the best, as 30 
 grains of borax or of sulphate of zinc in a quart of water, to be ap- 
 plied constantly on a cloth, as advised under " Inflammation of the 
 eyelids." In the absence of anything better, cold water may serve 
 every purpose. Above all, adhesive and oily agents (molasses, sugar, 
 fats) are to be avoided, as only adding to the irritation. By way of 
 suggesting agents that may be used with good effect, salt and sulphate 
 of soda may be named, in solutions double the strength of sulphate of 
 zinc, or 7 grains of nitrate of silver may be added to a quart of dis- 
 tilled water, and will be found especially applicable in granular con- 
 junctivitis, diphtheria, or commencing ulceration. A cantharides 
 blister (1 part of Spanish fly to 4 parts lard) may be rubbed on the 
 side of the face 3 inches below the eye, and washed off next morning 
 with soapsuds and oiled daily till the scabs are dropped.
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 265 
 
 WHITE SPECKS AND CLOUDINESS OF THE CORNEA. 
 
 As a result of external ophthalmia, opaque specks, clouds, or hazi- 
 ness are too often left on the cornea and require for their removal 
 that they be daily touched with a soft feather dipped in a solution of 
 3 grains nitrate of silver in 1 ounce distilled water. This should be 
 applied until all inflammation has subsided, and until its contact is 
 comparatively painless. It is rarely successful with an old thick scar 
 following an ulcer, nor with an opacity having red blood vessels 
 running across it. 
 
 ULCERS OF THE CORNEA. 
 
 These may be treated with nitrate of silver lotion of twice the 
 strength used for opacities. Powdered gentian, one-half ounce, and 
 sulphate of iron, one- fourth ounce daily, may improve the general 
 health and increase the reparatory power. 
 
 INTERNAL OPHTHALMIA (iRITIS, CHOROIDITIS, AND RETINITIS). 
 
 Although inflammations of the iris, choroid, and retina the inner, 
 vascular, and nervous coats of the eye occur to a certain extent inde- 
 pendently of each other, yet one usually supervenes upon the other, 
 and, as the symptoms are thus made to coincide, it will be best for 
 our present purposes to treat the three as one disease. 
 
 Causes. The causes of internal ophthalmia are largely those of the 
 external form only, acting with greater intensity or on a more suscep- 
 tible eye. Severe blows, bruises, punctures, etc., of the eye, the 
 penetration of foreign bodies into the eye (thorns, splinters of iron, 
 etc.), sudden transition from a dark stall to bright sunshine, to the 
 glare of snow or water, constant glare from a sunny window, abuse 
 of the overdraw checkrein, vivid lightning flashes, drafts of cold, 
 damp air; above all, when the animal is perspiring, exposure in cold 
 rain and snow storms, swimming cold rivers; also certain general 
 diseases like rheumatism, arthritis, influenza, and disorders of the 
 digestive organs, may become complicated by this affection. From 
 the close relation between the brain and eye alike in the blood ves- 
 sels and nerves disorders of the first lead to affections of the second. 
 and the same remark applies to the persistent irritation to which the 
 jaws are subjected in the course of dentition. So potent is the last 
 agency that we dread a recurrence of ophthalmia so long as dentition 
 is incomplete, and hope for immunity if the animal completes its 
 dentition without any permanent structural change in the eye. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms will vary according to the cause. If 
 the attack is due to direct physical injury, the inflammation of the 
 eyelids and superficial structures may be quite as marked as that of the 
 interior of the eye. If, on the other hand, from general causes, or as 
 a complication of some distant disease, the affection may be largely
 
 266 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 confined to the deeper structures, and the swelling, redness, and ten- 
 derness of the superficial structures will be less marked. When the 
 external coats thus comparatively escape the extreme anterior edge of 
 the white, or sclerotic, coat where it overlaps the border of the trans- 
 parent cornea is in a measure free from congestion, and, in the absence 
 of the obscuring dark pigment, forms a whitish ring around the 
 cornea. This is partly due to the fact that a series of. arteries (cili- 
 ary) passing to the inflamed iris penetrate the sclerotic coat a short 
 distance behind its anterior border, and there is therefore a marked 
 difference in color between the general sclerotic occupied between 
 these congested vessels and the anterior rim from which they are 
 absent. Unfortunately, the pigment is often so abundant in the 
 anterior part of the sclerotic as to hide this symptom. In internal 
 ophthalmia the opacity of the cornea may be confined to a zone around 
 the outer margin of the cornea, and even this may be a bluish haze 
 rather than a deep fleecy white. In consequence it becomes possible 
 to see the interior of the chamber for the aqueous humor - and the 
 condition of the iris and pupil. The aqueous humor is usually turbid, 
 and has numerous yellowish white flakes floating on its substance 
 or deposited in the lower part of the chamber, so as to cut off the 
 view of the lower portion of the iris. The still visible portion of 
 the iris has lost its natural, clear, dark luster, which is replaced by 
 a brownish or yellowish sere-leaf color. This is more marked in 
 proportion as the iris is inflamed, and less so as the inflammation is 
 confined to the chofoid. The amount of flocculent deposit in the 
 chamber of the aqueous humor is also in direct ratio to the inflamma- 
 tion of the iris. Perhaps the most marked feature of internal ophthal- 
 mia is the extreme and painful sensitiveness to light. On this 
 account the lids are usually closed, but when opened the pupil is 
 seen to be narrowly closed, even if the animal has been kept in an 
 obscured stall. Exceptions to this are seen when inflammatory effu- 
 sion has overfilled the globe of the eye, and by pressure on the retina 
 has paralyzed it, or when the exudation into the substance of the 
 retina itself has similarly led to its paralysis. Then the pupil may 
 be dilated, and frequently its margin loses its regular ovoid outline 
 and becomes uneven by reason of the adhesions which it has con- 
 tracted with the capsule of the lens, through its inflammatory exu- 
 dations. In the case of excessive effusion into the globe of the eye 
 that is found to have become tense and hard so that it can not be 
 indented with the tip of the finger, paralysis of the retina is apt to 
 result. With such paralysis of the retina, vision is heavily clouded 
 or entirely lost; hence, in spite of the open pupil, the finger may be 
 approached to the eye without the animal becoming conscious of it 
 until it touches the surface, and if the nose on the affected side is 
 gently struck and a feint made to repeat the blow the patient makes
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. . 267 
 
 no effort to evade it. Sometimes the edges of the contracted pupil 
 become adherent to each other by an intervening plastic exudation, 
 and the opening becomes virtually abolished. In severe inflamma- 
 tions pus may form in the choroid or iris, and escaping into the 
 cavity of the aqueous humor show as a yellowish white stratum 
 below. In nearly all cases there is resulting exudation into the lens 
 or its capsule, constituting a cloudiness or opacity (cataract), which 
 in severe and old-standing cases appears as a white fleecy mass behind 
 a widely dilated pupil. In the slighter cases cataract is to be recog- 
 nized by examination of the eye in a dark chamber, with an oblique 
 side light, as described in the introduction to this article. Cataracts 
 that appear as a simple haze or indefinite fleecy cloud are usually on 
 the capsule (capsular) , while those that show a radiating arrangement 
 are in the lens (lenticular), the radiating fibers of which the exudate 
 follows. Black cataracts are formed by the adhesion of the pigment 
 on the back of the iris to the front of the lens, and by the subsequent 
 tearing loose of the iris, leaving a portion of its pigment adherent 
 to the capsule of the lens. If the pupil is so contracted that it is 
 impossible to see the lens, it may be dilated by applying to the front 
 of the eye with a feather some drops of a solution of 4 grains of 
 atropia in an ounce of water. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of internal ophthalmia should embrace, 
 first, the removal of all existing causes or sources of aggravation of 
 the disease, which need not be here repeated. Special care to protect 
 the patient against cold, wet, strong light, and active exertion must, 
 however, be insisted on. A dark stall and a cloth hung over the eye 
 are important, while cleanliness, warmth, dryness, and rest are 
 equally demanded. If the patient is strong and vigorous, a dose of 
 4 drams of Barbados aloes may be given, and, if there is any reason 
 to suspect a rheumatic origin, one-half a dram powdered colchicum 
 and one-half ounce salicylate of soda may be given daily. Locally, 
 the astringent lotions advised for external ophthalmia may be resorted 
 to, especially when the superficial inflammation is well marked. More 
 important, however, is to instill into the eye, a few drops at a time, a 
 solution of 4 grains of atropia in 1 ounce of distilled water. This may 
 be effected with the aid of a soft feather, and may be repeated at inter- 
 vals of ten minutes until the pupil is widely dilated. As the horse 
 is to be kept in a dark stall, the consequent admission of light will be 
 harmless, and the dilation of the pupil prevents adhesion between the 
 iris and lens, relieves the constant tension of the eye in the effort to 
 adapt the pupil to the light, and solicits the contraction of .the blood 
 vessels of the eye and the lessening of congestion, exudation, and in- 
 traocular pressure. Should atropia not agree with the case, it may be 
 replaced by morphia (same strength) or cocaine in 4 per cent solution. 
 Another local measure is a blister, which can usually be applied to
 
 268 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 advantage on the side of the nose or beneath the ear. Spanish flies 
 may be used as for external ophthalmia. In very severe cases the 
 parts beneath the eye may be shaved and three or four leeches applied. 
 Setons are sometimes beneficial, and even puncture of the eyeball, but 
 these should be reserved for professional hands. 
 
 The diet throughout should be easily digestible and moderate in 
 quantity bran mash, middlings, grass, steamed hay, etc. 
 
 Even after the active inflammation has subsided the atropia lotion 
 should be continued for some weeks to keep the eye in a state of rest 
 in its still weak and irritable condition, and during this period the 
 patient should be kept in semidarkness, or taken out only with a dark 
 shade over the eye. For the same reason heavy drafts and rapid 
 paces, which would cause congestion of the head, should be carefully 
 avoided. 
 
 RECURRENT OPHTHALMIA (PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOONBLINDNESS) . 
 
 This is an inflammatory affection of the interior of the eye, inti- 
 mately related to certain soils, climates, and systems, showing a strong 
 tendency to recur again and again, and usually ending in blindness 
 from cataract or other serious injury. 
 
 Causes. Its causes may be fundamentally attributed to soil. On 
 damp clays and marshy grounds, on the frequently overflowed river 
 bottoms and deltas, on the coasts of seas and lakes alternately sub- 
 merged and exposed, this disease prevails extensively, and in many 
 instances in France (Reynal), Belgium, Alsace (Zundel, Milten- 
 berger), Germany, and England it has very largely decreased under 
 land drainage and improved methods of culture. Other influences, 
 more or less associated with such soil, are potent causative factors. 
 Thus damp air and a cloudy, wet climate, so constantly associated with 
 wet lands, are universally charged with causing the disease. These 
 act on the animal body to produce a lymphatic constitution with an 
 excess of connective tissue, bones, and muscles of coarse open texture, 
 thick skins and gummy legs covered with a profusion of long hair. 
 Hence the heavy horses of Belgium and southwestern France have suf- 
 fered severely from the affection, while high dry lands adjacent, like 
 Catalonia, in Spain, and Dauphiny, Provence, and Languedoc, in 
 France, have in the main escaped. 
 
 The rank aqueous fodders grown on such soils are other causes, but 
 these again are calculated to undermine the character of the nervous 
 and sanguineous temperament, and to superinduce the lymphatic. 
 Other foods act by leading to constipation and other disorders of the 
 digestive organs, thus impairing the general health ; hence in any ani- 
 mal predisposed to this disease, heating, starchy foods, such as maize, 
 wheat, and buckwheat, are to be carefully avoided. It has been widely 
 charged that beans, pease, vetches, and other Leguminosse are danger-
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 269 
 
 ous, but a fuller inquiry contradicts this. If these are well grown 
 they invigorate and fortify the system, while, like any other fodder, 
 if grown rank, aqueous, and deficient in assimilable principles, they 
 tend to lower the health and open the way for the disease. 
 
 The period of dentition and training is a fertile exciting cause, for 
 though the malady may appear at any time from birth to old age, yet 
 the great majority of victims are from two to six years old, and if a 
 horse escapes the affection till after six there is a reasonable hope that 
 he will continue to resist it. The irritation about the head during the 
 eruption of the teeth, and while fretting in the unwonted bridle and 
 collar, the stimulating grain diet and the close air of the stable all 
 combine to rouse the latent tendency to disease in the eye, while direct 
 injuries by bridle, whip, or hay seeds are not without their influence. 
 In the same way local irritants, like dust, severe rain and snow 
 storms, smoke, and acrid vapors are contributing causes. 
 
 It is evident, however, that no one of these is sufficient of itself to 
 produce the disease, and it has been alleged that the true cause is a 
 microbe, or the irritant products of a microbe, which is harbored in 
 the marshy soil. The prevalence of the disease on the same damp 
 soils .which produce ague in man and anthrax in cattle has been 
 quoted in support of this doctrine, as also the fact that the malady is 
 always more prevalent, other things being equal, in basins surrounded 
 by hills where the air is still and such products are concentrated, and 
 that a forest or simple belt of trees will, as in ague, at times limit the 
 area of its prevalence. Another argument for the same view is found 
 in the fact that on certain farms irrigated by town sewage this malady 
 has become extremely prevalent, the sewage being assumed to form a 
 suitable nidus for the growth of the germ. But on these sewage 
 farms a fresh crop may be cut every fortnight, and the product is 
 precisely that aqueous material which contributes to a lymphatic 
 structure and a low tone of health. The presence in the system of a 
 definite germ has not yet been proven, and in the present state of our 
 knowledge we are only warranted in charging the disease to the 
 deleterious emanations from the marshy soil in which bacterial fer- 
 ments are constantly producing them. 
 
 Heredity is one of the most potent causes. The lymphatic constitu- 
 tion is of course transmitted and with it the proclivity to recurring 
 ophthalmia. This is notorious in the case of both parents, male and 
 female. The tendency appears to be stronger, however, if either 
 parent has already suffered. Thus a mare may have borne a number 
 of sound foals, and then fallen a victim to this malady, and all foals 
 subsequently borne have likewise suffered. So with the stallion. 
 Reynal even quotes the appearance of the disease in alternate gen- 
 erations, the stallion offspring of blind parents remaining sound 
 through life and yet producing foals which furnish numerous victims
 
 270 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of recurrent ophthalmia. On the contrary, the offspring of diseased 
 parents removed to high, dry regions and furnished with wholesome, 
 nourishing rations will nearly all escape. Hence the dealers take 
 colts that are still sound or have had but one attack from the affected 
 low Pyrenees (France) to the unaffected Catalonia (Spain), with 
 confidence that they will escape, and from the Jura Valley to Dau- 
 phiny with the same result. 
 
 Yet the hereditary taint is so strong and pernicious that intelligent 
 horsemen everywhere refuse to breed from either horse or mare that 
 has once suffered from recurrent ophthalmia, and the French Govern- 
 ment studs not only reject all unsound stallions, but refuse service to 
 any mare which has suffered with her eyes. It is this avoidance of 
 the hereditary predisposition more than anything else that has 
 reduced the formerly wide prevalence of this disease in the European 
 countries generally. A consideration for the future of our horses 
 would demand the disuse of all sires that are unlicensed, and the 
 refusal of a license to any sire which has suffered from this or any 
 other communicable constitutional disease. 
 
 Other contributing causes deserve passing mention. Unwholesome 
 food and a faulty method of feeding undoubtedly predisposes to the 
 disease, and in the same district the carefully fed will escape in far 
 larger proportion than the badly fed. But it is so with every other 
 condition which undermines the general health. The presence of 
 worms in the intestines, overwork, and debilitating diseases and 
 causes of every kind weaken the vitality and lay the system more 
 open to attack. Thierry long ago showed that the improvement of 
 close, low, dark, damp stables, where the disease had previously pre- 
 vailed, practically banished this affection. Whatever contributes to 
 strength and vigor is protective; whatever contributes to weakness 
 and poor health is provocative of the disease in the predisposed 
 subject. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms vary according to the severity of the 
 attack. In some cases there is marked fever, and in some slighter 
 cases this may be almost altogether wanting, but there is always a 
 lack of vigor and energy, bespeaking general disorder. The local 
 symptoms are in the main those of internal ophthalmia, with, in many 
 cases, an increased hardness of the eyeball from effusion into its 
 cavity. The contracted pupil does not expand much in darkness, nor 
 even under the action of belladonna. Opacity advances from the 
 margin, over a part or whole of the cornea, but so long as it is trans- 
 parent there may be seen the turbid, aqueous humor with or without 
 flocculi, the dingy iris robbed of its clear black aspect, the slightly 
 clouded lens and a greenish yellow reflection from the depth of the 
 eye. From the fifth to the seventh day the flocculi precipitate in the 
 lower part of the chamber, exposing more clearly the iris and lens,
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 271 
 
 and absorption commences, so that the eye may be cleared up in ten or 
 fifteen days. 
 
 The characteristic of the disease is, however, its recurrence again 
 and again in the same eye until blindness results. The attacks may 
 follow each other at intervals of a month, more or less, but they show 
 no relation to any particular phase of the moon as might be inferred 
 from the familiar name, but are determined rather by the weather, 
 the health, the food, or by some periodicity of the system. From five 
 to seven attacks usually result in blindness, and then the second eye is 
 liable to be attacked until it also is ruined. 
 
 In the intervals between the attacks some remaining symptoms 
 betray the condition, and these become more marked after each suc- 
 cessive access of disease. Even after the first attack there is a bluish 
 ring round the margin of the transparent cornea. The eye seems 
 smaller than the other, at first because it is retracted in its socket, and 
 often after several attacks because of actual shrinkage (atrophy). 
 The upper eyelid, in place of presenting a uniform, continuous arch, 
 has about one-third from its inner angle an abrupt bend, caused by 
 the contraction of the levator muscle. The front of the iris has 
 exchanged some of its dark, clear brilliancy for a lusterless yellow, 
 and the depth of the eye presents more or less of the greenish yellow 
 shade. The pupil remains a little contracted, except in advanced and 
 aggravated cases, when, with opaque lens, it is widely dilated. If one 
 eye only has suffered, as is common, the contrast in these respects with 
 the sound eye is all the more characteristic. Another feature is the 
 erect, attentive carriage of the ear, to compensate to some extent for 
 the waning vision. 
 
 The attacks vary greatly in severity in different cases, but the recur- 
 rence is characteristic, and all alike lead to cataract and intraocular 
 effusion, with pressure on the retina and abolition of sight. 
 
 Prevention. The prevention of this disease is the great object to 
 be aimed at, and this demands the most careful breeding, feeding, 
 housing, and general management, as indicated under " Causes." Much 
 can also be done by migration to a high, dry location, but for this and 
 malarious affections the improvement of the land by drainage and 
 good cultivation should be the final aim. 
 
 Treatment is not satisfactory, but is largely the same as for com- 
 mon internal ophthalmia. Some cases, like rheumatism, are benefited 
 by scruple doses of powdered colchicum and 2-dram doses of salicylate 
 of soda twice a day. In other cases, with marked hardness of the 
 globe of the eye from intraocular effusion, aseptic puncture of the 
 eye, or even the excision of a portion of the iris, has helped. During 
 recovery a course of tonics (2 drams oxide of iron, 10 grains nux 
 vomica, and 1 ounce sulphate of soda daily) is desirable to invigorate 
 the system and help to ward off another attack. The vulgar resort to
 
 272 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 knocking out the wolf teeth and cutting out the haw can only be con- 
 demned. The temporary recovery would take place in one or two 
 weeks, though no such thing had been done, and the breaking of a 
 small tooth, leaving its fang in the jaw, only increases the irritation. 
 
 CATARACT. 
 
 The common result of internal ophthalmia, as of the recurrent 
 type, may be recognized as described under the first of these diseases. 
 Its offensive appearance may be obviated by extraction or depression 
 of the lens, but as the rays of light would no longer be properly 
 refracted, perfect vision would not be restored, and the animal would 
 be liable to prove an inveterate shyer. If perfect blindness continued 
 by reason of pressure on the nerve of sight, no shying would result. 
 
 PALSY OF THE NERVE OF SIGHT, OR AMAUROSIS. 
 
 Causes. The causes of this affection are tumors or other disease 
 of the brain implicating the roots of the optic nerve, injury to the 
 nerve between the brain and eye, and inflammation of the optic nerve 
 within the eye (retina), or undue pressure on the same from dropsical 
 or inflammatory effusion. It may also occur from overloaded stom- 
 ach, from a profuse bleeding, and even from the pressure of the 
 gravid womb in gestation. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are wide dilatation of the pupils, so as 
 to expose fully the interior of the globe, the expansion remaining the 
 same in light and darkness. Ordinary eyes when brought to the 
 light have the pupils suddenly contract, and then dilate and contract 
 alternately until they adapt themselves to the amount of light. The 
 horse does not swerve when a feint to strike is made unless the hand 
 causes a current of air. The ears are held erect and turn quickly 
 toward any noise, and the horse steps high to avoid stumbling over 
 objects which it can not see. 
 
 Treatment is only useful when the disease is symptomatic of some 
 removable cause, like congested brain, loaded stomach, or gravid 
 womb. When recovery does not follow the termination of these con- 
 ditions, apply a blister behind the ear and give one-half dram doses of 
 nux vomica daily. 
 
 TUMORS OF THE EYEBALL. 
 
 A variety of tumors attack the eyeball dermoid, papillary, fatty, 
 cystic, and melanotic but perhaps the most frequent in the horse is 
 encephaloid cancer. This may grow in or on the globe, the haw, the 
 eyelid, or the bones of the orbit, and is only to be remedied, if at all, 
 by early and thorough excision. It may be distinguished from the 
 less dangerous tumors by its softness, friability, and great vascularity, 
 bleeding on the slightest touch, as well as by its anatomical structure.
 
 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 273 
 
 STAPHYLOMA. 
 
 This consists in a bulging forward of the cornea at a given point 
 by the saccular yielding and distention of its coats, and it may be 
 either transparent or opaque and vascular. In the last form the iris 
 has become adherent to the back of the cornea, and the whole struc- 
 ture has become filled with blood vessels. In the first form the bulg- 
 ing cornea is attenuated; in the last it may be thickened. The best 
 treatment is by excision of a portion of the rise so as to relieve the 
 intraocular pressure. 
 
 PARASITES IN THE EYE. 
 
 Acari in the eye have been incidentally alluded to under inflamma- 
 tion of the lids. 
 
 Filaria palpebralis is a white worm, one-half to 1 inch long, which 
 inhabits the lachrymal duct and the underside of the eyelids and haw 
 in the horse, producing a verminous conjunctivitis. The first step in 
 treatment in such cases is to remove the worm with forceps, then treat 
 as for external inflammation. 
 
 Filaria equina is a delicate, white, silvery- looking worm, which I 
 have repeatedly found 2 inches in length (a length as great as 5 inches 
 has been reported). It invades the aqueous humor, where its constant 
 active movements make it an object of great interest, and it is fre- 
 quently exhibited as a " snake in the eye." It is found also in other 
 internal cavities of the horse, to which it undoubtedly makes its way 
 from the food, and especially the water swallowed, and its prevention 
 is therefore to be sought mainly in the supply of pure water from 
 closed, deep wells. When present in the eye it causes inflammation 
 and has to be removed through an incision made with the lancet in 
 the upper border of the cornea close to the sclerotic, the point of the 
 instrument being directed slightly forward to avoid injury to the iris. 
 Then apply cold water or astringent antiseptic lotions. 
 
 Filaria conjunctiva, resembling Filaria equina very much in size 
 and general appearance, is another roundworm which has been found 
 in the eye of the horse. 
 
 The echinococcus, the cystic, or larval, stage of the echinococcus 
 tapeworm of the dog, has been found in the eye of the horse, and a 
 cysticercus (Cysticercus fistularis?) is also reported. 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 18
 
 LAMENESS: ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT. 
 
 By A. LIAUTABD, M. D., V. M., 
 Principal of the American Veterinary College, New York. 
 
 [Revised In 1903 by John R. Mohler, A. M., V. M. D.] 
 
 It is as living, organized, locomotive machines that the horse, 
 camel, ox, and their burden-bearing companions are of practical 
 value to man. Hence the consideration of their usefulness and con- 
 sequent value to their human masters ultimately and naturally re- 
 solves itself into an inquiry concerning the condition of that special 
 portion of their organism which controls their function of locomo- 
 tion. This is especially true in regard to the members of the equine 
 family, the most numerous and valuable of all the beasts of burden, 
 and it naturally follows that with the horse for a subject of dis- 
 cussion the special topic and leading theme of inquiry will, by an 
 easy lapse, become an inquest into the condition and efficiency of his 
 power for usefulness as a carrier or traveler. There is a large 
 amount of abstract interest in the study of that endowment of the 
 animal economy which enables its possessor to change his place at 
 will and convey himself whithersoever his needs or his moods may 
 incline him; but how much greater the interest that attaches to the 
 subject when it becomes a practical and economic question and in- 
 cludes within its purview the various related topics which belong to 
 the domains of physiology, pathology, therapeutics, and the entire 
 round of scientific investigation into which it is finally merged as a 
 subject for medical and surgical consideration in a word, of actual 
 disease and its treatment ! It is not surprising that the intricate 
 and complicated apparatus of locomotion, with its symmetry and 
 harmony of movement and the perfection and beauty of its details 
 and adjuncts, should, by students of creative design and attentive 
 observers of nature and her marvelous contrivances and adaptations, 
 be admiringly denominated a lining machine. 
 
 The horse in a state of domesticity is of all the animal tribe the 
 largest sharer with his master in his liability to the accidents and dan- 
 gers which are among the incidents of civili/ed life. From his expo- 
 sure to the missiles of war on the battlefield to his chance of picking 
 up a nail from the city pavement there is no hour when he is not in 
 danger of incurring injuries which for their repair may demand the 
 best skill of the veterinary practitioner. And this is true not alone of 
 casualties which belong to the class of external and traumatic cases, 
 but includes as well those of a kind perhaps more numerous, which 
 274
 
 LAMENESS. 275 
 
 may result in lesions of internal parts, frequently the most serious and 
 obscure of all in their nature and effects. 
 
 The horse is too important a factor in the practical details of human 
 life and fills too large a place in the business and pleasure of the 
 world to justify any indifference to his needs and physical comfort 
 or neglect in respect to the preservation of his peculiar powers for 
 usefulness. In entering somewhat largely, therefore, upon a review 
 of the subject, and treating in detail of the causes, the -symptoms, the 
 progress, the treatment, the results, and the consequences of lameness 
 in the horse, we are performing a duty which needs no word of 
 apology or justification. The subject explains and justifies itself, 
 and of its own vindication and illustration, if any are needed. 
 
 The function of locomotion is performed by the action of two prin- 
 cipal systems of organs, known in anatomical and physiological 
 terminology as passive and active, the muscles performing the active 
 and the bones the passive portion of the movement. The necessary 
 connection between the cooperating parts of the organism is effected 
 by means of a vital contact by which the muscle is attached to the 
 bone at certain determinate points on the surface of the latter. 
 These points of attachment appear sometimes as an eminence, some- 
 times a depression, sometimes a border or an angle, or again as a 
 mere roughness, but each perfectly fulfilling its purpose; while the 
 necessary motion is provided for by the formation of the ends of the 
 long bones into the requisite articulations, joints, or hinges. Every 
 motion is the product of the contraction of one or more of the 
 muscles, which, as it acts upon the bony levers, gives rise to a move- 
 ment of extension or flexion, abduction or adduction, rotation or cir- 
 cumduction. The movement of abduction is that which passes from 
 and that of adduction that which passes toward the median line, or 
 the center of the body. The movement of flexion and extension are 
 too well understood to need defining. It is the combination and 
 rapid alternations of these movements which produce the different 
 postures and various gaits of the living animal, and it is their inter- 
 ruption and derangement, from whatsoever cause, which constitute 
 the pathological condition of lameness. 
 
 A concise examination of the general anatomy of these organs, how- 
 ever, must precede the consideration of the pathological questions 
 pertaining to the subject. A statement, such as we have just given, 
 containing only the briefest hint of matters which, though not neces- 
 sarily in their ultimate scientific minutia?, must be clearly compre- 
 hended in order to acquire a symmetrical and satisfactory view of the 
 theme as a practical collation of facts to be remembered, analyzed, 
 applied, and utilized. 
 
 It was the great Bacon who wrote : u The human body may be 
 compared, from its complex and delicate organization, to a musical
 
 276 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 instrument of the most perfect construction, but exceedingly liable 
 to derangement." In its degree the remark is equally applicable to 
 the equine body, and if we would keep it in tune and profit by its 
 harmonious action we must at least acquaint ourselves with the 
 relations of its parts and the mode of their cooperation. 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 The bones, then, are the hard organs which in their connection and 
 totality constitute the skeleton of an animal. They are of various 
 forms, three of which the long, the flat, and the small are recog- 
 nized in the extremities. These are more or less regular in their form, 
 but present upon their surfaces a variety of aspects, exhibiting in 
 turn, according to the requirement of each case, a roughened or smooth 
 surface, variously marked with grooves, crests, eminences, and depres- 
 sions, for the necessary muscular attachments, and, as before men- 
 tioned, are connected by articulations and joints, of -which some are 
 immovable and others of a movable kind. 
 
 The substance of the bones is composed of a mass of combined 
 earthy and animal matter, surrounded by a fine, fibrous enveloping 
 membrane (the periosteum) which is intimately adherent to the ex- 
 ternal surface of the bone, and is, in fact, the secreting membrane of 
 the bony structure. The bony tissue proper is of two consistencies, 
 the external portion being hard and " compact," and called by the 
 latter term, while the internal, known as the " spongy," or " areolar 
 tissue," corresponds with the descriptive terms. Those of the bones 
 which possess this latter consistency contain also, in their spongy por- 
 tion, the medullary substance known as marrow, which is deposited in 
 large quantities in the interior of the long bones, and especially where 
 a central cavity exists, called, for that reason, the medullary cavity. 
 The nourishment of the bones is effected by means of what is known 
 as the nutrient foramen, an opening established for the passage of the 
 blood vessels which convey the necessary nourishment to the interior 
 of the organ. There are other minutiae concerning the nourishment of 
 the skeleton, such as the venous arrangement and the classification 
 of their arterial vessels into several orders, which, though of interest 
 as an abstract study, are not of sufficient practical value to refer to 
 here. 
 
 The active organs of locomotion, the muscles, speaking generally, 
 form the fleshy covering of the external part of the skeleton and 
 surround the bones of the extremities. They vary greatly in shape 
 and size, being flat, triangular, long, short, or broad, and are 
 variously and capriciously named, some from their shape, some from 
 their situation, and others from their use, and thus we have abductors 
 and adductors, the pyramidal and orbicular, the digastricus, the 
 vastus, and so on. Those which are under the control of the will,
 
 ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 277 
 
 known as- the voluntary muscles, appear in the form of fleshy 
 structures, red in color, and with fibers of various degrees of fineness, 
 and are composed of fasciculi, or bundles of fibers, united by con- 
 nective or cellular tissue, each fasciculus being composed of smaller 
 ones, less in size, but united in a similar manner to compose the 
 larger formations, each of which is enveloped by a structure of similar 
 nature known as the sarcolemma. Many of the muscles are united to 
 the bones by the direct contact of their fleshy fibers, but, in other 
 instances, the body of the muscle is more or less gradually trans- 
 formed into a cordy or membranous structure known as the tendon 
 or sinew, and the attachment is made by very short fibrous threads 
 through the medium of a long tendinous band, which, passing from 
 a single one to several other of the bones, effects its object at a point 
 far distant from its original attachment. In thus carrying its action 
 from one bone to another, or from one region of a limb to another, 
 these tendons must necessarily have smooth surfaces over which to 
 glide, either upon the bones themselves or formed at their articula- 
 tions, and this need is supplied by the secretion of the synovial fluid, 
 a yellowish, unctuous substance, furnished by a peculiar tendinous 
 synovial sac designed for. the purpose. 
 
 Illustrations in point of the agency of the synovial fluid in assisting 
 the sliding movements of the tendons may be found under their vari- 
 ous forms at the shoulder joint, at the upper part of the bone of the 
 arm, at the posterior part of the knee joint, and also at the fetlocks, 
 on their posterior part. 
 
 As the tendons, whether singly or in company with others, pass 
 over these natural pulleys they are retained in place by strong fibrous 
 bands or sheaths, which are b}^ no means exempt from danger of 
 injury, as will be readily inferred from a consideration of their im- 
 portant special use as supports and reenforcements of the tendons 
 themselves, with which they must necessarily share the stress of what- 
 ever force or strain is brought to bear upon both or either. 
 
 We have referred to that special formation of the external surface 
 of a bone by which it is adapted to form a joint or articulation, 
 either movable or fixed, and a concise examination of the formation 
 and structure of the movable articulations will here be in place. 
 These are formed generally by the extremities of the long bones, or 
 may exist on the surfaces of the short ones. The points or regions 
 where the contact occurs is denominated the articular surface, which 
 assumes from this circumstance a considerable variety of aspect and 
 form, being in one case comparatively flat and another elevated; or 
 as forming a protruding head or knob, with a distinct convexity ; and 
 again presenting a corresponding depression or cavity, accurately 
 adapted to complete, by their coaptation, the ball and socket joint. 
 The articulation of the arm and shoulder is an example of the first
 
 278 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 kind, while that of the hip with the thigh bone is a perfect exhibition 
 of the latter. 
 
 The structure whose office is to retain the articulating surfaces in 
 place is the ligament. This is usually a white, fibrous, inelastic 
 tissue; sometimes, however, it is elastic in character and yellowish. 
 In some instances it is funicular shaped or corded, serving to bind 
 more firmly together the bones to which its extremities are attached ; 
 in others it consists of a broad membrane, wholly or partially sur- 
 rounding the broad articulations, and calculated rather for the pro- 
 tection of the cavity from intrusion by the air than for other security. 
 This latter form, known as capsular, is usually found in connection 
 with joints which possess a free and extended movement. The 
 capsular and funicular ligaments are sometimes associated, the cap- 
 sular appearing as a membranous sac wholly or partially inclosing 
 the joint; the funicular, here known as an interarticular ligament, 
 occupying the interior, and thus securing the union of the several 
 bones more firmly and effectively than would be possible for the cap- 
 sular ligament unassisted. 
 
 The universal need which pertains to all mechanical contrivances 
 of motion has not been forgotten while providing for the perfect 
 working of the interesting piece of living machinery which performs 
 the function of locomotion, as we are contemplating it, and nature 
 has consequently provided for obviating the evils of attrition and 
 friction, and insuring the easy play and smooth movement of its 
 parts, by the establishment of the secretion of the synovia, the vital 
 lubricant of which we have before spoken, as a yellow, oily, or 
 rather glairy secretion, which performs the indispensable office of 
 facilitating the play of the tendons over the joints and certain given 
 points of the bones. This fluid, which is deposited in a containing 
 sac, the lining (serous) membrane of which forms the secreting 
 organ, is of an excessively sensitive nature, and while it lines the 
 inner face of the ligaments, both capsular and fascicular, is attached 
 only upon the edges of the bones without extending upon their 
 length, or between the layers of cartilage which lie between the bones 
 and their articular surfaces. 
 
 Our object in thus partially and concisely reviewing the structure 
 and condition of the essential organs of locomotion has been rather 
 to outline a sketch which may serve as a reference chart of the gen- 
 eral features of the subject than to offer a minute description of the 
 parts referred to. Other points of interest will receive due attention 
 as we proceed with the illustration of our subject and examine the 
 matters which it most concerns us to bring under consideration. The 
 foundation of facts which we have thus far prepared will be found 
 sufficiently broad, we trust, to include whatever may be necessary to 
 insure a ready comprehension of the essential matters which are to
 
 DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. 279 
 
 follow as our review is carried forward to completion. What we 
 have said touching these elementary truths will probably be sufficient 
 to facilitate a clear understanding of the requirements essential to 
 the perfection and regularity which characterize the normal perform- 
 ance of the various movements which result in the accomplishment of 
 the action of locomotion. So long as the bones, the muscles and their 
 tendons, the joints with their cartilages, their ligaments and their 
 synovial structure, the nerves and the controlling influences which 
 they exercise over all, with the blood vessels which distribute to every 
 part, however minute, the vitalizing fluid which sustains the whole 
 fabric in being and activity so long as these various constituents and 
 adjuncts of animal life preserve their normal exemption from disease, 
 traumatism, and pathological change, the function of locomotion will 
 continue to be performed with perfection and efficiency. 
 
 But on the other hand, let any element of disease become implanted 
 in one or several of the parts destined for combined action, any change 
 or irregularity of form, dimensions, location, or action occur in any 
 portion of the apparatus any obstruction or misdirection of vital 
 power take place, any interference with the order of the phenomena 
 of normal nature, any loss of harmony and lack of balance be be- 
 trayed and we have in the result the condition of lameness. 
 
 DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. 
 
 Physiology. Comprehensively and universally considered, then, 
 the term lameness signifies any irregularity or derangement of the 
 function of locomotion, irrespective of the cause which produced it or 
 the degree of its manifestation. However slightly or severely it may 
 be exhibited, it is all the same. The nicest observation may be 
 demanded for its detection, and it may need the most thoroughly 
 trained powers of discernment to identify and locate it, as in cases 
 where the animal is said to be fainting, tender, or to go sore. On the 
 contrary, the patient may be so far affected as to refuse utterly to use 
 an injured leg, and under compulsory motion keep it raised from the 
 ground, and prefer to travel on three legs rather than to bear any por- 
 tion of his weight upon the afflicted member. In these two extremes, 
 and in all the intermediate degrees, the patient is simply lame 
 pathognomonic minutiae being considered and settled in a place of 
 their own. 
 
 This last condition of disabled function lameness on three legs 
 and many of the lower degrees of simple lameness are very easy of 
 detection, but the first, or mere tenderness or soreness, may be very 
 difficult to identify, and at times very serious results have followed 
 from the obscurity which has enveloped the early stages of the malady. 
 For it may easily occur that in the absence of the treatment which an 
 early correct diagnosis would have indicated, an insidious ailment
 
 280 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 may so take advantage of the lapse of time as to root itself too deeply 
 into the economy to be subverted, and become transformed into a 
 disabling chronic case, or possibly one that is incurable and fatal. 
 Hence the impolicy of depreciating early symptoms because they are 
 unaccompanied by distinct and pronounced characteristics, and from 
 a lack of threatening appearances inferring the absence of danger. 
 The possibilities of an ambush can never be safely ignored. An extra 
 caution costs nothing, even if wasted. The fulfillment of the first 
 duty of a practitioner, when introduced to a case, is not always an 
 easy task, though it is too frequently expected that the diagnosis, or 
 " what is the matter " verdict, will be reached by the quickest and 
 surest kind of an "instantaneous process" and a sure prognosis, or 
 " how will it end," guessed at instanter. 
 
 Usually the discovery that the animal is becoming lame is compar- 
 atively an easy matter to a careful observer. Such a person will 
 readily note the changes of movements which will have taken place 
 in the animal he has been accustomed to drive or ride, unless they 
 are indeed slight and limited to the last degree. But what is not 
 always easy is the detection, after discovering the fact of an existing 
 irregularity, of the locality of its point of origin, and whether its 
 seat be in the near or off leg, or in the fore or the hind part of the 
 body. These are questions too often wrongly answered, notwith- 
 standing the fact that with a little careful scrutiny the point may be 
 easily settled. The error, which is too often committed, of pronounc- 
 ing the leg upon which the animal travels soundly as the seat of the 
 lameness, is the result of a misinterpretation of the physiology of 
 locomotion in the crippled animal. Much depends upon the gait with 
 which the animal moves while under examination. The act of walk 
 ing is unfavorable for accurate observation, though, if the animal 
 walks on three legs, the decision is easy to reach. The action of gal- 
 loping will often, by the rapidity of the muscular movements and 
 their quick succession, interfere with a nice study of their rhythm, and 
 it is only under some peculiar circumstances that the examination can 
 be safely conducted while the animal is moving with that gait. It is 
 while the animal is trotting that the investigation is made with the 
 best chances of an intelligent decision, and it is while moving with 
 that gait, therefore, that the points should be looked for which must 
 form the elements of the diagnosis. 
 
 Our first consideration should be the physiology of normal or 
 healthy locomotion, that from thence we may the more easily reach 
 our conclusions touching lameness, or that which is abnormal, and 
 by this process we ought to succeed in obtaining a clew to the solution 
 of the first problem, to wit, in which leg is the seat of the lameness? 
 
 A word of definition is here necessary, in order to render that which 
 follows more easily intelligible. In veterinary nomenclature each
 
 DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. 281 
 
 two of the legs, as referred to in pairs, is denominated a biped. Of 
 the four points occupied by the feet of the animal while standing 
 at rest, forming a square, the two fore legs are known as the anterior 
 biped ; the two hinder, the posterior; the two on one side, the lateral; 
 and one of either the front or hind biped with the opposite leg of 
 the hind or front biped will form the diagonal biped. 
 
 Considering, as it is proper to do, that in a condition of health each 
 separate biped and each individual leg is required to perform an 
 equal and uniform function and to carry an even or equal portion of 
 the weight of the body, it will be readily appreciated that the result 
 of this distribution will be a regular, evenly balanced, and smooth 
 displacement of the body thus supported by the four legs, and that 
 therefore, according to the rapidity of the motion in different gaits, 
 each single leg will be required at certain successive moments to bear 
 the weight which had rested upon its congener while it was itself in 
 the air, in the act of moving; or, again, two different legs of a biped 
 may be called upon to bear the weight of the two legs of the opposite 
 biped while also -in the air in the act of moving. 
 
 To simplify the matter by an illustration, the weight of an animal 
 may be placed at 1,000 pounds, of which each leg, in a normal and 
 healthy condition, supports while at rest 250 pounds. When one of 
 the fore legs is in action, or in the air, and carrying no weight, its 250 
 pounds share of the weight will be thrown upon its congener, or part- 
 ner, to sustain. If the two legs of a biped are both in action and 
 raised from the ground, their congeners still resting in inaction, will 
 carry the total weight of the other two, or 500 pounds. And as the 
 succession of movements continues, and the change from one leg to 
 another or from one biped to another, as may be required by the gait, 
 proceeds, there will result a smooth, even, and equal balancing of 
 active movements, shifting the weight from one leg or one biped to 
 another, with symmetrical precision, and we shall be presented with 
 an interesting example of the play of vital mechanics in a healthy 
 organization. 
 
 Much may be learned from the accurate study of the action of a 
 single leg. Normally, its movements will be without variation or 
 failure. When at rest it will easily sustain the weight assigned to it, 
 without showing hesitancy or betraying pain, and when it is raised 
 from the ground in order to transfer the weight to its mate, it will 
 perform the act in such a manner that when it is again placed upon the 
 ground to rest it will be with a firm tread, indicative of its ability to 
 receive again the burden to be thrown back upon it. In planting it 
 upon the ground or raising it up again for the forward movement 
 while in action, and again replanting it upon the earth, each move- 
 ment will be the same for each leg and for each biped, whether the 
 act be that of walking or trotting, or even of galloping. In short, the
 
 282 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 regular play of every part of the apparatus will testify to the exist- 
 ence of that condition of orderly soundness and efficient activity 
 eloquently suggestive of the condition of vital integrity, which is 
 simply but comprehensively expressed by the terms health and 
 soundness. 
 
 But let some change, though slight and obscure, occur among the 
 elements of the case; some invisible agency of evil intrude among 
 the harmonizing processes going forward ; any disorder occur in the 
 relations of cooperating parts; anything appear to neutralize the 
 efficiency of vitalizing forces; any disability of a limb to accept and 
 to throw back upon its mate the portion of the weight which belongs 
 to it to sustain present itself, whether as the effect of traumatic acci- 
 dents or otherwise; in short, let anything develop which tends to 
 defeat the purpose of nature in organizing the locomotive apparatus, 
 at once we are confronted by that which may be looked upon as a 
 cause of lameness. 
 
 Not the least of the facts which it is important to remember is that 
 it is not sufficient to look for the manifestation of an. existing discord- 
 ance in the action of the affected limb alone, but that it is shared by 
 the sound one, and must be searched for in that as well as the halting 
 member, if the hazard of an error is to be avoided. The mode of 
 action of the leg which is the seat of the lameness will vary greatly 
 from that which it exhibited when in a healthy condition, and the 
 sound leg will also offer important modifications in the same three 
 particulars before alluded to, to wit, that of resting on the ground, 
 that of its elevation and forward motion, and that of striking the 
 ground again when the full action of stepping is accomplished. 
 Inability in the lame leg to sustain weight will imply excessive exer- 
 tion by the sound one, and lack of facility or disposition to rest the 
 lame member on the ground will necessitate a longer continuance of 
 that action on the sound side. Changes in the act of elevating the 
 leg, or of carrying it forward, or in both, will present entirely oppo- 
 site conditions between the two. The lame member will be elevated 
 rapidly, moved care fully -forward, and returned to the ground with 
 caution and hesitancy, and the contact with the earth will be effected 
 as lightly as possible, while the sound limb will rest longer on the 
 ground, move boldly and rapidly forward, and strike the ground 
 promptly and forcibly. All this is due to the fact that the sound 
 member carries more than its normal, healthy share of the weight of 
 the body, a share which may be in excess from 1 to 250 pounds, and 
 thus bring its burden to a figure varying from 251 to 500 pounds, all 
 depending upon the degree of the existing lameness, whether it is 
 simply a slight tenderness or soreness, or whether the trouble has 
 reached a stage which compels the patient to the awkwardness of 
 traveling on three legs. 
 
 That all this is not mere theory, but rests on a foundation of fact
 
 HOW TO DETECT LAMENESS. 283 
 
 may be established by observing the manifestations attending a single 
 alteration in the balancing of the body. In health the support and 
 equilibrium of that mass of the body which is borne by the fore legs 
 is equalized, and passes by regular alternations from the right to the 
 left side, and vice versa. But if the left leg, becoming disabled, 
 relieves itself by leaning, as it were, on the right, the latter becomes, 
 consequently, practically heavier, and the mass of the body will 
 incline or settle upon that side. Lameness of the left side, therefore, 
 means dropping or settling on the right, and vice versa. We empha- 
 size this statement and insist upon it, the more from the frequency 
 of the instances of error which have come under our notice, in which 
 parties have insisted upon their view that the leg which is the seat of 
 the lameness is that upon which he drops, and which the animal is 
 usually supposed to favor. 
 
 HOW TO DETECT THE SEAT OF LAMENESS. 
 
 Properly appreciating the remarks which have preceded, and fully 
 comprehending the modus operandi and the true pathology of lame- 
 ness, but little remains to be done in order to reach an answer to the 
 question as to which side of the animal the lameness is seated, except 
 to examine the patient while in action. We have already stated our 
 reasons for preferring the movement of trotting for this purpose. In 
 conducting such an examination the animal should be unblanketed, 
 and held by a plain halter in the hands of a man who knows how to 
 manage his paces, and the trial should always be made over a firm, 
 hard road whenever such is available. He is to be examined from 
 various positions from before, from behind, and from each side. 
 Watching him as he approaches, as he passes by, and as he recedes, 
 the observer should carefully study that important action which we 
 have spoken of as the dropping of the body upon one extremity or the 
 other, and this can readily be detected by attending closely to the 
 motions of the head and of the hip. The head drops on the same side 
 on which the mass of the body will fall, dropping toward the right 
 when the lameness is in the left fore leg, and the hip dropping in pos- 
 terior lameness, also on the sound leg, the reversal of the conditions', 
 of course, producing reversed effects. In other words, when the ani- 
 mal in trotting exhibits signs of irregularity of action, or lameness, 
 and this irregularity is accompanied by dropping or nodding the 
 head, or depressing the hip on the right side of the body, at the time 
 the feet of the right side strike the ground, the horse is lame on the left 
 side. If the dropping and nodding are on the near side the lameness 
 is on the off side. 
 
 But in a majority of cases the answer to the first question relating 
 to the lameness of a horse is, after all, not a very difficult task. There 
 are two other problems in the case more difficult of solution and which
 
 284 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 often require the exercise of a closer scrutiny, and draw upon all the 
 resources of the experienced practitioner to settle satisfactorily. That 
 a horse is lame in a given leg may be easily determined, but when it 
 becomes necessary to pronounce upon the query as to what part, what 
 region, what structure is affected, the easy part of the task is over, 
 and the more difficult and important, because more obscure, portion 
 of the investigation has commenced except, of course, in cases of 
 which the features are too distinctly evident to the senses to admit of 
 error. It is true that by carefully noting the manner in which a lame 
 leg is performing its functions, and closely scrutinizing the motions 
 of the whole extremity, and especially of the various joints which 
 enter into its structure; by minutely examining every part of the 
 limb; by observing the outlines; by testing the change, if any, in 
 temperature and the state of the sensibility all these investigations 
 may guide the surgeon to a correct localization of the seat of trouble, 
 but he must carefully refrain from the adoption of a hasty conclusion, 
 and, above all, assure himself that he has not failed to make the foot, 
 of all the organs of the horse the most liable to injury and lesion, the 
 subject of the most thorough and minute examination of all the parts 
 which compose the suffering extremity. 
 
 The greater liability of the foot than of any other part of the 
 extremities to injury from casualties, natural to its situation and use, 
 should always suggest the beginning of an inquiry, especially in an 
 obscure case of lameness at that point. Indeed the lameness may 
 have an apparent location elsewhere when that is the true seat of 
 the trouble, and the surgeon who, while examining his lame patient, 
 discovers a ringbone, and satisfying himself that he has encountered 
 the cause of the disordered action suspends his investigation without 
 subjecting the foot to a close scrutiny, may deeply regret his neglect 
 and inadvertence at a later day, when regrets will avail nothing 
 toward remedying the irreparable injury which has ensued upon his 
 partial method of exploration. But, as in human pathological experi- 
 ence, there are instances when inscrutable diseases will deliver their 
 fatal messages, while leaving no mark and making no sign by which 
 they might l>e identified and classified, so it will happen that in the 
 humbler animals the onset and progress of mysterious and unrecogniz- 
 able ailments will at times baffle the most skilled veterinarian, and 
 leave our burden-bearing servants to succumb to the inevitable, and 
 suffer and perish in unrelieved distress. 
 
 DISEASES OF BONES. 
 PERIOSTITIS, 08TITI8, AND EXO8TO8I8. 
 
 From the closeness and intimacy of the connection existing between 
 the two principal elements of the bony structure while in health, it 
 frequently becomes exceedingly difficult, when a state of disease has 
 supervened, to discriminate accurately as to the part primarily af-
 
 DISEASES OF THE BONES. 285 
 
 fected, and to determine positively whether the periosteum or the 
 body of the bone is originally implicated. Yet a knowledge of the 
 fact is often of the first importance, in order to secure a favorable 
 result from the treatment to be instituted. It is, however, quite evi- 
 dent that in a majority of instances the bony growths which so fre- 
 quently appear on the surface of their structure, to which the general 
 term of exostosis is applied, have had their origin in an inflammation 
 of the periosteum, or enveloping membrane, and known as periostitis. 
 However this may be, we have as a frequent result, sometimes on the 
 body of the bone, sometimes at the extremities, and sometimes involv- 
 ing the articulation itself, certain bony growths, or exostoses, known 
 otherwise by the term splint, ringbone, and spavin, all of which, in an 
 important sense, may be finally referred to the periosteum as their 
 nutrient source and support, at least after their formation, if not for 
 their incipient existence. 
 
 Cause. It is certain that inflammation of the periosteum is fre- 
 quently referable to wounds and bruises caused by external agencies, 
 and it is also true that it may possibly result from the spreading 
 inflammation of surrounding diseased tissues, but in any case the 
 result is uniformly seen in the deposit of a bony growth, more or less 
 diffuse, sometimes of irregular outline, and at others projecting dis- 
 tinctly from the surface from which it springs, as so commonly pre- 
 sented in the ringbone and the spavin. 
 
 Symptoms. This condition of periostitis is often difficult to deter- 
 mine. The signs of inflammation are so obscure, the swelling of the 
 parts so insignificant, any increase of heat so imperceptible, and the 
 soreness so slight, that even the most acute observer may fail to locate 
 the point of its existence, and it is often long after the discovery of 
 the disease itself that its location is positively revealed by the visible 
 presence of the exostosis. Yet the first question had been resolved, 
 in discovering the fact of the lameness, while the second and third 
 remained unanswered, and the identification of the affected limb 
 and the point of origin of the trouble remained unknown until their 
 palpable revelation to the senses. 
 
 Treatment. When, by careful scrutiny, the ailment has been 
 located, a resort to treatment must be had at once, in order to pre- 
 vent, if possible, any further deposit of the calcareous structure and 
 increase of the exostotic growth. With this view the application of 
 water, either warm or cold, rendered astringent by the addition of 
 alum or sugar of lead, will be beneficial. The* tendency to the forma- 
 tion of the bony growth, and the increase of its development after 
 its actual formation, may often be checked by the application of a 
 severe blister of Spanish fly. The failure of these means and the 
 establishment of the diseased process in the form of chronic perios- 
 titis cause various changes in the bone covered by the disordered
 
 286 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 membrane, and the result may be softening, degeneration, or necro- 
 sis, but more usually it is followed by the formation of the bony 
 growths referred to, on the cannon bone, the coronet, the hock, etc. 
 
 SPLINTS. 
 
 We first turn our attention to the splint, as certain bony enlarge- 
 ments which are developed on the cannon bone, between the knee or 
 the hock and the fetlock joint, are called. They are found on the 
 inside of the leg, from the knee, near to which they are frequently 
 found, downward to about the lower third of the principal cannon 
 bone. They are of various dimensions, and are readily perceptible 
 both to the eye and to the touch. They vary considerably in size, 
 ranging from that of a large nut downward to very small proportions. 
 In searching for them they may be readily detected by the hand if 
 they have attained sufficient development in their usual situation, but 
 must be distinguished from a small bony enlargement which may be 
 felt at the lower third of the cannon bone, which is neither a splint 
 nor a pathological formation of any kind, but merely the buttonlike 
 enlargement at the lower extremity of the small metacarpal or splint 
 bone. 
 
 We have said that splints are to be found on the inside of the leg. 
 This is true as a general statement, but it is not invariably so, and 
 they occasionally appear on the outside. It is also true that they 
 appear most commonly on the fore legs, but this is not exclusively the 
 case, and they may at times be found on both the inside and outside 
 of the hind leg. Usually a splint forms only a true exostosis, or a 
 single bony growth, with a somewhat diffuse base, but neither is this 
 invariably the case. In some instances they assume more important 
 dimensions, and pass from the inside to the outside of the bone, on 
 its posterior face, between that and the suspensory ligament. This 
 form is termed the pegged splint, and constitutes a serious and per- 
 manent deformity, in consequence of its interference with the play 
 of the fibrous cord which passes behind it, becoming thus a source of 
 continual irritation and consequently of permanent lameness. 
 
 Symptoms. A splint may thus frequently become a cause of lame- 
 ness though not necessarily in every instance; but it is a lameness 
 possessing features peculiar to itself. It is not always continuous, 
 but at times assumes an intermittent character, and is more marked 
 when the animal is warm than when he is cool. If the lameness is 
 near tire kneejoint, it is very apt to become aggravated when the 
 animal is put to work, and the gait acquires then a peculiar character, 
 arising from the manner in which the limb is carried outward from 
 the knees downward, which is done by a kind of abduction of the 
 lower part of the leg. Other symptoms, however, than the lameness 
 and the presence of the splint, which is its cause, may be looked for 
 in the same connection as those which have been mentioned as per-
 
 SPLINTS. 287 
 
 taining to certain evidences of periostitis, in the increase of the 
 temperature of the part, with swelling and probably pain on pres- 
 sure. This last symptom is of no little importance, since its presence 
 or absence has in many cases formed the determining point in decid- 
 ing a question of difficult diagnosis. 
 
 Cause. A splint being one of the results of periostitis, and the 
 latter one of the effects of external hurts, it naturally follows that 
 the parts which are most exposed to blows and collisions will be those 
 on which the splint will most commonly be found, and it may not be 
 improper, therefore, to refer to hurts from without as among the 
 common causes of the lesion. But other causes may also be produc- 
 tive of the evil, and among these may be mentioned the overstraining 
 of an immature organism by the imposition of excessive labor upon a 
 young animal at a too early period of his life. The bones which enter 
 into the formation of the cannon are three in number, one large and 
 two smaller, which, during the youth of the animal, are more or less 
 articulated, with a limited amount of mobility, but which become in 
 maturity firmly joined by a rigid union and ossification of their 
 interarticular surface. If the immature animal is compelled, then, 
 to perform exacting tasks beyond his strength, the inevitable result 
 will follow in the muscular straining, and perhaps tearing asunder 
 of the fibers which unite the bones at their points of juncture, and it 
 is difficult to understand how inflammation or periostitis can fail to 
 develop as the natural consequence of such local irritation. If the 
 result were deliberately and intelligently designed, it could hardly 
 be more effectually accomplished. 
 
 The splint is an object of the commonest occurrence so common, 
 indeed, that in large cities a horse which can not exhibit one or more 
 specimens upon some portion of his extremities is one of the rarest of 
 spectacles. Though it is in some instances a cause of lameness, and 
 its discovery and cure are sometimes beyond the ability of the shrewd- 
 est and most experienced veterinarians, yet as a source of vital danger 
 to the general equine organization, or even of functional disturbance, 
 or of practical inconvenience, aside from the rare exceptional -cases 
 which exist as mere samples of possibility, it can not be considered to 
 belong to the category of serious lesions. The worst stigma that at- 
 taches to it is that in general estimation it is ranked among eyesores 
 and continues indefinitely to be that and nothing different. The 
 inflammation in which they originated, acute at first, either subsides 
 or assumes the chronic form, and the bony growth becomes a perma- 
 nence more or less established, it is true, but doing no positive harm 
 and not hindering the animal from continuing his daily routine of 
 labor. All this, however, requires a proviso against the occurrence 
 of a subsequent acute attack, when, as with other exostoses, a fresh 
 access of acute symptoms may be followed by a new pathological
 
 288 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 activity, which shall again develop, as a natural result, a reappear- 
 ance of the lameness. 
 
 Treatment. It is, of course, the consideration of the comparative 
 harmlessness of splints that suggests and justifies the policy of non- 
 interference, except as they become a positive cause of lameness. And 
 a more positive argument fqr such noninterference consists in the 
 fact that any active and irritating treatment may so excite the parts 
 as to bring about a renewed pathological activity, which may result 
 in a reduplication of the phenomena, with a second edition, if not a 
 second and enlarged volume, of the whole story. For our part, our 
 faith is firm in the impolicy of interference, and this faith is founded 
 on an experience of many years, during which our practice has been 
 that of abstention. 
 
 Of course, there will be exceptional conditions which will at times 
 indicate a different course. These will become evident when the occa- 
 sions present themselves, and extraordinary forms and effects of 
 inflammation and growth in the tumors offer special indications. But 
 our conviction remains unshaken that surgical treatment of the oper- 
 ative kind is usually useless, if not dangerous. We have little faith 
 in the method of extirpation except under very special conditions, 
 among which that of diminutive size has been named, which seems in 
 itself to constitute a sufficient negative argument. But even in such 
 a case a resort to the knife or the gouge could scarcely find a justifi- 
 cation, since no operative procedure is ever without a degree of haz- 
 ard, to say nothing of the considerations which are always forcibly 
 negative in any question of the infliction of pain and the unnecessary 
 use of the knife. 
 
 If an acute periostitis of the cannon bone has been readily discov- 
 ered, the treatment we have already suggested for that ailment is 
 at once indicated, and the astringent lotions may be relied upon to 
 bring about beneficial results. Sometimes, however, preference may 
 be given to a lotion possessing a somewhat different quality, the alter- 
 ative consisting of tincture of iodine applied to the inflamed spot 
 several times daily. If the lameness persists under this mild course 
 of treatment, it must, of course, be attacked by other methods, and we 
 must resort to the cantharides ointment or Spanish-fly blister, as we 
 have before recommended. Besides this, and producing an analogous 
 effect, the compounds of biniodide of mercury are favored by some. 
 It is prepared in the form of an ointment, consisting of 1 dram of the 
 biniodide to 1 ounce of either lard or vaseline. It forms an excellent 
 blistering and alterative application, and is of special advantage in 
 newly formed or recently discovered exostosis. 
 
 It remains a pertinent query, however, and one which seems to be 
 easily answered, whether a tumor so diminutive in jdze that it can 
 only be detected by diligent search, and which is neither a disfigure-

 
 "i* ..--' 
 
 * - ii^J^Jr :-.~-~. **.<+*>
 
 RINGBONES. 289 
 
 ment nor an obstruction to the motion of the limb, need receive any 
 recognition whatever. Other modes of treatment for splints are rec- 
 ommended and practiced which belong strictly to the domain of oper- 
 ative veterinary surgery. Among these are to be reckoned actual 
 cauterization, or the application of the fire iron and the operation of 
 periosteotomy. These are frequently indicated in the treatment of 
 splints which have resisted milder means. 
 
 The mode of the development of their growth; their intimacy, 
 greater or less, with both the large and the small cannon bones; the 
 possibility of their extending to the back of these bones under the sus- 
 pensory ligament; the dangerous complications which may follow 
 the rough handling of the parts, with also a possibility, and indeed a 
 probability, of their return after removal these are the considera- 
 tions which have influenced our judgment in discarding from our 
 practice and our approval the method of removal by the saw or the 
 chisel, as recommended by certain European veterinarians. 
 
 KINOIIONKS. 
 
 This term forms the designation of the exostosis which is found on 
 the coronet and in the digital and phalangeal regions. The name is 
 appropriate, because the growth extends quite around the coronet, 
 which it encircles in the manner of a ring, or perhaps because it often 
 forms upon the back of that bone a regular osseous arch, through 
 which the back tendons obtain a passage. The places where these 
 growths are usually developed have caused their subdivision and 
 classification into three varieties, with the designations of high, 
 middle, and low, though much can not be said as to the importance of 
 such distinction. It is true that the ringbone or phalangeal exostosis 
 may be found at various points on the foot, in one case forming a 
 large bunch on the upper part and quite close to the fetlock joint ; in 
 another around the upper border of the hoof, or perhaps on the 
 extreme front or on the very back of the coronet. The shape in 
 which they commonly appear is favorable to their easy discovery, 
 their form when near the fetlock usually varying too much from the 
 natural outlines of the part when compared with those of the opposite 
 side to admit of error in the matter. (See also page 413.) 
 
 A ringbone when on the front of the foot, even when not very 
 largely developed, assumes the form of a diffused convex swelling. 
 If situated on the lower part, it will form a thick ring, encircling 
 that portion of the foot immediately above the hoof ; when found on 
 the posterior part, a small, sharp osseous growth somewhat project- 
 ing, sometimes on the inside and sometimes 011 the outside of the 
 coronet, may comprise the entire manifestation. 
 
 Cause. As with splints, ringbones may result from severe labor in 
 early life, before the process of ossification has been fully perfected ; 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 19
 
 290 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 or they may be referred to bruises, blows, sprains, or other violence ; 
 or injuries of tendons, ligaments, or joints may be among the account- 
 able causes. 
 
 It is certain that they may commonly be traced to diseases and 
 traumatic lesions of the foot, and their appearance may be reason- 
 ably anticipated among the sequelae of an abscess of the coronet; 
 or the cause may be a severe contusion resulting from calking, or a 
 deep-punctured wound from picking up a nail or stepping upon 
 any hard object of sufficiently irregular form to penetrate the sole. 
 
 Moreover, a ringbone may originate in heredity. This is a fact 
 of no little importance in its relation to questions connected with 
 the extensive interests of the stock breeder and purchaser. 
 
 That the hereditary transmission of constitutional idiosyncrasies 
 is an active cause with regard to diseases in general, it would be 
 absurd to claim, but we do claim that a predisposition to contract 
 ringbone due to faulty conformation, such as long, thin pasterns 
 with narrow joints and steep fetlocks, may be inherited in many 
 cases, and in a smaller proportion of cases this predisposition may 
 act as a secondary cause in the formation of ringbone. 
 
 The importance of this point when considered in reference to the 
 policy which should be observed in the selection of breeding stock 
 is obvious, and, as the whole matter is within the control of the own- 
 ers and breeders, it will be their own fault if the unchecked trans- 
 mission of ringbones from one equine generation to another shall bo 
 allowed to continue. It is our belief that among the diseases which 
 are known for their tendency to perpetuate and repeat themselves 
 by individual succession, those of the bony structures stand first, 
 and the inference from such a fact which would exclude every ani- 
 mal of doubtful soundness in its osseous apparatus from the stud list 
 and the brood farm is too plain for argument. 
 
 Symptoms. Periostitis of the phalanges is an ailment requiring 
 careful exploration and minute inspection for its discovery, and is 
 quite likely to result in a ringbone of which lameneas is the result. 
 The mode of its manifestation varies according to the state of de- 
 velopment of the diseased growth as affected by the circumstances 
 of its location and dimensions. It is commonly of the kind which, 
 in consequence of its intermittent character, is termed lameness when 
 cool, having the peculiarity of exhibiting itself when the animal 
 starts from the stable and of diminishing, if not entirely disappearing 
 after some distance of travel, to return to its original degree, if not 
 indeed a severer one, when he has again cooled off in his stable. 
 The size of the ringbone does not indicate the degree to which it 
 cripples the patient, but the position may, especially when it inter- 
 feres with the free movement of the tendons which pass behind and 
 in front of the foot. While a large ringbone will often interfere
 
 SIDEBONES. 291 
 
 but little with the motion of the limb, a smaller growth, if situated 
 under the tendon, may become the cause of considerable and con- 
 tinued pain. 
 
 A ringbone is doubtless a worse evil than a splint. Its growth, its 
 location, its tendency to increased development, its exposure to the 
 influence of causes of renewed danger, all tend to impart an unfavor- 
 able cast to the prognosis of a case and to emphasize the impor- 
 tance and the value of an early discovery of its presence and possible 
 growth. Even when the discovery has been made, it is often the 
 case that the truth has come to light too late for effectual treatment. 
 Months may have elapsed after the first manifestation of the lame- 
 ness before a discovery has been made of the lesion from which it 
 has originated, and there is no recall for the lapsed time. And by 
 the uncompromising seriousness of the discouraging prognosis must 
 the energy and severity of the treatment and the promptness of its 
 administration be measured. The periostitis has been overlooked; 
 any chance that might have existed for preventing its advance to the 
 chronic stage has been lost ; the osseous formation is established ; the 
 ringbone is a fixed fact, and the indications are urgent and pressing. 
 
 Treatment. The preventive treatment consists in keeping colts 
 well nourished and in trimming the hoof and shoeing to properly bal- 
 ance the foot, and thus prevent an abnormal strain on the ligaments. 
 Even after the ringbone has developed, a cure may sometimes be occa- 
 sioned by proper shoeing directed toward straightening the axis of 
 the foot as viewed from the side by making the wall of the hoof from 
 the coronet to the toe continuous with the line formed by the front 
 of the pastern. As long as inflammation of the periosteum and liga- 
 ments remains, a sharp blister of biniodide of mercury and canthari- 
 des may do good if the animal is allowed to rest for four or five 
 weeks. If this fails, some success may be accomplished by point 
 firing in two or three lines over the ringbone. It is necessary to touch 
 the hot iron well into the bone, as superficial firing does little good. 
 When all these measures have failed to remove the lameness, or when 
 the animal is not worth a long and uncertain treatment, a competent 
 veterinarian should be engaged to perform double neurectomy, high 
 or low, of the plantar nerves, or neurectomy of the median nerve as 
 indicated by the seat of the lesion. 
 
 SIDEBONES. 
 
 On each side of the bone of the hoof the coffinbone there are 
 normally two supplementary organs which are called the cartilages of 
 the foot. They are soft, and though in a degree elastic, yet somewhat 
 resisting, and are implanted on the lateral wings of the coffinbone. 
 Evidently their office is to assist in the elastic expansion and contrac- 
 tion of the posterior part of the hoof, and their healthy and normal
 
 292 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 action doubtless contributes in an important degree to the perfect per- 
 formance of the functions of that part of the leg. These organs are, 
 however, liable to undergo a process of disease which results in an 
 entire change in their properties, if not in their shape, by which they 
 acquire a character of hardness resulting from the deposit of earthy 
 substance in the intimate structure of the cartilage, and it is this 
 change, when its consummation has been effected, that brings to our 
 cognizance the diseased growth which has received the designation of 
 sidebones. They are situated on one or both sides of the leg, bulging 
 above the superior border of the hoof in the form of two hard bodies 
 composed of ossified cartilage, irregularly square in shape and un- 
 yielding under the pressure of the fingers. 
 
 Cause. Sidebones may be the result of a low inflammatory condi- 
 tion or of an acute attack as well, or may be caused by sprains, bruises, 
 or blows; or they may have their rise in certain diseases affecting the 
 foot proper, such as corns, quarter cracks, or quittor. The deposit of 
 calcareous matter in the cartilage is not always uniform, the base of 
 that organ near its line of union with the coffinbone being in some 
 cases its limit, while at other times it is diffused throughout its sub- 
 stance, the size and prominence of the growth varying much in 
 consequence. 
 
 Symptoms. It would naturally be inferred that the amount of 
 interference with the proper functions of the hoof which must result 
 from such a pathological change would be proportioned to the size of 
 the tumor, and that as the dimensions increased, the resulting lame- 
 ness would be the greater in degree. This, however, is not the fact. 
 A small tumor, while in a condition of acute inflammation during the 
 formative stage, may cripple a patient more severely than a much 
 larger one in a later stage of the disease. In any case the lameness is . 
 never wanting, and with its intermittent character may usually be 
 detected when the animal is cooled off after labor or exercise. The 
 class of animals in which this feature of the disease is most frequently 
 witnessed is that of the heavy draft horse, and others similarly em- 
 ployed. There is a wide margin of difference in respect to the degrees 
 of severity which ma} 7 characterize different cases of sidebone. While 
 one may be so slight as to cause no inconvenience, another may de- 
 velop elements of danger which may involve the necessity of severe 
 surgical interference. 
 
 Treatment. The curative treatment should be similar to the pro- 
 phylactic, and uch means should be used as would tend to prevent 
 the deposit of bony matters by checking the acute inflammation which 
 causes it. ' The means recommended are the free use of the cold bath ; 
 frequent soaking of the feet, and at a later period treatment with 
 iodine, either by painting the surface with the tincture several times 
 daily or by apply ing an ointment made by mixing 1 dram of the
 
 SPAVIN. 293 
 
 crystals with 2 ounces of vaseline, rubbed in once a day for several 
 days. If this proves to be ineffective, a Spanish fly blister, to which 
 a few grains of biniodide of mercury have been added, will, in a 
 majority of cases, effect the desired result and remove the lameness. 
 If, finally, this treatment is ineffectual, the case must be relegated to 
 the surgeon for the operation of neurectomy, or the free and deep 
 application of the firing iron. 
 
 SPAVIN. 
 
 This affection, popularly termed bone spavin, is an exostosis of the 
 hock joint. The general impression is that in a spavined hock the 
 bony growth should be seated on the anterior and internal part of 
 the joint, and this is partially correct, as such a growth will constitute 
 a spavin in the most correct sense of the term. But an enlargement 
 may appear on the upper part of the hock also, or possibly a little 
 below the inner side of the lower extremity of the shank bone, form- 
 ing what is known as a high spavin,- or, again, the growth may form 
 just on the outside of the hock and become an outside, or .external, 
 spavin. And, finally, the entire under surface may become the seat 
 of the osseous deposit, and involve the articular face of all the bones 
 of the hock, and this again is a bone spavin. There would seem, then, 
 to be but little difficulty in comprehending the nature of a bone 
 spavin, and there would be none but for the fact that there are similar 
 affections which might confuse one if the diagnosis is not very care- 
 fully made. 
 
 But the hock may be " spavined," while to all outward observation 
 it still retains its perfect form. With no eidargement perceptible to 
 sight or touch the animal may yet be disabled by an occult spavin, 
 an anchylosis in fact, which has resulted from a union of several 
 of the bones of the joint, and it is only those who are able to realize 
 the importance of its action to the perfect fulfillment of the function 
 of locomotion by the hind leg who can comprehend the gravity of the 
 only prognosis which can be justified by the facts of the case a prog- 
 nosis which is essentially a sentence of serious import in respect to 
 the future usefulness and value of the animal. For no disease, if 
 we except those acute inflammatory attacks upon vital organs to 
 which the patient succumbs at once, is more destructive to the useful- 
 ness and value of a horse than a confirmed spavin. Serious in its 
 inception, serious in its progress, it is an ailment which, when once 
 established, becomes a fixed condition which there is no known 
 means of dislodging. 
 
 Cause. The periostitis, of which it is nearly always a termination, 
 is usually the effect of a traumatic cause operating upon the compli- 
 cated structure of the hock, such as a sprain which has torn a liga- 
 mentous insertion and lacerated some of its fibers ; or a violent effort 
 in jumping, galloping, or trotting, to which the victim has been com- 
 pelled by the torture of whip and spur while in use as a gambling
 
 294 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 implement by a sporting owner, under the pretext of " improving his 
 breed ; " or the extra exertion of starting an inordinately heavy load ; 
 or an effort to recover his balance from a misstep ; or slipping upon 
 an icy surface ; or sliding with worn shoes upon a bad pavement, and 
 other kindred causes. And we can repeat here what we have before 
 said concerning bones, in respect to heredity as a cause. From our 
 own experience we know of equine families in which this condition 
 has been transmitted from generation to generation, and animals 
 otherwise of excellent conformation rendered valueless by the mis- 
 fortune of a congenital spavin. 
 
 Symptoms. The evil is one of the most serious character for other 
 reasons, among which may be specified the slowness of its develop- 
 ment and the insidiousness of its growth. Certain indefinite phenom- 
 ena and alarming changes and incidents furnish usually the only 
 portents of approaching trouble. Among these signs may be men- 
 tioned a peculiar posture assumed by the patient while at rest, and 
 becoming at length so habitual that it can not fail to suggest the 
 action of some hidden disorder. The posture is due to the action of 
 the adductor muscles, the lower part of the leg being carried inward, 
 and the heel of the shoe resting on the toe of the opposite foot. Then 
 an unwillingness may be noticed in the animal to move from one side 
 of the stall to the other. When driven he will travel, but stiffly, and 
 with a sort of sidelong gait between the shafts, and after finishing his 
 task and resting again in his stall w r ill pose with the toe pointing for- 
 ward, the heel raised, and the hock flexed. Some little heat and a 
 considerable amount of inflammation soon appear. The slight lame- 
 ness which appears when backing out of the stall ceases to be notice- 
 able aftejj a short distance of travel. 
 
 A minute examination of the hock may then reveal the existence of 
 a bony enlargement which may be detected just at the junction of the 
 hock and the cannon bone, on the inside and a little in front, and 
 tangible both to sight and touch. This enlargement, or bone spavin, 
 grows rapidly and persistently and soon acquires dimensions which 
 render it impossible to doubt any longer its existence or its nature. 
 Once established, its development continues under conditions of prog- 
 ress similar to those to which we have before alluded in speaking of 
 other like affections. The argument advanced by some that because 
 these bony cjeposits are frequently found on both hocks they are not 
 spavins is fallacious. If they are discovered on both hocks, it proves 
 merely that they are not confined to a single joint. 
 
 The characteristic lameness of bone spavin, as it affects the mQtion 
 of the hock joint, presents two aspects. In one class of cases it is 
 most pronounced when the horse is cool, in the other when he is at 
 work. The first is characterized by the fact that when the animal 
 travels the toe first touches the ground, and the heel descends more
 
 SPAVIN. 295 
 
 slowly, the motion of flexion at the hock taking place stiffly, and 
 accompanied by a dropping of the hip on the opposite side. In the 
 other case the peculiarity is that the lameness increases as the horse 
 travels ; that when he stops he seeks to favor the lame leg, and when 
 he resumes his work soon after he steps much on his toe, as in the 
 first variety. 
 
 As with sidebones, though for a somewhat different reason, the 
 dimensions of the spavin and the degree of the lameness do not seem 
 to bear any determinate relation, the most pronounced symptoms at 
 times accompanying a very diminutive growth. But the distinction 
 between the two varieties of -cool and warm may easily be determined 
 by remembering the fact that in a majority of cases the first, or cool, 
 is due to a simple exostosis, while the second is generally connected 
 with disease of the articulation, such as ulceration of the articular 
 surface^-a condition which, as we proceed further, will meet our 
 attention when we reach the subject of stringhalt. 
 
 An excellent test for spavin lameness, which may be readily ap- 
 plied, consists in lifting the affected leg off the ground for one or two 
 minutes and holding the foot high' so as to flex all the joints. An 
 assistant, with the halter strap in his hand, quickly starts the animal 
 off in a trot, when, if the hock joint is affected, the lameness will be 
 so greatly intensified as to readily lead to a diagnosis. 
 
 Prognosis. Having thus fully considered the history of bone 
 spavin, we are prepared to give due weight to the reasons which exist 
 for the adverse prognosis which we must usually feel compelled to 
 pronounce when encountering it in practice, as well as to realize the 
 importance of early discovery. It is but seldom, however, that the 
 necessary advantage of this early knowledge can be secured, and when 
 the true nature of the trouble has become apparent it is usually too 
 late to resort to the remedial measures which, if duly forewarned, a 
 skillful practitioner might have employed. We are fully persuaded 
 that but for the loss of the time wasted in the treatment of purely 
 imaginary ailments verj 7 many cases of bone spavin might be arrested 
 in their incipiency and their victims preserved for years of comfort 
 for themselves and valuable labor to their owners. 
 
 Treatment. To consider a hypothetical case: An early discovery 
 of lameness has been made ; that is, the existence of an acute inflam- 
 mation of periostitis has been detected. The increased tempera- 
 ture of the parts has been observed, with the stiffened gait and the 
 characteristic pose of the limb, and the question is proposed for solu- 
 tion, What is to be done? Even with only these comparatively 
 doubtful symptoms doubtful with the nonexpert we should direct 
 our treatment to the hock in preference to any other joint, since of 
 .all the joints of the hind leg it is this which is most liable to be 
 attacked, a natural result from its peculiarities of structure and
 
 296 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 function. And in answer to the query, What is the first treatment 
 indicated? We should answer rest emphatically, and as an essential 
 condition, rest. Whether only threatened, suspected, or positively 
 diseased, the animal must be wholly released from labor, and it must 
 be no partial or temporary quiet of a few days. In all stages and 
 conditions of the disease, whether the spavin is nothing more than 
 a simple exostosis, or whether accompanied by the complication of 
 arthritis, there must be a total suspension of effort until the danger 
 is over. Less than a month's quiet ought not to be thought of the 
 longer the better. 
 
 Good results may also be expected from local applications. The 
 various lotions which cool the parts, the astringents which lower the 
 tension of the blood vessels, the tepid fomentations which accelerate 
 the circulation in the engorged capillaries, the liniments of various 
 composition, the stimulants, the opiate anodynes, the sedative prepa- 
 rations of aconite, the alterative frictions of iodine all these are 
 recommended and prescribed by one or another. We prefer counter- 
 irritants, for the simple reason, among many others, that they tend 
 by the promptness of their action to prevent the formation of the 
 bony deposits. The lameness will often yield to the blistering action 
 of cantharides, in the form of ointment or liniment, and to the alter- 
 ative preparations of iodine or mercury. And if the owner of a 
 " spavined " horse really succeeds in removing the lameness, he has 
 accomplished all that he is justified in hoping for; beyond this let 
 him be well persuaded that a " cure " is impossible. 
 
 For this reason, moreover, he will do well to be on his guard against 
 the patented " cures " which the traveling horse doctor may urge 
 upon him, and withhold his faith from the circular of the agent who 
 will deluge him with references and certificates. It is possible that 
 nostrums may in some exceptional instances prove serviceable, but 
 the greater number of them are capable of producing only injurious 
 effects. The removal of the bony tumor can not be accomplished by 
 any such means, and if a trial of these unknown compounds should 
 be followed by complications no worse than the establishment of one 
 or more ugly, hairless cicatrices, it will be well for both the horse and 
 his owner. 
 
 Rest and counterirritation, with the proper medicaments, consti- 
 tute, then, the prominent points in the treatment designed for the 
 relief of bone spavin. Yet there are cases in which all the agencies 
 and methods referred to seem to lack effectiveness and fail to produce 
 satisfactory results. Either the rest has been prematurely inter- 
 rupted or the blisters have failed to rightly modify the serous infil- 
 tration, or the case in hand has some undiscernible characteristics 
 which seem to have rendered the disease neutral to the agencies 
 employed against it. An indication of more energetic means is then
 
 FRACTURES. 297 
 
 presented, and free cauterization with the firing iron becomes 
 necessary. 
 
 At this point a word of explanation in reference to this operation 
 of firing may be appropriate for the satisfaction of any among our 
 readers who may entertain an exaggerated idea of its severity and 
 possible cruelty. 
 
 The operation is one of simplicity, but is nevertheless one which, 
 in order to secure its benefits, must be reserved for times and occa- 
 sions of which only the best knowledge and highest discretion should 
 be allowed to judge. It is not the mere application of a hot iron to a 
 given part of the body which constitutes the operation of firing. It 
 is the methodical and scientific introduction of heat into the structure 
 with a view to a given effect upon a diseased organ or tissue by an 
 expert surgeon. The first is one of the degrees of mere burning. The 
 other is scientific cauterization, and is a surgical manipulation which 
 should be committed exclusively to the practiced hand of the veter- 
 inary surgeon. 
 
 Either firing alone or stimulation with blisters is of great efficacy 
 for the relief of lameness from bone spavin. Failure to produce relief 
 after a few applications and after allowing a sufficient interval of rest 
 should be followed by a second, or, if needed, a third firing. 
 
 In case of further failure there is a reserve of certain special oper- 
 ations which have been tried and recommended, among which those 
 of cunean tenotomy, periosteotomy, the division of nervous branches, 
 etc., may be mentioned. These, however, belong to the peculiar 
 domain of the veterinary practitioner, and need not now engage our 
 attention. 
 
 FRACTURES. 
 
 In technical language a fracture is a " solution of continuity in the 
 structure or substance of a bone.'' It ranks among the most serious 
 of the lesions to which the horse or any animal can be subject. It 
 is a subject of special interest to veterinarians and horse owners in 
 view of the fact that it occurs in such a variety of forms and sub- 
 jects the patient to much loss of time, resulting in the suspension of 
 his earning* capacity. Though of less serious consequence in the 
 horse than in man, it is always a matter of grave import. It is 
 always slow and tedious in healing, and is frequently of doubtful 
 and unsatisfactory result. 
 
 This solution of continuity may take place in two principal ways 
 In the most numerous instances it includes the total thickness of the 
 bone and is a complete fracture. In other cases it involves a portion 
 only of the thickness of the bone, and for that reason is described as 
 incomplete. If the bone is divided into two separate portions, and 
 the soft parts have received no injury, the fracture is a simple one; or
 
 298 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 it becomes compound if the soft parts have suffered laceration, and 
 comminuted if the bones have been crushed or ground into fragments, 
 many or few. The direction of the break also determines its further 
 classification. Broken at a right angle it is transverse,' at a different 
 angle it becomes oblique, and it may be longitudinal, or lengthwise, 
 In a complete fracture, especially of the oblique kind, there is a con- 
 dition of great importance in respect to its effect upon the ultimate 
 result of the treatment in the fact that from various causes, such as 
 muscular contractions or excessive motion, the bony fragments do 
 not maintain their mutual coaptation, but become separated at the 
 ends, which makes it necessary to add another descriptive term with 
 displacement. And these words again suggest the negative, and 
 introduce the term without displacement, when the facts justify that 
 description. Furthermore, a fracture may be infra-articular or extra- 
 articular, as it extends into a joint or otherwise, and once more, intra- 
 periostcal, when the periosteum remains intact. Finally, there is no 
 absolute limit to the use of descriptive terminology in the case. 
 
 The condition of displacement is largely influential in determining 
 the question of treatment and as affecting the final result of a case of 
 fracture. This, however, is dependent upon its location or whether 
 its seat be in one or more of the axes of the bone, in its length, its 
 breadth, its thickness, or its circumference. An incomplete fracture 
 may also be either simple or comminuted. In the latter case the frag- 
 ments are held together by the periosteum when it is intact, and the 
 fracture in that case belongs to the intraperiosteal class. At times, 
 also, there is only a simple fissure or split in the bone, making a con- 
 dition of much difficulty of diagnosis. 
 
 Causes. Two varieties of originating cause may be recognized in 
 cases of fracture. They are the predisposing and the occasional. As 
 to the first, different species of animals differ in the degree of their 
 liability. That of the dog is greater than that of the horse, and in 
 horses the various questions of age, the mode of labor, the season of 
 the year, the portion of the body most exposed, and the existence of 
 ailments, local and general, are all to be taken into account. 
 
 Among horses, those employed in heavy draft work or that are 
 driven, over bad roads are more exposed than light-draft or saddle 
 horses, and animals of different ages are not equally liable. Dogs 
 and young horses, with those which have become sufficiently aged for 
 their bones to have acquired an enhanced degree of frangibility, are 
 more liable than those which have not exceeded the time of their 
 adult prime. The season of the year is undoubtedly, though in an 
 incidental way, an important factor in the problem of the etiology of 
 these accidents, for though they may be observed at all times, it is 
 during the months when the slippery condition of the icy roads ren- 
 ders it difficult for both men and beasts to keep their feet that they
 
 FBACTURES. 299 
 
 occur most frequently. The long bones, those especially which belong 
 to the extremities, are most frequently the seat of fractures, from the 
 circumstance of their superficial position, their exposure to contact 
 and collision, and the violent muscular efforts involved both in their 
 constant rapid movement and their labor in the shafts or at the pole 
 of heavy and heavily laden carriages. 
 
 The relation between sundry idiosyncrasies and diatheses and a lia- 
 bility to fractures is too constant and well-established a pathological 
 fact to need more than a passing reference. The history of rachitis, 
 of melanosis, and of osteoporosis, as related to an abnormal frangi- 
 bility of the bones, is a part of our common medical knowledge. 
 There are few persons who have not known of cases among their 
 friends of frequent and almost spontaneous fractures, or at least of 
 such as seem to be produced by the slightest and most inadequate vio- 
 lence, and there is no tangible reason for doubting an analogous con- 
 dition in individuals of the equine race. Among local predisposing 
 causes mention must not be omitted of such bony diseases as caries, 
 tuberculosis, and others of the same class. 
 
 Exciting, occasional, or "efficient" causes of fracture are in most 
 instances external traumatisms, as violent contacts, collisions, falls, 
 etc., or sudden muscular contractions. These external accidents are 
 various in their character, and are usually associated with quick mus- 
 cular exertion. A violent, ineffectual effort to move too heavy a load ; 
 a semispasmodic bracing of the frame to avoid a fall or resist a pres- 
 sure; a quick jump to escape a blow; stopping too suddenly after 
 speeding; struggling to liberate a foot from a rail, perhaps to be 
 thrown in the effort all these are familiar and easy examples of acci- 
 dents happening hourly by which our equine servants become suffer- 
 ers. We may add to these the fracture of the bones of the vertebra?, 
 occurring when casting a patient for the purpose of undergoing a 
 surgical operation, quite as much as the result of muscular contrac- 
 tion as of a preexisting diseased condition of the bones. A fracture 
 occurring under these circumstances may be called with propriety 
 indirect, while one which has resulted from a blow or a fall differ- 
 ently caused is of the direct kind. 
 
 Symptoms. We now return to the first items in our classification 
 of the varieties of fractures for the' purpose of bringing them in turn 
 under an orderly review, and our first examination will include those 
 which belong to the first category, or the complete kind. Irregu- 
 larity in the performance of the functions of the apparatus to which 
 the fractured bone belongs is a necessary consequence of the existing 
 lesion, and this is lameness. If the broken bone belongs to one of the 
 extremities, the impossibility of the performance of its natural func- 
 tion in sustaining the weight of the body and contributing to the act 
 of locomotion is usually complete, though the degree of disability
 
 300 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 will vary according to the kind of fracture and the bone which is 
 injured. For example, a fracture of the cannon bone without dis- 
 placement, or of one of the phalanges, which are. surrounded and sus- 
 tained by a complex fibrous structure, is, in a certain degree, not 
 incompatible with some amount of resting on the foot. But, on the 
 contrary, if the shank bone, or that of the forearm be the implicated 
 member, it would be very difficult for the leg to exercise any agency 
 whatever in the support of the body. And in a fracture of the lower 
 jaw it would be obviously unreasonable to expect it to contribute 
 materially to the mastication of food. 
 
 A fracture seldom occurs which is not accompanied with a degree 
 of deformity, greater or less, of the region or the leg affected. This 
 is due to the exudation of the blood into the meshes of the surround- 
 ing tissues and to the displacement which occurs between the frag- 
 ments of the bones, with subsequently the swelling which follows the 
 inflammation of the surrounding tissues. The character of the 
 deformity will mainly depend upon the manner in which the dis- 
 placement occurs. 
 
 In a normal state of things the legs perform their movements with 
 the joints as their only centers or bases of action, with no participa- 
 tion of intermediate points, while with a fracture the flexibility and 
 motion which will be observed at unnatural points are among the most 
 strongly characteristic signs of the lesion. No one need be told that 
 when the shaft of a limb is seen to bend midway between the joints, 
 with the lower portion swinging freely, that the leg is broken. But 
 there are still some conditions where the excessive mobility is not 
 easyi to detect with certainty. Such are the cases where the fracture 
 exists in a short bone, near a movable joint, or in a bone of a region 
 where several short and small bones are united in a group, or even in 
 a long bone where its situation is such that the muscular covering 
 prevents the visible manifestation of the symptom. 
 
 If the situation of a fracture precludes its discovery by means of 
 this abnormal flexibility, other modes of detection remain. There is 
 one method which is absolute and positive and which can be applied 
 in by far the most, though not in all cases. This is crepitation, or the 
 peculiar effect which is produced by the friction of the fractured sur- 
 faces one against another. Though discerned by the organs of hear- 
 ing it can scarcely be called a sound, for the grating of the parts as 
 the rubbing takes place is more felt than heard ; however, there is no 
 mistaking its import in cases favorable for the application of the test. 
 The conditions in which it is not available are those of incomplete 
 fracture, in which the mobility of the part is lacking, and those, in 
 which the whole array of phenomena are usually obscure. To obtain 
 the benefit of this pathognomonic sign requires deliberate, careful, 
 and gentle manipulation. Sometimes the slightest of movements will
 
 FBACTTJKES. 301 
 
 be sufficient for its development, after much rougher handling has 
 failed to discover it. Perhaps the failure in the latter case is due to 
 a sort of defensive spasmodic rigidity caused by the pain resulting 
 from the rude interference. 
 
 More or less reactive fever is a usual accompaniment of a fracture. 
 Ecchymosis in the parts is but a natural occurrence, and is more 
 easily discovered in animals possessing a light-colored and delicate 
 skin than in those of the opposite character. 
 
 There are difficulties in the way of the diagnosis of an incomplete 
 fracture, even sometimes when there is a degree of impairment in the 
 function of locomotion, with evidences of pain and swelling at the 
 seat of lesion. There should then be a careful examination for evi- 
 dences of a blow or other violence sufficient to account for the frac- 
 ture, though very often a suspicion of its existence can only be con- 
 verted into a certainty by a minute history of the patient if it can be 
 obtained up to the moment of the occurrence of the injury. A diag- 
 nosis ought not to be hastily pronounced, and where good ground 
 for suspicion exists it ought not to be rejected upon any evidence 
 less than the best. Serious and fatal complications are too often 
 recorded of the results following careless conclusions in similar cases, 
 among which we may refer to one instance of a complete fracture 
 manifesting itself in an animal during the act of rising up in his 
 stall after a decision had been pronounced that he had no fracture 
 at all. 
 
 Fractures are of course liable to complications, especially those 
 which are of a traumatic character, such as extensive lacerations, tear- 
 ing of tissues, punctures, contusions, etc. Unless these are in com- 
 munication with the fracture itself the indication is to treat them sim- 
 ply as independent lesions upon other parts of the body. A traumatic 
 emphysema will at times cause trouble, and abscesses, more or less 
 deep and diffused, may follow. In some cases small bony fragments 
 from a comminuted fracture, becoming loose and acting as foreign 
 bodies, give rise to troublesome fistulous tracts. A frequent compli- 
 cation is hemorrhage, which often becomes of serious consequence. 
 A fracture in close proximity to a joint may be accompanied by dan- 
 gerous inflammations of important organs, and induce an attack of 
 pneumonia, pleurisy, arthritis, etc., especially if situated near the chest ; 
 it may also cause luxations, or dislocations. Gangrene, as a conse- 
 quence of contusions or of hemorrhage or of an impediment to the 
 circulation, caused by unskillfully applied apparatus, must not be 
 overlooked among the occasional incidents ; nor must lockjaw, which 
 is not an uncommon occurrence. Even founder, or laminitis, has been 
 met with as the result of forced and long-continued immobility of 
 the feet in the standing posture, as one of the involvements of 
 unavoidably protracted treatment.
 
 302 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 When a simple fracture has been properly treated and the broken 
 ends of the bone have been securely held in coaptation, one of two 
 things will occur. Either and this is the more common event there 
 will be a union of the two ends by a solid cicatrix, the callus, or the 
 ends will continue separated or become only partially united by an 
 intermediate fibrous structure. In the first instance the fracture is 
 consolidated, or united; in the second there is a false articulation, or 
 pseudarthrosis. 
 
 The time required for a firm union or true consolidation of a frac- 
 ture will vary with the character of the bone affected, the age and 
 constitution of the patient, and the general conditions of the case. 
 The union will be perfected earlier in a young than in an adult ani- 
 mal, and sooner in the latter than in the aged, and a general healthy 
 condition is, of course, in every respect, an advantage. 
 
 The mode of cicatrization, or method of repair in lesions of the 
 bones, has been a subject of much study among investigators in 
 pathology, and has elicited various expressions of opinion from those 
 high in authority. But the weight of evidence and preponderance of 
 opinion are about settled in favor of the theory that the law of repa- 
 ration is the same for both the hard and the soft tissues. In one case 
 a simple exudation of material, with the proper organization of newly 
 formed tissue, will bring about a union by the first intention, and in 
 another the work will be accompanied by suppuration, or union by the 
 second intention, a process so familiar in the repair of the soft struc- 
 tures by granulation. 
 
 Considering the process in its simplest form, in a case in which it 
 advances without interruption or complication to a favorable result, 
 it may probably be correctly described in this wise: 
 
 On the occurrence of the injury an effusion of blood takes place be- 
 tween the ends of the bone. The coagulation of the fluid soon fol- 
 lows, and this, after a few days, undergoes absorption. There is then 
 an excess of inflammation in the surrounding structure, which soon 
 spreads to the bony tissue, when a true ostitis is established, and the 
 compact tissue of the bone becomes the seat of a new vascular organi- 
 zation, and of a certain exudation of plastic lymph, appearing be- 
 tween the periosteum and the external surface of the bone, as well as 
 on the inner side of the medullary cavity. After a few days the ends 
 of the bone thus surrounded by this exudate become involved in it, 
 and the lymph, becoming vascular, is soon transformed into cartilag- 
 inous, and in due time into bony, tissue. 
 
 Thus the time required for the consolidation of the fractured seg- 
 ments is divisible into two distinct periods. In the first they are sur- 
 rounded by an external bony ring, and the medullary cavity is closed 
 by a bony plug or stopper, constituting the period of the provisional 
 callus. This is followed by the period of pernmnent cattv*, during
 
 FEACTUSES. 303 
 
 which the process is going forward of converting the cartilaginous 
 into the osseous form. 
 
 The restorative process is sooner completed in the carnivorous than 
 in" the herbivorous tribes. In the former the temporary callus may 
 attain sufficient fineness of consistency for the careful use of the limb 
 within four weeks, but with the latter a period of from six weeks to 
 two months is not too long to allow before removing the supporting 
 apparatus from the limb. 
 
 This, in general terms, represents the fact when the resources of 
 nature have not been thwarted by untoward accidents, such as a want 
 of vigor in the constitution of the patient or a lack of skill on the 
 part of the practitioner, and especially when, from any cause, the 
 bony fragments have not been kept in a state of perfect immobility 
 and the constant friction has prevented the osseous union of the two 
 portions. Failures and misfortunes are always more than possible, 
 and instead of a solid and practicable bony union the sequel of the 
 accident is sometimes a false joint, composed of mere flexible carti- 
 lage, a poor pseudarthrosis. The explanation of this appears to be 
 that, first, the sharp edges of the ends of the bone disappear by 
 becoming rounded at their extremities by friction and polishing 
 against each other. Then follows an exudation of a plastic nature 
 which becomes transformed into a cartilaginous layer of a rough 
 articular aspect. In this bony nuclei soon appear, and the lymph 
 secreted between the segments thus transformed, instead of becoming 
 truly ossified, is changed into a sort of fibro-cartilaginous pouch, or 
 capsular sac, in which a somewhat albuminous secretion, or pseudo- 
 synovia, permits the movement to take place. Most commonly, how- 
 ever, in our animals, the union of the bony fragments is obtained 
 wholly through the medium of a layer of fibrous tissue, and it is 
 because the union has been accomplished by a ligamentous formation 
 only that motion becomes practicable. 
 
 Prognosis. The prognosis in a case of fracture in an animal is one 
 of the gravest vital import to the patient, and therefore of serious 
 pecuniary concern to his owner. The period has not long elapsed 
 when to have received such a hurt was quite equivalent to undergoing 
 a sentence of death for the suffering animal, and perhaps to-day a 
 similar verdict is pronounced in many cases in which the exercise 
 of a little mechanical ingenuity, with a due amount of careful nurs- 
 ing, might secure a contrary result and insure the return of the 
 patient to his former condition of soundness and usefulness. 
 
 Treatment. Considered, per se, a fracture in an animal is in fact 
 no less amenable to treatment than the same description of injury 
 in any other living being. But the question of the propriety and 
 expediency of treatment is dependent upon certain specific points of 
 collateral consideration.
 
 304 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 First. The nature of the lesion itself is a point of paramount im- 
 portance. A simple fracture occurring in a bone where the ends 
 can be firmly secured in coaptation presents the most favorable con- 
 ditions for successful treatment. If it be that of a long bone, it will 
 be the less serious if situated at or near the middle of its length than 
 if it were in close proximity to a joint, from the fact that perfect 
 immobility can rarely, in the latter case, be secured without incurring 
 the risk of subsequent rigidity of the joint. 
 
 A simple is always less serious than a compound fracture. A com- 
 minuted is always more dangerous than a simple, and a transverse 
 break is easier to treat than one which is oblique. The most serious 
 are those which are situated on parts of the body in which it is diffi- 
 cult to secure perfect immobility, and especially those which are 
 accompanied by severe contusions and lacerations in the soft parts; 
 the protrusion of fragments through the skin'; the division of blood 
 vessels by the broken ends of the bone; the existence of an articula- 
 tion near the point to which inflammation is likely to extend; the 
 luxation of a fragment of the bone; laceration of the periosteum; 
 the presence of a large number of bony particles, the result of the 
 crushing of the bone all these are circumstances which discourage 
 a favorable prognosis, and weigh against the hope of saving the 
 patient for future usefulness. 
 
 Fractures which may be accounted curable are those which are not 
 conspicuously visible, as those of the ribs, where displacements are 
 either very limited or do not occur, the parts being kept in situ by the 
 nature of their position, the shape of the bones, the articulations they 
 form with the vertebra, the sternum, or their cartilages of prolonga- 
 tion; those of transverse processes of the lumbar vertebra; those of 
 the bones of the face; those of the ilium; and that of the coffinbones. 
 To continue the category, the following are evidently curable when 
 their position and the character of the patient contribute to aid the 
 treatment: Those of the cranium, in the absence of cerebral lesions; 
 those of the jaws; of the ribs, with displacement; of the hip; and 
 those of the bone of the leg in movable regions, but where their 
 vertical position admits of perfect coaptation. 
 
 On the contrary, a compound, complicated, or comminuted frac- 
 ture, in whatever region it may be situated, may be counted incurable. 
 
 In treating fractures time is an important element and " delays are 
 dangerous." Those of recent occurrence unite more easilv and more 
 regularly than older ones. 
 
 Second. As a general rule, fractures are less serious in animals of 
 the smaller species than in those of more bulky dimensions. This 
 influence of species will be readily appreciated when we realize that 
 the difficulties involved in the treatment of the latter class have hardly 
 anv existence in connection with the former. The difference in
 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 'I
 
 
 
 
 

 
 FRACTURES. 305 
 
 weight and size, and consequent facility in handling and making the 
 necessary applications of dressings and other appliances for the pur- 
 pose of securing the indispensable immobility of the parts, and 
 usually a less degree of uneasiness in the deportment of the patients 
 are considerations in this connection of great weight. 
 
 Third. In respect to the utilization of the animal, the most obvious 
 point in estimating the gravity of the case in a fracture accident is 
 the certainty of the total loss of the services of the patient during 
 treatment certainly for a considerable period of time ; perhaps per- 
 manently. For example, the fracture of the jaw of a steer just 
 fattening for the shambles will involve a heavier loss than a similar 
 accident to a horse. Usually the fracture of the bones of the extrem- 
 ities in a horse is a very serious casualty, the more so proportionately 
 as the higher region of the limb is affected. In working animals it 
 is exceedingly difficult to treat a fracture in such a manner as to 
 restore a limb to its original perfection of movement. A fracture of 
 a single bone of an extremity in a breeding stallion or mare will not 
 necessarily impair their value as breeders. Other specifications under 
 this head, though pertinent and more or less interesting, may be 
 omitted. 
 
 Fourth. Age and temper are important factors of cure. A young, 
 growing, robust patient whose vis vitce is active is amenable to treat- 
 ment which one with a waning constitution and past mature energies 
 would be unable to endure; and a docile, quiet disposition will act 
 cooperatively with remedial measures which would be neutralized by 
 the fractious opposition of a peevish and intractable sufferer. 
 
 The fulfillment of three indications is indispensable in all fractures. 
 The first is the reduction, or the replacement, of the parts as nearly 
 as possible in their normal position. The second is their retention in 
 that position for a period sufficient for the formation of the provi- 
 sional callus, and the third, which, in fact, is but an incident of the 
 second, the careful avoidance of any accidents or causes of miscar- 
 riage which might disturb the curative process. 
 
 In reference to the first consideration, it must be remembered that 
 the accident may befall the patient at a distance from his home, and 
 his removal becomes the first duty to be attended to. Of course, this 
 must be done as carefully as possible. If he can be treated on the spot, 
 so much the better, though this is seldom practicable, and the method 
 of removal becomes the question calling for settlement. But two 
 ways present themselves he must either walk or be carried. If the 
 first, it is needless to say that every caution must be observed in order 
 to obviate additional pain for the suffering animal and to avoid any 
 aggravation of the injury. Led slowly, and with partial support, if 
 practicable, the journey will not always involve untoward results. If 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 20
 
 306 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 he is carried, it must be by means of a wagon, a truck, or an ambu- 
 lance; the latter, being designed and adapted to the purpose, would, 
 of course, be the preferable vehicle. As a precaution which should 
 never be overlooked, a temporary dressing should first be applied. 
 This may be so done as for the time to answer all the purpose of the 
 permanent adjustment and bandaging. Without thus securing the 
 patient, a fracture of an inferior degree may be transformed to one of 
 the severest kind, and, indeed, a curable changed to an incurable 
 injury. We recall a case in which a fast trotting horse, after running 
 away in a fright caused by the whistle of a locomotive, was found on 
 the road limping with excessive lameness in the off fore leg, and 
 walked with comparative ease some 2 miles to a stable before being 
 seen by a surgeon. His immediate removal in an ambulance was 
 advised, but before that vehicle could be procured the horse lay down, 
 and upon being made to get upon his feet was found with a well- 
 marked comminuted fracture of the os suffraginis, with considerable 
 displacement. The patient, however, after long treatment, made a 
 comparatively good recovery and though with a large bony deposit, 
 a ringbone, was able to trot among the forties. 
 
 The two obvious indications in cases of fracture are reduction, or 
 replacement, and retention. 
 
 In an incomplete fracture, where there is no displacement, the 
 necessity of reduction does not exist. With the bone kept in place 
 by an intact periosteum, and the fragments secured by the unin- 
 jured fibrous and ligamentous structure which surrounds them, there 
 is no dislocation to correct. Reduction is also at times rendered 
 impossible by the seat of the fracture itself, by its dimensions alone, 
 or by the resistance arising from muscular contraction. This is 
 illustrated even in small animals, as in dogs, by the exceeding diffi- 
 culty encountered in bringing the ends of a broken femur or humerus 
 together, the muscular contraction being even in these animals suffi- 
 ciently forcible to renew the displacement. 
 
 It is generally, therefore, only fractures of the long bones, and 
 then at points not in close proximity to the trunk, that may be con- 
 sidered to be amenable to reduction. It is true that some of the 
 more superficial bones, as those of the head, of the pelvis, and of 
 the thoracic walls, may in some cases require special manipulations 
 and appliances for their retention in their normal positions, hence 
 the treatment of these and of a fractured leg can not be the same. 
 
 The methods of accomplishing reduction vary with the features of 
 each case, the manipulations being necessarily modified to meet dif- 
 ferent circumstances. If the displacement is in the thickness of the 
 bone, as in transverse fracture, the manipulation of reduction con- 
 sists in applying constant pressure upon one of the fragments, while 
 the other is kept steady in its place, the object of the pressure being
 
 FRACTURES. 307 
 
 the reestablishment of the exact coincidence of the two bony surfaces. 
 If the displacement has taken place at an angle it will be sufficient in 
 order to effect the reduction to press upon the summit, or apex, of 
 the angle until its disappearance indicates that the parts have been 
 brought into coaptation. This method is often practiced in the treat- 
 ment of a fractured rib. In a longitudinal fracture, or when the 
 fragments are pressed together by the contraction of the muscles to 
 which they give insertion until they so overlap as to correspond by 
 certain points of their circumference, the reduction is to be accom- 
 plished by effecting the movements of extension, counter extension, 
 and coaptation. Extension is accomplished by making traction upon 
 the lower portion of the limb. Counter extension consists in firmly 
 holding or confining the upper or body portion in such a manner 
 that it shall not be affected by the traction applied to the lower part. 
 In other words, the operator, grasping the limb below the fracture, 
 draws it down or away from the trunk, while he seeks not to draw 
 away, but simply to hold still the upper portion until the broken 
 ends of bone are brought to their natural relative positions, when 
 the coaptation, which is thus effected, has only to be made permanent 
 by the proper dressings to perfect the reduction. 
 
 In treating fractures in small animals the strength of the hand is 
 usually sufficient for the required manipulations. In the fracture of 
 the forearm of a dog, for example, while the upper segment is firmly 
 held by one hand the lower may be grasped by the other and the bone 
 itself made to serve the purpose of a lever to bring about the desired 
 coaptation. In such a case that is sufficient to overcome the muscular 
 contraction and correct the overlapping or other malposition of the 
 bones. If, however, the resistance can not be overcome in this mode, 
 the upper segment may be committed to an assistant for the manage- 
 ment of the counter extension, leaving to the operator the free use of 
 both hands for the further manipulation of the case. 
 
 But if the reduction of fractures in small animals is an easy task, it- 
 is far from being so when a large animal is the patient, whose mus- 
 cular force is largely greater than that of several men combined. In 
 such a case resort must be had not only to superior numbers for the 
 necessary force, but in many cases to mechanical aids. A reference 
 to the mode of proceeding in a case of fracture with displacement of 
 the forearm of a horse will illustrate the matter. The patient is first 
 to be carefully cast, on the uninjured side, with ropes, or a broad 
 leather strap about 18 feet long, passed under and around his body 
 and under the axilla of the fractured limb and secured at a point 
 opposite to the animal and toward his back. This will form the 
 mechanical means of counter extension. Another rope will then be 
 placed around the inferior part of the leg below the point of frac- 
 ture, with which to produce extension, and this will sometimes be
 
 308 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 furnished with a block and pulleys, in order to augment the power 
 when necessary; and there is, in fact, always an advantage in their 
 use, on the side of steadiness and uniformity, as well as of increased 
 power. It is secured around the fetlock or the coronet, or, what is 
 better, above the knee and nearer the point of fracture, and is com- 
 mitted to assistants. The traction on this should be firm, uniform, 
 and slow, without relaxing or jerking, while the operator carefully 
 watches the process. If the bone is superficially situated he is able 
 to judge by the eye of any changes that may occur in the form or 
 length of the parts under traction, and discovering, at the moment of 
 its happening, the restoration of symmetry in the disturbed region, 
 he gently but firmly manipulates the place until all appearance of 
 severed continuity has vanished. Sometimes the fact and the instant 
 of restoration are indicated by a peculiar sound, or " click," as the 
 ends of the bone slip into contact, to await the next step of the 
 restorative procedure. 
 
 The process is the same when the bones are covered with thick 
 muscular masses, excepting that it is attended with greater difficulties, 
 from the fact that the finger must be substituted for the eye, and the 
 taxis must take the place of the sight. 
 
 It frequently happens that perfect coaptation is prevented by the 
 interposition between the bony surfaces of substances, such as a small 
 fragment of detached bone or a clot of blood, and sometimes the 
 extreme obliquity of the fracture is the opposing cause, by permit- 
 ting the bones to slip out of place. These are difficulties which can 
 not always be- overcome, even in small-sized animals, and still it is 
 only when they are mastered that a correct consolidation can be 
 looked for. Without it the continuity between the fragments will be 
 by a deformed callus, the union will leave a shortened, crooked, or 
 angular limb and a disabled animal. 
 
 If timely assistance can be obtained, and the reduction accom- 
 plished immediately after the occurrence of the accident, that is the 
 best time for it. But if it can not be attended to until inflammation 
 has become established and the parts have become swollen and pain- 
 ful, time must be allowed for the subsidence of these symptoms 
 before attempting the operation. A spasmodic muscular contraction 
 which sometimes interposes a difficulty may be easily overcome by 
 subjecting the patient to general anesthesia, and need not, therefore, 
 cause any loss of time. A tendency to this may also be overcome 
 by the use of sedatives and antiphlogistic remedies. 
 
 The reduction of the fracture having been accomplished, the prob- 
 lem which follows is that of retention. The parts which have been 
 restored to their natural position must be kept there, without dis- 
 turbance or agitation, until the perfect formation of a callus, and it 
 is here that ample latitude exists for the exercise of ingenuity and
 
 FRACTURES. 309 
 
 skill by the surgeon in the contrivance of the necessary apparatus. 
 One of the most important of the conditions which are available by 
 the surgeon in treating human patients is denied to the veterinarian 
 in the management of those which belong to the animal tribes. This 
 is position. The intelligence of the human patient cooperates with 
 the instructions of the surgeon, but with the animal sufferer there 
 is a continual antagonism between the parties, and the forced exten- 
 sion and fatiguing position which must for a considerable period be 
 maintained as a condition of restoration require special and effective 
 appliances to insure successful results. To obtain complete immo- 
 bility is scarcely possible, and the surgeon must be content to reach 
 a point as near as possible to that which is unattainable. For this 
 reason, as will subsequently be seen, the use of slings and the re- 
 straint of patients in very narrow stalls is much to be preferred 
 to the practice sometimes recommended of allowing entire freedom 
 of motion by turning them loose in box stalls. Temporary and 
 movable apparatus are not usually of difficult use in Veterinary 
 practice, but the restlessness of the patients and their unwillingness 
 to submit quietly to the changing of the dressings render it obliga- 
 tory to have recourse to permanent and immovable bandages, which 
 should be retained without disturbance until the process of consolida- 
 tion is complete. 
 
 The materials composing the retaining apparatus consist of oakum, 
 bandages, and splints, with an agglutinating compound which forms 
 a species of cement by which the different constituents are blended 
 into a consistent mass to be spread upon the surface covering the 
 locality of the fracture. Its components are black pitch, rosin, and 
 Venice turpentine, blended by heat. The dressing may be applied 
 directly to the skin, or a covering of thin linen may be interposed. 
 A putty made with powdered chalk and the white of egg is recom- 
 mended for small animals, though a mixture of sugar of lead and 
 burnt alum with the albumen is preferred by others. Another formula 
 is spirits of camphor, Goulard's extract, and albumen. Another rec- 
 ommendation is to saturate the oakum and bandages with an adhesive 
 solution formed with gum arabic, dextrin, flour paste, or starch. 
 This is advised particularly for small animals, as is also the silicate of 
 soda. Dextrin mixed, while warm, with burnt alum and alcohol cools 
 and solidifies into a stony consistency, and is preferable to plaster of 
 Paris, which is less friable and has less solidity, besides being heavier 
 and requiring constant additions as it becomes older. Starch and 
 plaster of Paris form another good compound. 
 
 In applying the dressing the leg is usually padded with a cushion 
 of oakum, thick and soft enough to equalize the irregularities of the 
 surface and to form a bedding for the protection of the skin from 
 chafing. Over this the splints are placed. The material for these is,
 
 310 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 variously, pasteboard, thin wood, bark, laths, gutta percha, strips of 
 thin metal, as tin or perhaps sheet iron. These should be of sufficient 
 length not only to cover the region of the fracture, but to extend 
 sufficiently above and below to render the immobility more complete 
 than in the surrounding joints. The splints, again, are covered with 
 cloth bandages, linen preferably, soaked in a glutinous mixture. 
 These bandages are to be carefully applied, with a perfect condition 
 of lightness. They are usually made to embrace the entire length of 
 the leg, in order to avoid the possibility of interference with the cir- 
 culation of the extremity, as well as for the prevention of chafing. 
 They should be rolled from the lower part of the leg upward, and 
 carefully secured against loosening. In some instances suspensory 
 bandages are recommended, but excepting for small animals our 
 experience does not justify a concurrence in the recommendation. 
 
 These permanent dressings always need careful watching with ref- 
 erence to their immediate effect upon the region they cover, especially 
 during the first days succeeding that of their application. Any mani- 
 festation of pain, or any appearance of swelling above or below, or 
 any odor suggestive of suppuration should excite suspicion, and a 
 thorough investigation should follow without delay. The removal of 
 the dressing should be performed with great care, and especially so if 
 time enough has elapsed since its application to allow of a probability 
 of a commencement of the healing process or the existence of any 
 points of consolidation. With the original dressing properly applied 
 in its entirety in the first instance, the entire extremity will have lost 
 all chance of mobility, and the repairing process may be permitted to 
 proceed without interference. There will be no necessity and there 
 need be no haste for removal or change except under such special con- 
 ditions as have just been mentioned, or when there is reason to judge 
 that solidification has become perfect, or for the comfort of the ani- 
 mal, or for its readaptation in consequence of the atrophy of the limb 
 from want of use. Owners of animals are often tempted to remove a 
 splint or bandage prematurely at the risk of producing a second frac- 
 ture in consequence of the failure of the callus properly to consolidate. 
 
 The method of applying the splints which we have described refers 
 to the simple variety only. In a compound case the same rules must 
 be observed, with the modification of leaving openings through the 
 thickness of the dressing, opposite the wound, in order to permit the 
 escape of pus and to secure access to the points requiring the applica- 
 tion of treatment. 
 
 FRACTURE OF DIFFERENT BONES. 
 CRANIAL RONES. 
 
 Causes. Fractures of these bones in large animals are compara- 
 tively rare, though the records are not destitute of cases. When they 
 occur, it is as the result of external violence, the sufferers being
 
 FEACTUEES OF BONES IN THE HEAD. 311 
 
 usually runaways which have come in collision with a wall or a tree 
 or other obstruction ; or it may occur in those which in pulling upon 
 the halter have broken it with a jerk and been thrown backward, 
 as might occur in rearing too violently. Under these conditions we 
 have witnessed fractures of the parietal, of the frontal, and of the 
 sphenoid bones. These fractures may be of both the complete and 
 the incomplete kind, which indeed is usually the case with those of 
 the flat bones, and they are liable to be complicated with lacerations 
 of the skin, in consequence of which they are easily brought under 
 observation. But when the fact is otherwise and the skin is intact, 
 the diagnosis becomes difficult. 
 
 Symptoms. The incomplete variety may be unaccompanied by any 
 special symptoms, but in the complete kind one of the bony plates 
 may be so far detached as to press upon the cerebral substance with 
 sufficient force to produce serious nervous complications. When the 
 injury occurs at the base of the cranium, hemorrhage may be looked 
 for, with paralytic symptoms, and when these are present the usual 
 termination is death. It may happen, however, that the symptoms 
 of an apparently very severe concussion may disappear, resulting in 
 an early and complete recovery, and the surgeon will therefore do 
 well to avoid undue haste in venturing upon a prognosis. In frac- 
 tures of the orbital or the zygomatic bones the danger is less pressing 
 than with injuries otherwise located about the head. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of cranial fractures is simple, though 
 involving the best skill of an experienced surgeon. When incomplete, 
 hardly any interference is needed; even plain bandaging may usually 
 be dispensed with. In the complete variety the danger to be com- 
 bated is compression of the brain, and attention to this indication 
 must not be delayed. The means to be employed are the trephining 
 of the skull over the seat of the fracture and the elevation of the 
 depressed bone or the removal of the portion which is causing the 
 trouble. Fragments of bone in comminuted cases, bony exfoliations, 
 collections of fluid, or even protruding portions of the brain substance 
 must be carefully cleansed away, and a simple bandage so applied as 
 to facilitate the application of subsequent dressings. 
 
 FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE FACE. 
 
 In respect to their origin usually traumatic these injuries rank 
 with the preceding, and are commonly of the incomplete variety. 
 They may easily be overlooked and may even sometimes escape recog- 
 nition until the reparative process has been well established and the 
 discovery of the wound becomes due to the prominence caused by the 
 presence of the provisional callus which marks its cure. When the 
 fracture is complete it will be marked by local deformity, mobility of 
 the fragments, and crepitation. Xasal hemorrhage, roaring, frequent 
 sneezing, loosening or loss of teeth, difficulty of mastication, and in-
 
 312 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 flammation of the cavities of the sinuses are varying complications of 
 these accidents. The object of the treatment should be the restora- 
 tion of the depressed bones as nearly as possible to their normal 
 position, and their retention in place by protecting splints, which 
 should cover the entire facial region. Special precautions should be 
 observed to prevent the patient from disturbing the dressing by rub- 
 bing his head against surrounding objects, such as the stall, the 
 manger, the rack, etc. Clots of blood in the nasal passages must be 
 washed out, collections of pus must be removed from the sinuses, and 
 if the teeth are loosened and likely to fall out they should be removed. 
 If roaring is threatened, tracheotomy is indicated. 
 
 FRACTURES OF THE PREMAXTT/LARY BONE. 
 
 These are mentioned by continental authors. They are usually 
 encountered in connection with fractures of the nasal bone, and may 
 take place either in the width or the length of the bone. 
 
 The deformity of the upper lip, which is drawn sidewise in this 
 lesion, renders it easy of diagnosis. The abnormal mobility and the 
 crepitation, with the pain manifested by the patient when undergoing 
 examination, are concurrent symptoms. Looseness of the teeth, 
 abundant salivation, and entire inability to grasp the food complete 
 the symptomatology of these accidents. In the treatment, splints of 
 gutta-percha or leather are sometimes used, but they are of difficult 
 application. Our own judgment and practice are in favor of the 
 union of the bones by means of metallic sutures. 
 
 FRACTURES OF THE LOWER JAW. 
 
 A fracture here is not an injury of infrequent occurrence. It 
 involves the body of the bone, at its symphysis, or back of it, and 
 includes one or both of its branches, either more or less forward, or 
 at the posterior part near the temporo-maxillary articulation, at the 
 coronoid process. 
 
 Falls, blows, or other external violence, or powerful muscular con- 
 tractions during the use of the speculum, may be mentioned among 
 the causes of this lesion. The fracture of the neck, or that portion 
 formed by the juncture of the two opposite sides, and of the branches 
 in front of the cheeks, causes the lower jaw, the true dental arch, to 
 drop, without the ability to raise it again to the upper, and the result 
 is a peculiar and characteristic physiognomy. The prehension and 
 mastication of food become impossible; there is an abundant escape 
 of fetid and sometimes bloody saliva, especially if the gums have been 
 wounded ; there is excessive mobility of the lower end of the jawbone ; 
 and there is crepitation, and frequently paralysis of the under lip. 
 Although an animal suffering with a complete and often compound 
 and comminuted fracture of the submaxilla presents at times a serious
 
 FRACTURES OF VERTEBRA. 313 
 
 aspect, the prognosis of the case is comparatively favorable, and 
 recovery is usually only a question of time. The severity of the lesion 
 corresponds in degree with that of the violence to which it is due, also 
 with the resulting complications and the situation of the wound. It 
 is simple when at the symphysis, but becomes more serious when it 
 affects one of the branches, and most aggravated when both are 
 involved. Fracture of the coronoid process becomes important prin- 
 cipally as an evidence of the existence of a morbid diathesis, such as 
 osteoporosis, or the like. 
 
 The particular seat of the injury, with its special features, will, 
 of course, determine the treatment. For a simple fracture, without 
 displacement, provided there is no laceration of the periosteum, an 
 ordinary supporting bandage will usually be sufficient; but when 
 there is displacement the reduction of the fracture must first be accom- 
 plished, and for this special splints are necessary. In a fracture of 
 the symphysis or of the branches the adjustment of the fragments by 
 securing them with metallic sutures is the first step necessary, to be 
 followed by the application of supports, consisting of splints of 
 leather or sheets of metal, the entire front of the head being then 
 covered with bandages prepared with adhesive mixtures. During 
 the entire course of treatment a special method of feeding becomes 
 necessary. The inability of the patient to appreciate the situation, 
 of course, necessitates a resort to an artificial mode of introducing the 
 necessary food into his stomach, and it is accomplished by forcing 
 between the commissures of the lips, in a liquid form, by means of a 
 syringe, the milk or nutritive gruels selected for his sustenance until 
 the consolidation is sufficiently advanced to permit the ingestion of 
 food of a more solid consistency. The callus will usually be suffi- 
 ciently hardened in two or three weeks to allow of a change of diet 
 to mashes of cut hay and scalded grain, until the removal of the 
 dressing restores him to his old habit of mastication. 
 
 FRACTURES OF VERTEBRAE. 
 
 These are not very common, but when they do occur the bones most 
 frequently injured are those of the back and loins. 
 
 Causes. The ordinary causes of fracture are responsible here as 
 elsewhere, such as heavy blows on the spinal column, severe falls while 
 conveying heavy loads, and especially violent efforts in resisting the 
 process of casting. Although occurring more or less frequently under 
 the latter circumstances, the accident is not always attributable to 
 carelessness or error in the management. It may, of course, some- 
 times result from such a cause as a badly prepared bed, or the acci- 
 dental presence of a hard body concealed in the straw, or to a heavy 
 fall when the movements of the patient have not been sufficiently 
 controlled by an effective apparatus and its skillful adaptation, but it
 
 314 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 is quite as likely to be caused by the violent resistance and the con- 
 sequent powerful muscular contraction by the frightened patient. 
 The simple fact of the overarching of the vertebral column, with 
 excessive pressure against it from the intestinal mass, owing to the 
 spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles, may account for it, and 
 so also may the struggles of the animal to escape from the restraint 
 of the hobbles while frantic under the pain of an operation without 
 anesthesia. In these cases the fracture usually occurs in the body 
 or the annular part, or both, of the posterior dorsal or the anterior 
 lumbar vertebra. When the transverse processes of the last-named 
 bones are injured, it is probably in consequence of the heavy concus- 
 sion incident to striking the ground when cast. The diagnosis of a 
 fracture of the body of a vertebra is not always easy, especially when 
 quite recent, and more especially when there is no accompanying 
 displacement. 
 
 Symptoms. There are certain peculiar signs accompanying the 
 occurrence of the accident while an operation is in progress which 
 should at once excite the suspicion of the surgeon. In the midst of 
 a violent struggle the patient becomes suddenly quiet ; the movement 
 of a sharp instrument, which at first excited his resistance, fails to 
 give rise to any further evidence of sensation; perhaps a general 
 trembling, lasting for a few minutes, will follow, succeeded by a cold, 
 profuse perspiration, particularly between the hind legs, and fre- 
 quently there will be micturition and defecation. Careful examina- 
 tion of the vertebral column may then detect a slight depression or 
 irregularity in the direction of the spine, and there may be a diminu- 
 tion or loss of sensation in the posterior part of the trunk, while the 
 anterior portion continues to be as sensitive as before. In making 
 an attempt to get upon his feet, however, upon the removal of the 
 hobbles, only the fore part of the body will respond to the effort, a 
 degree of paraplegia being present, and while the head, neck, and 
 fore part of the body will be raised, the hind quarters and hind legs 
 will remain inert. The animal may perhaps succeed in rising and 
 probably may be removed to his stall, but the displacement of the 
 bone will follow, converting the fracture into one of the complete 
 kind, either through the exertion of walking or by a renewed attempt 
 to rise after another fall before reaching his stall. By this time the 
 paralysis is complete, and the extension of the meningitis, which has 
 become established, is a consummation soon reached. 
 
 To say that the prognosis of fracture of the body of the vertebra is 
 always serious is to speak very mildly. It would be better, perhaps, 
 to say that occasionally a case may recover. Fractures of the trans- 
 verse processes are less serious. 
 
 Treatment. Instead of stating the indication in this class of cases 
 as if assuming them to be amenable to treatment, the question natur-
 
 FRACTURES OF THE RIBS. 315 
 
 ally would be : Can any treatment be recommended in a fracture of 
 the body of a vertebra? The only indication in such a case, in our 
 opinion, is to reach the true diagnosis in the shortest possible time 
 and to act accordingly. If there is displacement, and the existence 
 of serious lesions may be inferred from the nervous symptoms, the 
 destruction of the suffering animal appears to suggest itself as the one 
 conclusion in which considerations of policy, humanity, and science at 
 once unite. 
 
 If, however, it is fairly evident that no displacement exists; that 
 pressure upon the spinal cord is not yet present ; that the animal with 
 a little assistance is able to rise upon his feet and to walk a short dis- 
 tance it may be well to experiment upon the case to the extent of 
 placing the patient in the most favorable circumstances for recovery 
 and allow nature to operate without further interference. This may 
 be accomplished by securing immobility of the whole body as much as 
 possible, and especially of the suspected region, by placing the patient 
 in slings, in a stall sufficiently narrow to preclude lateral motion, and 
 covering the loins with a thick coat of agglutinative mixture. Watch 
 and wait for developments. 
 
 FRACTUBE OF THE BIBS. 
 
 The different regions of the chest are not equally exposed to the 
 violence to which fractures of the ribs are due, and they are therefore 
 either more common or more easily discovered during life at some 
 points than at others. The more exposed regions are the middle and 
 the posterior, while the front is largely covered and defended by the 
 shoulder. A single rib may be the seat of fracture, or a number may 
 be involved, and there may be injuries on both sides of the chest at the 
 same time. It may take place lengthwise, in any part of the bone, 
 though the middle, being the most exposed, is the most frequently 
 hurt. Incomplete fractures are usually lengthwise, involving a por- 
 tion only of the thickness or one or other of the surfaces. The com- 
 plete kind may be either transverse or oblique, and are most com- 
 monly denticulated. The fracture may be comminuted, and a single 
 bone may show one of the complete and one of the incomplete kind at 
 different points. The extent of surface presented by the thoracic 
 region, with its complete exposure at all points, explains the liability 
 of the ribs to suffer from all the forms of external violence. 
 
 Symptoms. In many instances fractures of these bones continue 
 undiscovered, especially the incomplete variety, without displace- 
 ment, though the evidences of local pain, a certain amount of swelling, 
 and a degree of disturbance of the respiration, if noticed during the 
 examination of a patient, may suggest a suspicion of their existence. 
 Abnormal mobility and crepitation are difficult of detection, even 
 when present, and they are not always present. When there is dis- 
 placement the deformity which it occasions will betray the fact, and
 
 316 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 when such an injury exists the surgeon will, of course, become vigi- 
 lant, in view of possible and probable complications of thoracic 
 trouble, and prepare himself for an encounter with a case of trau- 
 matic pleuritis or pneumonia. Fatal injuries of the heart are re- 
 corded. Subcutaneous emphysema is a common accompaniment of 
 broken ribs, and I recall the death from this cause of a patient of my 
 own which had suffered a fracture of two ribs in the region of the 
 withers, under the cartilages of the shoulder, and of which the diag- 
 nosis was only made after the fatal ending of the case. 
 
 These hurts are not often of a very serious character, though the 
 union is never as solid and complete as in other fractures, the callus 
 being usually imperfect and of a fibrous character, with an amphiar- 
 throsis formation. Still, complications occur which may impart 
 gravity to the prognosis. 
 
 Treatment. Fractures with but a slight or no displacement need 
 no reduction. All that is necessary is a simple application of a blis- 
 tering nature as a preventive of inflammation or for its subjugation 
 when present, and in order to excite an exudation which will tend to 
 aid in the support and immobilization of the parts. At times, how- 
 ever, a better effect is obtained by the application of a bandage placed 
 firmly around the chest, although, while this limits the motion of the 
 ribs, it is apt to render the respiration more labored. 
 
 If there is displacement, with much accompanying pain and evident 
 irritation of the lungs, the fracture must be reduced without delay. 
 The means of effecting this vary according to whether the displace- 
 ment is outward or inward. In the first case the bone may be 
 straightened by pressure from without, while in the second the end of 
 the bone must be raised by a lever, for the introduction of which a 
 small incision through the skin and intercostal spaces will be neces- 
 sary. When coaptation has been effected it must be retained by the 
 external application of adhesive mixture, with splints and bandages 
 around the chest. 
 
 FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE PELVIS. 
 
 These fractures will be considered under their separate denomina- 
 tions, as those of the sacrum and the os innominatum, or hip, which 
 includes the subdivisions of the ilium, the pubcs, and the ischium. 
 
 The sacrum. Fractures of this bone are rarely met with among 
 solipeds. Among cattle, however, it is of common occurrence, being 
 attributed not only to the usual varieties of violence, as blows and 
 other external hurts, but to the act of coition and violent efforts in 
 parturition. It is generally of the transverse kind and may be recog- 
 nized by the deformity which it occasions. This is due to the drop- 
 ping of the bone, with a change in its direction and a lower attachment 
 of the tail, which also becomes more or less paralyzed. The natural 
 and spontaneous relief which usually interposes in these cases has
 
 FRACTURES OP HIP BONES. 317 
 
 doubtless been observed by the extensive cattle breeders of the West, 
 and their practice and example fully establish the inutility of inter- 
 ference. Still, cases may occur in which reduction may be indicated, 
 and it then becomes a matter of no difficulty. It is effected by the 
 introduction of a round, smooth piece of wood into the rectum as 
 far as the fragment of bone and using it as a lever, resting upon 
 another as a fulcrum placed under it outside. The bone, having been 
 thus returned, niay be kept in place by the ordinary external means 
 in use. 
 
 The os innominatum. Fractures of the ilium may be observed 
 either at the angle of the hip or at the neck of the bone ; those of the 
 pubes may take place at the symphysis, or in the body of the bone; 
 those of the ischium on the floor of the bone, or at its posterior ex- 
 ternal angle. Or, again, the fracture may involve all three of these 
 constituent parts of the hip bone by having its situation in the articu- 
 lar cavity the acetabulum by which it joins the femur or thigh bone. 
 
 Symptoms. Some of these fractures are easily recognized, while 
 others are difficult to identify. The ordinary deformity which char- 
 acterizes a fracture of the external angle of the ilium, its dropping 
 and the diminution of that side of the hip in width, unite in indica- 
 ting the existence of the condition expressed by the term " hipped." 
 But an incomplete fracture, or one that is complete without displace- 
 ment, or even one with displacement, often demands the closest scru- 
 tiny for its discovery. The lameness may be well marked, and an 
 animal may show but little appearance of it while walking, but upon 
 being urged into a trot will manifest it more and more, until pres- 
 ently he will cease to use the crippled limb altogether, and perform 
 his traveling entirely on three legs. The acute character of the lame- 
 ness will vary in degree as the seat of the lesion approximates the 
 acetabulum. In walking, the motion at the hip is very limited, and 
 the leg is dragged ; while at rest it is relieved from bearing its share 
 in sustaining the body. An intelligent opinion and correct conclu- 
 sion will depend largely upon a knowledge of the history of the case, 
 and while in some instances that will be but a report of the common 
 etiology of fractures, such as blows, hurts, and other external vio- 
 lence, the simple fact of a fall may furnish in a single word a satis- 
 factory solution of the whole matter. 
 
 With the exception of the deformity of the ilium in a fracture of 
 its external angle, and unless there has been a serious laceration of 
 tissues and infiltration of blood, or excessive displacement, there are 
 no very definite external symptoms in a case of a fracture of the hip 
 bone. There is one, however, which, in a majority of cases, will not 
 fail it is crepitation. This evidence is attainable by both external 
 and internal examination by manipulation of the gluteal surface 
 and by rectal taxis. Very often a lateral motion, or balancing of the 
 hinder parts by pressing the body from one side to the other, will be
 
 318 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 sufficient to render the crepitation more distinct a slight sensation of 
 grating, which may be perceived even through the thick coating of 
 muscle which covers the bone and the sensation may not only be 
 felt, but to the ear of the expert may even become audible. This 
 external manifestation is, however, not always sufficient in itself, 
 and should always be associated with the rectal taxis for corrobora- 
 tion. It is true that this may fail to add to the evidence of fracture, 
 but till then the simple testimony afforded by the detection of crepita- 
 tion from the surface, though a strong confirmatory point, is scarcely 
 sufficiently absolute to establish more than a reasonable probability 
 or strong suspicion in the case. 
 
 In addition to the fact that the rectal examination brings the ex- 
 ploring hand of the surgeon into near proximity to the desired point 
 of search, and to an accurate knowledge of the situation of parts, 
 both pro and con as respects his own views, there is another advan- 
 tage attendant upon it which is well entitled to appreciation. This is 
 the facility with which he can avail himself of the help of an assist- 
 ant, who can aid him by manipulating the implicated limb and 
 placing it in various positions, so far as the patient will permit, while 
 the surgeon himself is making explorations and studying the effect 
 from within. By this method he can hardly fail to ascertain the 
 character of the fracture and the condition of the bony ends. By 
 the rectal taxis, as if with eyes in the finger ends, he will " see " what 
 is the extent of the fracture of the ilium or of the neck of that bone ; 
 to what part of the central portion of the bone (the acetabulum) it 
 reaches; whether this is free from disease or not, and in what loca- 
 tion on the floor of the pelvis the lesion is situated. We have fre- 
 quently by this method been able to detect a fracture at the symphysis, 
 which, from its history and symptoms and an external examination, 
 could only have been guessed at. 
 
 Yet, with all its advantages, the rectal examination is not always 
 necessary, as, for example, when the fracture is at the posterior and 
 external angle of the ischium, when by friction of the bony ends the 
 surgeon may discern the crepitation without it. 
 
 Every variety of complication, including muscular lacerations with 
 the formation of deep abscesses and injuries to the organs of the 
 pelvic cavity, the bladder, the rectum, and the uterus, may be associ- 
 ated with fractures of the hip bone. 
 
 Prognosis. The prognosis of these lesions will necessarily vary 
 considerably. A fracture of the most superficial part of the bone of 
 the ilium or of the ischium, especially where there is little displace- 
 ment, will unite rapidly, leaving a comparatively sound animal often 
 quite free from subsequent lameness. But if there is much displace- 
 ment, only a ligamentous union will take place, with much deformity 
 and more or less irregularity in the gait. Other fractures may be
 
 FBACTTJEE OF THE SCAPULA. 319 
 
 followed by complete disability of the patient, as, for example, when 
 the cotyloid cavity is involved, or when the reparatory process has 
 left bony deposits in the pelvic cavity at the seat of the union, which 
 may, with the female, interfere with the steps of parturition, or 
 induce some local paralysis by pressure upon the nerves which govern 
 the muscles of the hind legs. This is a condition not infrequently 
 observed when the callus has been formed on the floor of the pelvis 
 near the obturator foramen, pressing upon the course or involving the 
 obturator nerve. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of all fractures of the hip bone should, 
 in our estimation, be of the simplest kind. Rendered comparatively 
 immovable by the thickness of the muscles by which the region is 
 enveloped, one essential indication suggests itself, and that is to place 
 the animal in a position which, so far as possible, will be fixed and 
 permanent. For the accomplishment of this purpose the best meas- 
 ure, as we consider it, is to place him in a stall of just sufficient width 
 to admit him, and to apply a set of slings, snugly, but comfortably. 
 This will fulfill the essential conditions of recovery rest and 
 immobility. Blistering applications would be injurious, though the 
 adhesive mixture might prove in some degree beneficial. 
 
 The minimum period allowable for solid union in a fractured hip 
 is, in our judgment, two months, and we have known cases in which 
 tha't was too short a time. 
 
 As we have before said, there may be cases in which the treatment 
 for fracture at the floor of the pelvis has been followed by symptoms 
 of partial paralysis, the animal, when lying down, being unable to 
 regain his feet, but moving freely when placed in an upright position. 
 This condition is due to the interference of the callus with the func- 
 tions of the obturator nerve, which it presses upon or surrounds. T 
 feel warranted by my experience in similar cases in cautioning owners 
 of horses in this condition to exercise due patience, and to avoid a 
 premature sentence of condemnation against their invalid servants; 
 they are not all irrecoverably paralytic. With alternations of moder- 
 ate exercise, rest in the slings, and the effect of time while the natural 
 process of absorption is taking effect upon the callus, with other ele- 
 ments of change that may be so operating, the horse may in due time 
 become able to once more earn his subsistence and serve his master. 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE SCAPULA. 
 
 This bone is seldom fractured, its comparative exemption being due 
 to its free mobility and the protection it receives from the superim- 
 posed soft tissues. Only direct and powerful causes are sufficient to 
 effect the injury, and when it occurs the large rather than the smaller 
 animals are the subjects. 
 
 Cause. The causes are heavy blows or kicks and violent collisions 
 with unyielding objects. Those which are occasioned by falls are
 
 320 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 generally at the neck of the bone, and of the transverse and commi- 
 nuted varieties. 
 
 Symptoms. The diagnosis is not always easy. The symptoms are 
 inability to rest the leg on the ground and to carry weights, and they 
 are present in various degrees from slight to severe. The leg rests 
 upon the toe and seems shortened, and locomotion is performed by 
 jumps. Moving the leg while examining it and raising the foot for 
 inspection seem to produce much pain and cause the animal to rear. 
 Crepitation is readily felt with the hand upon the shoulder when the 
 leg is moved. If the fracture occurs in the upper part of the bone, 
 overlapping of the fragments and displacement will be considerable. 
 
 The fracture of this bo'ne is usually classed among the more serious 
 accidents, though cases may occur which are followed by recovery 
 without very serious ultimate results, especially when the seat of the 
 injury is at some of the upper angles of the bone, or about the acro- 
 mion crest. But if the neck and the joint are the parts involved, com- 
 plications are apt to be present which are likely to disable the animal 
 for life. 
 
 Treatment. If there is no displacement a simple adhesive dressing, 
 to strengthen and immobilize the parts, will be sufficient. A coat of 
 black pitch dissolved with wax and Venice turpentine, and kept in 
 place over the region with oakum or linen bands, will be all the treat- 
 ment required, especially if the animal is kept quiet in the slings-. 
 
 Displacement can not be remedied, and reduction is next to impos- 
 sible. Sometimes an iron plate is applied over the parts and retained 
 by bandages, as in the dressing of Bourgelat; and this may be advan- 
 tageously replaced by a pad of thick leather. In smaller animals the 
 parts are retained by figure-8 bandages, embracing both the normal 
 and the diseased shoulders, crossing each other in the axilla and cov- 
 ered with a coating of adhesive mixture. 
 
 FBACTUBES OF THE HUMERUS. 
 
 These are more common in small than in large animals, and are 
 always the result of external traumatism, such as falls, kicks, and col- 
 lisions. They are generally very oblique, are often comminuted, and 
 though more usually involving the shaft of the bone will in some cases 
 extend to the upp^r end and into the articular head. 
 
 Symptom*. There is ordinarily considerable displacement in con- 
 sequence of the overlapping of the broken ends of the bone, and this, 
 of course, causes more or less shortening of the limb. There will also 
 be swelling, with difficulty of locomotion, and crepitation will be 
 easy of detection. This fracture is always a serious damage to the 
 patient, leaving him with a permanently shortened limb and an incur- 
 able, lifelong lameness. 
 
 Treatment. If treatment is determined on it will consist in the 
 reduction of the fracture by means of extension and counter exten-
 
 FBACTUBE OP THE FOBEABM. 321 
 
 sion, and in order to accomplish this the animal must be thrown. 
 If successful in the reduction, then follows the application and adjust- 
 ment of the apparatus of retention, which must needs be of the most 
 perfect and efficient kind. And finally, this, however skillfully con- 
 trived and carefully adapted, will often fail to effect any good pur- 
 pose whatever. 
 
 FBACTUBE OF THE FOBEABM. 
 
 A fracture in this region may also involve the radius or the ulna, 
 the latter being broken at times in its upper portion above the radio-- 
 ulnar arch at the olecranon. If the fracture occurs at any part of the 
 forearm from the radio-ulnar arch down to the knee, it may involve 
 either the radius alone or the radius and the cubitus, which are there 
 intimately united. 
 
 Cause. Besides having the same etiology with most of the frac- 
 tures, those of the forearm are, nevertheless, more commonly due to 
 kicks from other animals, especially when crowded together in large 
 numbers in insufficient space. It is a matter of observation that, 
 under these circumstances, fractures of the incomplete kind are those 
 which occur on the inside of the leg, the bone being in that region 
 almost entirely subcutaneous, while those of the complete class are 
 either oblique or transverse. The least common are the longitudinal, 
 in the long axis of the bone. 
 
 Symptoms. This variety of fracture is easily recognized by the 
 appearance of the leg and the different changes it undergoes. There 
 is inability to use the limb; impossibility of locomotion; mobility 
 below the injury; the ready detection of crepitation in a word, the 
 assemblage of all the signs and symptoms which have been already 
 considered as associated with the history of broken bones. 
 
 The fracture of the ulna alone, principally above the radio-ulnar 
 arch, may be ascertained by the aggravated lameness, the excessive 
 soreness on pressure, and perhaps a certain increase of motion, with 
 a very slight crepitation if tested in the usual way. Displacement 
 is not likely to take place except when it is well up toward the ole- 
 cranon or its tuberosity, the upper segment of the bone being in that 
 case likely to be drawn upward. For a simple fracture of this region 
 there exists a fair chance of recovery, but in a case of the compound 
 and comminuted class there is less ground for a favorable prognosis, 
 especially if the elbow joint has suffered injury. A fracture of the 
 ulna alone is not of serious importance, except when the same con- 
 ditions prevail. A fracture of the olecranon is less amenable to 
 treatment, and promises little better than a Hgamentous union. 
 
 Treatment. Considering all the various conditions involving the 
 nature and extent of these lesions, the position and direction of the 
 bones of the forearm are such as to render the chances for recovery 
 II. Doc. 795, 59-2 21
 
 322 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 from fracture as among the best. The reduction, by extension and 
 counter extension; the maintenance of the coaptation of the segments; 
 the adaptation of the dressing by splints, oakum, and agglutinative 
 mixtures; in fact, all the details of treatment may be here fulfilled 
 with a degree of facility and precision not attainable in any other part 
 of the organism. An important, if not an essential, point, however, 
 must be emphasized in regard to the splints. Whether these are of 
 metal, wood, or other material, they should reach from the elbow joint 
 to the ground, and should be placed on the posterior face and on both 
 sides of the leg. This is then to be so confined in a properly con- 
 structed box as to preclude all possibility of motion, while yet it must 
 sustain a certain portion of the weight of the body. The iron splint 
 (represented in Plate XX VII) recommended by Bourgelat is designed 
 for fractures of the forearm, of the knee, and of the cannon bone, and 
 will prove to be an appliance of great value. For small animals the 
 preference is for an external covering of gutta-percha, embracing the 
 entire leg. A sheet of this substance of suitable thickness, according 
 to the size of the animal, softened in lukewarm water, is, when suffi- 
 ciently pliable, molded on the outside of the leg, and when suddenly 
 hardened by the application of cold water forms a complete casing 
 sufficiently rigid to resist all motion. Patients treated in this manner 
 have been able to use the limb freely, without pain, immediately after 
 the application of the dressing. The removal of the splint is easily 
 effected by cutting it away, either wholly or in sections, after soften- 
 ing it by immersing the leg in a warm bath. 
 
 FBACTUBE OF THE KNEE. 
 
 This accident, happily, is of rare occurrence, but when it takes 
 place is of a severe character, and always accompanied by synovitis, 
 with disease of the joint. 
 
 Cause. It may be caused by falling upon a hard surface, and is 
 usually compound and comminuted. Healing seldom occurs, and 
 when it does there is usually a stiffness of the joint from arthritis. 
 
 Symptoms. As a result of this fracture there is inability to bear 
 weight on the foot. The leg is flexed as in complete radial paralysis, 
 or fracture of the ulna. There is abnormal mobility of the bones of 
 the knee, but crepitation is usually absent. 
 
 Prognosis. Healing is hard to obtain, as one part of the knee is 
 drawn upward by the two flexor muscles which separate it from the 
 lower part. The callus which forms is largely fibrous, and if the 
 animal is put to work too quickly this callus is apt to rupture. In 
 favorable cases healing takes place in two or three months. Many 
 horses during the treatment develop founder, with consequent drop 
 sole in the sound leg, as a result of pressure due to continuous 
 standing. 
 
 Treatment. Place the animal in the slings, bring the pieces of 
 bone together if possible, and try to keep them in place by a tight
 
 FEACTUEE OP THE FEMUB. 323 
 
 plaster of Paris dressing about the leg, extending down to the fet- 
 lock. Place the animal in a roomy box stall well provided with bed- 
 ding so that he can lie down, to prevent founder. 
 
 FBACTUEE OF THE FEMUB. 
 
 The protection which this bone receives from the large mass of 
 muscles in which it is enveloped does not suffice to invest it with 
 immunity in regard to fractures. 
 
 Cause. It contributes its share to the list of accidents of this 
 description, sometimes in consequence of external violence and some- 
 times as the result of muscular contraction ; sometimes it takes place 
 at the upper extremity of the bone; sometimes at the lower; some- 
 times at the head, when the condyles become implicated; but it is 
 principally found in the body or diaphysis. The fracture may be of 
 any of the ordinary forms, simple or compound, complete or incom- 
 plete, transverse or oblique, etc. A case of the comminuted variety 
 is recorded in which eighty-five fragments of bone were counted and 
 removed. 
 
 The thickness of the muscular covering sometimes renders the 
 diagnosis difficult by interfering with the manipulation, but the crepi- 
 tation test is readily available, even when the swelling is considerable, 
 and which is likely to be the case as the result of the interstitial hem- 
 orrhage which naturally follows the laceration of the blood vessels of 
 the region involved. 
 
 Symptoms, If the fracture is at the neck of the bone the muscles 
 of that region (the gluteal) are firmly contracted and the leg seems to 
 be shortened in consequence. Locomotion is impossible. There is 
 intense pain and violent sweating at first. Crepitation may in some 
 cases be discerned by rectal examination, with one hand resting over 
 the coxo-femoral (hip) articulation. Fractures of the tuberosities of 
 the upper end of the bone, the great trochanter, may be identified by 
 the deformity, the swelling, the impossibility of rotation, and the 
 dragging of the leg in walking. Fracture of the body is always 
 accompanied by displacement, and as a consequence a shortening of 
 the leg, which is carried forward. The lameness is excessive, the foot 
 being moved, both when raising it from the ground and when setting 
 it down, very timidly and cautiously. The manipulations for the dis- 
 covery of crepitation always cause much pain. Lesions of the lower 
 end of the bone are more difficult to diagnosticate with certainty, 
 though the manifestation of pain while making heavy pressure upon 
 the condyles will be so marked that only crepitation will be needed to 
 turn a suspicion into a certainty. 
 
 Treatment. The question as to treatment in fractures of this 
 description resolves itself into the query whether any treatment can 
 be suggested that will avail anything practically as a curative meas- 
 ure; whether, 'upon the hypothesis of reduction as an accomplished
 
 324 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 fact, any permanent or efficient device as a means of retention is 
 within the scope of human ingenuity. If the reduction were success- 
 fully performed, would it be possible to keep the parts in place by any 
 known means at our disposal ? At the best the most favorable result 
 that could be anticipated would be a reunion of the fragments, with a 
 considerable shortening of the bone, and a helpless, limping, crippled 
 animal to remind us that for human achievement there is a " thus far 
 and no farther." 
 
 In small animals, however, attempts at treatment are justifiable, 
 and we are convinced that in many cases of difficulty in the applica- 
 tion of splints and bandages a patient may be placed in a condition 
 of undisturbed quiet and left to the processes of nature for " treat- 
 ment " as safely and with as good an assurance of a favorable result 
 as if he had been subjected to the most heroic secundum, artem doctor- 
 ing known to science. As a case in point, mention may be made of 
 the case of a pregnant bitch which suffered a fracture of the upper 
 end of the femur by being run over by a light wagon. Her " treat- 
 ment " consisted in being tied up in a large box and let alone. In 
 due time she was delivered of a family of puppies, and in three weeks 
 she was running in the streets, limping very slightly, and nothing 
 the worse for her accident. 
 
 FRACTURE OF THK PATELLA. 
 
 This, fortunately, is a rare accident and can only result from direct 
 violence, as a kick or other blow. The lameness which follows it is 
 accompanied with enormous tumefaction of the joint, pain, inability 
 to bear weight upon the foot, and finally disease of the articulation. 
 Crepitation is absent, because the hip muscles draw away the upper 
 part of the bone. The prognosis is unavoidably adverse, destruction 
 being the only termination of this incurable and very painful injury. 
 Most of the reported cases of cures are based upon a wrong diagnosis. 
 
 FRACTURES OF THK TIBIA. 
 
 Of all fractures these are probably more frequently encountered 
 than any others among the class of accidents we are considering. As 
 with injuries of the forearm of a like character, they may be complete 
 or incomplete; the former when the bone is broken in the middle or 
 at the extremities, and transverse, oblique, or longitudinal. The 
 incomplete kind are more common in this bone than in any other. 
 
 Symptoms. Complete fractures are easy to recognize, cither with 
 or without displacement. The animal is very lame, and the leg is either 
 dragged or held up clear from the ground by flexion at the stifle, 
 while the lower part hangs down. Carrying weight or moving back- 
 ward is impossible. There is excessive mobility below the fracture, 
 and well-marked crepitation. If there is much displacement, as in 
 an oblique fracture, there will be considerable shortening of the leg.
 
 FRACTURE OF THE TIBIA. 325 
 
 While incomplete fractures can not be recognized in the tibia with 
 any greater degree of certainty than in any other bone, there are some 
 facts associated with them by which a diagnosis may be justified. 
 The hypothetical history of a case may serve as an illustration : 
 
 An animal has received an injury by a blow or a kick on the inside 
 of the bone, perhaps without showing any mark. Becoming very 
 lame immediately afterwards, he is allowed a few days' rest. Being 
 then taken out again, he seems to have recovered his soundness, but 
 within a day or two he betrays a little soreness, and this increasing 
 he becomes very lame again, to be furloughed once more, with the 
 result of a temporary improvement, and again a return to labor and 
 again a relapse of the lameness ; and this alternation seems to be the 
 rule. The leg being now carefully examined, a local periostitis is 
 readily discovered at the point of the injury, the part being warm, 
 swollen, and painful. What further proof is necessary? Is it not 
 evident that a fracture has occurred, first superficial a mere split in 
 the bony structure, which, fortunately, has been .discovered before 
 some extra exertion or a casual misstep had developed it into one of 
 the complete kind, possibly with complications? What other infer- 
 ence can such a series of symptoms thus repeated establish ? 
 
 The prognosis of fracture of the tibia must, as a rule, be unfavor- 
 able. 
 
 Treatment. The difficulty of obtaining a union without shortening, 
 and consequently without lameness, is proof of the futility of ordi- 
 nary attempts at treatment. But though this may be true in respect 
 to fractures of the complete kind, it is not necessarily so with the 
 incomplete variety, and with this class the simple treatment of the 
 slings is all that is necessary to secure consolidation. A few weeks of 
 this confinement will be sufficient. 
 
 With dogs and other small animals there are cases which may be 
 successfully treated. If the necessary dressings can be successfully 
 applied and retained, a cure will follow. 
 
 FBACTUBES OF THE HOCK. 
 
 Injuries of the astragalus have been recorded which had a fatal ter- 
 mination. Fractures of the os calcis have also been observed, but 
 never with a favorable prognosis, and attempts to induce recovery 
 have, as might have been anticipated, proved futile. 
 
 FRACTURES OF THE CANNON BONES. 
 
 Whether these occur in the fore or hind legs, they appear either in 
 the body or near their extremities. If in the body, as a rule the three 
 metacarpal or metatarsal bones are affected, and the fracture is 
 generally transverse and- oblique. On account of the absence of soft 
 tissue and tightness of the skin, the broken bones pierce the skin and 
 render the fracture a complicated one. The diagnosis is easy when all
 
 326 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the bones are completely broken, but the incomplete fracture can only 
 be suspected. 
 
 Symptoms. There is no displacement, but excessive mobility, crep- 
 itation, inability to sustain weight, and the leg is kept off the ground 
 by the flexion of the upper joint. 
 
 No region of the body affords better facilities for the application of 
 treatment, and the prognosis is, on this account, usually favorable. 
 We recall a case, however, which proved fatal, though under excep- 
 tional circumstances. The patient was a valuable stallion of highly 
 nervous organization, with a compound fracture of one of the cannon 
 bones, and his unconquerable resistance to treatment, excited by the 
 intense pain of the wound, precluded all chance of recovery, and 
 ultimately caused his death. 
 
 Treatment. The general form of treatment for these lesions will 
 not differ from that which has been already indicated for other frac- 
 tures. Reduction, sometimes necessitating the casting of the patient ; 
 coaptation, comparatively easy by reason of the subcutaneous situa- 
 tion of the bone; retention, by means of splints and bandages 
 applied on both sides of the region, and reaching to the ground as 
 in fractures of the forearm these are always indicated. We have 
 obtained excellent results by the use of a mold of thick gutta-percha, 
 composed of two sections and made to surround the entire lower part 
 of the leg as in an inflexible case. 
 
 FBACTUBE OF THE FIRST PHALANX. 
 
 The hind extremity is more liable than the fore to this injury. It 
 is usually the result of a violent effort, or of a sudden misstep or 
 twisting of the leg, and may be transverse, or, as has usually been the 
 case in our experience, longitudinal, extending from the upper artic- 
 ular surface down to the center of the bone, and generally oblique 
 and often comminuted. The symptoms are the swelling and tender- 
 ness of the region, possibly crepitation; a certain abnormal mobility; 
 an excessive degree of lameness, and in some instances a. dropping 
 back of the fetlock, with perhaps a straightened or upright condi- 
 tion of the pastern. 
 
 The difficulty of reduction and coaptation in this accident, and the 
 probability of bony deposits, as of ringbones, resulting in lameness, 
 are circumstances which tend to discourage a favorable prognosis. 
 
 The treatment is that which has been recommended for all frac- 
 tures, so far as it can be applied. The iron splint which has been 
 mentioned gives excellent results in many instances, but if the frac- 
 ture is incomplete and without displacement, a form of treatment less 
 energetic and severe should be attempted. One case is within our 
 knowledge in which the owner lost his horse by his refusal to subject 
 the animal to treatment, the post-mortem revealing only a simple 
 fracture with very slight displacement.
 
 FRACTURES OF BONES OF THE FOOT. 327 
 
 FRACTURES OF THE SECOND PHALANX (CORONET). 
 
 Though these are generally of the comminuted kind, there are often 
 conditions associated with them which justify the surgeon in attempt- 
 ing their treatment. Though crepitation is not always easy to detect, 
 the excessive lameness, the soreness on pressure, the inability to carry 
 weight, the difficulty experienced in raising the foot, all these suggest, 
 as the solution of the question of diagnosis, the fracture of the coronet, 
 with the accompanying realization of the fact that there is yet, by rea- 
 son of the situation of the member, immobilized as it is by its struc- 
 ture and its surroundings, room left for a not unfavorable prognosis. 
 Only a slight manipulation will be needed in the treatment of this 
 lesion. To render the immobility of the region more fixed, to support 
 the bones in their position by bandaging, and to establish forced 
 immobility of the entire body with the slings is usually all that is re- 
 quired. Ringbone, being a common sequela of the reparative process, 
 must receive due attention subsequently. One of the severest com- 
 plications likely to be encountered is an immobile joint (anchylosis). 
 Neurectomy of the median nerve may relieve lameness after a frac- 
 ture of the phalanges. 
 
 FBACTUBES OF THE THIRD PHALANX (OS PEDIS). 
 
 These lesions may result from a penetrating street nail, or follow 
 plantar or median neurectomy. In the latter instance it is caused by 
 the animal setting the foot down carelessly and too violently, and 
 partly due to degeneration of bone tissue which follows nerving. 
 
 Though these fractures are not of very rare occurrence, their recog- 
 nition is not easy, and there is more of speculation than of certainty 
 pertaining to their diagnosis. The animal is very lame and spares 
 the injured foot as much as possible, sometimes resting it upon the 
 toe alone and sometimes holding it suspended in the air. The foot 
 is very tender, and the exploring pinchers of the examining surgeon 
 causes much pain. During the first twenty-four hours there is no 
 increased pulsation in the digital and plantar arteries, but on the 
 second day this symptom is apparent. 
 
 There is nothing to encourage a favorable prognosis, and a not 
 unusual termination is an anchylosis with either the navicular bone 
 or the coronet. 
 
 No method of treatment needs to be suggested here, the hoof per- 
 forming the office of retention unaided. Local treatment by baths 
 and fomentations will do the rest. It may be months before there is 
 any mitigation of the lameness. 
 
 An ultimate recovery depends to a great extent upon whether the 
 other foot can support the weight during the healing process without 
 causing a drop sole in the supporting foot.
 
 328 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FRACTURE OF THE SKSAMOID BONES. 
 
 This lesion has been considered by veterinarians, erroneously, we 
 think, one of rare occurrence. We believe it to be more frequent 
 than has been supposed. Many observations and careful dissections 
 have convinced us that fractures of these little bones have often been 
 mistaken -for specific lesions of the numerous ligaments that are 
 implanted upon their superior and inferior parts, and which have 
 been described as a " giving way " or " breaking down " of these 
 ligaments. In my post-mortem examinations I have always noted 
 the fact that when the attachments of the ligaments were torn from 
 their bony connections minute fragments of bony structure were also 
 separated, though we have failed to detect any diseased process of 
 the fibrous tissue composing the ligamentous substance. 
 
 Cause. From whatever cause this lesion may arise, it can hardly 
 be considered as of a traumatic nature, no external violence having 
 any apparent agency in producing it, and it is our belief that it is 
 due to a peculiar degeneration or softening of the bones themselves, a 
 theory which acquires plausibility from the consideration of the 
 spongy consistency of the sesamoids. The disease is a peculiar one, 
 and the suddenness with which different feet are successively attacked, 
 at short intervals and without any obvious cause, seems to prove the 
 existence of some latent, morbid cause which has been unsuspectedly 
 incubating. It is not peculiar to any particular class of horses, nor 
 to any special season of the year, having fallen under our observation 
 in each of the four seasons. 
 
 Symptoms. The general fact is reported in the history of a 
 majority of cases that it makes its appearance without premonition 
 in animals which, after enjoying a considerable period of rest, are 
 first exercised or put to work, though in point of fact it may manifest 
 itself while the horse is still idle in his stable. A hypothetical case, 
 in illustration, will explain our theory: An animal which has been 
 at rest in his stable is taken out to work, and it will be presently 
 noticed that there is something unusual in his movement. His gait 
 is changed, and he travels with short, mincing steps, without any of 
 his accustomed ease and freedom. This may continue until his return 
 to the stable, and then, after being placed in his stall, he will be 
 noticed shifting his weight from side to side and from one leg to 
 another, continuing the movement until rupture of the Ixmy structure 
 takes place. But it may happen that the lameness in one or more of 
 the extremities, anterior or posterior, suddenly increases, and it 
 becomes evident that the rupture has taken place in consequence of 
 a misstep or a stumble while the horse is at work. Then, upon com- 
 ing to a standstill, he will be found with one or more of his toes 
 turned up: he is unable to place the affected foot flat on the ground. 
 The fetlock has dropped and the leg rests upon this part, the skin of
 
 DISEASES OP JOINTS. 329 
 
 which may have remained intact or may have been more or less exten- 
 sively lacerated. It seldom happens that more than one toe at a 
 time will turn up, yet still the lesion in one will be followed by its 
 occurrence in another. Commonly two feet, either the anterior or 
 posterior, are affected, and we recall one case in which the two fore 
 and one of the hind legs were included at the same time. The acci- 
 dent, however, is quite as likely to happen while the horse is at rest 
 in his stall, and he may be found in the morning standing on his 
 fetlocks. One of the earliest of the cases occurring in my own expe- 
 rience had been under care for several weeks for suspected disease 
 of the fetlocks, the nature of which had not been made out, when, 
 apparently, improved by the treatment which he had undergone, the 
 patient was taken out of the stable to be walked a short distance into 
 the country, but had little more than started when he was called to 
 a halt by the fracture- of the sesamoids of both fore legs. 
 
 While there are no positive premonitory symptoms known of these 
 fractures, we believe that there are signs and symptoms which come 
 but little short of being so, and the appearance of which will always 
 justify a strong suspicion of the truth of the case. These have been 
 indicated when referring to the soreness in standing, the short min- 
 cing gait, and the tenderness betrayed when pressure is made over the 
 sesamoids on the sides of the fetlock, with others less tangible and 
 definable. 
 
 Prognosis. These injuries can never be accounted less than seri- 
 ous, and in our judgment will never be other than fatal. If our 
 theory of their pathology is the correct one, and the cause of the 
 lesions is truly the softening of the sesamoidal bony structure and 
 independent of any changes in the ligamentous fibers, the possibility 
 of a solid osseous union can hardly be considered admissible. 
 
 Treatment. In respect to the treatment to be recommended and 
 instituted it can only be employed with any rational hope of benefit 
 during the incubation, and with the anticipatory purpose of preven- 
 tion. It must be suggested by a suspicion of the verities of the case, 
 and applied before any rupture has taken place. To prevent this and 
 to antagonize the causes which might precipitate the final catastro- 
 phe the elevation of the toes resort must be had to the slings and 
 to the application of firm bandages or splints, perhaps of plaster of 
 Paris, with a high shoe, as about the only indications which science 
 and nature are able to offer. When the fracture is an occurred event, 
 and the toes, one or more, are turned up, any further resort to treat- 
 ment will be futile. 
 
 DISEASES OF JOINTS. 
 
 Three classes of injury will be considered under this head. These 
 are, affections of the synovial sacs; those of the joint structures, or of
 
 330 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 
 
 the bones and their articular surfaces, and those forms of solution of 
 continuity known as dislocations or luxations. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE 8YNOVIAL SACS. 
 
 Two forms of affection here present themselves, one being the 
 result of an abnormal secretion which induces a dropsical condition 
 of the sac without any acute inflammatory action, while the other is 
 characterized by excessive inflammatory symptoms, with their modi- 
 fications, constituting synovitis. 
 
 SYNOVIAL DROPSIES. 
 
 We have already considered in a general way the presence of these 
 peculiar oil bags in the joints, and in some regions of the legs where 
 the passage of the tendons takes place, and have noticed the similarity 
 of structure and function of both the articular and the tendinous 
 bursae, as well as the etiology of their injuries and their pathological 
 history, and we now propose to treat of the affections of both. 
 
 WINDGALLS. 
 
 This name is given to the dilated bursae found at the posterior part 
 of the fetlock joint. They have their origin in a dropsical condition 
 of the bursae of the joint itself, and also of the tendon which slides 
 behind it, and are therefore further known by the designations of 
 articular and tendinous windgalls, or puffs. (See also page 375.) 
 
 They appear in the form of soft and somewhat symmetrical tumors, 
 of varying dimensions, and generally well defined in their circumfer- 
 ence. They are more or less tense, according to the amount of secre- 
 tion they contain, apparently becoming softer as the foot is raised and 
 the fetlock flexed. Usually they are painless and only cause lameness 
 under certain conditions, as when they begin to develop themselves 
 under the stimulus of inflammatory action, or when large enough to 
 interfere with the functions of the tendons, or again where they have 
 undergone certain pathological changes, such as calcification, which is 
 among their tendencies. 
 
 Cause. Windgalln may be attributed to external causes, such as 
 severe labor or strains resulting from heavy pulling, fast driving, or 
 jumping, or they may be among the sequela of internal disorders, 
 such as strangles or the resultants of a pleuritic or pneumonic attack. 
 
 An unnecessary amount of anxiety is sometimes experienced respect- 
 ing these growths, with much questioning touching the expediency of 
 their removal, all of which might be spared, for, while they constitute 
 a blemish, their unsightliness will not hinder the usefulness of the 
 animal, and in any case they rarely fail to show themselves easily 
 amenable to treatment. 
 
 Treatment. When in their acute stage, and when the dropsical 
 condition is not excessive, the inflammation may be checked during
 
 DISEASES OF JOINTS. 331 
 
 the day by continuous cold water irrigation by means of a hose or 
 soaking tub and at night by applying a moderately tight roller band- 
 age. Later absorption may be promoted by a Priessnitz bandage,"* 
 pressure by roller bandages, sweating, the use of liniments, or if neces- 
 sary by a sharp blister of biniodide of mercury. This treatment 
 should subdue the inflammation, abort the soreness, absorb the excess 
 of secretion, strengthen the walls of the sac, and finally cause the 
 windgalls to disappear, provided the animal is not too quickly re- 
 turned to labor and exposed to the same factors that occasioned them 
 at first. 
 
 But if the inflammation has become chronic, and the enlargement 
 has been of considerable duration, the negative course will be the 
 wiser one. If any benefit results from treatment it will be of only a 
 transient kind, the dilatation returning when the patient is again sub- 
 jected to labor, and it will be a fortunate circumstance if inflamma- 
 tion has not supervened. 
 
 But notwithstanding the generally benignant nature of the swelling 
 there are exceptional cases, usually when it is probably undergoing 
 certain pathological changes, which may result in lameness and dis- 
 able the animal, in which case surgical treatment will be indicated, 
 especially if repeated blisters have failed to improve the symptoms. 
 Line firing is then a preeminent suggestion, and many a useful life 
 has received a new lease as the result of this operation timely per- 
 formed. Another method of firing, which consists in emptying the 
 sac by means of punctures through and through, made with a red-hot 
 needle or wire, and the subsequent injection into the cavity of cer- 
 tain irritating and alterative compounds, designed to effect its closure 
 by exciting adhesive inflammation, such as tincture of iodine, may be 
 commended. But they are all too active and energetic in their effects 
 and require too much special attention and intelligent management to 
 be trusted to any hands other than those of an expert veterinarian. 
 
 BLOOD SPAVIN, BOO SPAVIN, AND THOBOUGHPIN. 
 
 The blood spavin is situated in front and to the inside of the hock 
 and is merely a varicose or dilated condition of the saphena vein. It 
 occurs directly over the point where the bog spavin is found, and has 
 thus been frequently confused with the latter. 
 
 The complicated arrangement of the hock joint, and the powerful 
 tendons which pass on the posterior part, are lubricated with the 
 product of secretion from one tendinous synovial and several articular 
 
 a This bandage consists of a cloth drenched in warm water or a dripping band- 
 age laid around the diseased part, then covered by several layers of woolen 
 blanket or cloth, which is in turn covered by parchment paper, rubber cloth, or 
 other impervious material. Heat, moisture, and pressure are obtained by such 
 a bandage if water is poured upon it several times daily.
 
 332 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 synovial sacs. A large articular sac contributes to the lubrication of 
 the shank bone (the tibia) and one of the bones of the hock (the astrag- 
 alus). The tendinous sac lies back of the articulation itself and 
 extends upward and downward in the groove of that joint through 
 which the flexor tendons slide. The dilatation of this articular syno- 
 vial sac is what is denominated bog spavin, the term thoroughpin 
 being applied to the dilatation of the tendinous capsule. 
 
 The bog spavin is a round, smooth, well-defined, fluctuating tumor 
 situated in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it 
 disappears at this point to reappear on the outside and just behind the 
 hock. If pressed to the front from the outside it will then appear 
 on the inside of the hock. On its outer surface it presents a vein 
 which is quite prominent, running from below upward, and.it is to 
 the preternatural dilatation of this blood vessel that the term blood 
 spavin is applied. 
 
 The thoroughpin is found at the back and on the top of the hock 
 in that part known as the " hollows," immediately behind the shank 
 bone. It is round and smooth, but not so regularly formed as the 
 bog spavin, and is most apparent when viewed from behind. The 
 swelling is usually on both sides and a little in front of the so-called 
 hamstring, but may be more noticeable on the inside or on the outside. 
 
 In their general characteristics bog spavins and thoroughpins are 
 similar to windgalls, and one description of the origin, symptoms, 
 pathological changes, and treatment will serve for all equally, except 
 that it is possible for a bog spavin to cause lameness, and thus to 
 involve a verdict of unsoundness in the patient, a circumstance which 
 will, of course, justify its classification by itself as a severer form of a 
 single type of disease. 
 
 We have already referred to the subject of treatment and the means 
 employed rest, of course with liniments, blisters, etc., and what 
 we esteem as the most active and beneficial of any, early, deep, and 
 iccll-pcr formed cauterization. There are, besides, commendatory 
 reports of a form of treatment by the application of pressure pads 
 and peculiar bandages upon the hocks, and it is claimed that the 
 removal of the tumors has been effected by their use. But our expe- 
 rience with this apparatus has not been accompanied b}^ such 
 favorable results as would justify our indorsement of the flattering 
 representations which have sometimes appeared in its behalf. 
 
 OPEN JOINTS. BROKEN KNEES, 8YHOVITI8, AND ARTHRITIS. 
 
 The close relationship which exists among these several affections, 
 their apparently possible connection as successive developments of a 
 similar, if not an essentially identical, origin, together with the 
 advantage gained by avoiding frequent rejxjtitions in the details of 
 symptoms, treatment, etc., are our reasons for treating under a single 
 head the ailments we have grouped together in the present section.
 
 DISEASES OF JOINTS. 333 
 
 Cause. The great, comprehensive, common cause of, sometimes 
 permanent, sometimes only transient, disability of the horse is exter- 
 nal traumatism. 
 
 Blows, bruises, hurts by nearly every known form of violence, 
 falls, kicks, lacerations, punctures we may add compulsory speed 
 in racing and cruel overloading of draft animals cover the entire 
 ground of causation of the diseases and injuries of the joints now 
 receiving our consideration. 
 
 In one case, a working horse making a misstep stumbles, and fall- 
 ing on his knees receives a hurt, variously severe, from a mere abra- 
 sion of the skin to a laceration, a division of the tegument, a slough, 
 mortification, and the escape of the synovial fluid, with or without 
 exposure of the bones and their articular cartilages. 
 
 In another case, an animal, from one cause or another, perhaps an 
 impatient temper, has formed the habit of striking or pawing his 
 manger with his fore feet until inflammation of the knee joint is 
 induced, first as a little swelling, diffused, painless; then as a perios- 
 titis of the bones of the knee ; later as bony deposits, then lameness, 
 and finally the implication of the joint, with all the various sequelae 
 of chronic inflammation of the knee joint. 
 
 In another case, a horse has received a blow with a fork from a 
 careless hostler on or near a joint, or has been kicked by a stable 
 companion, with the result of a punctured wound, at first mild- 
 looking, painless, apparently without inflammation, and not yet caus- 
 ing lameness, but which, in a few hours, or it may be only after a few 
 days, becomes excessively painful, grows worse, the entire joint swells, 
 presently discharges, and at last a case of suppurative synovitis is 
 presented, with perhaps disease of the joint proper, and arthritis as 
 a climax. The symptoms of articular injuries vary not only in the 
 degrees of the hurt, but in the nature of the lesion. 
 
 Or the condition of broken knees, resulting as we have said, may 
 have for its starting point a mere abrasion of the skin a scratch, 
 apparently, which disappears without a resulting scar. The injury 
 may, however, have been more severe, the blow heavier, the fall aggra- 
 vated by occurring upon an irregular surface, or sharp or rough ob- 
 ject, with tearing or cutting of the skin, and this laceration may re- 
 main. A more serious case than the first is now brought to our notice. 
 
 Another time, immediately following the accident, or possibly as 
 a sequel of the traumatism, the tendinous sacs may be opened, with 
 the escape of the synovia ; or worse, the tendons which pass in front 
 of the knee are torn, the inflammation spreads, the joint and leg 
 are swollen, the animal is becoming very lame; synovitis has set in. 
 With this the danger becomes very great, for soon suppuration will be 
 established, then the external coat of the articulation proper becomes 
 ulcerated, if it is not already in that state, and we find ourselves in
 
 334 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the presence of an open joint with suppurative synovitis that is, with 
 the worst among the conditions of diseased processes, because of the 
 liability of the suppuration to become infiltrated into every part of the 
 joint, macerating the ligaments and irritating the cartilages, soon to 
 be succeeded by their ulceration, with the destruction of the articular 
 surface or the lesion of ulcerative arthritis, one of the gravest among 
 all the disorders known to the animal economy. 
 
 But ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis may be devel- 
 oped otherwise than in connection with open joints ; the simplest and 
 apparently most harmless punctures may prove to be cause sufficient. 
 For example, a horse may be kicked, perhaps, on the inside of the 
 hock; there is a mark and a few drops of blood to indicate the spot, 
 he is put to work, apparently free from pain or lameness, and per- 
 forms his task with his usual ease and facility. But on the following 
 morning the hock is found to be a little swollen and there is some stiff- 
 ness. A little later on he betrays a degree of uneasiness in the leg, 
 and shrinks from resting his weight upon it, moving it up and down 
 for relief. The swelling has increased and is increasing, the pain is 
 severe, and, finally, there is an oozing, at the spot where the kick 
 impinged, of an oily liquid mixed with whitish drops of suppuration. 
 The mischief is done; a simple, harmless, punctured wound has ex- 
 panded into a case of ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis. 
 
 Prognosis. From ever so brief and succinct description of this 
 traumatism of the articulations, the serious and important character 
 of these lesions, irrespective of which particular joint is affected, will 
 be readily understood. Yet there will be modifications in the prog- 
 nosis in different cases, in accordance with the peculiarities of struc- 
 ture in the joint specially involved, as, for example, it is obvious that 
 a better result may be expected from treatment when but a single 
 joint, with only its plain articular surfaces, is the place of injury, 
 than in one which is composed of several bones, united in a complex 
 formation, as in the knee or hock. As severe a lesion as suppurative 
 synovitis always is, and as frequently fatal as it proves to be, still 
 cases arise in which, the inflammation assuming a modified character 
 and at length subsiding, the lesion terminates favorably and leaves 
 the animal with a comparatively sound and useful joint. There are 
 cases, however, which terminate in no more favorable a result than 
 the union of the bones and occlusion of the joint, to form an anchylo- 
 sis, which is scarcely a condition to justify a high degree of satisfac- 
 tion, since it insures a permanent lameness with very little capacity 
 for usefulness. 
 
 Appreciating now the dangers associated with all wounds of articu- 
 lations, however simple and apparently slight, and how serious and 
 troublesome are the complications which are likely to arise during 
 their progress and treatment, we are prepared to understand and
 
 DISEASES OF JOINTS. 335 
 
 realize the necessity and the value of early and prompt attention upon 
 their discovery and diagnosis. 
 
 Treatment. For simple bruises, like those which appear in the 
 form of broken knees or of carpitis, simple remedies, such as warm 
 fomentations or cold water applications and compresses of astringent 
 mixtures, suggest themselves at once. Injuries of a more complicated 
 character, as lacerations of the skin or tearing of soft structures, will 
 also be benefited by simple dressings with antiseptic mixtures, as 
 those of the carbolic acid order. The escape of synovia should sug- 
 gest the prompt use of collodion dressings to check the flow and pre- 
 vent the further escape of the fluid. But if the discharge is abundant 
 and heavily suppurative, little can be done more than to put in prac- 
 tice the " expectant " method with warm fomentations, repeatedly 
 applied, and soothing mucilaginous poultices. Improvement, if any 
 is possible, will be but slow to manifest itself. The most difficult of 
 all things to do, in view of varying interests and opinions that is, 
 in a practical sense is to abstain from " doing " entirely, and yet we 
 are firmly convinced that noninterference in the cases we are con- 
 sidering is the best and wisest policy. 
 
 In cases which are carried to a successful result the discharge will 
 by degrees diminish, the extreme pain will gradually subside, and the 
 convalescent will begin timidly to rest his foot upon the ground, and 
 presently to bear weight upon it, and perhaps, after a long and tedi- 
 ous process of recuperation, he may be returned to his former and 
 normal condition of usefulness. When the discharge has wholly 
 ceased and the wounds are entirely healed, a blister covering the 
 whole of the joint for the purpose of stimulating the absorption of 
 the exudation will be of great service. But if, on the contrary, there 
 is no amelioration of symptoms and the progress of the disease resists 
 every attempt to check it ; if the discharge continues to flow, not only 
 without abatement, but in an increased volume, and not alone by a 
 single opening, but by a number of fistulous tracts which have succes- 
 sively formed; if it seems evident that this drainage is rapidly and 
 painfully sapping the suffering animal's vitality, and a deficient vis 
 vita} fails to cooperate with the means of cure all rational hope of 
 recovery may be finally abandoned. Any further waiting for 
 chances, or time lost in experimenting, will be mere cruelty and there 
 need be no hesitation concerning the next step. The poor beast is 
 under sentence of death, and every consideration of interest and of 
 humanity demands an anticipation of nature's evident intent in the 
 quick and easy execution of the sentence. 
 
 One of the essentials of treatment, and probably an indispensable 
 condition when recovery is in any wise attainable, is the suspension 
 of the patient in slings. He should be continued in them as long as 
 he can be made to submit quietly to their restraint.
 
 336 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 DISLOCATIONS. 
 
 Dislocations and luxations are interchangeable terms, meaning the 
 separation and displacement of the articulating surfaces of the bones 
 entering into the formation of a joint. This injury is rarely en- 
 countered in our large animals on account of the combination of 
 strength and solidity in the formation of their joints. It is met with 
 but seldom in cattle and less so in horses, while dogs and smaller ani- 
 mals are more often the sufferers. 
 
 Cause. The accident of a luxation is less often encountered in the 
 animal races than in man. This is not because the former are less sub- 
 ject to occasional violence involving powerful muscular contractions, 
 or are less often exposed to casualties similar to those which result in 
 luxations in the human skeleton, but because it requires the coopera- 
 tion of conditions anatomical, physiological, and perhaps mechan- 
 ical present in the human race and lacking in the others, which, how- 
 ever, can not in every case be clearly defined. Perhaps the greater 
 relative length of the bony levers in the human formation may con- 
 stitute a cause of the difference. 
 
 Among the predisposing causes in animals may be enumerated 
 caries of articular surfaces, articular abscesses, excessive dropsical 
 conditions, degenerative softening of the ligaments, and any excessive 
 laxity of the soft structures. 
 
 Symptoms and diagnosis. Three signs of dislocation must usually 
 be taken into consideration. They are: (1) An alteration in the 
 shape of the joint and in the normal relationship of the articulating 
 surfaces; (2) an alteration in the length of the limb, either shorten- 
 ing or lengthening; (3) an alteration in the movableness of the joint, 
 usually an unnatural immobility. Only the first, however, can be 
 relied upon as essential. Luxations are not always complete; they 
 may be partial, that is, the articulating surfaces may be displaced 
 but not separated. In such cases several symptoms might not be 
 prasent. And not only may the third sign be absent, but the mobility 
 of the first be greatly increased when the character of the injury has 
 been such as to produce extensive lacerations of the articular ligaments. 
 
 In addition to the above signs, a luxation is usually characterized 
 by pain, swelling, hemorrhage beneath the skin from damaged or 
 ruptured blood vessels, and even paralysis, when important nerves are 
 pressed on by the displaced l>ones. 
 
 Sometimes a bone is fractured in the immediate vicinity of a joint. 
 The knowledge of this fact requires that we shall be able to diagnose 
 between a dislocation and such a fracture. In this we generally have 
 three points to assist us: (1) The immobility of a dislocated joint as 
 against the apparently remarkable freedom of movement in fracture ; 
 (2) in a dislocation there is no true crepitus that peculiar grating 
 sensation heard as well as felt on rubbing together the rough ends of
 
 PLATE AXVJ 
 
 B (.) N K S 1 -' AX' I N
 
 PLATE XXVH. 
 
 I Jarace for dislocation of the eibo\\- applied t,/ the horse 
 
 I a. The sutn.e bra.ce seen alone. L'. Brace foT cUslocatioi 
 
 of fetlock 2 a.. The sarnie brace applied to t/te horse. 
 
 3. Brae,' f, 
 .'Sn.Ttie ,w 
 
 ed or di.<tU'<(iieii ../,,,// /</,-/ 
 
 Huiiu-s del. alter Pouch cuidToussuint 
 
 DISI.OC'ATIOX Ob' SIKH'I.DF.H AX1) KI.HOW 
 Houi'uclars nppciralus
 
 IM.ATK XXVIII 
 
 Maine s di-1 after Revnders 
 
 THK SI.IXO IN l. T Sh:
 
 DISLOCATIONS. 337 
 
 fractured bones; however, it must be remembered that in a disloca- 
 tion two or three days old the inflammatory changes around the joint 
 may give rise to a crackling sensation similar to that in fracture; (3) 
 as a rule, in luxations, if the ligamentous and muscular tissues about 
 the joint are not badly torn, the displacement, when reduced, does 
 not recur. 
 
 Prognosis. The prognosis of a luxation is comparatively less seri- 
 ous than that of a fracture, though at times the indications of treat- 
 ment may prove to be so difficult to apply that complications may 
 arise of a very severe character. 
 
 Treatment. The. treatment of luxations must, of course, be similar 
 to that of fractures. Reduction, naturally, will be the first indication 
 in both cases, and the retention of the replaced parts must follow. 
 The reduction involves the same steps of extension and counter exten- 
 sion, performed in the same manner, with the patient subdued by 
 anesthetics. 
 
 The difference between the reduction of a dislocation and that of a 
 fracture consists in the fact that in the former the object is simply to 
 restore the bones to their true normal position, with each articular 
 surface in exact contact with its companion surface, the apparatus 
 necessary afterwards to keep them in situ being similar to that which 
 is employed in fracture cases, and which will usually require to be 
 retained for a period of from forty to fifty days, if not longer, before 
 the ruptured retaining ligaments are sufficiently firm to be trusted to 
 perform their office unassisted. A variety of manipulations are to be 
 employed by the surgeon, consisting in pushing, pulling, pressing, 
 rotating, and indeed whatever movement may be necessary, until the 
 bones ar.e forced into such relative positions that the muscular con- 
 traction, operating in just the right directions, pulls the opposite 
 matched ends together in true coaptation a head into a cavity, an 
 articular eminence into a trochlea, as the case may be. The " setting " 
 is accompanied by a peculiar snapping sound, audible and significant, 
 as well as a visible return of the surface to its normal symmetry. 
 
 Special dislocations. While all the articulations of the body are 
 liable to this form of injury, there are three in the large animals 
 which may claim a special consideration, viz: 
 
 THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 We mention this displacement without intending to imply the prac- 
 ticability of any ordinary attempt at treatment, which is usually 
 unsuccessful, the animal whose mishap it has been to become a .victim 
 to it being disabled for life. The superior head of the arm bone as it 
 is received into the lower cavity of the shoulder blade is so situated as 
 to be liable to be forced out of place in four directions. It may escape 
 from its socket, according to the manner in which the violence affects 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 22
 
 338 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 it outward, inward, backward, or forward and the deformity 
 which results and the effects which follow will correspondingly differ. 
 We have said that treatment is generally unsuccessful. It may be 
 added that the difficulties which interpose in the way of reduction are 
 nearly insurmountable, and that the application of means for the 
 retention of the parts after reduction would be next to impossible. 
 The prognosis is sufficiently grave from any point of view for the 
 luckless animal with a dislocated shoulder. 
 
 THE HIP JOINT. 
 
 This joint partakes very much of the characteristics of the humero- 
 scapular articulation, but is more strongly built* The head of the 
 thigh bone is more separated, or prominent and rounder in form, and 
 the cuplike cavity, or socket, into which it fits is much deeper, form- 
 ing together a deep, true ball-and-socket joint, which is, moreover, 
 reenforced by two strong cords of funicular ligaments, which unite 
 them together. It will be easily comprehended, from this hint of the 
 anatomy of the region, that a luxation of the hip joint must be an 
 accident of comparatively rare occurrence. And yet cases are recorded 
 in which the head of the bone has been affirmed to slip out of its 
 cavity and assume various positions inward, outward, forward, or 
 backward. 
 
 The indications of treatment are those of all cases of dislocation. 
 When the reduction is accomplished the surgeon will be apprised 
 of the fact by the peculiar snapping sound usually heard on such 
 occasions. 
 
 PSEUDO-LUXATIONS OF THE PATELLA. 
 
 This is not a true dislocation. The stifle bone is so peculiarly 
 articulated with the thigh bone that the means of union are. of suffi- 
 cient strength to resist the causes which usually give rise to luxations. 
 Yet there is sometimes discovered a peculiar pathological state in the 
 hind legs of animals, the effect of which is closely to simulate the 
 manifestation of many of the general symptoms of dislocations. This 
 peculiar pathological condition originates in muscular cramps, the 
 action of which is seen in a certain change in the coaptation of the 
 articular surfaces of the stifle and thigh bone, resulting in the exhibi- 
 tion of a sudden and alarming series of symptoms which have sug- 
 gested the phrase of " stifle out " as a descriptive term. 
 
 Symptoms. The animal so affected stands quietly and firmly in his 
 stall, or perhaps with one of his hind legs extended backward, and 
 resists every attempt to move him backward. If urged to move for- 
 ward he will either refuse or comply with a jump, with the toe of 
 the disabled leg dragging on the ground and brought forward by a 
 second effort. There is no flexion at the hock and no motion at the 
 stifle, while the circular motion of the hip is quite free. The leg 
 appears to be much longer than the other, owing to the straightened
 
 DISLOCATIONS. 339 
 
 position of the thigh bone, which forms almost a straight line with 
 the tibia from the hip joint down. The stifle joint is motionless, and 
 the motions of all the joints below it are more or less interfered with. 
 External examination of the muscles of the hip and thigh reveals a 
 certain amount of rigidity, with perhaps some soreness, and the stifle 
 bone may be seen projecting more or less on the outside and upper 
 part of the joint. 
 
 This state of things may continue for some length of time and until 
 treatment is applied, or it may spontaneously and suddenly terminate, 
 leaving everything in its normal condition, but perhaps to return 
 again. 
 
 Cause. Pseudo-dislocation of the patella is likely to occur under 
 many of the conditions which cause actual dislocation, and yet it may 
 often occur in animals which have not been exposed to the ordinary 
 causes, but which have remained at rest in their stables. Sometimes 
 these cases are assignable to falls in a slippery stall, or perhaps slip- 
 ping when endeavoring to rise ; sometimes to weakness in convalescing 
 patients; sometimes to lack of tonicity of structure and general de- 
 bility ; sometimes to relaxation of tissues from want of exercise or use. 
 A straight leg, sloping croup, and the young are predisposed to this 
 dislocation. 
 
 Treatment. The reduction of these displacements of the patella is 
 not usually attended with difficulty. A sudden jerk or spasmodic 
 action will often be all that is required to spring the patella into 
 place, when the flexion of the leg at the hock ends the trouble for the 
 time. But this is not always sufficient, and a true reduction may still 
 be indicated. To effect this the leg must be drawn well forward by 
 a rope attached to the lower end, and the patella, grasped with the 
 hand, forcibly pushed forward and inward and made to slip over the 
 outside border of the trochlea of the femur. The bone suddenly slips 
 into position, the excessive rigor of the leg ceases with a spasmodic 
 jerk, and the animal may walk or trot away without suspicion of 
 lameness. But though this may end the trouble for the time, and 
 the restoration seem to be perfect and permanent, a repetition of the 
 entire transaction may subsequently take place, and perhaps from the 
 loss of some proportion of tensile power which would naturally fol- 
 low the original attack in the muscles involved the lesion might 
 become a habitual weakness. 
 
 Warm fomentations and douches with cold water will often pro- 
 mote permanent recovery, and liberty in a box stall or in the field 
 will in many cases insure constant relief. The use of a high-heeled 
 shoe is recommended by European veterinarians. The use of stimu- 
 lating liniments, with frictions, charges, or even severe blisters, may 
 be resorted to in order to prevent the repetition of the difficulty by 
 strengthening and toning up the parts.
 
 340 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 DISEASES OF MUSCLES AND TENDONS. 
 SPRAINS. 
 
 This term expresses a more or less complete laceration or yielding 
 of the fibers of the muscles, tendons, or the sheaths surrounding and 
 supporting them. The usual cause of a sprain is external violence, 
 such as a fall or a powerful exertion of strength, with following 
 symptoms of soreness, heat, swelling, and a suspension of function. 
 Their termination varies from simple resolution to suppuration, and 
 commonly fibrinous exudation difficult to remove. None of the 
 muscles or tendons of the body are exempt from liability to this 
 lesion, though naturally from their uses and the exposure of their 
 situation the extremities are more liable than other regions to become 
 their seat. The nature of the prognosis will be determined by a 
 consideration of the seat of the injury and the complications likely 
 to arise. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment will resolve itself into the routine of 
 local applications, including warm fomentations, stimulating lini- 
 ments, counterirritation by blistering, and in some cases even firing. 
 Rest, in the -stable or in a box stall, will be of advantage by promoting 
 the absorption of whatever fibrinous exudation may have formed, or 
 absorption may be stimulated by the careful and persevering applica- 
 tion of iodine in the form of ointments of various degrees of strength. 
 
 There are many conditions in which not only the muscular and ten- 
 dinous structures proper are affected by a strain, but, by contiguity of 
 parts, the periosteum of neighboring bones may become involved, 
 with a complication of periostitis and its sequela?. 
 
 LAMKXKSS OF THE 8HOUT.DKR. 
 
 The frequency of the occurrence of lameness in the shoulder from 
 sprains entitles it to precedence of mention in the present category. 
 For, though so well covered with its muscular envelope, it is often 
 the seat of injuries which, from the complex structure of the region, 
 become difficult to diagnosticate with satisfactory precision and 
 facility. The flat bone which forms the skeleton of that region is 
 articulated in a comparatively loose manner with the bone of the arm, 
 but the joint is, notwithstanding, rather solid, and is powerfully 
 strengthened by tendons passing outside, inside, and in front of it. 
 Still, shoulder lameness or sprain may exist, originating in lacera- 
 tions of the muscles, the tendons or the ligaments of the joint, or 
 perhaps in diseases of the bones themselves. " Slip of the shoulder " 
 is a phrase frequently applied to such lesions. 
 
 The identification of the particular structures involved in these 
 lesions is of much importance, in view of its bearing upon the ques- 
 tion of prognosis. For example, while a simple superficial injury of 
 the spinatus muscles, or of the muscles by which the leg is attached to
 
 SHOULDER LAMFNESS. 341 
 
 the trunk, may not be of serious import and may readily yield to 
 treatment, or even recover spontaneously and without interference, the 
 condition is quite changed when a case of tearing of the flexor brachii, 
 or of its tendons as they pass in front of the articulation, occurs, or, 
 what is still more serious, if there is inflammation or ulceration in the 
 groove over which this tendon slides, or upon the articular surfaces 
 or their surroundings, or periostitis at any point adjacent. 
 
 Causes. The frequency of attacks of shoulder lameness is not diffi- 
 cult to account for. The superficial and unprotected position of the 
 part, and the numerous movements of which it is capable, and which 
 in fact it performs, render it both subjectively and objectively preemi- 
 nently liable to accident or injury. It would be difficult, nor would 
 it materially avail, to enumerate all the forms of violence by which 
 the shoulder may be crippled. A fall, accompanied by powerful con- 
 cussion ; a violent muscular contraction in starting a heavily loaded 
 vehicle from a standstill ; a misstep following a quick muscular effort ; 
 a jump accompanied by miscalculated results in alighting; a slip on a 
 smooth, icy road ; balling the feet with snow ; colliding with another 
 horse or other object indeed, the list might be indefinitely extended, 
 but it would be without profit or utility. 
 
 Symptoms. Some of the symptoms of shoulder lameness are pecul- 
 iar to themselves, and yet the trouble is frequently mistaken for 
 other affections navicular disease more often than any other. The 
 fact that in both affections there are instances when the external 
 symptoms are but imperfectly defined, and that one of them espe- 
 cially is very similar in both, is sufficient to mislead careless or 
 inexperienced observers, and to occasion the error which is sometimes 
 committed of applying to one disease the name of the other, erring 
 both ways in the interchange. The true designation of pathological 
 lesions is very far, at times, from being of certain and easy accom- 
 plishment, and, owing to the massive structure of the parts we are 
 considering, this is especially true in the present connection. And 
 still there are many cases in which there is really no reasonable excuse 
 for an error in diagnosis by an average practitioner. 
 
 Shoulder lameness will of course manifest itself by signs and 
 appearances more or less distinct and pronounced, according" to the 
 nature of the degree and the extent of the originating cause. We 
 summarize some of these signs and appearances : 
 
 The lameness is not intermittent but continued, the disturbance of 
 motion gauging the severity of the lesion and its extent. It is more 
 marked when the bones are diseased than when the muscles alone are 
 affected. When in motion the two upper bony levers the shoulder 
 blade and the bone of the upper arm are reduced to nearly complete 
 immobility and the walking is performed by the complete displace- 
 ment of the entire mass, which is dragged forward without either
 
 342 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 flexion or extension. The action of the joint below, as a natural con- 
 sequence, is limited in its flexion. In many instances there is a cer- 
 tain amount of swelling at the point of injury at the joint, or more 
 commonly in front of it, or on the surface of the spinatus muscle. 
 Again, instead of swelling there will be muscular atrophy, though 
 while this condition of loss of muscular power may interfere with 
 perfect locomotion, it is not in itself usually a cause of shoulder lame- 
 ness. " Sweenied " shoulders are more often due to disease below 
 the fetlock than to affections above the elbow. 
 
 During rest the animal often carries his leg forward, somewhat 
 analogous to the " pointing " position of navicular disease, though in 
 some cases the painful member drops at the elbow in a semiflexed 
 position. The backing is sometimes typical, the animal when per- 
 forming it, instead of flexing his shoulder, dragging the whole leg 
 without motion in the upper segment of the extremity. 
 
 The peculiar manner in which the leg is brought forward in the air 
 for another step in the act of walking or trotting is in some instances 
 characteristic of injuries of the shoulder. The lameness also mani- 
 fests itself in bringing the leg forward with a circumflex swinging 
 motion and a shortening in the extension of the step. The foot is 
 carried close to the ground and stumbling is frequent, especially on 
 an uneven road. 
 
 With the utmost scrutiny and care the vagueness and uncertainty 
 of the symptoms will contribute to perplex and discredit the diagnosis 
 and embarrass the surgeon, and sometimes the expedient is tried of 
 aggravating the symptoms by way of intensifying their significance, 
 and thus rendering them more intelligible. This has been sought by 
 requiring the patient to travel on hard or very soft ground and 
 compelling him to turn on the sound leg as a pivot, with other 
 motions calculated to betray the locality of the pain. 
 
 Treatment. It is our conviction that lameness of the shoulder will 
 in many cases disappear with no other prescription than that of rest. 
 Provided the lesions occasioning it are not too severe, time is all that 
 is required. But the negation of letting alone is seldom accepted as 
 a means of doing good, in the place of the active and the positive 
 forms of treatment. This is in accordance with a trait of human 
 nature which is universal, and is unlimited in its applications. 
 Hence there must be something done. In mild cases of shoulder 
 lameness, then, the indications are water, either in the cold douche 
 or by showering, or by warm fomentations. Warm wet blankets are 
 of great service; and in addition, or as alternative, anodyne lini- 
 ments, camphor, belladonna, either in the form of tincture or the 
 oils, are of benefit, and at a later period stimulating friction with 
 suitable mixtures, sweating liniments, blistering compounds, sub- 
 cutaneous injections over the region of the muscle of 1 grains of
 
 SPRAIN OF ELBOW MUSCLES. 343 
 
 veratrin (the variety insoluble in water) mixed in 2 drams of .water, 
 etc., will find their place, and finally, when necessity demands it, the 
 firing iron and the seton. 
 
 The duration of the treatment must be determined by its effects and 
 the evidence that may be offered of the results following the action of 
 the reparative process. But the great essential condition of cure, and 
 the one without which the possibility of relapse will always remain as 
 a menace, is, as we have often reiterated in analogous cases, rest, 
 imperatively rest, irrespective of any other prescriptions with which 
 it may be associated. 
 
 SPRAIN OF THE ELBOW MUSCLES. 
 
 Causes. This injury, which fortunately is not very common, is 
 mostly encountered in cities, among heavy draft horses or rapidly 
 driven animals which are obliged to travel, often smooth shod, upon 
 slippery, icy, or greasy pavements, where they are easily liable to lose 
 their foothold. The region of the strain is the posterior part of the 
 shoulder, and the muscles which are affected are those which occupy 
 the space between the posterior border of the scapula and the pos- 
 terior face of the arm. It is the muscles of the olecranon which give 
 way. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are easily recognized, especially when 
 the animal is in action. While at rest the attitude may be normal, or 
 by close scrutiny a peculiarity may perhaps be detected. The leg may 
 seem to drop ; the elbow may appear to be lower than its fellow, with 
 the knee and lower part of the leg flexed and the foot resting on 
 the toe, with the heel raised. Such an attitude, however, may be 
 occasionally assumed by an animal without having any special signifi- 
 cance. But when it becomes more pronounced on putting him in 
 motion the fact acquires a symptomatic value, and this is the case in 
 the present instance. A rapid gait becomes quite impossible, and the 
 walk, as in some few other diseases, becomes sufficiently characteristic 
 to warrant a diagnosis even when observed from a distance. An 
 entire dropping of the anterior part of the trunk becomes manifest, 
 and no weight is carried on the disabled side, in consequence of the 
 loss of action in the suspensory muscles. There are often heat, pain, 
 and swelling in the muscular mass at the elbow, though at times a 
 hollow, or depression, may be observed near the posterior border of 
 the scapula, which is probably the seat of injury. 
 
 These hurts are of various degrees of importance, varying from 
 mere minor casualties of quick recovery to lesions which are of suffi- 
 cient severity to render an animal useless and valueless for life. 
 
 Treatment. The prime elements of treatment, which should be 
 strictly observed, are rest and quiet. Prescriptions of all kinds, of 
 course, have their advocates. Among them are ether, chloroform,
 
 344 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 camphor, alcoholic frictions, warm fomentations, blisters, setons, etc. 
 But unless the conclusions of experience are to be ignored, my own 
 judgment is decisive in favor of rest, judiciously applied; and my 
 view of what constitutes a judicious application of rest has been more 
 than once presented in these pages. There are degrees of this rest. 
 One contemplates simple immobility in a narrow stall. Another 
 means the enforced mobility of the slings and a narrow stall as well. 
 Another a box stall, with ample latitude as to posture and space, and 
 option to stand up or lie down. As wide as this range may appear to 
 be, radical recovery has occurred under all of these modified forms of 
 letting our patients alone. 
 
 HIP LAMENESS. 
 
 The etiology of injuries and diseases of the hip is one and the same 
 with that of the shoulder. The same causes operate and the same 
 results follow. The only essential change, with an important excep- 
 tion, which would be necessary in passing from one region to the 
 other in a description of its anatomy, its physiology, and its pathol- 
 ogy, would be a substitution of anatomical names in reference to 
 certain bones, articulations, muscles, ligaments, and membranes con- 
 cerned in the injuries and diseases described. It would be only a use- 
 less repetition to cover again the ground over which we have so 
 recently passed in recital of the manner in which certain forms of 
 external violence (falls, blows, kicks, etc.) result in other certain 
 forms of lesion (luxation, fracture, periostitis, ostitis, etc.), and to 
 recapitulate the items of treatment and the names of the medicaments 
 proper to use. The same rules of diagnosis and the same indications 
 and prognosis are applicable equally to every portion of the organ- 
 ism, with only such modifications in applying dressings and appa- 
 ratus as may be required by differences of conformation and other 
 minor circumstances, which must suggest themselves to the judgment 
 of every experienced observer when the occasion arrives for its 
 exercise. 
 
 There is an exception to be made, while considering the subject in 
 connection with the region now under advisement, in respect to the 
 formidable affection known as morbus coxarius, or hip- joint disease; 
 and leaving the detail of other lesions to take their place under other 
 heads, that relating to the shoulder, for instance, we turn to the hip 
 joint and its ailments as the chief subject of our present consid- 
 eration. 
 
 Symptoms. In investigating for morbus coxarius, let the ob- 
 server first examine the lame animal by scanning critically the out- 
 lines of the joint and the region adjacent for any difference of size 
 or disturbance o"f symmetry in the parts, any prominence or rotundity, 
 and on both sides. The lame side will probably be warmer, more 
 developed and fuller, both to the touch and to the eye. Let him then
 
 SPRAIN OP LIGAMENTS OF FEET. 345 
 
 grasp the lower part of the leg (as he would in examining a case of 
 shoulder lameness) and endeavor to produce excessive passive mo- 
 tion. This will probably cause pain when the leg is made to assume 
 a given position. Let him push the thigh forcibly against the hip 
 bone, and the contact will again probably cause a manifestation of 
 pain. If the horse is trotted, the limited action of the hip joint 
 proper and the excessive dropping and rising of the hip of the oppo- 
 site side will be easily recognized. Usually the animal does not 
 extend the foot as far as customarily and picks it up much sooner. 
 
 The abductive or circumflex motion observed in shoulder lameness 
 is also present in hip lameness, but under special conditions, and 
 the test of the difficulty, either by traveling on soft ground or in 
 turning the horse in a circle, may here also contribute to the diag- 
 nosis, as in testing for lameness in the anterior extremity. 
 
 Prognosis. The prognosis of hip lameness is at times quite seri- 
 ous, not only on account of the long duration of treatment required 
 to effect good results, and because of the character which may be 
 assumed by the disease, but of the permanence of the disability re- 
 sulting from it. Exostosis and ulcerative arthritis are sequelae which 
 often resist every form of treatment. 
 
 Treatment. As before intimated, this is little more than a repetition 
 of the remarks upon the lameness of the shoulder, with slight modifi- 
 cations occasioned by the muscular structure of the hip, and we are 
 limited to the same recommendations of treatment. The advantages 
 of rest must be reaffirmed, with local applications, of which, however, 
 it may be said that they are more distinctly indicated and likely to be 
 more effective in their results than in shoulder lameness, and may be 
 more freely employed, whether in the form of liniments, blisters 
 (singly or repeated), firing, or setoning. 
 
 SPRAINS OF SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS AND OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS OR THEIR SHEATH. 
 
 The fibrous structure situated behind the cannon bones, both in the 
 fore and hind legs, is often the seat.of lacerations or sprains resulting 
 from violent efforts or sudden jerks. 
 
 Cause. The injury may be considered serious or trifling, according 
 to the circumstances of each case as judged by its own history. Among 
 the predisposing causes are a long thin fetlock and a narrow knee or 
 hock as viewed from the side, with the flexor muscles tied in just below 
 the joint. The longer and more oblique the pastern the greater is the 
 strain on the flexor tendons and suspensory ligaments, hence a low 
 quarter, a toe calk, and no heel calks, or a thin calk placed at the tip 
 under the toe, and leaving the quarters long abnormally stretches the 
 back tendons and causes a great strain upon them just before the 
 weight is shifted from the foot in locomotion. In runners and hunters 
 the disease is apt to be periodic. In driving horses it is most common
 
 346 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 
 
 in well-bred animals of nervous temperament. Draft horses suffer 
 most frequently in the hind legs. 
 
 Symptoms. The injury is readily recognized by the changed aspect 
 of the region and the accompanying local symptoms. The parts, 
 which in health are well defined, with the outlines of the tendons and 
 ligaments well marked, become the seat of a swelling, more or less 
 developed, from a small spot on the middle of the back of the tendon 
 to a tumefaction reaching from the knee down to and even involving 
 the fetlock itself. It is always characterized by heat, and it is vari- 
 ously sensitive, ranging from a mere tenderness to a degree of soreness 
 which shrinks from the lightest touch. The degree of the lameness 
 varies, and it has a corresponding range with the soreness, sometimes 
 showing only a slight halting and at others the extreme of lameness 
 on three legs, with intermediate degrees. 
 
 The lameness is always worse when the weight is thrown on the 
 foot, and is most marked toward the end of the phase of contact with 
 the ground. Either passive irritation of the leg or turning the ani- 
 mal in a circle causes pain as in diseases of the joints. Sometimes the 
 horse likes to get the heels on a stone or some elevation so as to relieve 
 the weight from the flexor tendons. Finally, in cases of long stand- 
 ing, a shortening of the tendons occurs, resulting in the abnormal 
 flexion of the foot known by horsemen as " broken down," or a more 
 upright position of the foot may follow, producing perhaps knuck- 
 ling or the so-called clubfoot. 
 
 Prognosis. It may be safely assumed on general principles that a 
 leg which has received such injuries very seldom returns to a perfect 
 condition of efficiency and soundness, and that as a fact a certain abso- 
 lute amount of thickening and deformity will remain permanent, even 
 when the lameness has entirely disappeared. 
 
 Treatment. The injured member should receive the earliest atten- 
 tion possible, not only when the inflammatory condition is present, but 
 when it is subsiding and there is only the thickening of the ligaments, 
 the tendons, or the sheath. 
 
 The most important remedy is rest, and the shoes should always be 
 removed. During the first three days cold in the form of immersion 
 or continuous irrigation is indicated. Then warm moisture and con- 
 tinuous pressure are advised. The latter is best applied by placing 
 two padded splints about the thickness of the thumb along the two 
 sides of the tendon and binding them in place with even pressure by 
 bandage. Frequent bathing with warm soap suds is also beneficial. 
 The absorption of the exudate may be promoted and the work of 
 restoration effected by frictions with alcohol, tinctusre of soap, spirits 
 of camphor, mild liniments, strong sweating liniments, and blisters. 
 An excellent ointment to apply with massage consists of equal parts 
 of blue ointment and green soap, with double the quantity of vaseline.
 
 KNUCKLING OF FETLOCK. 347 
 
 The action of blisters in these cases depends chiefly upon the massage 
 used in applying them and upon the continuous pressure of the swol- 
 len skin on the inflamed tendons. In old cases more beneficial results 
 will follow line firing. In these cases shoeing is very important. 
 Leave the quarters long, shorten the toe, give the shoe rolling motion, 
 and either put short heel calks on the branches or thicken the 
 branches. Although this line of treatment is efficacious in many cases, 
 there are others in which the thickening of the tendons refuses to 
 yield and the changed tissues remain firmly organized, leaving them 
 in the form of a thick mass resting upon the back part of the cannon 
 bone. 
 
 KNUCKLING OF FETLOCK. 
 
 As a consequence of the last-mentioned lesion of the tendons, a new 
 condition presents itself in the articular disposition, constituting the 
 deformity known as the knuckling fetlock. (See also page 374.) 
 
 By this is meant a deformity of the fetlock joint by which the nat- 
 ural angle is changed from that which pertains to the healthy articu- 
 lation. The first pastern, or suffraginis, loses its oblique direction and 
 assumes another, which varies from the upright to the oblique, from 
 before backward, and from above downward; in other words, form- 
 ing an angle with its apex in front. 
 
 Causes. This condition, as we have seen, may be the result of 
 chronic disease producing structural changes in the tendons, and it 
 may also occur as the result of other affections or some peculiarity 
 independent of this and situated below the fetlock, such as ringbones, 
 sidebones, or traumatic disease of the foot proper. Animals are 
 sometimes predisposed to knuckling, such, for example, as are natur- 
 ally straight in their pasterns, or animals which are compelled to 
 labor when too young. The hind legs ,are more predisposed than the 
 fore to this deformity, in consequence of the greater amount of labor 
 they are required to perform as the propelling levers of the body. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of knuckling are easily recognized. 
 The changes in the direction of the bones vary more or less with the 
 degree of the lesion, sometimes assuming such a direction that it 
 almost becomes a true dislocation of the pastern. 
 
 The effect of knuckling upon the gait also varies according to the 
 degree of the deformity. As the different degrees of the shortening 
 of the leg affect the motion of the fetlock, the lameness may be very 
 slight or quite extreme. Another consequence of this shortening is 
 such a change in the position of the foot that the heels cease to come 
 in contact with the ground and assume a greater elevation, and the 
 final result of this is soon witnessed in the development of a clubfoot. 
 
 Treatment. To whatever cause the knuckling may be ascribed, it is 
 always a severe infirmity, and there is but little room for hoping to 
 overcome it unless it be during the very first stages of the trouble,
 
 348 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 and the hope dwindles to still smaller dimensions when it is secondaiy 
 to other diseases below the fetlock. If it is caused by overworking 
 the animal, the first indication will, of course, be rest. Line firing has 
 proved very efficacious in these cases. The animal must be turned 
 loose and left unemployed. Careful attention should be given to the 
 condition of his feet and to the manner of shoeing, while time is 
 allowed for the tendons to become restored to their normal state and 
 the irritation caused by excessive stretching has subsided. A shoe 
 with a thick heel will contribute to this. But if no improvement can 
 be obtained and the tendons though retracted have yet been relieved 
 of much of their thickening, the case is not a desperate one, and may 
 yet be benefited by the operation of tenotomy, single or double an 
 operative expedient which must be committed to the experienced 
 surgeon for its performance. 
 
 8PBUNO KNEES. 
 
 Though not positively the result of diseases of the tendons acting 
 upon the knees, we venture to consider this deformity in connection 
 with that which we have just described. It consists in such an alter- 
 ation in the direction and articulation of the bones which form the 
 various carpal joints that instead of forming a vertical line from the 
 lower end of the forearm to the cannon bone they are so united that 
 the knee is more or less bent forward, presenting a condition due to 
 the retraction of two of the principal muscles by which the cannon 
 bone is flexed. 
 
 Cause. This flexion of the knee may be a congenital deformity and 
 have continued from the foaling of the animal; or, like clubfoot, it 
 may be the result of heavy labor which the animal has been compelled 
 to perform at too early an age. It may also be due to other diseases 
 existing in parts below the kneejoint. 
 
 Symptoms. This change of direction largely influences the move- 
 ment of the animal by detracting from its firmness and practically 
 weakening the entire frame, even to the extent of rendering him inse- 
 cure on his feet and liable to fall. This condition of weakness is some- 
 limes so pronounced that ho is exposed to fall even when standing at 
 rest and unmolested, the knees being unable even to bear the portion 
 of the mere weight of the frame which belongs to them. This results 
 in another trouble that of being unable to keep permanently upright. 
 He is apt to fall on his knees, and by this act becomes presently a 
 sufferer from the lesion known by the term of broken knees. 
 
 Treatment. Whatever may be the originating cause of this imper- 
 fection, it detracts very largely from the usefulness and value of a 
 horse, disqualifying him for ordinary labor and wholly unfitting him 
 for service under the saddle without jeopardizing the safety of his 
 rider. If, however, the trouble is known from the start, and is not 
 the result of congenital deformity or weakness of the kneejoint, or
 
 CUEB. 349 
 
 secondary to other diseases, rest, with fortifying frictions, may some- 
 iimes aid in strengthening the joints; and the application of blisters 
 on the posterior part of the knee, from a short distance above to a 
 point a little below the joint, may be followed by some satisfactory 
 results; but with this trouble, as with knuckling fetlocks, the danger 
 of relapse must be kept in mind as a contingency always liable to 
 occur. 
 
 CURB. 
 
 This lesion is the bulging backward of the posterior part of the 
 hock, where in the normal state there should be a straight line, extend- 
 ing from the upper end of the point of the hock down to the fetlock. 
 
 Cause. The cause may be a sprain of the tendon which passes on 
 the posterior part of the hock, or of one of its sheaths, or of the strong 
 ligament situated on the posterior border of the os calcis. 
 
 Hocks of a certain conformation seem to possess a greater liability 
 to curb than others. They are overbent, coarse, and thick in appear- 
 ance, or may be too narrow from front to back across the lower por- 
 tion. This condition may therefore result as a sequence to congeni- 
 tal malformation, as in the case of horses that are saber-legged. It 
 often occurs, also, as the result of violent efforts, of heavy pulling, of 
 high jumping, or of slipping; in a word, it may result from any of 
 the causes heretofore considered as instrumental in producing lacera- 
 tions of muscular, tendinous, or ligamentous structure. 
 
 Symptoms. A hock affected with curb will, at the outset, present 
 a swelling more or less diffuse on its posterior portion, with varying 
 degrees of heat and soreness, and these will be accompanied by lame- 
 ness of a permanent character. At a later period, however, the swell- 
 ing will become better defined, the deformity more characteristic, the 
 prominent curved line readily detected, and the thickness of the infil- 
 trated tissue easily determined by the fingers. At this time, also, 
 there may be a condition of lameness, varying in degree, while at 
 others, again, the irregularity of action at the hock will be so slight 
 as to escape detection, the animal betraying no appearance of its 
 existence. 
 
 A curb constitutes, by a strict construction of the term, an " un- 
 soundness," since the hock thus affected is less able to endure severe 
 labor, and is more liable to give way with the slightest effort. And 
 yet the prognosis of a curb can not be considered to be serious, since it 
 generally yields to treatment, or at least the lameness it may occasion 
 is generally easily relieved, though the loss of contour caused by the 
 bulging will always constitute a blemish. 
 
 Treatment. On the first appearance of a curb, when it exhibits 
 the signs of an acute inflammation, the first indication is to subdue 
 this by the use of cold applications as intermittent or constant irriga- 
 tion or an ice poultice; but when these have exhausted their effect
 
 350 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 and the swelling has assumed better defined boundaries, and the infil- 
 tration of the tendons or of the ligaments is all that remains of a 
 morbid state, then every effort must be directed to the object of effect- 
 ing its absorption and reducing its dimensions by pressure and other 
 methods. The medicaments most to be trusted are blisters of can- 
 tharides and frictions with ointments of iodine, or, preferably, 
 biniodide of mercury. Mercurial agents alone, by their therapeutic 
 properties or by means of the artificial bandages which they furnish 
 by their incrustations when their vesicatory effects are exhausted, 
 will give good results in some instances by a single application, and 
 often by repeated applications. The use of the firing iron must, 
 however, be frequently resorted to, either to remove the lameness or 
 to stimulate the absorption. We believe that its early application 
 ought to be resorted to in preference to waiting until the exudation 
 is firmly organized. Firing in dull points or in lines will prove as 
 beneficial in curb as in any other disease of a similar nature. 
 
 LACERATED TENDONS. 
 
 This form of injury, whether of a simple or of a compound char- 
 acter, may become a lesion of a very serious nature, and will usually 
 require long and careful treatment, which may yet prove unavailing 
 in consequence either of the intrinsically fatal character of the wound 
 itself or the complications which have rendered it incurable. 
 
 Cause. Like all similar injuries, these are the result of traumatic 
 violence, such as contact with objects both blunt and sharp; a curb- 
 stone in the city; in the country, a tree stump or a fence, especially 
 one of wire. It may easily occur to a runaway horse when he is 
 " whipped " with fragments of harness or " flogged " by fragments of 
 splintered shafts " thrashing " his legs, or by the contact of his legs 
 with the wagon he has overturned and shattered with his heels while 
 disengaging himself from its wreck. 
 
 Symptoms. It is not always necessary that the skin should be 
 involved in this form of injury. On the contrary, the tegument is 
 frequently left entirely intact, especially when the injury follows 
 infectious diseases or occurs during light exercise after long periods 
 of rest in the stable. Yet, again, the skin may be cut through and 
 the tendons nearly severed. A point a little above the fetlock is 
 usually the seat of the injury. But irrespective of this, and whether 
 the skin is or is not implicated, the symptoms very much resemble 
 those of a fracture. There is excessive mobility, at least more than 
 in a normal state, with more or less inability to carry weight. There 
 may be swelling of the parts, and on passing the hands carefully 
 along the tendon to the point of division the stumps of the divided 
 structure will be felt more or less separated, perhaps wholly divided. 
 The position of the animal while at rest and standing is peculiar and 
 characteristic. While the heels are well placed on the ground, the
 
 LACERATED TENDONS. 351. 
 
 toe is correspondingly elevated, with a tendency to turn up a form 
 of breaking down which was described when speaking of the fracture 
 of the sesamoids. Carrying weight is done only with considerable 
 difficulty, but with comparatively little pain, and the animal will 
 unconsciously continue to move the leg as if in great suffering, not- 
 withstanding the fact that his general condition may be very good 
 and his appetite unimpaired. 
 
 The effect upon the general organism of compound lacerated 
 wounds of tendinous structures, or those which are associated with 
 injuries of the skin, are different. The wound becomes in a short time 
 the seat of a high degree of inflammation with abundant suppuration, 
 filling it from the bottom; and the tendon, waether as the result of 
 the bruise or of the laceration, or of maceration in the accumulated 
 pus, undergoes a process of softening, and necrosis and sloughing 
 ensue. This complicates the case, and probably some form of tendi- 
 nous synovitis follows, running into suppurative arthritis, to end, if 
 close to a joint, with a fatal result. 
 
 Prognosis. The prognosis of lacerated tendons should be very con- 
 servative. Under the most favorable circumstances a period of from 
 six weeks to two months will be necessary for the treatment, before 
 the formation of the cicatricial callus and the establishment of a firm 
 union between the tendinous stumps. 
 
 Treatment. As with fractures, and even in a greater degree, the 
 necessity is imperative, in the treatment of lacerated tendons, to se- 
 cure as perfect a state of immobility as can be obtained compatibly 
 with the disposition of the patient; the natural opposition of the 
 animal, sometimes ill-tempered and fractious at best, under the neces- 
 sary restraint, causing at times much embarrassment to the practi- 
 tioner in applying the necessary treatment. Without the necessary 
 immobility no close connection of the ends of the tendons can be 
 secured. To fulfill this necessary condition the posterior part of the 
 foot and the fetlock must be supported and the traction performed 
 by them relieved, an object which can be obtained by the use of the 
 high-heeled and bar shoe, or possibly better accomplished with a 
 shoe of the same kind extending about 2 or 2 inches back of the 
 heels. The perfect immobility of the legs is obtained in the same way 
 as in the treatment of fracture, with splints, bandages, iron appa- 
 ratus, plaster of adhesive mixtures, and similar means. So long as 
 the dressings remain in place undisturbed, and no chafing or other 
 evidence of pain is present, the dressings may be continued without 
 changing, the patient being kept in the slings for a period sufficient to 
 insure the perfect union of the tendons. But for a compound lesion, 
 when there is laceration of the skin, some special care is necessary. 
 The wound must be carefully watched and the dressings removed 
 at intervals of a few days, or as often as may be needful, all of which
 
 352 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 additional manipulation and extra nursing, however indispensable, 
 still adds to the gravity of the case and renders the prognosis more 
 and more serious. When the tendons have sloughed in threads of 
 various dimensions, or if in the absence of this process of mortification 
 healthy granulations should form and fill up the wound, still very 
 careful attention will be required, the granulating ends of the tendons 
 having a tendency to bulge between the edges of the skin and to 
 assume large dimensions, forming bulky excrescences or growths of a 
 warty or cauliflower appearance, the removal of which becomes a 
 troublesome matter. 
 
 The union of the tendons will at times leave a thickening of vary- 
 ing degree near the point of cicatrization, the absorption of which 
 becomes an object of difficult and doubtful accomplishment, but 
 which may be promoted by moderate blistering and the use of alter- 
 ative and absorbent mixtures or perhaps the fire iron. A shoe with 
 heels somewhat higher than usual will prove a comfort to the animal 
 and aid in moderating and relieving the tension of the tendons. 
 
 BUPTUBE OF THE FLEXOB METATARSI. 
 
 This is a muscle of the anterior part of the shank. It is situated 
 in front of the tibia, and is of peculiar formation, being composed of 
 a muscular portion with a very powerful tendon, which are at first 
 distinct and separate, to be intimately united lower down, and termi- 
 nating at the lower end by a division into four tendinous bands. It 
 is a powerful muscle of the hinder shank bone, and also acts as a 
 strong means of support for the stifle joint, that is, of the articulation 
 of the thigh and shank bone, in front and outside of which it passes. 
 Its situation and its use cause it to be liable to severe stretching 
 and straining, and a rupture of some of its fibers is sometimes the 
 consequence. 
 
 Cause. This injury may be the result of a violent effort of the 
 animal in leaping over a high obstacle; in missing his foothold and 
 suddenly slipping backward while powerfully grasping the ground 
 with the feet in striving to start a heavily loaded vehicle ; or in mak- 
 ing a violent effort to prevent a probable fall; or in attempting to 
 lift the feet from miry ground. 
 
 Symptoms. The accident is immediately followed by disability 
 which will vary according to the true seat of the injury and the 
 period of its duration. This rupture will not prevent the horse from 
 standing perfectly and firmly on his feet when kept at rest, and 
 while no muscular efforts are required from him there is no appear- 
 ance of any lesion or unsoundness. An attempt to move him back- 
 ward, however, will cause him to throw all his weight upon his hind 
 quarters, and he will refuse to raise his foot from the ground. If 
 compelled to do so, or required to move forward, the hock being no 
 longer capable of flexion, the muscle which effects that movement
 
 LACERATED TENDONS. 353 
 
 being the injured one, the opposite muscles, the extensors, acting 
 freely, the entire lower part of the leg, from the hock down, will 
 be suddenly, with a jerk, extended on the tibia or shank bone, and 
 simultaneously with this the tendo-Achillis, the cord of the hock, the 
 tendons of the extensors of the hock will be put in a wrinkled and 
 relaxed condition. The leg is behind the animal and the toe rests 
 on the ground. Examination of the fore part of the shank from the 
 stifle down to the hock may reveal soreness, and possibly some 
 swelling and heat at the seat of the lesion. 
 
 Treatment. Our experience with injuries of this form satisfies us 
 that, generally speaking, they are amenable to treatment. Very few 
 instances have come to our knowledge in which radical recovery has 
 not been obtained, provided a sufficient time has been allowed for 
 union to take place. The more flexed the leg can be kept, the quicker 
 will it heal. 
 
 In these cases, as in those already considered of simple laceration of 
 tendons, the indications resemble those which apply in the treatment 
 of fractures; as near as coaptation of the lacerated ends is possible, 
 with immobility, being the necessary conditions to secure. The first 
 is a matter of very difficult accomplishment, by bandaging alone, and 
 some have recommended instead the application of charges or blisters 
 in order to compel the animal to keep more quiet. 
 
 To secure the necessary immobility the animal should be placed in 
 slings snugly applied, and kept in a narrow stall. He should also be 
 tied short, and restrained from any backward movement by ropes or 
 boards, and he should, moreover, be kept in as quiet a temper as pos- 
 sible by the exclusion of all causes of irritation or excitement. Weeks 
 must then elapse, not less, but frequently more than six, often eight, 
 before he can be considered out of danger and able to return to his 
 labor, which should for a time be light and easy, and gradually, if 
 ever, increased to the measure of a thoroughly sound and strong ani- 
 mal. If he is used too soon the newly formed tissue between the ends 
 of the muscle will be apt to stretch and leave the flexor muscle too 
 long and permanently displaced. 
 
 SUNDRY ADDITIONAL AFFECTIONS OF THE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 Among these there are three which will principally occupy our 
 attention, and these may be considered as forming a single group. In 
 some parts of the legs may be found certain peculiar little structures 
 of a saclike formation, containing an oily substance designed for the 
 lubrication of the parts upon which they are placed for the purpose 
 of facilitating the movements of the tendons which pass over them. 
 These little sacs or muco-synovial capsules are liable under peculiar 
 conditions of traumatism to become subject to a diseased process, 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 23
 
 354 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 which consists principally in a hypersecretion of their contents and 
 an increase in dimensions, and they may undergo peculiar patho- 
 logical changes of such a character as to disable an animal, and in 
 many instances to cause serious blemishes which can not but depre- 
 ciate his value. These growths, which are known as hygromata, may 
 result from external violence, as blows or bruises, and may appear in 
 the form of small, soft tumors, painless and not inflammatory in 
 character, but, by a repetition of the cause or renewal of violence, 
 likely to acquire increased severity. Severe inflammation, with sup- 
 puration, may follow, which, filling up the cavity, the walls will 
 become thickened and hard, resulting in the formation of a tumor. 
 
 The elbow, the knee, and the hock are the parts of the body where 
 these lesions are ordinarily found, and on account of their peculiar 
 shape and the position they occupy they have received the denomina- 
 tion of " capped" They will be considered in their peculiar aspect. 
 
 CAPPED ELBOW. 
 
 Capped elbow, or " shoe boil," is a term applied to an enlargement 
 often found at the point of the elbow. 
 
 Cause. This lesion is due to injury or pressure of the part 
 while it is resting on the ground. The horse, unlike the cow, does not 
 rest directly on the under surface of the sternum, or breastbone, on 
 account of its sharp, ridgelike formation. He rests more on the side 
 of the breastbone and chest, and consequently the leg which is flexed 
 under the body is subject to considerable pressure. If the leg is flexed 
 under the body so that the hoof or shoe is directly in contact with the 
 elbow, which may occur in horses having an extremely long cannon 
 bone or excessive length in the shoes, the greater part of the weight 
 of the chest is concentrated at this point and the pressure may cause a 
 bruise or an inflammation. 
 
 Symptoms. Under these conditions the point of the elbow may 
 become swollen and tender and exhibit heat and pain. This swelling 
 may not only cover the point of the elbow, but sometimes reaches the 
 axilla and assumes such proportions that there is great difficulty in 
 using the leg, the animal showing signs of lameness even to the extent 
 of the circumflex step, as in shoulder lameness. This edematous con- 
 dition, however, does not remain stationary. It may by degrees 
 subside or perhaps disappear. In the first instance it will become 
 more distinctly defined, with better marked boundaries, until it is 
 reduced to a soft, round, fluctuating tumor, with or without heat or 
 pain. There is then either a bloody or serous tumor or a purulent 
 collection, and following the puncture of its walls with the knife 
 there will be an escape of blood, of serum, or of pus, as the case may 
 be, in variable quantities. In either case, but principally in that of 
 the cystic form, the tumor will be found to be subdivided by septa, or 
 bands running in various directions.
 
 CAPPED ELBOW. 355 
 
 Various changes will follow the opening of the tumor and the 
 escape of its contents. In a majority of cases the process of cica- 
 trization will take place, and the cavity fill up by granulation, the 
 discharge, at first abundant, gradually diminishing and the wound 
 .closing, usually without leaving any mark. At times, however, and 
 especially if the disease has several times repeated its course, there 
 may remain a pendulous sac, partly obliterated, which a sufficient 
 amount of excitement or irritation may soon restore to its previous 
 dimensions and condition. 
 
 In other cases an entirely different process takes place. The walls 
 of the cavity, cyst, or abscess become ulcerated and thickened, the 
 granulations of the sac become fibrous in their structure and fill up 
 the cavity, and it assumes the character of a hard tumor on the back 
 of the elbow, sometimes partly and sometimes entirely covered by the 
 skin. It is fibrous in its nature, painless to the touch, well defined 
 in its contour, and may vary in size from that of a small apple to 
 that of a child's head. 
 
 This last form of capped elbow is the most serious of any, resisting 
 all known forms of mild treatment, and removable by the knife only. 
 The other forms, even that with the inflammatory aspect and its large 
 edematous swelling which interferes with the work of the animal, 
 may justify a much milder prognosis, and, aside from their liability 
 to recur, may be ranked with the comparatively harmless affections. 
 
 Treatment. So long as the danger of recurrence is the principal 
 bad feature of capped elbow the most important consideration is that 
 of devising a means for its prevention. To prevent the animal from 
 lying down is evidently the simplest method of keeping the heels and 
 the elbow apart; but the impracticability of this prescription is 
 apparent, since a majority of animals are obliged to lie down when 
 they sleep, though it is true that a few take their sleep on their feet. 
 The question of shoeing here enters into the discussion. The shorten- 
 ing of the inside branch of the shoe, which is the one with which the 
 pressure is made, may be of advantage, and especially if the truncated 
 end of the shoe is smooth and filed over to remove all possibility of 
 pressure and contusion upon the skin. The protection of the skin of 
 the elbow by interposing soft tissues between that and the shoe, or by 
 bandaging the heel with bags or covering it with boots, is considered 
 by many the best of the preventive methods, and the advantage to be 
 secured by resorting to it can not be overlooked when the number of 
 horses which develop shoe boil whenever the use of the boot is inter- 
 mitted is considered. In order to prevent the animal from assuming 
 the sternal decubitus, many give preference to the plan of fastening 
 a piece of wood across the stall at some distance from the front wall 
 or manger. It is a simple expedient, primitive, perhaps, but never- 
 theless practical and followed by good results.
 
 356 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 The therapeutic treatment is also important. The edema tous swell- 
 ing, when recognized by its external appearance and the existing 
 inflammation, should be treated without delay. Warm fomentations, 
 repeated several times daily, are then indicated, the degree of warmth 
 being as high as can be borne comfortably. They are easily applied, 
 and often yield decided relief in a few hours. In some cases, how- 
 ever, astringents are used in preference, in the form of poultices or 
 pastes, which are made to cover the entire swelling and allowed to 
 remain, drying after a short time, it is true, and perhaps falling off, 
 but easily renewed and reapplied. An excellent astringent for these 
 cases is a putty made of powdered chalk and vinegar (acetate of 
 lime), and the whole swelling is then covered with a thick coating of 
 soft clay made into a mass with water. 
 
 These simple remedies are often all that is required. Under their 
 use the swelling passes off by degrees and after a short interval the 
 animal is fit for work again; but not uncommonly instead of this a 
 swelling develops, puffy, not painful, and perhaps giving a sensation 
 of crepitation when pressure is applied with the finger. It is soft 
 and evidently contains a liquid, and when freely opened, with a good- 
 sized incision, discharges a certain amount of blood, partly liquid 
 and partly coagulated, and perhaps a little hemorrhage will follow. 
 The cavity should then be well washed out and a plug of oakum 
 introduced, leaving a small portion protruding through the cut to 
 prevent it from closing prematurely. It may be taken off the next 
 day, and a daily cleansing will then be all that is necessary. In 
 another case the tumor becomes very soft in its whole extent, with 
 evident fluctuation and a well-defined form. The discharge of the 
 fluid is then indicated, and a free incision will be followed by the 
 escape of a quantity of thin, yellowish liquid from a single sac. The 
 wound should be kept clean and dressed frequently in order to insure 
 prompt healing. But if the cavity is found to be subdivided in its 
 interior by numerous bands, and the cyst proves to be multilocular, 
 the partitions should be torn out with the fingers, and the cavity 
 then treated in the same manner as the unilocular sac. In still 
 another case the swelling may be warm and painful with indistinct 
 fluctuation, or fluctuation only at a certain point; This indicates an 
 abscess, and necessitates an incision to drain the pus, followed by the 
 careful cleansing and dressing of the wound. 
 
 But cases occur in which all the treatment that has been described 
 fails to effect a full recovery, and instead a fibrous tumor begins to 
 develop. A change of treatment is, of course, then in order. The 
 inflammation being chronic will necessitate stimulating treatment of 
 the part in order to increase the process of absorption. We must 
 again draw upon the resources of experience in the form of blisters, 
 the fomentations, the iodine, and the mercurial ointments as hereto-
 
 CAPPED KNEE. 357 
 
 fore mentioned. Good results may always be insured from their 
 judicious and timely administration. In applying the powerful min- 
 eral inunctions much patience and wisdom are required. It should be 
 done by carefully and perseveringly rubbing in small quantities 
 daily; it should be done softly and gently, not with force of arms, 
 nor with the expectation of producing an astonishing effect by heavy 
 dosing and main strength in a few hours; it should be after the 
 manner of a siege rather than that of a charge. The object is to 
 induce the drugs to permeate the affected part until the entire mass is 
 penetrated. Of course cases will be encountered which resist all 
 forms of medical treatment. The tumor remains as a fixed fact; it 
 continues to grow ; it is large and pendulous at the elbow ; its weight 
 is estimated in pounds ; it is not an eyesore merely, but an uncomfort- 
 able, burdensome mass, excoriating all the surrounding parts and 
 being itself excoriated in turn; mild treatment has failed and is no 
 longer to be relied on. 
 
 Resort must now be made to surgical methods, and here again we 
 must choose between the ligature, the cautery, and the knife. Each 
 has its advocates among practitioners. In a case like the present, one 
 of the difficulties arises in connection with the application and reten- 
 tion of bandages and other dressings after the amputation has been 
 performed. It is a somewhat difficult problem, owing to the con- 
 formation and proportions of the body of the patient, and involves 
 the exercise of a considerable amount of practical ingenuity to adjust 
 and retain the appliances necessary to insure a good final result. 
 
 In the long description of the treatment of the varieties of capped 
 elbow I have thus far omitted any mention of one method which is 
 practiced and commended by not a few. I refer to the use of setons, 
 introduced through the tumor. My own experience and the observa- 
 tion of many failures from this method led me to abandon it. 
 
 CAPPED KNEE. 
 
 The passage of the tendons of the extensor muscle of the cannon, as 
 it glides in front of the kneejoint, is assisted by one of the little bursfe 
 before mentioned, and when this becomes the seat of a dropsical col- 
 lection a hygroma is formed and the knee is " capped." Though 
 somewhat analogous in its history to the capped elbow, there are 
 points of difference between them. Their development may prove a 
 source of great annoyance from the fact of the blemish which they 
 constitute. 
 
 Cause. The capped knee presents itself under various conditions. 
 It is sometimes the result of a bruise or contusion, often repeated, 
 inflicted upon himself by a horse addicted to the habit of pawing 
 while in the stable and striking the front of the stall with his knees. 
 Another class of patients is formed of those weak-kneed animals 
 which are subject to falling and bruisjng the front of the joint against 
 the ground, the results not being always of the same character.
 
 358 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 Symptoms. The lesion may be a simple bruise, or it may be a 
 severe contusion with swelling, edema, heat, and pain. The joint 
 becomes so stiff and rigid that it interferes with locomotion and yet 
 under careful simple treatment the trouble may disappear. 
 
 Or, again, instead of altogether passing off, the edema may dimin- 
 ish in extent, becoming more defined in form and remain as a swelling 
 on the front part of the knee. Resulting from the crushing of small 
 blood vessels, this is necessarily full of blood. The swelling is some-' 
 what soft, diffuse, not painful, more or less fluctuating, and after a 
 few days becomes crepitant under the pressure of the hand. 
 
 Instead of being filled with blood the swelling may be full of serum, 
 as often occurs when violence, though perhaps slight, has been fre- 
 quently repeated. In that case the swelling is generally well defined, 
 soft, and painless, with more or less fluctuation, and it may even 
 become pendulous. In other cases the swelling may be. of an acute 
 inflammatory nature with heat and pain', accompanied by stiffness of 
 the .joint. This leads to the formation of an abscess. Whatever the 
 nature of these swellings may be, either full of blood, serum, or pus, 
 some blemish usually remains after treatment. 
 
 Prognosis. Though simple bruises of the knee without extensive 
 lesions are usually of trifling account, a different prognosis must be 
 pronounced when the lesion assumes more important dimensions; and 
 though a capped knee may be comparatively an affair of little impor- 
 tance we have seen cases where not only extensive blemishes were left 
 to disfigure the patient, but where the animals had become worthless 
 in consequence of the extension of the diseased process to the various 
 elements of structure composing the joint, and giving rise to the most 
 complicated cases of carpitis. 
 
 Treatment. Usually the first symptom of trouble is the edematous 
 swelling on the front of the " knee." The prevention of the inflam- 
 mation and consequently of the abscess, is the prime object in view, 
 and it may be realized by the use of warm water fomentations or 
 compresses applied over the swelling, which may be used either in a 
 simple form or combined with astringents, such as Goulard's extract, 
 alum, or sulphate of zinc. The application of warm poultices of oil 
 meal or ground flaxseed, enveloping the whole joint and kept in place 
 by bandages, is often followed by absorption of the swelling, or, if 
 the abscess is in process of formation, by the active excretion of pus. 
 If an abscess forms in spite of these precautions it may be treated 
 surgically in several ways. 
 
 In one it should be done by a careful incision, which will allow the 
 escape*bf the blood or the serum, or of the pus which is inclosed in 
 the sac; in another it may be by means of a seton, in order that the 
 discharge may be maintained and allowed to escape; and for another 
 the more cautious mode may be adopted of emptying the cavity by
 
 CAPPED HOCK. 359 
 
 means of punctures with small trocars or aspirators. The danger 
 attending this last method arises from the possible sloughing of large 
 portions of the skin, while that attending the first is the hazard of the 
 possibility of the extension of the inflammation to the capsular liga- 
 ment of the knee, with the possibility of an open joint in prospect. 
 
 As we have remarked, the cavity after being emptied may rapidly 
 close and leave in a short time but slight traces of its previous exist- 
 ence. But in many, if not in a majority, of cases there will remain 
 after the cicatrization is complete a thickening or organized exuda- 
 tion at one time round and well defined, at another spreading by a 
 diffused infiltration, to which it will be necessary to give immediate 
 attention, from the fact of its tendency to form into an organized and 
 permanent body. To stimulate inflammation in this diseased struc- 
 ture, blisters are recommended, but chiefly for the purpose of promot- 
 ing the process of absorption. 
 
 If this treatment fails, the use of iodine and mercurial preparations 
 is recommended. 
 
 Plain mercurial or plain iodine ointment, or both in combination as 
 iodide of mercury, are commonly used, and may either be applied 
 moderately and by gentle degrees, as we have suggested, or more 
 freely and vigorously with a view to more immediate effects, which, 
 however, will also be more superficial. The use of the firing iron 
 applied deeply with fine points is then to be strongly recommended, to 
 be followed by blisters and various liniments. This course may gen- 
 erally be relied on as quite sure to be followed by satisfactory results. 
 
 While the treatment is in progress it will, of course, be necessary to 
 secure the animal in such a manner that a recurrence of the injury 
 will be impossible from similar causes to those which were previously 
 responsible. 
 
 CAPPED HOCK. 
 
 A bad habit prevails among some horses of rubbing or striking the 
 partitions of their stalls with their hocks, with the result of an injury 
 which shows itself on the upper point of that bone, the summit of the 
 os calcis. From its analogy to the condition of capped elbow the 
 designation of capped hock has been applied to this condition. 
 
 Symptoms. A capped hock is therefore but the development of a 
 bruise at the point of the hock, which if many times repeated may 
 excite an inflammatory process, with all its usual external symptoms 
 of swelling, heat, soreness, and the rest of the now familiar phenom- 
 ena. The swelling is at first diffused, extending more or less on the 
 exterior part of the hock, and in a few instances running up along 
 the tendons and muscles of the back of the shank. Soon, however, 
 unless the irritating causes are continued and repeated, the edema 
 diminishes, and, becoming more defined in its external outlines, leaves 
 the hock capped with a hygroma. The hygroma, at the very begin-
 
 360 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ning of the trouble, contains a bloody serosity which soon becomes 
 strictly serum, and this, through the influence of an acute inflamma- 
 tory action, is liable to undergo a change which converts it into the 
 usual purulent product of suppuration. 
 
 The external appearance ought to be sufficient to determine the 
 diagnosis, but there are a few signs which may contribute toward a 
 nicer identification of the lesion. The capped hock, whether under 
 the appearance of an acute edematous swelling, or as a bloody serous 
 collection, or as a simple serous cyst, does not give rise to any remark- 
 able local manifestation other than such as have already passed under 
 our survey in considering similar cases, nor will it be likely to inter- 
 fere with the functions which belong to the member in question, unless 
 it assumes very large dimensions and on each side of the tendons, as 
 well as on the summit of the bone. But if the inflammation is quite 
 high, if suppuration is developing, if there is a true abscess, or and 
 this is a common complication especially when the kicking or rub- 
 bing of the animal is frequently recurring, then, besides the local 
 trouble of the cyst or of the abscess, the bones become diseased and 
 the periosteum inflamed; perhaps the superior ends of the bone 
 and its fibro-cartilage become affected, and a simple lesion or bruise, 
 whatever it may have been, becomes complicated with periostitis and 
 ostitis, and is naturally accompanied with lameness, developed in a 
 greater or less degree, which in some cases may be permanent and 
 in others increased by work. But these complications are not common 
 or frequent. 
 
 Treatment. Capped hocks are in many cases amenable to treat- 
 ment, and yet they often become the opprobrium of the practitioner 
 by remaining, as they frequently do, an eyesore on the top of the hock ; 
 not interfering, it is true, with the work of the horse, but fixing upon 
 him the stigma of what, in human estimation, is a most unreliable and 
 objectionable reputation, to wit, that of being an habitual " kicker," 
 and, worse than all, one that kicks when he receives his provender. 
 
 The maxim that " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure " 
 fits the present case very neatly. A horse whose hocks have a some- 
 what puffy look and whose skin on the front of the hock is loose and 
 flabby, justly subjects himself to a suspicion of his addictedness to 
 this bad habit. But he may easily be either convicted or exonerated 
 a little watching will soon establish the truth. If, then, the verdict 
 is one of conviction, precautions should be immediately adopted 
 against a continuance of the evil. The padding of the sides of the 
 stall with straw mats or mattresses and covering the posts with similar 
 material, in such a manner that no hard surface shall be e'xposed with 
 which to come in contact, will reduce the evil to its minimum. He 
 may jar his frame when he kicks, but even then there will be less
 
 CAPPED HOCK. 361 
 
 force in the concussion than if it impinged upon the solid plank, and 
 cuts and abrasions can not be inflicted by a properly made cushion. 
 Hobbles are also rightly recommended with a view to the required 
 restraint of motion, so applied as to secure the leg with which the 
 kicking is performed, or even both hind legs, in such a manner as 
 shall not interfere with the movements of lying down and rising 
 again and yet preventing that of kicking backward. Boots similar in 
 pattern to those which are used for the prevention of shoe boil are 
 also prescribed. These are placed above the hock and retained by 
 straps tightly fastened. But we apprehend that the difficulty of 
 retaining them in the proper place without the danger of chafing 
 from the tightness of the straps might form an objection to their use. 
 Notwithstanding all precautions, hocks will be capped in the future as 
 in the past, and the study of their treatment will always be in order. 
 The mode of dealing with them will, of course, be greatly in- 
 fluenced by the condition of the parts. When the inflammation is 
 excessive and the swelling large, hot, and painful to the touch, the 
 application of warm water will be very beneficial. The leg should be 
 well fomented several times a day, for from fifteen to twenty minutes 
 each time, a strong decoction of marsh-mallow leaves being added to 
 the water, and after each application swathed with flannel bandages 
 soaked in the same warm mixture. A few days of this treatment will 
 usually effect a resolution of the inflammation, if not complete, at 
 least sufficiently so to disclose the correct outlines of the hygroma and 
 exhibit its peculiar and specific symptoms. The expediency of its 
 removal and the method of accomplishing it are then to be considered, 
 with the question of opening it to give exit to its contents. If the 
 fluid is of a purulent character the indication is in favor of its imme- 
 diate discharge no time should be lost, and it should be by means of 
 a small opening made with a narrow bistoury. If, however, the fluid 
 is a serosity, we prefer to remove it by punctures with a very small 
 trocar. Our reason for special caution in these cases is our fear 
 of the possibility of the existence of diseased conditions of a severe 
 character in the pseudo joint. For the same reason we prefer the 
 treatment of those growths by external applications. In the first 
 stages of the disease a severe and stiff blister, such as the cantharidate 
 of collodium, entirely covering the cyst, perhaps not yet completely 
 formed, when the inflammation has subsided, will be of great benefit 
 by its stimulating effect, the absorption it may excite, and the pressure 
 which, when dry, it will maintain upon the tumor. If, however, the 
 thickening of the growth fails to diminish, it should be treated with 
 some of the iodine preparations in the form of ointments, pure or in 
 combination with potassium, mercury, etc., of various strengths and 
 in various proportions. My opinion of setons is not favorable, but 
 the actual cautery, by deep and fine firing, in points needle cauteri-
 
 362 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 zation I believe to be the best mode of treatment, and especially 
 when applied early. 
 
 A very satisfactory way to treat these cases is to burst the swelling 
 by pressure from without. A strap or strong linen bandage is placed 
 about the hock pressing on the bursa while the affected leg is on the 
 ground, the other hind foot being lifted up. When the bandage is in 
 place release the leg and the horse will violently flex the bandaged 
 limb and produce pressure on the bursa with consequent bursting and 
 discharging of its contents. 
 
 Whatever treatment may be adopted for capped hock, patience 
 must be one of the ingredients. In these parts absorption is slow and 
 the skin is very thick, and its return to a soft, pliable, natural condi- 
 tion, if effected at all, will only take place after weeks added to other 
 weeks of medical treatment and patient waiting. 
 
 INTERFERING, AND SPEEDY CUTS. 
 
 These designations belong to certain special injuries of the ex- 
 tremities, produced by similar causes, giving rise to kindred patho- 
 logical lesions with allied phenomena, requiring about the same 
 treatment and often followed by the same results, to wit, a blemish 
 which may not only subject the animal to a suspicion of unsoundness, 
 but in some special circumstances interfere with his ability to labor. 
 It is known as " interfering " when the location of the trouble is the 
 inside of the fetlock of either the fore or hind leg. It is called 
 " speedy cut " when it occurs on the inside of the fore leg, a little 
 below the knee, at the point of contact of that joint with the cannon. 
 It is always the result of a blow, self-inflicted, of varying severity, 
 and giving rise to various lesions. (See also page 373.) 
 
 Symptoms. At times the injury is too slight to be seriously 
 noticed, the hair being scarcely cut and the skin unmarked. At other 
 times the skin will be cut through, partly or wholly, and it may for 
 the time cause a sufficient amount of pain to check the motion of the 
 animal and induce him to suspend his labor through his inability to 
 use the wounded limb, traveling meanwhile for a short space on three 
 legs only. Sometimes a single blow will suffice, or again there will be 
 a repetition of lighter strokes. In the latter case the parts will be- 
 come much swollen, hot, and so painful to the touch that the motion 
 of the knee or the fetlock will be sufficiently disturbed to cause lame- 
 ness of a degree of severity corresponding with that of the lesion. 
 Following the subsidence of this diffused and edematous swelling is 
 sometimes the formation of a tumor, either at the knee or the fetlock. 
 This may be soft at first or become so by degrees, with fluctuation, 
 its contents being at first extra vasated blood, and later a serosity ; or, 
 if there has been a sufficient degree of inflammation, it may become 
 suppurative. The result of the fault of interfering may thus be
 
 INTERFERING. 363 
 
 exhibited, whether at the knee or at the fetlock, as characterized by 
 all the pathological conditions which have appeared as accompani- 
 ments of capped knee or capped hock. If, in consequence of the force 
 of the blow or blows, the inflammation has been unusually severe, 
 a mortification of the skin may become one of the consequences, a 
 slough taking place, succeeded by a cutaneous ulcer on the inside of 
 the fetlock or where the greater number of the original wounds are 
 inflicted. If the interfering has been often repeated it may be fol- 
 lowed by another condition, which has been considered in our remarks 
 upon other affections. It is a plastic exudation or thickening of the 
 parts, which are commonly said to have become " callous," and the 
 effect of it is to destroy the regularity of the outlines of the joint to an 
 extent which constitutes a serious blemish, which will be permanent, 
 and according to the degree of the aberration from the natural and 
 symmetrical lines will inevitably depreciate the commercial value of 
 the animal. 
 
 An animal in interfering may thus exhibit a range of symptoms 
 which, from the simplest form of a mere " touching," may succes- 
 sively assume the serious characters of an ugly cicatrix, a hard, 
 plastic swelling, or perhaps, as witnessed at the knee, of periostitis 
 with its sequels. 
 
 If a single and constantly recurring cause a blow be the starting 
 point in interfering, we may now consider the subject of the predispo- 
 sition which brings such serious results upon the suffering animal, 
 and the conditions which lead to and accompany it. These are 
 numerous, but the first in frequency and importance is peculiarity of 
 conformation in the animals addicted to it. The first class will include 
 horses whose chests are narrow and whose legs do not stand straight 
 and upright, but are crooked and pigeon-toed in and out. The second 
 class includes those whose legs are weak, either from youth or hard 
 labor, or from severe attacks of sickness. Another class is made up 
 of those having abnormally developed feet, or which have been badly 
 shod with unnecessarily wide or heavy shoes. Another class consists 
 of those that are affected with swollen fetlocks or chronic edematous 
 swelling of the leg. Another is formed of animals with a peculiar 
 action, as those whose knee action is very high, and it is these that 
 furnish most of the cases of speedy cut. 
 
 Prognosis. The prognosis of interfering is never a very serious 
 one. However violent the blow may be it is rarely that subsequent 
 complications of a troublesome nature occur. The principal evil 
 attending it is a liability to be followed by a thickened or callous 
 deposit which is not only an eyesore and a blemish, but constitutes a 
 new and increased predisposition. The remark that " an animal 
 which has interfered once is always liable to interfere," is often con- 
 firmed and sanctioned by a recurrence of the trouble.
 
 364 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 Treatment. Another point in which there is a resemblance between 
 this lesion and others which we have considered is in its responsive- 
 ness to the same treatment with them. Indeed, the prescription of 
 warm fomentations, soothing applications, and astringent and resolv- 
 ent mixtures, in a majority of cases, is the first that occurs all through 
 the list. If the swelling assumes the character of a serous collection, 
 pressure, cold water, and bandages will contribute to its removal. If 
 suppuration seems to be established, and the swelling assumes the 
 character of a developing abscess, the hot poultices of flaxseed or of 
 boiled vegetables and the embrocations of sedative ointments, those 
 of basilicon, or vaseline, impregnated with preparations of opium or 
 belladonna all these recommend themselves by their general adapta- 
 tion and the beneficial results which have followed their administra- 
 tion, not lass in one case than in another. When an abscess has 
 formed and is fluctuating, it should be carefully but fully opened to 
 evacuate the pus. If it is a serous cyst, some care is necessary in 
 emptying it, and the possibility of the extension of the inflammation 
 to the joint must be taken into consideration. When the cavities 
 have been emptied and have closed by filling up with granulations, 
 or if, not being opened, the contents have been reabsorbed, and there 
 remains in either case a plastic exudation and a tendency to the cal- 
 lous organization that may yet exist, blisters under their various 
 forms, including those of cantharides, of mercury, and of iodine, are 
 then indicated, principally in the early stages, as it is then that their 
 effects will prove most satisfactory. The use of the actual cautery, 
 with fine points, penetrating deeply throughout the enlargement, has 
 in our hands, when employed in the very early stages of its forma- 
 tion, nearly always brought on a radical recovery with complete 
 absorption of the thickening. 
 
 STRING HALT. 
 
 This is an involuntary movement of one or both hind legs, in which 
 the foot is suddenly and spasmodically lifted from the ground much 
 higher than it is normally carried, with excessive flexion of one bone 
 upon the other. This peculiarity is usually prominent, although it 
 may disappear with work, only to reappear after a short rest. Some- 
 times it is most apparent at a trot, sometimes at a walk, and other 
 times only when turned around ; or it may not be affected by the gait 
 of the horse. It does not seem to be influenced by the horse's age, 
 young and old being alike affected. Its first manifestations are some- 
 times very slight. It has been noticed as occurring in an animal when 
 backing out of his stable and ceasing immediately after. In some 
 animals it is best seen when the animal is turning around on the 
 affected leg, and it is not noticed when he moves straight forward. 
 That this peculiar action interferes with facility of locomotion and
 
 THROMBOSIS. 365 
 
 detracts from a horsed claim to soundness can not for a moment be 
 denied. 
 
 Cause. Veterinarians and pathologists are yet in doubt in respect 
 to the cause of this affection, as well as to its essential nature. 
 Whether it results from disease of the hock, of an ulcerative charac- 
 ter; whether it springs from a malformation; whether it is a short- 
 ening of the ligaments, a chronic inflammation of the sciatic nerve, or 
 a disease of the spinal cord ; whether it is purely a muscular or purely 
 a nervous lesion, or a compound of both it still continues, if an 
 etiologist is bound to possess universal knowledge within the scope of 
 his special studies, to be his opprobrium and his puzzle. 
 
 Treatment. When there is a known or suspected cause the treat- 
 ment should be directed toward this factor. If due to local inflamma- 
 tion of the hock or foot, only this local lesion should be treated. If 
 it remains after the local lesion has healed, or if we have no assignable 
 cause, the best results have followed the sectioning of the lateral 
 extensor of the foot. A competent veterinarian alone should under- 
 take this operation. 
 
 THROMBOSIS. 
 
 There are certain forms of lameness which are very peculiar in their 
 manifestation, and which to the nonprofessional mind must appear to 
 belong to the domain of mystery or theory instead of occupying a 
 well-established position among the subjects of equine pathology. 
 Yet they are no less susceptible of actual demonstration and of pos- 
 itive comprehension than many facts which, plain and familiar to the 
 general understanding now, were once ranked among things occult 
 and unsearchable. A thrombus, considered as a cause of lameness, 
 may find a place among these understood mysteries. 
 
 Cause. Under certain peculiar conditions of inflammation of the 
 blood vessels, and also in aneurisms, clots of blood are sometimes 
 formed in the arteries and find their way in the general circulation. 
 At first, while very small, or sufficiently so to pass from one vessel to 
 another, they move from a small vessel to a larger, and from that to 
 one still larger, constantly increasing in size until at some given point, 
 from their inability to enter smaller vessels, their movement is 
 finally arrested. The artery is thus effectually dammed, and the clot 
 in a short time cuts off completely the supply of blood from the parts 
 beyond. This is thrombosis, and it often gives rise to sudden and 
 excessive lameness of a very painful character. 
 
 Symptoms. Thrombi may form in any of the arteries of the body, 
 and doubtless have been the cause of many cases of lameness which 
 could never be accounted for. If they exist in small arteries their 
 diagnosis will probably fail to be made out with certainty, but when 
 situated in the larger trunks a strong suspicion of their presence may 
 be excited. In some cases they may even be recognized with posi-
 
 366 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 live accuracy, as when the vessels which supply the posterior extremi- 
 ties are affected by the blocking up of the posterior aorta or its 
 ramifications. 
 
 The existence of thrombosis of the arteries of the hind leg may 
 always be suspected when the following history is known: The gen- 
 eral health of the animal is good, but symptoms of lameness in one of 
 the legs have been developed, becoming more marked as he is worked, 
 and especially when driven at a fast gait. But the disturbance is not 
 permanent, and the lameness disappears almost immediately upon his 
 being permitted to rest. There is an increase of the difficulty, how- 
 ever, and, though he may walk normally, he will, when made to trot, 
 very soon begin to slacken his pace and to show signs of the trouble, 
 and if urged to increase his speed will become lamer and lamer; an 
 abundant perspiration will break out; he will refuse to go, and if 
 forced he shows weakness behind, seems ready to fall, and perhaps 
 does fall. While on his feet the leg is kept in constant motion, up 
 and down, and is kept from the ground as if the contact was too pain- 
 ful to bear. If undisturbed this series of symptoms will gradually 
 subside, sometimes very soon, and occasionally after a few hours he 
 will return to an apparently perfect condition. A return to labor 
 will lead to a renewal of the same incidents. 
 
 A history like this suggests a strong suspicion of a thrombus in an 
 artery of the hind leg, and this suspicion will be confirmed by the 
 external symptoms exhibited by the animal. The total absence of 
 any other disease which might account for the lameness, and a mani- 
 fest diminution of heat over a part or the whole of the extremity, 
 when compared with the opposite side or with any other portion of 
 the body; a sensation of cold attendant on the pain, but gradually 
 subsiding as the pain subsides, and the circulation, quickened by the 
 rest, has been reestablished throughout the extremity; all these are 
 confirmatory circumstances. Still, it is thus far only a suspicion, and 
 absolute certainty is yet wanting. To establish the truth of the case 
 the rectal exploration must be resorted to. The hands then, well pre- 
 pared and carefully introduced into the rectum, must explore for the 
 truth, first feeling for the large blood vessels which, divided at the 
 aorta, separate to supply the right and left legs. These must be com- 
 pared in respect to the pulsation and other particulars. The artery 
 which is healthy will, of course, exhibit all the proper conditions of 
 that state. On the other hand, if the vessel appears to the feel hard, 
 more or less cordy, and pulseless, or giving a sensation of fluttering, 
 as of a small volume of blood with a trickling motion passing through 
 a confined space, the difference between the sides will make the case 
 plain. The first will be the full flow of the circulation through an 
 unobstructed channel, the other a forced passage of the fluid between 
 the thrombus and the coats of the artery. In such a case the prog-
 
 SPRAINS OF THE LOINS. 367 
 
 nosis is necessarily a grave one and the disease is more liable to grow 
 worse than better. 
 
 Treatment. No form of treatment can be advised ; and the suffer- 
 ing of a helpless and useless animal can only be terminated by that 
 which ends all. 
 
 Cases occur, however, where this condition of the blood vessels 
 exists in a much less degree, arid the diseased condition is not suf- 
 ficiently pronounced for final condemnation. There may even be 
 a possibility of the absorption of the clot, or that an increase of the 
 collateral circulation may be sufficient to supply the parts with blood. 
 In such cases spontaneous recovery may follow moderate exercise 
 in the pasture, field, or stable, or continuous light work may be 
 given, but too much hope should not be placed in such treatment. 
 
 SPRAINS OF THE LOINS. 
 
 This is an affection which suggests to the mind the idea of mus- 
 cular injury, and is difficult to distinguish from many similar casas. 
 If the animal shrinks from the slightest pressure or pinching of the 
 spine in the region of the loins, he is by many pronounced to be 
 " lame in the loins," or " sprained in the loins," or " weak in the 
 kidneys." This is a grave error, as in fact this simple and gentle 
 yielding to such a pressure is not a pathological sign, but is normal 
 and significant of health. Yet there are several conditions to which 
 the definition of " sprains of the loins " may apply which are not 
 strictly normal. 
 
 Cause. The muscles of the back and those of the loins proper, as 
 the psoas, may have been injured, or again there may be trouble of a 
 rheumatic nature, perhaps suggestive of lumbago. Diseases of the 
 bones of the vertebral column, or even those of the organs of circula- 
 tion, may give rise to an exhibition of similar symptoms. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are characteristic of a loss of rigidity 
 or firmness of the vertebral column, both when the animal is at rest 
 and in action. In the former condition, or when at rest, there is an 
 arched condition of the back and a constrained posture in standing, 
 with the hind legs separated. In the latter there is a lateral, balan- 
 cing movement at the loins, principally noticeable while the animal is 
 in the act of trotting a peculiar motion, sometimes referred to as a 
 " crick in the back," or what the French call a tour de bateau. If, 
 while.in action, the animal is suddenly made to halt, the act is accom- 
 panied with much pain, the back suddenly arching or bending later- 
 ally, and perhaps the hind legs thrown under the body, as if unable 
 to perform their functions in stopping, and sometimes it is only 
 accomplished at the cost of a sudden and severe fall. This manifes- 
 tation is also exhibited when the animal is called upon to back, when 
 a repetition of the same symptoms will also occur.
 
 368 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 If a slight pressure on the back or the loins is followed by a mod- 
 erate yielding of the animal, it is, as before remarked, a good sign 
 of health. With a sprain of the loins pressure of any kind is painful, 
 and will cause the animal to bend or to crouch under it more or less, 
 according to the weight of the pressure. Heavy loads, and even 
 heavy harnessing, will develop this tenderness. In lying down he 
 seems to suffer much discomfort, and often accompanies the act with 
 groaning, and when compelled to rise does so only with great diffi- 
 culty and seldom succeeds without repeated efforts. 
 
 Sprains of muscles proper, when recent, will always be accom- 
 panied by this series of symptoms, and the fact of their exhibition, 
 with an excessive sensibility of the parts, and possibly with a degree 
 of swelling, will always justify a diagnosis of acute muscular lesion ; 
 and especially so if accompanied by a history of violent efforts, 
 powerful muscular strains, falls, heavy loading, etc., connected with 
 the case. But if the symptoms have been of slow development and 
 gradual increase, it becomes a more difficult task to determine whether 
 the diagnosis points to pathological changes in the structure of the 
 muscles or of the bones, the nervous centers, or the blood vessels of 
 the region. And yet it is important to decide as to which particular 
 structure is affected in reference to the question of prognosis, since 
 the degree of the gravity of the lesion will depend largely upon 
 whether the disabled condition of the animal is due to an acute or a 
 chronic disease. 
 
 Treatment. The prescription which will necessarily first of all 
 suggest itself for sprains of the loins is rest. An animal so affected 
 should be immediately placed in slings and none of his efforts to 
 release himself should be allowed to succeed. Hot compresses, cold 
 water douches, sweating applications, stimulating frictions, strength- 
 ening charges, blistering ointments of cantha rides and the actual cau- 
 tery, all have their advocates; but in no case can the immobility 
 obtained by the slings be dispensed with. In many cases electricity 
 has also yielded good results, where the weakness of the hind quarters 
 was caused by disease of the nervous centers.
 
 DISEASES OF THE FETLOCK, AMLE, ATO FOOT. 
 
 By A. A. HOLCOMBE, D. V. S., 
 Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 [Revised in 1903 by the author.] 
 ANATOMICAL REVIEW OF THE FOOT. 
 
 In a description of the foot of the horse it is customary to include 
 only the hoof and its contents, yet, from a zoological standpoint, the 
 foot includes all the leg from the knee and the hock down. 
 
 The foot of the horse is undoubtedly the most important part of 
 the animal, in so far as veterinary surgery is concerned, for the reason 
 .that this member is subject to so many injuries and diseases, which, 
 in part or in whole, render the patient unfit for the labor demanded 
 of him. The old aphorism, " no foot no horse," is as true to-day as 
 when first expressed ; in fact, domestication, coupled with the multi- 
 plied uses to which the animal is put, and the constant reproduction 
 of hereditary defects and tendencies, have largely transformed the 
 ancient " companion of the wind " into a very common piece of 
 machinery which is often out of repair, and, at best, is but short- 
 lived in its usefulness. 
 
 Since the value of the horse depends largely, or even entirely, upon 
 his ability to labor, it is essential that his organs of locomotion should 
 be kept sound ; and to accomplish this end it is necessary not only to 
 know how to cure all diseases to which these organs are liable, but, 
 better still, how to prevent them. 
 
 An important prerequisite to the detection and cure of disease is a 
 knowledge of the construction and function of the parts which may 
 be involved in the diseased process; hence, first of all, the anatomical 
 structures must be understood. (See also page 565.) 
 
 The bones of the fetlock and foot constitute the skeleton on which 
 the other structures are built, and comprise the lower end of the can- 
 non bone (the metacarpus in the fore leg, the metatarsus in the hind 
 leg), the two sesamoids, the large pastern or suffraginis, the small pas- 
 tern or coronet, the small sesamoid or navicular bone, and the coffin 
 bone or os pedis. (Plate XXXTV, fig. 3.) 
 
 The cannon bone extends from the knee or hock to the fetlock, is 
 cylindrical in shape, and stands nearly or quite perpendicular. 
 
 The sesamoids occur in pairs, are small, shaped like a three-faced 
 pyramid, and are set behind the fetlock joint, at the upper end of the 
 suffraginis, with the base of the pyramid down. 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 24 369
 
 370 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 The sufiraginls is a very compact bone, set in an oblique direction 
 downward and forward, and extends from the cannon bone to the 
 coronet. 
 
 The coronet is a short, cube-shaped bone, set between the suffraginis 
 and coffinbone, in the same oblique direction. 
 
 The navicular bone is short, flattened above and below, and is 
 attached to the coffin bone behind. 
 
 The coffin bone forms the end of the foot and is shaped like the 
 horny box in which it is inclosed. 
 
 All of these bones are covered on the surfaces which go to make up 
 the joints with a cartilage of incrustation, while the portions between 
 are covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. 
 
 The joints of the legs are of especial importance, since any inter- 
 ference with their function very largely impairs the value of the 
 animal for most purposes. As the joints of the foot and ankle are at 
 the point of greatest concussion they are the ones most subject to 
 injury and disease. 
 
 There are three of these joints the fetlock, pastern, and coffin. 
 They are made by the union of two or more bones, held together by 
 ligaments of fibrous tissue, and are lubricated by a thick, viscid fluid, 
 called synovia, which is secreted by a special membrane inclosing the 
 joints. 
 
 The fetlock joint is made by the union of the lower end of the can- 
 non and the upper end of the large pastern bones, supplemented by 
 the two sesamoids, so placed behind the upper end of the pastern that 
 the joint is capable of a very extensive motion. These bones are held 
 together by ligaments, only one of which the suspensory demands 
 special mention. 
 
 The suspensory ligament of the fetlock starts from the knee, ex- 
 tends down behind the cannon, lying behind the two splint bones, 
 until near the fetlock, where it divides and sends a branch on either 
 side of the joint, downward and forward, to become attached on the 
 sides of the extensor tendon at the lower end of the pastern bone. As 
 it crosses the sesamoids, on the posterior borders of the fetlock, it 
 throws out fibers which hold it fast to these bones. (Plate XXXIV, 
 % 2.) 
 
 The pastern joint is made by the union of the two pastern bones. 
 
 The coffin joint is made by the union of the small pastern, coffin, 
 and small sesamoid, or navicular bones, the latter being set behind 
 and beneath the joint surface of the coffin bone in such a way as to 
 receive largely the weight of the small pastern. 
 
 Three tendons serve to move the bones of the foot one on another. 
 Two of these flex, or bend, the joints, while the other extends, or 
 straightens, the column of bones. (Plate XXX. fig. 5.) 
 
 The flexor pedis perforans, or deep flexor of the foot, passes down
 
 ANATOMY OP THE FOOT. 371 
 
 behind the cannon bone, lying against the suspensory ligament in 
 front, crosses the fetlock joint in the groove made by the union of 
 the two sesamoids, and is attached to the bottom of the coffin bone, 
 after covering the navicular, by a wide expansion of its fibers. It is 
 the function of this tendon to flex the coffin bone and, with it, the 
 horny box. 
 
 The flexor pedis perforatus, or superficial flexor of the foot, follows 
 the course of the preceding tendon and is attached to the middle of 
 the ankle. The function of this tendon is to flex the foot at the 
 fetlock. 
 
 The extensor pedis runs down in front of the leg, is attached on 
 the most prominent point of the coffin bone, and has for function the 
 straightening of the bones of the ankle and foot. 
 
 The bones, ligaments, and tendons are covered by a loose connect- 
 ive tissue, which gives a symmetry to the parts by filling up and 
 rounding off, and all are protected by the skin and hoof. 
 
 The skin of the fetlock and ankle is generally characterized by its 
 thickness and the length of its hairs, especially around the hind parts 
 of the fetlock joint in certain breeds of horses. The most important 
 part of this envelope is that known as the coronary band. 
 
 The coronary band is that portion of the skin which secretes the 
 horn of which the wall of the hoof is made. This horn much resem- 
 bles the nail which grows on the fingers and toes of man. It is com- 
 posed of cylindrical tubes, which are held together by a tenacious 
 opaque matter. The horn extends from the coronarj^ band to the 
 lower border of the hoof. (Plate XXIX, fig. 1.) 
 
 The hoof is a box of horn, consisting of a wall, sole, and frog, and 
 contains, besides the coffin, navicular, and part of the small pastern 
 bones, the sensitive laminae, plantar cushion, and the lateral cartilages. 
 (Plate XXX, fig. 4.) 
 
 The sole of the foot incloses the box on the ground surface, is shaped 
 like the circumference of the foot, except that a V-shaped opening is 
 left behind for the reception of the frog, and is concave on the lower 
 surface. The sole is produced by the velvety tissue, a thin membrane 
 covering the plantar cushion and other soft tissues beneath the coffin- 
 bone. The horn of the sole differs from the horn of the wall in that 
 its tubes are not straight and from the fact that it scales off in pieces 
 over the whole surface. 
 
 The frog is a triangular-shaped body, divided into two equal parts 
 by a deep fissure, extending from its apex in front to the base. It 
 fills the triangular space in the sole, to which it is intimately attached 
 by its borders. The horn of the frog is produced in the same manner 
 as the sole ; but it differs from both the wall and sole in that the horn 
 is soft, moist, and elastic to a remarkable degree. It is the function 
 of the frog to destroy shock and to prevent slipping.
 
 372 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The sensitive lamina are thin plates of soft tissue, covering the 
 entire anterior surface of the coffin bone. They are present in great 
 numbers, and by fitting into corresponding grooves on the inner sur- 
 face of the horn of the wall the union of the soft and horny tissues is 
 made complete. (Plate XXIX, fig. 1.) 
 
 The plantar cushion is a thick pad of fibrous tissue placed behind 
 and under the navicular and coffin bones, and resting on the sole and 
 frog, for the purpose of receiving the downward pressure of the 
 column of bones and to destroy shock. (Plate XXIX, fig. 4.) 
 
 The lateral cartilages are attached, one on either side, to the wings 
 of the coffin bone by their inferior borders. They are thin plates of 
 fibre-cartilage, and their function is to assist the frog and adjacent 
 structures to regain their proper position after having been displaced 
 by the weight of the body while the foot rested on the ground. (Plate 
 XXIX, fig. 2.) 
 
 FAULTS OF CONFORMATION. 
 
 A large percentage of horses have feet which are not perfect in 
 conformation, and as a consequence of these imperfections they are 
 especially predisposed to certain injuries and diseases. 
 
 Flatfoot is that condition in which the sole has little or no con- 
 vexity. It is a peculiarity common to some breeds, especially heavy, 
 lymphatic animals raised on low, marshy soils. It is confined to the 
 fore feet, which are generally broad, low heeled, and with a wall less 
 upright than is seen in the perfect foot. 
 
 In flatfoot there can be little or no elasticity in the sole, for the 
 reason that it has no arch, and the weight of the animal is received 
 on the entire plantar surface, as it rests upon the ground instead of on 
 the wall. For these reasons such feet are particularly liable to bruises 
 of the sole, corns, pumiced sole, and excessive suppuration when the 
 process is once established. Horses with flatfoot should be shod with 
 a shoe having a wide web, pressing on the wall only, while the heels 
 and frog are never to be pared. Flatfoot generally has weak walls, 
 and, as a consequence, the nails of the shoe are readily loosened and 
 the shoe cast. 
 
 Club foot is a term applied to such feet as have the wall set nearly 
 perpendicular. When this condition is present the heels are high, 
 the fetlock joint is thrown forward, or knuckles, and the weight of 
 the animal is received on the toes. Many mules are clubfooted, 
 especially behind, where it seems to cause little or no inconvenience. 
 Clubfoot may be cured by cutting the tendons in severe cases; but, as 
 a rule, special shoeing is the only measure of relief that can be 
 adopted. The toe should not be pared, but the heels are to be lowered 
 as much as possible, and a shoe put on with a long projecting toe 
 piece, slightly turned up, while the heels of the shoe are to be made 
 thin.
 
 PJL.ATK XXXI 
 
 of wa/te of ' hoof '. 
 
 [rort'tbr burning hole.* 
 
 Qujirter- crack witfi 
 
 77/e rlti/itp a ml ncti/ rrfne<Uex alie 
 
 T)'eated by clnnipiriti with nail. 
 
 I oe (rack. l\'o/J removed to sho\\ 
 thsorplinn of rnf'fiti 'born:. 
 
 "'"' effect of Qutirter - t'racf; . 
 (il'AHTKH - CHACK AND KKMKDIKS.
 
 INTERFERING. 373 
 
 Crookedfoot is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher 
 than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the ankle is thrown 
 outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide apart and the 
 toes close together. Animals with this deformity are " pigeon-toed," 
 and are prone to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock. 
 If but one foot is affected, the liability to interfere is still greater, for 
 the reason that the fetlock of the perfect leg is more near the center 
 plane. 
 
 When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the 
 toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but 
 one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than where both 
 feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is 
 not so near to the center plane. Such animals are especially liable to 
 stumbling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock 
 joints. The deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will 
 equalize the disparity in length of walls, and by proper boots to 
 protect the fetlocks from interfering. 
 
 INTERFERING. 
 
 An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes the opposite 
 leg, as it passes by, during locomotion. The inner surface of the 
 fetlock joint is the part most subject to this injury, although, under 
 certain conditions, it may happen to any part of the ankle. It is 
 seen more often in the hind than in the fore legs. Interfering causes 
 a bruise of the skin and deeper tissues, generally accompanied by an 
 abrasion of the surface. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping, 
 and thickening of the injured parts. (See also page 362.) 
 
 Causes. Faulty conformation is the most prolific cause of inter- 
 fering. When the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of the 
 foot turns in (pigeon-toed), or when the fetlock joints are close 
 together and the toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the 
 whole foot and ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure 
 to follow. It may happen, also, when the feet grow too long, from 
 defective shoeing, rough or slippery roads, from the exhaustion of 
 labor or sickness, swelling of the leg, high knee action, fast work, 
 and because the chest or hips are too narrow. 
 
 Symptoms. Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily 
 detected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But 
 very often, especially in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes 
 the fetlock without evident injury, and attention is directed to these 
 parts only by the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such 
 cases proof of the cause may be had by walking and trotting the 
 animal, after first painting the inside toe and quarter of the suspected 
 foot with a thin coating of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint.
 
 374 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 Treatment. When the trouble is due to deformity or faulty con- 
 formation, it may not be possible to overcome the defect. 
 
 In such cases, and as well in those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the 
 fetlock, or ankle, boot must be used. In many instances interfering 
 may be prevented by proper shoeing. The outside heel and quarter 
 of the foot on the injured leg should be lowered sufficiently to change 
 the relative position of the fetlock joint, by bringing it farther away 
 from the center plane of the body, thereby permitting the other foot 
 to pass by without striking. 
 
 A very slight change is often sufficient to effect this result. At 
 the same time the offending foot should be so shod that the shoe may 
 set well under the hoof at the point responsible for the injury. The 
 shoe should be reset every three or four weeks. 
 
 When the cause has been removed, cold-water bandages to the 
 injured parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially 
 in recent cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from 
 long-continued bruising, a Spanish-fly blister over the parts, repeated 
 in two or three weeks if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its 
 natural condition. 
 
 KNUCKLING, OR COCKED ANKLES. 
 
 Knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the 
 relative position of the pastern bone to the cannon and coronet bones 
 is changed, the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular, with 
 the lower end of the cannon bone resting behind the center line of the 
 suffraginis, while the lower end of this bone rests behind the center 
 line of the coronet. While knuckling is not always an unsoundness, it 
 nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern. 
 
 Causes. Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the 
 great majority of cases it is only temporary. It is largely due to 
 the fact that, before birth, the legs were flexed ; and time is required, 
 after birth, for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt them- 
 selves to the function of sustaining the weight of the body. 
 
 Horses with erect pasterns are very prone to knuckle as they grow 
 old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particu- 
 larly in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race tracks or roads are 
 exciting causes of knuckling. It is also commonly seen as an accom- 
 paniment to that faulty conformation called clubfoot, in which the 
 toe of the wall is perpendicular and short, and the heels high a 
 condition most often seen in the mule, especially in the hind feet. 
 
 Lastly, knuckling is produced by disease .of the suspensory liga- 
 ment or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by 
 disease of the fetlock joints. (See page 347.) 
 
 Treatment. In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there 
 is some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without inter- 
 ference in the course of a few weeks. When knuckling has com-
 
 WINDGALL. 375 
 
 menced, the indications are to relieve the tendons and ligaments by 
 proper shoeing. The foot is to be prepared for the shoe by shorten- 
 ing the toe as much as possible, leaving the heels high ; or if the foot 
 is prepared in the usual way the shoe should be thin in front, with 
 thick heels or high calks. For the hind feet a long-heeled shoe with 
 calks seems to do best. Of course, when possible, the causes of knuck- 
 ling are to be removed; but since this can not always be done, the 
 time may come when the patient can no longer perform any service, 
 particularly in those cases where both fore legs are affected, and it 
 becomes necessary either to destroy the animal or secure relief by 
 surgical interference. In such cases the tendons between the fetlock 
 and knee may be divided for the purpose of securing temporary relief. 
 Firing and blistering the parts responsible for the knuckling may, in 
 some instances, effect a cure; but a consideration of these measures 
 properly belongs to the treatment of the diseases in which knuckling 
 simply appears as a sequel. 
 
 WINDGALL. 
 
 Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating 
 fluid called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended by reason 
 of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called windgalls. They 
 form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut, and are 
 most often found in the fore leg, at the upper part of the fetlock joint, 
 between the tendon and the shin bone. When they develop in the 
 hind leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut. 
 Occasionally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the 
 tendon. The majority of horses are not subject to them after colt- 
 hood has passed. (See also page 330.) 
 
 Causes. Windgalls are often seen in young, overgrown horses, 
 where the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to 
 sustain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in 
 trotters with excessive knee action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and 
 in most cow ponies there is a predisposition to windgalls. Street-car 
 horses and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the 
 ones most apt to develop windgalls in the hind legs. 
 
 Symptoms. The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the foot 
 is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when the foot is off the 
 ground. In old horses windgalls generally develop slowly and cause 
 no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the joint 
 the tumor develops rapidly, is tense, hot, and painful, and the animal 
 is exceedingly lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed, and 
 walks with short steps, the toe only being placed on the ground. 
 When the tumor is large and situated upon the inside of the leg it 
 may be injured by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation 
 of the sac. Rest generally causes the tumor to diminish in size, only 
 to fill up again after renewed labor. In old cases the tumors are
 
 376 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 hardened, and may become converted into bone by a deposit of the 
 lime salts. 
 
 Treatment. The Jarge, puffy joints of suckling colts, as a rule, 
 require no treatment, for as the animal grows older the parts clean 
 up and after a time the swelling entirely disappears. 
 
 When the trouble is due to an injury, entire rest is to be secured 
 by the use of slings and a high-heeled shoe. Cold-water douches 
 should be used once or twice a day, followed by cold-water bandages, 
 until the fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed, 
 when a blister is to be applied. 
 
 In old windgalls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief 
 may be had by the use of cold compress bandages, elastic boots, or the 
 red iodide of mercury blisters. Opening the sacs, as recommended 
 by some authors, is of doubtful utility, and should be adopted only 
 by the surgeon capable of treating the wound he has made. Enforced 
 rest until complete recovery is effected should always be insisted upon, 
 since a too early return to work is sure to be followed by relapse. 
 
 SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK. 
 
 Sprain of the fetlock joint is most common in the fore legs, and, as 
 a rule, affects but one at a time. Horses doing fast work, as trotters, 
 runners, steeplechasers, hunters, cow ponies, and those that inter- 
 fere, are particularly liable to this injury. 
 
 Causes. Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with dis- 
 eases which impair the powers of locomotion, such as navicular disease, 
 contracted heels, sidebones, chronic laminitis, etc., are predisposed to 
 sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stum- 
 bling, or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or flexed 
 to excess. The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a 
 rut, hole in a bridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or strug- 
 gles violently. Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up 
 inflammation of the joint. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the 
 severity of the injury. If slight, there may be no lameness, but simply 
 a little soreness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground 
 and the joint is twisted a little. In cases more severe the joint swells, 
 is hot and puffy, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the 
 animal to hobble on three legs. While at rest the leg is flexed at the 
 joint affected, and the toe rests on the ground. 
 
 Treatment. If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few 
 days' rest are sufficient to effect recovery. Where there is an intense 
 lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a constant 
 stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor. 
 When the inflammation has subsided, a blister to the joint should be 
 applied.
 
 RUPTURE OF SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. 377 
 
 In some cases, especially in old horses long accustomed to fast 
 work, the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part, 
 and the lameness may last a long time. In these cases the joint 
 should be kept completely at rest ; and this condition is best secured 
 by the application of the plaster of Paris bandages, as in cases of 
 fracture. As a rule, patients take kindly to this bandage, and may 
 be given the freedom of a roomy box or yard while wearing it. If 
 they are disposed to tear it off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be 
 secured, the patient must be kept in slings. 
 
 In the majority of instances the plaster bandage should remain on 
 from two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage 
 is removed, a new one should be put on. The swelling, which always 
 remains after the other evidences of the disease have disappeared, 
 may be largely dissipated and the joint strengthened by the use of the 
 firing iron and blisters. 
 
 A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its 
 original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition 
 of the injury. 
 
 RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. 
 
 Sprain with or without rupture of the suspensory ligament may 
 happen in either the fore or hind legs, and is occasionally seen in 
 horses of all classes and at all ages. Old animals, however, and espe- 
 cially hunters, runners, and trotters, are the most subject to this 
 injury, and with these classes the seat of the trouble is nearly always 
 in one or both the fore legs. Horses used for heavy draft are more 
 liable to have the ligament of the hind legs affected. 
 
 When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great, 
 one or both of the branches may be torn from the sesamoid bones, one 
 or both of the branches may be torn completely across, or the liga- 
 ment may rupture above the point of division. 
 
 Symptoms. The most common injury to the suspensory ligament 
 is sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore legs. The trouble 
 is proclaimed by lameness, heat, swelling, and tenderness of the 
 affected branch, beginning just above the sesamoid bone and extend- 
 ing obliquely downward and forward to the front of the ankle. If 
 the whole ligament is involved, the swelling comes on gradually, and 
 is found above the fetlock and in front of the flexor tendons. The 
 patient stands or walks upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the 
 fetlock joint flexed so as to relieve the ligament of tension. 
 
 When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesa- 
 moids, or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and 
 is most intense; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up, and, as the 
 animal attempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken 
 off at the fetlock. These symptoms, followed by heat, pain, and
 
 378 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 swelling of the parts at the point of injury, will enable anyone to 
 make a diagnosis. 
 
 Treatment. Sprain of the suspensory ligament, no matter how 
 mild it may be, should always be treated by enforced rest of at least a 
 month, and the application of cold douches and cold-water bandages, 
 firmly applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides blister 
 should be put on and repeated in two or three weeks if necessary. 
 When rupture has taken place, the patient should be put in slings, and 
 a constant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over the seat of 
 injury until the fever is reduced. In the course of a week or ten 
 days a plaster of Paris splint, such as is used in fractures, is to be 
 applied and left on for a month or six weeks. When this is taken off, 
 blisters may be used to remove the remaining soreness ; but it is use- 
 less to expect a removal of all the thickening; for, in the process of 
 repair, new tissue has been formed which will always remain. 
 
 In old cases of sprain the firing iron may often be used with good 
 results. As a rule, severe injuries to the suspensory ligament inca- 
 pacitate the subject for anything but slow, light work. 
 
 OVERREACH. 
 
 An overreach is where the shoe of the hind foot strikes and injures 
 the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It rarely happens except when 
 the animal is going fast, hence is most common in trotting and run- 
 ning horses. In trotters the accident generally happens when the 
 animal breaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and quarters 
 are most liable to the injury. 
 
 Symptoms. The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut, 
 the injury in some instances involving the horn as well. Where the 
 hind foot strikes well back on the heel of the fore foot an accident 
 known among horsemen as " grabbing " the shoe may be torn from 
 the fore foot or the animal may fall to its knees. Horses accustomed 
 to overreaching are often '" bad breakers," for the reason that the 
 pain of the injury so excites them that they can not readily be brought 
 back to the trotting gait. 
 
 Treatment. If the injury is but a slight bruise, cold-water bandages 
 applied for a few days will remove all of the soreness. If the parts 
 are deeply cut, more or less suppuration will follow, and, as a rule, it 
 is well to poultice the parts for a day or two, after which cold baths 
 may be used, or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum, 
 and a roller bandage. 
 
 When an animal is known to be subject to overreaching, he should 
 never be driven fast without quarter boots, which are specially made 
 for the protection of the heels and quarters. 
 
 If there is a disposition to " grab " the forward shoes, the trouble 
 may be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as
 
 CALK WOUNDS AND FROSTBITES. 379 
 
 possible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the 
 hind shoe. When circumstances will permit of their use, the fore feet 
 may be shod with the " tips " instead of the common shoe, as described 
 in treatment for contracted heels. 
 
 CALK WOUNDS. 
 
 Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are liable to wounds of the 
 coronary region, either from trampling on themselves or on each 
 other. These injuries are most common in heavy draft horses, 
 especially on rough roads and slippery streets. The fore feet are 
 more liable than the hind ones, and the seat of injury is commonly 
 on the quarters. In the hind feet the wound often results from the 
 animal resting with the heel of one foot set directly over the front of 
 the other. In these cases the injury is generally close to the horn, 
 and often involves the coronary band, the sensitive laminae, the 
 extensor tendon, and even the coffin bone. 
 
 Treatment. Preventive measures include the use of boots to pro- 
 tect the coronet of the hind foot, and the use of a blunt calk on the 
 outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offending 
 instrument where the fore feet are injured. If the wound is not deep, 
 and the soreness slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective 
 dressing, such as carbolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed. 
 Where the injury is deep, followed by inflammation and suppuration 
 of the coronary band, lateral cartilages, sensitive laminae, etc., active 
 measures must be resorted to. Cold, astringent baths, made by 
 adding 2 ounces of sulphate of iron to 1 gallon of water, should be 
 used, followed by poultices if it is necessary to hasten the cleansing 
 of the wound by stimulating the sloughing process. Where the 
 wound is deep between the horn and skin, especially over the anterior 
 tendon, the horn should be cut away so that the injured tissues may 
 be exposed. The subsequent treatment in these cases should follow 
 the directions laid down in the article on toe cracks. 
 
 FROSTBITES. 
 
 Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the only parts of 
 the horse liable to become frostbitten. The cases most commonly seen 
 are found in cities, especially among car horses, where salt is used 
 for the purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches. This 
 mixture of snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly 
 lowering the temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In 
 mountainous districts, where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often 
 intense, frostbites are not uncommon even among animals running at 
 large. 
 
 Symptoms. When the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and 
 bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and
 
 380 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 swelling. In these cases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel 
 off, but the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and 
 only an increased sensitiveness to cold remains. 
 
 In cases more severe irregular patches of skin are destroyed and 
 after a few days slough away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. In 
 the cases produced by low temperatures and deep snow the coronary 
 band is the part most often affected. 
 
 In many instances there is no destruction of the skin but simply a 
 temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary 
 band. The fore feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and 
 the heels and quarters are less often involved than the front part of 
 the foot. The coronary band becomes hot, swollen, and painful, and 
 after two or three days the horn separates from the band and slight 
 suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is lame, but as the 
 suppuration disappears the lameness subsides. New horn, often of an 
 inferior quality, is produced by the coronary band, and in time the 
 cleft is grown off and complete recovery is effected. The frog is 
 occasionally frostbitten and may slough off, exposing the soft tissues 
 beneath and causing severe lameness for a time. 
 
 Treatment. Simple frostbites are best treated by cold fomentations 
 followed by applications of a 5 per cent solution of carbolized oil. 
 When portions of the skin are destroyed, their early separation should 
 be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be 
 treated by the application of stimulating dressings, such as carbolized 
 oil, a 1 per cent solution of nitrate of silver or of chloride of zinc, 
 with pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases 
 recovery is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed 
 skin is replaced always shrinks in healing, and, as a consequence, 
 unsightly scars are unavoidable. Where the coronary band is in- 
 volved it is generally advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of 
 injury as soon as the suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulat- 
 ing the growth of new horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the 
 old and new horn no serious trouble is likely to be met with until the 
 cleft is nearly grown out, when the soft tissues may be exposed by a 
 breaking off of the partly detached horn. But even where this acci- 
 dent happens final recovery is secured by poulticing the foot until a 
 sufficient growth of horn protects the parts from injury. 
 
 QUITTOR. 
 
 Quitter is a term applied to various affections of the foot wherein 
 the tissues which are involved undergo a process of degeneration that 
 results in the formation of a slough followed by the elimination of the 
 diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive suppuration. 
 
 For convenience of consideration quittors may be divided into four
 
 QTJITTOR. 381 
 
 classes, as suggested by Girard: (1) Cutaneous quitter, which is 
 known also as simple quittor, skin quittor, and carbuncle of the coro- 
 net; (2> tendinous quittor ; (3) subhorny quittor; and (4) cartilagi- 
 nous quittor. 
 
 CUTANEOUS QUITTOB. 
 
 Simple quittor consists in a local inflammation of the skin and sub- 
 cutaneous connective tissue on some part of the coronet, followed by a 
 slough and the formation of an ulcer which heals by suppuration. 
 
 It is an extremely painful disease, owing to the dense character of 
 the tissues involved; for in all dense structures the swelling which 
 accompanies inflammation always produces intense pressure. This 
 pressure not only adds to the patient's suffering but may at the same 
 time endanger the life of the affected parts by strangulating the blood 
 vessels. It is held by some writers that simple quittor is most often 
 met with in the hind feet, but in my experience more than two- 
 thirds of the cases have developed in the fore feet. While any part 
 of the coronet may become the seat of attack, the heels and quarters 
 are undoubtedly most liable. 
 
 Causes. Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often the 
 cause of cutaneous quittor; yet there can be no question but that in 
 the great majority of cases the disease develops without any known 
 cause. For some reason, not yet satisfactorily explained, most cases 
 happen in the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has 
 been attempted in the statement that the disease is due to the injuri- 
 ous action of cold and mud. This claim, however, seems to lose 
 force when it is remembered that in many parts of this country 
 the most mud, accompanied by freezing and thawing weather, is 
 seen in the early springtime without a corresponding increase of 
 quittor. Furthermore, the serious outbreaks of this disease in the 
 mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana are seen 
 in the fall and winter seasons, when the weather is the driest. It 
 may be claimed, and perhaps with justice, that during these seasons, 
 when the water is low, animals are compelled to wade through more 
 mud to drink from lakes and pools than is necessary at other sea- 
 sons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. Add to these 
 conditions the further fact that much of this mud is impregnated 
 with alkaline salts, which, like the mineral substances always found 
 in the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair to 
 conclude that under certain circumstances mud may become an im- 
 portant factor in the production of quittor. 
 
 "A recent outbreak of quittor near Cheyenne, Wyo., which came under the 
 author's observation, was caused by the mud through which the horses had to 
 wade to reach the watering troughs. These troughs were furnished with water 
 by windmills, and the mud holes were caused by the waste water. More 
 than fifty cases developed inside of two months, or during September and
 
 382 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 While this disease attacks any and all classes of horses, it is the 
 large, common breeds, with thick skins, heavy coats, and coarse legs 
 that are most often affected. Horses well groomed and cared for in 
 stables seem to be less liable to the disease than those running at large 
 or than those which are kept and worked under adverse circumstances. 
 
 Symptoms. Lameness, lasting from one to three or four days, 
 nearly always precedes the development of the strictly local evidences 
 of quittor. The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot, 
 and painful tumor in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of 
 the affected foot is white, the inflamed portion will present a dark-red 
 or even a purplish appearance near the center. Within a few hours 
 the ankle, or even the whole leg as high as the knee or hock, becomes 
 much swollen. The lameness is now so great that the patient refuses 
 to use the foot at all, but carries it in the air if compelled to move. 
 As a consequence, the opposite leg is required to do the work of both, 
 and if the animal persists in standing a greater part of the time it, 
 too, becomes swollen. In many of these cases the suffering is so in- 
 tense during the first few days as to cause general fever, dullness, 
 loss of appetite, and increased thirst. Generally the tumor shows 
 signs of suppuration within forty-eight to seventy-two hours after its 
 first appearance; the summit softens, a fluctuating fluid is felt be- 
 neath the skin, which soon ulcerates completely through, causing the 
 discharge of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, containing shreds of dead 
 tissue which have sloughed away. The sore is now converted into an 
 open ulcer, generally deep, nearly or quite circular in outline, and 
 with hardened base and edges. In exceptional cases large patches of 
 skin, varying from 1 to 2 inches in diameter, slough away at once, 
 leaving an ugly superficial ulcer. These sores, especially when deep, 
 suppurate freely, and if there are no complications they tend to heal 
 rapidly as soon as the degenerated tissue has softened and is entirely 
 removed. When suppuration is fully established, the lameness and 
 general symptoms subside. Where but a single tumor and abscess 
 form, the disease progresses rapidly, and recover}', under proper 
 treatment, may be effected in from two to three weeks ; but when two 
 or more tumors are developed at once, or where the formation of one 
 tumor is rapidly succeeded by another for an indefinite time, the suf- 
 ferings of the patient are greatly increased, the case is more difficult 
 to treat, and recovery is more slow and less certain. 
 
 October. In these fifty cases all forms of the disease and all possible compli- 
 cations were presented. During the rainy season at Leadville, Colo., outbreaks 
 of quittor are common, and the disease Is so virulent that it has long been 
 known as the " Leadvllle foot rot." The soil being rich in mineral matters is 
 no doubt the cause of the outbreaks. In the city of Montreal quittor is said to 
 be very common in the early springtime, when the streets are muddy from the 
 melting snow and Ice.
 
 QT7ITTOR. 383 
 
 This form of quittor is often complicated with the tendinous and 
 subhorny quittors by an extension of the sloughing process. 
 
 Treatment. The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quit- 
 tor should be the removal of all exciting causes. Crowding animals 
 into small corrals and stables, where injuries to the coronet are likely 
 to happen from trampling, especially among unbroken range horses, 
 must be avoided as much as possible. 
 
 Watering places accessible without having to wade through mud 
 are to be supplied. In towns, where the mud or dust is largely impreg- 
 nated with mineral products, it is not possible to adopt complete pre- 
 ventive measures. Much can be done, however, by careful cleans- 
 ing of the feet and legs as soon as the animal returns from work. 
 Warm water should be used to remove the mud and dirt, after which 
 the parts are to be thoroughly dried with soft cloths. 
 
 The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quit- 
 tor vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented 
 for treatment. If the case is seen early that is, before any of the 
 signs of suppuration have developed the affected foot is to be placed 
 under a constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a 
 further extension of the inflammatory process. To accomplish this, 
 put the patient in slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor. 
 Bandage the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the case may be, with 
 flannel bandages loosely applied. Set a tub or barrel filled with cold 
 water above the patient, and by the use of a small rubber hose of suf- 
 ficient length make a siphon which will carry the water from the bot- 
 tom of the tub to the leg at the top of the bandages. The stream of 
 water should be quite small, and is to be continued until the inflamma- 
 tion has entirely subsided or until the presence of pus can be detected 
 in the tumor. When suppuration has commenced, the process should 
 be aided by the use of warm baths and poultices of linseed meal or 
 boiled turnips. If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied by 
 intense pain, relief is secured and sloughing largely limited by a free 
 incision of the parts. The incision should be vertical and deep into 
 the tumor, care being taken not to entirely divide the coronary band. 
 If the tumor is large, more than one incision may be necessary. 
 
 The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or 
 longer and then poulticed. The hemorrhage produced by the cutting 
 and encouraged by the warm bath is generally very copious and soon 
 gives relief to the overtension of the parts. 
 
 In other cases it will be found that suppuration is well under way, 
 so that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first pre- 
 sented for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve the tumor 
 of pus whenever its presence can be detected; hence in these cases a 
 free incision must be made into the softened parts, the pus evacuated, 
 and the foot poulticed.
 
 384 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 By surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open 
 sore or ulcer, which, after it has been well cleaned by warm baths 
 and poultices applied for two or three days, needs to be protected by 
 proper dressings. The best of all protective dressings is made of 
 small balls, or pledgets, of oakum, carefully packed into the wound 
 and held in place by a roller bandage 4 yards long, from 3 to 4 inches 
 wide, made of common bedticking and skillfully applied. 
 
 The remedies which may be used to stimulate the healing process 
 are many, and, as a rule, they are applied in the form of solutions or 
 tinctures. 
 
 In my own practice I prefer a solution of bichloride of mercury 1 
 part, water 500 parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few 
 grains of muriate of ammonia added to cause the mercury to dissolve. 
 The balls of oakum are wet with this solution before they are applied 
 to the wound. 
 
 Among the other remedies which may be used, and perhaps with 
 equally as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and 
 zinc, 5 grains of either to the ounce of water ; chloride of zinc, 5 grains 
 to the ounce; carbolic acid, 20 drops dissolved in an equal amount of 
 glycerin and added to 1 ounce of water; nitrate of silver, 10 grains to 
 the ounce of water ; and creolin, pure or diluted. 
 
 If the wound is slow to heal, it will be found of advantage to change 
 the remedies every few days. 
 
 If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and 
 glistening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of 
 camphor may do best. 
 
 When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly, an ointment 
 made of 1 part of carbolic acid to 40 parts of cosmoline or vaseline is 
 all that is needed. 
 
 If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed which 
 projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut off with a 
 sharp, clean knife, and the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours, 
 after which the wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar 
 caustic and the bandages applied with great firmness. 
 
 The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed must 
 be determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the sore is sup- 
 purating freely it will be necessary to renew the dressing every 
 twenty-four or forty-eight hours; if the discharge is small in quan- 
 tity and the patient comfortable, the dressing may be left on for 
 several days; in fact, the less often the wound is disturbed the better, 
 in so long as the healing process is healthy. When the sore com- 
 mences to skin over, the edges should be lightly touched with lunar 
 caustic at each dressing. The patient may now be given a little 
 exercise daily ; but the bandages must be kept on until the wound is 
 entirely healed.
 
 QUITTOE. 385 
 
 TENDINOUS QUITTOB. 
 
 This form of quittor differs from the cutaneous in that it not only 
 affects the skin and subcutaneous tissues, but involves, also, the ten- 
 dons of the leg, the ligaments of the joints, and, in many cases, the 
 bones of the foot as well. 
 
 Fortunately this form of quittor is less common than the preced- 
 ing; yet any case beginning as simple cutaneous quittor may at any 
 time during its course become complicated by the death of some part 
 of the tendons, by gangrene of the ligaments, sloughing of the coro- 
 nary band, caries of the bones, or inflammation and suppuration of 
 the synovial sacs and joints, thereby converting a simple quittor into 
 one which will, in all probability, either destroy the patient's life or 
 maim him for all time. 
 
 Causes. Tendinous quittor is caused by the same injuries and influ- 
 ences that produce the simple form. Zundel believes it to be a not 
 infrequent accompaniment of distemper. In my own experience I 
 have seen nothing to verify this belief, but I am satisfied that young 
 animals are more liable to have tendinous quittor than older ones, 
 and that they are much more likely to make a good recovery. 
 
 Symptoms. When a case of simple quittor is transformed into the 
 tendinous variety the change is announced by a sudden increase in 
 the severity of all the symptoms. On the other hand, if the attack 
 primarily is one of tendinous quittor, the earliest symptom seen is a 
 well-marked lameness. In those cases due to causes other than in- 
 juries this lameness is at first very 'slight, and the animal limps no 
 more in trotting than in walking; but later on, generally during the 
 next forty-eight hours, the lameness increases to such an extent that 
 the patient often refuses to use the leg at all. An examination made 
 during the first two days rarely discloses any cause for this lameness ; 
 it may not be possible even to say with certainty that the foot is the 
 seat of the trouble. On the third or fourth day, sometimes as late as 
 the fifth, a doughy-feeling tumor will be found forming on the heel 
 or quarter. This tumor grows rapidly, feels hot to the touch, and is 
 extremely painful. As the tumor develops, all the other symptoms 
 increase in intensity; the pulse is rapid and hard; the breathing 
 quick; the temperature elevated three or four degrees; the appetite 
 is gone; thirst increased, and the lameness so great that the foot is 
 carried in the air if locomotion is attempted. At this stage of the 
 disease the patient generally seeks relief by lying upon the broad side, 
 with outstretched legs; the coat is bedewed with a clammy sweat, 
 and every respiration is accompanied by a moan. The leg soon swells 
 to the fetlock; later this swelling gradually extends to the knee or 
 hock, and in some cases reaches the body. As a rule, several days 
 elapse before the disease develops a well-defined abscess, for, owing 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 25
 
 386 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 to the dense structure of the bones, ligaments, and tendons, the sup- 
 purative process is a slow one, and the pus is prevented from readily 
 collecting in a mass. 
 
 Recently I made a post-mortem examination on a typical case of this 
 disease, where the animal had died on the fourth day after being 
 found on the range slightly lame. The suffering had been intense; 
 yet the only external evidences of the disease consisted in the shed- 
 ding of the hoof from the right fore foot and a limited swelling of 
 the leg to the knee. The sloughing of the hoof took place two or 
 three hours before death, and was accompanied with but little suppu- 
 ration and no hemorrhage. The skin from the knee to the foot was 
 thickened from watery infiltration (edema), and on the inside quarter 
 three holes, each about one-half inch in diameter, were found. All 
 had ragged edges, while but one had gone deep enough to perforate 
 the coronary band. The loose connective tissue beneath the skin was 
 distended, with a gelatinous infiltration over the whole course of the 
 flexor tendons and to the fetlock joint over the tendon in front. The 
 soft tissues covering the coffin bone were loosened in patches by col- 
 lections of pus which had formed beneath the sensitive laminae. The 
 coffin and pastern joints were inflamed, as were also the coffin, navicu- 
 lar, and coronet bones, while the outside toe of the coffin bone had 
 become softened from suppuration until it readily crumbled between 
 the fingers. The coronary band was largely destroyed and completely 
 separated from the other tissues of the foot. The inner lateral carti- 
 lage was gangrenous, as was also a small spot on the extensor tendon 
 near its point of attachment on the coffinbone. Several small collec- 
 tions of pus were found deep in the connective tissue of the coronary 
 region ; along the course of the sesamoid ligaments ; in the sheath of 
 the flexor tendons; under the tendon just below the fetlock joint in 
 front, and in the coffin joint. 
 
 But all cases of tendinous quittor are by no means so complicated 
 as this one was. In rare instances the swelling is slight, and after a 
 few days the lameness and other symptoms subside, without any dis- 
 charge of pus from an external opening. In most cases, however, 
 from one to half a dozen or more soft points arise on the skin of the 
 coronet, open, and discharge slowly a thick, yellow, fetid, and bloody 
 matter. In other cases the suppurative process is largely confined to 
 the sensitive laminae and plantar cushion, when the suffering is 
 intense until the pus finds an avenue of escape by separating the hoof 
 from the coronary band, at or near the heels, without causing a loss 
 of the whole horny box. When the flexor tendon is involved deep in 
 the foot, the discharge of pus usually takes place from an opening in 
 the hollow of the heel ; if the sesamoid ligament or the sheath of the 
 flexors are affected, the opening is nearer the fetlock joint; although 
 in most of these cases the suppuration spreads along the course of the
 
 QUITTOR. 387 
 
 tendons until the navicular joint is involved, and extensive sloughing 
 of the deeper parts follows. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of tendinous quittor is to be directed 
 toward the saving of the foot. First of all an effort must be made to 
 prevent suppuration ; and if the patient is seen at the beginning, cold 
 irrigation, recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor, is to 
 be resorted to. Later on, when the tumor is forming on the coronet, 
 the knife must be used, and a free and deep incision made into the 
 swelling. Whenever openings appear from which pus escapes, they 
 should be carefully probed; in all instances these fistulous tracts lead 
 down to dead tissue which nature is trying to remove by the process 
 of sloughing. If a counter opening can be made, which will enable a 
 more ready escape of the pus, it should be done at once ; for instance, 
 if the probe shows that the discharge originates from the bottom of 
 the foot, the sole must be pared through over the seat of trouble. 
 Whenever suppuration has commenced the process is to be stimulated 
 by the use of warm baths and poultices. The pus which accumulates 
 in the deeper parts, especially along the tendons, around the joints, 
 and in the hoof, is to be removed by pressure and injections made 
 with a small syringe, repeated two or three times a day. As soon as 
 the discharge assumes a healthy character and diminishes in quantity, 
 stimulating solutions are to be injected into the open wounds. Where 
 the tendons, ligaments, and other deeper parts are affected, a strong 
 solution of carbolic acid 1 to 4 should be used at first. Or strong 
 solutions of tincture of iodine, sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, 
 bichloride of mercury, etc., may be used in place of the carbolic ; after 
 which the remedies and dressings directed for use in simple quittor 
 are to be used. In those cases where the fistulous tracts refuse to 
 heal it is often necessary to burn them out with a saturated solution 
 of caustic soda, equal parts of muriatic acid and water; or, better 
 still, with a long, thin iron, heated white hot. 
 
 But no matter what treatment is adopted, a large percentage of 
 the cases of tendinous quittor fail to make good recoveries. Where 
 the entire hoof sloughs away, the growth of a new, but soft and imper- 
 fect, hoof may be secured by carefully protecting the exposed tissues 
 with proper bandages. When the joints are opened by deep slough- 
 ing, recovery may eventually take place, but the joint remains immov- 
 able ever after. If caries of a small part of the coffin bone takes place, 
 it may be removed by an operation ; but if much of the bone is affected, 
 or if the navicular and coronet bones are involved in the carious proc- 
 ess, the only hope for a cure is in the amputation of the foot. This 
 operation is advisable only where the animal is valuable for breeding 
 purposes. In all other cases where there is no hope for recovery the 
 patient's suffering should be relieved by death. In tendinous quittor 
 much thickening of the coronary region, and sometimes of the ankle
 
 388 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 and fetlock, remains after suppuration has ceased and the fistulous 
 tracts have healed. To stimulate the reabsorption of this new and 
 unnecessary tissue, the parts should be fired with the hot iron, or, in 
 its absence, repeated blistering with the bin iodide of mercury oint- 
 ment may largely accomplish the same result. 
 
 SUBHOBNY QUITTOB. 
 
 This is the most common form of the disease. It is generally seen 
 in but one foot at a time, and more often in the fore than in the hind 
 feet. It nearly always attacks the inside quarter, but may affect the 
 outside quarter, the band in front, or the heel, where it is of but little 
 consequence. It consists in the inflammation of a small part of the 
 coronary band and adjacent skin, followed by sloughing and suppura- 
 tion, which in most cases extends to the neighboring sensitive laminae. 
 
 Causes. Injuries to the coronet, such as bruises, overreaching, and 
 calk wounds, are considered as the common causes of this disease. 
 Still cases occur in which there appears to be no existing cause, just 
 as in the other forms of quittor, and it seems fair to conclude that 
 subhorny quittor may also be produced by internal causes. 
 
 Symptoms. At the outset the lameness is always severe, and the 
 patient often refuses to use the affected foot. Swelling of the coronet 
 close to the top of the hoof causes the quarter to protrude beyond the 
 wall. This tumor is extremely sensitive, and the whole foot is hot 
 and painful. After a few days a small spot in the skin, over the 
 most elevated part of the tumor, softens and opens or the hoof sepa- 
 rates from the coronary band at the quarter or well back toward the 
 heel. From this opening, wherever it may be, a thin, watery, 
 offensive discharge escapes, often dark in color, at times mixed with 
 blood, and always containing a considerable percentage of pus. 
 
 Probing will now disclose a fistulous tract leading to the bottom of 
 the diseased tissues. If the opening is small, there is a tendency upon 
 the part of the suppurative process to spread downward; the pus 
 gradually separates the hoof from the sensitive laminae until the sole 
 is reached, and even a portion of this may be undermined. 
 
 As a rule, the slough in this form of quittor is not deep, and if the 
 case receives early and proper treatment complications are generally 
 avoided ; but if the case is neglected, and, occasionally, even in spite 
 of the best of treatment, the disease spreads until the tendon in front, 
 the lateral cartilage, or the coffin bone and joint as well are involved. 
 
 In all cases of subhorny quittor much relief is experienced when 
 the slough comes away, and rapid recovery is made. If, however, 
 after the lapse of a few days, the lameness remains and the wound 
 continues to discharge a thin unhealthy matter, the probabilities are 
 that the disease is spreading, and pus collecting in the deeper parts of 
 the foot. In Zundel's opinion, if the use of the probe now detects a
 
 QUITTOR. 389 
 
 pus cavity below the opening, a cartilaginous quittor is in the course 
 of development. 
 
 Treatment. Hot baths and poultices are to be used until the pres- 
 ence of pus can be determined, when the tumor is to be opened with 
 a knife or sharp-pointed iron heated white hot. The hot baths and 
 poultices are now continued for a few days or until the entire slough 
 has come away and the discharge is diminished, when dressings 
 recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor are to be used 
 until recovery is completed. In cases where the discharge comes 
 from a cleft between the upper border of the hoof and the coronary 
 band, always pare away the loosened horn, so that the soft tissues 
 beneath are fully exposed, care being taken not to injure the healthy 
 parts. This operation permits of a thorough inspection of the dis- 
 eased parts, the easy removal of all gangrenous tissue, and a better 
 application of the necessary remedies and dressings. The only objec- 
 tion to the operation is that the patient is prevented from being early 
 returned to work. 
 
 When the probe shows that pus has collected under the coffin bone 
 the sole must be pared through, and if caries of the bone is present 
 the dead parts cut away. After either of these operations the wound 
 is to be dressed with the oakum balls, saturated in the bichloride of 
 mercury solution, as previously directed, and the bandages tightly 
 applied. Generally the discharge for the first two or three days is so 
 great that the dressings need to be changed every twenty- four hours ; 
 but when the discharge diminishes, the dressing may be left on from 
 one to two weeks. Before the patient is returned to work, a bar shoe 
 should be applied, since the removed quarter or heel can only be made 
 perfect again by a new growth from the coronary band. 
 
 Tendinous or cartilaginous complications are to be treated as 
 directed under those headings. 
 
 f C AST ILAGI NOUS QUITTOB. 
 
 This form of quittor may commence as a primary inflammation of 
 the lateral cartilage, but in the great majority of cases it appears as a 
 sequel to cutaneous or subhorny quittor. It may affect either the fore 
 or hind feet, but is most commonly seen in the former. As a rule, it 
 attacks but one foot at a time, and but one of the cartilages, generally 
 the inner one. It is always a serious affection for the reason that, in 
 many cases, it can only be cured by a surgical operation, requiring a 
 thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the parts involved and much 
 surgical skill. 
 
 Causes. Direct injuries to the coronet, such as trampling, pricks, 
 burns, and the blow of some heavy falling object which may puncture, 
 bruise, or crush the cartilage, are the common direct causes of carti- 
 laginous quittor. Besides being a sequel to the other forms of quittor,
 
 390 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 
 
 it sometimes develops as a complication in suppurative corn, canker, 
 grease, laminitis, and punctured wounds of the foot. Animals used 
 for heavy draft, and those with flat feet and low heels, are more 
 liable to the disease than others, for the simple reason that they are 
 more exposed to injury. Rough roads also predispose to the disease 
 by increasing liability to injury. 
 
 Symptoms. When the disease commences as a primary inflamma- 
 tion of the cartilage, lameness develops with the formation of a swell- 
 ing on the side of the coronet over the quarter. The severity of this 
 lameness depends largely upon the part of the cartilage which is dis- 
 eased, for if the disease is situated in that part of the cartilage nearest 
 the heel, where the surrounding tissues are soft and spongy, the lame- 
 ness may be very slight, especially if the patient is required to go no 
 faster than a walk; but when the middle and anterior parts of the 
 cartilage are diseased, the pain and consequent lameness are much 
 greater, for the tissues are less elastic and the coffin joint is more 
 likely to become affected. 
 
 Except in the cases to be noted hereafter, one or more fistulous 
 openings finally appear in the tumor on the coronet. These openings 
 are surrounded by a small mass of granulations which are elevated 
 above the adjacent skin and bleed readily if handled. A probe shows 
 these fistulous tracts to be more or less sinuous, but always leading to 
 one point the gangrenous cartilage. When cartilaginous quittor 
 happens as a complication of suppurative corn, or from punctured 
 wounds of the foot, the fistulous tract may open alone at the point of 
 injury on the sole. 
 
 The discharge in this form of quittor is generally thin, watery, and 
 contains enough pus to give it a pale yellow color; it is offensive to 
 the sense of smell, due to the detachment of small flakes of cartilage 
 which have become gangrenous and are seen in the discharge as small 
 greenish colored particles. In old cases it is not unusual to find some 
 of the fistulous openings heal at the surface ; *his is followed by the 
 gradual collection of pus in the deeper parts, forming an abscess, 
 which in a short time opens at a new point. The wall of the hoof, 
 over the affected quarter and heel, in very old cases becomes rough 
 and wrinkled like the horn of a ram, and generally it is thicker than 
 the corresponding quarter, owing to the stimulating effect which the 
 disease has upon the coronary band. 
 
 Complications may arise by an extension of the disease to the lat- 
 eral ligament of the coffin joint, to the joint itself, to the plantar 
 cushion, and by caries of the coffin bone. 
 
 Treatment. Before recovery can take place all of the dead cartilage 
 must be removed. In rare instances this is effected by nature without 
 assistance. Usually, however, the disease does not tend to recovery, 
 and active curative measures must be adopted. The best and sim-
 
 THRUSH. 391 
 
 plest treatment, in a majority of cases, is the injection of strong 
 caustic solutions, which destroy the diseased cartilage and cause its 
 discharge, along with the other products of suppuration. In favor- 
 able cases these injections will secure a healing of the wound in 
 from two to three weeks. While the saturated solution of sulphate 
 of copper, or a solution of 10 parts of bichloride of mercury to 100 
 parts of water, has given the best results in my hands, equally as 
 favorable success has been secured by others from the use of caustic 
 soda, nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, tincture of iodine, etc. But 
 no matter which one of these remedies may be selected, it must be used 
 at least twice a day for a time. The solution is injected into the vari- 
 ous openings with enough force to drive it to the bottom of the 
 wound, after which the foot is to be dressed with a pad of oakum, 
 held in place by a roller bandage tightly applied. While it is not 
 always necessary, it is often of advantage to relieve the pressure on 
 the parts by rasping away the hoof over the seat of the cartilage ; the 
 coronary band and laminae should not be injured in the operation. 
 
 If the caustic injections prove successful, the discharge will become 
 healthy and gradually diminish, so that by the end of the second week 
 the fistulous tracts are closing up, and the injections are made with 
 much difficulty. 
 
 If, on the other hand, there is but little or no improvement after 
 this treatment has been used for three weeks, it may reasonably be 
 concluded that the operation for the removal of the lateral cartilage 
 must be resorted to for the cure of the trouble. As this operation 
 can be safely undertaken only by an expert surgeon, it will not be 
 described in this connection. 
 
 THRUSH. 
 
 Thrush is characterized by an excessive secretion of unhealthy mat- 
 ter from the cleft of the frog. While all classes of horses are liable 
 to this affection", it is more often seen in the common draft horse than 
 in any other breed a fact due to the conditions of servitude and not 
 to the fault of the breed. Country horses are much less subject to the 
 disease, except in wet, marshy districts, than are the horses used in 
 cities and towns. 
 
 Causes. The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition 
 of the stable in which the animal is kept. Mares are more liable to 
 contract the disease in the hind feet when the cause is due to filth, while 
 the gelding and stallion are more likely to develop it in the fore feet. 
 Hard work on rough and stony roads may also induce the disease, as 
 may a change from dryness to excessive moisture. The latter cause 
 is often seen to operate in old track horses, whose feet are constantly 
 soaked in the bath tub for the purpose of relieving soreness. Muddy 
 streets and roads, especially where mineral substances are plentiful, 
 excite this abnormal condition of the frog. Contracted heels,
 
 392 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 scratches, and navicular disease predispose to thrush, while by some a 
 constitutional tendency is believed to exist among certain animals 
 which otherwise present a perfect frog. 
 
 Symptoms. At first there is simply an increased moisture in the 
 cleft of the frog, accompanied by an offensive smell. After a time a 
 considerable discharge takes place thin, watery, and highly offen- 
 sive, changing gradually to a thicker puriform matter, which rapidly 
 destroys the horn of the frog. Only in old and severe cases is the 
 patient lame and the foot feverish cases in which the whole frog is 
 involved in the diseased process. 
 
 Treatment. Thrushes are to be treated by cleanliness, the removal 
 of all exciting causes, and a return of the frog to its normal condition. 
 As a rule, the diseased and ragged portions of horn are to be pared 
 away and the foot poulticed for a day or two with boiled turnips, to 
 which may be added a few drops of carbolic acid or a handful of pow- 
 dered charcoal to destroy the offensive smell. The cleft of the frog 
 and the grooves on its edges are then to be cleaned and well filled with 
 dry calomel and the foot dressed with oakum and a roller bandage. 
 If the discharge is profuse, the dressing should be changed daily ; 
 otherwise it may be left on two or three days. Where a constitu- 
 tional taint is supposed to exist, with swelling of the legs, grease, etc., 
 a purgative, followed by dram doses of sulphate of iron, repeated 
 daily, may be prescribed. In cases where the growth of horn seems 
 too slow a Spanish-fly blister applied to the heels is often followed by 
 good results. Feet in which the disease is readily induced may be 
 protected in the stable with a leather boot. If the thrush is but a 
 sequel to other diseases, a permanent cure may not be possible. 
 
 CANKER. 
 
 Canker of the foot is due to the rapid reproduction of a vegetable 
 parasite. It not only destroys the sole and frog, but, by setting up a 
 chronic inflammation in the deeper tissues, prevents fhe growth of a 
 healthy horn by which the injury might be repaired. Heavy cart 
 horses are more often affected than those of any other class. 
 
 Causes. The essential element in the production of canker is the 
 parasite; consequently the disease may be called contagious. But, as 
 in all other diseases due to specific causes, the seeds of the disorder 
 must find a suitable soil in which to grow before they are reproduced. 
 It may be said, then, that the conditions which favor the preparation 
 of the tissues for a reception of the seeds of this disease are simply 
 predisposing causes. 
 
 The condition most favorable to the development of canker is 
 dampness in fact, dampness seems indispensable to the existence and 
 growth of the parasite; for the disease is rarely, if ever, seen in high, 
 dry districts, and is much more common in rainy than in dry seasons. 
 Filthy stables and muddy roads have been claased among the causes
 
 CANKEK. 393 
 
 of canker ; but it is very doubtful if these conditions can do more than 
 favor a preparation of the foot for the reception of the disease germ. 
 
 All injuries to the feet may, by exposing the soft tissues, render the 
 animal susceptible to infection ; but neither the injury nor the irrita- 
 tion and inflammation of the tissues which follow are sufficient to 
 induce the disease. , 
 
 For some unknown reason horses with lymphatic temperaments 
 thick skins, flat feet, fleshy frogs, heavy hair, and particularly with 
 white feet and legs are especially liable to canker. 
 
 Symptoms. Usually, canker is confined to one foot; but it may 
 attack two, three, or all of the feet at once ; or, as is more commonly 
 seen, the disease attacks first one then another, until all may have been 
 successively affected. When the disease follows an injury which has 
 exposed the soft tissues of the foot, the wound shows no tendency to 
 heal, but instead there is secreted from the inflamed parts a profuse, 
 thin, fetid, watery discharge, which gradually undermines and de- 
 stroys the surrounding horn, until a large part of the sole and frog is 
 diseased. The living tissues are swollen, dark colored, and covered 
 at certain points with particles of new, soft, yellowish, thready horn, 
 which are constantly undergoing maceration in the abundant liquid 
 secretion by which they are immersed. As this secretion escapes to 
 the surrounding parts, it dries and forms small, cheesy masses com- 
 posed of partly dried horny matter, exceedingly offensive to the sense 
 of smell. When the disease originates independently of an injury, 
 the first evidences of the trouble are the offensive odor of the foot, the 
 liquid secretion from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting 
 away of the horn of the frog and sole. 
 
 In the earlier stages there is no interference with locomotion, but 
 later the foot becomes sensitive, particularly if the animal is used on 
 rough roads, and, finally, when the sole and frog are largely destroyed 
 the lameness is severe. 
 
 Treatment. Since canker does not destroy the power of the tissues 
 to produce horn, but rather excites them to an excessive production 
 of an imperfect horn, the indications for treatment are to restore the 
 parts to a normal condition, when healthy horn may again be secreted. 
 In my experience, limited though it has been, the old practice of strip- 
 ping off the entire sole and deep cauterization, with either the hot 
 iron or strong acids, is not attended with uniformly good results. 
 
 I am of the opinion that recovery can generally be effected as surely 
 and as speedily with measures which are less heroic and much less 
 painful. True, the treatment of canker is likely to exhaust the 
 patience, and sometimes the resources, of the attendant; but after 
 all success depends more on the persistent application of simple 
 remedies and great cleanliness than on the special virtues of any 
 particular drug.
 
 394 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 First, then, clean the foot with warm baths and apply a poultice 
 containing powdered charcoal or carbolic acid. A handful of the 
 charcoal or a tablespoonful of the acid mixed with the poultice serves 
 to destroy much of the offensive odor. The diseased portions of 
 horn are to be carefully removed with sharp instruments, until only 
 healthy horn borders the affected parts. The edges of the sound horn 
 are to be pared thin, so that the swollen soft tissues may not overlap 
 their borders. With sharp scissors cut off all the prominent points on 
 the soft tissues, shorten the walls of the foot, and nail on a broad, 
 plain shoe. The foot is now ready for the dressings, and any of the 
 many stimulating and drying remedies may be used; but it will be 
 necessary to change frequently from one to another, until finally all 
 may be tried. 
 
 The list from which a selection may be made comprises wood tar, 
 gas tar, petroleum, creosote, phenic acid; sulphates of iron, copper, 
 and zinc; chloride of zinc, bichloride of mercury, calomel, caustic 
 soda, nitrate of silver, chloride of lime ; carbolic, nitric, and sulphuric 
 acids. 
 
 In practice I prefer to give the newly shod foot a bath for an hour 
 or two in a solution of the sulphate of iron, made by adding 2 ounces 
 of the powdered sulphate to a gallon of cold water. When the foot 
 is removed it is dressed with oakum balls dipped in a mixture made 
 of Barbados tar 1 part, oil of turpentine 8 parts, to which is slowly 
 added 2 parts of sulphuric acid, and the mixture well stirred and 
 cooled. The diseased parts being well covered with the balls, a pad 
 of oakum, sufficiently thick to cause considerable pressure, is placed 
 over them, and all are held in place by pieces of heavy tin fitted to 
 slip under the shoe. The whole foot is now incased in a boot or 
 folded gunny sack, and the patient turned into a loose, dry box. The 
 dressings are to be changed daily or even twice a day, at first. 
 When they are removed, all pieces of new horny matter which are 
 now firmly adherent must be rubbed off with the finger or a tent of 
 oakum. As the secretion diminishes, dry powders may prove of most 
 advantage, such as calomel, sulphates of iron, copper, etc. The sul- 
 phates should not be used pure, but are to be mixed with powdered 
 animal charcoal in the proportion of one of the former to eight or ten 
 of the latter. When the soft tissues are all horned over, the dress- 
 ings should be continued for a time, weak solutions being used to 
 prevent a recurrence of the disease. If the patient is run down in 
 condition, bitter tonics, such as gentian, may be given in 2-dram doses, 
 twice a day, and a liberal diet of grain allowed. 
 
 CORNS. 
 
 A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot, involving the 
 soft tissues beneath, whereby the capillary blood vessels are ruptured 
 and a small amount of blood escapes, which, by permeating the horn
 
 CORNS. 395 
 
 in the immediate neighborhood, stains it a dark color. If the injury 
 is continuously repeated, the horn becomes altered in character, and 
 the .soft tissues may suppurate or a horny tumor develop. Corns 
 always appear in the sole in the angle between the bar and the outside 
 wall of the hoof. In many cases the laminae of the bar, of the wall, 
 or of both are involved at the same time. 
 
 Three kinds of corns are commonly recognized the dry, the moist, 
 and the suppurative a division based solely on the character of the 
 conditions which follow the primary injury. 
 
 The fore feet are almost exclusively the subjects of the disease, for 
 two reasons : First, because they support a greater part of the body ; 
 secondly, because the heel of the fore foot during progression is first 
 placed upon the ground, whereby it receives much more concussion 
 than the heel of the hind foot, in which the toe first strikes the 
 ground. 
 
 Causes. It may be said that all feet are exposed to corns, and that 
 even the best feet may suffer from them when conditions necessary to 
 the production of the peculiar injury are present. The heavier breeds 
 of horses generally used for heavy work on rough roads and streets 
 seem to be most liable to this trouble. Mules rarely have corns. 
 
 Among the causes and conditions which predispose to corns may be 
 named high heels, which change the natural relative position of the 
 bones of the foot and thereby increase the concussion to which these 
 parts are subject ; contracted heels, which in part destroy the elas- 
 ticity of the foot, increase the pressure upon the soft tissues of the 
 heel, and render lacerations more easy ; long feet, which by removing 
 the frog and heels too far from the ground deprive them of necessary 
 moisture, which, in turn, reduces the elastic properties of the horn and 
 diminishes the transverse diameter of the heels; and weak feet, or 
 those in which the horn of the wall is too thin to resist the tendency 
 to spread, whereby the soft tissues are easily lacerated. Wide feet 
 with low heels are always accompanied by a flat sole whose posterior 
 wings either rest upon the ground or the shoe, and as a consequence 
 are easily bruised ; at the same time the arch of the sole is so broad 
 and flat that it can not support the weight of the body, and in the dis- 
 placement which happens when the foot is rested upon the ground the 
 soft tissues are liable to become bruised or torn. 
 
 It is universally conceded that shoeing, either as a direct or predis- 
 posing cause, is most prolific in producing corns. One of the most 
 serious as well as the most common of the errors in shoeing is to be 
 found in the preparation of the foot. Instead of seeking to maintain 
 the integrity of the arch, the first thing done is to weaken it by freely 
 paring away the sole ; nor does the mutilation end here, for the frog, 
 which is nature's main support to the branches of the sole and the 
 heels, is also largely cut away. This not only permits of an excessive
 
 396 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 downward movement of the contents of the horny box, but it at the 
 same time removes the one great means by which concussion of the 
 foot is destroyed. As adjuncts to the foregoing errors must be added 
 the faults of construction in the shoe and in the way it is adjusted 
 to the foot. An excess of concavity in the sho, extending it too far 
 back on the heels, high calks, thin heels which permit the shoe to 
 spring, short heels with a calk set under the foot, and a shoe too light 
 for the animal wearing it or for the work required of him, are all to 
 be avoided as causes of corns. A shoe so set as to press upon the sole 
 or one that has been on so long that the hoof has overgrown it until 
 the heels rest upon the sole and bars becomes a direct cause of corns. 
 Indirectly the shoe becomes the cause of corns when small stones, 
 hard, dry earth, or other objects collect between the sole and shoe. 
 Lastly, a rapid gait and excessive knee action, especially on hard 
 roads, predispose to this disease of the feet. 
 
 Symptoms. Ordinarily a corn induces sufficient pain to cause lame- 
 ness. It may be intense, as seen in suppurative corn, or it may be but 
 a slight soreness, such as that which accompanies dry corn. It is by 
 no means, unusual to see old horses having chronic corns apparently so 
 accustomed to the slight pain which they suffer as not to limp at all; 
 but these animals are generally very restless; they paw their bedding 
 behind them at night, and often refuse to lie down for any lengthened 
 rest. The lameness of this disease, however, can hardly be said to be 
 characteristic, for the reason that it varies so greatly in intensity ; but 
 the position of the leg while the patient is at rest is generally the same 
 in all cases. The foot is so advanced that it is relieved of all weight, 
 and the fetlock is flexed until all pressure by the contents of the hoof 
 is removed from the heels. In suppurative corn the lameness subsides 
 or entirely disappears as soon as the abscess opens. When the injured 
 tissues are much inflamed, as may happen in severe and recent cases, 
 the heel of the affected side, or even the whole foot, is hot and tender 
 to pressure. In dry corn, and in most chronic cases, all evidences of 
 local fever are often wanting. It is in these cases that the patient 
 goes well when newly shod, for the smith cuts away the sole over the 
 seat of injury until all pressure by the shoe is removed, and lowers 
 the heels so that concussion is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 If a corn is suspected the foot should be examined for increased 
 wmsibility of the inside heel. Tapping the heel of the shoe with a 
 hammer and grasping the wall and bar between the jaws of pincers, 
 with moderate pressure, will cause more or less flinching, if the dis- 
 ease is present. For further evidence the shoe is removed and the 
 heel cut away with the drawing knife. As the horn is pared out, not 
 only the sole in the angle is found discolored, but in many instances 
 the insensible lamina? of the bar and wall adjacent are also stained
 
 COENS. 397 
 
 with the escaped blood. In moist and suppurative corns this discolor- 
 ation is less marked than in dry corn and may be entirely wanting. 
 In these cases the horn is soft, often white, and stringy or mealy, as 
 seen in pumiced sole resulting from founder. When the whole thick- 
 ness of the sole is discolored and the horn dry and brittle, it is gen- 
 erally evidence that the corn is an old one and that the exciting cause 
 has existed continuously. A moist corn differs from the dry corn 
 in that the injury is more severe; the parts affected are more or less 
 inflamed, and the horn of the sole in the angle is undermined by a 
 citron-colored fluid, which often permeates the injured sole and 
 lamina?, causing the horn to become somewhat spongy. 
 
 A suppurative corn differs from others in that the inflammation 
 ends in suppuration. The pus collects at the point of injury and 
 finally escapes by working its way between the sensitive and insensi- 
 ble laminae to the top of the hoof, where an opening is made between 
 the wall and coronary band at or near the heels. This is the most 
 serious form of corns, for the reason that it may induce gangrene of 
 the plantar cushion, cartilaginous quittor, or caries of the coffin bone. 
 
 Treatment. Since a diversity of opinion exists as to what measures 
 must be adopted for the radical cure of corns, the author will advise 
 the use of those which have proven most efficient in his hands. 
 
 As in all other troubles, the cause must be discovered, if possible, 
 and removed. In the great majority of cases the shoeing will be at 
 fault. While sudden changes in the method of shoeing are not advis- 
 able, it may be said that all errors, either in the preparation of the 
 foot, in the construction of the shoe, or in its application may very 
 properly be corrected at any time. Circumstances may at times make 
 it imperative that shoes shall be worn which are not free from objec- 
 tions; as, for instance, the shoe with a high calk; but in such cases it 
 is considered that the injuries liable to result from the use of calks are 
 less serious than those which are sure to happen for the want of them. 
 
 For a sound foot perfectly formed, a flat shoe, with heels less thick 
 than the toe, and which rests evenly on the wall proper, is the best. 
 In flat feet it is often necessary to concave the shoe as much as possi- 
 ble on the upper surface, so that the sole may not be pressed upon. 
 If the heels are very low the heels of the shoe may be made thicker. 
 If the foot is very broad and the wall light toward the heels, a bar 
 shoe resting upon the frog will aid to prevent excessive tension upon 
 the soft tissues when the foot receives the weight of the body. A 
 piece of leather placed between the foot and shoe serves largely to 
 destroy concussion, and its use is absolutely necessary on some ani- 
 mals to enable them to work. 
 
 Last among the preventive measures may be mentioned those which 
 serve to maintain the suppleness of the hoof. The dead horn upon
 
 398 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 the surface of the sole not only retains moisture for a long time, but 
 protects the living horn beneath from the effects of evaporation ; for 
 this reason the sole should be pared as little as possible. Stuffing the 
 feet with flaxseed meal, wet clay, or other like substances, or damp 
 dirt floors or damp bedding of tanbark, greasy hoof ointments, etc., 
 are all means which may be used to keep the feet from becoming too 
 dry and hard. 
 
 As to the curative measures which are to be adopted much will 
 depend upon the extent of the injury. If the case is one of chronic 
 dry corn, with but slight lameness, the foot should be poulticed for a 
 day or two and the discolored horn pared out, care being taken not to 
 injure the soft tissues. The heel on the affected side is to be lowered 
 until all pressure is removed and, if the patient's labor is required, 
 the foot must be shod with a bar shoe or with one having stiff heels. 
 Care must be taken to reset the shoe before the foot has grown too 
 long, else the shoe will no longer rest on the wall, but on the sole 
 and bar. 
 
 I believe in cutting moist corns out. If there is inflammation 
 present, cold baths and poultices should be used ; when the horn is well 
 softened and the fever allayed, pare out all of the diseased horn, 
 lightly cauterize the soft tissues beneath and poultice the foot for two 
 or three days. When the granulations look red, dress the wound with 
 oakum balls saturated in a weak solution of tincture of aloes or spirits 
 of camphor and apply a roller bandage. Change the dressing every 
 two or three days until a firm, healthy layer of new horn covers the 
 wound, when the shoe may be put on, as in dry corn, and the patient 
 returned to work. 
 
 In suppurative corns the loosened horn must be removed, so that 
 the pus may freely escape. If the pus has worked a passage to the 
 coronary band and escapes from an opening between the band and 
 hoof, an opening must be made on the sole, and cold baths made 
 astringent with a little sulphate of iron or copper are to be used for a 
 day or two. When the discharge becomes healthy, the fistulous tracts 
 may be injected daily with a weak solution of bichloride of mercury, 
 nitrate of silver, etc., and the foot dressed as after operation for moist 
 corns. When complications arise, the treatment must be varied to 
 meet the indications; if gangrene of the lateral cartilage takes place 
 it must be treated as directed under the head of cartilaginous quittor; 
 if the velvety tissue is gangrenous, it must be cut away; if the coffin 
 bone is necrosed, it must be scraped, and the resulting wounds treated 
 on general principles. After any of the operations for corns have 
 been performed, in which the soft tissues have been laid bare, it is 
 best to protect the foot by a sole of soft leather set beneath the shoe 
 when the animal is returned to work. Only in rare instances are the 
 complications of corns so serious as to destroy the life or usefulness of
 
 BRUISE OF THE FBOG. 399 
 
 the patient. It is the wide, flat foot with low heels and thin wall 
 which is most liable to resist all efforts toward effecting a complete 
 cure. 
 
 BRUISE OF THE FROG. 
 
 When the frog is severely bruised, the injury is followed by suppu- 
 ration beneath the horn, and at times by partial gangrene of the 
 plantar cushion. 
 
 Causes. A bruise of the frog generally happens from stepping on 
 a rough stone or other hard object. It is more apt to take place when 
 trotting, running, or jumping than when at a slower pace. A stone 
 wedged in the shoe and pressing on the frog or between the sides of 
 the frog and the shoe, if it remains for a time, produces the same 
 results. A cut through the horny frog with some sharp instrument 
 or a punctured wound by a blunt pointed instrument may also cause 
 suppuration and gangrene of the plantar cushion. Broad, flat feet 
 with low heels and a fleshy frog are most liable to these injuries. 
 
 Symptoms. Lameness, severe in proportion to the extent of the 
 bruise and the consequent suppuration, is always an early symptom. 
 When the animal moves, the toe only is placed to the ground or the 
 foot is carried in the air and the patient hobbles along on three legs. * 
 When he is at rest, the foot is set forward with the toe on the ground 
 and the leg flexed at the fetlock joint. As soon as the pus finds its 
 way to the surface the lameness improves. If the frog is examined 
 early the injured spot may usually be found; later, if no opening 
 exists, the pus may be discovered working its way toward the heels. 
 The horn is loosened from the deeper tissues, and, if pared through, 
 a thin, yellow, watery and offensive pus escapes. In other cases a 
 ragged opening is found in the frog, leading down to a mass of dead, 
 sloughing tissues, which are pale green in color if gangrene of the 
 plantar cushion has set in. In rare cases the coffin bone may be in- 
 volved in the injury and a small portion of it become carious. 
 
 Treatment. If the injury is seen at once, the foot should be placed 
 in a bath of cold water to prevent suppuration. If suppuration has 
 already set in, the horn of the frog, and of the bars and branches of 
 the sole, if necessary, is to be pared thin so that all possible pressure 
 may be removed, and the foot poulticed. When the pus has loosened 
 the horn, all the detached portions are to be cut away. If the pus is 
 discharging from an opening near the hair, the whole frog, or one- 
 half of it, will generally be found separated from the plantar cushion, 
 and is to be removed with the knife. After a few days the gangre- 
 nous portion of the cushion will slough off from the effects of the 
 poultice; under rare circumstances only should the dead parts be 
 removed by surgical interference. When the slough is all detached, 
 the remaining wound is to be treated with simple stimulating dress-
 
 400 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 ings, such as tincture of aloes or turpentine, oakum balls, and band- 
 ages as directed in punctured wounds. When the lameness has sub- 
 sided, and a thin layer of new horn has covered the exposed parts, the 
 foot may be shod. Cover the frog with a thick pad of oakum, held 
 in place by pieces of tin fitted to slide under the shoe, and return to 
 slow work. Where caries of the coffin bone, etc., follow the injury, 
 the treatment recommended for these complications in punctured 
 wounds of the foot must be resorted to. 
 
 PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF THE FOOT. 
 
 Of all the injuries to which the foot of the horse is liable, none are 
 more common than punctured wounds, and none are more serious than 
 these may be when involving the more important organs contained 
 within the hoof. A nail is the most common instrument by which the 
 injury is inflicted, yet wounds may happen from sharp pieces of rock, 
 glass, wire, knives, etc. 
 
 A wound of the foot is more serious when made by a blunt-pointed 
 instrument than when the point is sharp, and the nearer the injury is 
 to the center of the foot the more likely are disastrous results to fol- 
 % low. Wounds in the heel and in the posterior parts of the frog are 
 attended with but little danger, unless they are so deep as to injure 
 the lateral cartilages, when quittor may follow. Punctured wounds 
 of the anterior parts of the sole are more dangerous, for the reason 
 that the coffin bone may be injured, and the suppuration, even where 
 the wound is not deep, tends to spread and always gives rise to intense 
 suffering. The most serious of the punctured wounds are those 
 which happen to the center of the foot, and which involve, in pro- 
 portion to their depth, the plantar cushion, the plantar aponeurosis, 
 the sesamoid sheath, the navicular bone, or the coffin joint. 
 
 Punctured wounds are more likely to be deep in flat or convex feet 
 than in well-made feet, and, as a rule, recovery is neither so rapid nor 
 so certain. These wounds are less serious in animals used for heavy 
 draft than in those required to do faster work; for the former may be 
 useful, even if complete recovery is not effected. Lastly, punctured 
 wounds of the fore feet are more serious than of the hind feet, for the 
 reason that in the former the instrument is apt to enter the foot in a 
 nearly perpendicular line, and, consequently, is more likely to injure 
 the deeper structures of the foot; in the hind foot, the injury is 
 generally near the heels and the wound oblique and less deep. 
 
 Symptoms. A nail or other sharp instrument may penetrate the 
 frog and remain for several days without causing lameness; in fact, 
 in many cases of punctured wound of the frog the first evidence of 
 the injury is the finding of the nail or the appearance of an opening 
 where the skin and frog unite, from which more or less pus escapes. 
 Even when the sole is perforated, if the injury is not too deep, no
 
 PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF FOOT. 401 
 
 lameness develops until suppuration is established. In all cases of 
 foot lameness, especially if the cause is obscure, the foot should be 
 examined for evidence of injury. 
 
 The lameness from punctured wounds, accompanied by suppura- 
 tion, is generally severe, the patient often refusing to use the affected 
 member at all. The pain being lancinating in character, he stands 
 with the injured foot at rest or constantly moves it back and forth. 
 In other cases the patient lies down most of the time with the feet 
 outstretched ; the breathing is rapid, the pulse fast, the temperature 
 elevated, and the body covered with patches of sweat. 
 
 When the plantar aponeurosis is injured, the pus escapes with diffi- 
 culty and the wound shows no signs of healing ; the whole foot is hot 
 and very painful. If the puncture involves the sesamoid sheath, the 
 synovial fluid escapes. At first this fluid is pure, like joint water, but 
 later becomes mixed with the products of suppuration and loses its 
 clear amber color. Suppuration generally extends up. the course of 
 the flexor tendon, an abscess forms in the hollow of the heel, and 
 finally opens somewhere below the fetlock joint. The whole coronet 
 is more or less swollen, the discharge is profuse and often mixed with 
 blood, yet the suffering is greatly relieved from the moment the 
 abscess opens. 
 
 If the puncture reaches the navicular bone the lameness is intense 
 from the beginning; but the only certain way to determine the exist- 
 ence of this complication is by the use of the probe, and unless there 
 is a free escape of synovia it must be used with the greatest of care, 
 else the coffin joint may be opened. 
 
 If the coffin joint has been penetrated, either by the offending in- 
 strument or by the process of suppuration, acute inflammation of the 
 joint follows, accompanied by high fever, loss of appetite, etc. The 
 ankle and coronet are now greatly swollen, and dropsy of the leg to 
 the knee or hock, or even to the body, often follows. If the process 
 of suppuration continues, small abscesses appear at intervals on dif- 
 ferent parts of the coronet, the patient rapidly loses flesh, and may 
 die from intense suffering and blood poisoning. In other cases the 
 suppuration soon disappears, and recovery is effected by the joint 
 becoming stiff (anchylosis). 
 
 When the wound is forward, near the toe, and deep enough to injure 
 the coffin bone, caries always results. The presence of the dead pieces 
 of bone can be determined by the use of the probe; the bone feels 
 rough and gritty. Furthermore, there is no disposition upon the part 
 of the wound to heal. 
 
 Besides the complications above mentioned, others equally as seri- 
 ous may be met with. The tendons may soften and rupture, the hoof 
 may slough off, quitters develop, or sidebones and ringbones grow. 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 26
 
 402 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Finally, laminitis of the opposite foot may happen if the patient per- 
 sists in standing, or lockjaw may cause early death. 
 
 Treatment. In all cases the horn around the seat of injury should 
 be thinned down, a free opening made for the escape of the products 
 of suppuration, and the foot placed in a poultice. If the injury is 
 not serious, recovery takes place in a few days' time. Where the 
 wound is deeper, it is better to put the foot in a cold bath or under a 
 stream of cold water, as advised in the treatment for quittor. 
 
 If the bone is injured, cold baths, containing about 2 ounces each 
 of sulphate of copper and sulphate of iron, may be used until the 
 dead bone is well softened, when it should be removed by an opera- 
 tion. The animal must be cast for this operation. The sole is pared 
 away until the diseased bone is exposed, when all the dead particles 
 are to be removed with a drawing knife, and the wound dressed with 
 creolin or a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid oakum balls, and a 
 roller bandage. 
 
 Wounds of the bone which are made by a blunt-pointed instrument, 
 like the square-pointed cut nail, in which a portion of the surface is 
 driven into the deeper parts of the bone, always progress slowly, and 
 should be operated upon as soon as the conditions are favorable. 
 Even wounds of the navicular bone, accompanied by caries, may be 
 operated on and the life of the patient saved ; but the most skillful 
 surgery is required and only the experienced operator should under- 
 take their treatment. 
 
 If there is an escape of pure synovial fluid from a wound of the 
 sole, without injury to the bone, a small pencil of corrosive sublimate 
 should be introduced to the bottom of the wound and the foot dressed 
 as directed above. 
 
 The other complications are to be treated as directed under their 
 proper headings. 
 
 After healing of the wounds has been effected, lameness, with more 
 or less swelling of the coronary region, may remain. In such cases 
 the coronet should be blistered or even fired with the actual cautery, 
 and the patient turned to pasture. If the lameness still persists, and 
 is not due to a stiff joint, unnerving may be resorted to; in many cases 
 with very good results. If the joint is anchylosed, no treatment can 
 relieve it, and the patient must either be put to very slow work or 
 kept for breeding purposes only. 
 
 "Prick in shoeing " is an injury which should be considered under 
 the head of punctured wounds of the foot. The nails by which the 
 shoe is fastened to the hoof may produce an injury followed by 
 inflammation and suppuration in two days, by penetrating the soft 
 tissues directly or by being driven so deep that the inner layers of the 
 horn of the wall are pressed against the soft tissues with such force 
 as to crush them. In either case the animal generally goes lame soon
 
 CONTRACTED HEELS, OB HOOF-BOUND. 403 
 
 after shoeing unless the injury is at the toe, when the first evidence of 
 the trouble may be the discharge of pus at the coronet. When lameness 
 follows close upon the setting of the shoes, without other appreciable 
 cause, each nail should be lightly struck with a hammer, when the 
 one at fault will be detected by the flinching of the animal. 
 
 Treatment consists in drawing the nail, and if the soft tissues have 
 been penetrated or suppuration has commenced, the horn must be 
 pared away until the diseased parts are exposed. The foot is now to 
 be poulticed for a day or two, or until the lameness and suppuration 
 have ceased. If the discharge of pus from the coronet is the first evi- 
 dence of the disease, the offending nail must be found and removed, 
 the horn pared out, and creolin or a weak solution of carbolic acid 
 injected at the coronet until the fistulous tract has healed. 
 
 CONTRACTED HEELS, OR HOOF-BOUND. 
 
 Contracted heels, or hoof-bound, is a common disease among horses 
 kept on hard floors in dry stables, and in such as are subject to much 
 saddle work. It consists in an atrophy, or shrinking, of the tissues of 
 the foot, whereby the lateral diameter of the heels is diminished. It 
 affects the fore feet principally ; but it is seen occasionally in the hind 
 feet, where it is of less importance for the reason that the hind foot 
 first strikes the ground with the toe, and, consequently, less expan- 
 sion of the heels is necessary than in the fore feet, where the weight 
 is first received on the heels. Any interference with the expansibility 
 of this part of the foot interferes with locomotion and ultimately 
 gives rise to lameness. Usually but one foot is affected at a time ; but 
 when both are diseased the change is greater in one than in the other. 
 Occasionally but one heel, and that the inner one, is contracted; in 
 these cases there is less likely to be lameness and permanent impair- 
 ment of the animal's usefulness. According to the opinion of some 
 of the French veterinarians, hoof-bound should be divided into two 
 classes total contraction, where the whole foot is shrunken in size; 
 and contraction of the heels, when the trouble extends only from the 
 quarters backward. (Plate XXXII, figs. 4 and 7.) 
 
 Causes. Animals raised in wet or marshy districts, when taken to 
 towns and kept on dry floors, are liable to have contracted heels, not 
 alone because the horn becomes dry, but because fever of the feet and 
 wasting away of the soft tissues result from the change. Another 
 common cause of contracted heels is to be found in faulty shoeing, 
 such as rasping the wall, cutting away the frog, heels, and bars; high 
 calks and the use of nails too near the heels. Contracted heels may 
 happen as one of the results of other diseases of the foot ; for instance, 
 it often accompanies thrush, sidebones, ringbones, canker, navicular 
 disease, corns, sprains of the flexor tendons, of the sesamoid and sus- 
 pensory ligaments, and from excessive knuckling of the fetlock joints.
 
 404 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Symptoms. In contraction of the heels the foot has lost its circular 
 shape, and the walls from the quarters backward approach to a 
 straight line. The ground surface of the foot is now smaller than tho 
 coronary circumference; the frog is pinched between the inclosing 
 heels, is much shrunken, and at times is affected with thrush. The 
 sole is more concave than natural, the heels are higher, and the bars 
 are long and nearly perpendicular. The whole hoof is dry, and so 
 hard that it can scarcely be cut ; the parts toward the heels are scaly 
 and often ridged like the horns of a ram, while fissures, more or less 
 deep, may be seen at the quarters and heels following the direction 
 of the horn fibers. (Plate XXXI, fig. 10.) When the disease is 
 well advanced, lameness is present, .while in the earlier stages there is 
 only an uneasiness evinced by frequent shifting of the affected foot. 
 Stumbling is common, especially on hard or rough roads. In most 
 cases the animal comes out of the stable stiff and inclined to walk on 
 the toe, but after exercise he may go free again. He wears his shoes 
 off at the toe in a short time, no matter whether he works or remains 
 in the stable. If the shoe is removed and the foot pared in old cases, 
 a dry, mealy horn will be found where the sole and wall unite, ex- 
 tending upward in a narrow line toward the quarters. 
 
 Treatment. First of all, the preventive measures must be consid- 
 ered. The feet are to be kept moist and the horn from drying out by 
 the use of damp sawdust or other bedding; by occasional poultices of 
 boiled turnips, linseed meal, etc., and greasy hoof ointments to the 
 sole and walls of the feet. The wall of the foot should be spared 
 from the abuse of the rasp; the frog, heels, and bars are not to be 
 mutilated with the knife, nor should calks be used on the shoe except 
 when absolutely necessary. The shoes should be reset at least once 
 a month, to prevent the feet from becoming too long, and daily exer- 
 cise must be insisted on. 
 
 As to curative measures, a diversity of opinion exists. A number 
 of kinds of special shoes have been invented, having for an object the 
 spreading of the heels, and perhaps any of these, if properly used, 
 would eventually effect the desired result. But a serious objection 
 to most of these shoes is that they are expensive and often difficult to 
 make and apply. The method of treatment which I have adopted is 
 not only attended with good results, but is inexpensive, if the loss of 
 the patient's services for a time is not considered a part of the ques- 
 tion. It consists, first, in the use of poultices or baths of cold water 
 until the horn is thoroughly softened. The foot is now prepared for 
 the shoe in the usual way, except that the heels are lowered a little, 
 and tho frog remains untouched. A shoe, called a " tip," is made by 
 cutting off both branches at the center of the foot and drawing the 
 ends down to an edge. The tapering of the branches should begin at 
 the toe, and the shoe should be of the usual width, with both the upper
 
 SAND-CRACKS. 405 
 
 and lower surfaces flat. This tip is to be fastened on with six or eight 
 small nails, all set well forward, two being in the toe. With a com- 
 mon foot rasp begin at the heels, close to the coronet, and cut away 
 the horn of the wall until only a thin layer covers the "soft tissues 
 beneath. Cut forward until the new surface meets the old 2| or 3 
 inches from the heel. The same sloping shape is to be observed in 
 cutting downward toward the bottom of the foot, at which point the 
 wall is to retain its normal thickness. The foot is now blistered all 
 around the coronet with Spanish-fly ointment; when this is well set, 
 the patient is to be turned to pasture in a damp field or meadow. The 
 blister should be repeated in three or four weeks, and, as a rule, the 
 patient can be returned to work in two or three months' time. 
 
 The object of the tip is to throw the weight on the frog and heels, 
 which are readily spread after the horn has been cut away on the sides 
 of the wall. The internal structures of the foot at the heels, being 
 relieved of excessive pressure, regain their normal condition if the 
 disease is not of too long standing. The blister tends to relieve any 
 inflammation which may be present, and stimulates a rapid growth of 
 healthy horn, which, in most cases, ultimately forms a wide and nor- 
 mal heel. In old, chronic cases, with a shrunken frog and increased 
 concavity of the sole, accompanied by excessive wasting of all the 
 internal tissues of the foot, satisfactory results can not be expected 
 and are rarely secured. Still, much relief, if not an entire cure, may 
 be effected by these measures. 
 
 When thrush is present as a complication, its cure must be sought 
 by measures directed under that heading. If sidebones, ringbones, 
 navicular disease, contracted tendons, or other diseases have been the 
 cause of contracted heels, treatment will be useless until the cause is 
 removed. 
 
 SAND-CRACKS. 
 
 A sand-crack is a fissure in the horn of the wall of the foot. These 
 fissures are quite narrow, and, as a general rule, they follow the direc- 
 tion of the horny fibers. They may occur on any part of the wall, but 
 ordinarily are only seen directly in front, when they are called toe- 
 cracks; or on the lateral parts of the walls, when they are known as 
 quarter-cracks. (Plate XXXI.) 
 
 Toe-cracks are most common in the hind feet, while quarter-cracks 
 nearly always affect the fore feet. The inside quarter is more liable 
 to the injury than the outside, for the reason that this quarter is not 
 only the thinner, but during locomotion receives a greater part of the 
 weight of the body. A sand-crack may be superficial, involving only 
 the outer parts of the wall, or it may be deep, involving the whole 
 thickness of the wall and the soft tissues beneath. 
 
 The toe-crack is most likely to be complete that is, extending from
 
 406 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the coronary band to the sole while the quarter-crack is nearly 
 always incomplete, at least when of comparatively recent origin. 
 Sand-cracks are most serious when they involve the coronary band in 
 the injury. -They may be complicated at any time by hemorrhage, 
 inflammation of the laminae, suppuration, gangrene of the lateral 
 cartilage and of the extensor tendon, caries of the coffin bone, or the 
 growth of a horny tumor known as a keraphyllocele. 
 
 Causes. Relative dryness of the horn is the principal predisposing 
 cause of sand-cracks. Excessive dryness is perhaps not a more pro- 
 lific cause of cracks in the horn than alternate changes from damp to 
 dry. It is even claimed that these injuries are more common in ani- 
 mals working on wet roads than those working on roads that are 
 rough and dry; at least these injuries are not common in mountainous 
 countries. Animals used to running at pasture when transferred to 
 stables with hard, dry floors are more liable to quarter-cracks than 
 those accustomed to stables. Small feet, with thick, hard hoofs, and 
 feet which are excessively large, are more susceptible to sand-cracks 
 than those of better proportion. A predisposition to quarter-cracks 
 exists in contracted feet, and in those where the toe turns out or the 
 inside quarter turns under. 
 
 Heavy shoes, large nails, and nails set too far back toward the 
 heels, together with such diseases as canker, quittor, grease and sup- 
 purative corns, must be included as occasional predisposing causes of 
 sand-cracks. 
 
 Fast work on hard roads, jumping, and blows on the coronet, 
 together with calk wounds of the feet, are accidental causes of quar- 
 ter-cracks in particular. Toe-cracks are more likely to be caused by 
 heavy pulling on slippery roads and pavements or on steep hills. 
 
 Symptoms. The fissure in the horn is ofttimes the only evidence 
 of the disease ; and even this may be accidentally or purposely hidden 
 from casual view by mud, ointments, tar, wax, putty, gutta-percha, 
 or by the long hairs of the coronet. 
 
 Sand-cracks sometimes commence on the internal face of the wall, 
 involving its whole thickness excepting a thin layer on the outer 
 surface. In these cases the existence of the injury may be suspected 
 from a slight depression, which begins near the coronary band and 
 follows the direction of the horny fibers ; but the trouble can only be 
 positively diagnosed by paring away the outside layers of horn until 
 the fissure is exposed. In toe-cracks the walls of the fissure are in 
 close apposition when the foot receives the weight of the body, but 
 jvhen the foot is raised from the ground the fissure opens. In quar- 
 ter-crack the opposite is true; the fissure closes when the weight is 
 removed from the foot. As a rule, sand-cracks begin at the coronary 
 band, and as they become older they not only extend downward, but 
 they also grow deeper. In old cases, particularly in toe-crack, the
 
 SAND-CRACKS. 407 
 
 horn on the borders of the fissure loses its vitality and scales off, 
 sometimes through the greater part of its thickness, leaving behind 
 a rough and irregular channel extending from the coronet to the end 
 of the toe. 
 
 In many cases of quarter-crack, and in some cases of toe-crack as 
 well, if the edges remain close together, with but little motion, the 
 fissure is dry; but in other cases a thin, offensive discharge issues 
 from the crack and the ulcerated soft tissues, or a funguslike growth 
 protrudes from the narrow opening. 
 
 When the cracks are deep, and the motion of their edges consider- 
 able, so that the soft tissues are bruised and pinched with every move- 
 ment, a constant inflammation of the parts is maintained and the 
 lameness is severe. 
 
 Ordinarily the lameness of sand-crack is slight when the patient 
 walks ; but it is greatly aggravated when he is made to trot, and the 
 harder the road the worse he limps. Furthermore, the lameness is 
 greater going down hill than up, for the reason that these conditions 
 are favorable to an increased motion in the edges of the fissure. 
 Lastly, more or less hemorrhage accompanies the inception of a sand- 
 crack when the whole thickness of the wall is involved. Subsequent 
 hemorrhages may also take place from fast work, jumping, or a 
 misstep. 
 
 Treatment. In so far as preventive measures are concerned, but 
 little can be done. The suppleness of the horn is to be maintained by 
 the use of ointments, dajnp floor, bedding, etc. The shoe is to be pro- 
 portioned to the weight and work of the animal; the nails holding 
 it in place are to be of proper size, and not driven too near the heels ; 
 sufficient calks and toe-pieces must be added to the shoes of horses 
 working on slippery roads; and the evils of jumping, fast driving, 
 etc., are to be avoided. 
 
 When a fissure has made its appearance, means are to be adopted 
 which will prevent it from growing longer or deeper; and this can 
 only be done by arresting all motion in the edges. The best and 
 simplest artificial appliance for holding the borders of a toe-crack 
 together is the Vachette clasp. These clasps and the instruments 
 necessary for their application can be had of any prominent maker of 
 veterinary instruments. (Plate XXXI.) These instruments com- 
 prise a cautery iron with which two notches are burned in the wall, 
 one on each side of the crack, and forceps with which the clasps are 
 closed into place in the bottom of the notches and the edges of the 
 fissure brought close together. The clasps, being made of stiff steel 
 wire, are strong enough to prevent all motion in the borders of the 
 crack. Before these clasps are applied the fissure should be thoroughly 
 cleansed and dried, and, if the injury is of recent origin, the crack 
 may be filled with a putty made of 2 parts of gutta-percha and 1 part
 
 408 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 
 
 of gum ammoniac. The number of clasps to be used is to be deter- 
 mined by the length of the crack, the amount of motion to be arrested, 
 etc. Generally the clasps are from one-half to three-quarters of an 
 inch apart. The clasps answer equally as well in quarter-crack if the 
 wall is sufficiently thick and not too dry and brittle to withstand the 
 strain. 
 
 In the absence of these instruments and clasps a hole may be drilled 
 through the horn across the fissure and the crack closed with a thin 
 nail made of tough iron, neatly clinched at both ends. A plate of 
 steel or brass is sometimes fitted to the parts and fastened on with 
 short screws; while this appliance may prevent much gaping of the 
 fissure, it does not entirely arrest motion of the edges, for the simple 
 reason that the plate and screw can not be rendered immobile. 
 
 If, for any reason, the above measures fail or can not be used, 
 recourse must be had to an operation. The horn is softened by the 
 use of warm baths and poultices, the patient cast, and the walls of the 
 fissure entirely removed with the knife. The horn removed is in the 
 shape of the letter V with the base at the coronet. Care must be taken 
 not to injure the coronary band and the laminae. The wound is to be 
 treated with mild stimulant dressings, such as creolin, a weak solu- 
 tion of carbolic acid, tincture of aloes, etc., oakum balls, and a roller 
 bandage. After a few days the wound will be covered with a new, 
 white horn, and the oakum and bandages only will be needed. As the 
 new quarter grows out the lameness disappears, and the patient may 
 be shod with a bar shoe and returned to work. 
 
 In all cases of sand-crack the growth of horn should be stimulated 
 by cauterizing the coronary band or by the use of blisters. In simple 
 quarter-crack recovery will often take place if the coronet is blistered, 
 the foot shod with a " tip," and the patient turned to pasture. 
 
 The shoe in toe-crack should have a clip on each side of the fissure 
 and should be thicker at the toe than at the heels. The foot should be 
 lowered at the heels by paring, and spared at the toe, except directly 
 under the fissure, where it is to be pared away until it sets free from 
 the shoe. 
 
 When any of the complications referred to above arise, special 
 measures must be resorted to. For the proper treatment of gangrene 
 of the lateral cartilage and extensor tendon and caries of the coffin 
 bone reference may be had to the articles on quittors. If the horny 
 tumor, known as keraphyllocele, should develop, it is to be removed 
 by the use of the knife. Since this tumor develops on the inside of 
 the horny box and may involve other important organs of the foot in 
 disease, its removal should only be undertaken by a skillful surgeon.
 
 INFLAMMATION OF NAVICULAR BONE. 409 
 
 NAVICULAR DISEASE. 
 
 Navicular disease is an inflammation of the sesamoid sheath, in- 
 duced by repeated bruising or laceration, and complicated in many 
 cases by inflammation and caries of the navicular bone. In some 
 instances the disease undoubtedly begins in the bone, and the ses- 
 amoid sheath becomes involved subsequently by an extension of the 
 inflammatory process. (Plate XXXIV, fig, 5.) 
 
 The thoroughbred horse is more commonly affected than any other, 
 yet no class or breed of horses is entirely exempt. The mule, how- 
 ever, seems rarely, if ever, to suffer from it. For reasons which will 
 appear when considering the causes of the disease, the hind feet are 
 not liable to be affected. Usually but one fore foot suffers from the 
 disease, but if both should be attacked the trouble has become chronic 
 in the first before the second shows signs of the disease. 
 
 Causes. To comprehend fully how navicular disease may be caused 
 by conditions and usages common to nearly all animals, it is neces- 
 sary to recall the peculiar anatomy of the parts involved in the process 
 and the functions which they perform in locomotion. 
 
 It must be remembered that the fore legs largely support the weight 
 of the body when the animal is at rest, and that the faster he moves 
 the greater is the shock which the fore feet must receive as the body 
 is thrown forward by the propelling force of the hind legs. This 
 shock could not be withstood by the tissues of the fore feet and legs 
 were it not that it is largely dissipated by the elastic muscles which 
 bind the shoulder to the body, the ease with which the arm closes on 
 the shoulder blade, and the spring of the fetlock joint. But even these 
 means are not sufficient within themselves to protect the foot from 
 injury ; so nature has further supplemented them by placing the coffin 
 joint on the hind part of the coffin bone instead of directly on top of 
 it, whereby a large part of the shock of locomotion is dispersed before 
 it can reach the vertical column represented by the cannon, knee, and 
 arm bones. A still further provision is made by placing a soft, 
 elastic pad the frog and plantar cushion at the heels to receive the 
 sesamoid expansion of the flexor tendon as it is forced downward by 
 the pressure of the coronet bone against the navicular. Extraordinary 
 as these means may appear for the destruction of shock, and ample as 
 they are when the animal is at a slow pace or unweighted by rider or 
 load, they fail to relieve completely the parts from concussion and ex- 
 cessive pressure whenever the opposite conditions are present. The 
 result, then, is that the coronet bone forces the navicular hard against 
 the flexor tendon, which, in turn, presses firmly against the navicular 
 as the force of the contracting muscles lifts the tendon into place. It 
 is self-evident, then, that the more rapid the pace and the greater the 
 load, the greater must these contending forces be, and the greater the
 
 410 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 
 
 liability to injury. For the same reason horses with excessive knee 
 action are more likely to suffer from this disease than others, concus- 
 sion of the foot and intense pressure on the tendon being common 
 among such horses. 
 
 Besides the above exciting causes must be considered those which 
 predispose to the disease. Most prominent among these is heredity. 
 It may be claimed, however, that an inherited predisposition to navic- 
 ular disease consists not so much in a special susceptibility of the 
 tissues which are involved in the process as in a vice of conformation 
 which, as is well known, is likely to be transmitted from parent to off- 
 spring. The faults of conformation most likely to be followed by the 
 development of navicular disease are an insufficient plantar cushion, 
 a small frog, high heels, excessive knee action, and contracted heels. 
 Finally, the environments of domestication and use, such as dry 
 stables, heavy pulling, bad shoeing, punctured wounds, etc., all have 
 their influence in developing this disease. 
 
 Symptoms. In the early stages of navicular disease the symptoms 
 are generally very obscure. When the disease begins in inflammation 
 of the navicular bone, the animal while at rest points the affected foot 
 a time before any lameness is seen. While at work he apparently 
 travels as well as ever, but when placed in the stable one foot is set 
 out in front of the other, resting on the toe, with fetlock and knee 
 flexed. After a time, if the case is closely watched, the animal takes 
 a few lame steps while at work, but the lameness disappears as sud- 
 denly as it came, and the driver doubts if the animal was really lame 
 at all. Later on the patient has a lame spell which may last during a 
 greater part of the day, but the next morning it is gone ; he leaves the 
 stable all right, but goes lame again during the day. In time he has 
 a severe attack of lameness, which may last for a week or more, when 
 a remission takes place and it may be weeks or months before another 
 attack supervenes. Finally, he becomes constantly lame, and the 
 more he is used the greater the lameness. 
 
 In the lameness from navicular disease the affected leg always takes 
 a short step, and the toe of the foot first strikes the ground ; so the 
 shoe is most worn at this point. If the patient is made to move back- 
 ward, the foot is set down with exceeding great care, and the weight 
 rests upon the affected leg but a moment. When exercised he often 
 stumbles, and if the road is rough he may fall on his knees. If he is 
 lame in both feet the gait is stilty, the shoulders seem stiff, and, if 
 made to work, he sweats profusely from intense pain. Early in the 
 development of the disease a careful examination will reveal some 
 increased heat in the heels and frog, particularly after work; as the 
 disease progresses this becomes more marked, until the whole foot is 
 hot to the touch. At the same time there is an increased sensibility 
 of the foot, for the patient flinches from the percussion of a hammer
 
 SIDEBONES. 411 
 
 lightly applied to the frog and heels or from the pressure of the 
 smith's pincers. The frog is generally shrunken, often of a pale-red 
 color, and at times is affected with thrush. If the heels are pared 
 away so that all the weight is received on the frog, or if the same re- 
 sult is attained by the application of a bar shoe, the animal is excess- 
 ively lame. The muscles of the leg and shoulder shrink away, and 
 often tremble as the animal stands at rest. After months of lameness 
 the foot is found to be shrunken in its diameter and apparently 
 lengthened ; the horn is dry and brittle and has lost its natural gloss, 
 while circular ridges, developed most toward the heels, cover the 
 upper part of the hoof. When both feet are affected, the animal 
 points first one foot, then the other, and stands with the hind feet well 
 forward beneath the body, so as to relieve the fore feet as much as 
 possible from bearing weight. In old cases the wasting of the muscles 
 and the knuckling at the fetlock become so great that the leg can not 
 be straightened; and locomotion can scarcely be performed. The 
 disease generally makes a steady progress without inclining to recov- 
 ery the remission of symptoms in the earlier stages should not be 
 interpreted as evidence that the process has terminated. The compli- 
 cations usually seen are ringbones, sidebones, thrush, contracted heels, 
 quarter-cracks, and fractures of the navicular, coronet, and pastern 
 bones. 
 
 Treatment. But few cases of navicular disease recover. In the 
 early stages the wall of the heels should be rasped away, as directed 
 in the treatment for contracted heels, until the horn is quite thin ; the 
 coronet should be well blistered with Spanish-fly ointment, and the 
 patient turned to grass in a damp field or meadow. After three or 
 four weeks the blister should be repeated. This treatment is to be 
 continued for two or three months. Plane shoes are to be put on 
 when the patient is returned to work. In chronic cases the animal 
 should be put to 'slow, easy work. To relieve the pain, neurotomy 
 may be performed an operation in which the sense of feeling is 
 destroyed in the foot by cutting out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock. 
 This operation in nowise cures the disease, and, since it may be at- 
 tended with serious results, can only be advised in certain favorable 
 cases, to be determined by the veterinarian. 
 
 SIDEBONES. 
 
 A sidebone consists in a transformation of the lateral cartilages 
 found on the wings of the coffin bone into bony matter by the depo- 
 sition of lime salts. The disease is a common one, especially in 
 heavy horses used for draft, in cavalry horses, cow ponies, and other 
 saddle horses, and in runners and trotters. 
 
 Sidebones are peculiar to the fore feet, yet they occasionally de- 
 velop in the hind feet, where they are of little importance since they
 
 412 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 cause no lameness. In many instances sidebones are of slow growth 
 and, being unaccompanied by acute inflammation, they cause no 
 lameness until such time as, by reason of their size, they interfere 
 with the action of the joint. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 4.) 
 
 Causes. Sidebones often grow in heavy horses without any appar- 
 ent injury, and their development has been attributed to the over- 
 expansion of the cartilages caused by the great weight of the animal. 
 Blows and other injuries to the cartilages may setup an inflammatory 
 process which ends in the formation of these bony growths. High- 
 heeled shoes, high calks, and long feet are always classed among the 
 conditions which may excite the growth of sidebones. They are often 
 seen in connection with contracted heels, ringbones, navicular dis- 
 ease, punctured wounds of the foot, quarter-cracks, and occasionally 
 as a sequel to founder. 
 
 Symptoms. In the earlier stages of the disease, if inflammation is 
 present, the only evidence of the trouble to be detected is a little fever 
 over the seat of the affected cartilage and a slight lameness. In the 
 lameness of sidebones the toe of the foot first strikes the ground and 
 the step is shorter than natural. The subject comes out of the stable 
 stiff and sore, but the gait is more free after exercise. 
 
 Since the deposit of bony matter often begins in that part of the 
 cartilage where it is attached to the coffin bone, the diseased process 
 may exist for some time before the bony growth can be seen or felt. 
 Later on, however, the cartilage can be felt to have lost its elastic 
 character, and by standing in front of the animal a prominence of the 
 coronary region at the quarters can be seen. Occasionally these 
 bones become so large as to bulge the hoof outward, and by pressing 
 on the joint they so interfere with locomotion that the animal becomes 
 entirely useless. 
 
 Treatment. So soon as the disease can be diagnosed active treat- 
 ment should be adopted. Cold-water bandages are to be used for a 
 few days to relieve the fever and soreness. 
 
 The improvement consequent on the use of these simple measures 
 often leads to the belief that the disease has recovered; but with a 
 return to work the lameness, fever, etc., reappears. For this reason 
 the use of blisters, or, better still, the firing iron, should follow on the 
 discontinuance of the cold bandages. 
 
 But in many instances no treatment will arrest the growth of these 
 bony tumors, and as a palliative measure neurotomy must be resorted 
 to. Generally this operation will so relieve the pain of locomotion 
 that the patient may be used for slow work ; but in animals used for 
 fast driving or for saddle purposes, the operation is practically use- 
 less. Some years ago I unnerved a number of cavalry horses at Fort 
 Leavenworth that were suffering from sidebones, and the records 
 show that in less than seven months all were more lame than ever.
 
 BINGBONB. 413 
 
 Since a predisposition to develop sidebones may be inherited, ani- 
 mals suffering from this disease should not be used for breeding 
 purposes unless the trouble is known to have originated from an 
 accident. 
 
 RINGBONE. 
 
 A ringbone is the growth of a bony tumor on the ankle. This 
 tumor is, in fact, not the disease, but simply the result of an 
 inflammatory action set up in the periosteum and bone tissue proper 
 of the pastern bones. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 1.) (See also page 289.) 
 
 Causes. Injuries, such as blows, sprains, overwork in young, unde- 
 veloped animals, fast work on hard roads, jumping, etc., are among 
 the principal exciting causes of ringbone. Horses most disposed to 
 this disease are those with short, upright pasterns, for the reason that 
 the shock of locomotion is but imperfectly dissipated in the fore legs 
 of these animals. Improper shoeing, such as the use of high calks, 
 a too great shortening of the toe and correspondingly high heels, 
 predispose to this disease by increasing the concussion to the feet. 
 
 Symptoms. The first symptom of an actively developed ringbone 
 is the appearance of a lameness more or less acute. If the bony 
 tumor forms on the side or upper parts of the large pastern, its 
 growth is generally unattended with acute inflammatory action, and 
 consequently produces no lameness or evident fever. These are called 
 " false " ringbones. But when the tumors form on the whole circum- 
 ference of the ankle, or simply in front under the extensor tendon, or 
 behind under the flexor tendons, or if they involve the joints between 
 the two pastern bones, or between the small pastern and the coffin 
 bone, the lameness is always severe. These constitute the true ring- 
 bone. Besides lameness, the ankle of the affected limb presents more 
 or less heat, and in many instances a rather firm, though limited, 
 swelling of the deeper tissues over the seat of the inflammatory proc- 
 ess. The lameness of ringbone is characteristic in that the heel is 
 first placed on the ground when the disease is in a fore leg, and the 
 ankle is kept as rigid as possible. In the hind leg, however, the toe 
 strikes the ground first, when the ringbone is high on the ankle, just 
 as in health, but the ankle is maintained in a rigid position. If the 
 bony growth is under the front tendon of the hind leg, or if it 
 involves the coffin joint, the heel is brought to the ground first. In 
 the early stages of the disease it is not always easy to diagnose ring- 
 bone, but when the deposits have reached some size they can be felt 
 and seen as well. 
 
 The importance of a ringbone depends on its seat and often on its 
 size. If it interferes with the joints or with the tendons it may cause 
 an incurable lameness, even though small. If it is on the sides of the 
 large pastern, the lameness generally disappears as soon as the tumor 
 has reached its growth and the inflammation subsides. Even where
 
 414 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the pastern joint is involved, if complete anchylosis results, the 
 patient may recover from the lameness with simply an imperfect 
 action of the foot remaining, due to the stiff joint. 
 
 Treatment. Before the bony growth has commenced the inflam- 
 matory process may be cut short by the use of cold baths and wet 
 bandages, followed by one or more blisters. If the bony deposits 
 have begun the firing iron should always be used. Even where the 
 tumors are, large and the pastern joint involved firing often hastens 
 the process of anchylosis and should always be tried. 
 
 Where the lower joint is involved or where the tumor interferes 
 with the action of the tendons recovery is not to be expected. In 
 many of these latter cases, however, the animal may be made service- 
 able by proper shoeing. If the patient walks with the toe on the 
 ground the foot should be shod with a high-heeled shoe and a short 
 toe. On the other hand, if he walks on the heel, a thick-toed and 
 thin-heeled shoe must be worn. 
 
 Since ringbone is considered to be one of the hereditary diseases, 
 no animal suffering from this trouble should ever be used for breed- 
 ing purposes. 
 
 LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 
 
 Laminitis is a simple inflammation of the sensitive laminae of the 
 feet, characterized by the general phenomena attending inflamma- 
 tion of the skin and mucous membranes, producing no constitutional 
 disturbances except those dependent upon the local disease, and hav- 
 ing a strong tendency, in severe cases, to destructive disorganization 
 of the tissues affected. 
 
 Causes. The causes of laminitis are as wide and variable as in any 
 of the local inflammations, and may be divided into two classes the 
 predisposing and the exciting. 
 
 Predisposing causes. From personal observation I do not know 
 that any particular construction of foot or any special breed of horses 
 is predisposed to this disease, neither can I find anything to warrant 
 the assumption that it is in any way hereditary; so that while we 
 may easily cultivate a predisposition to the disease, it does not origi- 
 nate without an exciting cause. Like most other tissues, a predisposi- 
 tion to inflammation may be induced in the sensitive lamina? by any 
 cause which lessens their power of withstanding the work imposed on 
 them. It exists to an extent in those animals unaccustomed to work, 
 particularly if they are plethoric, and in all those that have been pre- 
 vious subjects of the disease; for the same rule holds good here that 
 we find in so many diseases i. e., that one attack impairs the func- 
 tional activity of the affected tissues and renders them more easy of a 
 subsequent inflammation. Unusual excitement by determining an
 
 LAMINITIS, OB FOUNDEE. 415 
 
 excessive blood supply, bad shoeing, careless paring of the feet by 
 removing the sole support, and high calkings without corresponding 
 toe pieces must be included under this head. 
 
 Exciting causes. The exciting causes of laminitis are many and 
 varied. The most common are concussion, overexertion, exhaustion, 
 rapid changes of temperature, ingestion of certain foods, purgatives, 
 and the oft-mentioned metastasis. 
 
 ( 1 ) Concussion produces this disease by local overstimulation. The 
 excessive excitement is followed by an almost complete exhaustion of 
 the functional activity of the laminated tissues, the exhaustion by 
 congestion, and eventually by inflammation. But congestion here, as 
 in all other tissues, is not necessarily followed by inflammation ; for, 
 although the principal symptoms belonging to true laminitis are 
 present, the congestion may be relieved before the processes of inflam- 
 mation are fully established. This is the condition in the many so- 
 called cases of laminitis which recover in from twenty-four to forty- 
 eight hours. They should be called congestion of the laminae. 
 
 Laminitis from concussion is common in trotting horses that are 
 raced when not in condition, especially if they carry the obnoxious toe 
 weights, and in green horses put to work on city pavements to which 
 they are unaccustomed. Concussion from long drives on dirt roads is 
 at times productive of the same results, notably when the weather is 
 extremely warm, or at least when the relative change of temperature 
 is great. But the exhaustion of these circumstances must prove an 
 exciting cause as well as the long-continued concussion. This combi- 
 nation of causes must also determine the disease at times in hunters, 
 for the weight of the rider increases the demands made upon the 
 function of these tissues, and their powers are the sooner exhausted. 
 
 (2) Overexertion, as heavy pulling or rapid work, even where there 
 is no immoderate concussion, occasionally results in this disease; but 
 here also exhaustion is a conjunctive cause, for overexertion can not 
 be long continued without exhaustion. 
 
 (3) Exhaustion is nearly as prolific a source of laminitis as is con- 
 cussion ; for when the physical strength is impaired, even though tem- 
 porarily, some part of the economy is rendered more vulnerable to 
 disease than others. To this cause we must ascribe those cases which 
 follow a hard day's work, where at no time has there been overexer- 
 tion or immoderate concussion. 
 
 The tendency to laminitis in horses on sea voyages results from the 
 continual constrained position the animal maintains on account of the 
 rocking motion of the vessel. 
 
 Where one foot has been blistered, or where one limb is incapaci- 
 tated from any cause, the opposite member, doing double duty, soon 
 becomes exhausted, and congestion, followed by inflammation, results. 
 Where one foot only becomes laminitic, it is customary to find the cor-
 
 416 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 responding member participating at a later date; not always because 
 of sympathy, but because one foot had to do the work of two. 
 
 (4) Rapid changes of temperature act as an exciting cause of lami- 
 nitis by impairing the normal blood supply. 
 
 This change of temperature may be induced by drinking large 
 quantities of cold water while in an overheated condition. Here the 
 internal heat is rapidly reduced, the neighboring tissues and blood 
 vessels constrained, and the blood supply to these organs greatly 
 diminished, while the quantity sent to the surface is correspondingly 
 increased. True, in many cases there has not been sufficient labor per- 
 formed to impair the powers of the laminaB, and laminitis is more 
 readily induced than congestion or inflammation of the skin or other 
 surface organs, because the laminae can not relieve themselves of 
 threatened congestion by the general safety valve of perspiration. 
 A cold wind or relatively cold air allowed to play upon the body 
 when heated and wet with sweat has virtually the same result, for it 
 arrests evaporation and rapidly cools the external surface, thereby 
 determining an excess of blood to such organs and tissues as are pro- 
 tected from this outside influence. In many instances this happens to 
 be some of the internal organs, as the lungs, if the previous work has 
 been rapid and their functional activity impaired; but in numerous 
 other instances the determination is toward the feet, and that it is so 
 depends upon two very palpable facts : First, that these tissues have 
 been greatly excited and are already receiving as much blood as they 
 can accommodate consistently with health; secondly, even though 
 these tissues are classed with those of the surface, their protection 
 from atmospheric influences by means of the thick box of horn incas- 
 ing them renders them in this respect equivalent to internal organs. 
 
 A more limited local action of cold may excite this disease, by driv- 
 ing through water or washing the feet and legs while the animal is 
 warm or just in from work. Here a very marked reaction takes place 
 in the surface tissues of the limbs, and passive congestion of the foot 
 results from an interference with the return flow of blood which is 
 being sent to these organs in excess. These are more apt to be sim- 
 ple cases of congestion, soon to recover, yet they may become true 
 cases of laminitis. 
 
 (5) Why it is that certain kinds of grain will cause laminitis does 
 not seem to be clearly understood. Certainly they possess no specific 
 action upon the laminae, for all animals are not alike affected, neither 
 do they always produce these results in the same animal. Some of 
 these foods cause a strong tendency to indigestion, and the consequent 
 irritation of the alimentary canal may be so great as to warrant the 
 belief that the laminae are affected through sympathy. In other 
 instances there is no apparent interference with digestion nor evidence 
 of any irritation of the mucous membranes, yet the disease is in
 
 PLATE XXXIV. 
 
 NO HONK AND XAVKTLAH D1SKAS
 
 LAMTNITIS, OB FOUNDER. 417 
 
 some manner dependent upon the food for its inception. Barley, 
 wheat, and sometimes corn are the grains most apt to cause this dis- 
 ease. With some horses there appears to be a particular suscepti- 
 bility to this influence of corn, and the use of this grain is followed by 
 inflammation of the feet, lasting from a few days' to two weeks' time. 
 In these animals, to all appearances healthy, the corn neither induces 
 colic, indigestion, nor purging, and apparently no irritation whatever 
 of the alimentary canal. 
 
 (6) Fortunately purgative medicines rarely cause inflammation of 
 the laminae. That it is, then, the result of sympathetic action is no 
 doubt more than hypothetical, for when there is no derangement of 
 the alimentary canal a dose of cathartic medicine will at times bring 
 on severe laminitis. 
 
 (7) Most all the older authorities were agreed that metastatic lami- 
 nitis is a reality. In my opinion metastatic laminitis is nothing more 
 nor less than concurrent laminitis, and presents little in any way pecul- 
 iar outside the imperfectly understood exciting cause. The practi- 
 tioner who allows the acute symptoms of the laminitis to mislead him, 
 simply because their severity has overshadowed those of the primary 
 disease, may lose his case through unguarded subsequent treatment. 
 This form of laminitis is by no means commonly met with. It may be 
 found in conjunction with pneumonia, according to Youatt with 
 inflammation of the bowels and eyes, and according to Law and 
 Williams sometimes with bronchitis. 
 
 Symptoms. Laminitis is characterized by a congregation of symp- 
 toms so well marked as scarcely to be misinterpreted by the most 
 casual observer. They are nearly constant in their manifestations, 
 modified by the number of feet affected, the cause which has induced 
 the disease, the previous condition of the patient, and the various 
 other influences which operate in all diseases to some extent. They 
 may be divided into general symptoms, which are concomitants of all 
 cases of the disease, subject to variations in degree only, and special 
 symptoms, or those which serve to determine the feet affected and the 
 complications which may arise. 
 
 General symptoms. Usually, the first symptom is the interfer- 
 ence with locomotion. Occasionally the other symptoms are pre- 
 sented first. As the lameness develops the pulse becomes accelerated, 
 full, hard, and strikes the finger strongly ; the temperature soon rises 
 several degrees above the normal, reaching sometimes 106 F. ; it 
 generally ranges between 102.5 and 105 F. The respirations are 
 rapid and panting in character, the nostrils widely dilated, and the 
 mucous membranes highly injected. The facial expression is anxious 
 and indicative of the most acute suffering, while the body is more or 
 less bedewed with sweat. At first there may be a tendency to diar- 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 27
 
 418 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 rhea, or it may appear later as the result of the medicines used. The 
 urine is high colored, scant in quantity, and of increased specific 
 gravity, owing to the water being eliminated by the skin instead of 
 the kidneys. The appetite is impaired, sometimes entirely lost, but 
 thirst is greatly increased. The affected feet are hot and dry, and 
 are relieved as much as possible from bearing weight. Rapping them 
 with a hammer, or compelling the animal to stand upon one affected 
 member, causes intense pain. The artery at the fetlock throbs 
 beneath the finger. 
 
 Special symptoms. Liability to affection varies in the different 
 feet according to the exciting cause. Any one or more of the feet 
 may become the subject of this disease, although it appears more often 
 in the fore feet than in the hind ones. This is due to tne difference 
 of function, i. e., that the fore feet are the bases of the columns of 
 support, receiving nearly all of the body weight during progression 
 and consequently most of the concussion, while the hind feet become 
 simply the fulcra of the levers of progression, and are almost exempt 
 from concussion. 
 
 One foot. Injuries and excessive functional performance are the 
 causes of the disease in Only one foot. The general symptoms, as a 
 rule, are not severe, there being often no loss of appetite and no unu- 
 sual thirst, while the pulse, temperature, and respiration remain about 
 normal. The weight of the body is early thrown upon the opposite 
 foot, and the affected one is extended, repeatedly raised from the floor, 
 and then carefully replaced. When made to move forward the lame 
 foot is either carried in the air while progression is accomplished by 
 hopping with the healthy one, or else the heel of the first is placed 
 upon the ground and receives little weight while the sound limb is 
 quickly advanced. Progression in a straight line is more easy than 
 turning toward the lame side. 
 
 Both fore feet. When both fore feet are affected the symptoms are 
 well .marked. The lameness is excessive and the animal almost im- 
 movable. When standing the head hangs low down, or rests upon the 
 manger as a means of support and to relieve the feet; the fore feet 
 are well extended so that the weight is thrown upon the heels, where 
 the tissues are least sensitive, least inflamed, and most capable of 
 relief by free effusion. The hind feet are brought forward beneath 
 the body to receive as much weight as possible, thereby relieving the 
 diseased ones. If progression is attempted, which rarely happens 
 voluntarily during the first three or four days, it is accomplished with 
 very great pain and lameness at the starting, which usually subsides 
 to an extent after a few minutes' exercise. During this exercise, if 
 the animal happens to step upon a small stone or other hard substance, 
 he stumbles painfully and is excessively lame in the offended member 
 for a number of steps, owing to the acute pain which pressure upon
 
 LAMINITIS, OB FOUNDER. 419 
 
 the sole causes in the tissues beneath. The manner of the progression 
 is pathognomonic of the complaint. Sometimes the affected feet are 
 simultaneously raised from the ground (the hind ones sustaining the 
 weight), then advanced a short distance and carefully replaced; at 
 almost the same moment the hind ones are quickly shuffled forward 
 near to the center of gravitation. 
 
 In other instances one foot at a time is advanced and placed with 
 the heel upon the ground in the same careful manner, all causes of 
 concussion being carefully avoided. In attempting to back the ani- 
 mal he is found to be almost stationary, simply swaying the body 
 backward on the haunches and elevating the toes of the diseased feet 
 as they rest upon their heels. In attempting to turn either to the 
 right or left he allows his head to be drawn to the one side to its full 
 extent before moving, then makes his hind feet the axis around 
 which the forward ones describe a shuffling circle. 
 
 In a majority of cases of laminitis in the fore feet the animal per- 
 sists in standing until he is nearly recovered. In other cases he as 
 persistently lies, standing only when necessity seems to compel it, 
 and then for as short a time as possible. If the recumbent position is 
 once assumed, the relief experienced tempts the patient to seek it 
 again; and so we often find him down a greater part of the time. 
 But this is not true of all cases ; sometimes he will make the experi- 
 ment, then cautiously guard against a repetition. Even in cases of 
 enforced recumbency, he ofttimes takes advantage of the first 
 opportunity and gets upon his feet, doggedly remaining there until 
 again laid upon his side. How to explain this diversity of action 
 I do not know; theoretically the recumbent position is the only ap- 
 propriate one, except when complications exist, and the one which 
 should give the most comfort, yet it is rejected by very many 
 patients and, no doubt, for some good reason. It has been suggested 
 as an explanation that when the animal gets upon his feet after 
 lying for a time the suffering is so greatly augmented that the mem- 
 ory of this experience deters him from an attempted repetition. If 
 this were true, the horse with the first attack must necessarily make 
 the experiment before knowing the after effects of tying down, yet 
 many remain standing without even an attempt at gaining this 
 experimental knowledge. 
 
 The most-favored position of the animal when down is on the 
 broadside, with the feet and legs extended. While in this position 
 the general symptoms greatly subside ; the respirations and pulse be- 
 come almost normal ; the temperature falls and the perspiration dries. 
 It is with difficulty that he is made to arise. When he attempts it he 
 gets up rapidly and " all of a heap," as it were, shifting quickly from 
 one to the other foot until they become accustomed to the weight
 
 420 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 thrown upon them. Occasionally a patient will get up like a cow, 
 rising upon the hind feet first. Although enforced exercise relieves 
 to some extent the soreness, it is but temporary, for after a few 
 minutes' rest it returns with all its former severity. 
 
 Both hind feet. When only both hind feet are affected, they are, 
 while standing, maintained in the same position as when only the fore 
 ones are the subjects of the disease, but with an entirely different 
 object in view. Instead of being there to receive weight, they are so 
 advanced that the heels only may receive what little weight is neces- 
 sarily imposed on them; the fore feet at the same time are placed 
 well back beneath the body, where they become the main supports; 
 the animal standing, as Williams describes it, " all of a heap." 
 
 Progression is even more difficult now than when the disease is 
 confined to the anterior extremities. The fore feet are dubiously 
 advanced a short distance and the hind ones brought forward with a 
 sort of kangaroo hop, that results in an apparent loss of equilibrium 
 which the animal is a few moments in regaining. The general symp- 
 toms, or, in other words, the degree of suffering, seem more severe 
 than where the disease affects the fore feet alone. The standing posi- 
 tion is not often maintained, the patient seeking relief in recumbency. 
 This fact is easily understood when we consider how cramped and 
 unnatural is the position he assumes while standing and, if it were 
 maintained for any considerable length of time, would, no doubt, 
 excite the disease in the fore feet, as explained by D'Arboval. 
 
 All four feet. Laminitis of all four feet is but uncommonly met 
 with. The author has seen but three such cases. In all these the posi- 
 tion assumed was nearly normal. All the feet were slightly advanced, 
 and first one, then another, momentarily raised from the ground and 
 carefully replaced, this action being kept up almost continually dur- 
 ing the time the animal remained standing. The suffering is most- 
 acute, the appetite lost, and, although the patient lies most of the time, 
 the temperature remains too high. The pulse and respirations are 
 greatly accelerated, the body covered with sweat, and bed sores are 
 unpleasant accompaniments. 
 
 Course. The course which laminitis takes varies greatly in differ- 
 ent cases, being influenced more or less by the exciting cause, the 
 animal's previous condition, the acuteness of the attack, and the sub- 
 sequent treatment. The first symptoms rarely exhibit themselves 
 while the animal is at his work, although we occasionally see the gait 
 impaired by stumbling, the body covered with a profuse sweat, and 
 the respirations become blowing in character as premonitions of the 
 oncoming disease; but, as a rule, nothing is noted amiss with the ani- 
 mal until he has stood for some time after coming in from work, when, 
 in attempting to move him, he is found very stiff. Like all conges- 
 tions, the early symptoms usually develop rapidly; yet this is not
 
 LAMINITIS, OB FOUNDER. 421 
 
 always the case, for often there appears to be no well-defined period 
 of congestion, the disease seemingly commencing at a point and 
 gradually spreading until a large territory is involved in the morbid 
 process. 
 
 Simple congestion. Those cases of simple congestion of the laminae, 
 which we erroneously call laminitis, are rapidly developed, the symp- 
 toms are but moderately severe, and but one to three days required 
 for recovery. There are no structural changes and but a moderate 
 exudate. This is rapidly reabsorbed, leaving the parts in the same 
 condition as they were previous to the attack. If the congestion has 
 been excessive, a rupture of some of the capillaries will be found, a 
 condition more apt to obtain where the animal is made to continue 
 work after a development of symptoms has begun. 
 
 True, the majority of these last-described cases prove to be the lam- 
 initis in fact, yet the congestion may pass away and the extravasated 
 blood be absorbed without inflammation sufficient to warrant calling 
 it laminitis. The seat of greatest congestion will always be found in 
 the neighborhood of the toe, because of the increased vascularity of 
 that part, and, although at times it is limited to the podophyllous 
 tissue alone, any or all parts of the keratogenous membrane may be 
 affected by the congestion and followed finally by inflammation. 
 
 Acute. In the acute form of laminitis the symptoms may all de- 
 velop rapidly, or it may commence by the appearance of a little sore- 
 ness of the feet which in twenty- four or forty-eight hours develops 
 into a well-marked case. This peculiarity of development is due to 
 one of two causes. Either the congestion is general, but takes place 
 slowly, or else it begins in one or more points and gradually spreads 
 throughout the laminae. These acute cases generally run their course 
 in from one or two weeks. Usually a culmination of the symptoms 
 is reached, if the patient is properly treated, in from three to five 
 days; then evidences of recovery are discernible in favorable cases. 
 The lameness improves, the other symptoms gradually subside, and 
 eventually health is regained. It is in these cases that a strong tend- 
 ency to disorganization of a destructive character exists, hence it 
 is we see so many recover imperfectly with marked structural changes 
 permanently remaining. 
 
 Subacute. Subacute laminitis is most often seen as a termination 
 of the acute form, although it may exist independent of or precede an 
 acute attack. It is characterized by the mildness of its symptoms, 
 slow course, and moderate tissue changes. It may be present a long 
 time before any pathological lesions result other than those found in 
 the acute form, and when these changes do take place they should 
 rather be viewed as complications. 
 
 Chronic. Chronic laminitis is a term used by many to designate 
 any of the sequelae of the acute and subacute forms of this disease.
 
 422 DISEASES OP THE HOBSE. 
 
 Pure chronic inflammation of the lamina 1 is not very commonly met 
 with, but is most frequent in horses that have long done fast track 
 work. They have " fever in the feet " at all times and are continually 
 sore, both conditions being aggravated by work. Like chronic in- 
 flammation of other parts, there is a strong tendency to the develop- 
 ment of new connective tissue, which, by its pressure upon the blood 
 vessels, interferes with nutrition. Wasting of the coffin bone and in- 
 flammation of its covering with caries is riot unusual. The continued 
 fever and impaired function of secretion result in the production of 
 a horn deficient in elasticity, somewhat spongy in character, and in- 
 clined to crumble. In some cases of " soreness " in horses used to 
 hard or fast work, there is evident weakness of the coats of the ves- 
 sels, brought on by repeated functional exhaustion. Here slight work 
 brings on congestion, which results in serous effusion and temporary 
 symptoms similar to those of chronic laminitis. 
 
 Complications. Complications concurrent with or supervening 
 upon laminitis are frequent and varied, and are often dependent upon 
 causes not fully understood. 
 
 Excessive purgation is one of the simplest of these, and not usually 
 attended with dangerous consequences. It rarely occurs unless in- 
 duced by a purgative, and the excessive action of the medicine is prob- 
 ably to be explained upon the theory that the mucous membrane 
 sympathizes with the diseased laminae, is irritable, and readily be- 
 comes overexcited. The discharges are thin and watery, sometimes 
 offensively odorous, and occasionally persist in spite of treatment. It 
 may prove disastrous to the welfare of the patient by the rapid 
 exhaustion which it causes, preventing resolution of the laminitis, 
 and may even cause death. 
 
 Septicemia and pyemia. Septicemia and pyemia are unusual com- 
 plications and are seen only in the most severe cases, where bed sores 
 are present or suppuration of the laminae results. They die, as a rule, 
 within three days after showing signs of the complication. 
 
 Pneumonia the so-called metastatic needs no special considera- 
 tion, for in its lesions and symptoms it does not differ from ordinary 
 pneumonia, although it may be overlooked entirely by the practi- 
 tioner. Examinations of the chest should be made every day, so as 
 to detect the disease at its onset and render proper aid. 
 
 Sidebones. A rapid development of sidebones is one of the compli- 
 cations, or, perhaps better, a sequel of laminitis not often met with in 
 practice. Here the inflammatory process extends to the lateral carti- 
 lages, with a strong tendency to calcification. The deposition of tha 
 lime salts is sometimes most rapid, so that the " bones " are developed 
 in a few weeks ; in other instances they are deposited slowly and their 
 growth is not noted until long after the subsidence of the laminitis, 
 so that the exciting cause is not suspected. This change in the car-
 
 LAMINITIS, OE FOUNDEB. 423 
 
 tilages may commence as early as the first week of the laminitis ; and 
 although the trouble in the laminaB is removed in the course of a fort- 
 night the symptoms do not entirely subside, the animal retains the 
 shuffling gait, the sidebones continue to grow, and the patient usually 
 remains quite lame. This alteration of the cartilages generally pre- 
 vents the patient recovering his natural gait, and the practitioner 
 receives unjust censure for a condition of affairs he could neither 
 foresee nor prevent. 
 
 The laminitic process occasionally extends to the covering of the 
 coronet bone, or at least concurrent with and subsequent to laminitis 
 the development of " low ringbone " is seen, and it is apparently 
 dependent upon the disease of the laminae for its exciting cause. The 
 impairment of function and consequent symptoms are much less 
 marked here than in sidebones. The coronet remains hot and sensi- 
 tive and somewhat thickened after the laminitis subsides, and a little 
 lameness is present. This lameness persists and the deposits of new 
 bone may readily be detected. 
 
 Suppuration of the sensitive membrane is a somewhat common 
 complication, and even when present in its most limited form is 
 always a serious matter ; but when it becomes extensive, and especially 
 where the suppurative process extends to the periosteum, the results 
 are apt to be fatal. When suppuration occurs the exudation does not 
 appear to be excessive. It is rich in leucocytes and seems to have 
 caused detachment of the sensitive tissues from the horn prior to the 
 formation of pus in some instances; in others the tissues are still 
 attached to the horn and the suppuration takes place in the deeper 
 tissues. 
 
 Limited suppuration may take place in any part of the sensitive 
 tissues of the foot during laminitis, and may ultimately be reabsorbed 
 instead of being discharged upon the surface, but generally the process 
 begins in the neighborhood of the toe and spreads backward and 
 upward toward the coronet, finally separating the horn from the 
 coronary band at the quarters. At the same time it spreads over the 
 sole and eventually the entire hoof is loosened and sloughs away, 
 leaving the tissues beneath entirely unprotected. In other instances, 
 and these are generally the cases not considered unusually severe, the 
 suppuration begins at the coronary band; it extends but a short dis- 
 tance into the tissues, yet destroys the patient by separating the hoof 
 from the coronary band, upon which it depends for support and 
 growth. This form of the suppurative process usually begins in 
 front; for it is this part of the coronary band that is always most 
 actively affected with inflammation, and consequently it is here that 
 impairments first occur. 
 
 Suppuration of the sensitive sole is more common than of the sensi- 
 tive laminae and coronary band. It is present in the majority of cases
 
 424 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 where there is a dropping of the coffin bone, and in other instances 
 where the effusion at this point is so great as to arrest the production 
 of horn and uncover the sensitive tissues. Except when the result of 
 injury it begins at the toe and spreads backward, and, if not relieved 
 by opening the sole, escapes at the heel. Suppuration of the sole is 
 much less serious than in other parts of the foot. 
 
 If the acute constitutional symptoms developed from sloughing of 
 the foot do not result in death, a new hoof of very imperfect horn 
 may be developed after a time; but unless the animal is to be kept for 
 breeding purposes alone the foot will ever be useless for work and 
 death should relieve the suffering. When only the sole sloughs 
 recovery takes place with proper treatment. 
 
 Peditis. This is the term that Williams applies to that serious 
 complication of laminitis where not only the laminae, but the perios- 
 teum and coffin bone also are subjects of the inflammatory process. 
 Neither is this all ; for in some of these cases of peditis acute inflam- 
 mation of the coffin joint is present, and occasionally suppuration of 
 the joint. A mild form of periostitis, in which the exudation is in 
 the outer layer of the periosteum only, is a more common condition 
 than is recognized by practitioners generally. Intimate contiguity of 
 structures is the predisposing cause, for the disease either spreads 
 from the original seat or the complication occurs as one of the primary 
 results of the exciting cause. In the severer cases wheie the exudate 
 separates the periosteum from the bone, suppuration, gangrene, and 
 superficial caries are common results. If infiltration of the bone 
 tissues is rapid the blood supply is cut off by pressure upon the vessels 
 and death of the coffin bone follows. Grave constitutional symptoms 
 mark these changes, which soon prove fatal. 
 
 In the mild cases of periostitis it is by no means easy to determine 
 its presence positively, for there are no special symptoms by which it 
 may be distinguished from pure laminitis. In a majority of acute 
 cases, though, which show no signs of improvement by the fifth to 
 seventh day, it is safe to suspect periostitis, particularly if the coro- 
 nets are very hot, the pulse full and hard, and the lameness acute. 
 In the fortunately rare cases where the bone is affected with inflam- 
 mation and suppuration, the agony of the patient is intense ; he occu- 
 pies the recumbent position almost continually, never standing for 
 more than a few minutes at a time; suffers from the most careful 
 handling of the affected feet; maintains a rapid pulse and respiration, 
 high temperature, loss of appetite, and great thirst. It is in these 
 cases the patient continually grows worse, and the appearance of sup- 
 puration at the top of the hoof in about two weeks after the inception 
 of the disease proves the inefficiency of any treatment which may have 
 been used and the hopelessness of the case. These patients die usually
 
 LAMTNITTS, OR FOUNDER. 425 
 
 between the tenth and twentieth days either from exhaustion or 
 pyemic infection. 
 
 Gangrene occurs in the periosteum as the result of excessive detach- 
 ment from the bone and compression due to excessive exudation. 
 Other parts of the sensitive tissues are subject to the same fate occa- 
 sionally, and at times large territories will be found dead. 
 
 Pumiced sole is that condition in which the horny sole in the neigh- 
 borhood of the toe readily crumbles away and leaves the sensitive 
 tissues more or less exposed. It is not a complication of laminitis 
 only, for it is seen under other conditions. Williams has described 
 the horny tissue of pumiced sole as " weak, cheesy, or spongy, like 
 macerated horn, or even grumous." This crumbling horn, when 
 critically examined, shows almost an entire absence of the cohesive 
 matter which unites the healthy fibers, while the fibers themselves are 
 irregular and granular IB appearance. Pumiced sole depends upon 
 an impairment of the horn-secreting powers of the sensitive sole, or 
 upon a separation of the horny from the soft tissues which maintain 
 its vitality. 
 
 Punctured wounds of the foot, accompanied by any considerable 
 destruction of the soft tissues, present the same peculiarities of horn 
 in the immediate neighborhood of the injury. Bruises of the sole are 
 followed by this change when the exudation has been excessive and 
 has separated the horn from the living tissues. True, in these cases 
 we rarely see the soft tissues laid bare, for the reason that new horn 
 is constantly secreted and replaces that undergoing disintegration. 
 
 Laminitis presents three different conditions under which pumiced 
 sole may appear : First, where free exudation separates the horn from 
 the other tissues, or where the process of inflammation arrests the 
 production of horn by impairing or destroying the horn-secreting 
 membrane ; secondly, where depression of the coffin bone causes pres- 
 sure upon and arrests the formation of horn ; and, thirdly, where the 
 elevation of the sole compresses the soft tissues against the pedal bone 
 and induces the same condition. 
 
 Pumiced sole, from simple exudation and separation of tissues, is 
 of little importance, for the reason given above in connection with 
 bruises; but when suppuration occurs in restricted portions of the 
 foot in conjunction with laminitis, it always lays bare the tissues 
 beneath and impairs the animal's value temporarily. Recovery takes 
 place after a few weeks by the tissues horning over, as in injuries 
 attended by the same process. Depression of the coffin bone is not 
 sufficient within itself to cause pumiced sole; for, if the relative 
 change in the bone takes place slowly, or if the horn is thin, the sole 
 becomes convex from gradual pressure, and the soft tissues adapt 
 themselves to the change without having their function materially
 
 426 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 impaired. But when the dropping is sudden and the soft tissues are 
 destroyed, the horn rapidly crumbles away and the toe of the bone 
 comes through. In many of these cases the soft tissues remain 
 uncovered for months. When they are eventually covered it is with 
 a thin, slightly adherent horn that stands but little or no wear. The 
 sole being now convex, the diseased tissues bear unusual weight by 
 coming in contact with the ground, and hence it is that these animals 
 are generally incurable cripples. 
 
 In the majority of cases where the sole is raised to meet the pedal 
 bone and pumiced sole occurs, it is due not to pressure of the bone 
 from within (for the tissues are capable of adapting themselves to the 
 gradual change), but to impaired vitality of the sensitive tissues from 
 the inflammation and to the constant concussion and pressure applied 
 from without during progression. To this is to be added the paring 
 away of the horn by the smith when applying the shoe, thereby keep- 
 ing the sole at this point too thin. 
 
 Turning up of the toe. In many cases of laminitis which have 
 become chronic it is found that the toe of the foot turns up ; that the 
 heels are longer than natural ; while the hoof near the coronary band 
 is circled with ridges like the horn of a ram. Even in cases where 
 recovery has taken place, and in other diseases than laminitis, these 
 ridges may be found in the wall of the foot. But in such cases the 
 ridges are equally distant from each other all around the foot, while 
 in turning up of the toe the ridges are wide apart at the heels and 
 close together in front, as seen in the figure (Plate XXXIII, fig. 4). 
 These ridges are produced by periods of interference with the growth 
 of horn alternating with periods during which a normal or nearly 
 normal growth takes place. When the toe turns up it is because the 
 coronary band in front produces horn very slowly, while at the heels 
 it grows much faster, causing marked deform ity. 
 
 Animals so affected always place the abnormally long heel first 
 upon the ground, not alone because the heel is too long, nor as in acute 
 or subacute laminitis to relieve the pain, but for the simple reason that 
 the toe is too short and lifted away from its natural position. To 
 bring the toe to the ground the leg knuckles at the fetlock joint. 
 
 The pain and impairment of function in these cases always result in 
 marked atrophy of the muscles of the forearm and shoulder, and to 
 some extent of the pectorals, while the position of the fore legs 
 advances the shoulder joints so far forward as to cause a sunken 
 appearance of the breast, which the laity recognize as " chest 
 founder." 
 
 The lesions of turning up of the toe are permanent, and are the 
 most interesting pathologically of all the complications of laminitis. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of laminitis is probably more varied
 
 LAMINITIS, OB FOUNDEB. 427 
 
 than in any other disease, and yet a large number of cases recover for 
 even the poorest practitioner. 
 
 Prevention. To guard against and prevent disease, or to render an 
 unpreventable attack less serious than it otherwise would be, is the 
 highest practice of the healing art. In a disease so prone to result 
 from the simplest causes, especially when the soundest judgment may 
 not be able to determine the extent of the disease-resisting powers of 
 the tissues which are liable to be affected, or of what shall in every 
 instance constitute an overexcitement, it is not strange that horse 
 owners find themselves in trouble from unintentional transgression. 
 If the disease was dependent upon specific causes, or if the stability of 
 the tissues were of a fixed or more nearly determinate quality, some 
 measures might be instituted that would prove generally preventive. 
 But the predisposing causes are common conditions and often can not 
 be remedied. That which is gentle work in one instance may incite 
 disease in another. That which is food to-day may to-morrow prove 
 disastrous to health. Finally, necessary medical interference, no mat- 
 ter how judicious, may cause a more serious complaint than that 
 which was being treated. Notwithstanding these difficulties there are 
 some general rules to be observed that will in part serve to prevent the 
 development of an unusual number of cases. First of all the predis- 
 posing causes must be removed where possible ; when this is impossi- 
 ble unusual care must be taken not to bring into operation an exciting 
 cause. Fat animals should, under no circumstances, have hard work. 
 If the weather is warm or the variation of temperature great, all 
 horses should have but slow, gentle labor until they become inured to 
 it, the tissues hardened, and their excitability reduced to a minimum. 
 Green horses should have moderate work, particularly when taken 
 from the farm and dirt roads to city pavements; for increased con- 
 cussion, changed hygienic conditions, and artificial living readily 
 become active causes of the disease under these circumstances. Army 
 horses just out of winter quarters, track horses with insufficient prep- 
 aration, and farmers' horses put to work in the spring are among the 
 most susceptible classes, and must be protected by work that is easy 
 and gradual. If long marches or drives are imperative, the in- 
 cumbrances must be as light as possible and the journey interspersed 
 with frequent rests, for this allows the lamina; to regain their 
 impaired functional activity and to withstand much more work with- 
 out danger. Furthermore, it permits early detection of an attack, 
 and prevents working after the disease begins, which renders subse- 
 quent medication more effective by cutting the process short at the 
 stage of congestion. 
 
 All animals when resting immediately after work should be pro- 
 tected from cold air or drafts. If placed in a stable that is warm
 
 428 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 and without draft, no covering is necessary ; under opposite conditions 
 blankets should be used until the excitement and exhaustion of labor 
 have entirely passed away. It is still better that all animals coming 
 in warm from work be " cooled out " by slow walking until the per- 
 spiration has dried and the circulation and respiration are again 
 normal. Animals stopped on the road even for a few moments should 
 always be protected from rapid change of temperature by appropriate 
 clothing. If it can be avoided, horses that are working should never 
 be driven or ridden through water. If unavoidable, they should be 
 cooled off before passing through, and then kept moving until com- 
 pletely dried. The same care is to be practiced with washing the legs 
 in cold water when just in from work, for occasionally it proves the 
 cause of a most acute attack of this disease. 
 
 Unusual changes in the manner of applying the shoes should not be 
 hastily made. If a plane shoe has been worn, high heels or toes must 
 not be substituted at once; but the change, if necessary, should 
 gradually be made, so that the different tissues may adapt themselves 
 to the altered conditions. If radical changes are imperative, as is 
 sometimes the case, the work must be so reduced in quantity and 
 quality that it can not excite the disease. 
 
 Laminitis from the effects of purgatives can scarcely be guarded 
 against. I can not determine from the cases in which I have seen this 
 result that there are any conditions present that would warn us of 
 danger. The trouble does not seem to depend upon the size of the 
 purgative, the length of time before purgation begins, or the activity 
 and severity with which the remedy acts. Medicines known to have 
 unusual irritating effects on the alimentary canal should be used only 
 when necessity demands it, and then in moderate doses. 
 
 Experience alone will determine what animals are liable to suffer 
 from this disease through the use of foods. When an attack can be 
 ascribed to any particular food it should be withheld, unless in small 
 quantities. Horses that have never been fed upon Indian corn should 
 receive but a little of it at a time, mixed with bran, oats, or other food, 
 until it has been determined that no danger exists. Corn is less safe 
 in warm than in cold weather, and for this reason it should always be 
 fed with caution during spring and summer months. 
 
 When an animal is excessively lame in one foot the shoe of the oppo- 
 site member should be removed, and cold water frequently applied to 
 the well foot. At the same time use the slings if the subject remains 
 standing. Horses should under no circumstances be overworked; to 
 guard against this, previous work, nature of roads, state of weather, 
 and various other influences must be carefully considered. Watering 
 while warm is a pernicious habit, and, unless the animal is accustomed 
 to it, is apt to result in some disorder, ofttimes in laminitis.
 
 LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDEB. 429 
 
 Curative measures. In cases of simple congestion of the laminae the 
 body should be warmly clothed and warm drinks administered. The 
 feet should be placed in a warm bath to increase the return flow of 
 blood. In course of an hour the feet may be changed to cold water 
 and kept there until recovery is completed. If the constitutional 
 symptoms demand it, diuretics should be given. Half-ounce doses 
 of saltpeter, three times a day in the water, answer the purpose. In 
 cases of active congestion the warm footbaths should be omitted and 
 cold ones used from the commencement. Subacute laminitis demands 
 the same treatment, with laxatives if there is constipation, and the ad- 
 dition of low-heeled shoes. The diuretics may need to be continued 
 for some time and their frequency increased. Regarding acute lami- 
 nitis, what has been called the " American treatment " is simple and 
 efficient. It consists solely in the exhibition of large doses of nitrate 
 of potash and the continued application to the feet and ankles of cold 
 water. 
 
 Three to 4 ounces of saltpeter in a pint of water, repeated every 
 six hours, is the proper dose. The laminitis frequently subsides 
 within a week. These large doses may be continued for a week with- 
 out danger ; under no circumstances have I seen the kidneys irritated 
 to excess or other unfavorable effects produced. 
 
 The feet should be kept in a tub of water at a temperature of 45 
 to 50 F., unless the animal is lying down, when swabs are to be used 
 and wet every half hour with the cold water. The water keeps the 
 horn soft and moist and acts directly upon the inflamed tissues by re- 
 ducing the temperature. Cold maintains the vitality and disease- 
 resisting qualities of the soft tissues, tones up the coats of the blood 
 vessels, diminishes the supply of blood, and limits the exudation. 
 Furthermore, cold has an anesthetic effect upon the diseased tissues 
 and relieves the pain. 
 
 Aconite may be given in conjunction with the niter where the heart 
 is greatly excited and beats strongly. Ten-drop doses, repeated 
 every two hours for twenty- four hours, are sufficient. The use of 
 cathartics is dangerous, for they may excite superpurgation. Usually 
 the niter will relieve the constipation, yet if it should prove obstinate, 
 laxatives may be carefully given. Bleeding, both general and local, 
 should be guarded against. The shoes must be early removed and 
 the soles left unpared. 
 
 Paring of the soles presents two objections: First, while it may 
 temporarily relieve the pain by relieving pressure, it favors greater 
 exudation, which may more than counterbalance the good effects. 
 Secondly, it makes the feet tender and subject to bruises when the 
 animal again goes to work. The shoes should be replaced when con- 
 valescence sets in and the animal is ready to take exercise. Exercise
 
 430 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 should never be enforced until the inflammation has subsided; for 
 although it temporarily relieves the pain and soreness, it maintains 
 the irritation, increases the exudation, and postpones recovery. 
 
 If at the end of the fifth or sixth day prominent symptoms of 
 recovery are not apparent, apply a stiff blister of cantharides around 
 the coronet and omit the niter for about forty -eight hours. When the 
 blister is well set, the feet may again receive wet swabs. If one blister 
 does not remove the soreness it may be repeated, or the actual cautery 
 applied. The same treatment should be adopted where sidebones 
 form or inflammation of the coronet bone follows. When the sole 
 breaks through, exposing the soft tissues, the feet must be carefully 
 shod with thin heels and thick toes where there is a tendency to walk 
 on the heels, and the sole must be well protected with appropriate 
 dressings and pressure over the exposed parts. When there is turn- 
 ing up of the toe, blistering of the coronet, in front only, sometimes 
 stimulates the growth of horn, but as a rule judicious shoeing is the 
 only treatment that will enable the animal to do light, slow work. 
 
 Where suppuration of the laminse is profuse, it is better to destroy 
 your patient at once and relieve his suffering ; but if the suppuration 
 is limited to a small extent of tissue, especially of the sole, treatment, 
 as in acute cases, may induce recovery and should always be tried. If 
 from bed sores or other causes septicemia or pyemia is feared, the 
 bisulphite of soda, in half -ounce doses, may be given in conjunction 
 with tonics and such other treatment as is indicated in these diseases. 
 
 As to enforced recumbency I doubt the propriety of insisting on it 
 in the majority of cases, for I think the patient usually assumes what- 
 ever position gives most comfort. No doubt recumbency diminishes 
 the amount of blood sent to the feet, and may greatly relieve the pain, 
 so that forcing the patient to lie down may be tried, yet should not be 
 renewed if he thereafter persists in standing. 
 
 Where the animal persistently stands, or where constant lying indi- 
 cates it (to prevent extensive sores), the patient should be placed in 
 slings. When all four feet are affected it may be impossible to use 
 slings, for the reason that the patient refuses to support any of his 
 weight and simply hangs in them. Lastly, convalescent cases must 
 not be returned to work too early, else permanent recovery may never 
 be effected.
 
 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 
 
 By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., 
 Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University. 
 
 [Revised In 1903 by the author.] 
 
 As we find them described in systematic works, the diseases of the 
 skin are very numerous and complex, which may be largely accounted 
 for by the fact that the cutaneous covering is exposed to view at all 
 points, so that shades of difference in inflammatory and other diseased 
 processes are easily seen and distinguished from one another. In the 
 horse the hairy covering serves to some extent to mask the symptoms, 
 and hence the nonprofessional man is tempted to apply the term 
 " mange " to all alike, and it is only a step further to apply the same 
 treatment to all these widely different disorders. Yet even in the 
 hairy quadruped the distinction can be made in a way which can not 
 be done in disorders of that counterpart and prolongation of the 
 skin the mucous membrane, which lines the air passages, the digest- 
 ive organs, the urinary and generative apparatus. Diseased processes, 
 therefore, which in these organs it might be difficult or impossible to 
 distinguish from one another, can usually be separated and recognized 
 when appearing in the skin. 
 
 Nor is this differentiation unimportant. The cutaneous covering 
 presents such an extensive surface for the secretion of cuticular scales, 
 hairs, horn, sebaceous matter, sweat, and other excretory matters, that 
 any extensive disorder in its functions may lead to serious internal 
 disease and death. Again, the intimate nervous sympathy of differ- 
 ent points of the skin with particular internal organs renders certain 
 skin disorders causative of internal disease and certain internal dis- 
 eases causative of affections of the skin. The mere painting of the 
 skin with an impermeable coating of glue is speedily fatal ; a cold 
 draft striking on the chest causes inflammation of the lungs or pleura ; 
 a skin eruption speedily follows certain disorders of the stomach, the 
 liver, the kidneys, or even the lungs; simple burns of the skin cause 
 inflammations of internal organs, and inflammations of such or- 
 gans cause in their turn eruptions on the skin. The relations 
 nervous, secretory, and absorptive between the skin and internal 
 organs are most extensive and varied, and therefore a visible disorder 
 in the skin may point at once and specifically to a particular fault in 
 diet, to an injudicious use of cold water when the system is heated, to 
 a fault in drainage, ventilation, or lighting of the stables, to indiges- 
 tion, to liver disease, to urinary disorder, etc. 
 
 431
 
 432 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 
 
 The skin consists primarily of two parts: (1) The superficial non- 
 vascular (without blood vessels) layer, the cuticle, or epidermis; and 
 (2) the deep vascular (with blood vessels) layer, the corium, dermis, 
 or true skin. 
 
 The cuticle is made up of cells placed side by side and more or less 
 modified in shape by their mutual compression and by surface evapo- 
 ration and drying. The superficial stratum consists of the cells dried 
 in the form of scales, which fall off continually and form dandruff. 
 The deep stratum (the mucous layer) is formed of somewhat rounded 
 cells with large central nuclei, and in colored skin containing numer- 
 ous pigment granules. These cells have prolongations, or branches, 
 by which they communicate with one another and with the superficial 
 layer of cells in the true skin beneath. Through these prolongations 
 they receive nutrient liquids for their growth and increase, and pass 
 on liquids absorbed by the skin into the vessels of the true skin 
 beneath. The living matter in the cells exercises an equally selective 
 power on what they shall take up for their own nourishment and on 
 what they shall admit into the circulation from without. Thus, cer- 
 tain agents, like iodine and belladonna, are readily admitted, whereas 
 others, like arsenic, are excluded by the sound, unbroken epidermis. 
 Between the deep and superficial layers of the epidermis there is a 
 thin translucent layer (septum lucidum) consisting of a double 
 stratum of cells, and forming a medium of transition from the deep 
 spheroidal to the superficial scaly cuticle. 
 
 The true skin, or dermis, has a framework of interlacing bundles of 
 white and yellow fibers, large and coarse in the deeper layers, and 
 fine in the superficial, where they approach the cuticle. Between the 
 fibrous bundles are left interspaces which, like the bundles, become 
 finer as they approach the surface, and inclose cells, vessels, nerves, 
 glands, gland ducts, hairs, and in the deeper layers fat. 
 
 The superficial layer of the dermis is formed into a series of minute 
 conical elevations, or papilla, projecting into the deep portion of the 
 cuticle, from which they are separated by a very fine transparent 
 membrane. This papillary layer is very richly supplied with capil- 
 lary blood vessels and nerves, and is at once the seat of acute sensa- 
 tion and the point from which the nutrient liquid is supplied to the 
 cells of the cuticle above. It is also at this point that the active 
 changes of inflammation are especially concentrated; it is the im- 
 
 Description of Fig. 1, Plate XXXV: E. Epidermis. D. Derma. 1. Horny layer 
 of the epidermis. 2. Stratum mucosum. 3. Papillary layer of the derma. 4. 
 Excretory duct of a sudoriparous gland. 5. Glomorule of a sudoriparous gland. 
 C. Hair follicle. 7. Sebaceous gland. 8. Internal sheath of the hair follicle. 
 9. Bulb of the hair. 10. Mass of adipose tissue.
 
 PI. ATI: xxxv 
 
 lerticfil .tectunt through tildn. Tiichophyton Tomtit mivs 
 
 after Cliawvpau. ><' lKr M-'-y'ii" 
 
 Utur disccLfietl fry 
 Achorion. Schun Mm 
 
 n-i- M.'-anin 
 
 f C S 8 I EN & Ca N 1 
 
 1MSKASKS OF TIIK SKIN.
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 433 
 
 mediately superposed cell layers (mucous) that become morbidly 
 increased in the earlier stages of inflammation; it is on the surface 
 of the papillary layer that the liquid is thrown out which raises the 
 cuticle in the form of a blister, and it is at this point mainly that pus 
 forms in the ordinary pustule. 
 
 The fibrous bundles of the true skin contain plain muscular fibers, 
 which are not controlled by the will, but contract under the influence 
 of cold and under certain nervous influences, as in some skin dis- 
 eases and in the chill of a fever, and lead to contraction, tightening, 
 or corrugation of the skin, contributing to produce the " hidebound " 
 of the horseman. Other minute muscular filaments are extended 
 from the surface of the dermis to the hair follicle on the side to which 
 the hair is inclined, and under the same stimulating influences pro- 
 duce that erection of the hair which is familiarly known as " staring 
 coat." Besides these, the horse's skin is furnished with an expansion 
 of red voluntary muscle, firmly attached to the fibrous bundles, and 
 by which the animal can not only dislodge insects and other irritants, 
 but even shake 'off the harness. This fleshy envelope covers the sides 
 of the trunk and the lower portions of the neck and head, the parts 
 unprotected by the mane and tail, and serves to throw the skin of. 
 these parts into puckers, or ridges, in certain irritating skin diseases. 
 
 The hairs are cuticular products growing from an enlarged papilla 
 lodged in the depth of a follicle or sac, hollowed out in the skin and 
 extending to its deepest layers. The hair follicle is lined by cells of 
 epidermis, which at the bottom are reflected on the papilla and become 
 the root of the hair. The hair itself is formed of the same kind of 
 cells firmly adherent to each other by a tough intercellular substance, 
 and overlapping each other like slates on a roof in a direction toward 
 the free end. 
 
 The sebaceous glands are branching tubes ending in follicles or sacs 
 and opening into the hair follicles, lined by a very vascular fibrous 
 network representing the dermis, and an internal layer of cells repre- 
 senting the mucous layer of the cuticle. The oily secretion gives gloss 
 to the hair and prevents its becoming dry and brittle, and keeps the 
 skin soft and supple, protecting it at once against undue exhalation of 
 water and undue absorption when immersed in that medium. Besides 
 those connected with the hair follicles there are numerous isolated 
 sebaceous glands, opening directly on the surface of the skin, produ- 
 cing a somewhat thicker and more odorous secretion. These are found 
 in large numbers in the folds of the skin, where chafing would be 
 likely if the surface were dry, as on the sheath, scrotum, mammary 
 glands, and inner side of the thigh, around the anus and vulva, in the 
 hollow of the heel, beneath the fine horn of the frog, on the inner side 
 
 H. Doc. 705, 50-2 28
 
 434 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 of the elbow, on the lips, nostrils, and eyelids. When closed by dried 
 secretion or otherwise these glands may become distended so as to 
 form various-sized swellings on the skin, and when inflamed they 
 may throw out offensive liquid discharges, as in " grease," or produce 
 red, tender fungous growths (" grapes "). 
 
 The sweat glands of the horse, like those of man, are composed of 
 simple tubes, which extend down through the cuticle and dermis in a 
 spiral manner, and are coiled into balls in the deeper layer of the true 
 skin. In addition to their importance in throwing offensive waste 
 products out of the system, these glands tend to cool the skirt and the 
 entire economy of the animal through the evaporation of their watery 
 secretion. Their activity is therefore a matter of no small moment, 
 as besides regulating the animal heat and excreting impurities, they 
 influence largely the internal organs through the intimate sympathy 
 maintained between them and the skin. 
 
 Diseases of the skin may be conveniently divided, according to their 
 most marked features, into 
 
 (1) Those in which congestion and inflammation are the most 
 marked features, varying according to the grade or form into (a) 
 congestion with simple redness, dryness, and heat, but no eruption 
 (erythema) ; (b) inflammation with red-pointed elevations, but no 
 blisters (papules) ; (c) inflammation with fine conical elevations, 
 each surmounted by a minute blister (vesicle)', (d) inflammation 
 with a similar eruption but with larger blisters, like half a pea and 
 upwards (bullce) ; (e) inflammation with a similar eruption, but 
 with a small sac of white creamy pus on the summit of each elevation 
 (pustules) (f) the formation of pustules implicating the superficial 
 layer of the true skin, a small portion of which dies and is thrown off 
 as a slough, or " core " (boils) ; (g) the formation of round, nodular, 
 transient swellings in the true skin (tubercles) ; and (h) the excessive 
 production of scales, or dandruff (scaly or squamous affections). 
 
 (2) Diseases in which there are only deranged sensations of itch- 
 ing, heat, tenderness, etc. (neurosis). 
 
 (3) Diseased growths, such as warts, callosities, horny growths, 
 cancer, etc. 
 
 (4) Diseases due to parasites, animal and vegetable. 
 
 (5) Diseases connected with a specific poison, such as horsepox, 
 erysipelas, anthrax, farcy, or cutaneous glanders, etc. 
 
 (6) Physical injuries, like wounds, burns, scalds, etc. 
 
 CONGESTION (RED EFFLORESCENCE, OR ERYTHEMA). 
 
 This is a congested or slightly inflamed condition of the skin, unat- 
 tended by any eruption. The part is slightly swollen, hot, tender, 
 or itchy, and dry, and if the skin is white there is redness. The red-
 
 INFLAMMATION OP THE SKIN. 435 
 
 ness is effaced by pressure, but reappears instantly when the pressure 
 is removed. Unless in transient cases the hairs are liable to be shed. 
 It may be looked on as the first stage of inflammation, and therefore 
 when it becomes aggravated it may merge in part or in whole into a 
 papular, vesicular, or pustular eruption. 
 
 Erythema may arise from a variety of causes, and is often named 
 in accordance with its most prominent cause. Thus the chilling, or 
 partial freezing, of a part will give rise to a severe reaction and con- 
 gestion. When snowy or icy streets have been salted this may extend 
 to severe inflammation with vesicles, pustules, or even sloughs of 
 circumscribed portions of the skin of the pastern (chillblain, frost- 
 bite). Heat and burning have a similar effect, and this often comes 
 from exposure to the direct rays of the sun. The skin that does not 
 perspire is the most subject, and hence the white face or white limb 
 of a horse becoming dried by the intensity of the sun's rays often 
 suffers to the exclusion of the rest of the body (white face and foot 
 disease}. The febrile state of the general system is also a potent 
 cause, hence the white-skinned horse is rendered the more liable if 
 kept on a heating ration of buckwheat, or even of wheat or maize. 
 Contact of the skin with oil of turpentine or other essential oils, with 
 irritant liquids, vegetable or mineral, with rancid fats, with the acrid 
 secretions of certain animals, like the irritating toad, with pus, sweat, 
 tears, urine, or liquid feces, will produce congestion or even inflam- 
 mation. Chafing is a common cause, and is especially liable to affect 
 the fat horse between the thighs, by the side of the sheath or scrotum, 
 on the inner side of the elbow, or where the harness chafes on the 
 poll, shoulder, back, breastbone, and under the tail. The accumula- 
 tion of sweat and dust between the folds of the skin and on the sur- 
 face of the harness, and the specially acrid character of the sweat in 
 certain horses contribute to chafing or " intertrigo." The heels often 
 become congested, owing to the irritation caused by the short bristly 
 hairs in clipped heels. Again, congestion may occur from friction by 
 halter, harness, or other foreign body under the pastern, or inside the 
 thigh or arm, or by reason of blows from another foot (cutting, inter- 
 fering, overreach). Finally erythema is especially liable to occur in 
 spring when the coat is being shed, and the hair follicles and general 
 surface are exposed and irritable in connection with the dropping of 
 the hairs. 
 
 If due only to a local irritant, congestion will usually disappear 
 when such cause has been removed, but when the feeding or system 
 is at fault these conditions must be first corrected. While the coat is 
 being shed the susceptibility will continue, and the aim should be to 
 prevent the disease developing and advancing so as to weaken the 
 skin, render the susceptibility permanent, and lay the foundation of
 
 436 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 persistent or frequently recurring skin disease. Hence at such times 
 the diet should be nonstimulating ; any excess of grain, and above all 
 of buckwheat, Indian corn, or wheat, being avoided. A large grain 
 ration should not be given at once on return from hard work, when 
 the general system and stomach are unable to cope with it ; the animal 
 should not be given more than a swallow or two of cold water when 
 perspiring and fatigued; nor should he be allowed a full supply of 
 water just after his grain ration; he should not be overheated or 
 exhausted by work, nor should dried sweat and dust be allowed to 
 accumulate on the skin or on the harness pressing on it. The expo- 
 sure of the affected heels to damp, mud, and snow, and, above all, to 
 melting snow, should be guarded against; light, smooth, well-fitting 
 harness must be secured, and where the saddle or collar irritates an 
 incision should be made in them above and below the part that chafes, 
 and, the padding between having been removed, the lining should be 
 beaten so as to make a hollow. A zinc shield in the upper angle of 
 the collar will often prevent chafing in front of the withers. 
 
 Treatment. Wash the chafed skin and apply salt water (one-half 
 ounce to the quart), extract of witch-hazel, a weak solution of oak 
 bark, or camphorated spirit. If the surface is raw use bland powders, 
 such as oxide of zinc, lycopodium, starch, or smear the surface with 
 vaseline, or with 1 ounce of vaseline intimately mixed with one-half 
 dram each of sugar of lead and opium. In cases of chafing rest must 
 be strictly enjoined. AVhere there is constitutional disorder or acrid 
 sweat, 1 ounce cream of tartar or a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda 
 may be given twice daily. 
 
 CONGESTION, WITH SMALL PIMPLES, OR PAPULES. 
 
 In this affection there is the general blush, heat, etc., of erythema, 
 together with a crop of elevations from the size of a poppy seed to a 
 coffee bean, visible when the hair is reversed or to be felt with the 
 finger where the hair is scanty. In white skins they vary from the 
 palest to the darkest red. All do not retain the papular type, but 
 some go on to form blisters (eczema, bulla?) or pustules, or dry up 
 into scales, or break out into open sores, or extend into larger swell- 
 ings (tubercles). The majority, however, remaining as pimples, 
 characterize the disease. When very itchy the rubbing breaks them 
 open, and the resulting sores and scales hide the true nature of the 
 eruption. 
 
 The general and local causes may be the same as for erythema, and 
 in the same subject one portion of the skin may have simple conges- 
 tion and another adjacent papules. As the inflammatory action is 
 more pronounced, so the irritation and itching are usually greater, 
 the animal rubbing and biting himself severely. This itching is espe-
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE SKIN. 437 
 
 cially severe in the forms which attack the roots of the mane and tail, 
 and there the disease is often so persistent and troublesome that the 
 horse is rendered virtually useless. 
 
 The bites of insects often produce a papular eruption, but in many 
 such cases the swelling extends wider into a buttonlike elevation, 
 one-half to an inch in diameter. The same remarks apply to the 
 effects of the poison ivy and poison sumac. 
 
 Treatment. In papular eruption first remove the cause, then apply 
 the same general remedies as for simple congestion. In the more 
 inveterate cases use a lotion cf one-half ounce sulphide of potassium 
 in 2 quarts water, to which a little Castile soap has been added ; or 
 use a wash with one-half ounce oil of tar, 2 ounces Castile soap, and 
 20 ounces water. 
 
 INFLAMMATION WITH BLISTERS, OR ECZEMA. 
 
 In this the skin is congested, thickened, warm (white skins are red- 
 dened), and shows a thick crop of little blisters formed by effusions of 
 a straw-colored fluid between the true skin and the cuticle. The blis- 
 ters may be of any size from a millet seed to a pea, and often crack 
 open and allow the escape of the fluid, which concretes as a slightly 
 yellowish scab or crust around the roots of the hairs. This exudation 
 and incrustation are especially common where the hairs are long, 
 thick, and numerous, as in the region of the pastern of heavy draft 
 horses. The term eczema is now applied very generally to eruptions 
 of all kinds that depend on internal disorders or constitutional con- 
 ditions, and that tend to recurrences and inveteracy. Eczema may 
 appear on any part of the body, but in horses it is especially common 
 on the heels and the lower parts of the limbs, and less frequently on 
 the neck, shoulder, and abdomen. The limbs appear to be especially 
 liable because of their dependent position, all blood having to return 
 from them against the action of gravity, and congestions and swell- 
 ings being common, because of the abundance of blood vessels in this 
 part of the skin, and because of the frequent contact with the irritant 
 dung and urine and their ammoniacal emanations. The legs further 
 suffer from contact with wet and mud when at work, from snow and 
 ice, from drafts of cold air on the wet limbs, from washing with 
 caustic soaps, or from the relaxing effects of a too deep and abundant 
 litter. Among other causes may be named indigestion and the pres- 
 ence of irritant matters in the blood and sweat, the result of patent 
 medicated foods and condition powders (aromatics, stimulants), green 
 food, new hay, new oats, buckwheat, wheat, maize, diseased potatoes, 
 smut, or ergot, in grains, decomposing green food, brewers' grains, or 
 kitchen garbage. The excitement in the skin, caused by shedding 
 the coat, lack of grooming, hot weather, hot boiled or steamed food,
 
 438 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 conduces to the eruption. Lastly, any sudden change of food may 
 induce it. 
 
 The blisters may in part go on to suppuration so that vesicles and 
 pustules often appear on the same patch, and when raw from rubbing 
 the true nature of the eruption may be completely masked. In high- 
 fed horses, kept in close stables with little work, eczema of the limbs 
 may last for months and years. It is a very troublesome affection in 
 draft stallions. 
 
 Treatment. This disease is so often the result of indigestion that a 
 laxative of 1 pound Glauber's salts, in 3 or 4 quarts water or 1^ pints 
 olive oil, is often demanded to clear away irritants from the alimen- 
 tary canal. Following this, in recent and acute cases, give 2 drams 
 of acetate or bicarbonate of potash twice a day in the drinking water. 
 If the bowels still become costive, give daily 1 ounce sulphate of soda 
 and 20 grains powdered mix vomica. In. debilitated horses combine 
 the nux vomica with one-half ounce powdered gentian root. As a 
 wash for the skin use 1 dram bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram carbolic 
 acid in a quart of water, after having cleansed the surface with tepid 
 water. Employ the same precautions as regards feeding, stabling, 
 and care of harness as in simple congestion of the skin. 
 
 In the more inveterate forms of eczema more active treatment is 
 required. Soak the scabs in fresh sweet oil, and in a few hours 
 remove these with tepid water and Castile soap ; then apply an oint- 
 ment of sulphur or iodide of sulphur day by day. If this seems to 
 be losing its effect after a week, change for mercurial ointment or a 
 solution of sulphide of potassium, or of hyposulphite of soda, 3 drams 
 to the quart of water. In these cases the animal may take a course of 
 sulphur (1 ounce daily), bisulphite of soda (one-half ounce daily), or 
 of arsenic (5 grains daily) mixed with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda. 
 
 INFLAMMATION WITH PUSTULES. 
 
 In this affection the individual elevations on the inflamed skin 
 show in the center a small sac of white, creamy pus, in place of the 
 clear liquid of a blister. They vary in size from a millet seed to a 
 hazelnut. The pustules of glanders (farcy buds) are to be distin- 
 guished by the watery contents and the cordlike swelling, extending 
 from the pustules along the line of the veins, and those of boils by the 
 inflammation and sloughing out of a core of the true skin. The hair 
 on the pustule stands erect, and is often shed with the scab which 
 results. When itching is severe the parts become excoriated by 
 rubbing, and, as in the other forms of skin disease, the character of 
 the eruption may become indistinct. Old horses suffer mainly at the 
 root of the mane and tail and about the heels, and suckling foals 
 around the mouth, on the face, inside the thighs, and under the tail. 
 
 Pustules like eczema are especially liable to result from unwhole- 
 some food and indigestion, from a sudden change of food above all,
 
 BOILS, OB FURUNCLES. 439 
 
 from dry to green food. In foals it may result from overheating of 
 the mare and allowing the first milk after she returns, or by milk 
 rendered unwholesome by faulty feeding of the dam. If a foal is 
 brought up by hand the souring and other decompositions in the milk 
 derange the digestion and cause such eruption. Vetches and other 
 plants affected with honey dew and buckwheat have been the cause of 
 these eruptions on white portions of the skin. Disorders of the 
 kidneys or liver are common causes of this affection. 
 
 Treatment. Apply soothing ointments, such as benzonated oxide 
 of zinc, or vaseline .with 1 dram oxide of zinc in each ounce. Or a 
 wash of 1 dram sugar of lead or 2 drams hyposulphite of soda in a 
 quart of water may be freely applied. If the skin is already abraded 
 and scabby, smear thickly with vaseline for some hours, then wash 
 with soapsuds and apply the above dressings. When the excoriations 
 are indolent they may be painted with a solution of lunar caustic, 2 
 grains to 1 ounce of distilled water. Internally counteract costive- 
 ness and remove intestinal irritants by the same means as in eczema, 
 and follow this with one-half ounce doses daily of hyposulphite of 
 soda, and one-half ounce doses of gentian. Inveterate cases may 
 often be benefited by a course of sulphur, bisulphite of soda, or 
 arsenic. In all, the greatest care must be taken with regard to food, 
 feeding, watering, cleanliness, and work. In wet and cold seasons 
 predisposed animals should, so far as possible, be protected from 
 wet, mud, snow, and melted snow above all, from that which has 
 been melted by salt. 
 
 BOILS, OR FURUNCLES. 
 
 These may appear on any part of the skin, but are especially com- 
 mon on the lower parts of the limbs, and on the shoulders and back 
 where the skin is irritated by accumulated secretion and chafing with 
 the harness. In other cases the cause is constitutional, or attended 
 by unwholesome diet and overwork with loss of general health and 
 condition. They also follow on weakening diseases, notably strangles, 
 in which irritants are retained in the system from overproduction of 
 poisons and effete matters during fever, and imperfect elimination. 
 There is also the presence of a pyogenic bacterium, by which the 
 disease may be maintained and propagated. 
 
 While boils are pus-producing, they differ from simple pustule in 
 affecting the deepest layers of the true skin, and even the superficial 
 layers of the connective tissues beneath, and in the death and slough- 
 ing out of the central part of the inflamed mass (core). The depth 
 of the hard, indurated, painful swelling, and the formation of this 
 central mass or core, which is bathed in pus and slowly separated 
 from surrounding parts, serve to distinguish the boil alike from the 
 pustule, from the farcy bud, and from a superficial abscess.
 
 440 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Treatment. To treat very painful boils a free incision with a 
 lancet in two directions, followed by a dressing with one-half an 
 ounce carbolic acid in a pint of water, bound on with cotton wool or 
 lint, may cut them short. The more common course is to apply a 
 warm poultice of linseed meal or wheat bran, and renew daily until 
 the center of the boil softens, when it should be lanced and the core 
 pressed out. 
 
 If the boil is smeared with a blistering ointment of Spanish flies 
 and a poultice put over it, the formation of matter and separation of 
 the core is often hastened. A mixture of sugar and soap laid on the 
 boil is equally good. Cleanliness of the skin and the avoidance of all 
 causes of irritation are important items, and a teaspoonful of bicar- 
 bonate of soda once or twice a day will sometimes assist in warding 
 off a new crop. 
 
 NETTLERASH (SURFEIT, OR URTICARIA). 
 
 This is an eruption in the form of cutaneous nodules, in size from 
 a hazelnut to a hickory nut, transient, with little disposition to the 
 formation of either blister or pustule, and usually connected with 
 shedding of the coat, sudden changes of weather, and unwholesome- 
 ness or sudden change in the food. It is most frequent in the spring 
 and in young and vigorous animals (good feeders). The swelling 
 embraces the entire thickness of the skin and terminates by an 
 abrupt margin in place of shading off into surrounding parts. When 
 the individual swellings run together there are formed extensive 
 patches of thickened integument. These may appear on any part of 
 the body, and may be general; the eyelids may be closed, the lips 
 rendered immovable, or the nostrils so thickened that breathing 
 becomes difficult and snuffling. It may be attended by constipation 
 or diarrhea or by colicky pains. The eruption is sudden, the whole 
 skin being sometimes covered in a few hours, and it may disappear 
 with equal rapidity or persist for six or eight days. 
 
 Treatment. This consists in clearing out the bowels by 5 drama 
 Barbados aloes, or 1 pound Glauber's salts, and follow the operation 
 of these by daily doses of one-half ounce powdered gentian and 1 
 ounce Glauber's salts. A weak solution of alum may be applied to 
 the swellings. 
 
 SCALY SKIN DISEASE, OR PITYRIA8I8. 
 
 This affection is characterized by an excessive production and 
 detachment of dry scales from the surface of the .skin (dandruff). It 
 is usually dependent on some fault in digestion and an imperfect 
 secretion from the sebaceous glands, and is most common in old horses 
 with spare habit of body. Williams attributes it to food rich in sac-
 
 ERUPTIONS OF THE SKIN. 441 
 
 charine matter (carrots, turnips) and to the excretion by the skin 
 of oxalic acid. He has found it in horses irregularly worked and well 
 fed, and advises the administration of pitch for a length of time, and 
 the avoidance of saccharine food. Otherwise the horse may take a 
 laxative followed by dram doses of carbonate of potash, and the 
 affected parts may be bathed with soft tepid water and smeared 
 with an ointment made with vaseline and sulphur. In obstinate 
 cases sulphur may be given daily in the food. 
 
 NERVOUS IRRITATION OF THE SKIN, OR PRURITUS. 
 
 This is seen in horses fed to excess on grain and hay, kept in close 
 stables, and worked irregularly. Though most common in summer, 
 it is often severe in hot, close stables in winter. Pimples, vesicles, 
 and abrasions may result, but as the itching is quite as severe on other 
 parts of the skin, these may be the result of scratching merely. It is 
 especially common and inveterate about the roots of the mane and tail. 
 
 Treatment consists in a purgative (Glauber's salts, 1 pound), re- 
 stricted, laxative diet, and a wash of water slightly soured with oil of 
 vitriol and rendered sweet by carbolic acid. If obstinate, give daily 1 
 ounce of sulphur and 20 grains nux vomica. If the acid lotion 
 fails, 2 drams carbonate of potash and 2 grains of cyanide of potas- 
 sium in a quart of water will sometimes benefit. If due to pinworms 
 in the rectum, the itching of the tail may be remedied by an occasional 
 injection of a quart of water in which chips of quassia wood have been 
 steeped for twelve hours. 
 
 HERPES. 
 
 This name has been applied to a disease in which there is an erup- 
 tion of minute vesicles in circular groups or clusters, with little 
 tendency to burst, but rather to dry up into fine scabs. If the vesicles 
 break they exude a slight gummy discharge which concretes into a 
 small, hard scab. It is apparently noncontagious and not appreciably 
 connected with any disorder of internal organs. It sometimes accom- 
 panies or follows specific fevers, and is, on the whole, most frequent 
 at the seasons of changing the coat spring and autumn. It is seen 
 on the lips and pastern, but may appear on any part of the body. The 
 duration of the eruption is two weeks or even more, the tendency 
 being to spontaneous recovery. The affected part is very irritable, 
 causing a sensitiveness and a disposition to rub out of proportion to 
 the extent of the eruption. 
 
 Treatment. It may be treated by oxide of zinc ointment, and to 
 relieve the irritation a solution of opium or belladonna in water, or of 
 sugar of lead or oil of peppermint. A course of bitters (one-half an 
 ounce Peruvian bark daily for a week) may be serviceable in brac- 
 ing the system and producing an indisposition to the eruption.
 
 442 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 BLEEDING SKIN ERUPTIONS, OR DERMATORRHAOIA PARA8ITICA. 
 
 In China, Hungary, Spain, and other countries horses frequently 
 suffer from the presence of a threadworm (Filaria hcemorrhagica, 
 Railliet; F. multipapillosa^ Condamine and Drouilly) in the subcuta- 
 neous connective tissue, causing effusions of blood under the scurf 
 skin and incrustations of dried blood on the surface. The eruptions, 
 which appear mainly on the sides of the trunk, but may cover any 
 part of the body, are rounded elevations about the size of a small pea, 
 containing blood which bursts through the scurf skin and concretes 
 like a reddish scab around the erect, rigid hairs. These swellings 
 appear in groups, which remain out for several days, gradually 
 diminishing in size ; new groups appear after an interval of three or 
 four weeks, the manifestation being confined to three or four months 
 of spring and disappearing in winter. A horse will suffer for several 
 years in succession, and then permanently recover. A fatal issue is 
 not unknown. To find the worm the hair is shaved from the part 
 where the elevations are felt, and as soon as a bleeding point is shown 
 the superficial layer is laid open with the knife, when the parasite 
 will be seen drawing itself back into the parts beneath. The worm is 
 about 2 inches long and like a stout thread, thicker toward the head 
 than toward the tail, and with numerous little conical elevations 
 (papillae) around the head. The young worms are numerous in the 
 body of the adult female worm. The worm has become common in 
 given localities, and probably enters the system with food or water. 
 
 Treatment is not satisfactory, but the affected surface should be 
 kept clean by sponging, and the pressure of harness on any affected 
 part must be avoided. Thus rest may become essential. The part 
 may be frequently washed with a strong solution of sulphide of 
 potassium. 
 
 SUMMER SORES FROM FILARIA IRRITANS. 
 
 The summer sores of horses (Dermatitis granulom, boils) have 
 been traced to the presence in the skin of another parasite, 3 milli- 
 meters in length and extremely attenuated (Filaria initans Railliet). 
 The sores may be seen as small as a millet seed, but more frequently 
 the size of a pea, and may become an inch in diameter. They may 
 appear on any point, but are especially obnoxious where the harness 
 presses or on the lower parts of the limbs. They cause intense and 
 insupportable itching, and the victim rubs and bites the part until 
 extensive raw surfaces are produced. Aside from such frictioft the 
 sore is covered by a brownish-red, soft, pulpy material with cracks 
 or furrows filled with serous pus. In the midst of the softened mass 
 are small, firm, rounded granulations, fibrinous, and even caseated, 
 and when the soft pultaceous material has been scraped off, the sur- 
 face bears a resemblance to the fine yellow points of miliary tubercu-
 
 CEACKED HEELS. 443 
 
 losis in the lung. The worm or its debris is found in the center of 
 such masses. These sores are very obstinate, resisting treatment for 
 months in summer, and even after apparent recovery during the 
 cold season they may appear anew the following summer. In bad 
 cases the rubbing and biting may cause exposure of synovial sacs and 
 tendons, and cause irremediable injury. Even in winter, however, 
 when the diseased process seems arrested, there remain the hard, 
 firm, resistant patches of the skin with points in which the diseased 
 product has become softened like cheese. 
 
 The apparent subsidence of the disease in winter is attributed to the 
 coldness and comparative bloodlessness of the skin, whereas in sum- 
 mer, with high temperature, active circulation, and rapid cell growth, 
 inflammation is increased, itching follows, and from the animal rub- 
 bing the part the irritation is persistently increased. The hotter the 
 climate the more troublesome the disease. 
 
 The life history of the parasite is unknown, but it probably enters 
 the system with the food or water. 
 
 Treatment consists, first, in placing the animal in a cool place and 
 showering the surface with cold water. The parasite may be de- 
 stroyed by rubbing the surface of the wound with iodoform and 
 covering it with a layer of collodion, and repeating the applications 
 every twenty-four hours for fifteen days, or until the sores heal up. 
 Ether or chloroform may be used in place of iodoform, being poured 
 on cotton wool and applied to the sore for two minutes before paint- 
 ing it with collodion. 
 
 CRACKED HEELS (SCRATCHES, OR CHAPS ON KNEE AND HOCK). 
 
 This usually sets in with swelling, heat, and tenderness of the hol- 
 low of the heel, with erections of the hairs and redness (in white 
 skins), with stiffness and lameness, which may be extreme in irritable 
 horses. Soon slight cracks appear transversely, and may gain in 
 depth and width, and may even suppurate. More frequently they 
 become covered at the edges or throughout by firm incrustations re- 
 sulting from the drying of the liquids thrown out, and the skin be- 
 comes increasingly thick and rigid. A similar condition occurs 
 behind the knee and in front of the hock (malanders and salanders), 
 and may extend from these points to the hoof, virtually incasing that 
 side of the limb in a permanent incrusting sheath. 
 
 Causes. Besides a heavy lymphatic constitution, which predisposes 
 to this affection, the causes are overfeeding on grain, unwholesome 
 fodder, close, hot, dirty stables, constant contact with dung and urine 
 and their emanations, working in deep, irritant mud; above all, in 
 limestone districts, irritation by dry limestone or sandy dust in dry 
 weather on dirt roads; also cold drafts, snow and freezing mud, 
 washing the legs with caustic soap, wrapping the wet legs in thick
 
 444 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 woolen bandages which soak the skin and render it sensitive when 
 exposed next day, clipping the heels, weak heart and circulation, 
 natural or supervening on overwork, imperfect nourishment, impure 
 air, lack of sunshine, chronic exhausting, or debilitating diseases, 
 or functional or structural diseases of the heart, liver, or kidneys. 
 These last induce dropsical swelling of the limbs (stocking), weaken 
 the parts, and induce cracking. Finally the cicatrix of a preexist- 
 ing crack, weak, rigid, and unyielding, is liable to reopen under any 
 severe exertion, hence rapid paces and heavy draft are active causes. 
 Treatment. In treatment the first step is to ascertain and remove 
 the cause whenever possible. If there is much local heat and inflam- 
 mation, a laxative (5 drams aloes or 1 pound Glauber's salts) may be 
 given, and for the pampered animal the grain should be reduced or 
 replaced altogether by bran mashes, flaxseed, and other laxative, non- 
 stimulating food. In the debilitated, on the other hand, nutritious 
 food and bitter tonics may be given, and even a course of arsenic (5 
 grains arsenic with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda daily). When the 
 legs swell, exercise on dry roads, hand rubbing, and evenly applied 
 bandages are good, and mild astringents, like extract of witch-hazel, 
 may be applied and the part subsequently rubbed dry and bandaged. 
 If there is much heat but unbroken skin, a lotion of 2 drams sugar 
 of lead to 1 quart of water may be applied on a thin bandage, covered 
 in cold weather with a dry one. The same maybe used after the 
 cracks appear, or a solution of sulphurous acid 1 part, glycerin 1 part, 
 and water 1 part, applied on cotton and well covered by a bandage. 
 In case these should prove unsuitable to the particular case, the part 
 may be smeared with vaseline 1 ounce, sugar of lead 1 dram, and 
 carbolic acid 10 drops. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE HEELS WITH SEBACEOUS SECRETION ( GREASE, OR 
 
 CANKER). 
 
 This is a specific affection of the heels of horses usually associated 
 with the growth of a parasitic fungus, an offensive discharge from the 
 numerous sebaceous glands, and, in bad cases, the formation of red, 
 raw excrescences (grapes) from the surface. It is to be distinguished 
 (1) from simple inflammation in which the special fetid discharge 
 and the tendency to the formation of " grapes " are absent ; (2) from 
 horsepox, in which the abundant exudate forms a firm yellow in- 
 crustation around the roots of the hair, and is embedded at intervals 
 in the pits formed by the individual pocks, and in which there is no 
 vascular excrescence; (3) from foot scabies (mange), in which the 
 presence of an acarus is distinctive; (4) from lymphangitis, in which 
 the swelling appears suddenly extending around the entire limb as 
 high as the hock, nnd on the inner side of the thigh along the line of 
 the vein to the groin, and in which there is active fever, and (5) from
 
 GREASE, OB CANKER. 445 
 
 erysipelas, in which there is active fever (wanting in grease), the 
 implication of the deeper layers of the skin and of the parts beneath 
 giving a boggy feeling to the parts, the absence of the fetid, greasy 
 discharge, and finally a tendency to form pus loosely in the tissues 
 without any limiting membrane, as in abscess. Another distinctive 
 feature of grease is its tendency to implicate the skin which secretes 
 the bulbs or heels of the horny frog and in the cleft of the frog, con- 
 stituting the disease known as canker. 
 
 Causes. The predisposing causes of grease are essentially the same 
 as those of simple inflammation of the heel, so that the reader may 
 consult the preceding article, and though a specific fungus and bac- 
 teria of different kinds are present, they tend mainly to aggravation 
 of the disease, and are not proved to be essential factors in causation. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms vary according to whether the disease 
 comes on suddenly or more tardily. In the first case there is a sudden 
 swelling of the skin in the heel, with heat, tenderness, itching, and 
 stiffness, which is lessened during exercise. In the slower forms there 
 is only seen a slight swelling after rest, and with little heat or inflam- 
 mation for a week or more. Even at this early stage a slight serous 
 oozing may be detected. As the swelling increases, extending up 
 toward the hock or knees, the hairs stand erect, and are bedewed by 
 moisture no longer clear and odorless, but grayish, milky, and fetid. 
 The fetor of the discharge draws attention to the part whenever one 
 enters the stable, and the swollen pastern and wet, matted hairs on 
 the heel draw attention to the precise seat of the malady. If actively 
 treated, the disease may not advance further, but if neglected the 
 tense, tender skin cracks open, leaving open sores from which vascular 
 bleeding growths grow up, constituting the " grapes." The hair is 
 shed, and the heel may appear but as one mass of rounded, red, angry 
 excrescences which bleed on handling and are covered with the now 
 repulsively fetid decomposing discharge. During this time there is 
 little or no fever, the animal feeds well, and but for its local trouble it 
 might continue at work. When the malady extends to the frog, there 
 is a fetid discharge from its cleft or from the depressions at its sides, 
 and this gradually extends to its whole surface and upon the adjacent 
 parts of the sole. The horn meanwhile becomes soft, whitish, and 
 fleshy in aspect, its constituent tubes being greatly enlarged and 
 losing their natural cohesion ; it grows rapidly above the level of the 
 surrounding horn, and when pared is found to be penetrated to an 
 unusual depth by the secreting papillae, and that at intervals these 
 have bulged out into a vascular fungous mass comparable to the 
 " grapes." 
 
 Treatment. In treatment hygienic measures occupy a front rank, 
 but are in themselves insufficient to establish a cure. All local and 
 general conditions which favor the production and persistence of the
 
 446 DISEASES OF THE HORSED 
 
 disease must be guarded against. Above all, cleanliness and purity 
 of the stable and air must be secured; also nourishing diet, regular 
 exercise, and the avoidance of local irritants septic, muddy, chilling, 
 etc. At the outset benzoated oxide of zinc ointment may be used with 
 advantage. A still better dressing is made with 1 ounce vaseline, 2 
 drams oxide of zinc, and 20 drops iodized phenol. If the surface is 
 much swollen and tender, a flaxseed poultice may be applied over the 
 surface of which has been poured some of the following lotion : Sugar 
 of lead, one-half ounce; carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 1 quart. All 
 the astringents of the pharmacopoeia have been employed with more 
 or less advantage, and some particular one seems to suit particular 
 cases or patients. To destroy the grapes, they may be rubbed daily 
 with strong caustics (copperas, bluestone, lunar caustic), or each may 
 be tied round its neck by a stout waxed thread, or, finally and more 
 speedily, they may be cut off by a blacksmith's shovel heated to red- 
 ness and applied with its sharp edge toward the neck of the excres- 
 cence, over a cold shovel held between it and the skin to protect the 
 skin from the heat. The cold shovel must be kept cool by frequent 
 dipping in water. After the removal of the grapes the astringent 
 dressing must be persistently applied to the surface. When the frog 
 is affected, it must be pared to the quick and dressed with dry caustic 
 powders (quicklime, copperas, bluestone) or carbolic acid and sub- 
 jected to pressure, the dressing being renewed every day at least. 
 
 ERYSIPELAS. 
 
 This is a specific contagious disease, characterized by spreading 
 dropsical inflammation of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, attended 
 by general fever. It differs from most specific diseases in the absence 
 of a definite period of incubation, a regular course and duration, and 
 a conferring of immunity on the subject after recovery. On the con- 
 trary, one attack of erysipelas predisposes to another, partly, doubt- 
 less, by the loss of tone and vitality in the affected tissues, but also, 
 perhaps, because of the survival of the infecting germ. 
 
 Cause. It is no longer to be doubted that the microbes found in the 
 inflammatory product are the true cause of erysipelas, as the disease 
 can be successfully transferred from man to animals and from one 
 animal to another by their means. This transition may be direct or 
 through the medium of infected buildings or other articles. Yet from 
 the varying severity of erysipelas in different outbreaks and localities 
 it has been surmised that various different microbes are operative in 
 this disease, and a perfect knowledge of these might perhaps enable us 
 to divide erysipelas into two or more distinct affections. At present 
 we must recognize it as a specific inflammation due to a bacterial 
 poison and closely allied to septicemia. Erysipelas was formerly
 
 ERYSIPELAS. 447 
 
 known as surgical when it spread from a wound (through which the 
 germ had gained access) and medical, or idiopathic, when it started 
 independently of any recognizable lesion. Depending as it does, how- 
 ever, upon a germ distinct from the body, the disease must be looked 
 upon as such, no matter by what channel the germ found an entrance. 
 Erysipelas which follows a wound is usually much more violent than 
 the other form, the difference being doubtless partly due to the 
 lowered vitality of the wounded tissues and to the oxidation and 
 septic changes which are invited on the raw, exposed surface. As 
 apparently idiopathic cases may be due to infection throug"h bites of 
 insects, the small amount of poison inserted may serve to moderate 
 the violence. 
 
 This affection may attack a wound on any part of the horse's body, 
 while apart from wounds it is most frequent about the head and the 
 hind limbs. It is to be distinguished from ordinary inflammations 
 by its gradual extension from the point first attacked, by the abun- 
 dant liquid exudation into the affected part, by the tension of the skin 
 over the affected part, by its soft boggy feeling, allowing it to be 
 deeply indented by the finger, by the abrupt line of limitation between 
 the diseased and healthy skin, the former descending suddenly to the 
 healthy level instead of shading off slowly toward it, by the tendency 
 of the inflammation to extend deeply into the subjacent tissues and 
 into the muscles and other structures, by the great tendency to death 
 and sloughing of portions of skin and of the structures beneath, by 
 the formation of pus at various different points throughout the 
 diseased parts without any surrounding sac to protect the surround- 
 ing structures from its destructive action, and without the usual dis- 
 position of pus to advance harmlessly toward the surface and escape ; 
 and, finally, by a low prostrating type of fever, with elevated tem- 
 perature of the body, coated tongue, excited breathing, and loss of 
 appetite. The pus when escaping through a lancet wound is grayish, 
 brownish, or reddish, with a heavy or fetid odor, and intermixed with 
 shreds of broken-down tissues. The most destructive form, however, 
 is that in which pus is deficient and gangrene and sloughing more 
 speedy and extensive. 
 
 Treatment resolves itself mainly into the elimination from the 
 system of the poisonous products of the bacteria by laxatives and 
 diuretics, the sustaining of the failing vitality by tonics and stimu- 
 lants, above all those of the nature of antiferments, and the local 
 application of astringent and antiseptic agents. Internal treatment 
 may consist in 4 drams tincture of muriate of iron and one-half dram 
 muriate of ammonia or chlorate of potash, given in a pint of water 
 every two hours. To this may be added, liberally, whisky or brandy 
 when the prostration is very marked. Locally a strong solution of 
 iron, alum, or of sulphate of iron and laudanum may be used ; or the
 
 448 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 affected part may be painted with tincture of muriate of iron or with 
 iodized phenol. In mild cases a lotion of 4 drams sugar of lead and 
 2 ounces laudanum in a quart of water may be applied. It is desir- 
 able to avoid the formation of wounds and the consequent septic 
 action, yet when pus has formed and is felt by fluctuation under the 
 finger to be approaching the surface it should be freely opened with 
 a clean, sharp lancet, and the wound thereafter disinfected daily with 
 carbolic acid 1 part to water 10 parts, with a saturated solution of 
 hyposulphite of soda, or with powders of iodoform or salol. 
 
 HORSEPOX, ANTHRAX, AND CUTANEOUS GLANDERS ( FARCY). 
 
 These subjects will come more properly under the head of conta- 
 gious diseases. 
 
 CALLOSITIES. 
 
 These are simple thickening and induration of the cuticle by reason 
 of continued pressure, notably in lying down on a hard surface. Be- 
 ing devoid of hair, they cause blemishes; hence smooth floors and 
 good bedding should be secured as preventives. 
 
 HORNY SLOUGHS ( 8ITFASTS ) , OR SLOUGHING CALLOSITIES. 
 
 These are circumscribed sloughs of limited portions of the skin, the 
 result of pressure by badly fitting harness or by irritating masses of 
 dirt, sweat, and hairs under the harness. They are most common 
 under the saddle, but may be found under collar or breeching as well. 
 The sitfast is a piece of dead tissue which would be thrown off but 
 that it has formed firm connections with the fibrous skin beneath, or 
 even deeper w T ith the fibrous layers (fascia) of the muscles, or with 
 the bones, and is thus bound in its place as a persistent source of irri- 
 tation. The hornlike slough may thus involve the superficial part of 
 the skin only, or the whole thickness of the skin, and even of some of 
 the structures beneath. The first object is to remove the dead irri- 
 tant by dissecting it off with a sharp knife, after which the sore may 
 be treated with simple wet cloths or a weak carbolic-acid lotion, like a 
 common wound. If the outline of the dead mass is too indefinite, a 
 linseed-meal poultice will make its outline more evident to the opera- 
 tor. If the fascia or bone has become gangrenous, the dead portion 
 must be removed with the hornlike skin. During and after treat- 
 ment the horse must be kept at rest or the harness must be so adjusted 
 that no pressure can come near the affected parts. (See also page 
 470.) 
 
 WARTS. 
 
 These are essentially a morbid overgrowth of the superficial papil- 
 lary layer of the skin and of the investing cuticular layer. They are
 
 PI.ATK XXXV! . 
 
 , J *:"- _^ y v ^^3 
 
 
 ^ , 
 
 , \'<ir Kq 
 
 .\jrn-: s -I-HA'I' INKI-:ST 'nil-;
 
 PARASITES OF THE SKIN. 449 
 
 mostly seen in young horses, about the lips, eyelids, cheeks, ears, 
 beneath the belly, and on the sheath, but may develop anywhere. 
 The smaller ones may be clipped off with scissors and the raw surface 
 cauterized with bluestone. The larger may be sliced off with a sharp 
 knife, or if with a narrow neck they may be twisted off and then cau- 
 terized. If very vascular they may be strangled by a wax thread or 
 cord tied around their necks, at least three turns being made round 
 and the ends being fixed by passing them beneath the last preceding 
 turn of the cord, so that they can be tightened day by day as they 
 slacken by shrinkage of the tissues. If the neck is too broad it may be 
 transfixed several times with a double-threaded needle and then be 
 tied in sections. Very broad warts that can not be treated in this way 
 may be burned down to beneath the surface of the skin with a solder- 
 ing bolt at a red heat, and any subsequent tendency to overgrowth 
 kept down by bluestone. 
 
 BLACK PIGMENT TUMORS, OR MELANOSIS. 
 
 These are common in gray and in white horses on the naturally 
 black parts of the skin at the root of the tail, around the anus, vulva, 
 udder, sheath, eyelids, and lips. They are readily recognized by their 
 inky-black color, which extends throughout the whole mass. They 
 may appear as simple pealike masses, or as multiple tumors aggre- 
 gating many pounds, especially around the tail. In the horse these 
 are usually simple tumors, and may be removed with the knife. In 
 exceptional cases they prove cancerous, as they usually are in man. 
 
 EPITHELIAL CANCER, OR EPITHELIOMA. 
 
 This sometimes occurs on the lips at the angle of the mouth and 
 elsewhere in the horse. It begins as a small wartlike tumor, which 
 grows slowly at first, but finally bursts open, ulcerates, and extends 
 laterally and deeply in the skin and other tissues, destroying them as 
 it advances (rodent ulcer) . It is made up of a fibrous framework and 
 numerous round, ovoid, or cylindrical cavities, lined with masses of 
 epithelial cells, which may be squeezed out as a fetid caseous material. 
 The most successful treatment is early and thorough removal with the 
 knife. 
 
 VEGETABLE PARASITES OF THE SKIN. 
 
 PARASITE : Trichophyton tonsurans. MALADY : Tinea tonsurans, or 
 Circinate ringworm. This is especially common in young horses 
 coming into training and work, in low-conditioned colts in winter and 
 spring after confinement indoors and during molting, in lymphatic 
 rather than nervous subjects, and at the same time in several animals 
 that have herded together. The disease is common to man, and 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 29
 
 450 DISEASES OP THE HOBSE. 
 
 among the domestic animals to horse, ox, goat, dog, cat, and in rare 
 instances to sheep and swine. Hence it is common to find animals of 
 different species and their attendants suffering at once, the diseases 
 having been propagated from one to the other. 
 
 Symptoms. In the horse the symptoms are the formation of a cir- 
 cular scurfy patch where the fungus has established itself, the hairs of 
 the affected spot being erect, bristly, twisted, broken, or split up and 
 dropping off. Later the spot first affected has become entirely bald, 
 and a circular row of hairs around this are erect, bristly, broken, and 
 split. These in turn are shed and a new row outside passes through 
 the same process, so that the extension is made in more or less circular 
 outline. The central bald spot, covered with a grayish scurf and sur- 
 rounded by a circle of broken and split hairs, is characteristic. If the 
 scurf and diseased hairs are treated with caustic potash solution and 
 put under the microscope the natural cells of the cuticle and hair will 
 be seen to have become transparent, while the groups of spherical cells 
 and branching filaments of the fungus stand out prominently in the 
 substance of both, dark and unchanged. The eruption usually appears 
 on the back, loins, croup, chest, and head. It tends to spontaneous 
 recovery in a month or two, leaving for a time a dappled coat from 
 the spots of short, light-colored hair of the new growth. 
 
 The most effective way of reaching the parasite in the hair follicles 
 is to extract the hairs individually, but in the horse the mere shaving 
 of the affected part is usually enough. It may then be painted with 
 tincture of iodine twice a day for two weeks. Germs about the stable 
 may be covered up or destroyed by a whitewash of freshly burned 
 quicklime, the harness, brushes, etc., may be washed with caustic 
 soda, and then smeared with a solution of corrosive sublimate one-half 
 dram and water 1 pint. The clothing may be boiled and dried. 
 
 PARASITE: Achorion schonleini. MALADY: Favus, or Honeycomb 
 ringworm. Megnin and Goyau, who describe this in the horse, say 
 that it loses its characteristic honeycomb or cup-shaped appearance, 
 and forms only a series of closely aggregated, dry, yellowish crusts 
 the size of hemp seed on the trunk, shoulders, flanks, or thighs. 
 They are accompanied by severe itching, especially at night. The 
 cryptogam, formed of spherical cells with a few filaments only, 
 grows in the hair follicles and on the cuticle, and thus a crust often 
 forms around the root of a hair. Like the other cryptogams, their 
 color, as seen under the microscope, is unaffected by acetic acid, 
 alcohol, ether, or oil of turpentine, while the cells are turned bluish 
 by iodine. For treatment, remove the hair and apply tincture of 
 iodine or corrosive sublimate lotion, as advised under the last para- 
 graph. 
 
 PARASITE: Microsporon furfur. MALADY: Parasitic pityriasis. 
 This attacks the horse's head where the harness presses, and leads to
 
 PABASITES OF THE SKIN. 451 
 
 dropping of the hair, leaving bald patches covered with a branlike 
 scurf, without any eruption, heat, tenderness, swelling, or rigidity of 
 the skin. A lotion of carbolic acid 1 dram and water 2 ounces is 
 usually applied to effect a cure. 
 
 ANIMAL PARASITES OF THE SKIN. 
 
 Acariasis, or mange. This affection is due to the irritation of the 
 skin caused by the presence of nearly microscopic acarus, or mite. 
 The disease varies, however, according to the species of acarus which 
 infests the skin, so that we must treat of several different kinds of 
 acariasis. 
 
 PARASITE : Sarcoptes scdbiei equi. MALADY : Sarcoptic acariasis. 
 This is the special Sarcoptes of the horse, but under favorable condi- 
 tions it can be transmitted to ass and mule, and even to man, and may 
 live indefinitely on the human skin. The mite is nearly microscop- 
 ical, but may be detected with a magnifying lens among moving 
 scurf taken from the infected skin. Like all Sarcoptes, it burrows 
 little galleries in and beneath the scurf skin, where it hides and lays 
 its eggs and where its young are hatched. It is therefore often 
 difficult to find the parasite on the surface, unless the skin has been 
 heated by a temporary exposure to the sun or in a warm room. Even 
 then it may be needful to tie the scab on the human arm till a 
 pricking is felt, when the acarus will be found in the center of a 
 minute papule caused by its bite. Like other acari, this is wonder- 
 fully prolific, a new generation of fifteen individuals being possible 
 every fifteen days, so that in three months the offspring of a single 
 pair may produce generations aggregating 1,500.000 young. The 
 Sarcoptes have less vitality than the nonburrowing acari, as they 
 die in-an hour when kept apart from the skin in dry'air at a heat of 
 145 F. They live twelve to fourteen days apart from the skin in 
 the damp air of a stable. On a piece of damp hide they lived till 
 the twenty-fourth day, when they began to die, and all were dead 
 on the twenty-eighth. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are an incessant, intolerable, and in- 
 creasing itching erf some part of the skin (head, mane, tail, back, 
 etc.), the horse inclining himself toward the hand that scratches 
 him, and moving his lips as if himself scratching. The hairs may be 
 broken and rubbed off, but the part is never entirely bald, as in ring- 
 worm, and there may be papules or any kind of eruption or open 
 sores from the energy of the scratching. Scabs of any thickness 
 may form, but the special features are the intense itching and the 
 discovery of the acarus. 
 
 Treatment consists in the removal of the scabs by soapsuds, and, if 
 necessary, a brush and the thorough application of tobacco 1 ounces 
 and water 2 pints, prepared by boiling. This may be applied more
 
 452 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 than once, and should always be repeated after fifteen days, to destroy 
 the new brood that may have been hatched in the interval. All har- 
 ness and stable utensils should be similarly treated; blankets and 
 rubbers may be boiled, and the stalls should be covered with a white- 
 wash of quicklime, containing one-fourth pound of chloride of lime 
 to the gallon. 
 
 PARASITE: Sarcoptes mutans. MALADY: Sarcoptic acariasis of 
 fowls. This parasite belongs to chickens, but can live on the skin of 
 the fox and horse as well. A troublesome mange may therefore at 
 times be traceable to the proximity of a chicken roost. The general 
 symptoms and treatment are essentially the same as for Sarcoptes 
 scabiei equi. 
 
 PARASITE: Psoroptes equi (Dermatocoptes equi, Dermatodectes 
 equi}. MALADY: Psoroptic acariasis. This produces the most fre- 
 quent mange in horses, and as the parasite only bites the surface and 
 lives among the crusts under the shelter of the hair, it is very easily 
 discovered. It reproduces itself with equal rapidity and causes simi- 
 lar symptoms to those produced by the Sarcoptes. The same treat- 
 ment will suffice and is more promptly effectual. The purifying of 
 the stable must be more thorough, as the Psoroptes will survive 
 twenty to thirty days in the moist atmosphere of a stable, and may 
 even revive after six or eight weeks when subjected to moist warmth. 
 Infested pastures will therefore prove dangerous to horses for that 
 length of time, and, with rubbing posts, etc., should not be used. 
 
 PARASITE: Chorioptes bo-vis (Symbiotes equi, Dermatophagus equi, 
 Chorioptes spathiferus) . MALADY: Foot mange. This acarus at- 
 tacks the heels and lower parts of the legs, especially the hind ones, 
 and may be present for years without extending upon the body. 
 Like the Psoroptes, it lives on the surface, on the hairs, and among 
 the scabs. It gives rise to great itching, stamping, rubbing of the 
 one leg with the other, and the formation of papules, wounds, ulcerous 
 sores, and scabs. The intense itching will always suggest this para- 
 site, and the discovery of the acarus will identify the disease. The 
 treatment is the same as for the Sarcoptes, but may be confined to the 
 legs and the parts with which they come in contact. 
 
 PARASITE : Dermanyssns gallina>, or chicken acari. MALADY : Poul- 
 try acariasis. This is a large-sized acarus, though usually miscalled 
 " hen louse," and the disease " poultry-lousiness." The mite lives in 
 the hen manure and adjacent woodwork, but temporarily passes on 
 to the skin of man and of the horse and other quadrupeds, when 
 occasion serves. It causes much irritation, with the eruption of 
 papules or vesicles and the formation of sores and scabs. The ex- 
 amination of the skin is usually fruitless, as the attacks are mostly 
 made at night and the effects only may be seen during the day. 
 The proximity of hen manure swarming with the acari explains the
 
 PAEASITES OF THE SKIN. 453 
 
 trouble, and the removal of this and a whitewashing with quicklime, 
 with or without chloride of lime, will prevent future attacks. The 
 skin may still require bland ointments or lotions, as for congestion. 
 
 PARASITE: Larva of a Trombidium, Leptus americanus, or harvest 
 bug, misnamed jigger (chigoe). MALADY: Autumn mange. This 
 parasite is a brick-red acarus, visible to the naked eye on a dark 
 ground, and living on green vegetation in many localities. It attacks 
 man, and the horse, ox, dog, etc., burrowing under the skin and giving 
 rise to small papules and intolerable irritation. This continues for 
 two or three days only if no fresh acari are received, but will last 
 until cold, weather sets in if a fresh colony is received every day. 
 Horses at pasture suffer mainly on the lower part of the face. If 
 kept indoors the disease will disappear, or if left at pasture a weak 
 tar-water or solution of tobacco may be applied to the face. 
 
 PARASITES : Gamarus pteroptoides and Cheyletus live in musty fod- 
 ders and are found on the horse. 
 
 TICKS. 
 
 The wood ticks are familiar to inhabitants of uncultivated lands, 
 and prove troublesome parasites to man and beast alike. The tick 
 lives on bushes, and attaches itself to the mammal only to secure 
 a feast of blood, for when gorged it drops off to sleep off its debauch 
 on the soil. The tick produces great irritation by boring into the 
 skin with its armed proboscis. If pulled out, the head and thorax 
 are often left in the skin. They may be covered with oil to shut 
 out the air from their breathing pores, or by touching them with 
 a hot penknife they will be impelled to let go their hold. 
 
 GRUBS IN SKIN. 
 
 PARASITE: Hypoderma lineata. MALADY: Larvae (grubs) under 
 the skin. The larvse of a fly (probably Hypoderma lineata, whose 
 larvae in the skin of cattle are commonly known as "warbles") are 
 occasionally found in little sacs beneath the skin of horses. The 
 mature larva escapes in early summer and develops into a fly. In 
 districts where they exist the grubs should be pressed out of the skin 
 in the course of the winter and destroyed. 
 
 LARVAE (GRUBS) ON THE SKIN, OR FLYBLOW. 
 
 The following flies, among others, deposit their eggs on open sores 
 or on wet, filthy parts of the skin, where their larvse or grubs give 
 rise to serious trouble: Lucilia ccesar (bluebottle), Lucilia homini- 
 vorax (screwworm fly), Musca vomitoria (meat fly), and Sarcophaga 
 camaria (flesh fly). To prevent their attacks, wet, filthy hair should 
 be removed and wounds kept clean and rendered antiseptic by a 
 lotion of carbolic acid 1 part, water 50 parts, or by a mixture of 1
 
 454 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ounce oil of tar in 20 ounces sweet oil, or by some other antiseptic. 
 If the grubs are already present they should be picked off and one 
 of these dressings freely applied. 
 
 FLIES. 
 
 A number of flies attack horses and suck their blood, producing 
 great annoyance, and in some instances death. These insects not only 
 suck the blood, but also often instill an acid poison into the skin, and 
 in exceptional cases transfer infectious germs from animal to animal 
 by inoculation. 
 
 Various devices are resorted to to prevent the attacks, as to sponge 
 the skin with a decoction of walnut or elder leaves, of tobacco, to dust 
 with Persian insect powder, to keep a light blanket or fly net on the 
 horse, to close doors and windows with fine screens and destroy by 
 pyrethrum any flies that have gained admission, to remove all manure 
 heaps that would prove breeding places for flies, to keep the stalls 
 clean, deodorize by gypsum, and to spread in them trays of dry chlo- 
 ride of lime. For the poisoned bites apply ammonia, or a solution of 
 1 part of carbolic acid in 20 parts of sweet oil or glycerin, or one- 
 fourth ounce bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram of carbolic acid in a 
 quart of water may be used. 
 
 STINGS OF BEES, WASPS, AND HORNETS. 
 
 These are much more irritating than the bites of flies, partly be- 
 cause the barbed sting is left in the wound, and partly because of the 
 amount and quality of the venom. When a swarm attacks an animal 
 the result may prove fatal. 
 
 Treatment consists in the application of wet clay, or of a lotion of 
 soda or ammonia, or of carbolic acid, or permanganate of potash, 2 
 grains to the ounce, or of sugar of lead 2 drams, laudanum 1 ounce, 
 and water 1 pint. The embedded stings should be extracted with fine 
 forceps or even with the finger nails. 
 
 FLEA, OR PTJLEX. . 
 
 The flea of man and those of the dog and cat, when numerous, will 
 bite the horse and give rise to rounded swellings on the skin. To dis- 
 pose of them it is needful to clear the surroundings of the grublike 
 larva? as well as to treat the victim. The soil may be sprinkled with 
 quicklime, carbolic acid, coal tar, or petroleum; the stalls may be 
 deluged with boiling water and afterwards painted with oil of tur- 
 pentine and littered with fresh pine sawdust, and all blankets should 
 be boiled. The skin may be sponged with a solution of 1 part carbolic 
 acid in 50 parts of water. Dogs, cats, and pigs should be dressed 
 with the same lotion, or, better, removed from the vicinity of the 
 stable.
 
 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 455 
 
 The chigoe (Pulex penetrans) of the Gulf coast is still more injuri- 
 ous, because it burrows under the surface and deposits its eggs to be 
 hatched out slowly with much irritation. The tumor formed by it 
 should be laid open and the parasite extracted. If it bursts so that 
 its eggs escape into the wound, they may be destroyed by introduc- 
 ing a wire at a red heat. 
 
 LICE, OR PEDICULI. 
 
 Two kinds of lice attack the horse, one of which is furnished with 
 narrow head and a proboscis for perforating the skin and sucking the 
 blood, and the other the broad-headed kind with strong mandibles, 
 by which it bites the skin only. Of the bloodsuckers, one is common 
 to horse and ass and another to horse and ox, while of the nonsucking 
 lice one species attacks horse and ox and a second ox and ass. The 
 poor condition, itching, and loss of hair should lead to suspicion, and 
 a close examination will detect the lice. They may be destroyed by 
 rubbing the victim with sulphur ointment, or with sulphuret of potas- 
 sium 4 ounces, water 1 gallon, or with tar water, or the skin may be 
 sponged with benzine. The application should be repeated a week 
 later to destroy all lice hatched from the nits in the interval. Build- 
 ings, clothes, etc., should be treated as for fleas. 
 
 TARANTULA AND SCORPION. 
 
 The bite of the first and the sting of the second are poisonous, and 
 may be treated like other insect venom, by carbolated glycerin, or a 
 strong solution of ammonia, or permanganate of potash. 
 
 SNAKE BITES. 
 
 These are marked by the double incision caused by the two fangs, 
 by the excessive doughy (dark red) swelling around the wounds, and 
 in bad cases by the general symptoms of giddiness, weakness, and 
 prostration. They are best treated by enormous doses of alcohol, 
 whisky, or brandy, or by aqua ammonia very largely diluted in water, 
 the object being to sustain life until the poison shall have spent its 
 power. As local treatment, if the wound is in a limb, the latter may 
 have a handkerchief or cord tied around it above the injury and 
 drawn tight by a stick twisted into it. In this way absorption may be 
 checked until the poison can be destroyed by the application of a hot 
 iron or a piece of nitrate of silver or other caustic. A poultice of 
 tobacco leaves is a favorite remedy, and may be used to soothe the 
 sore after cauterization. 
 
 BURNS AND SCALDS. 
 
 For scalds the surface may be bathed with a solution of bicarbonate 
 of soda, sweetened or not by carbolic acid, or a weak solution of sugar
 
 456 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of lead may be used ; or the surface may be dusted thickly with starch 
 or flour and covered with the cotton wool, or oil of turpentine may be 
 applied over the scalded skin. Burns are well treated by liniment 
 made of equal parts of lime water and linseed oil (Carron oil). 
 For both kinds of injuries cosmoline 10 parts, and carbolic acid 1 
 part, proves an excellent dressing. Blisters should be pricked with 
 a needle and emptied to prevent their rupture and exposures of the 
 raw surface. 
 
 Severe burns, leading to destruction of very extensive patches of 
 skin, usually render a horse useless by reason of the contraction of the 
 resulting scar. Hence the treatment of such is rarely advisable, unless 
 followed by a skillful plastic operation. In other cases a skillful 
 transplanting of epidermis, shaved from a healthy surface with a 
 sharp razor, will secure the healing of a granulating wound which 
 has proved obstinate to all other measures. In cases of burns with 
 mineral acids (sulphuric, nitric, or hydrochloric) avoid water, as that 
 will develop heat, and cover the surface with dry whiting or chalk, 
 and only when effervescence has ceased wash off with water. When 
 the caustic has been a salt (copperas, bluestone, chloride of zinc, etc.) 
 apply limewater or white of egg. If the irritant has been caustic 
 potash, soda, or ammonia, vinegar should be the first application. If 
 sores result they may be treated like ordinary wounds. 
 
 WOUNDS OF THE SKIN. 
 
 These are divided into incised (clean cut) wounds, lacerated (torn) 
 wounds, and contused (bruised) and punctured wounds. 
 
 Incised wounds are the simplest, and the sharper the instrument 
 and the cleaner the cut the greater the hope of speedy healing. 
 Something, however, depends on the seat and direction of the wound ; 
 thus, one running from before backward on the body, or from above 
 downward in the limb, will not tend to be drawn open and gape as 
 would one running transversely on the body or limb. Again, a wound 
 on a joint and running across the limb will gape when the joint is 
 bent. Again, a clean-cut wound which has not been exposed to the 
 air, and which lodges no foreign body and no septic nor infecting 
 germ, will heal readily by simple adhesion, whereas those that have 
 been exposed and contain matter foreign to the tissues will have 
 healing delayed or prevented by the disturbing action of such bodies. 
 
 Healing in wounds may be said to take place by these modes : 
 
 (1) By primary adhesion, in which case the spherical (embryonic) 
 cells, and the stellate connective tissue cells thrown out on the surface 
 of the wound rapidly multiply and form a bond of union between 
 the divided lips. Union by this means may be effected within
 
 WOUNDS OF THE SKIN. 457 
 
 twenty-four hours after the wound has been inflicted. Of all do- 
 mestic animals, however, the horse is the least prone to such union, 
 being more disposed to the formation of pus. 
 
 (2) By granulation, which is the common form of healing in raw, 
 exposed sores, in those containing foreign bodies and septic and in- 
 fecting ferments; also in torn and contused wounds. In this form 
 the wound becomes covered with a layer of embryonic cells, of which 
 the superficial ones degenerate into pus cells, and thus the surface is 
 kept moist by a layer of whitish, creamy pus. In the deeper layer of 
 cells minute loops of capillary blood vessels start up, causing the small 
 rounded elevations known as granulations. In this way the deeper 
 layer of cells receiving a blood supply is transformed into connective 
 tissue, and from its surface new loops of blood vessels start into the 
 layer above, and thus layer after layer of new tissue is formed, and 
 the breach caused by the wound is gradually filled up. The new tis- 
 sue as formed undergoes a steady contraction, drawing in the ad- 
 jacent skin over the wound, and hence large wounds healed in this 
 way have the skin more or less puckered around them. 
 
 (3) By secondary adhesion, in which, two granulating lips of a 
 wound having been brought together and kept in apposition, union 
 takes place through the medium of the cells, as in primary adhesion. 
 
 (?) By scabbing, in which the exudation on the surface of the 
 wound dries up into a firm scab, under which the process of repair 
 goes on by the development of tissue from the deeper cells, as in ad- 
 hesion. 
 
 Treatment. In treating clean, incised wounds, attempts should be 
 made to secure healing by primary adhesion, even in the horse. 
 Bleeding should first be arrested, or nearly so, by applying a cold 
 or hot sponge, or by tying bleeding vessels, and the lips of the wound 
 should then be closed accurately, without any twisting or overlap- 
 ping. In small wounds pieces of sticking plaster may be used, the 
 lips of the wound having first been smoothly shaved, so that they 
 may adhere firmly. In larger wounds the wound may be sewed with 
 a curved surgical needle and a silk thread dipped in a solution of 
 carbolic acid. The stitches may be continued from end to end of 
 the wound and the thread prevented from slipping and loosening 
 by a knot at each end ; or the stitches may be independent, the two 
 ends being tied together across the wound. In such cases they may 
 be one-quarter to one-third inch apart ; or the lips of the wound may 
 be pinned together, the pins in a simple skin wound being inserted 
 one-eighth inch from the edge, and when both lips have been trans- 
 fixed in this way a thread (or hair) carried successively around the 
 two ends of the pin and made to describe a figure 8 will hold the 
 wound close. When the stitching is not continuous from end to end
 
 458 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of the wound the apposition of the edges will be rendered more per- 
 fect by the application of strips of sticking plaster in the intervals. 
 
 When efforts at primary union have failed and pus has formed, or 
 fermentative changes have occurred on the raw surfaces and the lips 
 gape more or less, some antiseptic dressing will be required, as in the 
 case of lacerated and contused wounds. 
 
 In cases where an incised wound has had foreign bodies or septic 
 ferments introduced into it these should first be removed. A current 
 of water that has been boiled and cooled is one of the best methods of 
 cleansing a wound, and there is no objection to the addition of one- 
 twentieth of its amount of carbolic acid, as this will tend to destroy 
 any germ life that might otherwise prove fatal to the healing process. 
 Then the wound may be stitched up as if it' had been clean, and a 
 daily dressing of carbolic acid 1 part and sweet oil 10 parts may be 
 applied. 
 
 For a wound on the convex surface of a joint, where stitches are 
 not sufficient to keep the lips accurately applied to each other, the 
 movement of the joint may be temporarily abolished by the applica- 
 tion of a splint and bandage, and in any such case the bandage should 
 be applied uniformly from the hoof upward, as otherwise the limb 
 below the bandage is liable to swell or even die. 
 
 The treatment of contused, punctured, and lacerated wounds de- 
 mands cleansing and antiseptic applications as for an incised wound, 
 but as primary adhesion is next to impossible, the same accurate appo- 
 sition of the lips by stitching is not so essential. If portions of skin 
 or other tissue are so detached or crushed that they can not possibly 
 live, they may be cut off, but if there is any doubt on this matter the 
 injured portion should be left and every attempt should be made to 
 preserve it. Such portions of the wound as are free from such fatally 
 injured parts may be disinfected by the carbolic lotion referred to 
 nbove and stitched up like a clean wound. The severely injured parts 
 may be left open to discharge, and the whole may be dressed daily 
 with the carbolized oil or with a solution of 1 part of mercuric chlo- 
 ride in 1,000 of water. 
 
 Granulating wounds may be irrigated with the mercuric chloride 
 solution, and if the granulations become inflamed (soft, flabby, exu- 
 berant, rising above the edges of the wound), they may be touched 
 lightly with a stick of lunar caustic, so as to leave them covered with 
 a white film. 
 
 In all wounds that fail to heal by primary union an elaborate anti- 
 septic treatment is desirable, but the difficulty of applying this suc- 
 cessfully to the horse in an ordinary stable would seem to forbid a 
 lengthy description in a book of this kind.
 
 WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 
 
 By CH. B. MICHENEE, V. S. 
 
 [Revised in 1903 by John R. Mohler, V. M. D., A. M.] 
 DESCRIPTION OF WOUNDS. 
 
 A wound is an injury to any part of the body involving a solution 
 of continuity or disruption of the affected parts and is caused by 
 violence, with or without laceration of the skin. In accordance with 
 this definition we have the following varieties of wounds: Incised, 
 punctured, contused, lacerated, gunshot, and poisoned. They may 
 further be classified as superficial, deep, or penetrating, and also as 
 unclean, if hair, dirt, or splinters of wood are present; as infected, 
 when contaminated with germs ; and as aseptic, if the wound does not 
 contain germs. 
 
 An incised wound is a simple cut made with a sharp body, like a 
 knife, producing merely a division of the tissues. The duller the 
 body, the more force is required, the more tissues destroyed, and a 
 greater time will be required for healing. In a cut wound the edges 
 are even and definite, while those of a lacerated wound are irregular 
 and torn. Three conditions are present as a result of an incised 
 wound: (1) Pain, (2) hemorrhage, (3) gaping of the wound. The 
 first pain is due to the crushing and tearing of the nerve fibers. In 
 using a sharp knife and by cutting quickly, the animal suffers less 
 pain and healing occurs more rapidly. The secondary pain is usu- 
 ally due to the action of the air and inflammatory processes. When 
 air is kept from the wound pain ceases soon after the lesion is pro- 
 duced. Hemorrhage is absent only in wounds of nonvascular tissues, 
 as the cornea of the eye, the cartilage of joints, and other similar 
 structures. Bleeding may be from the arteries, veins, or capillaries. 
 In the latter form of bleeding the blood oozes from the part in drops. 
 Hemorrhage from the veins is dark red and issues in a steady stream 
 without spurting. In arterial bleeding the blood is bright red and 
 spurts with each heart beat. This latter variety of hemorrhage is 
 the most dangerous, and should be stopped at once before attempting 
 any further treatment. Bleeding from small veins and capillaries 
 ceases in a short time spontaneously, while larger vessels, especially 
 arteries, require some form of treatment to cause complete stoppage 
 of the hemorrhage. 
 
 459
 
 460 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 HEMOSTA8IA. 
 
 By this term is meant the checking of the flow of blood. It may be 
 accomplished by several methods, such as compress bandages, torsion, 
 hot iron, and ligatures. The heat from a hot iron will cause the im- 
 mediate clotting of the blood in the vessels, and this clot is further 
 supported by the production of a scab, or crust, over the portion 
 seared. The iron should be at a red heat. If at a white heat, the tissue 
 is charred, which makes it brittle and the bleeding is apt to be re- 
 newed. If the iron is at a black heat, the tissue will stick to the iron 
 and will pull away from the surface of the wound. Cold water and 
 ice bags quickly stop capillary bleeding, while hot water is preferable 
 in more excessive hemorrhages. Some drugs, called styptics, possess 
 the power of contracting the walls of blood vessels and also of clot- 
 ting the blood. A solution of the chloride of iron placed on a wound 
 alone or by means of cotton drenched in the liquid produces a rapid 
 and hard clot. Tannic acid, alum, acetic acid, alcohol, and oil of tur- 
 pentine are all more or less active in this respect. To check bleeding 
 from large vessels compression may be adopted. When it is rapid 
 and dangerous and from an artery, the fingers may be used for press- 
 ing between the wound and the heart (digital compression), but if 
 from a vein, the pressure should be exerted on the other side of the 
 wound. Tourniquet may also be used by passing a strap around the 
 part and tightening after placing a pad over the hemorrhage. The 
 rubber ligature has now replaced the tourniquet and is bound tightly 
 around the limb to arrest the bleeding. Tampons, such as cotton, tow, 
 or oakum, may be packed tightly in the wound and then sewed up. 
 After remaining there for twenty-four or forty-eight hours they are 
 removed. Bleeding may sometimes be easily checked by passing a 
 pin under the vessel and by taking a horsehair and forming a figure 
 8 by running it above and below the pin, thus causing pressure on the 
 vessel. Torsion is the twisting of the blood vessel until the walls 
 come together and form a barrier to the flow of blood. It may be ac- 
 complished by the fingers, forceps, or by running a pin through the 
 vessel, turning it several times, and then running the point into the 
 tissue to keep it in a fixed position. 
 
 Ligation is the third method for stopping a hemorrhage. Seize 
 the blood vessel with the artery forceps, pass a clean thread of silk 
 around it, and tie about one-half inch from its end. The silk should 
 be sterilized by placing it in an antiseptic solution so as not to impede 
 the healing process or cause blood poisoning or lockjaw, which often 
 follows the ligation of a vein with unsterilized material. Sometimes 
 it will be impossible to reach the bleeding vessel, so it is necessary to 
 pass the ligature around a mass of tissue which includes the blood 
 vessel. Ligation is the most useful method of arresting hemorrhage,
 
 WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 461 
 
 since it disturbs healing least and gives the greatest security against 
 secondary hemorrhage. 
 
 SUTURES. 
 
 After the bleeding has been controlled and all foreign bodies 
 removed from the wound, the gaping of the wound is noticeable. It 
 is caused by the contraction of the muscles and elastic fibers, and its 
 degree depends on the extent, direction, and nature of the cut. This 
 gaping will hinder the healing process so that it must be overcome by 
 bringing the edges together by some sort of sutures or pins, or by a 
 bandage applied from below upward. As suture material, ordinary 
 cotton thread is good if well sterilized, as is also horsehair, catgut, 
 silk, and various kinds of wire. If the suture is made too tight, the 
 subsequent swelling may cause the stitch to tear out. In order to 
 make a firm suture the depth of the stitch should be the same as 
 the distance the stitch is from the edge of the wound. The deeper 
 the suture the more tissue is embraced and the fewer the number of 
 stitches required. In tying a suture use the square or reef knot. 
 Closure of wounds by means of adhesive plaster, collodion, and metal 
 clamps is not practiced to any great extent in veterinary practice. 
 
 PROCESS OF HEALING. 
 
 In those cases where perfect stoppage of bleeding, perfect coapta- 
 tion of the edges of the wound, and perfect cleanliness are obtained, 
 healing occurs within three days, without the formation of granula- 
 tions, pus, or proud flesh, by what is termed first intention. If wounds 
 do not heal in this manner they will gap somewhat and become warm 
 and painful. Healing then occurs by granulation or suppuration, 
 which is termed healing by second intention. The sides of the wound 
 become covered with granulation tissue which may fill the wound and 
 sometimes overlap the lips, forming a fungoid growth called proud 
 flesh. Under favorable conditions the edges of the wound appear to 
 grow together by the end of the first week, and the whole surface 
 gradually becomes dry, and finally covered with pigmented skin, when 
 the wound is healed. The cause of pus formation in wounds is usually 
 due to the presence of germs. For this reason the utmost care should 
 be adopted to keep clean wounds aseptic, or free from germs, and to 
 make unclean wounds antiseptic by using antiseptic fluids to kill the 
 microbes present in the wound. The less the injurious action of this 
 fluid on the wound, and the greater its power to kill germs, the more 
 valuable it becomes. All antiseptics are not equally destructive, and 
 some germs are more susceptible to one antiseptic than to another. 
 The most important are (1) bichloride of mercury, which is to be pre- 
 ferred on horses. It becomes weakened in its action if placed in a 
 wooden pail or on an oily or greasy surface. It is used in the strength
 
 462 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of 1 part of bichloride to 1,000 to 5,000 parts of water, according to 
 the delicacy of the tissue to which it is applied. (2) Carbolic acid in 
 from 2 to 5 per cent solution is used on infected wounds and for clean- 
 ing instruments, dressings, and sponges. It unites well with oil and 
 is preferred to the bichloride of mercury on a greasy surface. A 5 
 per cent solution in oil is often used under the name of carbolized oil. 
 (3) Aluminum acetate is an efficient and cheap antiseptic, and is com- 
 posed of 1 part alum and 5 parts acetate of lead, mixed in 20 parts of 
 water. (4) Boracic acid is good in a 2 to 4 per cent solution to cleanse 
 wounds and wash eyes. Creolin and lysol may be used in a 2 to 5 per 
 cent solution in water. lodof orm is one of the most used of the anti- 
 septics and it also acts as an anodyne, stimulates granulation, and 
 checks wound secretion. A very efficacious and inexpensive powder 
 is made by taking 5 parts of iodoform and 95 parts of sugar, making 
 what is called iodoform sugar. Tannic acid is a useful drug in the 
 treatment of wounds, in that it arrests hemorrhage, checks secre- 
 tion, and favors the formation of a scab. A mixture of 1 part tannic 
 acid and 3 parts iodoform is good in suppurating wounds. lodol, 
 white sugar, ground and roasted coffee, and powdered charcoal are all 
 used as protectives and absorbents on suppurating surfaces. More 
 depends on the care and the method of application of the drug than on 
 the drug itself. On aseptic wounds use only those antiseptics that do 
 not irritate the tissue. If care is used in the application of the anti- 
 septic, corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid is to be recommended, 
 but in the hands of irresponsible parties lysol or creolin is safer. In 
 order to keep air from the wound and to absorb all wound secretions 
 rapidly, a dressing should be applied. If the wound is aseptic, the 
 dressing should be likewise, such as cotton gauze, sterile cotton, 
 oakum, or tow. This dressing should be applied with uniform pres- 
 sure at all times and secured by a bandage. Allow it to remain for a 
 week or ten days if the wound is aseptic or if the dressing does not 
 become loose or misplaced or become drenched with secretions from 
 the wound, or if pain, fever, or loss of appetite does not develop. 
 The dressing should then be removed, the wound treated antiseptically, 
 and a sterilized dressing applied. 
 
 HEALING UNDER A SCAB. 
 
 This often occurs in small superficial wounds that have been kept 
 aseptic. In order for a scab to form, the wound must not gap, 
 secrete freely, or become infected with germs. The formation of scab 
 is favored by astringents and styptics, such as tannic acid, iodoform, 
 and 5 per cent solution of zinc chloride. In case of large hollow 
 wounds that can. not be dressed, such as fistulous withers, open joints, 
 etc., antisepsis may be obtained by warm water irrigation with or 
 without an antiseptic fluid. It should continue day and night, and
 
 LACEBATED AND CONTUSED WOUNDS. 463 
 
 never be interrupted for more than eight hours, for germs will then 
 have gained headway and will be difficult to remove. Four or five 
 days of irrigation will be sufficient, for granulations will then have 
 formed and pus will remain on the outside if it forms. For perma- 
 nent irrigation the stream should be very small, or drop by drop, but 
 should play over the entire surface of the wound. It is always better 
 to heal an infected wound under a* scab, or treat it as an open wound, 
 than it is to suture the wound, thus favoring the growth of the in- 
 closed germs and retarding ultimate healing. In the latter case pus 
 may develop in the wound, form pockets by sinking into the tissues, 
 and cause various complications. Such pockets should be well drained, 
 either through incisions at the bottom or by drainage tubes or setons. 
 They should then be frequently syringed out or continuously irrigated. 
 In case proud flesh appears it should be kept down either by pressure 
 or by caustics, as powdered bluestone, silver nitrate, chloride of 
 antimony, or by astringents, such as burnt alum. If they prove 
 resistant to this treatment they may be removed by scissors or the 
 knife or by searing with the hot iron. The following rules for the 
 treatment of wounds should be followed: (1) See that the wound is 
 clean, removing all foreign bodies. (2) For this purpose use a clean 
 finger rather than a probe. (3) Arrest all hemorrhage before closing 
 the wound. (4) Antiseptics should only be used if you suspect the 
 wound to be infected. (5) When pus is present treat without closing 
 the wound. (6) This may be accomplished by drainage tubes, absorb- 
 ent dressings, setons, or continuous irrigations. (7) Protect the 
 wound against infection while healing. 
 
 LACERATED AND CONTUSED WOUNDS. 
 
 Lacerated and contused wounds may be described together, 
 although there is, of course, this difference, that in contused wounds 
 there is no break or laceration of the skin. Lacerated wounds, how- 
 ever, are, as a rule, also contused the surrounding tissues are bruised 
 to a greater or lesser extent. While such wounds may not appear 
 at first sight to be as serious as incised wounds, they are commonly 
 very much more so. Lacerations and contusions, when extensive, are 
 always to be regarded as dangerous. Many horses die from septic 
 infection or mortification as a result of these injuries. We find in 
 severe contusions an infiltration of blood into the surrounding tissues ; 
 disorganization and mortification follow^ and involve often the deeper 
 seated structures. Abscesses, single or multiple, may also result and 
 call for special treatment. 
 
 In wounds that are lacerated the amount of hemorrhage is mostly 
 inconsiderable ; even very large blood vessels may be torn apart with- 
 out inducing a fatal result. The edges of the wound are ragged and 
 uneven. These wounds are produced by barbed wire or some blunt
 
 464 DISEASES OP THE HOUSE. 
 
 object, as where a horse runs against fences, board piles, the corners 
 of buildings, or where he is struck by .the pole or shafts of another 
 team, falling on rough irregular stones, etc. 
 
 Contused wounds are caused by blunt instruments moving with 
 sufficient velocity to bruise and crush the tissues, as running against 
 objects, kicks, or falling on large, hajd masses. 
 
 Treatment. In lacerated wounds* great care must at first be exer- 
 cised in examining or probing to the very bottom of the rent or tear, 
 to see if any foreign body be present. Very often splinters of wood 
 or bits of stone or dirt are thus lodged, and unless removed prevent 
 the wound from healing; or if it should heal the wound soon opens 
 again, discharging a thin, gluey matter that is characteristic of the 
 presence of some object in the part. After a thorough exploration 
 these wounds are to be carefully and patiently fomented with warm 
 water, to which has been added carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 
 part to 100 of water. Rarely, if ever, are stitches to be inserted in 
 lacerated wounds. The surrounding tissues and skin are so weakened 
 in vitality and structure by the contusions that stitches will not hold ; 
 they only irritate the parts. It is better to endeavor to secure coap- 
 tation by means of bandages, plasters, or collodion. One essential in 
 the treatment of lacerated wounds is to secure a free exit for the pus. 
 If the orifice of the wound is too high, or if pus is found to be bur- 
 rowing in the tissues beneath the opening, we must then make a 
 counter opening as low as possible. This will admit of the wound 
 being thoroughly washed out, at first with warm water, and after- 
 wards injected with some mild astringent and antiseptic wash, as 
 chloride of zinc, 1 dram to a pint of water. A dependent opening 
 must be maintained until the wound ceases to discharge. Repeated 
 hot fomentations over the region of lacerated wounds afford much 
 relief and should be persisted in. 
 
 BRUISES. 
 
 Bruises are nothing but contused wounds where the skin has 
 not been ruptured. There is often considerable solution of con- 
 tinuity of the parts under the skin, subcutaneous hemorrhage, 
 etc., which may result in local death (mortification) and slough of 
 the bruised parts. If the bruise or contusion is not so severe, many 
 cases are quickly cured by constant fomentation with hot water for 
 from two to four hours. The water should be allowed about this 
 time to gradually become cool and then cold. Cold fomentation must 
 then be kept up for another hour or two. Dry the parts thoroughly 
 and quickly and bathe them freely with camphor. 1 ounce, sweet oil 
 8 ounces, or with equal parts of lead water and laudanum. A dry, 
 light bandage should then be applied, the horse allowed to rest, 
 and if necessary the treatment may be repeated each day for two or
 
 PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 465 
 
 three days. If, however, the wound is so severe that sloughing must 
 ensue, we should encourage this by poultices made of linseed meal, 
 wheat bran, turnips, onions, bread and milk, or hops. Charcoal is 
 to be sprinkled over the surface of the poultice when the wound is 
 bad smelling. After the slough has fallen off the wound is to be 
 dressed with warm antiseptic washes of carbolic acid, chloride of 
 zinc, permanganate of potash, etc. If granulating (filling up) too 
 fast, use burnt alum or air-slaked lime. Besides this local treatment, 
 we find that the constitutional symptoms of fever and inflammation 
 call for measures to prevent or control them. This is best done by 
 placing the injured animal on soft or green food. A physic of Bar- 
 bados aloes, 1 ounce, should be given as soon as possible after the 
 accident. Sedatives, such as tincture of aconite root, 15 drops, 
 three times a day, or ounce doses of saltpeter every four hours, may 
 also be administered. When the symptoms of fever are abated, and 
 if the discharges from the wound are abundant, the strength of the 
 patient must be supported by good food and tonics. One of the 
 best tonics is as follows: Powdered sulphate of iron, powdered gen- 
 tian, and powdered ginger, of each 4 ounces. Mix thoroughly and 
 give a heaping tablespoonful twice a day, on the feed or as a drench. 
 
 PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 
 
 Punctured wounds are produced by the penetration of a sharp or 
 blunt pointed substance, such as a thorn, fork, nail, etc., and the 
 orifice of these wounds is always small in proportion to their depth. 
 In veterinary practice punctured wounds are much more common 
 than the others. They involve the feet most frequently, next the 
 legs, and often the head and face from nails protruding through the 
 stalls and trough. They are not only the most frequent, but they are 
 also the most serious, owing to the difficulty of obtaining thorough 
 disinfection. Another circumstance rendering them so is the lack of 
 attention that they at first receive. The external wound is so small 
 that but little or no importance is attached to it, yet in a short time 
 swelling, pain, and acute inflammation, often of a serious character, 
 are manifested. 
 
 Considering the most common of the punctured wounds, we must 
 give precedence to those of the feet. Horses worked in cities, about 
 iron works, around building places, etc., are most likely to receive 
 " nails in the feet." The animal treads upon nails, pieces of iron 
 or screws, and forces them into the soles of the feet. If the nail, or 
 whatever it is that has punctured the foot, is fast in some large or 
 heavy body, and is withdrawn as the horse lifts his foot, lameness 
 may last for only a few steps; but unless properly attended to at 
 once he will be found in a day or two to be very lame in the injured 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 30
 
 466 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 member. If the foreign body remains in the foot, he gradually grows 
 worse from the time of puncture until the cause is discovered and 
 removed. If, when shoeing, a nail is driven into the " quick " (sensi- 
 tive laminae) and allowed to remain, the horse gradually evinces more 
 pain from day to day ; but if the nail has at once been removed by the 
 smith, lameness does not, as a rule, show itself for some days ; or, if 
 the nail is simply driven " too close," not actually pricking the horse, 
 he may not show any lameness for a week or even much longer. At 
 this point it is due the blacksmith to say that, considering how thin 
 the walls of some feet are, the uneasiness of many horses while shoe- 
 ing, the ease with which a nail is diverted from its course by striking 
 an old piece of nail left in the wall, or from the nail itself splitting, 
 the wonder is not that so many horses are pricked or nails driven 
 " too close," but rather that many more are not so injured. It is not 
 always carelessness or ignorance on the part of the smith, by any 
 means, that is to account for this accident. Bad and careless shoers 
 we do meet with, but let us be honest and say that the rarity of these 
 accidents points rather to the general care and attention given by 
 these much-abused mechanics. 
 
 From the construction of the horse's foot (being incased in an im- 
 permeable horny box), and from the elasticity of the horn closing the 
 orifice, punctured wounds of the feet are almost always productive 
 of lameness. Inflammation results, and as there is no relief afforded 
 by swelling and no escape for the product of inflammation, this mat- 
 ter must and does burrow between the sole or wall and the sensitive 
 parts within it until it generally opens " between hair and hoof." 
 We can thus see why pain is so much more severe, why tetanus (lock- 
 jaw) more frequently follows wounds of the feet, and why, from the 
 extensive, or at times complete, separation and " casting " of the hoof, 
 these wounds must always be regarded with grave apprehension. 
 
 Symptoms and treatment. A practice which, if never deviated 
 from that of picking up each foot, cleaning the sole, and thoroughly 
 examining the foot each and every time the horse comes into the 
 stable will enable us to reduce the serious consequences of punctured 
 wounds of the feet to the minimum. If the wound has resulted from 
 pricking, lameness follows soon after shoeing; if from the nails being 
 driven too close, it usually appears from four to five days or a week 
 after receiving the shoe. We should always inquire as to the time of 
 shoeing, examine the shoe carefully, and see whether it has been par- 
 tially pulled and the horse stepped back upon some of the nails or the 
 clip. The pain from these wounds is lancinating; the horse is seen 
 to raise and lower the limb or hold it from the ground altogether; 
 often he points the foot, flexes the- leg, and knuckles at the fetlock. 
 Swelling of the fetlock and back tendons is also frequently seen and
 
 WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 467 
 
 is apt to mislead us. The foot must be carefully examined, and this 
 can not be properly done without removing the shoe. The nails 
 should be drawn separately and carefully examined. If there is no 
 escape of pus from the nail holes, or if the nails themselves are not 
 moist, we must continue our examination of the foot by carefully 
 pinching or tapping it at all parts.- With a little practice we can de- 
 tect the spot where pain is the greatest or discover the delicate line or 
 scar left at the point of entrance of the foreign body. The entire sole 
 is then to be thinned, after which we are to carefully cut down upon 
 the point where pain is greatest upon pressure, and, finally, through 
 the sole at this spot. When the matter has escaped, the sole, so far 
 as it was undermined by pus, is to be removed. The foot must now 
 be poulticed for one or two days and afterwards dressed with a com- 
 press of oakum saturated with carbolic-acid solution or other anti- 
 septic dressing. 
 
 If we discover a nail or other object in the foot, the principal direc- 
 tion, after having removed the offending body, is to cut away the 
 sole, in a funnel shape, down to the sensitive parts beneath. This is 
 imperative, and if a good free opening has been made and is main- 
 tained for a few days, hot fomentations and antiseptic dressings 
 applied, the cure is mostly easy, simple, quick, and permanent. The 
 horse should be shod with a leather sole under the shoe, first of all 
 applying tar and oakum to prevent any dirt from entering the wound. 
 In some instances nails may puncture the flexor tendons, the coffin 
 bone, or enter the coffin joint. Such injuries are always serious, their 
 recovery slow and tedious, and the treatment so varied and difficult 
 that the services of a veterinarian will be necessary. 
 
 PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF JOINTS, OR OPEN JOINTS. 
 
 These wounds are more or less frequent. They are always serious, 
 and often result in anchylosis (stiffening) of the joint or death of the 
 animal. The joints mostly punctured are the hock, fetlock, or knee, 
 though other joints may, of course, suffer this injury. As the symp- 
 toms and treatment are much the same for all, only the accident as it 
 occurs in the hock joint will be described. Probably the most com- 
 mon mode of injury is from the stab of a fork, but it may result from 
 the kick of another horse that is newly shod, or in many other ways. 
 At first the horse evinces but slight pain or lameness. The owner 
 discovers a small wound scarcely larger than a pea, and pays but little 
 attention to it. In a few days, however, the pain and lameness be- 
 come excessive; the horse can no longer bear any weight upon the 
 injured leg; the joint is very much swollen and painful upon pres- 
 sure; there are well-marked symptoms of constitutional disturbance 
 quick pulse, hurried breathing, high temperature, 103 to 106 F., the
 
 468 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 appetite is lost, thirst is present, the horse reeks with sweat, and 
 shows by an anxious countenance the pain he suffers. He may lie 
 down, though mostly he persists in standing, and the opposite limb 
 becomes greatly swollen from bearing the entire weight and strain 
 for so long a time. The wound, which at first appeared so insignifi- 
 cant, is now constantly discharging a thin whitish or yellowish fluid- 
 joint oil or water, which becomes coagulated about the mouth of the 
 wound and adheres to the part in clots like jelly, or resembling some- 
 what the white of an egg. Not infrequently the joint opens at dif- 
 ferent places, discharging at first a thin bloody fluid that soon as- 
 sumes the character above described. 
 
 Treatment of these wounds is most difficult and unsatisfactory. 
 We can do much to prevent this array of symptoms if the case is 
 seen early within the first twenty-four or forty-eight hours after 
 the injury; but when inflammation of the joint is once fairly estab- 
 lished the case becomes one of grave tendencies. Whenever a punc- 
 tured wound of a joint is noticed, even though apparently of but 
 small moment, we should, without the least delay, apply a strong 
 cantharides blister over the entire joint, being even careful to fill the 
 orifice of the wound with the blistering ointment. This treatment is 
 almost always effectual. It operates to perform a cure in two ways 
 first, the swelling of the skin and tissues underneath it completely 
 closes the wound and prevents the ingress of air; second, by the 
 superficial inflammation established it acts to check and abate all 
 deep-seated inflammation. In the great majority of instances, if 
 pursued soon after the accident, this treatment performs a cure in 
 about one week, but should the changes described as occurring later 
 in the joint have already taken place, we must then treat by cooling 
 lotions and the application to the wound of chloride of zinc, 10 
 grains to the ounce of water, or a paste made up of flour and alum. 
 A bandage is to hold these applications in place, which is only to be 
 removed when swelling of the leg or increasing febrile symptoms 
 demand it. In the treatment of open joints our chief aim must be 
 to close the orifice as soon as possible. For this reason repeated prob- 
 ing or even injections are contraindicated. The only probing of an 
 open joint that is to be sanctioned is on our first visit, when we should 
 carefully examine the wound for foreign bodies or dirt, and after 
 removing them the probe must not again be used. The medicines 
 used to coagulate the synovial discharge are best simply applied to 
 the surface of the wound, on pledgets of tow, and held in place by 
 bandages. Internal treatment is also indicated in those cases of 
 open joints where the suffering is great. At first we should admin- 
 ister a light physic and follow this up with sedatives and anodynes, 
 as directed for contused wounds. Later, however, we should give 
 quinine, or salicylic acid in 1-dram doses two or three times a day.
 
 WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 469 
 
 WOUNDS OF THE TENDON SHEATHS. 
 
 Wounds of tendon sheaths are similar to open joints in that there 
 is an escape of synovial fluid, " sinew water." Where the tendons are 
 simply punctured by a thorn, nail, or fork, we must, after a thorough 
 exploration of the wound for any remaining foreign substance, treat 
 with the flour-and-alum paste, bandages, etc., as for open joint. 
 Should the skin and tendons be divided the case is even more serious 
 and often incurable. There is always a large bed of granulations 
 (proud flesh) at the seat of injury, and a thickening more or less pro- 
 nounced remains. When the back tendons of the leg are severed we 
 should apply at once a high-heel shoe (which is to be gradually 
 lowered as healing advances) and bandage firmly with a compress 
 moistened with a 10-grain chloride of zinc solution. When proud 
 flesh appears this is best kept under control by repeated applications 
 of a red-hot iron. Mares that are valuable as brood animals and stock 
 horses should always be treated for this injury, as, even though 
 blemished, their value is not seriously impaired. The length of time 
 required and the expense of treatment will cause us to hesitate in 
 attempting a cure, if the subject is old and comparatively valueless. 
 
 GUNSHOT WOUNDS. 
 
 These wounds vary in size and character, depending on the size 
 and quality of the projectile and also the tissue injured. They are so 
 seldom met with in our animals that an extended reference to them 
 seems unnecessary. If a wound has been made by a bullet a careful 
 examination should be made to ascertain if the ball has passed 
 through or put of the body. If it has not we must then probe for the 
 ball, and if it can be located it is to be cut out when practicable to do 
 so. Oftentimes a ball may be so lodged that it can not be removed, 
 and it then may become encysted and remain for years without giving 
 rise to any inconvenience. It is often difficult to locate a bullet, as it 
 is very readily deflected by resistances met with after entering the 
 body. 
 
 The entering wound is the size of the projectile, the edges are 
 inverted and often scorched. The wound produced in case of the 
 bullet's exit is larger than the projectile, the edges are turned out and 
 ragged. A bullet heated by the friction of the barrel or air often 
 softens and becomes flattened on striking a bone or other tissue. 
 Modern bullets that have an outer steel layer may pass through bone 
 without splintering it. Leaden bullets may split, producing two exit 
 wounds. Spent bullets may only produce a bruise. Should bones be 
 struck by a ball they are sometimes shattered and splintered to such 
 an extent as to warrant us in having the animal destroyed. A gun- 
 shot wound, when irreparable injury has not been done, is to be
 
 470 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 treated the same as punctured wounds, i. e., stop the hemorrhage, 
 remove the foreign body if possible, and apply hot fomentations or 
 poultices to the wound until suppuration is fairly established. Anti- 
 septic and disinfectant injections may then be used. Should pus 
 accumulate in the tissues, openings must be made at the most depend- 
 ing parts for its escape. Wounds from shotguns fired close to the 
 animals are serious. They are virtually lacerated and contused 
 wounds. Remove all the shot possible from the wound, and treat as 
 directed for contusions. When small shot strike the horse from a 
 distance they stick in the skin or only go through it. The shot grains 
 must be picked out, but as a rule this " peppering"" of the skin 
 amounts to but little. 
 
 POISONED WOUNDS. 
 
 These injuries are the result of bites of snakes, rabid dogs, stings of 
 bees, wasps, etc. A single sting is not dangerous, but an animal is 
 often stung by a swarm of insects, when the chief danger occurs from 
 the swelling produced. If stung about the head, the nostrils may be 
 closed as a result of the swelling, causing labored breathing and pos- 
 sibly asphyxiation. Intoxication may be produced by the absorption 
 of this poison and is manifested by staggering gait, spreading of the 
 legs, paralysis of the muscles, difficult respiration, and a rise of tem- 
 perature. Death may follow in five to ten hours. 
 
 Treatment. Douse animal with cold water and apply any alkaline 
 liquid, such as soapsuds, bicarbonate of soda, or weak solution of 
 ammonia. Internally give alcohol, ether, or camphor to strengthen 
 the heart. In case of bites by rattlesnakes, moccasin, or other poi- 
 sonous snakes, a painful swelling occurs about the bitten part, which 
 is followed by labored breathing, weakness, retching, fever, and 
 death from collapse. The animal usually recovers if it can be kept 
 alive over the third day. In treating the animal, a tight ligature 
 should be passed about the part above the wound to keep the poison 
 from entering the general circulation. Wash out the wound thor- 
 oughly with antiseptics and then apply a caustic, such as silver ni- 
 trate, or burn with a hot instrument. A subcutaneous injection of 
 one-fourth dram of 1 per cent solution of chromic acid above the 
 wound is also beneficial. Cold water may be applied to the wound 
 to combat the inflammation. Bites of rabid dogs produce an infected 
 -wound, and the virus of rabies introduced in this manner should be 
 removed or destroyed in the wound. Therefore produce considerable 
 bleeding by incising the wound, wash out thoroughly with 10 per 
 cent solution of zinc chloride, and then apply caustics or the actual 
 cautery. 
 
 HARNESS GALLS (SITFASTS). 
 
 Wounds or abrasions of the skin are frequently caused by ill-fitting 
 harness or saddles. When a horse has been resting from steady work
 
 SITFASTS, BURNS, AND SCALDS. 471 
 
 for some time, particularly after being kept idle in a stable on a 
 scanty allowance of grain, as in winter, he is soft and tender and 
 sweats easily when put to work again. In this condition he is apt 
 to sweat and chafe under the harness, especially if it is hard and 
 poorly fitted. This chafing is likely to cause abrasions of the skin, 
 and thus pave the way for an abscess, or for a chronic blemish, unless 
 attended to very promptly. Besides causing the animal considerable 
 pain, chafing, if long continued, leads to the formation of a callosity. 
 This may be superficial, involving only the skin, or it may be deep- 
 seated, involving the subcutaneous fibrous tissue and sometimes the 
 muscle and even the bone. This causes a dry slough to form, which 
 is both inconvenient and unsightly. Sloughs of this kind are com- 
 monly called " sitfasts " and, while they occur in other places, are 
 most frequently found under the saddle. (See also page 448.) 
 
 Treatment. Abrasions are best prevented by bringing the animal 
 gradually into working shape after it has had a prolonged rest, in 
 order that the muscles will be hard and the skin tough. The harness 
 should be well fitted, neither too large nor too small, and it should be 
 cleaned and oiled to remove all dirt and to make it soft and pliable. 
 Saddles should be properly fitted so as to prevent direct pressure on 
 the spine, and the saddle blankets should be clean 'and dry. Parts of 
 the horse where chafing is likely to occur, as on the back under the 
 saddle, should be cleaned and brushed free of dirt. 
 
 The remedies for simple harness galls are numerous. Among them 
 may be mentioned alcohol, 1 pint, in which are well shaken the whites 
 of two eggs ; a solution of nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of 
 water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, 20 grains to an ounce of 
 water; carbolic acid, 1 part in 15 parts of glycerin, and so on almost 
 without end. Any simple astringent wash or powder will effect a 
 cure, provided the sores are not irritated by friction. 
 
 If a sitfast has developed, the dead hornlike slough must be care- 
 fully dissected out and the wound treated carefully with antiseptics. 
 During treatment it is always best to allow the animal to rest, but if 
 this is inconvenient care should be taken to prevent injury to the 
 abraded or wounded surface by padding the harness so that chafing 
 can not occur. 
 
 BURNS AND SCALDS. 
 
 These wounds of domestic animals are fortunately of rare occur- 
 rence; however, when they do occur, if at all extensive, they prove 
 quite troublesome and in many cases are fatal. According to the 
 severity of the burn we distinguish three degrees: First degree, 
 where there is a simple reddening of the skin ; second degree, where 
 there is a formation of vesicles, or blisters ; third degree, where there 
 is a complete destruction of vitality of the tissues, such as would 
 occur in charring from direct contact with flames or from escaping
 
 472 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 steam. Besides the burns caused by flames and steam, there are other 
 causative agents, such as chemicals (caustic alkalis and acids), light- 
 ning stroke, and occasionally the broken trolley wires of electric rail- 
 ways. When a large surface of the skin is burned or scalded, the ani- 
 mal (if he does not die at once from shock) will soon show signs of 
 fever shivering, coldness of the extremities, weakness, restlessness, 
 quick and feeble pulse, and labored breathing. No matter which 
 agent is a factor in the production of burns, the lesions are practi- 
 cally of the same nature. The extent and site of the burn should lead 
 one in the determination and course of treatment. Burns of the 
 shoulder and those about the region of the elbow or other parts 
 where there is much movement of the tissues are grave, and, if at all 
 extensive, treatment should not be attempted, but the immediate 
 destruction of the animal is advised. A burn of the third degree, 
 where there is a destruction of the vitality of large areas of tissue, 
 even on parts not subject to much motion, is extremely tedious to 
 treat; in fact, it is questionable whether the treatment and keep of 
 the animal will ever be compensated for, even though recovery does 
 take place, which, in any event, will require at least six or eight 
 weeks. Those due to lightning stroke and trolley wires are likely to 
 occur in irregular lines, and, unless death occurs at once, they are not 
 likely to prove serious. 
 
 Treatment. Treatment should be prompt and effective. If the 
 burns are extensive the constitutional symptoms should be combated 
 with whisky and milk and eggs, or ammonia carbonate, strychnine, 
 caffein, and other stimulants to prevent shock. In the local treat- 
 ment, to alleviate the pain, the application of cold water in some form 
 and the hypodermic injection of morphine are to be recommended. 
 In burns of the first degree, where there is only a superficial inflam- 
 mation, lead carbonate (white lead) ointment is very good. Carron 
 oil (limewater and linseed oil, equal parts) is a standard remedy, 
 but a modification of it known as Stahl's liniment is perhaps better; 
 this liniment is composed of linseed oil and limewater each 200 parts, 
 bicarbonate soda 100 parts, and thymol 1 part. This liniment should 
 be applied freely to the scorched surface and covered with a layer 
 of bora ted gauze or absorbent cotton to protect it from the air. Re- 
 new the application frequently. Carbolated vaseline may be used 
 in place of the above. In case the burn is more extensive, the fol- 
 lowing solution may be used: Picric acid 2 parts, alcohol 40 parts, 
 water 400 parts. The lesion should be thoroughly cleansed with this 
 solution used on absorbent cotton. The vesicles, if any appear, 
 should be opened with a clean needle, allowing the skin to remain. 
 Strips of gauze or absorbent cotton saturated with the solution should 
 now be applied and renewed only occasionally. In burns of the sec- 
 ond and third degrees more satisfactory results may be obtained with
 
 GANGRENE, OB MORTIFICATION. 473 
 
 nonpoisonous dry dressing powder, such as is used in ordinary open 
 wounds, as tannic acid 8 parts and iodoform 1 part, or a salve made 
 of this powder and a sufficient quantity of vaseline. When slough- 
 ing of the tissues takes place the wounds should be cleansed with a 
 warm 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, all loose fragments of tissue 
 removed, and either a dry antiseptic dressing powder or carbolated 
 vaseline ointment applied to exclude the air. Granulation tissue 
 (proud flesh) should be controlled by the application of silver nitrate 
 in the form of a caustic pencil. 
 
 Burns due to mineral acids may be first treated by flushing the 
 parts with a copious quantity of cold water or by the application of 
 whiting or chalk. Either use a large quantity of water at the start or 
 use the chalk first, then wash with water. If the irritant has been a 
 caustic alkali, such as potash, lye, ammonia, or soda, then vinegar 
 should be the first application. Stahl's liniment is probably the best 
 general application for all burns for the first week ; then this should 
 be followed by the ordinary antiseptic wound dressings. 
 
 GANGRENE. 
 
 Gangrene, or mortification, denotes the death of the affected part, 
 and is mostly found attacking soft tissue near the surface of the 
 body. Gangrenous areas may occur as a result of shutting off their 
 blood supply. Constitutional diseases, such as ergotism, anthrax, and 
 septicemia, predispose to gangrene. As external causes we have acids 
 and alkalies, freezing and burning, contusions and continuous pres- 
 sure that interrupt the circulation. There are two forms of gan- 
 grene dry and moist. Dry gangrene is most often seen in horses 
 from continuous lying down (decubitus) or from uneven pressure of 
 some portion of the harness. 
 
 Symptoms. There is a lack of sensation due to the death of nerves. 
 In dry gangrene the skin is leathery and harsh, while in moist gan- 
 grene the tissues are soft, wrinkled, and friable; the hair is dis- 
 turbed, and the skin is usually moist and soapy and sometimes cov- 
 ered with blebs. The tissue surrounding the moist gangrenous patch 
 is usually inflamed, swollen, and hot, but this is less noticeable in the 
 case of dry gangrene. Moist gangrene often spreads and involves 
 deeper tissue, sheaths of tendons and joints producing septic syno- 
 vitis or septic arthritis leading to pyemia and death. Dry gangrene 
 is seldom dangerous, but the rapidity of its spread will indicate its 
 virulence. 
 
 Treatment. The preventive treatment consists in avoiding all the 
 influences that tend to disturb the nutrition of the tissues, such as 
 excessive cold or heat or continuous pressure. Gangrene following 
 decubitus may be prevented by using soft bedding and frequently 
 turning the animal from one side to the other. In dry gangrene moist
 
 474 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 heat in the form of poultices or anointing the tissue with oils and 
 fats will be found beneficial in hastening the dead tissue to slough 
 off. When the outer skin begins to suppurate, seize it with a pair of 
 pincers and draw it away. After this treat the patch as an open 
 wound. In moist gangrene the tissue should be thoroughly disin- 
 fected with creolin, lysol, or particularly an alcoholic tincture of cam- 
 phor. Continuous irritation with antiseptic fluids prevents the accu- 
 mulation and absorption of poisonous liquids. Incisions into the dead 
 tissue may be made, and when sloughing commences the tissue should 
 be removed with forceps and the resulting wound treated as in dry 
 gangrene. 
 
 ULCERATION. 
 
 An ulcer is a circumscribed area of necrosis occurring on the skin 
 or mucous membrane and covered with granulation tissue. It is a 
 process of destruction, and when this process is going on faster than 
 regeneration can take place, we have a gnawing, or eating, ulcer. 
 When such an ulcer increases rapidly in size it is termed a phagedenic 
 ulcer. A fungoid ulcer is one in which the bottom of the ulcer pro- 
 jects beyond the edge of the skin. These ulcers secrete milky or 
 bloody-white liquid called ichor. When the ulcer is of an ashen or 
 leaden color, with the bottom and sides formed of dense, hard con- 
 nective tissue which gives but little discharge and is not sensitive, it 
 is termed callous, torpid, or indolent ulcer. 
 
 Causes. As in the case of gangrene, disturbances of circulation are 
 among the most frequent causes. A wound to a tissue with slight 
 recuperative power may be followed by ulceration, as in tumors. 
 Certain germs may produce ulcers, as the glanders bacilli, which cause 
 the ulcerations on the nasal septum in glanders. 
 
 Treatment. This consists in removing at once the exciting cause. 
 The secretions of the ulcer should be washed off with antiseptic solu- 
 tions and the formation of granulation tissues stimulated by antisep- 
 tic salves, such as carbolated vaseline, lead ointment, or by dressings 
 of camphor. Air should be kept from the ulcer by occlusive dress- 
 ings. Where the ulcers are inflamed, warm lead water or lead water 
 and laudanum will be found efficacious. Callous ulcers are best re- 
 moved by a curet, knife, or hot iron and then treated like a common 
 wound. Mechanical irritation should be avoided. 
 
 ABSCESSES. 
 
 These consist of accumulations of pus within circumscribed walls, 
 at different parts of the body, and may be classed as acute, and cold, 
 or chronic, abscesses. 
 
 When an abscess occurs about a hair follicle it is called a boil or 
 furuncle; when several hair follicles are involved, resulting in the
 
 ABSCESSES. 475 
 
 formation of more than one exit for the inflammatory products, it is 
 called a carbuncle. 
 
 ACUTE ABSCESSES. 
 
 Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands, 
 muscular tissue, or even bones. They are very common in the two 
 former. The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and 
 the ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands, 
 occurring during the existence of " strangles," or " colt distemper." 
 The glands behind or under the jaw are seen to slowly increase in 
 size, becoming firm, hard, hot, and painful. At first the swelling is 
 uniformly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little 
 while becomes soft fluctuating at some portion, mostly in the 
 center. From this time on the abscess is said to be " pointing," or 
 " coming to a head," which is shown by a small elevated or projecting 
 prominence, which at first is dry, but soon becomes moist with trans- 
 uded serum. The hairs over this part loosen and fall off, and in a 
 short time the abscess opens, the contents escape, and the cavity grad- 
 ually fills up heals by granulations. 
 
 Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or 
 injuries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry 
 the ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices. 
 When they are very tardy in their development a blister over their 
 surface is advisable. It is a common rule with surgeons to open an 
 abscess as soon as pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can 
 scarcely be recommended to owners of stock indiscriminately, since 
 this little operation frequently requires an exact knowledge of anat- 
 omy. It will usually be found the better plan to encourage the full 
 ripening of an abscess and allow it to open of itself. This is impera- 
 tive if the abscess is in the region of joints, etc. When open, we 
 must not squeeze the walls of the abscess to any extent. They may 
 be very gently pressed with the fingers at first to remove the clots 
 inspissated pus but after this the orifice is simply to be kept open 
 by the introduction of a clean probe, should it be disposed to heal too 
 soon. If the opening is at too high a level another should be made 
 into the lowest portion of the abscess so as to permit the most com- 
 plete drainage. Hot fomentations or poultices are sometimes required 
 for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are particularly 
 indicated when the base of the abscess is hard and indurated. 
 
 The cavity should be thoroughly washed with stimulating anti- 
 septic solutions, such as 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, 3 to 5 per 
 cent solution of creolin, 1 to 1,000 bichloride of mercury, or 1 per 
 cent permanganate of potash solution. If the abscesses are foul 
 and bad smelling, their cavities should first be syringed with 1 part 
 of hydrogen peroxide to 2 parts of water and then followed by the 
 injection of any of the above-mentioned antiseptics.
 
 476 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 COLD ABSCESSKS. 
 
 Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings 
 that are the result of a low, or chronic, form of inflammation, in the 
 center of which there is a small collection of pus. They are often 
 seen near the point of the shoulder, forming the so-called breast boil. 
 The swelling is diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter 
 than surrounding parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There 
 is a pronounced stiffness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the 
 animal. Such abscesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, sur- 
 rounded by a softer edematous swelling, involving the tissues to the 
 extent of a foot or more in all directions from the tumor. This dif- 
 fused swelling gradually subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass 
 somewhat well defined. One of the characteristics of cold abscesses 
 is their tendency to remain in the same condition for a great length 
 of time. There is neither heat nor soreness ; no increase nor lessening 
 in the size of the tumor ; it remains statu quo. If, however, the ani- 
 mal should be put to work for a short time the irritation of the collar 
 causes the surrounding tissues to again assume an edematous condi- 
 tion, which after a few days' rest disappears, leaving the tumor as 
 before or but slightly larger. Upon careful manipulation we may 
 discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated in the center of the 
 mass. The quantity of matter so contained is very small often not 
 more than a tablespoonful and for this reason it can not, in all 
 cases, be detected. 
 
 Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-con- 
 tinued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow 
 inflammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a 
 small quantity of matter inclosed in very thick and but partially 
 organized walls, that are not as well defined as is the circumference 
 of fibrous tumors, w y hich they most resemble. 
 
 Treatment. The means recommended to bring the acute abscess 
 " to a head " are but rarely effectual with this variety ; or, if successful, 
 too much time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other 
 and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist, first of all, in 
 carefully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions 
 must be made over the softest part and carried deep into the tumor 
 (to its very bottom if necessary), and the matter allowed to escape. 
 After this, and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce 
 an active inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of 
 the thick walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well 
 into the incision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine, 
 carbolic acid, tincture of iodine, etc., or we may pack the incision with 
 powdered sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty- 
 four hours. These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the 
 walls. Suppuration follows, and this should now be encouraged by
 
 ABSCESSES AND FISTULAS. 477 
 
 hot fomentations and poultices. The orifice must be kept open, and 
 should it be disposed to heal we must again introduce some of the 
 agents above described. A favored treatment with many, and it is 
 probably the best, is to plunge a red-hot iron- to the bottom of the 
 incision and thoroughly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess. 
 This .is to be repeated after the first slough has taken place, if the 
 walls remain thickened and indurated. 
 
 It is useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters 
 in the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed 
 by such methods, they almost invariably return when the horse is put 
 to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practicable, as the walls of 
 the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as aoove directed, 
 and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will not 
 remain any track or trace of the large, unsightly mass. 
 
 FISTULAS. 
 
 Definition. The word fistula is applied to any ulcerous lesion upon 
 the external surface of the body which is connected by ducts, or 
 passages, with some internal cavity. Because of this particular 
 formation the term fistulous tract is often used synonymously with 
 the word fistula. Fistulas may exist in any part of the body, but the 
 name has come to be commonly accepted as applicable only to such 
 lesions when found upon the withers. Poll evil is a fistula upon the 
 poll, and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in location. 
 The description of fistula will apply, then, in the main, to poll evil 
 equally well. Quittor presents the characteristic tubular passages of 
 a fistula and may therefore be considered and treated as fistula of the 
 foot. Fistulous passages may also be developed upon the sides of the 
 face, through which saliva is discharged instead of flowing into the 
 mouth, and are called salivary fistulas. A dental fistula may arise 
 from the necrosis of the root of a tooth. Again, a fistula is sometimes 
 noted at the umbilicus associated with hernia, and recto-vaginal 
 fistulas have been developed in mares, following difficult parturition. 
 Fistulas may arise from wounds of glandular organs or their ducts, 
 and thus we have the so-called mammary, or lachrymal, fistulas. 
 
 Fistulous tracts are lined with a false, or adventitious, membrane 
 and show no disposition to heal. They constantly afford means of 
 exit to the pus or ichorous material discharged by the unhealthy 
 parts below. They are particularly liable to develop at the withers 
 or poll because of the exposed positions which these parts occupy, 
 and, having once become located there, they usually assert a tend- 
 ency to further extension, because the vertical and laminated forma- 
 tion of the muscles and tendons of these parts allows the forces of 
 gravitation to assist the pus in gaining the deeper-lying structures 
 and also favors its retention among them.
 
 478 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Causes. Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, 
 or long-continued irritation by the harness. Among the more com- 
 mon causes of fistula of the poll (poll evil) are chafing by the halter 
 or heavy bridle; blows from the butt end of the whip; the horse 
 striking his head against the hayrack, beams of the ceiling, low doors, 
 etc. Fistulous withers are seen mostly in those horses that have 
 thick necks as well as those that are very high in the withers; or, 
 among saddle horses, those that are very low on the withers, the 
 saddle here riding forward and bruising the parts. They are often 
 caused by bad-fitting collars or saddles, by direct injuries from blows, 
 and from the horse rolling upon rough or sharp stones. In either 
 of these locations ulcers of the skin, or simple abscesses, if not prop- 
 erly and punctually treated, may become fistulas. The pus burrows 
 and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles, and escapes only 
 when the sinus . becomes surcharged or when, during motion of the 
 parts, the matter is forced to the surface. 
 
 Symptoms. These, of course, will vary according to the progress 
 made by the fistula. Following an injury we may often notice sore- 
 ness or stiffness of the front legs, and upon careful examination of 
 the withers we will see small tortuous lines running from the point of 
 irritation downward and backward over the region of the shoulder. 
 These are superficial lymphatics, and are swollen and painful to the 
 touch. In a day or two a swelling is noticed on one or both sides of 
 the dorsal vertebrae, which is hot and painful and rapidly enlarging. 
 The stiffness of the limbs may disappear at this time, and the heat 
 and soreness of the parts may become less noticeable, but the swelling 
 remains and continues to enlarge. 
 
 A fistulous ulcer of the poll may be first indicated by the opposition 
 which the animal offers to the application of stable brush or bridle. 
 At this time the parts are so sore and sensitive that there is some 
 danger that the patient will acquire disagreeable stable habits unless 
 handled with the greatest care. The disease in its early stages may be 
 recognized as a soft, fluctuating tumor surrounded by inflammatory 
 swelling, with the presence of enlarged lymphatic vessels and stiffness 
 of the neck. Later the inflammation of the surrounding tissues may 
 disappear, leaving a prominent tumor. The swelling, whether situ- 
 ated upon the head or the withers, may open and form a running 
 ulcer, or its contents may dry up and leave a tumor which gradually 
 develops the common characteristics of a fibrous tumor. When the 
 enlargement has opened we should carefully examine its cavity, as 
 upon its condition will wholly depend our treatment. 
 
 Treatment. In the earliest stage, when there is soreness, enlarged 
 lymphatics, but no well-marked swelling, the trouble may frequently 
 be aborted. To do this requires both general and local treatment. 
 A physic should be given, and the horse receive 1 ounce of powdered
 
 FISTULAS. 479 
 
 saltpeter three times a day in his water or feed. If the fever runs 
 high, 20-drop doses of tincture of aconite root every two hours may 
 be administered. The local application of cold water to the inflamed 
 spot for an hour at a time three or four times a day has often proved 
 very beneficial, and has afforded great relief to the patient. 
 
 Cooling lotions, muriate of ammonia, or saltpeter and water ; seda- 
 tive washes, such as tincture of opium and aconite, chloroform lini- 
 ment, or camphorated oil, are also to be frequently applied. Should 
 this treatment fail to check the progress of the trouble, the formation 
 of pus should be hastened as rapidly as possible. Hot fomentations 
 and poultices are to be constantly used, and as soon as the presence of 
 pus can be detected, the abscess wall is to be opened at its lowest point. 
 In this procedure lies our hope of a speedy cure. As with any simple 
 abscess, if drainage can be so provided that the pus will run off as 
 fast as formed without remaining within the interstices of the tissues, 
 the healing which follows will be rapid and satisfactory. 
 
 Attention is again called to the directions given above as to the 
 necessity of probing the cavity when opened. If upon a careful ex- 
 amination with the probe we find that there are no pockets, no sin- 
 uses, but a simple, regular abscess wall, the indication for treatment 
 is to make an opening from below so that the matter must all escape. 
 Rarely is anything more needed than to keep the orifice open and to 
 bathe or inject the parts with some simple antiseptic wash that is not 
 irritant or caustic. A low opening and cleanliness constitute the 
 essential and rational treatment. 
 
 If the abscess has already opened, giving vent to a quantity of pur- 
 ulent matter, and the pipes and tubes leading from the opening are 
 found to be extensive and surrounded with thick fungoid membranes, 
 there is considerable danger that the internal ligaments or even some 
 of the bones have become affected, in which case the condition has 
 assumed a serious aspect. Or, on the other hand, if the abscess has 
 existed for some time without a rupture, its contents will frequently 
 be found to consist of dried purulent matter, firm and dense, and the 
 walls surrounding the mass will be found greatly thickened. In such 
 a case we must generally have recourse to the application of caustics 
 which will cause a sloughing of all of the unhealthy tissue, and will 
 also stimulate a rapid increase of healthy organized material to re- 
 place that destroyed in the course of the development and treatment 
 of the disease. Threads or cords soaked in gum-arabic solution and 
 rolled in powdered corrosive sublimate may be introduced into the 
 canal and allowed to remain. The skin on all parts of the shoulder 
 and leg beneath the fistula should be carefully greased with lard or 
 oil, as this will prevent the discharge that comes from the opening 
 after the caustic is introduced from irritating or blistering the skin 
 over which it flows. In obstinate cases a piece of caustic potash
 
 480 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 (fused) 1 to 2 inches in length may be introduced into the opening 
 and should be covered with oakum or cotton. The horse should then 
 be secured so that he can not reach the part with his teeth. After the 
 caustic plug has been in place for twenty-four hours, it may be re- 
 moved and hot fomentations applied. As soon as the discharge has 
 become again established the abscess should be opened from its lowest 
 extremity, and the passage thus formed may be kept open by the in- 
 troduction of a seton. If the pipes become established in the deep 
 tissues beneath the shoulder blade or among the spines of the ver- 
 tebral column, it will often be found impossible to provide proper 
 drainage for the abscess from below, and treatment must consist of 
 caustic solutions carefully injected into all parts of the suppurating 
 sinuses. A very effective remedy for this purpose consists of 1 ounce 
 of chloride of zinc in half a pint of water, injected three times during 
 a week, after which a weak solution of the same may be occasionally 
 injected. Injections of Villate's solution or alcoholic solution of cor- 
 rosive sublimate, strong carbolic acid, or possibly oil of turpentine 
 will also prove beneficial. Pressure should be applied from below, 
 and endeavors made to heal the various pipes from the bottom. 
 
 Should the swelling become general, without forming a well-defined 
 tumor, the placing of 20 to 30 grains of arsenious acid, wrapped in a 
 single layer of tissue paper, in a shallow incision beneath the skin will 
 often produce a sloughing of the affected parts in a week or ten days, 
 after which the formation of healthy tissue follows. The surrounding 
 parts of the skin should be protected from any damage from escaping 
 caustics by the application of lard or oil, as previously suggested. 
 
 Although the successful treatment of fistulas requires time and 
 patience, the majority of cases are curable. The sinuses must be 
 opened at their lowest extremity and kept open. Caustic applications 
 must be thoroughly used once or twice, after which mild astringent 
 antiseptic washes should be persistently used until a cure is reached. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the erosions have burrowed so deeplj* or 
 in such a direction that the opening of a drainage passage becomes 
 impracticable. In other cases the bone? may become attacked in some 
 inaccessible location, or the joints may be affected, and in these cases 
 it is often best to destroy the horse at once. 
 
 The reappearance of the fistula after it has apparently healed is not 
 uncommon. The secondary attack in these cases is seldom serious. 
 The lesion should be carefully cleansed and afterwards injected with 
 a solution of zinc sulphate, 20 grains to the ounce of water, every sec- 
 ond or third day until a cure is effected. 
 
 In fistula of the foot we see the same tendency toward the burrow- 
 ing of pus downward to lower structures, or in some cases upward 
 toward the coronet. Prior to the development of a quittor there is 
 always swelling at the coronet, accompanied by heat and pain.
 
 FISTULAS. 481 
 
 Every effort should now be made to prevent the formation of an 
 abscess at the point of injury. Wounds caused by nails, gravel, or 
 any other foreign body which may have become lodged in the sole of 
 the foot should be opened at once from below so as to allow free exit 
 to all purulent discharges. Should the injury have occurred directly 
 to the coronet the application of cold fomentations may prove efficient 
 in preventing the formation of an abscess. 
 
 When a quitter becomes fully established it should be treated pre- 
 cisely as a fistula situated in any other part of the body ; that is, the 
 sinuses should all be opened from their lowest extremities so as to 
 afford constant drainage. All fragments of diseased tissue should be 
 trimmed away, antiseptic solutions injected, and, after covering the 
 wound with a pad of oakum saturated with some good antiseptic 
 wash, the whole foot may be carefully covered with clean bandages, 
 which will afford valuable assistance to the healing process by exclud- 
 ing all dirt from the affected part. 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 31
 
 GENERAL DISEASES. 
 
 By RUSH SHIPPEN HUIDEKOPEB, M. D., VET. 
 
 [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] 
 
 ANIMAL TISSUES. 
 
 The nonprofessional reader may regard the animal tissues, which 
 are subject to inflammation, as excessively simple structures, as simi- 
 lar, simple, and fixed in their organization as the joists and boards 
 which frame a house, the bricks and iron coils of pipe which build a 
 furnace, or the stones and mortar which make the support of a great 
 railroad bridge. Yet while the principles of structure are thus sim- 
 ple, for the general understanding by the student who begins their 
 study the complete appreciation of the shades of variation, which 
 differentiate one tissue from another, which define a sound tendon or 
 a ligament from a fibrous band the result of disease filling in an old 
 lesion and tying one organ with another is as complicated as the 
 nicest jointing of Chinese woodwork, the building of a furnace for 
 the most difficult chemical analysis, or the construction of a bridge 
 which will stand for ages and resist any force or weight. 
 
 All tissues are composed of certain fundamental and similar ele- 
 ments which are governed by the same rules of life, though they may 
 appear at first glance to be widely different. These are (a) amor- 
 phous substances, (b) fibers, and (c) cells. 
 
 (a) Amorphous substances may be in liquid form, as in the fluid 
 of the blood, which holds a vast amount of salts and nutritive matter 
 in solution ; or they may be in a semiliquid condition, as the plasma 
 which infiltrates the loose meshes of connective tissue and lubricates 
 the surface of some membranes; or they may be in the form of a glue 
 or cement, fastening one structure to another, as a tendon or muscle 
 end to a bone; or, again, they hold similar elements firmly together, 
 as in bone, where they form a stiff matrix which becomes impreg- 
 nated with lime salts. Amorphous substances, again, form the pro- 
 toplasm or nutritive element of cells or the elements of life. 
 
 (6) Fibers are formed of elements of organic matter which have 
 only a passive function. They can be assimilated to little strings, or 
 cords, tangled one with another like a mass of waste yarn, woven 
 regularly like a cloth, or bound together like a rope. They are of two 
 kinds white connective tissue fibers, only slightly extensible, pliable, 
 and very strong, and yellow elastic fibers, elastic, curly, ramified, and 
 very dense. These fibers once created require the constant presence 
 of fluids around them in order to retain their functional condition, as 
 
 482
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE TISSUES. 483 
 
 a piece of harness leather demands continual oiling to keep its 
 strength, but they undergo no change or alteration in their form 
 until destroyed by death. 
 
 (c) Cells, which may even be regarded as low forms of life, are 
 masses of protoplasm or amorphous living matter, with a nucleus and 
 frequently a nucleolus, which are capable of assimilating nutriment or 
 food, propagating themselves either into others of the same form or 
 into fixed cells of another outward appearance and different function 
 but of the same constitution. It is simply in the mode of grouping 
 of these elements that we have the variation in tissues, as (1) loose 
 connective tissue, (2) aponeurosis and tendons, (3) muscles, (4) 
 cartilage, (5) bones, (6) epithelia and endothelia, (7) nerves. 
 
 (1) Loose connective tissue forms the great framework, or scaf- 
 folding, of the body, and is found under the skin, between the muscles 
 surrounding the bones and blood vessels, and entering into the 
 structures of almost all of the organs. In this the fibers are loosely 
 meshed together like a sponge, leaving spaces in which the nutrient 
 fluid and cells are irregularly distributed. This tissue we find in the 
 skin, in the spaces between the organs of the body where fat accumu- 
 lates, and as the framework of all glands. 
 
 (2) Aponeurosis and tendons are structures which serve for the 
 termination of muscles and for their contention, and for the attach- 
 ment of bones together. In these the fibers are more frequent and 
 dense, and are arranged with regularity, either crossing each other or 
 lying parallel, and here the cells are found in minimum quantity. 
 
 (3) In the muscles the cells lie end to end, forming long fibers 
 which have the power of contraction, and the connective tissue is in 
 small quantity, serving the passive purpose of a band around the con- 
 tractile elements. 
 
 (4) In cartilage a mass of firm amorphous substance, with no vas- 
 cularity and little vitality, forms the bed for the chondroplasts, or 
 cells of this tissue. 
 
 (5) Bone differs from the above in having the amorphous matter 
 impregnated with lime salts, which gives it its rigidity and firmness. 
 
 (6) Epithelia and endothelia, or the membranes which cover the 
 body and line all of its cavities and glands, are made up of single or 
 stratified and multiple layers of cells bound together by a glue of 
 amorphous substance and resting on a layer composed of fibers. 
 When the membrane serves for secreting or excreting purposes, as 
 in the salivary glands or the kidneys, it is usually simple; when it 
 serves the mechanical purpose of protecting a part, as over the tongue 
 or skin, it is invariably multiple and stratified, the surface wearing 
 away while new cells replace it from beneath. 
 
 (7) In nerves, stellate cells are connected by their rays to each 
 other, or to fibers which conduct the nerve impressions, or they act as
 
 484 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 receptacles, storehouses, and transmitters for them, as the switch- 
 board of a telephone system serves to connect the various wires. 
 
 All of these tissues are supplied with blood in greater or less quan- 
 tity. The vascularity depends upon the function which the tissue is 
 called upon to perform. If this is great, as in the tongue, the lungs, 
 or the sensitive part of the hoof, a large amount of blood is required ; 
 if the labor is a passive one, as in cartilage, the membrane over the 
 withers, or the tendons of the legs, the vessels only reach the periph- 
 ery, and nutrition is furnished by imbibition of the fluids brought to 
 their surface by the blood vessels. 
 
 Blood is brought to the tissues by arterioles, or the small termina- 
 tions of the arteries, and is carried off from them by the veinlets, or 
 the commencement of the veins. Between these two systems are 
 small delicate networks of vessels called capillaries, which subdivide 
 into a veritable lacework so as to reach the neighborhood of every 
 element. 
 
 In health the blood passes through these capillaries with a regular 
 current, the red cells or corpuscles floating rapidly in the fluid in the 
 center of the channel, while the white or ameboid cells are attracted 
 to the walls of the vessels and move very slowly. The supply of 
 blood is regulated by the condition of repose or activity of the tissue, 
 and under normal conditions the outflow compensates exactly the sup- 
 ply. The caliber of the blood vessels, and consequently the amount 
 of blood which they carry, is governed by nerves of the sympathetic 
 system in a healthy body with unerring regularity, but in a diseased 
 organ the flow may cease or be greatly augmented. In health a tissue 
 or organ receives its proper quantity of blood ; the nutritive elements 
 are extracted for the support of the tissue and for the product, which 
 the function of the organ forms. The force required in the achieve- 
 ment of this is furnished by combustion of the hydrocarbons and 
 oxygen brought by the arterial blood, then by the veins this same 
 fluid passes off, less its oxygen, loaded with the waste products, which 
 are the result of the worn-out and disintegrated tissues, and of those 
 which have undergone combustion. The above brief outline indi- 
 cates the process of nutrition of the tissues. 
 
 Hypernutrition, or excessive nutrition of a tissue, may be normal or 
 morbid. If the latter, the tissue becomes congested or inflamed. 
 
 CONGESTION. 
 
 Congestion is an unnatural accumulation of blood in a part. Ex- 
 cessive accumulation of blood may be normal, as in blushing or in the 
 red face which temporarily follows a violent muscular effort, or, as in 
 the stomach or liver during digestion, or in the lungs after severe 
 work, from which, in the latter case, it is shortly relieved by a little 
 rapid breathing. The term congestion, however, usually indicates a 
 morbid condition, with more or less lasting effects. Congestion is
 
 CONGESTION. 485 
 
 active or passive. The former is produced by an increased sup- 
 ply of blood to the part, the latter by an obstacle preventing the 
 escape of blood from the tissue. In either case there is an increased 
 supply of blood, and as a result increased combustion and augmented 
 nutrition. 
 
 ACTIVE CONGESTION. 
 
 Active congestion is caused by 
 
 (1) Functional activity. Any organ which is constantly or exces- 
 sively used is habituated to hold an unusual quantity of blood ; the 
 vessels become dilated; if overstrained the walls become weakened, 
 lose their elasticity, and any sudden additional amount of blood en- 
 gorges the tissues so that they can not contract, and congestion results. 
 Example : The lungs of a race horse, after an unusual burst of speed 
 or severe work, in damp weather. 
 
 (2) Irritants. Heat and cold, chemical or mechanical. Any of 
 these, by threatening the vitality of a tissue, induce immediately an 
 augmented flow of blood to the part to furnish the means of repair a 
 hot iron, frostbites, acids, or a blow. 
 
 (3) Nerve influence. This may produce congestion either by act- 
 ing on the part reflexly or as the result of some central nerve dis- 
 turbance affecting the branch which supplies a given organ. 
 
 (4) Plethora and sanguinary temperament. Full-blooded animals 
 are much more predisposed to congestive diseases than those of a 
 lymphatic character or those in an anemic condition. The circula- 
 tion in them is forced to all parts with much greater force and in 
 larger quantities. A well-bred full-blooded horse is much more sub- 
 ject to congestive diseases than a common, coarse, or old worn-out 
 animal. 
 
 (5) Fevers. In fever the heart works more actively and forces the 
 current of blood more rapidly; the tissues are weakened, and it 
 requires but a slight local cause at any part to congest the structures 
 already overloaded with blood. Again, in certain fevers, we find 
 alteration of the blood itself, rendering it less or more fluid, which 
 interferes with its free passage through the vessels and induces a 
 local predisposition to congestion. 
 
 (6) Warm climate and summer heat. Warmth of the atmosphere 
 relaxes the tissues; it demands of the animals less blood to keep up 
 their own body temperature, and the extra quantity accumulates in 
 the blood-vessel system. It causes sluggishness in the performance 
 of the organic functions, and in this way it induces congestion, 
 especially of the internal organs. So we find founders, congestive 
 colics and staggers more frequent in summer than in winter. 
 
 (7) Previous congestion. Whether the previous congestion of any 
 organ has been a continuous normal one that is, a repeated func- 
 tional activity or has been a morbid temporary overloading, it al-
 
 486 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 ways leaves the walls of the vessels weakened and more predisposed 
 to recurrent attacks from accidental causes than are perfectly healthy 
 tissues. Thus a horse which has had a congestion of the lungs from 
 a severe drive is apt to have another attack from even a lesser cause. 
 
 The alterations of congestion are distention of the blood vessels, 
 accumulation of the cellular elements of the blood in them, and effu- 
 sion of a portion of the liquid of the blood into the fibrous tissues 
 which surround the vessels. Where the changes produced by conges- 
 tion are visible, as in the eye, the nostril, the mouth, the genital 
 organs, and on the surface of the body in white or unpigmented ani- 
 mals, the part appears red from the increase of blood; it becomes 
 swollen from the effusion of liquid into the spongelike connective 
 tissues ; it is at times more or less hot from the increased combustion ; 
 the part is frequently painful to the animal from pressure of the effu- 
 sion on the nerves, and the function of the tissue is interfered with. 
 The secretion or excretion of glands may be augmented or diminished. 
 Muscles may be affected with spasms or may be unable to contract. 
 The eyes and ears may be affected with imaginary sights and sounds. 
 
 PASSIVE CONGESTION. 
 
 Passive congestion is caused by interference with the return of the 
 current of blood from a part. 
 
 Old age and debility weaken the tissues and the force of the circu- 
 lation, especially in the veins, and retard the movement of the blood. 
 We then see horses of this class with stocked legs, swelling of the 
 sheath of the penis or of the milk glands, and of the under surface of 
 the belly. We find them also with effusions of the liquid parts of the 
 blood into the lymph spaces of the posterior extremities and organs 
 of the pelvic cavity. 
 
 Tumors or other mechanical obstructions, by pressing on the veins, 
 retard the flow of blood and cause it to back up in distal parts of the 
 body, causing passive congestion. 
 
 The alterations of passive congestion, as in active congestion, con- 
 sist of an increased quantity of blood in the vessels and an exudation 
 of its fluid into the tissues surrounding them, but in passive conges- 
 tion we have a dark thick blood which has lost its oxygen, instead of 
 the rich combustible blood rich in oxygen which is found in active 
 congestion. 
 
 The termination of congestion is by resolution or inflammation. In 
 the first case, the choked-up blood vessels find an outlet for the exces- 
 sive amount of blood and are relieved ; the transuded serum or fluid 
 of the blood is reabsorbed, and the part returns almost to its normal 
 condition, with, however, a tendency to weakness predisposing to fu- 
 ture trouble of the same kind. In the other case further alterations 
 take place, and we have inflammation.
 
 GENERAL DISEASES. 487 
 
 INFLAMMATION. 
 
 [SYNONYMS: Inflammatio, Latin, from inflammare, to flame, to burn; phleg- 
 masia <pA.yva6ia, Greek ; inflammation, French ; inflammazione, Italian ; /- 
 flamacion, Spanish ; Entzilndung, German.] 
 
 Inflammation is a hypernutrition of a tissue. It is described by 
 Doctor Agnew, the surgeon, as " a double-edged sword, cutting either 
 way for good or for evil." The increased nutrition may be moderate 
 and cause a growth of new tissue, a simple increase of quantity at 
 first ; or it may produce a new growth differing in quality ; or it may 
 be so great that, like luxuriant, overgrown weeds, the elements die 
 from their very haste of growth, and we have immediate destruction 
 of the part. According to the rapidity and intensity of the process 
 of structural changes which takes place in an inflamed tissue, inflam- 
 mation is described as acute or chronic, with a vast number of inter- 
 mediate forms. When the phenomena are marked it is termed 
 stJienic; when less distinct, as the result of a broken-down and feeble 
 constitution in the animal, it is called asthenic. Certain inflamma- 
 tions are specific, as in strangles, the horsepox, glanders, etc., where a 
 characteristic or specific cause or condition is added to the origin, 
 character of phenomena, or alterations which result from an ordinary 
 inflammation. An inflammation may be circumscribed or limited, 
 as in the abscess on the neck caused by the pressure of a collar^ in 
 pneumonia, in glanders, in the small tumors of a splint or a jack; or 
 it may be diffuse, as in severe fistulas of the withers, in an extensive 
 lung fever, in the legs in a case of grease, or in the spavins which 
 affect horses with poorly nourished bones. The causes of inflamma- 
 tion are practically the same as those of congestion, which is the 
 initial step of all inflammation. 
 
 The temperament of a horse predisposes the animal to inflamma- 
 tion of certain organs. A full-blooded animal, whose veins show on 
 the surface of the body, and which has a strong, bounding heart 
 pumping large quantities of blood into the vascular organs like the 
 lungs, the intestines, and the lamina? of the feet, is more apt to have 
 pneumonia, congestive colics, and founder, than lymphatic, cold- 
 blooded animals which have pleurisies, inflammation of the bones, 
 spavins, ringbones, inflammation of the glands of the less vascular 
 skin of the extremities, greasy heels, thrush, etc. 
 
 Young horses have inflammation of the membranes lining the air 
 passages and digestive tract, while older animals are more subject to 
 troubles in the closed serous sacs and in the bones. 
 
 The work to which a horse is put (saddle or harness, speed or 
 draft) will influence the predisposition of an animal to inflammatory 
 diseases. As in congestion, the functional activity of a part is an 
 important factor in localizing this form of disease. Given a group 
 of horses exposed to the same draft of cold *air or other exciting
 
 488 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 cause of inflammation, the one which lias just been eating will be at- 
 tacked with an inflammation of the bowels; the one that has just 
 been working so as to increase its respiration will have an inflamma- 
 tion of the throat, bronchi, or lungs; the one that has just been using 
 its feet excessively will have a founder or inflammation of the laminae 
 of the feet. 
 
 The direct cause of inflammation is usually an irritant of some 
 form. This may be a pathogenic organism a disease germ or it 
 may be mechanical or chemical', external or internal. Cuts, bruises, 
 injuries of any kind, parasites, acids, blisters, heat, cold, secretions, 
 such as an excess of tears over the cheek or urine on the legs, all 
 cause inflammation by direct injury to the part. Strains or wrenches 
 of joints, ligaments, and tendons cause trouble by laceration of the 
 tissue. 
 
 Inflammations of the internal organs are caused by irritants as 
 above, and by sudden cooling of the surface of the animal, which 
 drives the blood to that organ which at the moment is most actively 
 supplied with blood. This is called repercussion. A horse which 
 has been worked at speed and is breathing rapidly is liable to have 
 pneumonia if suddenly chilled, while an animal which has just been 
 fed is more apt to have a congestive colic if exposed to the same in- 
 fluence, the blood in this case being driven from the exterior to the 
 intestines, while in the former it was driven to the lungs. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of inflammation are, as in congestion, 
 change of color, due to an increased supply of blood ; swelling, from 
 the same cause, with the addition of an effusion into the surrounding 
 tissues; heat, owing to the increased combustion in the part; pain, 
 due to pressure on the nerves, and altered function. This latter may 
 be augmented or diminished, or first one and then the other. In 
 addition to the local symptoms, inflammation always produces more 
 or less constitutional disturbance or fever. A splint or small spavin 
 will cause so little fever that it is not appreciable, while a severe 
 spavin, an inflamed joint, or a pneumonia may give rise to a marked 
 fever. 
 
 The alterations in an inflamed tissue are first those of congestion, 
 distention of the blood vessels, and exudation of the fluid of the blood 
 into the surrounding fibers, with, however, a more complete stagna- 
 tion of the blood; fibrin, or lymph, a plastic substance, is thrown out 
 as well, and the cells, which we have seen to be living organisms in 
 themselves, no longer carried in the current of the blood, migrate 
 from the vessels and, finding proper nutriment, proliferate or mul- 
 tiply with greater or lesser rapidity. The cells which lie dormant 
 in the meshes of the surrounding fibers are awakened into activity by 
 the nutritious lymph which surrounds them, and they also multiply. 
 
 Whether the cell in> an inflamed part be the white ameboid cell of
 
 XXXVII. 
 
 1 I'riin f1(inte<l ififtff oflfic tint 
 
 itr/it/ of t/ie hat 
 
 . nflor Ai>rww. 
 
 JOUUS SltN 8,Ci
 
 PL.A.TK XXXVIII. 
 
 \- y nil -inflanie.fi mrjietU'ery of the frog, 4OO r1j'tim.c.ttry , reduced '-y:a,a, 1'enufc 
 >fi/A red and ^\"fiite. corpuscles,- b,b, Gflatinoiuv new* fibre,- c.C(i.f>iU.ary ; d (f , 
 Dark- bordered. n<-rre fibre/ e.,e, Connective tissue with connective tiffiie. 
 corpuscles and. Ittieocytes sca.ftwed ^prtrsvfy t/i/'uut/Ji it. 
 
 .? . '^^^--'.. ;-...,.: 
 
 i -: 
 
 *^mii : .' 
 
 T^ : ^ 
 
 
 -frt/7(itrted mesentery or- (//> fi'tnf. I-OO diameters, reduced '_ <; , b. I 'imife 
 filled wit /i red ftnt.f \rliitt- ritrfHisrtes- f/it red in t/ir >;-i>tre iitid ///- 1 1 ///'//- 
 crowding nloiiff the wuLlf,- c. c, Caj>ifl<ir\- distertded >\-ftJi riil and \\-liiti- /<>/- 
 />u.*i-/fs, ri.tr/ii/ter- of the \rhife much decreased,- d. d, Ci<ructi < c tixsur hrt\\-rr;t 
 \-enulf a/id fiifiHinf-y fitted \vitti niiijrutrd ?curoe ytr.v,- e, f , i'omircti \'< (issne 
 \\-itli //.v.y frtfi/fr-atio/i ,- f, Dark -horderrd nerre fibre, t/, .\';;rt<bcr ofn nclii 
 in ,-<lii'.<t/Jis mcr-cfisfd . 
 
 I N F I : . A M M AT I O X .
 
 INFLAMMATION. 489 
 
 the blood or the fixed connective tissue cell embedded in the fibers, it 
 multiplies in the same way. The nucleus in the center is divided into 
 two, and then each again into two, ad infinitum. If the process is 
 slow, each new cell may assimilate nourishment and become, like its 
 ancestor, an aid in the formation of new tissues; if, however, the 
 changing takes place rapidly, the brood of young cells have not time 
 to grow or use up the surrounding nourishment, and, but half devel- 
 oped, they die, and we then have destruction of tissue, and pus or 
 matter is formed, a material made up of the imperfect dead elements 
 and the broken-down tissue. Between the two there is an interme- 
 diate form, where we have imperfectly formed tissues, as in " proud 
 flesh," large, soft splints ; fungous growths, greasy heels, and thrush. 
 
 Whether the inflamed tissue is one like the skin, lungs, or intes- 
 tines, very loose in their texture, or a tendon or bone, dense in struc- 
 ture, and comparatively poor in blood vessels, the principle of the 
 process is the same. The effects, however, and the appearance may 
 be widely different. After a cut on the face or an exudation into the 
 lungs, the loose tissues and multiple vessels allow the proliferating 
 cells to obtain rich nourishment; absorption can take place readily, 
 and the part regains its normal condition entirely, while a bruise at 
 the heel or at the withers finds a dense, inextensible tissue where the 
 multiplying elements and exuded fluids choke up all communication, 
 and the parts die (necrose) from want of blood and cause a serious 
 quittor, or fistula. 
 
 This effect of structure of a part on the same process shows the 
 importance of a perfect knowledge in the study of a local trouble, and 
 the indispensable part which such knowledge plays in judging of the 
 gravity of an inflammatory disease, and in formulating a prognosis or 
 opinion of the final termination of it. It is this which allows the vet- 
 erinarian, through his knowledge of the intimate structure of a part 
 and the relations of its elements, to judge of the severity of a disease, 
 and to prescribe different modes of treatment in two animals for trou- 
 bles which appear to the less experienced observer to be absolutely 
 identical. 
 
 Termination of inflammation. Like congestion, inflammation may 
 terminate by resolution. In this case the exuded lymph undergoes 
 chemical change, and the products are absorbed and carried off by the 
 blood vessels and lymphatics, to be thrown out of the body by the 
 kidneys, liver, the glands of the skin, and the other excretory organs. 
 The cells, which have wandered into the neighboring tissues from the 
 blood vessels, gradually disappear or become transformed into fixed 
 cells. Those which are the result of the tissue cells, wakened into 
 active life, follow the same course. The vessels themselves contract, 
 and, having resumed their normal caliber, the part apparently reas- 
 sumes its normal condition; but it is always weakened, and a new
 
 490 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 inflammation is more liable to reappear in a previously inflamed part 
 than in a sound one. The alternate termination is necrosis, or morti- 
 fication. If the necrosis, or death of a part, is gradual, by small 
 stages, each cell losing its vitality after the other in more or less 
 rapid succession, it takes the name of ulceration. If it occurs in a 
 considerable part at once, it is called gangrene. If this death of the 
 tissues occurs deep in the organism, and the destroyed elements and 
 proliferated and dead cells are inclosed in a cavity, the result of the 
 process is called an abscess. When it occurs on a surface, it is an 
 ulcer, and an abscess by breaking on the exterior becomes then also 
 an ulcer. Proliferating and dying cells, and the fluid which exudes 
 from an ulcerating surface and the debris of broken-down tissue is 
 known as pus, and the process by which this is formed is known as 
 suppuration. A mass of dead tissue in a soft part is termed a slough, 
 while the same in bone is called a sequestrum. Such changes are 
 especially likely to occur when the part becomes infected with micro- 
 organisms that have the property of destroying tissue and thus caus- 
 ing the production of pus. These are known as pyogenic micro- 
 organisms. There are also bacilli that are capable of multiplying in 
 tissues and so irritating them as to cause them to die (necrose) with- 
 out forming pus. 
 
 TREATMENT OF INFLAMMATION. 
 
 The study of the causes and pathological alterations of inflamma- 
 tion has shown the process to be one of hypernutrition, attended by 
 excessive blood supply, so this study will indicate the primary factor 
 to be employed in the treatment of it. Any agent which will reduce 
 the blood supply and prevent the excessive nutrition of the elements 
 of the part will serve as a remedy. The means employed may be used 
 locally to the part, or they may be constitutional remedies, which act 
 indirectly. 
 
 Local treatment consists of 
 
 Removal of the cause, as a stone in the frog, causing a traumatic 
 thrush ; a badly fitting harness or saddle, causing ulcers of the skin ; 
 decomposing manure and urine in a stable, which, by their vapors, 
 irritate the air tubes and lungs and cause a cough. These causes, if 
 removed, will frequently allow the part to heal at once. 
 
 Rest. Motion stimulates the action of the blood, and thus feeds an 
 inflamed tissue. This is alike applicable to a diseased point irritated 
 by movement, to an inflamed pair of lungs surcharged with blood by 
 the use demanded of them in a working animal, or to an inflamed eye 
 exposed to light, or an inflamed stomach and intestines still further 
 fatigued by food. Absolute quiet, a dark stable, and small quantities 
 of easily digested food will often cure serious inflammatory troubles 
 without further treatment.
 
 INFLAMMATION. 491 
 
 Cold. The application of ice bags or cold water by bandages, 
 douching with a hose, or irrigation with dripping water, contracts 
 the blood vessels, acts as a sedative to the nerves, and lessens the 
 vitality of a part; it consequently prevents the tissue change which 
 inflammation produces. 
 
 Heat. Either dry or moist heat acts as a derivative. It quickens 
 the circulation and renders the chemical changes more active in the 
 surrounding parts; it softens the tissues and attracts the current of 
 blood from the inflamed organ ; it also promotes the absorption of the 
 effusion and hastens the elimination of the waste products in the part. 
 Heat may be applied by hand rubbing or active friction and the ap- 
 plication of warm coverings (bandages) or by cloths wrung out of 
 warm water ; or steaming with warm moist vapor, medicated or not, 
 will answer the same purpose. The latter is especially applicable to 
 inflammatory troubles in the air passages. 
 
 Local bleeding. This treatment frequently affords immediate relief 
 by carrying off the excessive blood and draining the effusion which 
 has already occurred. It affords direct mechanical relief, and, by a 
 stimulation of the part, promotes the chemical changes necessary 
 for bringing the diseased tissues to a healthy condition. Local blood- 
 letting can be done by scarifying, or making small punctures into the 
 inflamed part, as in the eyelid of an inflamed eye, or into the sheath 
 of the penis, or into the skin of the latter organ when congested, or 
 the leg when acutely swelled. 
 
 C ounterirritants are used for deep inflammations. They act by 
 bringing the blood to the surface and consequently lessening the 
 blood pressure within. The derivation of the blood to the exterior 
 diminishes the amount in the internal organs and is often very rapid 
 in its action in relieving a congested lung or liver. The most com- 
 mon counterirritant is mustard flour. It is applied as a soft paste 
 mixed with warm water to the under surface of the belly and to the 
 sides where the skin is comparatively soft and vascular. Colds in the 
 throat or inflammations at any point demand the treatment applied in 
 the same manner to the belly and sides and not to the throat or on the 
 legs, as so often used. Blisters, iodine, and many other irritants are 
 used in a similar way. 
 
 Constitutional treatment in inflammation is designed to reduce the 
 current of blood, which is the fuel for the inflammation in the dis- 
 eased part, to quiet the patient, and to combat the fever or general 
 effects of the trouble in the system, and to favor the neutralization or 
 elimination of the products of the inflammation. It consists of 
 
 Reduction of blood. This is obtained in various ways. The dimi- 
 nution of the quantity of the blood lessens the amount of pressure on 
 the vessels, and, as a sequel, the volume of it which is carried to the 
 point of inflammation; it diminishes the body temperature or fever;
 
 492 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 
 
 it numbs the nervous system, which plays an important part as a con- 
 ductor of irritation in diseases. 
 
 Blood-letting is the most rapid means, and frequently acts like a 
 charm in relieving a commencing inflammatory trouble. One must 
 remember, however, that the strength of the body and repair depend 
 on the blood. Hence blood-letting should be practiced only in full- 
 blooded, well-nourished animals and in the early stages of the disease. 
 
 Cathartics act by drawing off a large quantity of fluid from the 
 blood through the intestines, and have the advantage over the last 
 remedy of removing only the watery and not the formed elements 
 from the circulation. The blood cells remain, leaving the blood as 
 rich as it was before. Again, the glands of the intestines are stimu- 
 lated to excrete much waste matter and other deleterious material 
 which may be acting as a poison* in the blood. 
 
 Diuretics operate through the kidneys in the same way. 
 
 Diaphoretics aid depletion of the blood by pouring water in the 
 form of sweat from the surface of the skin and stimulating the dis- 
 charge of waste material out of its glands, which has the same effect 
 on the blood pressure. 
 
 Antipyretics are remedies to reduce the temperature. This may be 
 accomplished by depressing the center in the brain that controls heat 
 production. Some coal-tar products are very effective in this way, 
 but they have the disadvantage of depressing the heart, which should 
 always be kept as strong as possible. If they are used it must be with 
 knowledge of this fact, and it is well to give heart tonics or stimu- 
 lants with them. The temperature of the body may be lowered by 
 cold packs or by showering with cold water. This is a most useful 
 procedure in many diseases. 
 
 Depressants are drugs which act on the heart. They slow or weaken 
 the action of this organ and reduce the quantity and force of the cur- 
 rent of the blood which is carried to the point of local disease; they 
 lessen the vitality of the animal, and for this reason are now used 
 much less than formerly. 
 
 Anodynes quiet the nervous system. Pain in the horse, as in the 
 man, is one of the important factors in the production of fever, and 
 the dulling of the former often prevents, or at least reduces, the latter. 
 Anodynes produce sleep, so as to rest the patient and allow recupera- 
 tion for the succeeding struggle of the vitality of the animal against 
 the exhausting drain of the disease. 
 
 The diet of an animal suffering from acute inflammation is a factor 
 of the greatest importance. An overloaded circulation can be starved 
 to a reduced quantity and to a less rich quality of blood by reducing 
 the quantity of food given to the patient. Foods of easy digestion do 
 not tire the already fatigued organs of an animal with a torpid diges- 
 tive system. Nourishment will be taken by a suffering brute in the
 
 FEVERS. 493 
 
 form of slops and cooling drinks where it would be totally refused if 
 offered in its ordinary form, as hard oats or dry hay, requiring the 
 labor of grinding between the teeth and swallowing by the weakened 
 muscles of the jaws and throat. 
 
 Tonics and stimulants are remedies which are used to meet special 
 indications, as in the case of a feeble heart, and which enter into the 
 after treatment of inflammatory troubles as well as into the acute 
 stages of them. They brace up weakened and torpid glands; they 
 stimulate the secretion of the necessary fluids of the body, and hasten 
 the excretion of the waste material produced by the inflammatory 
 process ; they regulate the action of a weakened heart ; they promote 
 healthy vitality of diseased parts, and aid the chemical changes 
 needed for returning the altered tissues to their normal condition. 
 
 FEVERS. 
 
 [SYNONYMS: Febris, Latin; pyrexia, Greek; fidvre, French; fleber, German; 
 febbre, Italian; calentwa, .Spanish.] 
 
 The etymology of the word " fever," from the Latin fevere, to boil 
 or to burn, and of pyrexia, from the Greek word Trip, fire, defines in a 
 general way the meaning of the term. 
 
 Fever is a general condition of the animal body in which there is an 
 elevation of the animal body temperature, which may be only a de- 
 gree or two or may be 10 F. The elevation of the body temperature, 
 which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied by an 
 acceleration of the heart's action, a quickening of the respiration, and 
 an aberration in the functional activity of the various organs of the 
 body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of exces- 
 sive work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying out their 
 allotted tasks, or, in the course of a fever, the two conditions may 
 both exist, the one succeeding the other. Fever as a disease is usually 
 preceded by chills as an essential symptom. 
 
 Fevers are divided into essential fevers and symptomatic fevers. 
 In symptomatic fever some local disease, usually of an inflammatory 
 character, develops first, and the constitutional febrile phenomena are 
 the result of the primary point of combustion irritating the whole 
 body, either through the nervous system or directly by means of the 
 waste material which is carried into the circulation and through the 
 blood vessels, and is distributed to distal parts. Essential fevers are 
 those in which there is from the outset a general disturbance of the 
 whole economy. This may consist of an elementary alteration in the 
 blood or a general change in the constitution of the tissues. Fevers 
 of the latter class are usually due to some infecting agent and belong, 
 therefore, to the class of infectious diseases. 
 
 Essential fevers are subdivided into ephemeral fevers, which last 
 but a short time and terminate by critical phenomena; intermittent
 
 494 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 fevers, in which there are alterations of exacerbations of the febrile 
 symptoms and remissions, in which the body returns to its normal 
 condition or sometimes to a depressed condition, in which the func- 
 tions of life are but badly performed; and continued fevers, which 
 include contagious diseases, such as glanders, influenza, etc., the septic 
 diseases, such as pyemia, septicemia, etc., and the eruptive fevers, 
 such as variola, etc. 
 
 Whether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissues, 
 such as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive 
 work, which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of the 
 combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed to produce force, or 
 the toxins of influenza in the blood, or the presence of irritating ma- 
 terial, either in the form of living organisms or of their products, 
 as in glanders or tuberculosis the general train of symptoms are 
 much the same, varying as the amount of the irritant differs in 
 quantity, or when some special quality in them has a specific action 
 on one or another tissue. 
 
 There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood vessels, 
 which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same if there 
 was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the cur- 
 rent of the blood. There is, then, an elevation of the peripheral 
 temperature, followed by a lowering of tension in the arteries and 
 an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These conditions may 
 be produced by a primary irritation of the nerve centers of the brain 
 from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever, or sunstroke, or by 
 the entrance into the blood stream of disease-producing organisms 
 or their chemical products, as in anthrax, rinderpest, influenza, etc. 
 
 There are times when it is difficult to distinguish between the exist- 
 ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which 
 is the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of 
 the lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a 
 race horse after a severe race, and morbid when it produces more than 
 temporary phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, the tem- 
 perature may rise from physiological causes as much as four degrees, 
 so fever, or, as it is better termed, a feverish condition, may follow 
 any work or other employment of energy in which excessive tissue 
 change has taken place; but if the consequences are ephemeral, and 
 no recognizable lesion is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This 
 condition, however, may predispose to severe organic disturbance 
 and local inflammations which will cause disease, as an animal in this 
 condition is liable to take cold and develop lung fever or a severe 
 enteritis, if chilled or otherwise exposed. 
 
 Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phe- 
 nomena, but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the 
 species of animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species.
 
 FEVERS, 495 
 
 by the families which form groups of the races, and by certain condi- 
 tions in individuals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a 
 Thoroughbred may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the 
 foot of a Clydesdale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom. 
 In the horse, fever produces the following symptoms : 
 
 The normal body temperature, which varies from 99 to 100 F., 
 is elevated from 1 to 9. A temperature of 102 or 103 F. is mod- 
 erate fever, 104 to 105 F. is high, and 106 F. and over is excessive. 
 The temperature is accurately measured by means of a clinical ther- 
 mometer inserted in the rectum. 
 
 This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand 
 placed in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the cleft 
 between the hind legs. It is usually appreciable at any point over 
 the surface of the body and in the expired air emitted from the nos- 
 trils. The ears and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body, 
 but are sometimes cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation and 
 irregular distribution of the blood. The pulse, which in a healthy 
 horse is felt beating about 42 to 48 times in the minute, is increased 
 to 60, TO, 90, or even 100. The respirations are increased from 14 or 
 16 to 24, 30, 36, or even more. With the commencement of a fever 
 the horse usually has its appetite diminished, or it may have total 
 loss of appetite if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast 
 difference among horses in this regard. With the same amount of 
 elevation of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely, 
 while others, usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay 
 throughout the course of the fever, and will even continue to eat oats 
 or other grains. Thirst is usually increased, but the animal desires 
 only a small quantity of water at a time, and in most cases of fever a 
 bucket of water should be kept standing before the patient, which 
 may be allowed to drink ad libitum. The skin becomes dry and the 
 hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage 
 of fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an out- 
 break of warm sweat is often a most favorable symptom. The mu- 
 cous membranes, which are most easily examined in the conjunctiva? 
 of the eyes and inside of the mouth, change color if the fever is an 
 acute one ; without alteration of blood the mucous membranes become 
 of a rosy or deep-red color at the outset; if the fever is attended with 
 distinct alteration of the blood, as in influenza, and at the end of two 
 or three days in severe cases of pneumonia or other extensive inflam- 
 matory troubles the mucous membranes are tinged with yellow, which 
 may even become a deep ocher in color, the result of the decomposi- 
 tion of the blood corpuscles and the freeing of their coloring matter, 
 which acts as a stain. At the outset of a fever the various glands 
 are checked in their secretions, the salivary glands fail to secrete the 
 saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue and inside of the cheeks
 
 496 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 dry and covered with a brownish, bad-smelling deposit. The excre- 
 tion from the liver and intestinal glands is diminished and produces 
 an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes a constipation. 
 If this is not remedied at an early period, the undigested material 
 acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an inflamma- 
 tory process, producing a severe diarrhea. 
 
 The excretion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely sup- 
 pressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is 
 passed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly, and 
 deposits quantities of salts. At a later period the diminished excre- 
 tion may be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying 
 off waste products and usually indicates an amelioration of the fever. 
 
 While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever 
 are usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold, 
 or be much cooler than they normally are. This latter condition 
 usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circulatory system. 
 
 It is of the greatest importance, as an aid in diagnosing the gravity 
 of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of its mode 
 of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condition in the 
 horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals, in which fever is 
 the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even only quiet 
 with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to dimin- 
 ish it. When fever is the result of local injury, the cure of the cause 
 produces a cessation in the constitutional symptoms. When fever is 
 the result of a pneumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflamma- 
 tion, it usually lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the first 
 improvement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constantly have 
 exacerbations of fever due to secondary inflammatory processes, such 
 as the formation of small abscesses, the development of secondary 
 bronchitis, or the death of a limited amount of tissue (gangrene). 
 
 In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and septicemia, there 
 is a definite poison contained in the blood-vessel system, and carried 
 to the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar 
 irritation, usually lasting for a specific period, during which the tem- 
 perature can be but slightly diminished by any remedy. 
 
 In cases attended with' complications, the diagnosis becomes at times 
 still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes 
 complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple 
 inflammatory disease may be grafted on that of the specific trouble, 
 and the determination of the cause of the fever, as between the two, 
 is therefore frequently a difficult matter but an important one, as upon 
 it depends the mode of treatment. 
 
 Any animal suffering from fever, whatever the cause, is much more 
 susceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become compli- 
 cations of the original disease, than ar.^ animals in sound health. In
 
 FEVERS. 497 
 
 fever we have the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened, 
 we have an increased current of more or less altered blood, flowing 
 through the vessels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but 
 an exciting cause to transform the passive congestion of fever into 
 an active congestion and acute inflammation. These conditions be- 
 come still more distinct when the fever is accompanied by a decided 
 deterioration in the blood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicemia, 
 and at the termination of severe pneumonias. 
 
 Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of 
 the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secretions, 
 etc., must be considered as an indication of organic disturbance. 
 This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation 
 or other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers; altera- 
 tions of the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers, 
 or ' direct irritants to the nerve centers themselves, as in cases of 
 heat stroke, injury to the brain, etc. 
 
 The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. One of the im- 
 portant factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained 
 by placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from other animals and 
 extraneous noises, and sheltered from excessive light and drafts of 
 air. Anodynes, belladonna, hyoscyamus, and opium act as antipy- 
 retics simply by quieting the nervous system. As an irritant exists 
 in the blood in most cases of fever, any remedy which will favor the 
 excretion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. We 
 therefore employ diaphoretics to stimulate the sweat and excretions 
 from the skin; diuretics to favor the elimination of matter by the 
 kidneys ; cholagogues and laxatives to increase the action of the liver 
 and intestines, and to drain from these important organs all the waste 
 material which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses 
 of blood vessels. The heart becomes stimulated to increased action 
 at the outset of a fever, but this does not indicate increased strength ; 
 on the contrary, it indicates the action of an irritant to the heart 
 that will soon weaken it. It is therefore irrational to further depress 
 the heart by the use of such drugs as aconite. It is better to 
 strengthen the heart and to favor the elimination of the substance 
 that is irritating it. The increased blood pressure throughout the 
 body may be diminished by lessening the quantity of blood. This 
 is obtained in some cases with advantage where the disease is but 
 starting and the animal is plethoric by direct abstraction of blood, 
 as in bleeding from the jugular or other veins; or by derivatives, 
 such as mustard, turpentine, or blisters applied to the skin; or by 
 setons, which draw to the surface the fluid of the blood, thereby 
 lessening its volume, without having the disadvantage of impoverish- 
 ing the elements of the blood found in bleeding. Antipyretics given 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 32
 
 498 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 by the mouth and cold applied to the skin are most useful in many 
 cases. 
 
 When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one, 
 either in the form of bacteria (living organisms), as in glanders, 
 tuberculosis, influenza, septicemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign 
 element, as in rheumatism, gout, hemaglobinuria, and other so-called 
 diseases of nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to 
 have a direct specific action on them. Among the specific remedies 
 for various diseases are counted quinine, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, 
 antipyrine, mercury, iodine, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aro- 
 matics, sulphur, and a host of other drugs, some of which are of known 
 effect and others of which are theoretical in action. Certain remedies, 
 like simple aromatic teas, vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon juice, 
 etc., alkalines in the form of salts, sweet spirits of niter, etc., which 
 are household remedies, are always useful, because they act on the 
 excreting organs and ameliorate the effects of fever. Other remedies, 
 which are to be used to influence the cause of fever, must be selected 
 with judgment and from a thorough knowledge of the nature of the 
 disease. 
 
 INFLUENZA. 
 
 [SYNONYMS: Pinkeye, typhoid lever, epizooty, epihippic fever, hepatic fever, 
 bilious fever, etc.; fievre typhoide, grippe, French; pferdestaube, German; 
 gaxtro-enteritis of Vatel and d'Arboval ; febris erysipelatodes, Zundel ; typhus 
 of Delafond.] 
 
 Definition. Influenza is a contagious and infectious specific fever 
 of the horse, ass, and mule, with alterations of the blood, stupefac- 
 tion of the brain and nervous system, great depression of the vital 
 forces, and frequent inflammatory complications of the important 
 vascular organs, especially of the lungs, intestines, brain, and lamina? 
 of the feet. One attack usually protects the animal from future 
 ones of the same disease, but not always. An apparent complete 
 recovery is sometimes followed by serious sequels of the nervous and 
 blood-vessel systems. The disease is very apt, under certain condi- 
 tions of the atmosphere or from unknown causes, to assume an epi- 
 zootic form, with tendency to complications of especial organs, as, 
 at one period, the lungs, at another the intestines, etc. 
 
 The first description of influenza is given by Laurentius Rusius in 
 1301, when it spread over a considerable portion of Italy, causing 
 great loss among the war horses of Rome and the surrounding district. 
 Later, in 1648, an epizootic of this disease visited Germany and 
 spread to other parts of Europe. In 1711, under the name of " epi- 
 demica equorum" it followed the tracks of the great armies all over 
 Europe, causing immense losses among the horses, while the rinder- 
 pest was scourging the cattle of the same regions. The two diseases 
 were confounded with each other, and were, by the scientists of the
 
 INFLUENZA. 499 
 
 day, allied to the typhus, which was a plague to the human race at 
 the same time. We find the first advent of this disease to the British 
 Islands in an epizootic among the horses of London and the southern 
 counties of England, in 1732, which is described by Gibson. In 1758, 
 Robert Whytt recounts the devastation of the horses of the north of 
 Scotland from the same trouble. Throughout the eighteenth century 
 a number of epizootics occurred in Hanover and other portions of 
 Germany and in France, which were renewed early in the present 
 century, with complications of the intestinal tract, which obtained for 
 it its name of gastro-enteritis. In 1766 it first attacked the horses in 
 North America, but is not described as again occurring in a severe 
 form until 1870-1872, when it spread over the entire country, from 
 Canada south to Ohio, and then eastward to the Atlantic and west- 
 ward to California. It is now a permanent disease in our large cities, 
 selecting for the continuance of its virulence young or especially sus- 
 ceptible horses which pass through the large and ill-ventilated and 
 uncleaned stables of dealers, and assumes from time to time an en- 
 zootic form, when from some reason its virulence increases. It as- 
 sumes this form also when, from reasons of rural economy and com- 
 merce, large numbers of young and more susceptible animals are 
 exposed to its contagion. 
 
 Etiology. As one attack is self-protective, numbers of old horses, 
 having had an earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again ; 
 but, aside from this, young horses, especially those about four or five 
 years of age, are much more predisposed to be attacked, while the 
 older ones, even if they have not had the disease, are less liable to it. 
 Again, the former age is that in which the horse is brought from the 
 farm, where it has been free from the risk of exposure, and is sold to 
 pass through the stables of the country taverns, the dirty, infected 
 railway cars, and the foul stockyards and damp stables of dealers in 
 our large cities. Want of training is a predisposing cause. Overfed, 
 fat, young horses which have just come through the sales stables are 
 much more susceptible to contagion than the same horses are after a 
 few months of steady work. 
 
 Pilger, in 1805, was the first to recognize infection as the direct 
 cause of the disease. Roll and others studied the contagiousness of 
 influenza, and, finding it so much more virulent and permanent in 
 old stables than elsewhere, classed it as a " stall miasm." The at- 
 mosphere is the most common carrier of the infection from sick ani- 
 mals to healthy ones, and through it may be carried for a considerable 
 distance. The contagion will remain in the straw bedding and 
 droppings of the animal and in the feed in an infected stable for a 
 considerable time, and if these are removed to other localities it may 
 be carried in them. It may be carried in the clothing of those who 
 have been in attendance on horses suffering from the disease. The
 
 500 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 drinking water in troughs and even running water may hold the virus 
 and be a means cf its communication to other animals, even at a 
 distance. The studies of Dieckerhoff, in 1881, in regard to the con- 
 tagion of influenza were especially interesting. He found that dur- 
 ing a local enzootic, produced by the introduction of horses suffering 
 from influenza into an extensive stable otherwise perfectly healthy, 
 the infection took place in what at first seemed to be a most irregular 
 manner, but which was shown later to be dependent on the ventilation 
 and currents of air through the various buildings. His experiments 
 showed that the virus of influenza is excessively diffusible, and that it 
 will spread rapidly to the roof of a building and pass by the apertures 
 of ventilation to others in the neighborhood. The writer has seen 
 cases that have appeared to spread through a brick wall and attack 
 animals on the opposite side before others even in the same stable 
 were affected. Brick walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too 
 frequently left about the feed boxes of a horse stall will all hold 
 the contagion for some days, if not weeks, and communicate it to 
 susceptible animals when placed in the same locality. A four-year- 
 old colt, belonging to the writer, stood at the open door of a stable 
 where two cases of influenza had developed the day before, fully 40 
 feet from the stall, for about ten minutes on two successive mornings, 
 and in six days developed the disease. On the morning when the 
 trouble in the colt was recognized it stood in an infirmary with a 
 dozen horses being treated for various diseases, but was immediately 
 isolated; within one week two-thirds of the other horses had con- 
 tracted the disease. 
 
 Symptoms. After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection 
 a period of incubation of from four to seven days elapses, during 
 which the animal seems in perfect health, before any symptom is 
 visible. When the symptoms of influenza develop they may be in- 
 tense or they may be so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but 
 the latter condition frequently exposes the animal to use and to the 
 danger of the exciting causes of complications which would not have 
 happened had the animal been left quietly in its stall in place of 
 being worked or driven out to show to prospective purchasers. The 
 disease may run a simple course as a specific fever, with alterations 
 only of the blood, or it may become at any period complicated by 
 local inflammatory troubles, the gravity of which is augmented by 
 developing in an animal with an impoverished blood and already 
 irritated and rapid circulation and defective nutritive and reparative 
 functions. 
 
 The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which 
 becomes intense within a very short period. The animal becomes 
 dejected and inattentive to surrounding objects; stands with its head 
 down, and not back on the halter as in serious lung diseases. It has
 
 INFLUENZA. 501 
 
 chills of the flanks, the muscles of the croup, and the muscles of the 
 shoulders, or of the entire body, lasting from fifteen to thirty min- 
 utes, and frequently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a 
 severe attack may be expected. The hairs become dry and rough and 
 stand on end. The body temperature increases to 104, 104.5, and 
 105 F., or even in severe cases to 107 F., within the first twelve or 
 eighteen hours. The horse becomes stupid, stands immobile with its 
 head hanging, the ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the 
 surrounding attendants or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes 
 rapidly more marked, the eyes become puffy and swollen with ex- 
 cessive lachrymation, so that the tears run from the internal canthus 
 of the eye over the cheeks and may blister the skin in its course. The 
 respiration becomes accelerated to twenty-five or thirty in a minute, 
 and the pulse is quickened to seventy, eighty, or even one hundred, 
 moderate in volume and in force. There is great depression of mus- 
 cular force ; the animal stands limp, as if excessively fatigued. There 
 is diminution, or in some cases total loss, of sensibility of the skin, 
 so that it may be pricked or handled without attracting the attention 
 of the animal. On movement, the horse staggers and shows a want of 
 coordination of all of the muscles of its limbs. The senses of hearing, 
 sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely abolished. The visible 
 mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from which it is known as 
 the pinkeye, and the mouth and the natural openings becpme of a 
 deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter is especially 
 noticeable on the rim of the gums and is a condition not found in any 
 other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptom. In some 
 outbreaks there is much more swelling of the lids and weeping from 
 the eyes than in others. If the animal is bled at this period the blood 
 is found more coagulable than normal, but at a later period it be- 
 comes of a dark color and less coagulable. There is great diminution 
 or total loss of appetite with an excessive thirst, but in many cases 
 in cold-blooded horses the animal may retain a certain amount of 
 appetite, eating slowly at its hay, oats, or other feed. There is some 
 irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract as shown 
 by discharge of mucus from the nose, and by cough. Pregnant mares 
 are apt to abort. 
 
 TV T e have, following the fever, a tumefaction, or edema, of the sub- 
 cutaneous tissues at the fetlocks, of the under surface of the belly, and 
 of the sheath of the penis, which may be excessive. The infiltration 
 is noninflammatory in character and produces an insensibility of the 
 skin like the excessive stocking which we see in debilitated animals 
 after exposure to cold. In ordinary cases the temperature has reached 
 its maximum of 105 or 106 F. in from twenty-four to forty-eight 
 hours from the origin of the fever. It remains stationary for a period 
 of from three to four days without so much variation between morn-
 
 502 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ing and evening temperature as we have in pneumonia or other seri- 
 ous diseases of the lungs. At the termination of the specific course of 
 the disease, which is generally from six to ten days, the fever abates, 
 the swelling of the legs and under surface of belly diminishes, the ap- 
 petite returns, the strength is rapidly regained, the mucous mem- 
 branes lose their yellowish color, which they attain so rapidly at the 
 commencement of the disease, and the animal convalesces promptly 
 to its ordinary good condition and health, and rapidly regains the 
 large amount of weight which it lost in the early part of the disease, 
 a loss which frequently reaches 30, 50, or even 75 pounds each twenty- 
 four hours. For the first three days of the high temperature there is 
 a great tendency to constipation, which should be avoided if possible 
 by the use of the means recommended below, for, if it has been 
 marked, it may be followed by a troublesome diarrhea. 
 
 Terminations. The termination of simple influenza may be death 
 by extreme fever, with failure of the heart's action; from excessive 
 coma, due generally to a rapid congestion of the brain ; to the poison- 
 ous effects of the debris of the disintegrated blood corpuscles and the 
 toxin of the disease; to an asphyxia, following congestion of the 
 lungs ; or the disease terminates by subsidence of the fever, return of 
 the appetite and nutritive functions of the organs, and rapid con- 
 valescence ; or, in an unfortunately large number of cases, the course 
 of the disease is complicated by local inflammatory troubles, whose 
 gravity is greater in influenza than it is when they occur as sporadic 
 diseases. 
 
 Complications. The complications are congestions, followed by 
 inflammatory phenomena in the various organs of the body, but they 
 are most commonly located in the intestines, lungs, brain, or vascular 
 laminae of the feet. Atmospheric influence or other surrounding 
 influences of unknown quality seem to be an important factor in the 
 determination of the local lesions. At certain seasons of the year, 
 and in certain epizootics, we find 40 and 50 per cent or even a greater 
 percentage of the cases rendered more serious by complication of the 
 intestines ; at other seasons of the year, or in other epizootics, we find 
 the same percentage of cases complicated by inflammation of the 
 lungs, while at the same time a small percentage of them are com- 
 plicated by troubles of the other organs; inflammatory changes of 
 the brain, of the lamina?, more rarely commence in epizootic form, 
 but are to be found in a certain small percentage of cases in all 
 epizootics. 
 
 Exciting causes are important factors in complicating individual 
 cases of influenza, or in localizing special lesions either during enzo- 
 otics or epizootics. These exciting or determining causes act much as 
 they would in sporadic inflammatory diseases, but in this case we find 
 the animal much more susceptible and predisposed to be acted upon
 
 INFLUENZA. 503 
 
 than ordinary healthy animals. With a temperature already ele- 
 vated, with the heart's action driving the blood in increased quantity 
 into the distended blood vessels, which become dilated and lose their 
 contractility, with a congestion of all of the vascular organs already 
 established, it takes but little additional irritation to carry the con- 
 gestion one step further and produce inflammation. 
 
 Complication of the intestines. When any cause acts as an irritant 
 to the intestinal tract during the course of this specific fever it may 
 produce inflammation of the organs belonging to it. This cause may 
 be constipation, which can find relief only in a congestion which offers 
 to increase the function of the glands and relieve the inertia caused by 
 a temporary cessation of activity; or irritant medicines, especially 
 any increased use of antimony, turpentine, or the more active reme- 
 dies ; the taking of indigestible food, or of food in too great quantities, 
 or food altered in any way by fungus or other injurious alterations; 
 the swallowing of too cold water; or any other irritant may cause 
 congestion. This complication is ushered in by colics. The animal 
 paws with the fore feet and evinces a great sensibility of the belly ; it 
 looks with the head from side to side, and may lie down and get up, 
 not with violence, but with care for itself, perfectly protecting the sur- 
 face of the belly from any violence. At first we find a decided con- 
 stipation ; the droppings if passed are small and hard, coated with a 
 viscous varnish or even with false membranes. In from thirty-six 
 to forty hours the constipation is followed by diarrhea. The alimen- 
 tary discharge becomes mixed with a seromucous exudation, which is 
 followed by a certain amount of suppurative matter. The animal be- 
 comes rapidly exhausted and unstable, staggers on movement, losing 
 the little appetite which may have remained, and has exacerbations of 
 fever. The pulse becomes softer and weaker, the respiration becomes 
 gradually more rapid, the temperature is about 1 to 1.5 F. higher. 
 If- a fatal result is not produced by the extensive diarrhea the dis- 
 charge becomes arrested in from five to ten days and a rapid recovery 
 takes place. 
 
 Complication of the lungs. If at any time during the course of the 
 fever the animal is exposed to cold or drafts of air, or in any other 
 way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs may become affected. In 
 the majority of cases, however, after three, four, or five days of the 
 fever, congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or 
 apparent exciting cause. Unless this congestion of the lungs is 
 soon relieved it is followed by an inflammation constituting pneumo- 
 nia. This pneumonia, while it is in its essence the same, differs from 
 an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by an insidious course. 
 The animal commences to breathe heavily, which becomes distinctly 
 visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilatation of the nostrils, and 
 frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady body. The res-
 
 504 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 pirations increase in number, what little appetite remained is lost, the 
 temperature increases from 1 to 2, the pulse becomes more rapid, 
 and at times, for a short period, more tense and full, but the previous 
 poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened the tissues that it 
 never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of a simple pneu- 
 monia. 
 
 On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed 
 areas ; on auscultation at the base of the neck over the trachea a tubu- 
 lar murmur is heard. The crepitant rales and tubular murmurs of 
 pneumonia are heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is 
 peripheral, but in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed 
 portions are frequently disseminated in islands of variable size and 
 are sometimes deep seated, in which case the characteristic auscultory 
 symptoms are sometimes wanting. From this time on the symptoms 
 of the animal are those of an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered 
 more severe by occurring in a debilitated animal. The cough is at 
 first hacky and aborted; later, more full and moist. There is dis- 
 charge from the nostrils, which may be mucopurulent, purulent, or 
 hemorrhagic. As in simple pneumonia, in the outset this discharge 
 may be "rusty," due to capillary hemorrhages. We find that the 
 blood is thoroughly mixed with the matter, staining it evenly, instead 
 of being mixed with it in the form of clots. At the commencement of 
 the complication the animal may be subject to chills, which may again 
 occur in the course of the disease, in which case, if severe, an unfa- 
 vorable termination by gangrene may be looked for. If gangrene 
 occurs it is shown by preliminary chills, a rapid elevation of tempera- 
 ture, a tumultuous heart, a flaky discharge from the nostrils, and a 
 fetid breath; the symptoms are identical with those which occur in 
 gangrene complicating other diseases. 
 
 Complication of the brain. At any time during the course of the 
 disease congestion of the brain may occur; at an early period if the 
 fever has been intense from the outset, but in ordinary cases more 
 frequently after three or four days. The animal, which has been 
 stupid and immobile, becomes suddenly restless, walks forward in the 
 fctall until it fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it be- 
 comes displaced from its position, it follows the wall with the nose 
 and eyes, rubbing it along until it reaches the corner and again fastens 
 itself. It may become more violent, and rear and plunge. If dis- 
 turbed by the entrance of the attendant or any loud noise or bright 
 light, it will stamp with its fore feet and strike with its hind feet, but 
 is not definite in fixing the object which it is resisting, which is a 
 diagnostic point between meningitis and rabies and which renders 
 the animal with the former disease less dangerous to handle. If fas- 
 tened by a rope to a stake or post, the animal will wander in a circle
 
 INFLUENZA. 505 
 
 at the end of the rope. It wanders almost invariably in one direction. 
 The pupils may be dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition 
 in one eye and the opposite in the other. 
 
 The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in 
 which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against 
 the corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of 
 the animal, unsteady. Little or no attention will be paid to the sur- 
 rounding noises, the crack of a whip, or even a blow on the surface of 
 the body. The respiration becomes slowei?, the pulsations are dimin- 
 ished, the coma lasts for variable time, to be followed by excesses of 
 violence, after which the two alternate, but if severe the period of 
 coma becomes longer and longer until the animal dies of spasms of 
 the lungs or of heart failure. It may die from injuries which occur 
 in the ungovernable attacks of violence. 
 
 Complication of the feet. The feet are the organs which are next 
 in frequency predisposed to congestion. This congestion takes place 
 in the lamina? (podophyllous structures) of the feet. The stupefied 
 animal is roused from its condition by excessive pain in the feet, and 
 assumes the position of a foundered horse; that is, if the fore feet 
 alone are affected they are carried forward until they rest on the heels, 
 and if the hind feet are affected all of the feet are carried forward, 
 resting on their heels, the hind ones as near the center of gravity as 
 possible. In some cases the stupor of the animal is so great that the 
 pain is not felt, and little or no alternation of the position of the 
 animal is noticeable. The foot is found hot to the touch, and after a 
 given time the depressed convex sole of typical founder is recognized. 
 
 Pleurisy. This is a rare complication, but when it does occur it is 
 ushered in by the usual symptoms of depression, rapid pulse, small 
 respiration, elevation of the temperature, subcutaneous edema of the 
 legs and under surface of the belly, and we find a line of dullness on 
 either side of the chest and an absence of respiratory murmur at the 
 lower part. If it is severe there may be an effusion filling one-fourth 
 to one-third of the thoracic cavity in from thirty-six to forty-eight 
 hours. 
 
 Pericarditis is an occasional complication of influenza. It is 
 ushered in by chills, elevation of the temperature ; the pulse becomes 
 rapid, thready, and imperceptible. The heart murmurs become in- 
 distinct or can not be heard. A venous pulse is seen on the line of the 
 jugular veins along the neck. Respiration becomes more difficult and 
 rapid. If the animal is moved the symptoms become more marked, 
 or it may drop suddenly dead from heart failure. 
 
 Peritonitis, or inflammation of the membranes lining the belly and 
 covering the organs contained in it, sometimes takes place. The gen- 
 eral symptoms are similar to those of a commencing pericarditis.
 
 506 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 The local symptoms are those of pain, especially to pressure on side 
 of the flanks and belly; distention of the latter, and sometimes the 
 formation of flatus, or gas, and constipation. 
 
 Other occasional complications are nephritis, hepatitis, inflamma- 
 tion of the flexor tendons and rupture of them, and abscesses. 
 
 Diagnosis. The diagnosis of influenza is based upon continued 
 fever, with great depression and symptoms of stupor and coma ; the 
 rapidly developing, dark-saffron, ocher, yellowish discoloration of the 
 mucous membranes, swelling of the legs and soft tissues of the geni- 
 tals. When these symptoms have become manifested the diagnosis 
 of a local complication is based upon the same symptoms that are 
 produced in the local diseases from other causes, but in influenza 
 the local symptoms are frequently masked or even entirely hidden 
 by the intense stupor of the animal, which renders it insensible to 
 pain. The evidence of colic and congestion, which is followed by 
 diarrhea, indicates enteritis. The rapid breathing or difficulty of 
 respiration points to a complication of the lungs, but, as we have 
 seen in the study of the symptoms, the local evidences of lung lesions 
 are frequently hidden. Again, we have seen that inflammation of 
 the feet, or founder, complicating influenza is frequently not shown 
 on account of the insensibility to pain on the part of the animal, 
 which indicates the importance of running the hand daily over the 
 hoofs to detect any sudden elevation of temperature on their surface. 
 
 The diagnosis of brain trouble is based upon the excessive violence 
 which occurs in the course of the disease, for during the intervening 
 period or coma there is no means of determining that it is due to this 
 complication. Severe cases of influenza may simulate anthrax in the 
 horse. In both we have stupor, the intense coloration of the mucous 
 membranes of the eyes, and a certain amount of swelling of the legs 
 and under surface of the belly. The diagnosis here can be made only 
 by microscopic examination of the blood. In strangles, equine variola, 
 and scalma we have an intense red, rosy coloration of the mucous 
 membranes, full, tense pulse, and, although in these diseases we may 
 have depression, we do not have the stupor and coma except in severe 
 cases which have lasted for some days. In influenza we have no evi- 
 dence of the formation of pus on the mucous membranes as in the 
 other diseases, except sometimes in the conjunctiva? of the eyes. 
 
 In severe pneumonia (lung fever) we may find profound coma, 
 dark yellowish coloration of the mucous membranes, and swelling of 
 the under surface of the belly and legs ; but in pneumonia we have the 
 history of the difficulty of breathing and an acute fever of a sthenic 
 type from the outset, and the other symptoms do not occur for sev- 
 eral days; while in influenza we have the history of characteristic 
 symptoms for several days before the rapid breathing and difficulty 
 of respiration indicate the appearance of the complication. Without
 
 INFLUENZA. 507 
 
 the history it is frequently difficult to diagnose a case of influenza of 
 several days' standing, complicated by pneumonia, from a case of 
 severe pneumonia of five to six days' standing, but from a prognostic 
 point of view it is immaterial, as the treatment of both are identical. 
 The fact that other horses in the same stable or neighborhood have 
 influenza may aid in the diagnosis. 
 
 Prognosis. Influenza is a serious disease chiefly on account of its 
 numerous complications. Uncomplicated influenza is a compara- 
 tively simple malady, and is fatal in but 1 to 5 per cent of all cases. 
 In some outbreaks, however, complications of one kind or another 
 preponderate; in such instances the rate of mortality is much 
 increased. 
 
 Alterations. The chief alteration of influenza occurs in the di- 
 gestive tract, and consists in hyperemia, infiltration, and swelling of 
 the mucous membrane, and especially of the Peyers' patches near the 
 ileocecal valve. The tissues throughout the body are found stained, 
 and of a more or less yellowish hue. There is always found a con- 
 gested condition of all the organs, muscles, and interstitial tissues of 
 the body. The coverings of the brain and spinal cord partake in 
 the congested and discolored condition of the rest of the tissues. 
 
 Other alterations are dependent entirely upon the complications. 
 If the lungs have been affected, we find effusions identical in their 
 intimate nature with those of simple pneumonia, but they differ 
 somewhat in their general appearance in not being so circumscribed 
 in their area of invasion. The alterations of meningitis and lami- 
 nitis are identical with those of sporadic cases of founder and inflam- 
 mation of the brain. 
 
 Treatment. While the appetite remains the patient should have a 
 moderate quantity of sound hay, good oats, and bran ; or even a little 
 fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. It is 
 not so important that a special diet shall be observed as that the horse 
 shall eat a moderate quantity of nourishing food, and he may be 
 tempted with any food of good quality that he relishes. The sick 
 horse should be placed in a well-ventilated box stall away from other 
 horses. Grass, roots, apples, and milk may be offered and, if relished, 
 allowed freely. To reduce the temperature, the safest simple plan is 
 to inject large quantities of cold water into the rectum. Antipyrene 
 may be used with alcohol or strychnia. Derivatives in the form of 
 essential oils and mustard poultices, baths of alcohol, turpentine, 
 and hot water, after which the animal must be immediately dried and 
 blanketed, serve to waken the animal up from the stupor and relieve 
 the congestion of the internal organs. This treatment is especially 
 indicated when complication by congestion of the lungs, intestines, or 
 of the brain is threatened. Quinine and salicylic acid in 1-dram 
 doses will lower the temperature, but too continuous use of quinine
 
 508 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 
 
 in some cases increases the after depression. Iodide of potash re- 
 duces the excessive nutrition of the congested organs and thereby 
 reduces the temperature; again, this drug in moderate quantities is 
 a stimulant to the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing the 
 elimination of waste matter by the kidneys. Small doses of Glauber's 
 salts and bicarbonate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the 
 digestive tract and prevent constipation and its evil results. 
 
 In cases of severe depression and weakness of the heart digitalis 
 can be used with advantage. At the end of the fever, and when con- 
 valescence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale 
 in 1-pint doses may be given as stimulants; to these may be added 
 1-dram doses of turpentine. 
 
 In complication of the intestines camphor and asafetida are most 
 frequently used to relieve the pain causing the colics ; diarrhea is also 
 relieved by the use of bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, and 
 drinks made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small 
 doses of laudanum. 
 
 In complication of the lungs iodide of potash and digitalis are most 
 frequently indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease 
 itself. 
 
 Founder occurring as a complication of influenza is difficult to treat. 
 It is, unfortunately, frequently not recognized until inflammatory 
 changes have gone on for some days. If recognized at once, local 
 bleeding and the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the ani- 
 mal will permit, are most useful, but in the majority of cases the 
 stupefied animal is unable to be moved satisfactorily or to have one 
 foot lifted for local treatment, and the only treatment consists in local 
 bleeding above the coronary bands and the application of poultices. 
 
 During convalescence small doses of alkalines may be kept up for 
 some little time, but the greatest care must be used, while furnishing 
 the animal with plenty of nutritious, easily digestible food, not to 
 overload the intestinal tract, causing constipation and consequent 
 diarrhea. Special care must be taken for some weeks not to expose 
 the animal to cold. 
 
 AFTER EFFECTS OF INFLUENZA. 
 
 ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRIIAOICA. A previous attack of influ- 
 enza is a common predisposing cause of this disease, which appears 
 most frequently a few weeks after convalescence is established. It 
 occurs more frequently in those animals which have made a rapid 
 convalescence and are apparently perfectly well than it does in those 
 which have made a slower recovery. 
 
 Anasarca commences by symptoms which are excessively variable. 
 The local lesions may be confined to a small portion of the animal's 
 body and the constitutional phenomena be nil. The appearance and 
 gravity of the local lesions may be so unlike, from difference of loca-
 
 ANASARCA, OK PURPURA HEMOKEHAGICA. 509 
 
 tion, that they seem to belong to a separate disease, and complica- 
 tions may completely mask the original trouble. 
 
 In the simplest form the first symptom noticed is a swelling, or 
 several swellings, occurring on the surface of the body on the fore- 
 arm, the leg, the under surface of* the belly, or the side of the head. 
 The tumefaction is at first the size of a hen's egg ; not hot, little sen- 
 sitive, and distinctly circumscribed by a marked line from the sur- 
 rounding healthy tissue. These tumors gradually extend until they 
 coalesce, and in a few hours we have swelling up of the legs, legs and 
 belly, or the head, to an enormous size; they have always the char- 
 acteristic constricted border, which looks as if it had been tied with a 
 cord. In the nostrils are found small reddish spots, or petechise, 
 which gradually assume a brownish and frequently a black color. 
 Examination of the mouth will frequently reveal similar lesions on 
 the surface of the tongue, along the lingual gutter, and on the 
 frsenum. If the external swelling has been on the head, the pete- 
 chia3 of the mucous membranes are apt to be more numerous and to 
 coalesce into patches of larger size than when the dropsy is confined 
 to the legs. The animal may be rendered stiff by the swelling of the 
 legs, or be annoyed by the awkward swollen head, which at times may 
 be so enormous as to resemble that of a hippopotamus rather than 
 that of a horse. During this period the temperature remains nor- 
 mal ; the pulse, if altered at all, is only a little weaker ; the respira- 
 tion is only hurried if the swelling of the head infringes on the 
 caliber of the nostrils. The appetite remains normal. The animal 
 is attentive to all that is going on, and, except for the swelling, 
 apparently in perfect health. 
 
 In from two to four days, in severe cases, the tissues can no longer 
 resist the pressure of the exuded fluid. Over the surface of the skin 
 which covers the dropsy we find a slight serous sweating, which 
 loosens the epidermis and dries so as to simulate the eruption of some 
 cutaneous disease. If this is excessive we may see irritated spots 
 which are suppurating. In the nasal fossae the hemorrhagic spots 
 have acted as irritants, and, inviting an increased amount of blood 
 to the Schneiderian membrane, produce a coryza or even a catarrh. 
 We may now find some enlargement and peripheral edema of the 
 lymphatic glands, which are fed from the affected part. The ther- 
 mometer indicates a slight rise in the body temperature, while the 
 pulse and respiration are somewhat accelerated. The appetite usu- 
 ally remains good. In the course of a few days the temperature may 
 have reached 102, 103, or 104 F. 
 
 Fever is established, not an essential or specific fever in any way, 
 but a simple secondary fever produced by the dead material from the 
 surface or superficial suppuration, and by the oxidization and absorp- 
 tion of the colloid mass contained in the tissues. The skin may sup-
 
 510 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 purate or slough more or less over the areas of greatest tension or 
 where it is irritated by blows or pressure. The great swelling about 
 the head may by closure of the nostrils interfere seriously with breath- 
 ing/ Internal edema may occur in the throat, lungs, or intestines. 
 Septicemia, or blood poisoning, may* result from anasarca. 
 
 Terminations. The simple form of the disease most frequently 
 terminates favorably on the eighth or tenth day by resolution or ab- 
 sorption of the effusion, with usually a profuse diuresis, and with or 
 without diarrhea. The appetite remains good or is at times ca- 
 pricious. 
 
 Death may occur from mechanical asphyxia, produced by closure of 
 the nostrils or closure of the glottis. Metastasis to the lungs is almost 
 invariably fatal, causing death by asphyxia. Metastasis to the intes- 
 tines may cause death from pain, enteritis, or hemorrhage. 
 
 Excessive suppuration, lymphangitis, and gangrene are causes of a 
 fatal termination by exhaustion. Mortal exhaustion is again pro- 
 duced by inability to swallow in cases of excessive swelling of the 
 head. 
 
 Peritonitis may arise secondary to the enteric edema, or by perfora- 
 tion of the stomach or intestines by a gangrenous spot. Septicemia 
 terminates fatally with its usual train of symptoms. 
 
 Alterations. The essential alterations of anasarca are exceedingly 
 simple ; the capillaries are dilated, the lymphatic spaces between the 
 fibers of the connective tissue are filled with serum, and the coagulable 
 portion of the blood presents a yellowish or citrine mass, jellylike in 
 consistency, which has stretched out the tissue like the meshes of a 
 sponge. Where the effusion has occurred between the muscles, as in 
 the head, these are found dissected and separated from each other 
 like those of a hog's head by the masses of fat. The surface of the 
 skin is desquamated and frequently denuded of the hair. Frequently 
 there are traces of suppuration and of ulceration. The mucous mem- 
 brane of the nose is found studded with small, hemorrhagic spots, 
 sometimes red, more frequently brown or black, often coalesced with 
 each other in irregular-sized patches and surrounded by a reddish 
 zone, the product of irritation. If edema of the intestines "has oc- 
 curred, the membrane is found four or five times its normal thickness, 
 reddish in color, with hemorrhages on the free surface. Edema of 
 the lungs leaves these organs distended. The secondary alterations 
 vary according to the complications. There are frequently the lesions 
 of asphyxia; externally we find ulcers, abscesses, and gangrenous 
 spots and the deep ulcers resulting from the latter. The lymphatic 
 cords and glands are found with all the lesions of lymphangitis. 
 Again are found the traces of excessive emaciation, or the lesions of
 
 ANASABCA, OB PUEPUBA HEMOBBHAGICA. 511 
 
 septicemia. Except from the complications the blood is not altered 
 in anasarca. 
 
 Diagnosis. The diagnosis of anasarca must principally be made 
 from farcy or glanders. In anasarca the swelling is nonsensitive, 
 while sensitive in the acute swelling of farcy. The nodes of farcy 
 are distinct and hard and never circumscribed, as in the other disease. 
 The eruption of glanders on the mucous membranes is nodular, hard, 
 and pelletlike. The redness disappears on pressure. In case of 
 excessive swelling of the head in anasarca, there may occur an ex- 
 tensive serofibrinous exudation from the mucous membranes of the 
 nose, poured out as a semifluid mass or as a cast of the nasal fossae, 
 never having the appearance or typical oily character which it has 
 in glanders. The inflammation of the lymphatic cords and glands 
 in anasarca does not produce the hard, indurated character which is 
 found in farcy. 
 
 Prognosis. While anasarca is not an excessively fatal disease, the 
 prognosis must always be guarded. The majority of cases run a 
 simple course and terminate favorably at the end of eight or ten 
 days, or possibly, after one to two relapses, requiring several weeks 
 for complete recovery. Effusion into the head renders the prognosis 
 much more grave from the possible danger of mechanical asphyxia. 
 Threatened mechanical asphyxia is especially dangerous on account 
 of the risk of blood poisoning after an operation of tracheotomy. 
 Edema of the viscera is a most serious complication. The prognosis 
 is based on the complications, their extent, and their individual grav- 
 ity, existing, as they do here, in an already debilitated subject. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of anasarca may be as variable as are 
 the lesions. The indications are at once shown by the alterations 
 and mechanism of the disease, which we have just studied. 
 
 Hygiene comes into play as the most important factor. Oats, oat 
 and hay tea, milk, eggs anything which the stomach or rectum can 
 be coaxed to take care of must be employed to give the nutriment, 
 which is the only thing that will permanently strengthen the tissues, 
 and they must be strengthened in order to keep the capillaries at their 
 proper caliber. 
 
 Laxatives, diaphoretics, and diuretics must be used to stimulate 
 the emunctories, so that they shall carry off the large amount of the 
 products of decomposition which result from the stagnated effusions 
 of anasarca. Of these the sulphate of soda in small repeated doses, 
 and the nitrate of potash and bicarbonate of soda in small quantity, 
 and the chlorate of potash in single large doses will be found useful. 
 Williams cites the chlorate of potash as an antiputrid. Stimulants 
 and astringents are directly indicated. Spirits of turpentine serves 
 the double purpose of a cardiac stimulant and a powerful, warm diu-
 
 512 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 retic, for the kidneys in this disease will stand a wonderful amount 
 of work. Camphor can be used with advantage. Coffee and tea 
 are two of the diffusible stimulants which are too much neglected in 
 veterinary medicine; both are valuable adjuncts in treatment in 
 anasarca, as they are during convalescence at the end of any grave 
 disease which has tended to render the patient anemic. Dilute sul- 
 phuric acid and hydrochloric acid are perhaps the best examples of 
 a combination of stimulant, astringent, and tonic which can be 
 employed. The simple astringents of mineral origin, sulphates of 
 iron, copper, etc., are useful as digestive tonics ; I doubt if they have 
 any constitutional effect. The vegetable astringents, tannic acid, 
 etc., have not proved efficacious in my hands. Iodide of potash in 
 small doses serves the triple purpose of digestive tonic, denutritive 
 for inflammation, and diuretic. Among the newer forms of treat- 
 ment are diluted Lugol's solution injected into the trachea, anti- 
 streptococcus serum and colloidal silver solution injected into the 
 circulation. No one but a qualified veterinarian would be competent 
 to apply these remedies. 
 
 Externally. Sponging the swollen parts, especially the head, when 
 the swelling occurs there, is most useful. The bath should be at art 
 extreme of temperature either ice cold to constrict the tissues or hot 
 water to act as an emollient and to favor circulation. Vinegar may be 
 added as an astringent. When we have excessively denuded surfaces, 
 suppuration, or open wounds, disinfectants should be added to the 
 wash. 
 
 In cases of excessive swelling, especially of the head, mechanical 
 relief may be required. Punctures of the part should be made with 
 the hot iron even in country practice, as no other disease ^o predis- 
 poses to septic contamination. When mechanical asphyxia is threat- 
 ened tracheotomy may be demanded. With the first evidence of 
 dyspnea, not due to closing of the nostrils or glottis, or with the first 
 pawing which gives rise to a suspicion of colic, a mustard plaster 
 should be applied over the whole belly and chest. The sinapism will 
 draw the current of the circulation to the exterior, the metastasis to 
 the lungs or intestines is prevented, and the enfeebled nervous system 
 is stimulated to renewed vigor by the peripheral irritation. The 
 organs are encouraged by it to renewed functional activity ; the local 
 inflammation produced by it favors absorption of the exudation. The 
 objection to the use of blisters is their more severe action and the 
 danger of mortification. Septicemia, when occurring as a complica- 
 tion, requires the ordinary treatment for the putrid diseases, with 
 little hope of a good result. 
 
 After recovery the animal regains its ordinary health, and there is 
 no predisposition to a return of the disease.
 
 GENERAL DISEASES. 513 
 
 STRANGLES. 
 
 [SYNONYMS: Distemper, colt-ill, cartarrhal fever, one form of shipping fever, 
 
 Febris pyogenica.] 
 
 Definition. Strangles is an infectious disease of the horse, mule, 
 and ass ; seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving 
 an animal which has had one attack protected from future trouble of 
 the "same kind. It appears as a fever, lasting for a few days, with 
 formation of matter, or pus, in the air tubes and lungs, and fre- 
 quently the formation of abscesses in various parts of the body, both 
 near the surface and in the internal organs. It usually leaves the 
 animal after convalescence perfectly healthy and as good as it was 
 before, but sometimes leaves it a roarer or is followed by the devel- 
 opment of deep-seated abscesses, which may prove fatal. 
 
 Causes. The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with 
 an animal suffering from the disease, or indirectly through contact 
 with the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the 
 atmosphere in which an infected animal has been. There are many 
 predisposing causes which render some animals much more subject to 
 contract the disease than others. Early age, which has given it the 
 popular name of colt-ill, offers many more subjects than the later 
 periods of life do, for the animal can contract the disease but once, 
 and the large majority of adult and old animals have derived an 
 immunity from previous attacks. At 3, 4, or 5 years of age the colt, 
 which has been at home, safe on a meadow or in a cozy barnyard, far 
 from all intercourse with other animals or sources of contagion, is 
 first put to work and driven to the market town or county fairs to be 
 exposed to an atmosphere or to stables contaminated by other horses 
 suffering from disease and serving as infecting agents. If it fails to 
 contract it there, it is sold and shipped in foul, undisinfected railway 
 cars to dealers' stables, equally unclean, where it meets many oppor- 
 tunities of infection. If it escapes so far, it reaches the time for 
 heavier work and daily contact on the streets of towns or large cities, 
 with numerous other horses and mules, some of which are sure to be 
 the bearers of the germs of this or some other infectious disease, and 
 at last it succumbs. 
 
 The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth or the end 
 of the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at 
 which time the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be ex- 
 cessively full-blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the 
 contraction of this as well as of the other infectious diseases. 
 Thoroughbred colts are very susceptible, and frequently contract 
 strangles at a somewhat earlier age than those of more humble origin. 
 Mules and asses are much less susceptible and are but rarely affected. 
 Other animals are not subject to this disease, but there is a certain 
 analogy between it and distemper in dogs. After exposure to infec- 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 33
 
 514 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 tion there is a period of incubation of the disease, lasting from two 
 to four days, during which the animal enjoys its ordinary health. 
 
 Symptoms. The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when 
 placed in its stable is somewhat dejected, paying but moderate atten- 
 tion to the -various disturbing surroundings. Its appetite is somewhat 
 diminished in many cases, while in some cases the animal eats well 
 throughout. Thirst is increased, but not a great deal of water is 
 taken at one time. If a bucket of water is placed in the manger the 
 patient will dip its nose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allow- 
 ing some of it to drip back, and then stop, to return to it in a short 
 time. The coat becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. At times 
 the horse will have chills of one or the other leg, the fore quarters, 
 or hind quarters, or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling 
 of the muscles and dryness of the skin. 
 
 If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found red- 
 dened to a bright rosy color. The pulse is quickened and the breath- 
 ing may be slightly accelerated. At the end of a couple of days a cough 
 is heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This dis- 
 charge is at first watery ; it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish in 
 color, and sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter 
 and increases greatly in quantity. 
 
 At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard. 
 The cough is at first repeated and harsh, but soon becomes softer and 
 moist as the discharge increases. Again the cough varies according 
 to the source of the discharge, for in light cases this may be only a 
 catarrh of the nasal canals, or it may be from the throat, the wind- 
 pipe, or the air tubes of the lungs, or even from the lungs themselves. 
 According to the organ affected the symptoms and character of cough 
 will be similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or lung fever 
 caused by ordinary cold. 
 
 Shortly after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the 
 jaw, or in the intermaxillary space. This is at first puffy, swollen, 
 somewhat hot and tender, and finally becomes distinctly so, and an 
 abscess is felt, or having broken itself the discharge is seen dripping 
 from a small opening. When the discharge from the nostrils has 
 fully developed the fever usually disappears and the animal regains 
 its appetite, unless the swelling is sufficient to interfere with the func- 
 tion of the throat, causing pain on any attempt to swallow. At the 
 end of four or six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the 
 throat diminishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has 
 regained its usual condition. Old and strong horses may have the 
 disease in so light a form that the fever is not noticeable; they may 
 continue to eat and perform their ordinary work as usual and no 
 symptom may be seen beyond a slight discharge from the nose and a 
 rare cough, which is not sufficient to worry any but the most particu-
 
 STRANGLES. 515 
 
 lar owner. But, on the other hand, the disease may assume a malig- 
 nant form or become complicated so as to become a most serious 
 disease, and even prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation of the 
 larynx and bronchi, if excessive, will produce violent, harsh coughing, 
 which may almost asphyxiate the animal. The large amount of dis- 
 charge may be mixed with air by the difficult breathing, and the 
 nostrils, the front of the animal, manger, and surrounding objects 
 become covered with a white foam. The inflammation may be in the 
 lung itself (lobular pneumonia) and cause the animal to -breathe 
 heavily, heave at the flanks, and show great distress. In this condi- 
 tion marked symptoms of fever are seen, the appetite is lost, the coat 
 is dry, the horse stands back in its stall at the end of the halter strap 
 with its neck extended and its legs propped apart to favor breathing. 
 This condition may end by resolution, leaving the horse for some 
 time with a severe cough, or the animal may die from choking up of 
 the lungs (asphyxia). 
 
 The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is 
 not opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes 
 inflammation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoying fistulas at 
 the sides of the throat and even up as high as the ears. Roaring may 
 occur either during a moderately severe attack from inflammation of 
 the .throat (larynx), or at a later period as the result of continued 
 lung trouble. Abscesses may develop in other parts of the body, in 
 the poll, in the withers, or in the spaces of loose tissue under the 
 arms, in the fold of the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the testicles. 
 
 During the course of the disease, or later, when the animal seems to 
 be on the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the internal 
 organs and produce symptoms characteristic of disease of those parts. 
 
 Roaring, plunging, wandering in a circle, or standing with the head 
 wedged in a corner of the stall indicate the collection of matter in the 
 brain. Sudden and severe lung symptoms, without previous dis- 
 charge, point to an abscess between the lungs, in the mediastinum; 
 colic, which is often continuous for days, is the result of the forma- 
 tion of an abscess in some part of the abdominal cavity, usually in the 
 mesentery. 
 
 Pathology. The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of 
 the mucous membranes, essentially of the respiratory system, and in 
 the loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glands, 
 and consist of acute inflammatory changes, tending to the formation 
 of matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrin, and if 
 the animal has died of asphyxia it is found dark colored and uncoagu- 
 lated when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while 
 suffering from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the 
 body, which are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of 
 blood, are found.
 
 516 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Treatment. Ordinary light cases require but little treatment be- 
 yond diet, warm washes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and pro- 
 tection from exposure to cold. The latter is urgently called for, as 
 lung complications, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the 
 results of neglect of this precaution. If the fever is excessive, the 
 horse may receive small quantities of Glauber's salts (handful three 
 times a day), as a laxative, bicarbonate of soda or niter in 1-dram 
 doses every few hours, and small doses of antimony, iodide of potash, 
 aconite, or quinine. Steaming the head with the vapor of warm 
 water poured over a bucket of bran and hay, in which belladonna 
 leaves or tar have been placed, will allay the inflammation of the 
 mucous membranes and greatly ease the cough. 
 
 The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by bathing 
 with warm water and flaxseed poultices, and as soon as there is any 
 evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt 
 action in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irri- 
 tating liniments should not be applied to the throat. When lung 
 complications show themselves the horse should have mustard applied 
 to the belly and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence begins 
 great care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold, which may 
 bring on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it must not 
 be turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its 
 strength. 
 
 SCALMA. 
 
 The differentiation of the various diseases which have popularly 
 been included under the terms of distemper and influenza up to a 
 comparatively recent date has been so slow and so tardily accepted by 
 the majority of practitioners that we have been subjected to con- 
 stantly seeing announced and heralded as news in the daily papers the 
 appearance of some new disease. These new diseases of the populace 
 and of the empiric are to us but the epizootic outbreak or the more 
 severely manifested form of some ordinary contagious disease. 
 
 There is, however, one of the contagious fevers of the horse which 
 has constantly been confounded with other diseases, and which has 
 not been separated from them in our English text-books. As this dis- 
 ease has received no proper name in English, I shall use for it the 
 name given by Professor Dieckerhoff, of Berlin, who first described it 
 in the Adams Wochenschrift, XXIX, in 1885. 
 
 Etymology. The term " scalma " is derived from the old German 
 word scalmo, scelmo, schelm, which indicates roguishness, or knavish- 
 ness, as great nervous irritability, especially of the temper, is one of 
 the characteristic, almost diagnostic, symptoms of this disease. The 
 term "Ileimtuckische Krankheit" signifying malicious, treacherous, 
 or mischievous, is also employed in German for the same trouble. I
 
 SCALMA. 517 
 
 am not aware of any name in English or French which has been 
 applied to it. 
 
 As I am opposed to employing in veterinary medicine any of the 
 nomenclature of human medicine, except for identical, simple, and 
 inflammatory diseases, or for intercommunicable contagious diseases, 
 I will not offer the term " whooping cough " as a name, but I will sug- 
 gest a certain similarity between the latter disease in man and scalma 
 in the horse. 
 
 Definition. Scalma is a contagious and infectious febrile disease 
 of the horse, with local lesions of the bronchi, trachea, and larynx, 
 which is evidenced by cough. It is further characterized by great 
 irritability of temper. It occurs as a stable plague; that is, in en- 
 zootic form, with, however, great variations in the susceptibility of 
 the animals to contract it. It is rarely fatal except from compli- 
 cations. 
 
 Incubation. The period of incubation is from six to seven days, 
 but the disease may develop in two days after exposure or it may 
 delay its appearance for ten days. It spreads through a stable slowly, 
 developing at times in a horse placed in a stall where the previously 
 sick one had stood, or it may pass next to an animal several stalls 
 away. One attack is usually protective. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are ushered in by fever, in which the 
 acceleration of the pulse and respiration is in no way in accord with 
 the great elevation of temperature. With the appearance of the 
 fever is developed a diffuse bronchitis, which is, however, subacute 
 both in- its character and in its course. At times the trouble of the 
 bronchi may extend to the trachea, larynx, pharynx, or even to the 
 nasal fossa3. 
 
 In two or three days a trifling grayish albuminous discharge from 
 the nostrils occurs, which continues, variable in quantity, for eight to 
 fourteen days, or may even last for three weeks. The cough is short, 
 rough, and painful, spasmodic in its occurrence and in character. 
 The slight watery or slimy discharge may become more profuse, 
 purulent, or even " rusty," if the bronchitis has extended to the neigh- 
 boring structures. Pharyngeal discharge may take place. The res- 
 piration is moderate and affected only during an excess of coughing, 
 or in complicated cases. The pulse undergoes but little quickening. 
 The temperature rises rapidly to 102.2, 104, and in some cases even 
 to 107.5 F. The latter temperature usually, but not always, indi- 
 cates complication by pleurisy. In ordinary cases the temperature 
 drops in two or three days after the appearance of the cough. The 
 skin is dry and rough, with the hairs on end, but the horse appears 
 as an animal out of condition rather than as a sick one. Emaciation 
 may be rapid. The mucous membranes are moderately reddened.
 
 518 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 The appetite is diminished, but the animal chews constantly. Deglu- 
 tition, either of food or water, is frequently the cause of spasms of 
 coughing, and these in turn seem to warn the animal against attempts 
 at swallowing. On percussion no alteration of resonance is to be 
 detected. On auscultation of the lungs mucous rales are heard, with 
 at times tubular breathing; the latter, however, we will study under 
 the complications, as also the friction warning of pleurisy. Through- 
 out the course of the disease we have still one constant and charac- 
 teristic symptom nervous irritability. With temperature of 104 to 
 107 F., the horse still flinches to the touch on the loins; it stands 
 frequently with the head up, and is on the alert for the entrance of 
 anyone to the stall. The previously good-tempered and quiet horse 
 will turn and bite, will strike with the hind legs, or at the first touch 
 to the side, head, or throat will half rear and back into the corner 
 of the box, or, breaking the halter, turn backward out of the stall. 
 
 The course of the disease is. from five to eight days, but the cough 
 may continue for two or three weeks with variable elevation of tem- 
 perature. As a stable plague the course is from two to three months, 
 as the contagion is much more uncertain than in strangles or influ- 
 enza. The termination is by resolution and recovery or by complica- 
 tions. In resolution the temperature drops, the cough becomes less 
 frequent and less spasmodic in character, the appetite returns, and no 
 sign is left of the disease except the fever mark on the hoof. 
 
 Complications. The complications are excessive spasms and pleu- 
 risy. In the former the cough may be so violent as to convulse the 
 whole animal, the legs are spread and fixed, with the hind ones drawn 
 slightly under the body. The head and neck are extended, with the 
 muscles tense. The cough comes out by rapidly succeeding efforts, or 
 with the first sound the larynx seems to close for a moment before the 
 rest can follow. In two cases of my own the spasm has been so great 
 that the animal has fallen to the ground. During these accesses the 
 respiration becomes accelerated, and on auscultation of the trachea 
 and lungs the tubular murmur of an apparent pneumonia can be 
 heard. This false murmur, however, disappears at the end of the at- 
 tack. In the case which fell to the ground the horse would lie for a 
 moment or two absolutely motionless. (In the first I believed that he 
 had broken his neck.) The rapid respiration was then followed by a 
 long inspiration, the animal regained his feet, the respiration became 
 almost normal, and the tubular murmur had disappeared. I have seen 
 no fatal termination from this spasm of the pneumogastric, but can 
 readily believe that traumatisms resulting from such attacks might 
 prove fatal, or that the spasm might continue long enough to produce 
 asphyxia. The fatal complication is pleurisy. This occurs when the 
 horse has been kept at work after the development of the disease
 
 SCALMA. 519 
 
 while suffering from a high fever, and is probably in no way specific, 
 but the result of work on an animal with high temperature. The 
 additional symptoms are those of an ordinary pleurisy. 
 
 Diagnosis. The diagnosis is based upon the elevation of the tem- 
 perature without corresponding acceleration of the pulse and of the 
 respirations; upon the retention of appetite and spinal reflex, with 
 the great irritability of temper in the presence of a high temperature, 
 and upon the spasmodic cough and auscultatory sounds of bronchitis 
 with but trifling discharge. 
 
 The diagnosis is made from edematous pneumonia by the absence 
 of the yellow colorations, the absence of pneumonia, and the less con- 
 tinuous high temperature ; from influenza by the absence of edema, of 
 the ocher coloration, and of the typhoid symptoms; from strangles 
 by want of enlargement of the lymphatics, absence of purulent dis- 
 charge and abscesses; from variola by the nonappearance of pustules 
 and enlarged lymphatics; from simple bronchitis, as the latter is 
 sporadic, and in it great fever is accompanied by profuse discharge; 
 from rheumatic pleurisy and pleurodynia by the history in these of 
 repeated attacks and great temporary pain; from surgical fever by 
 the absence of cause. 
 
 Prognosis. The prognosis is usually favorable. This disease en- 
 tails only the loss of ten days' to three weeks' use of the animal, and 
 leaves the subject with no complicating sequelae. In some cases I 
 have seen the irritable disposition remain for a length of time, but in 
 every case it has finally disappeared. As I have suggested, violent 
 spasms might prove fatal. Pleurisy would render the prognosis 
 serious, as the same disease would when occurring from simple causes. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of a stable should be at once prophy- 
 lactic. The infected animals should be removed, and complete disin- 
 fection of the stalls and area should be made. The individual treat- 
 ment is simple. The hygienic measures of cleanliness, fresh air with- 
 out drafts, frequent rubbing, and tempting food should be thorough. 
 The digestive tract is to be regulated by small doses of bicarbonate of 
 soda, sulphate of soda, gentian, and tannic acid. The appetite is to 
 be stimulated by drinks of cold breakfast tea and cow's milk. Anti- 
 spasmodics are to be used when the cough is excessive. The best of 
 these are camphor, belladonna, stramonium, and steaming with tur- 
 pentine (turpentine 1 ounce, water half bucket). External frictions 
 of alcohol and turpentine, with hot packs to the loins, will also 
 afford relief. Quinine and salicylic acid may be used during the ele- 
 vation of temperature. Professor Dieckerhoff recommends trachea! 
 injections in 1-ounce doses of the following solution : Acetate of 
 aluminum, 1 per cent; alum, one-half to 1 per cent; bromide of 
 potash, 1 to 2 per cent ; water, 100 per cent.
 
 520 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 EDEMATOU8 PNEUMONIA. 
 
 [SYNONYMS: Contagious pneumonia; adynamic pneumonia; hospital, or sta- 
 ble, pneumonia ; equine pleuro-pneumonia ; influenza ; pectoralis equorum; pleuro- 
 pneumonia ; contagiosa equorum; brustseuche, German.] 
 
 Definition. This disease is the adynamic pneumonia of the older 
 veterinarians, who did not recognize any essential difference in its 
 nature from an ordinary inflammation of the lungs, except in the 
 profound sedation of the force of the animal affected with it, which 
 is a prominent symptom from the outset of the disease. Again, this 
 same prostration of the vital force of the animal, combined with the 
 staggering movement and want of coordination of the muscles of the 
 animal, caused it for a long time to be confounded with influenza, 
 with which at certain periods it certainly has a strong analogy of 
 symptoms, but from which, as from sporadic pneumonia, it can be 
 separated very readily if the case can be followed throughout its 
 whole course. 
 
 Edematous pneumonia is a specific inflammation of the lungs, accom- 
 panied by interstitial edema and inflammation of the tissues of these 
 organs and a constitutional disturbance and fever. It causes a pro- 
 found sedation of the nervous system, which may be so great as to 
 cause death. It is sometimes attended by pleurisy, inflammation of 
 the heart, or septic complications which also prove fatal. 
 
 Etiology. While, as an infectious disease, its original cause is due 
 to a specific virus, there are many predisposing causes which act as 
 important factors in aiding in its development. Such causes are any 
 influences that lessen the general vigor. 
 
 Old, cold, damp, foul, unclean, and badly drained and ventilated 
 stables allow rapid dissemination of the disease to other horses in the 
 same stable and act as rich reservoirs for preserving the contagion, 
 which may be retained for over a year. 
 
 The virus is but moderately volatile, and in a stable seems rather 
 to follow the lines of the walls and irregular courses than the direct 
 currents of air and the tracts of ventilation. Professor Dieckerhoff 
 found that the contagion of influenza was readily diffusible through- 
 out an entire stable and through any opening to other buildings, but 
 he also found that the contagion of edematous pneumonia is not 
 transmissible at any great distance, nor is it very diffusible in the 
 atmosphere. A brick wall 8 feet in height served, in one instance, 
 to prevent the infection of other animals placed on the opposite side 
 from a horse ill with the disease, while others placed on the same side 
 and separated from the focus of contagion only by open bars in the 
 stall were infected and developed the disease in its typical form. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms differ slightly from those of a frank, 
 fibrinous pneumonia, but not so much by the introduction of new 
 symptoms as by the want of or absence of the distinct evidences of
 
 PNEUMONIA. ' 521 
 
 local lesions which are found in the latter disease. All of the pneu- 
 monias throughout the whole course of the trouble are less marked 
 and less clearly defined. 
 
 The symptoms may develop slowly or rapidly. If slowly, there is 
 fever and the animal gives a rare cough which resembles that of a 
 heavy horse affected with a slight chronic bronchitis; it becomes 
 somewhat dejected and dull, at times somnolent, and has a dimin- 
 ished appetite. This condition lasts for several days, or the disease 
 may begin with high fever, and the symptoms described below are 
 severe and develop in rapid sequence. The respiration increases to 
 24, 30, or 36 to the minute, and a small, running, soft pulse attains a 
 rhythm of 50, TO, or even more beats in the sixty seconds. The heart, 
 however, contrary to the debilitated condition of the pulse, is found 
 beating violently and tumultuously, like it does in anthrax and septic 
 intoxication. The mucous membranes of the eyes and mouth and of 
 the genital organs are found somewhat edematous, and they rapidly 
 assume a dirty, saffron color, at times approaching an ocher, but dis- 
 tinguishable from the similar coloration in influenza by the want of 
 the luster belonging to the latter and by the muddy, dull tint, which 
 is characteristic throughout the disease. 
 
 Suddenly, without the preliminary rales which precede grave 
 lesions of the lungs in other diseases, the blowing murmur of pneu- 
 monia is heard over a variable area of the chest, usually, however, 
 much more distinctly over the trachea at the base of the neck and 
 directly behind the shoulder on either side of the chest. In some cases 
 the evidence of lung lesion can only be detected over the trachea. 
 The lesions of the lungs may be scattered through both lungs, in- 
 volving numerous small areas, or they may be confined to and more 
 or less fully occupy one or two lobes. Occasionally there is a general 
 involvement of both lungs. The body temperature has now reached 
 104 or 105 F., or in extreme cases even a degree higher. The de- 
 bility of the animal is 'great without the stupefaction or evidence of 
 cerebral trouble, which is constant with such grave constitutional 
 phenomena in influenza or severe pneumonias. The animal is sub- 
 ject to occasional chills, and on movement staggers in its gait. The 
 yellow coloration of the visible mucous membrane is rendered pale 
 by infiltration of the liquid of the blood into the tissues; the pulse 
 may become so soft as to be almost imperceptible, the heart movement 
 and sounds being at the same time exaggerated. The animal loses 
 flesh rapidly, and dropsies of the extremities, of the under surface of 
 the belly, or of the internal organs may show themselves. 
 
 Terminations. These symptoms may gradually subside after five 
 to eight days, with an improved appetite the inanition may cease and 
 the animal commence to nourish its impoverished blood and tissues; 
 the pulse becomes stronger and the heart more regular and less tumul-
 
 522* DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 tuous; the mucous membranes assume a brighter and more distinct 
 color; the difficulty of respiration is removed, and the animal may 
 make a recovery. When death occurs it is usually directly due to 
 heart failure; in some cases it is caused by asphyxia, owing to the 
 great amount of exudation into the lung tissue, rendering its fur- 
 ther function impossible. 
 
 Complications. The pulmonary complications of edematous pneu- 
 monia are secondary inflammatory or necrotic changes in the lungs 
 themselves. Suppuration at times takes place in the bronchi and may 
 extend to the lung tissue. In this case mucous rales develop which are 
 most distinctly heard over the trachea and on the sides of the chest 
 directly behind the shoulders. With the development of the mucous 
 rales, to be heard on auscultation, we have a more purulent discharge 
 from the nostrils, similar to that of a chronic or subacute bronchitis. 
 If the inflammation has been of some standing, cavernous rales may 
 be heard indicating the destruction of a considerable portion of lung 
 tissue and the formation of a cavity. The effects of this more acute 
 inflammatory process are not appreciable in the general condition of 
 the animal, except to still further weaken it and add to its debili- 
 tated and emaciated cachexia. Gangrene sometimes occurs. A sud- 
 den rise of the body temperature of 1 or 2, with a more enfeebled 
 pulse and a still more tumultuous heart, develop simultaneously with 
 the appearance of a discharge from the nostrils. This discharge is 
 gray in color, serous or watery in consistency, mixed with the detritus 
 of broken-down lung tissue, and sometimes contains clots of blood, or 
 in more serious cases may be marked by a quantity of fluid blood 
 from a hemorrhage, which proves fatal. The discharge is fetid to the 
 smell. The animal emaciates rapidly. On examination of the lungs 
 mucous rales are heard in the larger bronchi, cavities may be found at 
 any part of these organs, and points of lobular pneumonia may be 
 detected. 
 
 A very serious complication is an inflammation of the heart mus- 
 cle. This is shown by a very weak and rapid pulse, great prostration, 
 some filling of the lungs. This complication nearly always terminates 
 in death. Other complications which may be mentioned are inflam- 
 mation of the kidneys, blood poisoning, congestion of the brain, and 
 inflammation of the tendinous sheaths and the tendons of the legs. 
 
 Diagnosis. As fever is the first symptom of edematous pneumonia, 
 it is useful during an outbreak of this disease to make daily tempera- 
 ture measurements of the exposed horses, so that the first indication 
 of disease may be discovered and the horse removed from contact with 
 those that are sound. 
 
 Prognosis. The mortality in this disease may be as high as 25 per 
 cent, but it is usually not more than 10 per cent. If there is a special 
 tendency to complications of some sort, the mortality is increased.
 
 PNEUMONIA. 523 
 
 Alterations. At the time of death from edematous pneumonia we 
 frequently find septic changes and the evidences of putrefaction. The 
 solidification of the lung tissue is found irregular in shape and high 
 up around the root of the lungs and around the large bronchi, and is 
 generally covered by sound lung tissue. The anterior lobes of the 
 lungs are usually entirely affected. The diseased portion appears of 
 a gray yellowish color, somewhat watery, and tears readily. Matter 
 is found in the air tubes which form gutters through the jellylike 
 mass of the diseased lung. Abscesses from the size of a nut to larger 
 masses may be found disseminated through the lungs. The blood is 
 dark in color, fluid, or only clotted into soft, jellylike masses. 
 Masses of gangrenous or dead black tissue may be present. 
 
 Treatment. Bleeding -is not to be used because it would only still 
 further weaken an already enfeebled animal; antimony or the 
 alterants would increase the depression of a too depraved constitu- 
 tion. There is in this disease no acute congestion of a particular 
 organ to draw off by depletive measures, nor any violent blood 
 current to be retarded, for fear of hypernutrition of any special part. 
 
 Revulsives do good, as they excite the nervous system and awaken 
 the torpor of the weakened blood vessels, which aid in the reestablish- 
 ment of the functions. Mustard poultices may be applied over the 
 belly and sides of the chest, as in other diseases, but caution must be 
 used in the employment of blisters, as ugly ulcers may result from 
 their action on a tissue of weakened vitality. Setons are dangerous 
 from the great tendency in this disease to septic complications. Re- 
 peated friction of the legs by hand-rubbing and warmth by banda- 
 ging and by rubbing the surface of the body with turpentine and 
 alcohol, which is immediately to be dried by rough towels, will excite 
 the circulation and stimulate the emunctories of the skin. 
 
 Stimulants are given internally from the outset of the disease. 
 Turpentine in 1-dram doses regulates the heart and excites the kid- 
 neys to carry off waste matter, but if repeated too frequently may 
 disturb the already delicate digestive system. Alcohol rectifies the 
 latter danger, and is a useful stimulant to the heart and digestive 
 system, if given with care in small doses. It is an antiputrid, and 
 is especially indicated when septic complications and gangrene are 
 present. The aromatics and bitter tonics are useful ; gentian and tea 
 in warm decoction form a useful menstruum for other remedies. 
 Digitalis is a useful remedy. Strychnine and quinine may be given 
 throughout almost the whole course of the disease. The various 
 preparations of iron are astringents and excitants to the digestive sys- 
 tem. Carbolic acid is an antiputrid which is of marked benefit in 
 edematous pneumonia ; it should be given in small doses diluted in 
 alcohol. 
 
 Salicylic acid may be given in 1 or 2 dram doses every few hours.
 
 524 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 
 
 It is much used for troubles of the serous membranes, lowers the tem- 
 perature, and is of value in this disease in preventing the exudation 
 into the tissue of the lungs. The alkalines, as the sulphate and bicar- 
 bonate of soda, the nitrate of potash, and very small doses of the iodide 
 of potash, should be employed to regulate the digestive tract, the kid- 
 neys, and the other excreting glands, and to stimulate absorption of 
 the waste matter. 
 
 Serums and antitoxins have been used in the treatment of this dis- 
 ease, especially in Germany. The results appear to show some benefit 
 in some instances, but none in others; altogether they are not espe- 
 cially encouraging. 
 
 The diet demands the strictest attention from the outset. In many 
 of the fevers the food has to be diminished in quantity and regulated 
 in the quality of its heat-producing components during the acute part 
 of the disease, so as to lessen the material for combustion in the in- 
 flamed organs. In edematous pneumonia, on the contrary, all the 
 food that can possibly be digested and assimilated must be given. 
 Choice must be made of the richest material which can be handled by 
 the weakened stomach and intestines without fatiguing them. Good, 
 sound hay should be chopped short and dampened or partly boiled ; in 
 the latter case the hay tea can be reserved to use as a drink. Oats 
 may be preferred dry or in other cases will be taken better scalded ; 
 in most cases, however, it is better to give slops of oatmeal, to which 
 can be added a little bran, barley flour, or boiled milk and wheat 
 flour. Pure cow's milk, not too rich in fatty matter, can be given 
 alone or with beaten eggs ; frequently the horse will have to be coaxed 
 with the milk diluted with several parts of water at first, but will 
 soon learn to drink the pure milk. Apples and carrots cut up raw or 
 boiled are useful, and fresh clover in small quantities will frequently 
 stimulate the appetite. In other words, try various foods and com- 
 binations and give the horse what he will eat. Throughout the 
 course of the disease and during convalescence the greatest attention 
 must be taken to cleaning the coat thoroughly so as to keep the glands 
 of the skin in working order, and light, warm covering must be used 
 to protect the animal from cold or drafts of air. 
 
 HOR8EPOX, OR EQUINE VARIOLA. 
 
 [SYNONYMS: Variola cquina; pustular grease; phlyctenoid herpes.] 
 
 Definition. Horsepox is a specific infectious fever of the horse 
 attended by an eruption of pustules, or pocks, over any part of the 
 skin or on the mucous membranes lining the various cavities in the 
 body, but chiefly, and often exclusively, upon the pasterns and fet- 
 locks. The eruption may commence upon the lips, or about the nos- 
 trils or eyes.
 
 HORSEPOX. 525 
 
 This disease was described by the early Roman agricultural writers 
 and by the veterinarians of the eighteenth century. It received its 
 first important notice from the great Jenner, who confounded it with 
 grease in horses, since animals with this disease are very apt to have 
 the eruption of variola appear on the fetlocks. He saw these cases 
 transmit the disease to cattle in the byres and to the stablemen and 
 milkmaids who attended them, and furnish the latter with immunity 
 from smallpox, which led to the discovery of vaccination. Horsepox 
 is also frequently mistaken for the exanthemata attending some forms 
 of venereal disease in horses. 
 
 Variola in the horse, while it is identical in principle, general 
 course, complications, and lesions with variola in other animals, is a 
 disease of the horse itself, and is not transmissible in the form of 
 variola to any other animal; nor is the variola of any other animal 
 transmissible to the horse. Cattle and men, if inoculated from a case 
 of horsepox, develop vaccinia, but vaccinia from the latter animals 
 is not so readily reinoculated into the horse with success. If it does 
 develop, it produces the original disease. 
 
 Causes. The direct cause of horsepox is infection. A large num- 
 ber of predisposing causes favor the development of the disease, as 
 in the case of strangles, and this trouble, like almost all contagious 
 diseases, renders the animal which has had one attack immune. The 
 chief predisposing cause is young age. Old horses which have not 
 been affected are less apt to become infected when exposed than 
 younger ones. The exposure incident to shipment, through public 
 stables, cars, etc., acts as a predisposing cause, as in the other infec- 
 tious diseases. The period of final dentition is a time of the animal's 
 life which renders it peculiarly susceptible. 
 
 Dupaul states that the infection is transmissible through the at- 
 mosphere for several hundred yards. The more common means of 
 contagion is by direct contact or by means of fomites. Feed boxes 
 and bridles previously used by horses affected with variola are proba- 
 bly the most frequent carriers of the virus, and we find the lesions in 
 the majority of cases developed in the neighborhood of the lips and 
 nostrils. Coition is a frequent cause. A stallion suffering from this 
 disease may be the cause of a considerable epizootic, as he transmits 
 it to a number of brood mares and they in turn return to the farms 
 where they are surrounded by young animals to whom they convey 
 the contagion. The saddle and croup straps are frequent agents of 
 infection. The presence of a wound greatly favors the inoculation of 
 the disease, which is also sometimes carried by surgical instruments 
 or sponges. Trasbot recites a case in which a set of hobbles, which 
 had been used on an animal suffering from variola, were used on a 
 horse for a quittor operation and transmitted the disease, which 
 developed on the edges of the wound.
 
 526 DISEASES OP THE HOESE. 
 
 Symptoms. There is a period of incubation, after an animal has 
 been exposed, of from five to eight days, during which there is no 
 appreciable alteration in the health. This period is shorter in sum- 
 mer than in winter. At the end of this time small nodes develop at 
 the point of inoculation and the animal becomes feverish. The horse 
 is dull and dejected, loses its appetite, and has a rough dry coat with 
 the hairs on end. There is moderate thirst. The respirations are 
 somewhat quickened and the pulse becomes rapid and full. The 
 body temperature is elevated, frequently reaching 104 or 105 F. 
 within thirty-six or forty-eight hours from the appearance of the 
 first symptoms. 
 
 The visible mucous membranes, especially the conjunctive, are of a 
 bright rosy red. In the lymphatic, cold-blooded, and more common 
 horses these symptoms of fever are less marked; even with a com- 
 paratively high temperature the animal may retain its appetite and 
 even work comparatively well, but these cases, if worked and over- 
 heated, are apt to develop serious complications. 
 
 At the end of from three and a half to four days the eruption 
 breaks out, the fever abates, and the general symptoms improve. 
 The eruption in severe cases may be generalized ; it may be confined 
 to the softer skin of the nose and lips, the genital organs, and the 
 inside of the thighs, or it may be localized in the neighborhood of a 
 wound or in the irritated skin of a pair of greasy heels. It consists 
 of a varying number of little nodes which, on a mucous membrane, 
 as in the nostrils or vagina, or on soft unpigmented skin, appear red 
 and feel at first like shot under the epidermis. These nodes soften 
 and show a yellowish spot in the center when they become pustules. 
 The epidermis is dissolved and the matter escapes as a viscid fluid 
 at first citrine and later cloudy and purulent, which dries rapidly, 
 forming scabs; if these fall off or are removed they leave a little shal- 
 low concave ulcer which heals in the course of five or six days. In the 
 softer skin if pigmented the cicatrices are white and frequently remain 
 so for about a year, when the pigment returns. The lips or genital 
 organs of a colored horse, if covered with a number of small white 
 spots about the size of a pea, will usually indicate that the animal has 
 been affected with the horsepox. 
 
 At times the pustules may become confluent and produce large 
 superficial serpentine ulcers on the membrane of the nostrils, around 
 the lips or eyelids, or on the borders of wounds and in greasy heels ; 
 in this case the part becomes swollen, hot, painful, and is covered 
 with a profuse discharge of matter. In this form there is frequently 
 a secondary fever lasting for a day or two. 
 
 In severe cases there may be a suppurative adenitis, or inflamma- 
 tion of the lymphatic glands which are fed from the affected part. 
 If the eruption is around the nostrils and lips, the glands between
 
 HORSEPOX. 527 
 
 the jaws (submaxillary) form abscesses as in a case of strangles; if 
 the eruption is in a pair of greasy heels abscesses may form in the 
 fold of the groin (inguinal). There may be so much tumefaction of 
 the nostrils as to produce difficulty in breathing. 
 
 Complications. A case of horsepox may be attended with various 
 complications of varying degrees of importance. Adenitis, or sup- 
 puration of the glands, has just been mentioned. Confluent eruptions 
 irritate the part and induce the animal to rub the inflamed part 
 against the manger or scratch it in other ways, and thus produce 
 troublesome ulcers, which may leave ugly scars. Irritation of the 
 mucous membrane of the nose causes severe coryza with purulent 
 discharge. 
 
 The eruption may occur in the throat or in the air tubes to the 
 lungs, developing an acute laryngitis or bronchitis. If the animal is 
 exposed to cold, or worked so as to engorge the lungs with blood at 
 the termination of the specific fever, just when the eruption is about 
 to localize, it may be determined to the lungs. In this case we have 
 a short, dry cough, labored breathing, the development of a secondary 
 fever of some gravity, and all of the external symptoms of a pneu- 
 monia. This pneumonia differs, however, from an ordinary pneu- 
 monia in the symptoms furnished by the examination of the lungs 
 themselves. In place of a large mass of the lung tissue being affected 
 the inflammation is disseminated in smaller spots over the entire 
 lung. 
 
 Diagnosis. The diagnosis of horsepox is to be based on the pres- 
 ence of a continuous fever, with rosy mucous membranes, for several 
 days, and the appearance of the characteristic eruption. If the 
 eruption is in the nasal cavities, marked by a considerable discharge 
 and attended by submaxillary abscesses, it may be confounded with 
 strangles. If the throat is affected it may be confounded with an 
 angina (laryngitis or pharyngitis ), : but in the latter the local trouble 
 precedes or is concomitant with the fever, while in the former the 
 fever precedes the local trouble by several days. Variola may bo 
 confounded with bronchitis or pneumonia if complicated with these 
 troubles and the eruption is absent from the exterior, but it is of little 
 moment, as the treatment for both will be much the same. When the 
 eruption is in the neighborhood of the genital organs this disease has 
 been mistaken for the dourine. In variola the eruption is a temporary 
 one ; the nodes and pustules are followed by shallow ulcers and rapid 
 cicatrization unless continued in the vagina or on the penis by the 
 rubbing of the walls and filth which accumulates ; there are apt to be 
 pustules at other parts of the body. In the venereal disease the local 
 trouble commences as a papule and breaks into an ulcer without hav- 
 ing formed a pustule. The ulcer has not the convex rosy appearance 
 of that of the less serious discharge ; the symptoms last for a longer
 
 528 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 
 
 period, by which time others aid in differentiating the two. In 
 glanders the tubercle is hard, and, after breaking into an ulcer, the 
 indurated bottom remains, grayish or dirty white in color, ragged, 
 and exuding a viscous, oily discharge. There is no disposition to 
 suppuration of the neighboring glands. In variola the rosy shallow 
 ulcer and healthy pus, with the acutely tumefied glands, should not 
 be mistaken, at least after a day. I have seen acute glanders in mules 
 which required a day's delay to differentiate from strangles; at that 
 time the farcy buds appeared. 
 
 Prognosis. The average case of horsepox runs a course of dejec- 
 tion, loss of. appetite, and more or less fever for about four days, 
 followed by a rapid convalescence, and leaves the animal as well and 
 as sound as before. If the eruption has been excessive or confluent, 
 the ulcerations may act as irritants and render the animal unfit for 
 use for several weeks. Laryngitis, pharyngitis, bronchitis, and pneu- 
 monia in this disease are not of greater gravity than they are when 
 occurring from other causes. The spots denuded of pigment left 
 by the pustules on the lips and genitals may temporarily depreciate 
 the value of the animal to a slight degree. 
 
 Treatment. As this is a disease unattended by alterations of the 
 blood itself, although a specific fever, and is of a sthenic type, active 
 remedies are admissible and indicated. The horse should be placed 
 on a low diet (little or no oats) bran mashes, a moderate quantity 
 of good, sound hay, a few carrots or apples, which will act as laxa- 
 tives, and slop feed. Barley flour is more cooling for mashes than 
 bran or oatmeal. Water may be given as the animal desires it, 
 but it should not be cold ; if a half bucketful of water is kept in the 
 manger, the horse will take but a few swallows at a time. One-dram 
 doses of nitrate of potash or 1-ounce doses of sweet spirits of niter 
 are useful in the drinking water. If the fever is high, the anti- 
 pyretics are indicated : Sulphate of quinine in 1-dram doses ; iodide 
 of potash in 1-dram doses; infusion of pine tops, of juniper leaves, 
 of the aromatic herbs, or of English breakfast tea are useful in the 
 later stages. If complications of the air passages or lungs are 
 threatened, a large mustard poultice should be applied to the belly 
 and sides of the chest. Oxide of zinc ointment should be used on 
 confluent eruptions, and if the ulceration is excessive it may have to 
 be touched with caustic. 
 
 Great care must be taken to keep the animal protected from cold 
 drafts of air or other exposure. Blankets or sheets should be used 
 on the body and bandages on the legs. After convalescence is estab- 
 lished, nutritious food of easy digestion and walking exercise are all 
 that is needed, except perhaps a little Glauber's salts to prevent 
 constipation. 
 
 Prophylactic treatment. When horsepox breaks out among a large
 
 ANTHBAX. 529 
 
 number of horses, especially on a farm where there are a number of 
 colts, it may be assumed that the greater majority will contract the 
 disease, and it is more economical that they should have it and be 
 through with it at once. If the weather is moderate, all the animals 
 which have not been affected can be inoculated, which will produce 
 the disease in a mild form, with the eruption at a point of election, 
 and render the danger of complication a minimum one. For inocula- 
 tion the discharge from the pustules of a mild case should be selected 
 and inoculated by scarification on the belly or the under surface of 
 the neck. 
 
 ANTHRAX. 
 
 [SYNONYMS: Carbuncle, splenic fever, splenic apoplexy, braxy (in shaep), 
 etc. ; sacer ignis, pustula maligna, anthrax, Latin ; charbon, sang de rate, 
 French ; miltzbrand, German ; carbone, carbonchio, fuoco de St. Antonio, Italian ; 
 jaswa, siberskaji jaswa, Russian.] 
 
 Definition. Anthrax is a severe and usually fatal contagious dis- 
 ease, characterized by chills, great depression and stupor of the ani- 
 mal, and a profound alteration of the blood. It is caused by the 
 entrance into the animal's body of a bacterium, known as the Bacillus 
 anthracis, or its spores. 
 
 Practically all animals are susceptible to anthrax. The herbivora 
 are especially susceptible, in the following order: The sheep, the ox, 
 and the horse. The guinea pig, the hog, the rabbit, mice, and other 
 animals die quickly from its effects. Man, the dog, and other omniv- 
 ora and carnivora may be attacked by it in a constitutional form as 
 fatal as in the herbivora, but fortunately, in many cases, develop 
 from it only local trouble, followed by recovery. 
 
 Anthrax has been a scourge of the animals of the civilized world 
 since the first written history we have of any of their diseases. In 
 1709-1712 A. D. extensive outbreaks of anthrax occurred in Germany, 
 Hungary, and Poland. In the first half of the nineteenth century it 
 had become an extensively Spread disease in Russia, Holland, and 
 England, and for the last century has been gradually spreading in 
 the Americas more so in South America than here. In 1864, in the 
 five governments of Petersburg, Novgorod, Olonetz, Twer, and Jaros- 
 law, in Russia, over 10,000 horses and nearly 1,000 persons perished 
 from the disease. 
 
 Causes. The causes of anthrax were for a long time attributed 
 entirely to climatic influence, soil, and atmospheric temperature, and 
 they are still recognized as predisposing factors in the development of 
 the disease, for it is usually found, especially when outbreaks over any 
 number of animals occur, in low, damp, marshy countries during the 
 warm seasons. It is more frequent in districts where marshy lands 
 dry out during the heat of summer and are then covered with light 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 34
 
 530 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 rains. Decaying vegetable matter seems most favorable for nourish- 
 ing and preserving the virus. 
 
 The direct cause of anthrax is always infection of a previously 
 sound animal, either directly from a diseased animal or through 
 various media which contain excretions or the debris from the body of 
 a previously infected animal. 
 
 The specific virus of anthrax was first discovered by Davaine in 
 1851. He recognized in the blood of animals suffering from anthrax 
 microscopic bodies in the form of little rods. It was not, however, 
 till a quarter of a century later that Pasteur defined the exact nature 
 of the bacillus, the mode of its propagation, and its exact relationship 
 to anthrax as the sole cause of the disease. In the animal body the 
 bacilli have a tendency to accumulate in the spleen, liver, and else- 
 where, so that these organs are much more virulent than the muscles 
 or less vascular tissues. When eliminated from the animal in the 
 excretions, or when exposed to outside influences by the death of the 
 animal and the disintegration of the tissues, the body of the rod is 
 destroyed and the spores only remain. These spores, which may be 
 called the seeds of the bacilli, retain their vitality for a long period ; 
 they resist ordinary putrefaction; they are unchanged by moisture; 
 and they are not affected by moderate heat. If scattered with the 
 debris of a dead animal on the surface of the ground, they may remain 
 around the roots of the grass in a pasture or may be washed to the 
 nearest low-lying ground or marsh. If buried in the body of an anir 
 mal dead from anthrax, they may be washed deep into the ground, and 
 in later years (in one proven case 17 years) be brought to the surface 
 and infect other animals. They are frequently brought to the surface 
 of the earth, having been swallowed by earthworms, in the bodies of 
 which they have been found. 
 
 This accounts for the outbreaks at the time of the first rains after a 
 dry season. During the latter the earthworm goes deep in the ground 
 in search of moisture ; it finds the spore which has been washed there 
 in past years, swallows it, and afterwards brings it to the surface. 
 The virus is carried with the wool from infected sheep and remains in 
 it through the process of manufacture into cloth. The spores remain 
 in the hides of animals which have died of anthrax and retain their 
 vitality throughout months of soaking in the tanners' pits, the work- 
 ing of the harness maker or the cobbler, and after the oiling of the 
 completed leather. The dried spores in the dust from any of these 
 products may be carried by the atmosphere. 
 
 Infection of an animal takes place through inoculation or contact 
 of the bacillus or its spores with an abraded surface or mucous mem- 
 brane on a sound animal. In an infected district horses may eat the 
 rich pasturage of spring and early summer with impunity, but when 
 grass becomes low they crop it close to the ground, pull up the roots
 
 ANTHBAX. 531 
 
 around which the virus may be lodged, and under these conditions 
 the animals are more apt to have abrasions of the lips or tongue by 
 contact with dried stubble and the dirt on the roots, which favors the 
 introduction of the germs into the system. The virus may be intro- 
 duced with food and enter the blood-vessel system from the stomach 
 and intestines. If contained in the dust, dried hay, or on the parched 
 pasture of late summer, the virus may be inhaled and be absorbed 
 from the lining of the lungs. If contained in harness leather, it 
 needs but an abrasion of the skin, as the harness rubs it, to transfer 
 the spore from the leather to the circulation of the animal. 
 
 The writer saw a case of anthrax occur in a groom from the use of 
 a new horse-brush. The strap which passes over the back of the hand 
 inoculated an abrasion on the knuckle of the first finger, and in 
 twelve hours a " pustule " had formed and the arm had become 
 infected. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of anthrax usually develop with ex- 
 treme rapidity. The horse is dejected and falls into a state of pro- 
 found stupor, attended by ^reat muscular weakness. The feeble, 
 indolent animal, if forced to move, drags its legs. There are severe 
 chills, agitation of the muscles, symptoms of vertigo, and at times 
 colicky pains. The mucous membranes turn a deep ocher or bluish 
 red color. The body temperature is rapidly elevated to 104 or 
 105 F. The breathing is increased to thirty or forty respirations in 
 the minute and the pulse is greatly accelerated, but while the arteries 
 are soft and almost imperceptible, the heart beats can be felt and 
 heard, violent and tumultuous. In some cases, when inoculation is 
 through the skin, large subcutaneous swellings appear; these may 
 involve a leg, a shoulder, one side of the body, or the neck or head. 
 The swelling is at first hot and painful, but afterwards it becomes 
 necrotic and sensation is lost. The symptoms last but two, three, or 
 four days at most, when the case usually terminates fatally. An 
 examination of the blood shows a dark fluid which will not clot, and 
 which remains black after exposure to the air. After death the 
 bodies putrefy rapidly and bloat up; the tissues are filled with. gases, 
 and a bloody foam exudes from the mouth, nostrils, and anus, and 
 frequently the mucous membranes of the rectum protrude from the 
 latter. The hairs detach from the skin. Congestion of all the organs 
 and tissues is found, with interstitial hemorrhages. The muscles are 
 friable and are covered with ecchymotic spots. This is especially 
 marked in the heart. 
 
 The black, uncoagulated, and incoagulable blood shows an iri- 
 descent scum on its surface, which is due to the fat of the animal dis- 
 solved by the ammonia produced by the decomposed tissues. The 
 serum oozes out of every tissue and contains broken-down blood, 
 which, when examined microscopically, is found to have the red
 
 532 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 globules crenated and the leucocytes granular. A high power of the 
 microscope also reveals the bacteria in the shape of little rodlike 
 bodies of homogeneous texture with their brilliant spores. 
 
 The lymphatic ganglia are increased four, five, six, or ten times their 
 natural size, enlarged by the engorgement of blood. The spleen 
 shows nodulated black spots containing a muddy blood, which is 
 found teeming with the virus. This organ is much enlarged and is 
 quite friable. The mucous membranes of the intestines are congested 
 and reddish brown; the surface of the intestines is in many places 
 denuded of its lining membrane, showing fissures and hemorrhagic 
 spots. The liver has a cooked appearance ; the kidneys are congested 
 and friable ; the urine is red ; the pleura, lungs, and the meninges are 
 congested, and the bronchi of the lungs contain a bloody foam. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of anthrax has little in it to encourage 
 one. The curative treatment, for which almost every drug in the 
 pharmacopoeia has been used, is practically without avail. 
 
 The prophylactic treatment formerly consisted in the avoidance of 
 certain fields and marshes which were recognized as contaminated 
 during the months of August and September and had been oc- 
 cupied the years in which the outbreaks usually occurred. It under- 
 went, however, a revolution after the discovery by Pasteur of the 
 possibility of a prophylactic inoculation or vaccination which granted 
 immunity from future attacks of the disease similar to that granted 
 by the recovery of an animal from an ordinary attack of the disease. 
 
 This treatment consists in the use of a vaccine which is made by the 
 artificial cultivation of the virus of anthrax in broth and in the treat- 
 ment of it by means of continued exposure to a high temperature for 
 a certain length of time, which weakens the virus to such an extent 
 that it is only capable of producing a very mild and not dangerous 
 attack of anthrax in the animal in which it is inoculated, and thus 
 protects the animal from inoculation of a stronger virus. The pro- 
 duction of this virus, which is carried on in some countries at the 
 expense of the government and is furnished at a small cost to the 
 farmers in regions where the disease prevails, in this country is made 
 in private laboratories only. 
 
 GLANDERS AND FARCY. 
 
 [SYNONYMS: Glanders, farcy, one form of nasal gleet; Malleus humidus, 
 Equina nasalis, Equina apoatcmatos, Latin; rots, rotzkrankhcit, German; snot, 
 rerroting, Dutch; moccio, ciamorro, Italian; muermo, Spanish; morve, farcin, 
 French.] 
 
 Definition. Let it be understood at the outset that glanders and 
 farcy are one and the same disease, differing only in that the first 
 term is applied to the disease when the local lesions predominate in 
 the internal organs, especially in the nostrils, lungs, and air tubes,
 
 -J) .
 
 
 I 

 
 GLANDEBS AND FARCY. 533 
 
 and that the second term is applied to it when the principal mani- 
 festation is an outbreak of the lesions on the exterior or skin of the 
 animal. The term glanders applies to the disease in both forms, 
 while the term farcy is limited to the visible appearance of external 
 trouble only; but in the latter case internal lesions always exist, 
 although they may not be evident. 
 
 Glanders is a contagious constitutional disease of the genus Equus 
 (the horse, ass, and mule), readily communicable to man, the dog, 
 the cat, the rabbit, and the guinea pig. It is transmitted with diffi- 
 culty to sheep and goats, and cattle seem to be entirely immune. It 
 runs a variable course and usually produces the death of the animal 
 affected with it. It is characterized by the formation of neoplasms, 
 or nodules, of connective tissue, which degenerate into ulcers, from 
 which exude a peculiar discharge. It is accompanied by a variable 
 amount of fever, according to the rapidity of its course. It is sub- 
 ject to various complications of the lymphatic glands, of the lungs, 
 of the testicles, of the internal organs, and of the subcutaneous con- 
 nective tissue. 
 
 History. Glanders is one of the oldest diseases of which we have 
 definite knowledge in the history of medicine. Absyrtus, the Greek 
 veterinarian in the army of Constantine the Great,, described this dis- 
 ease with considerable accuracy and recognized the contagiousness of 
 its character. Another Greek veterinarian, Vegetius Renatus, who 
 lived in the time of Theodosius (381 A. D.), described, under the 
 name of Malleus humidus, a disease of the horse characterized by a 
 nasal discharge and accompanied by superficial ulcers. He recog- 
 nized the contagious properties of the discharge of the external ulcers, 
 and recommended that all animals sick with the disease should be 
 separated at once with the greatest care from the others, and should 
 be pastured in separate fields for fear the other, animals should become 
 affected. 
 
 In 1682 Sollysel, the stable master of Louis XIV, published an 
 account of glanders and farcy, which he considered closely related to 
 each other, although he did not recognize them as identical. He 
 admitted the existence of a virus which communicated the disease 
 from an infected animal to a sound one. He called special attention 
 to the feed troughs and water buckets as being the media of conta- 
 gion. He divided glanders into two forms one malignant and con- 
 tagious and the other benign and he stated that there was always 
 danger of infection. 
 
 Garsault, in 1746, said that " as this disease is communicated very 
 easily, and can infect in a very short time a prodigious number of 
 horses by means of the discharges which may be licked up, animals 
 infected with glanders should be destroyed/' 
 
 Bourgelat, the founder of veterinary schools, in his " Elements of
 
 534 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Hippiatary," published in 1755, establishes glanders as a virulent 
 disease. 
 
 Extensive outbreaks of glanders are described as prevailing in the 
 great armies of continental Europe and England from time to time 
 during the periods of all the wars of the last few centuries. 
 
 Glanders was imported into America at the close of the eighteenth 
 century, and before the end of the first half of the last century had 
 spread to a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and 
 immediately adjoining Southern States. This disease was unknown 
 in Mexico until carried there during the Mexican war by the badly 
 diseased horses of the United States Army. During the first half of 
 the last century a large body of veterinarians and medical men 
 protested against the contagious character of this disease, and pre- 
 vailed by their opinion to such an extent against the common opinion 
 that several of the governments of Europe undertook a series of ex- 
 periments to determine the right between the contesting parties. 
 
 At the veterinary school at Alfort, and at the farm of Lamirault 
 in France, several hundred horses which had passed examination as 
 sound had placed among them glandered horses under various condi- 
 tions. The results of these experiments proved conclusively the con- 
 tagious character of the disease. 
 
 In 1881 Professor Bouchard, of the faculty of medicine in Paris, 
 assisted by Drs. Capitan and Charrin, undertook a series of experi- 
 ments with matter taken from the farcy ulcer of a human being. 
 They afterwards continued their experiments with matter taken from 
 horses, and succeeded in showing in 1883 that glanders is caused by 
 a bacterium which is capable of propagation and reproduction of 
 others of its own kind if placed in the proper media. In 1882 the 
 specific germ of glanders was first discovered and described by Loef- 
 fler and Schuetz in Germany. 
 
 When we come to study the etiology of glanders, the difference of 
 susceptibility on the part of different species of animals, or even on 
 the part of individuals of the same species, and when we come to find 
 proof of the slow incubation and latent character of the disease as it 
 exists in certain individuals, we will understand how in a section of 
 country containing a number of glandered animals others can seem to 
 contract and develop the disease without having apparently been 
 exposed to contagion. 
 
 Causes. The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what 
 form it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recog- 
 nize but one cause for all cases, and that is contagion by means of 
 the specific vims of the disease. The causative organism is known as 
 the Bacillus mallei. 
 
 In studying the writings of the older authors on glanders, and the 
 works of those authors who contested the contagious nature of the
 
 GLANDERS AND FABCY. 535 
 
 disease, we find a large number of predisposing causes assigned as 
 factors in the development of the malady. 
 
 While a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal 
 of the genus Equus will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast 
 difference in the contagious activity of different cases of glanders. 
 We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of the develop- 
 ment of the disease in different individuals and that the contagion is 
 much more apt to be carried to sound animals under certain circum- 
 stances than it is under others. Only certain species of animals are 
 susceptible of contracting the disease, and while some of these con- 
 tract it as a general constitutional malady, in others it only develops 
 as a local sore. 
 
 In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form, 
 as is shown by the inevitable infection of susceptible animals inocu- 
 lated with the disease, while the discharge from chronic semilatent 
 glanders and farcy may at times be inoculated with a negative result ; 
 again, in acute glanders, as we have a free discharge, a much greater 
 quantity of virus-containing matter is scattered in the neighborhood 
 of an infected horse to serve as a contagion to others than is found in 
 the small amount of discharge of the chronic cases. 
 
 The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses, 
 asses, or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glan- 
 dered horses, drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall or 
 work in the same wagon, or are fed from feed boxes or mangers 
 which have been impregnated by the saliva and soiled by the dis- 
 charge of sick animals. Transmission occurs by direct contact of 
 the discharges of a glandered animal with the tissues of a sound one, 
 either on the exterior, when swallowed mixed with food into the 
 digestive tract, or when dried and inhaled as dust. 
 
 The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of 
 the virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected 
 animal in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands, 
 clothing, the teeth of the currycomb, the sponge, the bridle, and the 
 halter, and are thus carried to other animals. 
 
 An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved 
 from one part of the stable to another, or works hitched with one 
 horse and then with another, and may be an active agent in the 
 spreading of the disease without the cause being recognized. 
 
 Glanders is found frequently in the most insidious forms, and we 
 recognize that it can exist without being apparent; that is, it may 
 affect a horse for a long period without showing any symptoms that 
 will allow even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis. 
 An old gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for 
 family use with good care and light work for a period of eight years, 
 during which time other horses in the tavern stable were from time
 
 536 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 to time affected with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare, 
 whose only trouble was an apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a 
 huckster who placed her at hard work. Want of feed and overwork 
 and exposure rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which 
 the animal died, and at the autopsy were found the lesions of an acute 
 pneumonia of glanders grafted on chronic lesions, consisting of old 
 nodules which had undoubtedly existed for years. 
 
 In a case that once came under the care of the writer, a coach horse 
 was examined for soundness and passed as sound by a prominent 
 veterinarian, who a few months afterwards treated the horse for a 
 skin eruption from which it recovered. Twelve months afterwards 
 it came into the hands of the writer, hidebound, with a slight cough 
 and a slight eruption of the skin, which was attributed to clipping 
 and the rubbing of the harness, but which had nothing suspicious in 
 its character. The horse was placed on tonics and put to regular 
 light driving. In six weeks it developed a bronchitis without having 
 been specially exposed, and in two days this trouble was followed by 
 a lobular pneumonia and the breaking of an abscess in the right lung. 
 Farcy buds developed on the surface of the body and the animal died. 
 The autopsy showed the existence of a number of old glanderous 
 nodules in the lungs which must have existed previous to purchase, 
 more than a } 7 ear before. 
 
 Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of boarding stables and 
 the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common 
 recipients for the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its 
 fresh state, but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals 
 in the box or stall in which glandered animals had stood several 
 months before. "While the discharge from a case of chronic glanders 
 is much less apt to contain many active bacilli than that from a case 
 of acute glanders, the former, if it infects an animal, will produce 
 the same disease as the latter. It may assume from the outset an 
 acute or chronic form, according to the susceptibility of the animal 
 infected, and this does not depend upon the character of the disease 
 from which the virus was derived. 
 
 The animals of the genus Equus the horse, the ass, and the mule 
 are those which are the most susceptible to contract glanders, but in 
 these we find a much greater receptivity in the ass and mule than we 
 do in the horse. In the ass and mule in almost all cases the period 
 of incubation is short and the disease develops in an acute form. We 
 find that the kind of horse infected has an influence on the character 
 of the disease; in full-blooded fat horses of a sanguinary tempera- 
 ment, the disease usually develops in an acute form, while in the 
 lymphatic, cold-blooded, more common race of horses the disease 
 usually assumes a chronic form. If the disease develops first in the
 
 GLANDERS AND FARCY. 537 
 
 chronic form in a horse in fair condition, starvation and overwork are 
 apt to bring on an acute attack, but when the disease is inoculated 
 into a debilitated and impoverished animal it is apt to start in the 
 latent form. Inoculation on the lips or the exterior of the animal 
 is frequently followed by an acute attack, while infection by ingestion 
 of the virus and inoculation by means of the digestive tract is often 
 followed by the trouble in the chronic latent form. 
 
 In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional 
 disease with all the symptoms which are found in the horse, but more 
 frequently the virus pullulates only at the point of inoculation, re- 
 maining for some time as a local sore, which may then heal, leaving 
 a perfectly sound animal; but while the local sore is continuing to 
 ulcerate, and specific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of con- 
 tagion to other animals. In man we find a greater receptivity to 
 glanders than in the dog, and in many unfortunate cases the virus 
 spreads from the point of inoculation to the entire system and de- 
 stroys the wretched mortal by extensive ulcers of the face and hemor- 
 rhage or by destruction of the lung tissue; in other cases, however, 
 glanders may develop, as in the dog, in local form only, not infecting 
 the constitution and terminating in recovery, while the specific ulcer 
 by proper treatment is turned into a simple one. In the feline species 
 glanders is more destructive than in the dog. The point of inocula- 
 tion ulcerates rapidly and the entire system becomes infected. 
 
 While a student the writer saw a lion in the service of Professor 
 Trasbot, at Alfort, which had contracted the disease by eating glan- 
 dered meat and died with the lung riddled with nodules. A litter of 
 kittens lapped the blood from the lungs of a glandered horse on which 
 an autopsy was being made, and in four days almost their entire faces, 
 including the nasal bones, were eaten away by rapid ulceration. Nod- 
 ules were found in the lungs. A pack of wolves in the Philadelphia 
 Zoological Garden died in ten days after being fed with the meat of a 
 glandered horse. The rabbit, guinea pig, and mice are especially sus- 
 ceptible to the inoculation of glanders, and these animals are conven- 
 ient witnesses and proofs of the existence of suspected cases of the 
 glanders in other animals by the results of successful inoculations. 
 
 The primary lesion in any form is a local point in which occurs 
 a rapid proliferation of the cell elements which make up the animal 
 tissue with formation of new connective tissue, with a crowding to- 
 gether of the elements' until their own pressure on each other cuts off 
 the circulation and nutrition, and death takes place in them in the 
 form of ulceration or gangrene. Following this primary lesion we 
 have an extension of infection by means of the spread of the bacilli 
 into those tissues immediately surrounding the first infected spot, 
 which are most suitable for the development of simple inflammatory 
 phenomena or the specific virus. The primary symptoms are the re-
 
 538 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 suit of specific reaction at the point of inoculation, but at a later time 
 the virus is carried by means of the blood vessels and lymphatic ves- 
 sels to other parts of the body and becomes lodged at different places 
 and develops in them; again, when the disease has existed in the 
 latent form in the lungs of the animal and the virus is wakened into 
 action from any cause, we have it carried to various parts of the body 
 and developing in the most susceptible regions or organs. The points 
 of development are most frequently determined by the activity of the 
 circulation and the effects of exterior irritants. For example, if a 
 horse which has been so slightly affected with the virus of glanders 
 that no symptoms are visible is exposed to cold, rain, or sleet, or by 
 the rubbing of the harness on the body and the irritation of mud on 
 the legs, the disease is apt to develop on the exterior in the form of 
 farcy, while a full-blooded horse which is employed at speed and has 
 its lungs and respiratory tract gorged with blood from the extreme use 
 of these organs will develop glanders as the local manifestation of the 
 disease in the respiratory tract. 
 
 The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two 
 forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and 
 our reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as 
 acute, chronic, and latent, show that the disease may assume several 
 different phases. Without losing sight for a moment of the fact that 
 all of these varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their 
 essence, for convenience of study we may divide glanders into three 
 classes chronic farcy, chronic glanders, and acute glanders with or 
 without farcy. 
 
 CHBONIC FARCY. 
 
 Symptoms. In farcy the symptoms commence by formation of 
 little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe 
 on the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as 
 farcy " buds " and farcy " buttons," are from the size of a bullet to 
 the size of a walnut. They are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first 
 elastic and afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and in- 
 fringing on the substance of the skin the disease produces an ulcer, 
 which is known as a chancre. This ulcer is irregular in shape, with 
 ragged edges which overhang the sore; it has a gray, dirty bottom 
 and the discharge is sometimes thin and sometimes purulent; in either 
 case it is mixed with a viscous, sticky, yellowish material like the 
 white of an egg in consistency and like olive oil in appearance. The 
 discharge is almost diagnostic; it resembles somewhat the discharge 
 which we have in greasy heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis, 
 but to the expert the specific discharge is characteristic. The dis- 
 charge accumulates on the hair surrounding the ulcer and over its 
 surface and dries, forming scabs which become thicker by successive 
 deposits on the under surface until they fall off, to be replaced by
 
 CHBONIC FABCY. 539 
 
 others of the same kind; and the excess of discharge may drop on 
 the hairs below and form similar brownish yellow crusts. The farcy 
 ulcers may retain their specific form for a considerable tune days 
 or even weeks but eventually the discharge becomes purulent in char- 
 acter and assumes the appearance of healthy matter. The surface 
 of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is replaced by rosy granula- 
 tions, the ragged edges are beveled off, and the chancre is turned 
 into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals. 
 
 The farcy buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips, 
 the sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of 
 the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur on any part of 
 the body. 
 
 We have next an irritation of the lymphatic vessels in the neigh- 
 borhood of the chancres. Those become swollen and then indurated 
 and appear like great ridges underneath the skin; they are hot to 
 the touch and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable 
 time and then gradually disappear, or they may ulcerate like a farcy 
 bud itself, forming elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a 
 characteristic, dirty, gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out 
 a viscous, oily discharge like the chancres themselves. 
 
 The essential symptoms of farcy are, as above described, the button, 
 the chancre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to 
 these symptoms a certain number of accessory symptoms, which, 
 while not diagnostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the 
 diagnosis in cases where the eruption takes place in small quantities, 
 and when the ulcers are not characteristic. 
 
 Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or 
 other apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms 
 in glanders, and such a hemorrhage from the nostrils should always 
 be regarded with suspicion. The animal with farcy frequently de- 
 velops a cough, resembling much that which we find in heaves a 
 short, dry, aborted, hacking cough, with little or no discharge from 
 the nostrils. With this we find an irregular movement of the flanks, 
 and on auscultation of the lungs we find sibilant or at times a few 
 mucous rales. Another common symptom is a sudden swelling of one 
 of the hind legs; it is found suddenly swollen in the region of the 
 cannon, the enlargement extending below to the pastern and above as 
 high as the stifle. This swelling is hot and painful to the touch, and 
 renders the animal stiff and lame. On pressure with the finger the 
 swelling can be indented, but the pits so formed soon fill up again on 
 removal of the pressure. In severe cases we may have ulceration of 
 the skin, and serum pours out-f rom the surface, resembling the oozing 
 which we have after a blister or in a case of grease. This swelling 
 is not to be confounded with the stocking in lymphatic horses or the 
 edema which we have in chronic heart or in kidney trouble, as
 
 540 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 in the last the swelling is cool and not painful and the pitting on 
 pressure remains for sometime after the latter is withdrawn. It 
 is not to be confounded with greasy heels. In these the disease com- 
 mences in the neighborhood of the pastern and gradually extends 
 up the leg, rarely passing beyond the neighborhood of the hock. The 
 swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for the entire length 
 in a single night or within a very short period. When greasy heels 
 are complicated by lymphangitis we have a condition very much 
 resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is frequently fol- 
 lowed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over its surface. 
 In the entire horse the testicles are frequently swollen and hot and 
 sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppuration. 
 The acute inflammation is rapidly followed by the specific induration, 
 which corresponds to the local lesions in other parts of the body. 
 
 Chronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition, 
 but sometimes occurs. 
 
 CHROMIC GLANDERS. 
 
 Symptoms. In chronic glanders we find the same train of inflam- 
 matory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic 
 farcy only by the difference of the tissues in which they are located. 
 In chronic glanders there is first the nodule, from the size of a shot 
 to that of a small pea, which forms in the mucous membranes of the 
 respiratory tract. This may be just inside of the wings of the nos- 
 trils or on the septum which divides the one nasal cavity from the 
 other and be easily detected, or it may be higher in the nasal cavities 
 on the turbinated bones, or it may form in the larynx itself or on the 
 surface of the trachea or deep in the lungs. 
 
 The nodules, which are first red and hard and consist of new con- 
 nective tissue, soon soften and become yellow ; the yellow spots break 
 and we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding nodule, which has 
 a gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known as a chancre. 
 This ulcer pours from its surface a viscous, oily discharge similar 
 to that which we have seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the 
 discharge may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose, 
 causing serpentine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the 
 chancres themselves. If the nodules have formed in large numbers, 
 we may have them causing an acute inflammation of the Schneiderian 
 membrane, with a catarrhal discharge which may mark the specific 
 discharge, or that which comes from the ulcers and resembles the 
 discharge of strangles or simple inflammatory diseases. 
 
 The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation 
 of the neighboring lymphatics; and in "the intermaxillary space, deep 
 inside of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which for 
 the first few days may seem soft and edematous, but which rapidly 
 becomes confined to the glands, these being from the size of an
 
 GLANDERS. 541 
 
 almond to that of a small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard and 
 nodulated. This enlargement of the glands is found high up on the 
 inside of the jaws, firmly adherent to the base, of the tongue. It is 
 not to be confounded with the puffy, edematous swelling, which is 
 not separated from the skin and subcutaneous connective tissues 
 found in strangles, in laryngitis, and in other simple inflammatory 
 troubles. 
 
 These glands bear a great resemblance to the hard, indurated glands 
 which we find in connection with the collection of pus in the sinuses ; 
 but in the latter disease the glands have not the extreme nodulated feel 
 which they have in glanders. With the glands we % find indurated 
 cords, feeling like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands 
 together. 
 
 The essential symptoms of glanders are the nodule, the chancre, 
 the glands, and the discharge. With the development of the nodules 
 in the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount 
 of eruption which they cause, we may find a cough which resembles 
 that of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia, 
 according to the location of the lesions. In chronic glanders we 
 find the same accessory symptoms that occur in chronic farcy, the 
 hemorrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough, 
 and, in the entire horse, the swelling of the testicles. 
 
 On healing, the chancres on the mucous membranes leave small, 
 whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which 
 remain for almost an indefinite time. The chancres heal and the 
 other local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlarge- 
 ment of the glands, and we find these so diminished in size that they 
 are scarcely perceptible on examination. During the subacute at- 
 tacks, with a minimum quantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders 
 and in chronic farcy the animal rarely shows any amount of fever, 
 but does have a general depraved appearance; it loses flesh and be- 
 comes hidebound; the skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. 
 There is a cachexia, however, which resembles greatly that of any 
 chronic, organic trouble, but is not diagnostic, although it has in it 
 certain appearances and conditions which often render the animal sus- 
 picious to the eye of the expert veterinarian, while without the pres- 
 ence of local lesions he would be unable to state on what he has based 
 his opinion. 
 
 ACUTE GLANDERS. 
 
 Symptoms. In the acute form of glanders we find the symp- 
 toms which we have just studied in chronic farcj 7 and in chronic glan- 
 ders in a more acute and aggravated form. There is a rapid outbreak 
 of nodules in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate into 
 chancres and pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils. 
 There is a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and
 
 542 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 site of the local eruption. Over the surface of the body swellings 
 occur which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into 
 ulcers; we find the. indurated cords and enlargement of the lym- 
 phatics. 
 
 Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind legs, 
 and the swelling of the testicles are apt to precede an acute eruption 
 of glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has 
 difficulty of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes 
 rapid, the pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes 
 elevated to 103, 104, or 105 F. 
 
 With the otl\er symptoms of an acute fever the general appearance 
 and station of the animal is that of one suffering from an acute pneu- 
 monia, but upon examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous 
 rales over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular mur- 
 murs at the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubu- 
 lar murmur or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides 
 of the chest which belongs to simple pneumonia. 
 
 Where there is doubt as to the diagnosis, the mallein, the inoculation 
 test or the complement-fixation test may be employed. The mallein 
 test is made by injecting mallein (a sterilized extract from a culture 
 of glanders bacilli) beneath the skin. If the horse has glanders there 
 results a febrile reaction and a swelling at the point of injection. If 
 the horse does not have glanders the mallein has no effect or, at most, 
 it produces a slight swelling only at the point of injection. The 
 inoculation test consists in the inoculation of a susceptible animal 
 (usually a guinea pig) with some of the suspected discharge from 
 the nose or a farcy ulcer. If the material is properly used, and if it 
 contains bacilli of glanders, the experimental animal will develop the 
 disease. Neither of these tests should be put into use except by a 
 competent veterinarian. The complement-fixation test is a highly 
 specialized laboratory test and can only be carried out by one versed in 
 laboratory technique. ( See Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 136. ) 
 
 The post-mortem examination of the lungs shows that the pneu- 
 monia of glanders is a lobular, V-shaped pneumonia scattered through 
 the lungs and caused by the specific inflammatory process taking 
 place at the divergence of the smaller air tubes of the lungs. In some 
 cases of acute glanders the formation of nodules may so irritate the 
 mucous membrane of the respiratory tract and cause such a profuse 
 discharge of mucopurulent or purulent matter that the specific char- 
 acter of the original discharge is entirely masked. In this case, too, 
 the submaxillary space may for a few days so swell as to resemble the 
 edematous inflamed glands of strangles, equine variola, or laryngitis. 
 This condition is especially apt to be marked in an acute outbreak of 
 glanders in a drove of mules. 
 
 Cases of chronic farcy and glanders, if not destroyed, may live in a 
 depraved condition until the animal dies from general emaciation and 
 anemia, but in the majority of cases, from some sudden exposure to
 
 GLANDERS. 543 
 
 cold, it develops an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammatory 
 trouble which starts up the latent disease and the animal has acute 
 glanders. 
 
 In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses acute glanders usually termi- 
 nates by lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general symptoms 
 may subside. The symptoms of pneumonia gradually disappear, the 
 temperature lowers, the pulse becomes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving 
 small indurated cicatrices, and the animal may return to apparent 
 health, or may at least be able to do a small amount of work with but 
 a few symptoms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During 
 the attack of acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities 
 frequently spreads into the sinuses or air cells, which are found in the 
 forehead and in front of the eyes on either side of the face, and cause 
 abscesses of these cavities, which may remain as the only visible 
 symptom of the disease. An animal' which has recovered from a case 
 of acute glanders, like the animals which are affected by chronic 
 glanders and chronic farcy, are apt to be affected with emphysema of 
 the lungs or the heaves, and to have a chronic cough. In this condi- 
 tion they may continue for a long period, serving as dangerous sources 
 of contagion, the more so because the slight amount of discharge does 
 not serve as a warning to the owner or driver as profuse discharge 
 does in the more acute cases. 
 
 At the post-mortem examination of an animal which has been de- 
 stroyed or has died of glanders we find evidences of the various 
 lesions which we have studied in the symptoms. In addition to this, 
 we find nodules similar to those which we have seen on the exterior 
 throughout the various organs of the body. Nodules may be found 
 in the liver, in the spleen, and in the kidneys. We may find inflam- 
 mation of the periosteum of the bones, and we have excessive altera- 
 tions in the marrow in the interior of the bones themselves. Both of 
 these conditions during the life of the animal may have been the cause 
 of the lamenesses which were difficult to diagnose. 
 
 In one case which came under the observation of the writer, a lame 
 horse was destroyed and found to have a large abscess of the bone of 
 the arm, with old nodules of the lungs. When an animal has died 
 immediately after an attack of a primary acute case of glanders, we 
 find small V-shaped spots of acute pneumonia in the lungs. If the 
 animal has made an apparent recovery from acute glanders, and in 
 cases of chronic farcy and chronic glanders, no matter how few the 
 external and visible symptoms may have been, there is a deposit of 
 nodules small, hard, indurated nodes of new connective tissue to be 
 found in the lungs. When these have existed for some time we may 
 find a deposit of lime salts in them. These indurated nodules retain 
 the virus and their power to give out contagion for almost an indefi- 
 nite tune, and predispose to the causes which we have studied as the
 
 544 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 common factors in developing a chronic case into an acute case; that 
 is, an inflammatory process wakens up their vitality and produces a 
 reinfection of the entire animal. The blood of an animal suffering 
 from chronic glanders and farcy is not virulent and is unaltered, but 
 during the attack of acute glanders, while the animal has fever, the 
 blood becomes virulent and remains so for a few days. 
 
 Treatment. Almost the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopoeia 
 has been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good hygienic sur- 
 roundings, good food, with alteratives and tonics, frequently amelio- 
 rate the symptoms, and often do so to such an extent that the animal 
 would pass the examination of any expert as a perfectly sound ani- 
 mal. But while in this case the number of nodules of the lungs, 
 which are invariably there, may be so few as not to cause sufficient 
 disturbance in the respiration as to attract the attention of the exam- 
 iner, they exist, and will remain there almost indefinitely, with the 
 constant possibility of a return of acute symptoms. 
 
 It is probable that some horses may recover from glanders if the 
 infection is slight, but it will not yet do to depend upon this except- 
 ing under the most stringent veterinary supervision. With good 
 care, good food, and good surroundings and little work, an animal 
 affected with glanders may live for months or even years in an ap- 
 parent state of perfect health, but with the first deprivation of food, 
 with a few days of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with 
 the attack of a simple fever or inflammatory trouble from other 
 causes, the latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the 
 trouble again in an acute form. 
 
 In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected with 
 glanders have been known to work for years and die from other 
 causes without ever having had the return of symptoms; but -allow- 
 ing that these cases may occur, they are so few and far between, and 
 the danger of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable 
 attendants is so great, that no animal which has once been affected 
 with the disease should be allowed to live unless repeated mallein 
 tests have shown him to have become free from taint of glanders. 
 
 In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the States 
 in the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the 
 prompt declaration on the part of the owner and attending veteri- 
 narian at the first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow 
 indemnity for the animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal 
 is destroyed and the articles with which it has been in contact are 
 thoroughly disinfected. When the attendants have attempted to 
 hide the presence of the disease in a community, punishment is meted 
 to the owner, attending veterinarian, or other responsible parties. 
 Several States have passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but 
 these laws are not always carried out with the rigidity with which 
 they should be.
 
 MYCOTIC LYMPHANGITIS. 545 
 
 MYCOTIC LYMPHANGITIS. 
 
 By JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. D., 
 Chief of the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 This disease has been known as epizootic lymphangitis, otherwise 
 pseudo-farcy, or Japanese farcy; it is a chronic contagious disease, 
 particularly of equines, caused by a specific organism, the Saccharo- 
 myces farciminosus, and characterized by a suppurative inflammation 
 of the subcutaneous lymph vessels and the neighboring lymph glands. 
 Owing to the fact that this affection does not spread as an epizootic 
 and- that its causal factor is a yeastlike fungus, the name mycotic 
 instead of epizootic lymphangitis is suggested. This disease Was first 
 described by Italian and French veterinarians, and the specific organ- 
 ism was discovered by Kivolta in 1873. The presence of the disease 
 in the United States was first observed by Pearson in Pennsylvania in 
 1907, although it is probable that it has existed in various parts of 
 this country for many years. More recently its presence was definitely 
 established in Ohio, Iowa, California, and North Dakota, and there is 
 a probability of its existence in Indiana and several Western States. 
 The disease is also present in the Philippine Islands, Hawaiian 
 Islands, and Porto Rico. 
 
 Bacteriology. The Saccharomyces farciminosus forms slightly 
 ovoid bodies, 3 to 5 microns long and 2.4 to 3.6 microns broad, which 
 are somewhat pointed toward the poles and have a sharp double con- 
 tour. They have more or less of a homogeneous content and grow by 
 budding. This characteristic 'can be especially well observed in old 
 growths on culture media. Their staining with the ordinary stains 
 is quite unsatisfactory; they may, however, be readily recognized in 
 fresh smear preparations or in the hanging drop of a small quantity 
 of the suspected pus, where the above-described bodies can be dis- 
 tinctly noticed. 
 
 A satisfactory method of staining the organism is the Claudius 
 method, which is as follows: 
 
 1. Stain with 1 per cent aqueous solution of methyl violet for two 
 minutes. 
 
 2. Wash in water. 
 
 3. Place in a half saturated solution of picric acid for one to two 
 minutes. 
 
 4. Decolorize with chloroform or clove oil. 
 
 5. Treat with xylol. 
 
 6. Mount in Canada balsam. 
 
 From the Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
 (1908). 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 35
 
 546 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The organisms grow very slowly in the various culture media. It 
 requires about ten days before vegetation is noticed on agar in the 
 form of grayish-white granules, which gradually grow to larger 
 colonies, appearing considerably elevated and having a wrinkled 
 surface. They also grow in bouillon, in which a white, flaky deposit 
 makes its appearance after fifteen or eighteen days. In taking cul- 
 tures it is advisable to open a fluctuating abscess, over which the skin 
 should be shaved and well cleaned with bichlorid solution and alcohol. 
 The abscess should be opened with a sterilized scalpel, and culture 
 media may then be inoculated in the usual way. In case of a mixed 
 infection, the organism may be isolated by plating. 
 
 The .period of incubation varies greatly, extending from three 
 weeks to four months, or even longer. In artificial inoculations with 
 pus through wounds in the skin, inflammation and swelling of the 
 lymph vessels may be noticed in twenty to sixty days, and these ves- 
 sels show in their course a development of hard nodules, from which 
 abscesses form. 
 
 The natural infection is without doubt caused through superficial 
 wounds, such as galls, barbed-wire cuts, or through various stable 
 utensils, harness, bandages, insects, etc. Solipeds are mostly sus- 
 ceptible, but cattle may also be infected. 
 
 Symptoms. The inflammation of the lymph vessels is usually first 
 observed on the extremities, especially on one or both hind legs; it 
 may also appear on the forelegs, shoulder, or neck, and more rarely 
 on the rump, udder, and scrotum. The lesions, as a rule, develop in 
 the tissue adjacent to the place of inoculation. In the early stages of 
 the disease the lymph vessels appear very hard and thickened, and 
 along their course hard nodules develop, ranging in size from a pea 
 to a hen's egg. Later these nodules soften, burst spontaneously, and 
 discharge a thick, yellowish pus. The surface of the resulting ulcers 
 or abscess cavities soon fills up with exuberant granulation which 
 protrudes beyond the surface of the skin, giving a fungoid appearance. 
 The affected extremities are considerably enlarged, similar to cases 
 of simple lymphangitis. In rare cases the mucous membrane of the 
 nostrils may also become affected, showing yellowish flat elevations 
 and ulcerations, and these may extend by metastasis to internal organs. 
 In cases where the mucous membrane is affected, the submaxillary 
 lymph gland may also become enlarged and suppurate. 
 * The constitutional symptoms accompanying this disease are not 
 very marked or may be altogether absent. There is usually only a 
 very slight fever, which seldom runs over 102 F. The appetite is 
 not impaired except in the advanced cases. 
 
 Lesions. The anatomical changes are most marked in the skin and 
 the subcutaneous tissues. They may become 2 to 3 inches thick and
 
 RABIES. 547 
 
 indurated as the result of fibrous-tissue formation, due to the inflam- 
 mation present. On the baconlike cut surface suppurative areas and 
 granulating sores may be noticed of various sizes, also enlarged 
 lymph vessels filled with clotted lymph mixed with pus. The neigh- 
 boring lymph glands are usually enlarged and frequently contain 
 suppurating foci. Rarely the internal organs may show metastatic 
 abscesses. 
 
 Diagnosis. The diagnosis is based on the characteristic appear- 
 ance of the ulcerations, which show exuberant granulation of a bright 
 red color, inverted edges, and a thick, creamy, glutinous discharge. 
 These manifestations differentiate the disease from glanders, in which 
 the ulcers are craterlike, do contain exuberent granulations, and the 
 discharge is of a viscous, oily character. The submaxillary and other 
 nodes as well as the corded lymphatics in glanders are more firmly at- 
 tached to the adjacent tissues, and are therefore less movable. In 
 some chronic cases of mycotic lymphangitis, however, the lesions 
 may closely resemble those of farcy, and in these cases the microscop- 
 ical examination of the pus will disclose the nature of the affection. 
 In the pus the saccharomyces can be easily seen in the unstained speci- 
 men and is recognized by its size, shape, and highly refractory double 
 outline. Furthermore, the injection of mallein in cases of mycotic 
 lymphangitis will be attended with negative results. 
 
 Treatment. Treatment consists at the onset of the disease in entire 
 extirpation of the nodules, lymph vessels, and neighboring lymph 
 glands in case the lesions are localized. In cases where the nodules 
 have formed abscesses, their opening is recommended, followed by the 
 application of the actual cautery or a 1 to 250 solution of bichlorid of 
 mercury. It must be borne in mind that the organism is highly re- 
 sistant to almost every antiseptic, and the best results will be ob- 
 tained from the application of a solution of a strong antiseptic fol- 
 lowing the opening of the lesions. 
 
 In the most favorable cases, recovery results in from five to seven 
 weeks ; as a rule, however, it requires several months. 
 
 In order to prevent the spreading of the disease the affected animals 
 should be isolated, the products of the disease should be destroyed, 
 and the stable should be disinfected with very strong liquid dis- 
 infectants in consideration of the great resistance of the causative 
 organism. 
 
 RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNESS. 
 
 Rabies is a contagious disease, which is usually transmitted by a 
 bite and by the introduction of a virus contained in the saliva of an 
 affected animal. It may, however, be transmitted in other ways. It 
 is characterized by symptoms of aberration of the nervous system 
 and invariably terminates fatally. It is accompanied by lesions, in-
 
 548 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ^animation, and degeneration in the central nervous system. It is a 
 disease that is most common in the dog, but is transmitted to the 
 horse, either from dogs or from any other animal affected with it. 
 (See also remarks on page 222.) As a disease of the horse it is in- 
 variably the result of the bite of a rabid animal, usually a dog. 
 
 Perhaps no disease in medicine has been the object of more con- 
 troversy than rabies. Certain medical men of prominence have 
 even doubted the existence of the disease. Many medical men have 
 claimed for it a spontaneous origin. The experience, however, of 
 ages has shown that contagion can be proved in the great majority of 
 cases, and, by analogy with other contagious diseases, we may only 
 believe that the development of one case requires the preexistence of 
 a case from which the virus has been transmitted. Pasteur has 
 further added to our knowledge of the disease by showing that a 
 virus capable of cultivation exists in the nervous system, especially 
 in the lower part of the brain (medulla oblongata) and in the ante- 
 rior part of the spinal column. Pasteur has further shown that 
 that portion of the nervous system which contains the virus, the 
 exact nature of which has not yet been demonstrated, will retain it 
 for a very long time if kept at a very low temperature or if left sur- 
 rounded by carbonic acid ; but if the nerve matter, which is virulent 
 at first, is exposed to the air and is kept from putrefaction by sub- 
 stances which will absorb the surrounding moisture, it will gradually 
 lose its virulence and become inoffensive in about fifteen days. He 
 has further shown that the action of a weak virus on an animal will 
 prevent the development of a stronger virus, and from this he has 
 formulated his method of prophylactic treatment. This treatment 
 consists in the successive inoculation of portions of the nerve matter 
 containing the virus from a rabid animal which has been exposed 
 to the atmosphere for thirteen days, ten days, seven days, and four 
 days, until the virulent matter which will produce rabies in any 
 unprotected animal can be inoculated with impunity. A curious 
 result of the experiments of Pasteur is that an animal which has 
 first been inoculated with a virus of full strength can be protected 
 by subsequent inoculations of attenuated virus repeated in doses of 
 increasing strength. 
 
 Innumerable attempts have been made to discover the causative 
 agent, and investigators have announced the finding of many of the 
 lower forms of animal and vegetable life as the pathogenic factor. 
 Among the recently described causes, certain protozoanlike bodies, 
 found in 1903 by Negri in the ganglionic cells, and termed Negri 
 bodies, are of a very suggestive nature. Negri claims that these 
 bodies are not only specific for rabies, but that they are protozoa and 
 the cause of the disease. His work has been corroborated by investi-
 
 BABIES. 549 
 
 gators in all parts of the scientific world. An examination of the 
 vitality of Negri bodies will show a striking resemblance to the 
 vitality of an emulsion of the virulent tissue. Thus, Negri bodies 
 have been found to be quite resistant to external agencies, such as 
 putrefaction, drying, etc., and are about the last portion of the nerve 
 cell to survive the advance of decomposition. They are also found in 
 over 96 per cent of the cases of rabies examined, but have not been 
 proved to exist in other diseases. 
 
 Valenti states, a* his strongest evidence of the protozoan nature of 
 the bodies, that the virus of rabies is neutralized in test tubes by 
 quinin, while no other alkaloid has this property. As a result of the 
 work performed in the New York City board of health laboratory, 
 Park claims that Negri bodies are found in animals before the begin- 
 ning of visible symptoms, and evidence is given that they may be 
 found early enough to account for the infectiousness of the central 
 nervous system. These bodies are now almost universally considered 
 as diagnostic of rabies, and in the pathological laboratory of the 
 Bureau of Animal Industry their detection in the nerve cells of the 
 brain suffices for a diagnosis of rabies without animal inoculations. 
 In case these granular bodies are not found in a suspected animal, the 
 plexiform ganglion is next examined, and should negative results still 
 be obtained, the inoculation of rabbits is then made as a last resort. 
 It is indeed rare that positive results are obtained from the latter 
 method after the first two methods have been negative, but it has 
 occurred occasionally in cases where the animal had been killed in 
 the early stages of the disease. 
 
 Symptoms. From the moment of inoculation by the bite of a rabid 
 dog or other rabid animal or by other means, a variable time elapses 
 before the development of any symptoms. This time may be eight 
 days or it may be several months; it is usually about four weeks. 
 The first symptom is an irritation of the original wound. This 
 wound, which may have healed completely, commences to itch until 
 the horse rubs or bites it into a new sore. The horse then becomes 
 irritable and vicious. It is especially susceptible to moving objects; 
 excessive light, noises, the entrance of an attendant, or any other dis- 
 turbance will cause the patient to be on the defensive. It apparently 
 sees imaginary objects; the slightest noise is exaggerated into threat- 
 ening violence; the approach of an attendant or another animal, 
 especially a dog, is interpreted as an assault and the horse will strike 
 and bite. The violence on the part of the rabid horse is not for a 
 moment to be confounded with the fury of the same animal suffering 
 from meningitis or any other trouble of the brain. But in rabies 
 there is a volition, a premeditated method, in the attacks which the 
 animal will make, which is not found in the other diseases. Between
 
 550 . DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the attacks of fury the animal may become calm for a variable period. 
 The writer attended a case in which, after a violent attack of an hour, 
 the horse was sufficiently calm to be walked 10 miles and only 
 developed violence again an hour after being placed in the new stable. 
 In the period of fury the horse will bite at the reopened original 
 wound ; it will rear and attempt to break its halter and fastenings ; it 
 will bite at the woodwork and surrounding objects in the stable. If 
 the animal lives long enough it shows paralytic symptoms and falls to 
 the ground, unable to use two or more of its extremities, but in the 
 .majority of cases, in its excesses of violence, it does physical injury to 
 itself. It breaks its jaws in biting at the manger or fractures other 
 bones in throwing itself on the ground and dies of hemorrhage or 
 internal injuries. At times throughout the course of the disease there 
 is an excessive sensibility of the skin which, if irritated by the touch, 
 will bring on attacks of violence. The animal may have appetite and 
 desire water throughout the course of the disease, but on attempting 
 to swallow has a spasm of the throat, which renders the act impossible. 
 This latter condition, which is common in all rabid animals, has given 
 the disease the name of hydrophobia (fear of water). 
 
 In a case under the care of the writer a horse, four weeks after 
 being bitten on the forearm by a rabid dog, developed local irritation 
 in the healed wound and tore it with its teeth into a large ulcer. This 
 was healed by local treatment in ten days, and the horse was kept 
 under surveillance for over a month. On the advice of another prac- 
 titioner the horse was taken home and put to work, and within three 
 days it developed violent symptoms and had to be destroyed. 
 
 Diagnosis. The diagnosis of rabies in the horse is to be made from 
 the various brain troubles to which the animal is subject; first by the 
 history of a previous bite of a rabid animal or inoculation by other 
 means; second, by the evident volition and consciousness on the part 
 of the animal in its attacks, offensive and defensive, on persons, ani- 
 mals, or other disturbing surroundings. The irritation and reopen- 
 ing of the original wound or point of inoculation is a valuable factor 
 in diagnosis. Diagnosis after death may be made by microscopic ex- 
 amination for Negri bodies or by the inoculation of rabbits, as already 
 mentioned. 
 
 Recovery from rabies may be considered as a question of the cor- 
 rectness of the original diagnosis. Rabies is always fatal. 
 
 Treatment. No remedial treatment has ever been successful. All 
 of the anodynes and anesthetics, opium, belladonna, bromid of pot- 
 ash, ether, chloroform, etc., have been used without avail. The 
 prophylactic treatment of successive inoculations is being used on 
 human beings, and has experimentally proved efficacious in dogs, but 
 would be impracticable in the horse unless the conditions were quite 
 exceptional.
 
 INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OB SWAMP FEVEE. 551 
 
 INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OR SWAMP FEVER. 
 
 By JOHN R. MOHLEB, V. M. D., 
 Chief of the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 Infectious anemia of horses, known also by a number of other 
 names, as swamp fever, American surra, malarial fever, typhoid fever 
 of horses, the unknown disease, no-name disease, plains paralysis, and 
 pernicious anemia, has recently been the subject of much investiga- 
 tion. The cause of the disease has now been definitely determined as 
 an invisible virus, which is capable of passing through the pores of 
 the finest porcelain filters, like the infection of foot-and-mouth dis- 
 ease, rinderpest, hog cholera, and similar diseases. The disease is 
 most prevalent in low-lying and badly drained sections of the coun- 
 try, although it has been found in altitudes as high as 7,500 feet on 
 marshy pastures during wet seasons. Therefore proper drainage of 
 infected pastures is indicated as a preventive. It is also more preva- 
 lent during wet years than in dry seasons. It usually makes its ap- 
 pearance in June and increases in frequency until October, although 
 the chronic cases may be seen in the winter, having been contracted 
 during the warm season. 
 
 Cause. It has been conclusively proven that infectious anemia is 
 produced by an invisible, filterable organism which is transmissible 
 to horses, mules, and asses by subcutaneous inoculation of blood se- 
 rum. The virus which is present in the blood may be transmitted to 
 a number of equines in a series of inoculations by injecting either the 
 whole blood, the defibrinated blood, or the blood serum which has 
 been passed through a fine Pasteur filter, thus eliminating all the 
 visible forms of organismal life, including bacteria, trypanosoma, 
 piroplasma. etc. This virus has also been found to be active in the 
 carcass of an affected animal twenty-four hours after death. 
 
 Following the injection of the infectious principle there is a period 
 of incubation which may extend from ten days to one and one-half 
 months, at the end of which time the onset of the disease is mani- 
 fested by a rise of temperature. If uncomplicated, the infection runs 
 a chronic course, terminating in death in from two months to one 
 and one-half years, or even longer. The probability of the virus 
 being spread by an intermediate host, such as flies, mosquitoes, inter- 
 nal parasites, etc., is now receiving careful investigation. 
 
 From experiments already conducted it appears that this disease, 
 formerly supposed to be confined to Manitoba and Minnesota, is 
 more or less prevalent in Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, 
 
 d From Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 138.
 
 552 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Montana, North Dakota, and Texas. It also occurs in Europe, hav- 
 ing been reported in Germany under the name of infectious anemia 
 and in France as infectious typho-anemia. 
 
 Symptoms. The disease is characterized by a progressive perni- 
 cious anemia, remittent fever, polyuria, and gradual emaciation in 
 spite of a voracious appetite. It begins to manifest itself by a dull, 
 listless appearance and by general weakness, the animal tiring very 
 easily. This stage is followed closely by a staggering, swaying, un- 
 certain gait, the hind legs being mostly affected: .There is also noted 
 a weakness and tenderness in the region of the loins, and at the same 
 time the pulse increases in rapidity and may rim as high as 70, 
 though weak, stringy, and intermittent. The temperature may rise 
 to 103 F. or higher, remaining high for several days, and then 
 dropping, to rise again at irregular intervals. Toward the end of 
 the disease the temperature occasionally remains persistently high. 
 The horse may improve for a time, but usually this temporary im- 
 provement is followed by a more severe attack than the first. Venous 
 regurgitation is sometimes noticed in the jugular before death. The 
 quantity of urine passed is enormous in some cases. Death finally 
 occurs from exhaustion or syncope. 
 
 The blood shows a slight decrease in the number of white blood 
 cells, while there is a gradual but marked diminution of red cor- 
 puscles, the count running as low as 2,000,000 per cubic millimeter, 
 the normal count being 7,000,000. If the blood is drawn from such 
 an animal, the resulting red clot will be about one-fifth of the amount 
 drawn. Occasionally a slow dripping of blood-tinged serum from 
 the nostrils is observed as a result of this very thin blood oozing 
 from the mucous membranes. Petechise, or small hemorrhagic points, 
 are sometime noticed on the nictitating membrane and conjunctiva 
 of the eye, while paleness of the visible mucous membranes of the 
 nose and mouth is usually in evidence, although they may have a 
 yellow or mahogany tinge. Often a fluctuating, pendulous swelling 
 may appear on the lower lip, point of elbow, sheath, legs, under the 
 belly, or on some other pendant portion, especially late in the disease, 
 which is indicative of poor circulation, thinning of the blood, and 
 consequent loss of capillary action. 
 
 Lesions. After death the carcass is found to be very emaciated 
 and anemic, the visible mucosu being very pale. This marked absence 
 of adipose tissue makes the skinning of the animal a difficult task. 
 Subcutaneous and intermuscular edema and hemorrhages are frequent- 
 ly observed, although it. is remarkable in many cases to see how few 
 macroscopic lesions may be present. The predominating and most 
 constant lesion is probably the petechia?, so often observed in the 
 muscle or on the serous membranes of the heart. The heart is gen- 
 erally enlarged and may be the only organ to show evidence of dis-
 
 INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OB SWAMP FEVER. 553 
 
 ease. In other cases the lungs may be studded with petechiae, with 
 a serous exudate present in the thoracic cavity. In addition to the 
 petechise already noted, the pericardial sac generally contains an 
 increased amount of fluid. The abdominal cavity may show peri- 
 tonitis and a hemorrhagic condition of the intestines, which probably 
 result from overfeeding in consequence of the ravenous appetite. 
 The liver sometimes presents a few areas of degeneration, although 
 usually normal. The spleen is at times found to be enlarged and 
 covered with petechiae. The kidneys may appear normal or anemic 
 and flaccid, but microscopically they usually shoAv a chronic paren- 
 chymatous degeneration. The lymph glands may be enlarged and 
 hemorrhagic. 
 
 Diagnosis. The diagnosis of the disease is not difficult, especially 
 in advanced stages. The insidious onset, remittent fever, progressive 
 emaciation and anemia, unimpaired or ravenous appetite, staggering 
 gait, and polyuria are a train of symptoms which make the disease 
 sufficiently characteristic to differentiate it from other diseases af- 
 fecting horses in this country. The peculiar relapsing type of fever, 
 the great reduction in the number of red blood cells, and the absence 
 of eosinophilia are sufficient to differentiate it from the anemias pro- 
 duced by internal parasites, while it may be readily distinguished 
 from surra by the nonsusceptibility of cattle and by the great ease 
 with which the trypanosoiria may be found in the latter affection. 
 
 Prognosis. The prognosis of the disease is very unfavorable. 
 Veterinarians in different sections of the country where it is preva- 
 lent report a mortality of 75 per cent or even higher. Recovery 
 takes place only when treatment is begun early or when the animal 
 has a long convalescent period. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of the disease has so far been far from 
 satisfactory. The iodid, permanganate, and carbonate of potash have 
 been used. Arsenic, axytoj, quinin, and silver preparations have been 
 suggested, but all have uniformly been without success. Intestinal 
 antiseptics have been resorted to ; and the results are encouraging but 
 not altogether satisfactory. Symptomatic treatment seems to be the 
 most dependable. For instance, Davison, of this Bureau, was able to 
 reduce greatly the mortality from this affection by giving an antipy- 
 retic of 40 grains of quinin, 2 drams of acetanilid, and 30 grains of 
 powdered mix vomica four times daily. In the late stages, with weak 
 heart action, alcohol should be substituted for acetanilid. Cold-water 
 sponge baths may be given, and in addition frequent copious injec- 
 tions of cold water per rectum, which has a beneficial effect in re- 
 ducing the temperature and in stimulating peristalsis of the bowels, 
 which, as a result of the disease, show a tendency to become torpid 
 during the fever. Avoid giving purgatives unless absolutely neces- 
 sary, on account of their debilitating effect, but instead give laxative,
 
 554 DISEASES OP THE HORSE, 
 
 easily digestible feeds. Not infrequently a dirty yellowish tinge of 
 the visible mucous membranes has been observed, in which cases 20 
 grains- of calomel in from 2 to 4 drams of aloes in a ball, or 2-dram 
 doses of .fluid extract of podophyllin, may be given. Following the 
 subsidence of the fever, a tonic should be administered, composed of 
 the following drugs in combination : 
 
 Arsenious acid grams__ 2 
 
 Powdered mix vomica do 28 
 
 Powdered cinchona bark do 85 
 
 Powdered gentian root do 110 
 
 These should be well mixed and one-half tablespoonful given at 
 each feed to the affected animal. 
 
 As in the case of all other infectious diseases, the healthy should be 
 separated from the sick horses, and thorough disinfection of the 
 infected stable, stalls, litter, and stable utensils should be carried out 
 in order to prevent the recurrence of the disease. As a disinfectant, 
 the compound solution of cresol, carbolic acid, or chlorid of lime may 
 be used, by mixing 6 ounces of any one of these chemicals with 1 
 gallon of water. One of the approved coal-tar sheep dips might also 
 be used to advantage in a 5 per cent solution (6 ounces of dip to 1 
 gallon of water). The disinfectant solution should be applied liber- 
 ally to all parts of the stable, and sufficient lime may be added to the 
 solution to make the disinfected area conspicuous. 
 
 Investigations are now in progress with a view of producing a 
 vaccine or serum that will protect horses which have been exposed to 
 the disease. 
 
 SURRA. 
 
 By CH. WABDELL STILES, PH. D. 
 Professor of Zoology, United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service, 
 
 Surra is not known to occur in the United States, but it is more or 
 less common in the Philippine Islands and India. It is caused by a 
 microscopic, flagellate animal parasite, known as Trypanosoma 
 evansi, 20 to 30 p long by 1 to 2 p. broad, which lives in the blood and 
 destroys the red-blood corpuscles. In general, the disease is very 
 similar to, and belongs in the same general class with, tsetse-fly dis- 
 ease, or nagana, of Africa and mal de caderas of South America. 
 
 Surra is a wet-weather disease, occurring chiefly during or immedi- 
 ately after heavy rainfalls, floods, or inundations. 
 
 Surra attacks especially horses, asses, and mules, but it may occur 
 in kerabau, camels, elephants, cats, and dogs, and has been trans- 
 mitted to cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, 
 and monkeys. No birds, reptiles, amphibia (frogs, etc.), or fish are 
 known to suffer from it. It attacks both male and female animals,
 
 SUERA. 555 
 
 young and old. Australian breeds of horses and white and gray 
 mules are said to be more susceptible than animals of other breeds 
 and color. 
 
 Surra in equines and camels is said to be an invariably fatal dis- 
 ease, but cattle occasionally recover from it. There is no history of a 
 definite onset of the disease, and the condition is progressive, usually 
 with a number of relapses. The period of incubation may vary some- 
 what; in experimental cases it is from two to seventy-five (usually 
 six to eight) days, according to conditions. The duration varies with 
 the species of animals attacked, their age, and general condition. The 
 average duration in the horse is reported as less than two months, 
 though some cases may terminate fatally in less than one to two 
 weeks. 
 
 METHOD OF INFECTION. 
 
 All evidence now available seems to indicate that surra is strictly a 
 wound disease, namely, that the parasite may enter the body only 
 through a wound of some kind? Apparently by far the most common 
 method is through wounds produced by biting flies, whose mouth 
 parts are moist with the infected blood of some animal bitten by the 
 same flies immediately previous to biting the healthy animal. Crows 
 may also transmit the infection by pecking at sores on a diseased 
 animal, soiling their beaks with blood, and transferring this infected 
 blood to a healthy animal. Likewise, if a scratch is made on a horse 
 and then infected blood is rubbed on the scratch, the horse will be- 
 come diseased. If, in experiment, infected blood is fed to a healthy 
 animal, the latter may contract surra in case it has an abraded or 
 wounded spot in the mouth; but if no part of the lining of the 
 alimentary canal is wounded, infection does not take place. Thus 
 dogs and cats may contract the disease by wounding the lining of the 
 mouth (as with splinters of bone) while feeding on the carcasses of 
 surra subjects. All available evidence indicates that under normal 
 conditions of pregnancy the disease is not transmitted from mother 
 to fetus. 
 
 There is a popular view that surra may be contracted by drinking 
 stagnant water and by eating grass and other vegetation grown upon 
 land subject to inundation, but there is no good experimental evidence 
 to support this view. Probably the correct interpretation of the facts 
 cited in support of this theory is that biting flies are numerous around 
 bodies of stagnant water and in inundated pastures; hence that a 
 great number of possible transmitters of the disease are present in 
 these places. 
 
 Symptoms." The invasion of this disease when contracted natu- 
 rally is usually marked by symptoms of a trivial character; the 
 
 This summary of symptoms is based upon work by Liugard.
 
 556 DISEASES OF TOE HORSE. 
 
 skin feels hot, and there may be more or less fever; there is also 
 slight loss of appetite, and the animal appears dull and stumbles 
 during action; early a symptom sometimes appears which may be 
 the first intimation received of the animal's indisposition, and which, 
 as a guide to diagnosis, is of great importance; it is the presence 
 of a general or localized urticarial eruption. If the blood be ex- 
 amined microscopically, it may be found to present a normal ap- 
 pearance; but in the majority of cases a few small, rapidly moving 
 organisms will be observed, giving to the blood, as it passes among 
 the corpuscles, a peculiar vibrating movement, which if once ob- 
 served will not easily be forgotten. If the parasite has not been 
 discovered in the blood for some days, the symptoms mentioned above 
 may be the only ones noticed, and, as a rule, when treated with febri- 
 fuges, the horse quickly improves in health and the appetite returns. 
 This condition does not last for more than a few days, when the 
 animal is again observed to present a dull and dejected appearance, 
 and on examination well-marked symptoms are found; the skin is 
 hot, the temperature more or less elevated 101.7 to 104 F. ; the 
 pulse full and frequent 56 to 64 beats per minute; the visible mu- 
 cous membranes may appear clean, but the conjunctival membranes, 
 especially those covering the membrana nictitans, are usually the seat 
 of dark-red patches of ecchymosis, varying in size in different an- 
 imals. There is more or less thirst and slight loss of appetite; the 
 animal eats its grain and green grass, but leaves all or a portion of 
 the hay with which it has been supplied. At the same time there 
 are slight catarrhal symptoms present, including lachrymation and a 
 little mucous discharge from the nostrils. Occasionally at this period 
 of the disease the submaxillary glands may be found enlarged and 
 perhaps somewhat tender on manipulation. One symptom is mark- 
 edly absent, namely, the presence of rigors or the objective sign of 
 chilliness. In addition, it will be noted that there is some swelling 
 and edema of the legs, generally between the fetlock and the hock, 
 which pits but is not painful on pressure, and in case of horses there 
 may be present also at this stage of the disease some swelling of the 
 sheath. When the fever and concomitant symptoms have declared 
 themselves for a short period, one thing becomes especially noticeable 
 in every animal attacked, namely, the rapidity with which it loses 
 flesh. If the blood has been examined microscopically during the 
 second period of fever, at first a few parasites will have been observed 
 in it, which day by day increase in number and reach a maximum, 
 where they remain for a varying period, or at once suddenly or gradu- 
 ally disappear during the period of apyrexia. After the fever and 
 the accompanying symptoms have for the second time been present 
 for some days the period varying from one to six the animal is 
 found to have lost the dull, dejected appearance and to look bright.
 
 SURRA. 557 
 
 The temperature has fallen and, in some cases, has attained normal 
 or even subnormal limits. The visible mucous membranes are clean, 
 and the conjunctival petechias begin to fade; the pulse, however, will 
 be found to be weak and thready in character, but the appetite excel- 
 lent, and, in fact, if it were not for the loss of flesh and slight edema 
 of the legs, there would be little to show that the animal was sick. 
 But unfortunately this condition does not continue for any length of 
 time, for again the temperature is elevated ; in the course of a few 
 hours the thermometer registers a still higher degree, the animal is 
 dull and dejected, and by the following day the visible mucous mem- 
 branes present a yellow tinge ; large ecchymoses, dark in color, appear 
 on the conjunctival membranes, the action of the heart is irritable, the 
 pulse full and quick, or at times intermittent, and regurgitation may 
 be observed in the jugulars, the breathing is quickened, and the indi- 
 vidual respirations are shallow. On watching an animal in this con- 
 dition it may be noticed that it takes 7 to 8 very short inspirations, 
 and these are followed by a much more prolonged and sonorous one ; 
 at the same time the breathing is more abdominal than thoracic in 
 character. On examination of the legs it will be found that the swell- 
 ing and edema have increased considerably, and that on the under 
 surface of the abdomen, where it was previously confined to the 
 sheath, it has now commenced to spread forward along the subcutane- 
 ous tissue between the skin and the muscles. During the whole of this 
 time the appetite will have varied little, and the evacuations will be 
 only slightly, if at all, altered' in character. In the blood a repetition 
 of the previous events takes place, the parasites make their appear- 
 ance and increase to a maximum and again suddenly or gradually 
 disappear, according to the length of the fever period. These periods, 
 alternating with and without fever, may go on for a considerable 
 time. The progress of the disease is variable and greatly depends 
 upon the condition of the animal attacked, the weak one succumbing 
 very rapidly, but each return of the fever brings with it, as a rule, an 
 increase in the severity of the symptoms. There is increased yellow- 
 ness of the membranes, fresh crops of petechia? on the conjunctiva, a 
 collection of gelatinous material at the inner angle, which at times 
 becomes red in color from an admixture of blood, and which on 
 microscopic examination is found to contain a varying number of the 
 surra parasites; increased swelling and edema of the extremities and 
 abdomen, which now extends between the fore limbs and up the 
 chest. During this time the w r asting has been steadily progressive, 
 especially of the muscles of the back and those surrounding the hip 
 joint and the glutei. 
 
 Toward the termination of the disease it will be noticed that an 
 animal is disinclined to move, and when made to do so there will be 
 manifest loss of power over the hind quarters, somewhat simulating
 
 558 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 a slight partial paralysis, and the hind quarters of the animal reel 
 from side to side. In connection with this it may be noted that there 
 is frequently present 'paralysis of the sphincter ani and a dilated 
 condition of the anus. These symptoms taken together point to some 
 interference with the normal functions of the spinal cord in the lower 
 dorsal and lumbar regions, and are probably due to pressure caused 
 by an exudation within the spinal membranes. In many cases shortly 
 before death the heart's action becomes exceedingly violent, shaking 
 the whole frame at each beat, so that the sound can be heard at some 
 distance from the animal. In some of these cases the animal may 
 suddenly drop dead ; in others the emaciation and weakness become 
 so pronounced that the animal falls to the ground, and, after a short 
 struggle, succumbs to the disease. In other cases, again, the animal 
 falls to the ground and appears to be suffering from acute pain, 
 struggles violently, sweat covers the body, and respiration is very 
 hurried. The struggles soon exhaust the patient's strength, and for 
 a time it lies quiet; soon, however, the struggles commence again, 
 and this continues until death occurs. In some cases the appetite is 
 voracious. 
 
 The symptoms of -the disease as observed in experimentally inocu- 
 lated animals are as follows: Twenty-four hours after the subcutane- 
 ous injection of a small quantity of surra blood, in the great majority 
 of cases, a small circumscribed and somewhat raised swelling is 
 noticed at the seat of the inoculation. After forty-eight hours the 
 tumor has increased in size and is accompanied by some edema: it 
 presents a certain amount of tension of the parts involved, and is 
 generally tender on manipulation. These conditions continue to in- 
 crease, until by the fourth day the tumor may measure 3 or 4 inches 
 in one direction by 2 or 3 in the other, and raised to the extent of an 
 inch or an inch and a half above the surrounding tissues, or in some 
 cases the tumor presents an almost circular form throughout. It will 
 be also found that, if the tumor be firmly grasped, it is not fixed, but 
 can be lifted up from the subcutaneous tissue. According to the 
 nature and amount of the inoculated blood, these symptoms rapidly 
 present themselves, and either attain a maximum or are retarded 
 until, varying from the fourth to the thirteenth day, the tumor at 
 the seat of inoculation will be found to have lost a certain amount 
 of its tension and tenderness. From this date the swelling and edema 
 will gradually begin to grow less, until finally, after a period of ten 
 to fourteen days, the only sign left of the former swelling will be 
 slight thickening of the skin over the point of the injection ; but at 
 the moment when the tension and tenderness of the parts at the seat 
 of inoculation become suddenly decreased a symptom of the utmost 
 clinical importance takes place, namely, at that moment the parasite 
 of surra enters the blood of the general circulation.
 
 SURRA. 559 
 
 The temperature on the day of inoculation, and, in fact, for several 
 days afterwards, may remain normal in character, there being only a 
 few degrees difference between the morning and evening observations. 
 In other cases there may be a slight rise from the first evening, and a 
 gradual progressive rise until the swelling at the seat of inoculation 
 shows signs of reduction in size, when the temperature generally 
 takes a decided rise again, and may attain 104 or 105.8 F. This 
 elevation will last a varying period of from two to six days, and on 
 the day following its onset the ordinary symptoms of fever will be 
 noticed, and in addition there will be petechiae on the conjunctival 
 membranes, lachrymation, a slight mucous discharge from the nose, 
 and in severe cases some edema of the lower portion of the legs, and 
 perhaps of the sheath in horses. At the termination of the period 
 of fever the temperature will be found to have fallen to normal or 
 nearly so; the animal will present a brighter aspect, and there is 
 every appearance of its return to health ; but in a few days the animal 
 again appears dull and half asleep ; the temperature becomes elevated 
 and a relapse takes place, and a repetition of all the symptoms in the 
 primary paroxysm, including the reappearance of the parasite, is 
 observed. 
 
 Diagnosis. Certain symptoms (anemia, fever, petechiae, ravenous 
 appetite, extreme emaciation, high mortality, etc.) would naturally 
 give rise to a suspicion of surra. The positive diagnosis should, 
 however, be made with a microscope. In case of suspected surra no 
 delay in confirming or disproving the suspicion should be permitted. 
 
 Treatment. No satisfactory treatment is known. Intravenous in- 
 jections of Fowler's solution of arsenic give temporary relief, but re- 
 lapses occur. In view of the great economic importance of this 
 disease, it would not be advisable to attempt to treat any sporadic 
 cases should they occur in this country. On the contrary, the animals 
 should be slaughtered immediately and their carcasses promptly 
 burned. 
 
 OSTEOPOROSIS OR BIGHEAD. 
 
 By JOHN R. MOHLEB, V. M. D., 
 Chief of the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 Osteoporosis is a general disease of the bones which develops slowly 
 and progressively and is characterized by the absorption of the cal- 
 careous or compact bony substance and the formation of enlarged, 
 softened, and porous bone. It is particularly manifest in the bones 
 of the head, causing enlargement and bulging of the face and jaws, 
 thereby giving rise to the terms "bighead" and. "swelled head," which 
 are applied to it. The disease affects horses, mules, and asses of all 
 ages, classes, and breeds, and of both sexes, and is found under all soil,
 
 560 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 dietetic, and climatic conditions. It may occur in sporadic form, but 
 in certain regions, such as South Africa, Australia, Madagascar, 
 India, Hawaii, and in this country it seems to be enzootic, several 
 cases usually appearing in the same stable or on the same farm, and 
 numerous animals being affected in the same district. In the United 
 States the disease has been found in all the States bordering the 
 Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay, in some of the New England 
 States, and in many of the Southern States, especially along the coast 
 in regions of low altitude. In Europe the disease appears to be quite 
 rare, and is usually described as a form of osteomalacia, a disease 
 which is not uncommon among cattle of that continent. However, the 
 opinion that bighead is only a form of osteomalacia can not be ac- 
 cepted, nor can the infrequency of the former among European horses 
 and the frequency of the latter among other live stock be conceded on 
 the argument which has been presented, namely, that the better care 
 which horses receive prevents them from becoming affected. In the 
 Southwest, where osteomalacia, or creeps, has not infrequently been 
 observed by the writer airiong range cattle, no case of osteoporosis of 
 the horses using the same range has been noted, although the latter 
 animals are given no more attention than the cattle. 
 
 The appropriate treatment of osteomalacia in cattle is so effective 
 that if osteoporosis were a similar manifestation of disease a similar 
 line of treatment should prove equally efficacious. However, this is 
 not the fact. On the other hand, the occurrence of osteomalacia on 
 old, worn-out soil, or on land deficient in lime salts, or from eating 
 feed lacking in these bone-forming substances, or drinking water 
 with a lime deficiency, is in perfect accord with our knowledge of the 
 disease. But osteoporosis may occur on rich, fertile soil, in the most 
 hygienic stables, and in animals receiving the best of care and of 
 bone-forming feeds with a proper amount of mineral salts in the 
 drinking water. 
 
 Cause. The cause of this disease still remains obscure, although 
 various theories have been advanced, some entirely erroneous, others 
 more or less plausible; but none of these has been established. Thus 
 the idea that feeding fodder and cereals poor in mineral salts and 
 grazing in pastures where the soil is poor in lime and phosphates will 
 cause the disease has been entirely disproved in many instances. 
 Others have considered that the disease starts as a muscular rheuma- 
 tism which is followed by an inflammatory condition of the bones, 
 terminating in osteoporosis. The idea that the disease is contagious 
 has been advanced by many writers, although no causative agent has 
 been isolated. Numerous experiments have been made by inoculating 
 the blood of an affected horse into normal horses without results. A 
 piece of bone taken by Pearson from the diseased lower jaw of a colt 
 was transplanted into a cavity made for it in the jaw of a normal
 
 OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD. 561 
 
 horse, but without reproducing the disease. Petrone believes that the 
 Micrococcus nitrificans causes osteomalacia in man as a result of its 
 producing nitrous acid, which dissolves the calcareous tissues, and 
 when injected into dogs in pure culture a similar disease is produced. 
 It is probable that if this work is confirmed a somewhat similar causa- 
 tive factor will be discovered for osteoporosis. 
 
 Elliott considers the latter disease to be of microbic origin due to 
 climatic conditions, and divides the island of Hawaii into two dis- 
 tricts, in one of which the rainfall is 150 inches annually, where big- 
 head is very prevalent, and the second of which is dry and rarely 
 visited by rain, where the disease is unknown. Removal of animals 
 from the wet to the dry district is followed by immediate improve- 
 ment and frequently by recovery. In the wet district horses in both 
 good and bad stables take the disease, but in the dry districts no 
 unfavorable or unhygienic surroundings produce the affection. As 
 both native and imported horses are equally susceptible, there is no 
 indication of an acquired immunity to be observed. 
 
 Theiler has recently stated that his experiments in transfusing 
 blood from diseased to normal horses were negative, and has sug- 
 gested that the causative agent may only be transmitted by an inter- 
 mediate host, as in the case of Texas fever. He draws attention to 
 this method of spreading East African coast fever, although blood 
 inoculations, as in osteoporosis, are always without result. We know 
 that coast fever is infectious, and that it can not be transmitted by 
 blood inoculations, but is conveyed with remarkable ease by ticks 
 coming from diseased cattle. That the cause has not been observed 
 may be accounted for by its being invisible even to the high magnifica- 
 tion of the microscope. 
 
 On some farms and in some stables bighead is quite prevalent, a 
 number of cases following one after another. On one farm of thor- 
 oughbreds in Pennsylvania all the yearling colts and some of the 
 aged horses were affected during one year, and on a similar farm 
 in Virginia a large proportion of the horses for several years 
 were diseased, although the cows and sheep of this farm remained 
 unaffected. 
 
 Symptoms. The commencement of the disease is usually unob- 
 served by the owner, and those symptoms which do develop are gen- 
 erally not well marked or are misleading unless other cases have been 
 noted in the vicinity. Until the bones become enlarged the symptoms 
 remain so vague as not to be diagnosed readily. The disease may be 
 present itself under a variety of symptoms. If the bones of the hock 
 become affected, the animal will first show a hock lameness. If the 
 long bones are involved, symptoms of rheumatism will be the first ob- 
 served, while if the dorsal or lumbar Vertebra? are affected indications 
 of a strain of the lumbar region are in evidence. Probably the first 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 36
 
 562 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 symptom to be noticed is a loss of vitality combined with an irregular 
 appetite or other digestive disturbance, and with a tendency to stum- 
 ble while in action. These earlier symptoms, however, may pass unob- 
 served, and the appearance of an intermittent or migratory lameness 
 without any visible cause may be the first sign to attract attention. 
 This shifting and indefinite lameness, involving first one leg and then 
 the other, is very suggestive, and is even more important when it is 
 associated with a tendency to lie down frequently in the stall and the 
 absence of a desire to get up, or the presence of evident pain and 
 difficulty in arising. 
 
 About this time, or probably before, swelling of the bones of the 
 face and jaw, which is almost constantly present in this disease, will 
 be observed. The bones of the lower jaw are the most frequently 
 involved, and this condition is readily detected with the fingers by the 
 bulging ridge of the bone outside and along the lower edge of the 
 molar teeth. A thickening of the lower jawbone may likewise be 
 identified by feeling on both sides of each branch at the same time 
 and comparing it with the thinness of this bone in a normal horse. 
 As a result mastication becomes difficult or impossible and the teeth 
 become loose and painful. The imperfect chewing which follows 
 causes balls of food to form which drop out of the mouth into the 
 manger. Similar enlargements of the bones of the upper jaw may be 
 seen, causing a widening of the face and a bulging of the bones about 
 midway between the eyes and the nostrils. In some cases the nasal 
 bones also become swollen and deformed, which, together with the 
 bulging of the bones under the eyes, gives a good illustration of the 
 reason for the application of the term bighead. 
 
 Other bones of the body will undergo similar changes, but these 
 alterations are not so readily noted except by the symptoms they occa- 
 sion. The alterations of the bones of the spinal column and the 
 limbs, while difficult of observation, are nevertheless indicated by the 
 reluctance of the animal to get up and the desire to remain lying for 
 long periods of time. The animal easily tires, moves less rapidly, 
 and if urged to go faster may sustain a fracture or have a ligament 
 torn from its bony -attachments, especially in the lower bones of the 
 leg. An affected horse weighing 1,000 pounds was seen by the writer 
 to fracture the large pastern bone from rearing during halter exercise. 
 
 The animal becomes poor in flesh, the coat is rough and lusterless, 
 and the skin tight and harsh, producing a condition termed " hide- 
 bound," with considerable " tucking up " of the abdomen. The 
 horse shows a short, stilted, choppy gait, which later becomes stiffer 
 and more restricted, while on standing a position simulating that in 
 founder is assumed, with a noticeable drop to the croup. The animal 
 at this stage usually lies down and remains recumbent for several
 
 OSTEOPOROSIS, OE BIGHEAD. 563 
 
 days at a time. Bed sores frequently arise and fractures are not 
 uncommon in consequence of attempts to arise, which complications, 
 in addition to emaciation, result in death. 
 
 The disease may exist in this manner for variable periods extend- 
 ing from two or three months to two years. The termination of the 
 disease is uncertain at best, but is likely to be favorable if treatment 
 and a change of feed, water, and location is adopted in the early 
 stages of the malady. 
 
 Lesions. As has been stated, the bones are the principal tissues 
 involved. The nutrition of the bone is disturbed, as is indicated by 
 the diminished density or rarefaction of the bony substances, the in- 
 crease in the size or widening of the Haversian canal and the 
 medullary cavity, and the enlargement of the network of spaces in 
 the spongy tissue, the absorptive changes following the course of the 
 Haversian system. In this process of absorption there are formed 
 within the substance of the bone areas of erosion, indentations, or 
 hollow spaces of irregular shape. These spaces increase in size and 
 become confluent, causing an appearance resembling some varieties 
 of coral. The affected bone may be readily incised with a knife, the 
 cut surface appearing finely porous. This porous area is soft, pliable, 
 and yields easily to the pressure of the finger. It has been shown by 
 chemical analysis that the bone of an osteoporotic horse, when com- 
 pared with that of a normal horse, shows a reduction in the amount 
 of fat, phosphoric acid, lime, and soda, but a slight increase in 
 organic matter and silicic acid. The bones lose their yellowish- 
 white appearance, becoming gray and brittle. The affected bones may 
 be those of any region or portion of the body. Besides the change 
 already noted in the bones of the face, the ends of the long bones, 
 such as the ribs, are involved, and may be sectioned, though not so 
 readily as the facial bones. The bones of the vertebrae are also fre- 
 quently involved, necessitating great care in casting a horse, as the 
 writer has seen several cases of broken backs in casting such animals 
 for other operations. The marrow and cancellated tissue of the long 
 bones may contain hemorrhages and soft gelatinous material or 
 coagulated fibrin. The internal organs are usually normal, but a 
 catarrhal condition of the gastro-mtestinal tract may be noted as a 
 result of the improper mastication, resulting from the enlargement of 
 the jaws and soreness of the teeth. 
 
 Treatment. The affected animal should be immediately placed 
 under new conditions, both as to feed and surroundings. If the horse 
 has been stable fed, it is advisable to turn it out on grass for two or 
 three months, preferably in a higher altitude. If the disease has been 
 contracted while running 011 pasture, place the animal in the stable 
 or corral. In the early stages of the disease beneficial results have
 
 564 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 
 
 followed the supplemental use of lime given in the drinking water. 
 One peck of lime slaked in a cask of water and additional water 
 added from time to time is satisfactory and can be provided at slight 
 expense. This treatment may be supplemented by giving a table- 
 spoonful of powdered bone meal in each feed, with free access to a 
 large piece of rock salt, or the bone meal may be given with four 
 tablespoonfuls of molasses mixed with the feed. Feeds containing 
 mineral salts, such as beans, cowpeas, oats, and cotton-seed meal, 
 may prove beneficial in replenishing the bony substance that is be- 
 ing absorbed. Cotton-seed meal is one of the best feeds for this pur- 
 pose, but it should be fed carefully. The animal should not be 
 allowed to work at all during the active stage of the disease, nor 
 should it be used for breeding purposes.
 
 PLATE XI, 
 
 AGE OF HORSES AS INDICATED BY TEETH 
 
 Longitudinal Section of left central lower incisor and cross sections 
 of same tooth showing table surfaces as they appear" at ihe a^es of 3, 
 5,7, 9, 15, 20 and 25~years. 
 
 O .Cement 
 
 Infundibulum 
 
 D 
 K 
 
 S 
 
 Dentine 
 .-Cup 
 .Star 
 
 Lnamel 
 Pulp Cavity
 
 SHOEING. 
 
 By JOHN W. ADAMS, A. B., V. M. 
 
 Professor of Surgery and Lecturer on Shoeing, Veterinary Department, University 
 
 of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Bad and indifferent shoeing so frequently leads to diseases of the 
 feet and in irregularities of gait which may render a horse unservice- 
 able, that it has been thought appropriate to conclude this book with 
 a brief chapter on the principles involved in shoeing healthy hoofs. 
 
 In unfolding this subject in the limited space at my disposal, I can 
 only hope to give the intelligent horse owner a sufficient number of 
 facts, based on experience and upon the anatomy and physiology of 
 the foot and leg, to enable him to avoid the more serious conse- 
 quences of improper shoeing. 
 
 Let us first examine this vital mechanism, the foot, and learn some- 
 thing of its structure and of the natural movements of its component 
 parts, that we may be prepared to recognize deviations from the nor- 
 mal and to apply the proper corrective. 
 
 GROSS ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 
 
 The bones of the foot are four in number, three of which the long 
 pastern, short pastern, and coffin bone, placed end to end form a 
 continuous straight column passing downward and forward from the 
 fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular, or 
 " shuttle," bone, lies crosswise in the foot between the wings of the 
 coffin bone and forms a part of the joint surface of the latter. The 
 short pastern projects about 1 inches above the hoof and extends 
 about an equal distance to it. (See also page 369.) 
 
 The pasterns and the coffin bone are held together by strong fibrous 
 cords passing between each two bones and placed at the sides so as not 
 to interfere with the forward and backward movement of the bones. 
 The joints are therefore hinge joints, though imperfect, because, while 
 the chief movements are those of extension and flexion in a single 
 plane, some slight rotation and lateral movements are possible. 
 
 The bones are still further bound together and supported by three 
 long fibrous cords, or tendons. One, the extensor tendon of the toe, 
 passes down the front of the pasterns and attaches to the coffin bone 
 just below the edge of the hair ; when pulled upon by its muscle this 
 tendon draws the toe forward and enables the horse to place the hoof 
 flat upon the ground. The other two tendons are placed behind the 
 
 565
 
 566 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 pasterns and are called flexors, because they flex, or bend, the pasterns 
 and coffin bone backward. One of the tendons is attached to the 
 upper end of the short pastern, while the other passes down between 
 the heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and 
 attaches itself to the under surface of the coffin bone. These two ten- 
 dons not only flex, or fold up, the foot as the latter leaves the ground, 
 during motion, but at rest assist the suspensory ligament in support- 
 ing the fetlock joint. 
 
 The foot-axis is an imaginary line passing from the fetlock joint 
 through the long axes of the two pasterns and coffin bone. This 
 imaginary line, which shows the direction of the pasterns and coffin 
 bone, should always be straight that is, never broken, either forward 
 or backward when viewed from the side, or inward or outward when 
 observed from in front. Viewed from one side, the long axis of the 
 long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should be parallel to 
 the line of the toe. Viewed from in front, the long axis of the long 
 pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should cut the hoof exactly 
 at the middle of the toe. 
 
 Raising the heel or shortening the toe not only tilts the coffin bone 
 forward and makes the hoof stand steeper at the toe, but slackens the 
 tendon that attaches to the under surface of the coffin bone (perforans 
 tendon), and therefore allows the fetlock joint to sink downward and 
 backward and the long pastern to assume a more nearly horizontal 
 position. The foot-axis, viewed from one side, is now broken for- 
 ward ; that is, the long pastern is less steep than the toe, and the heels 
 are either too long or the toe is too short. On the other hand, raising 
 the toe or lowering the heels of a foot with a straight foot-axis not 
 only tilts the coffin bone backward and renders the toe more nearly 
 horizontal, but tenses the perforans tendon, which then forces the fet- 
 lock joint forward, causing the long pastern to stand steeper. The 
 foot-axis, seen from one side, is now broken backward an indication 
 that the toe is relatively too long or that the heels are relatively too 
 low. 
 
 The elastic tissues of the foot are preeminently the lateral cartilages 
 and the plantar cushion. The lateral cartilages are two irregularly 
 four-sided plates of gristle, one on either side of the foot, extending 
 from the wings of the coffin bone backward to the heels and upward to 
 a distance of an inch or more above the edge of the hair, where they 
 may be felt by the fingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and 
 yield readily to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes 
 may undergo ossification, in which condition they are hard and un- 
 yielding. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, 
 elastic, fibre-fatty tissue filling all the space between the lateral car- 
 tilages, forming the fleshy heels and the fleshy frog, and serving as a 
 buffer to disperse shock when the foot is set to the ground. It ex-
 
 ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 567 
 
 tends forward underneath the navicular bone and perforans tendon, 
 and protects these structures from injurious pressure from below. 
 Instantaneous photographs show that at speed the horse sets the heels 
 to the ground before other parts of the foot conclusive proof that 
 the function of this tough, elastic structure is to dissipate and render 
 harmless violent impact of the foot with the ground. 
 
 The horn-producing membrane, or "quick," as it is commonly 
 termed, is merely a downward prolongation of the " derm," or true 
 skin, and may be conveniently called the pododerm (foot skin). The 
 pododerm closely invests the coffin bone, lateral cartilages, and plantar 
 cushion, much as a sock covers the human foot, and is itself covered 
 by the horny capsule, or hoof. It differs from the external skin, or 
 hair skin, in having no sweat or oil glands, but, like it, is richly sup- 
 plied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. And, just as the derm 
 cf the hair skin produces upon its outer surface layer upon layer of 
 horny cells (epiderm), which protect the sensitive and vascular derm, 
 so, likewise, in the foot the pododerm produces over its entire surface 
 soft cells, which, pushed away by more recent cells forming beneath, 
 lose moisture by evaporation and are rapidly transformed into the 
 corneous material which we call the hoof. It is proper to regard the 
 hoof as a greatly thickened epiderm having many of the qualities 
 possessed by such epidermal structures as hair, feathers, nails, 
 claws, etc. 
 
 The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and to unite 
 it firmly to the foot. 
 
 There are five parts of the pododerm, easily distinguishable when 
 the hoof has been removed, namely : ( 1 ) The perioplic band, a narrow 
 ridge from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, running along 
 the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other. This 
 band produces the perioplic horn, the thin varnishlike layer of glis- 
 tening horn, which forms the surface of the wall, or " crust," and 
 whose purpose seems to be to retard evaporation of moisture from 
 the wall. (2) The coronary band, a prominent fleshy cornice encir- 
 cling the foot just below and parallel to the perioplic band. At the 
 heels it is reflected forward along the sides of the fleshy frog, to be- 
 come lost near the apex of this latter structure. The coronet pro- 
 duces the middle layer of the wall, and the reflected portions produce 
 the " bars," which are, therefore, to be regarded merely as a turning 
 forward of the wall. (3) The fleshy lea res, 500 to COO in number, 
 parallel to one another, running downward and forward from the 
 lower edge of the coronary band to the margin of the fleshy sole. 
 They produce the soft, light-colored horny leaves which form the 
 deepest layer of the wall, and serve as a strong bond of union between 
 the middle layer of the wall and the fleshy leaves with which they 
 dovetail. (4) The fleshy sole* which covers the entire under surface
 
 568 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of the foot, excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny sole is 
 produced by the fleshy sole. (5) The fleshy frog, which covers the 
 under surface of the plantar cushion and produces the horny frog. 
 
 The horny box, or hoof, consists of wall and bars, sole and frog. 
 The wall is all that part of the hoof which is visible when the foot is 
 on the ground (see fig. 8). As already stated, it consists of three 
 layers the periople, the middle layer, and the leafy layer. 
 
 The bars (see fig. Ic) are forward prolongations of the wall, and 
 are gradually lost near the point of the frog. The angle between the 
 wall and a bar is called the " buttress." Each bar lies against the 
 horny frog on one side and incloses a wing of the sole on the other, 
 so that the least expansion or contraction of the horny frog separates 
 or approximates the bars, and through them the lateral cartilages and 
 the walls of the quarters. The lower border of the wall is called the 
 " bearing edge," and is the surface against which the shoe bears. By 
 dividing the entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal 
 parts, a toe, two side walls, and two quarters will be exhibited. The 
 " heels," strictly speaking, are the two rounded soft prominences of 
 the plantar cushion, lying one above each quarter. The outer wall is 
 usually more slanting than the inner, and the more slanting half of a 
 hoof is always the thicker. In front hoofs the wall is thickest at the 
 toe and gradually thins out toward the quarters, where in some horses 
 it may not exceed one- fourth of an inch. In hind hoofs there is much 
 less difference in thickness between the toe, side walls, and quarters. 
 The horny sole, from which the flakes of old horn have been removed, 
 is concave and about as thick as the wall at the toe. It is rough, un- 
 even, and often covered by flakes of dead horn in process of being 
 loosened and cast off. Behind, the sole presents an opening into 
 which are received the bars and horny frog. This opening divides the 
 sole into a body and two wings. 
 
 The periphery of the sole unites with the lower border of the wall 
 and bars through the medium of the white line, which is the cross- 
 section of the leafy horn layer of the wall, and of short plugs of horn 
 which grow down from the lower ends of the fleshy leaves. This 
 white line is of much importance to the shoer, since its distance from 
 the outer border of the hoof is the thickness of the wall, and in the 
 white line all nails should be driven. 
 
 The frog, secreted by the pododerm covering the plantar cushion 
 or fatty frog, and presenting almost the same form as the latter, lies 
 as a soft and very elastic wedge between the bars and between the 
 edges of the sole just in front of the bars. A broad and shallow de- 
 pression in its center divides it into two branches, which diverge as 
 they pass backward into the horny bulbs of the heel. In front of the 
 middle cleft the two branches unite to form the body of the frog, 
 which ends in the point of the frog. The bar of a bar shoe should
 
 MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. 5(59 
 
 rest on the branches of the frog. In unshod hoofs the bearing edge 
 of the wall, the sole, frog, and bars are all on a level; that is, the 
 under surface of the hoof is perfectly flat, and each of these structures 
 assists in bearing the body weight. 
 
 Wittwespect to solidity, the different parts of the hoof vary widely. 
 The middle layer of the wall is harder and more tenacious than the 
 sole, for the latter crumbles away or passes off in larger or smaller 
 flakes on its under surface, while no such spontaneous shortening of 
 the wall occurs. The white line and the frog are soft horn struc- 
 tures, and differ from hard horn in that their horn cells do not under 
 natural conditions become hard and hornlike. They are very elastic, 
 absorb moisture rapidly, and as readily dry out and become hard, 
 brittle, and easily fissured. Horn of good quality is fine grained and 
 tough, while bad horn is coarse grained and either mellow and fri- 
 able or hard and brittle. All horn is a poor conductor of heat, and 
 the harder (drier) the horn, the more slowly does it transmit extremes 
 of temperature. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. 
 
 A hoof while supporting the body weight has a different form, and 
 the structures inclosed within the hoof have a different position than 
 when not bearing weight. Since the amount of weight borne by a 
 foot is continually changing, and the relations of internal pressure are 
 continuously varying, a foot is, from a physiological viewpoint, never 
 at rest. The most marked changes of form of the hoof occur when 
 the foot bears the greatest weight, namely, at the time of the greatest 
 descent of the fetlock. Briefly, these changes of form are: (1) An 
 expansion or widening of the whole back half of the foot 'from the 
 coronet to the lower edge of the quarters. This expansion varies 
 between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. (2) A narrowing of 
 the front half of the foot, measured at the coronet. (3) A sinking of 
 the heels and a flattening of the wings of the sole. These changes are 
 more marked in the half of the foot that bears the greater weight. 
 
 The changes of form occur in the following order : When the foot 
 is set to the ground the body weight is transmitted through the bones 
 and sensitive and horny leaves to the wall. The coffin bone and navic- 
 ular bone sink a little and rotate backward. At the same time the 
 short pastern sinks backward and downward between the lateral carti- 
 lages and presses the perforans tendon upon the plantar cushion. 
 This cushion being compressed from above and being unable to ex- 
 pand downward by reason of the resistance of the ground acting 
 against the horny frog, acts like any other elastic mass and expands 
 toward the sides, pushing before it the yielding lateral cartilages and 
 the wall of the quarters. This expansion of the heels is assisted and 
 increased by the simultaneous flattening and lateral expansion of the
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 resilient horny frog, which crowds the bars apart. Of course, when 
 the lateral cartilages are ossified not only is no expansion of the 
 quarters possible, but frog pressure often leads to painful compres- 
 sion of the plantar cushion and to increase of lameness. Frog pres- 
 sure is therefore contra-indicated in lameness due to sideboais (ossi- 
 fied cartilages). Under the descent of the coffin-bone the horny sole 
 sinks a little; that is, the arch of the sole around the point of the 
 frog, and the wings of the sole become somewhat flattened. All these 
 changes of form are most marked in sound unshod hoofs, because 
 in them ground pressure on the frog and sole is pronounced; they 
 are more marked in fore hoofs than in hind hoofs. 
 
 The movement of the different structures within the foot and the 
 changes of form that occur at every step are indispensable to the 
 health of the hoof, so that these elastic tissues must be kept active by 
 regular exercise, with protection against drying out of the hoof. 
 Long-continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing 
 decrease or alter the physiological movements of the hoof and some- 
 times lead to foot diseases. Since these movements are complete and 
 spontaneous only in unshod feet, shoeing must be regarded as an evil, 
 albeit a necessary one, and indispensable if we wish to keep horses 
 continuously serviceable on hard, artificial roads. However, if in 
 shoeing we bear in mind the structure and functions of the hoof and 
 apply a shoe whose branches have a wide and level bearing surface, 
 so as to interfere as little as may be with the expansion and contrac- 
 tion of the quarters, in so far as this is not hindered by the nails, we 
 need not be apprehensive of trouble, provided the horse has reason- 
 able work and his hoofs proper care. 
 
 GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 
 
 All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal 
 rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount 
 of blood supplied to the pododerm, or " quick." Abundant and reg- 
 ular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof, 
 going barefoot, plenty of good food, and at proper intervals removing 
 the overgrowth of hoof and regulating the bearing surface, by increas- 
 ing the volume and improving the quality of the blood flowing into 
 the pododerm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good quality ; while 
 lack of exercise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof 
 hinder growth. 
 
 The average rate of growth is about one-third of an inch a month. 
 Hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones faster than 
 shod ones. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet 
 to the ground, though influenced to a slight degree by the precited 
 conditions, varies in proportion to the distance of the coronet from the 
 ground. At the toe. depending on its height, the horn grows down
 
 GROWTH OF THE HOOP. 571 
 
 in eleven to thirteen months, at the side wall in six to eight months, 
 and at the heels in three to five months. We can thus estimate with 
 tolerable accuracy the time required for the disappearance of such 
 defects in the hoof as cracks, clefts, etc. 
 
 Irregular growth is not infrequent. The almost invariable cause 
 of this is an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof 
 that is, an unbalanced foot. Colts running in soft pasture or confined 
 for long periods in the stable are frequently allowed to grow hoofs of 
 excessive length. The long toe becomes " dished " that is, concave 
 from the coronet to the ground the long quarters curl forward and 
 inward and often completely cover the frog and lead to contraction of 
 the heels, or the whole hoof bends outward or inward, and a crooked 
 foot, or, even worse, a crooked leg, is the result if the long hoof be 
 allowed to exert its powerful and abnormally directed leverage for 
 but a few months upon young plastic bones and tender and lax articu- 
 lar ligaments. All colts are not foaled with straight legs, but failure 
 to regulate the length and bearing of the hoof may make a straight 
 leg crooked and a crooked leg worse, just as intelligent care during 
 the growing period can greatly improve a congenitally crooked limb. 
 If breeders were more generally cognizant of the power of overgrown 
 and unbalanced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from 
 their proper direction, and, therefore, to cause them to be moved 
 improperly, with loss of speed and often with injury to the limbs, we 
 might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, bow-legged, " splay-footed," 
 " pigeon-toed," cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses. 
 
 If in shortening the hoof one side wall is, from ignorance, left too 
 long or cut down too low with relation to the other, the foot will be 
 unbalanced, and in traveling the long section will touch the ground 
 first and will continue to do so till it has been reduced to its proper 
 level (length) by the increased wear which will take place at this 
 point. While this occurs rapidly in unshod hoofs, the shoe prevents 
 wear of the hoof, though it is itself more rapidly worn away beneath 
 the high (long) side than elsewhere, so that by the time the shoe is 
 worn out the tread of the shoe may be flat. If this mistake be re- 
 peated from month to month, the part of the wall left too high will 
 grow more rapidly than the low side whose pododerm is relatively 
 anemic as a result of the greater weight falling into this half of the 
 hoof, and the ultimate result will be a " wry," or crooked foot. 
 
 THE CARE OF UNSHOD HOOFS. 
 
 The colt should have abundant exercise on dry ground. The hoofs 
 will then wear gradually, and it will only be necessary from time to 
 time to regulate any uneven wear with the rasp and to round off the 
 sharp edge about the toe in order to prevent breaking away of the 
 wall.
 
 572 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Colts in the stable can not wear down their hoofs, so that every 
 four to six weeks they should be rasped down and the lower edge 
 of the wall well rounded to prevent chipping. The soles and clefts 
 of the frog should be picked out every few days and the entire hoof 
 washed clean. Plenty of clean straw litter should be provided. 
 Hoofs that are becoming " awry " should have the wall shortened 
 in such a manner as to straighten the foot-axis. This will ultimately 
 produce a good hoof and will improve the position of the limb. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY HOOF. 
 
 A healthy hoof (figs. 1 and 8) is equally warm at all parts, and is 
 not tender under pressure with the hands or moderate compression 
 
 with pincers. The coronet is 
 soft and elastic at all points 
 and does not project beyond 
 the surface of the wall. The 
 wall (fig. 8) is straight from 
 coronet to ground, so that a 
 
 c_ MHV7 straightedge laid against the 
 
 m wall from coronet to ground 
 parallel to the direction of 
 the horn tubes will touch at 
 every point. The wall should 
 be covered with the outer 
 varnishlike layer (periople) 
 and should show no cracks or 
 clefts. Every hoof shows 
 " ring - formation," but the 
 rings should not be strongly 
 marked and should always 
 run parallel to the coronary 
 band. Strongly marked ring- 
 formation over the entire wall 
 is an evidence of a weak hoof, 
 but when limited to a part 
 of the wall is evidence of previous local inflammation. The bulbs 
 of the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole 
 (fig. 1) should be well hollowed out, the white line solid, the frog 
 well developed, the middle cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the 
 spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars 
 straight from the buttresses toward the point of the frog, and the 
 buttresses themselves so far apart as not to press against the branches 
 of the frog. A hoof can not be considered healthy if it presents 
 reddish discolored horn, cracks in the wall, white line, bars, or frog, 
 thrush of the frog, contraction or displacement of the heels. The 
 lateral cartilages should yield readily to finger pressure. 
 
 a. 
 
 FIG. 1. Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the regu" 
 lar form: a, a, wall; a-a, the toe; a-b, the side walls! 
 b-d, the quarters; c, c, the bare; d, d, the buttresses^ 
 e, lateral cleft of the frog; /.body of the sole; g, ff 1 ,^' 
 leafy layer (white line) of the toe and bars; h, body 
 of the frog; i, ', branches of the frog; k, k, horny bulbs 
 of the heels; I, middle cleft of the frog.
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HOOF. 
 
 573 
 
 VARIOUS FORMS OF HOOFS. 
 
 As among a thousand human faces no two are alike, so among an 
 equal number of horses no two have hoofs exactly alike. A little 
 study of different forms soon shows us, however, that the form of 
 every hoof is dependent in great measure on the direction of the two 
 pastern bones as viewed from in front or behind, or from one side; 
 and that all hoofs fall into three classes when we view them from in 
 front and three classes when we observe them in profile. Inasmuch 
 as the form of every foot determines the peculiarities of the shoe that 
 is best adapted to it, no one who is ignorant of, or who disregards 
 the natural form of, a hoof can hope to understand physiological 
 shoeing. 
 
 FORMS OF FEET VIEWED FROM IN FRONT AND IN PROFILE. 
 
 Whether a horse's feet be observed from in front or from behind, 
 their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either that of the 
 regular position (fig. 2), the 
 base-wide or toe-wide position 
 (fig. 3), or the base-narrow po- 
 sition (fig. 4). 
 
 By the direction of the im- 
 aginary line passing through 
 the long axes of the two pas- 
 terns (figs. 2, 4, 5) we deter- o 
 mine whether or not the hoof 
 and pasterns stand in proper 
 
 mutual relation. FIG. 2. Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular 
 
 In the regular standing posi- 8tandiDg position ' 
 
 tion (fig. 2) the foot-axis runs straight downward and forward; in 
 the base-wide position (fig. 3) it runs obliquely downward and out- 
 
 ward, and in the base-narrow 
 position (fig. 4) it runs ob- 
 liquely downward and inward. 
 Viewing the foot in profile, 
 we distinguish the regular po- 
 sition (fig. 5ft) and designate 
 all forward deviations as acute- 
 angled (long toe and low heel, 
 fig. 5), and all deviations 
 backward from the regular 
 
 (steep toe and high heel. fig. 
 
 5r) as steep-toed, or stumpy. 
 When the body weight is evenly distributed over all four limbs, the 
 foot-axis should be straight; the long pastern, short pastern, and wall 
 at the toe should have the same slant. 
 
 FIG. 3,-Pairof fore feetof base-wide form in toe-wide 
 standing position.
 
 574 
 
 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 A front hoof of the regular standing position. The outer wall is a 
 little more slanting and somewhat thicker than the inner. The lower 
 border of the outer quarter describes the arc of a smaller circle that 
 is, is more sharply bent than the inner quarter. The weight falls 
 near the center of the foot and is evenly distributed over the whole 
 bottom of the hoof. The toe forms an angle with the ground of 
 45 to 50 and is parallel to the direction of the long pastern. The 
 
 toe points straight ahead, 
 and when the horse is mov- 
 ing forward in a straight 
 line the hoofs are picked 
 up and carried forward in 
 a line parallel to the mid- 
 dle line of the body, and 
 are set down flat. Coming 
 straight toward the ob- 
 server the hoofs seem to 
 
 FIG. 4. Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form In toe-narrow j>ise and fall DCrpendicU- 
 standing position. 
 
 larly. 
 
 A hoof of the base-wide position is always awry. The outer wall is 
 more slanting, longer, and thicker than the inner, the outer quarter 
 more curved than the inner, and the outer half of the sole wider than 
 the inner. The weight falls largely into the inner half of the hoof. 
 In motion the hoof is moved in a circle. From its position on the 
 ground it breaks over the inner toe, is carried forward and inward 
 
 Fro. 5. a, side view of an acute-angled fore foot (shod); b, side view of a regular fore foot, showing 
 the most desirable degree of obliquity (45); c, side view of a stumpy, or "upright," fore foot; 
 obliquity above 60. In a, b, c, note particularly the relation between the length of the shoe and 
 the overhanging of the heels. Note also the toe roll of the shoes. 
 
 close to the supporting leg, thence forward and outward to the 
 ground, which the hoof meets 'first with the outer toe. Horses that 
 are toe-wide (" splay-footed " toes turned outward) show all these 
 peculiarities of hoof-form and hoof-flight to a still more marked 
 degree and are therefore more prone to " interfere " when in motion. 
 A hoof of the base-narrow position is awry, but not to so marked a 
 degree as the base-wide hoof. The inner wall is usually a little more
 
 EXAMINATION OP HOOF BEFORE SHOEING. 575 
 
 slanting than the outer, the inner half of the sole wider than the 
 outer, and the inner quarter more curved than the outer. The outer 
 quarter is often flattened and drawn in at the bottom. The weight 
 falls largely into the outer half of the hoof. In motion the hoof 
 breaks over the outer toe, is carried forward and outward at some 
 distance from the supporting leg, thence forward and inward to the 
 ground, which it generally meets with the outer toe. The foot thus 
 moves in a circle whose convexity is outward, a manner of flight 
 called " paddling." A base-narrow horse whose toes point straight 
 ahead frequently " interferes," while a toe-narrow (pigeon-toed) 
 animal seldom does. 
 
 A regular hoof (fig. 56), viewed from one side, has a straight foot- 
 axis inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45 to 50. The weight 
 falls near the center of the foot and there is moderate expansion of 
 the quarters. 
 
 An acute-angled hoof (fig. 5#) has a straight foot-axis inclined at 
 an angle less than 45 to the horizon. The weight falls more largely 
 in the back half of the hoof and there is greater length of hoof in 
 contact with the ground and greater expansion of the heels than in 
 the regular hoof. 
 
 In the upright, or stumpy, hoof (fig. 5<?) the foot-axis is straight 
 and more than 55 steep. The hoof is relatively short from toe to 
 heel, the weight falls farther forward, and there is less expansion of 
 the heels than in the regular hoof. 
 
 Finally, there are wide hoofs and narrow hoofs, dependent solely 
 upon race and breeding. The wide hoof is almost circular on the 
 ground surface, the sole but little concave, the frog large, and the 
 quality of the horn coarse. The narrow hoof has a strongly 
 " cupped " sole, a small frog, nearly perpendicular side walls, and 
 fine-grained, tough horn. 
 
 Hind hoofs are influenced in shape by different directions of their 
 pasterns much as front feet are. A hind hoof is not round at the 
 toe as a front hoof is, but is more pointed. Its greatest width is 
 two-thirds of the way back from toe to heel, the sole is more concave, 
 the heels relatively wider, and the toe about 10 steeper than in front 
 hoofs. 
 
 EXAMINATION PRELIMINARY TO SHOEING. 
 
 The object of the examination is to ascertain the direction and posi- 
 tion of the limbs, the shape, character, and quality of the hoofs, the 
 form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, the number, distribu- 
 tion, and direction of the nails, the manner in which the hoof leaves 
 the ground, its line of flight, the manner in which it is set to the 
 ground, and all other peculiarities, that at the next and subsequent 
 shoeings proper allowances may be made and observed faults corrected. 
 The animal must, therefore, be observed both at rest and in motion.
 
 576 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 At rest, the observer should stand in front and note the slant of the 
 long pasterns. Do they drop perpendicularly, or slant downward 
 and outward (base- wide foot), or downward and inward (base-nar- 
 row foot) ? Whatever be the direction to the long pastern, an im- 
 aginary line passing through its long axis, when prolonged to the 
 ground, should apparently pass through the middle of the toe. But 
 if such line cuts through the inner toe the foot-axis is not straight, as 
 it should be, but is broken inward at the coronet, an indication that 
 either the outer wall of the hoof is too long (high) or that the inner 
 wall is too short (low) . On the contrary, if the center line of the long 
 pastern falls through the outer toe the foot-axis is broken outward at 
 the coronet, an indication that either the inner wall is too long or the 
 outer wall too short. 
 
 The observer should now place himself at one side, two or three 
 paces distant, in order to view the limb and hoof in profile. Note the 
 size of the hoof in relation to the height and weight of the animal, 
 
 Fia. 6. a, Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too long a 
 toe. The amount of horn to be removed from the toe in order to straighten the foot- 
 axis is denoted by a dotted line ; 6, side view of a properly balanced foot, with a 
 straight foot-axis of desirable slant ; c, side view of stumpy foot with foot-axis broken 
 forward, as a result of overgrowth of the quarters. The amount of horn to be removed 
 In order to straighten the foot-axis is shown by a dotted line. 
 
 and the obliquity of the hoof. Is the foot-axis straight that is, does 
 the long pastern have the same slant as the toe, or does the toe of the 
 hoof stand steeper than the long pastern (fig. $c) ? In which case 
 the foot-axis is broken forward at the coronet, an indication, usually, 
 that the quarters are either too high or that the toe is too short. 
 
 If the long pastern stands steeper than the toe (fig. 6) the foot- 
 axis is broken backward, in which case the toe is too long or the quar- 
 ters are too low (short). In figures Ca and Gc the dotted lines passing 
 from toe to quarters indicate the amount of horn which must be 
 removed in order to straighten the foot-axis, as shown in figure 66. 
 Note also the length of the shoe. 
 
 Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should note the 
 outline of the foot, the conformation of the sole, form and quality 
 of the frog, form of the shoe, wear of the shoe, and the number and
 
 EXAMINATION OF HOOF BEFORE SHOEING. 577 
 
 distribution of the nails. Does the shoe fully cover the entire lower 
 border of the wall ? or is it too narrow, or fitted so full on the inside 
 that it has given rise to interfering? or has the shoe been nailed on 
 crooked ? or has it become loose and shifted ? is it too short, or so wide 
 at the ends of the branches as not to support the buttresses of the 
 hoof? Does the shoe correspond with the form of the hoof? Are 
 the nails distributed so as to interfere as little as possible with the 
 expansion of the quarters? are there too many? are they too large? 
 driven too " fine " or too high ? These are questions which the 
 observer should put to himself. 
 
 Note carefully the wear of the old shoe. It is the unimpeachable 
 evidence of the manner in which the hoof has been set to the ground 
 since the shoe was nailed to it, and gives valuable " pointers " in lev- 
 eling the hoof. Wear is the effect of friction between the shoe and the 
 ground at the moment of contact. Since the properly leveled hoof 
 is set flat to the ground, the " grounding wear " of a shoe should be 
 uniform at every point, though the toe will always show wear due 
 to scouring at the moment of " breaking over." Everything which 
 tends to lengthen the stride tends also to make the " grounding wear " 
 more pronounced in the heels of the shoe, while all causes which 
 shorten the stride as stiffening of the limbs through age, overwork, 
 or disease bring the grounding wear nearer the toe. 
 
 An exception should be noted, however, in founder, in which the 
 grounding wear is most pronounced at the heels. 
 
 If one branch of the shoe is found to be worn much thinner than 
 the other, the thinner branch has either been set too near the middle 
 line of the foot (fitted too close) , where it has been bearing greater 
 weight while rubbing against the ground, or, what is much more 
 often the case, the section of wall above the thinner branch has been 
 too long (too high), or the opposite section of wall has been too short 
 (too low). " One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an 
 unnatural course of the wall are often found together." How much 
 an old shoe can tell us, if we take time and pains to decipher its scars ! 
 
 The horse should next be observed at a walk and at a trot or pace, 
 from in front, from behind, and from the side, and the " breaking 
 over," the carriage of the feet, and the manner of setting them to the 
 ground carefully noted and remembered. A horse does not always 
 move just as his standing position would seem to imply. Often there 
 is so great a difference in the form and slant of two fore hoofs or two 
 hind hoofs that we are in doubt as to their normal shape, when a few 
 steps at a trot will usually solve the problem instantly by showing us 
 the line of flight of the hoofs and referring them to the regular, base- 
 wide, or base-narrow form. 
 
 No man is competent either to shoe a horse or to direct the work 
 till he has made the precited observations. 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 37
 
 578 DISEASES OF THE HORSE* 
 
 PREPARATION OP THE HOOF FOR THE SHOE. 
 
 After raising the clinches of the nails with a rather dull clinch- 
 cutter (" buffer ") and drawing the nails one at a time, the old shoe is 
 critically examined and laid aside. Remaining stubs of nails are then 
 drawn or punched out and the hoof freed of dirt and partially de- 
 tached horn. The farrier has now to " dress " the overgrown hoof to 
 receive the new shoe ; in other words, he has to form a base of support 
 so inclined to the direction of the pasterns that in motion this surface 
 shall be set flat upon the ground. He must not rob the hoof nor 
 leave too much horn; either mistake may lead to injury. If he has 
 made a careful preliminary examination he knows what part of the 
 wall requires removal and what part must be left, for he already 
 knows the direction of the foot-axis and the wear of the old shoe, and 
 has made up his mind just where and how much horn must be re- 
 moved to leave the hoof of proper length and the foot-axis straight. 
 
 A greatly overgrown hoof may be quickly shortened with sharp 
 nippers, and the sole freed of semidetached flakes of horn. The con- 
 cave sole of a thick-walled, strong hoof may be pared out around the 
 point of the frog, but not so much as to remove all evidences of ex- 
 foliation. The wall should be leveled with the rasp till its full 
 thickness, the white line, and an eighth of an inch of the margin of 
 the sole are in one horizontal plane, called the " bearing surface of 
 the hoof." The bars if long may be shortened, but never pared on the 
 side. The branches of the sole in the angle between the bars and the 
 wall of the quarters should be left a little lower than the wall, so as 
 not to be pressed upon by the inner web of the shoe. " Corns," or 
 bruises of the pododerm, are usually a result of leaving a thick mass 
 of dry, unyielding horn at this point. The frog should not be 
 touched further than to remove tags or layers that are so loose as to 
 form no protection. A soft frog will shorten itself spontaneously 
 by the exfoliation of superficial layers of horn, while if the frog is 
 dry, hard, and too prominent it is better to soften it by applying 
 moisture in some form, and to allow it to wear away naturally than 
 to pare it down. It is of advantage to have the frog project below 
 the level of the wall an amount equal to the thickness of a plain 
 shoe, though we rarely see frogs of such size except in draft horses. 
 The sharp lower border of the wall should be rounded with the rasp 
 to prevent its being bent outward and broken away. Finally, the 
 foot is set to the ground and again observed from all sides to make 
 sure that the lines bounding the hoof correspond with the direction 
 of the long pastern. 
 
 THE SHOE. 
 
 The shoe is an artificial base of support, by no means ideal, because 
 it interferes to a greater or less degree with the physiology of the
 
 THE SHOE. 579 
 
 foot, but indispensable except for horses at slow work on soft ground. 
 Since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in 
 preserving the health of the feet and legs, it is necessary to consider 
 the various forms of shoes best adapted to the different forms of 
 hoofs. Certain properties are common to all shoes and may be con- 
 sidered first. They are form, width, thickness, length, surfaces, bor- 
 ders, " fullering," nail holes, and clips. 
 
 Form. Every shoe should have the form of the hoof for which it 
 is intended, provided the hoof retains its proper shape ; but for every 
 hoof that has undergone change of form we must endeavor to give the 
 shoe that form which the hoof originally possessed. Front shoes and 
 hind shoes, rights and lefts, should be distinctly different and easily 
 distinguishable. 
 
 Width. All shoes should be wider at the toe than at the ends of 
 the branches. The average width should be about double the thick- 
 ness of the wall at the toe. 
 
 Thickness. The thickness should be sufficient to make the shoe last 
 about four weeks and should be uniform except in special cases. 
 
 Length. This will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof viewed in 
 profile. The acute-angled hoof (fig. 5) has long overhanging heels, 
 and a considerable proportion of the weight borne by the leg falls in 
 the posterior half of the hoof. For such a hoof the branches of the 
 shoe should extend back of the buttresses to a distance nearly double 
 the thickness of the shoe. For a hoof of the regular form (figs. 5Z> 
 and 8) the branches should project an amount equal to the thickness 
 of the shoe. In a stumpy hoof (fig. 5c) the shoe need not project 
 more than one-eighth of an inch. In all cases the shoe should cover 
 the entire " bearing surface " of the wall. 
 
 Surfaces. The surface that is turned toward the hoof is known as 
 the " upper," or " hoof surface," of the shoe. That part of the hoof 
 surface which is in actual contact with the horn is called the " bearing 
 surface " of the shoe. The " bearing surface " should be perfectly 
 horizontal from side to side, and wide enough to support the full 
 thickness of the wall, the white line, and about an eighth of an inch of 
 the margin of the sole. The bearing surface should also be perfectly 
 flat, except that it may be turned up at the toe (" rolling-motion " 
 shoe, fig. 5 a, 6, c) . The surface between the bearing surface and the 
 inner edge of the shoe is often beaten down or concaved to prevent 
 pressure too far inward upon the sole. This " concaving," or " seat- 
 Ing," should be deeper or shallower as the horny sole is less or more 
 concave. As a rule, strongly " cupped " soles, require no concaving 
 (hind hoofs, narrow fore hoofs) . 
 
 Borders. The entire outer border should be beveled under the 
 foot. Such a shoe is not so readily loosened, nor is it so apt to lead to 
 interfering.
 
 580 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Fullering. This is a groove in the ground surface of the shoe. It 
 should pass through two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe, be clean, 
 and of uniform width. It is of advantage in that it makes the shoe 
 lighter in proportion to its width, and, by making the ground surface 
 somewhat rough, tends to prevent slipping. 
 
 Nail holes. The shoe must be so " punched " that the nail holes will 
 fall directly on the white line. They should be confined to the fore 
 half of front shoes, but may occupy the anterior two-thirds of hind 
 shoes. For a medium-weight shoe three nail holes in each branch are 
 sufficient, but for heavier shoes, especially those provided with long 
 calks, eight holes are about right, though three on the inside and four 
 on the outside may do. 
 
 Clips. These are half -circu- 
 lar ears drawn up from the 
 outer edge of the shoe either at 
 the toe or opposite the side wall. 
 The height of a clip should 
 equal the thickness of the shoe, 
 though they should be even 
 higher on hind shoes and when a 
 leather sole is interposed be- 
 tween shoe and hoof. Clips se- 
 cure the shoe against shifting. 
 A side clip should always be 
 drawn up on that branch of the 
 shoe that first meets the ground 
 in locomotion. 
 
 SPECIAL PECULIARITIES OF THE 
 CHIEF CLASSES OF SHOES. 
 
 (1) A shoe for a regular hoof 
 (figs. 7 and 8) fits when its 
 
 Fio. 7. Left fore hoof of regular form, shod with 
 a plain "fullered" shoe. Note the distribution 
 of the nails, length of the fuller (crease), and 
 the closeness of the enda of the shoe to the outer border follows the Wall 
 
 branches of the frog. closely in the region of the nail 
 
 holes and from the last nail to the end of the branch gradually pro- 
 jects beyond the surface of the wall to an eighth of an inch and 
 extends back of the buttresses an amount equal to the thickness of 
 the shoe. The shoe must be straight, firm, air-tight, its nail holes 
 directly over the white line, and its branches far enough from the 
 branches of the frog to permit the passage of a foot pick. Branches 
 of the shoe must be of equal length. 
 
 In fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we follow the form of 
 the hoof, but in base-wide and base-narrow hoofs, which are of 
 irregular form, we must pay attention not only to the form of the 
 hoof, but also to the direction of the pasterns and the consequent
 
 THE SHOE. 581 
 
 distribution of weight in the hoof, because where the most weight 
 falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened, and where 
 the least weight falls (opposite side of the hoof) the surface of sup- 
 port should be narrowed. In this way the improper distribution of 
 weight within the hoof is evenly distributed over the surface of 
 support. 
 
 (2) A shoe for a base-wide hoof should be fitted full on the inner 
 side of the foot and fitted close on the outer side, because the inner 
 side bears the most weight. The nails in the outer branch are 
 placed well back, but in the inner branch are crowded forward 
 toward the toe. 
 
 (3) A shoe for a base-narrow hoof should be just the reverse of the 
 preceding. The outer branch should be somewhat longer than the 
 inner. 
 
 (4) A shoe for an acute-angled hoof should be long in the branches, 
 because most of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot. 
 The support in front should be diminished either by turning the shoe 
 up at the toe or by beveling it under the toe (fig. 5a). 
 
 FIG. 8. Side view of hoof and shoe shown in fig. 7. Note the straight toe, weak ring 
 formation running parallel to the coronet, clinches, low down and on a level, length of 
 the shoe, and the under-bevel at the toe and heel. 
 
 (5) A shoe for a stumpy hoof should be short in the branches, and 
 for pronounced cases should increase the support of the toe, where 
 the most of the weight falls, by being beveled downward and forward. 
 
 In many cases, especially in draft horses where the hoofs stand 
 very close together, the coronet of the outer quarter is found to stand 
 out beyond the lower border of the quarter. In such cases the outer 
 branch of the shoe from the last nail back must be fitted so full that 
 an imaginary perpendicular dropped from the coronet will just meet 
 the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the other hand, 
 must be fitted as " close " as possible. The principal thought should 
 be to set the new shoe farther toward the more strongly worn side. 
 Such a practice will render unnecessary the widespread and popular 
 fad of giving the outer quarter and heel calk of hind shoes an extreme
 
 582 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 outward bend. Care should be taken, however, that in fitting the 
 shoe " full " at the quarter the bearing surface of the hoof at the 
 quarter be not left unsupported or incompletely covered, to be 
 pinched and squeezed inward against the frog. This will be obviated 
 by making the outer branch of the shoe sufficiently wide and punch- 
 ing it so coarse that the nails will fall upon the white line. 
 
 HOT FITTING. 
 
 Few farriers have either the time or the skill necessary to so adjust 
 a cold shoe to the hoof that it will fit, as we say, " air-tight." Though 
 the opponents of hot fitting draw a lurid picture of the direful con- 
 sequences of applying a hot shoe to the hoof, it is only the abuse of 
 the practice that is to be condemned. If a heavy shoe at a .yellow 
 heat be held tightly pressed against a hoof which has been pared too 
 thin, till it embeds itself, serious damage may be done. But' a shoe at 
 a dark heat may be pressed against a properly dressed hoof long 
 enough to scorch, and thus indicate to the farrier the portions of horn 
 that should be lowered, without appreciable injury to the hoof, and 
 to the ultimate benefit of the animal. 
 
 The horse owner should insist on the nails being driven low. They 
 should pierce the wall not above an inch and five-eighths above the 
 shoe. A nail penetrating the white line and emerging low on the 
 wall destroys the least possible amount of horn, has a wide and 
 strong clinch, rather than a narrow one, which would be formed near 
 the point of the nail, and, furthermore, has the strongest possible 
 hold on the wall, because its clinch is pulling more nearly at a right 
 angle to the grain (horn tubes) of the wall than if driven high. 
 Finally, do not allow the rasp to touch the wall above the clinches. 
 
 THE BAR SHOE. 
 
 The bar shoe (fig. 9) has a variety of uses. It enables us to give 
 the frog pressure, to restore it to its original state of activity and 
 development when by reason of disuse it has become atrophied. It 
 gives the hoof an increased surface of support and enables us to re- 
 lieve one or both quarters of undue pressure that may have induced 
 inflammation and soreness. The bar of the shoe should equal the 
 average width of the remainder of the shoe and should press but 
 lightly on the branches of the frog. The addition of a leather sole 
 with tar and oakum sole-packing allows us to distribute the weight 
 of the body over the entire ground surface of the hoof. 
 
 THE RUBBER PAD. 
 
 Various forms of rubber pads, rubber shoes, rope shoes, fiber shoes, 
 and other contrivances to diminish shock and prevent slipping on the 
 hard and slippery pavements of our large cities are in use in differ-
 
 RUBBER PADS FOR SHOES. 583 
 
 ent parts of the world. In Germany the rope shoe (a malleable-iron 
 shoe with a groove in its ground surface in which lies a piece of tarred 
 ' ' jim'ya . oi 
 
 FIG. 9. An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe. Note the width and posi- 
 tion of the bar and the fact that the nails are placed well toward the toe, so as not to 
 interfere with the expansion of the quarters. 
 
 rope) is extensively used with most gratifying results. It is cheap, 
 durable, easily applied, and effective. 
 
 FIG. 10. A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster. The toe and outer heel calks cut at right 
 angles, and the inner-heel calk is slender and blunt. The back surface of the toe calk should be 
 perpendicular. 
 
 In the large cities of England and the United States rubber pads 
 are extensively used. They are rather expensive, but are quite effi- 
 cient in preventing slipping on polished and gummy pavements,
 
 584 
 
 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 
 
 though not so effective on ice. 
 the best of many rubber pads. 
 
 Figure 11 is an illustration of one of 
 The rubber is stitched and cemented 
 to a leather sole and is secured by 
 the nails of a three-quarter shoe. 
 Such a pad will usually last as 
 long as two shoes. They may be 
 used continuously, not only with- 
 out injury to the hoof, but to its 
 
 FIG. 11. Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a 
 rubber pad and " three-quarter " shoe. (Ground 
 surface.) 
 
 great benefit. The belief, unsup- 
 ported by evidence, that rubber 
 pads " draw the feet " keeps many 
 from using them. A human foot 
 encased in a rubber boot may even- 
 tually be blistered by the sweat 
 poured upon the surface of the 
 skin and held there by the imper- 
 vious rubber till decomposition 
 takes place with the formation of 
 irritating fatty acids ; but there is 
 no basis for an analogy in the hoof 
 of a horse. 
 
 Some drawings, designed to illustrate shoeing in connection with 
 " interfering " and " forging," are given herewith. 
 
 FIG. 12. A narrow right fore hoof of the base- 
 wide (toe-wide) standing position, shod with a 
 plain "dropped-crease " shoe to prevent the toe- 
 cutting (interfering). The dotted line at the 
 inner toe indicates the edge of the wall which 
 was rasped away in order to narrow the hoof 
 along the striking section. Note the inward 
 bevel of the shoe at this point, the dropped 
 crease, the distribution of the nails, the long 
 "full" inner branch, and the short "close" 
 outer branch.
 
 SPECIAL, SHOES. 
 
 585 
 
 FIG. 13. Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering. The inner hranch has 
 no nail holes and is fitted and beveled under the hoof. Note the number and position 
 of the nail holes, the clip on the outer side wall, and the narrowness and bend of the 
 inner branch. 
 
 Fio. 14. Ground surface of shoe shown in the previous figure. The inner nailless branch 
 has the thickness of the outer branch plus its calk, so that the inner and outer quarters 
 of the hoof are equidistant from the ground.
 
 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 FIQ. 15. Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the " breaking over " (quicken 
 the action) In a " forger." Note the short shoe, heel calks Inclined forward, and the 
 rolled toe. 
 
 Fro. 16. Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger, shod to Blow the action and to 
 prevent Injury to the fore heels by the toe of the hind shoe. Note the elevation of the 
 short toe by means of a toe calk and the projection of the toe beyond the shoe. When 
 such a hoof has grown more toe, the toe calk can be dispensed with and the shoe set 
 farther forward.
 
 SPECIAL SHOES. 
 
 587 
 
 Fro. 17. A toe- weight shoe to Increase the length of stride of fore feet. The nails are 
 placed too far back, and the shoe has no characteristic form, but the weight Is properly 
 placed. 
 
 FIG. 18. Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to Induce high action In fore 
 feet. The profile of the shoe shows a " roll " at the toe and " swelled " heels. The 
 weight Is well placed, but "rolling" the toe and raising the heel's lower action. The 
 shoe would be much more effective if of uniform thickness and with no roll at the toe.
 
 Abdomen Pa &e. 
 
 dropsy, in foal, or ascites, description and treatment 172 
 
 dropsy, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment 71 
 
 limbs, and perineum, dropsy affecting, description and treatment 159 
 
 sheath, and penis, swelling, cause and treatment 149 
 
 Abnormal presentations at birth 176-181 
 
 Abortion, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 161 
 
 Abscess 
 
 and inflammation of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treat- 
 ment 249 
 
 in lung and suppuration, symptoms 135 
 
 Abscesses 
 
 acute, description and treatment 475 
 
 cold, description and treatment _ 4 476 
 
 description 474 
 
 in throat, treatment : 46 
 
 Acariasis, or mange, note 450 
 
 Acari, parasites of eye 273 
 
 Achorion schonleini, vegetable parasite of skin, description. 450 
 
 Adams, John W., chapter on "Shoeing" 665-587 
 
 Air embolism, or air in veins, note 247 
 
 Albuminoid poisoning, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, or azotemia, symptoms, pre- 
 vention, and treatment ." 82 
 
 Amaurosis, or palsy of nerve of sight, causes, symptoms, and treatment 210, 272 
 
 Amnion, dropsy, description and treatment 159 
 
 Anasarca, or purpura hemorrhagica, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 508, 510 
 
 Anatomy and physiology of brain and nervous system 190 
 
 Anemia 
 
 spinal, symptoms and treatment '. 214 
 
 of brain, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 203 
 
 Aneurism 
 
 description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 242 
 
 one form caused by Strongylus vulgaris ". 243 
 
 Anidian monsters, or moles, description 158 
 
 Animal parasites, description of kinds 450 
 
 Ankle 
 
 and fetlock, skin, note 371 
 
 fetlock, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369, 430 
 
 Ankles, cocked, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment 374 
 
 Anthrax, definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment 529-532 
 
 Apoplexy, or cerebral hemorrhage, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treat- 
 ment 200 
 
 Arteries 
 
 description 227 
 
 diseases, or arteritis, and endarteritis, description, symptoms, pathology, 
 
 and treatment 240 
 
 589
 
 590 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 Arteritis, or diseases of arteries, or endarteritis, description, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 240 
 
 Artery 
 
 constriction, description 244 
 
 rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 242 
 
 Arthritis, open joints, broken knees, and synovitis, cause and treatment 332 
 
 Ascaris equorum, intestinal worm, note 60 
 
 Ascites, or dropsy of abdomen, description, symptoms, and treatment 71, 172 
 
 Asthma, heaves, or broken wind, definition, symptoms, and treatment 137 
 
 Atheroma of veins and arteries, description 242 
 
 Autumn mange, description and treatment 452 
 
 Azotemia, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, 
 
 prevention, and treatment 82 
 
 Azoturia, hemoglobinuria, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, 
 
 prevention, and treatment , 82 
 
 Balls, or pills, description and manner of administering 28 
 
 Bar shoe, uses . 575 
 
 Bees, wasps, and hornets, stings, treatment 454 
 
 Beets as feed 41 
 
 Bighead (osteoporosis) 
 
 chapter by John R. Mohler ." 559-564 
 
 symptoms, lesions, and treatment 563 
 
 Biliary calculi, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment 74 
 
 Bilocular cavity, or calculus in sheath, or preputial calculus, description and 
 
 treatment 103 
 
 Birth, abnormal presentations at 176-181 
 
 Black pigment tumors, or melanosis, description and treatment 449 
 
 Bladder- 
 calculus, or stone, #nd tumor affecting 169 
 
 diseased growths, symptoms and treatment 92 
 
 eversion, description and treatment. 93 
 
 inflammation, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment 90 
 
 irritable, cause and treatment 91 
 
 neck, spasms affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment 87, 205 
 
 paralysis, description and cause 210 
 
 paralysis, symptoms and treatment 89 
 
 Btone, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 100 
 
 worms of kidney 87 
 
 Bleeding 
 
 after castration, treatment 149 
 
 from lungs, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment 136 
 
 from nose, causes and treatment 112 
 
 or flooding from womb, treatment 184 
 
 skin eruptions, or Dermatorrhagia parasilica, description and treatment. . . 441 
 
 Blisters, inflammation, or eczema, description and treatment 437 
 
 Bloat colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 
 
 Blood- 
 circulation of heart, description 226 
 
 clote in walls of vagina 187 
 
 medicines administered into veins 33 
 
 of penis, extravasation, causes and treatment 145 
 
 spavin, bog spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment 331
 
 INDEX. 591 
 
 Blood vessels Page. 
 
 and heart, diseases, remarks 228 
 
 . heart, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower 225-250 
 
 physiology and anatomy 225 
 
 Bloody urine, or hematuria, cause and treatment 82 
 
 Blowing, high, description 119 
 
 Bluebottle (Lucilia csesar), note 453 
 
 Bog spavin, blood spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment. 331 
 
 Boil of eyelid, description and treatment 259 
 
 Boils 
 
 or Dermatitis granulosa 442 
 
 or furuncles, description and treatment 439 
 
 Bone 
 
 hip, fracture, or os innominatum, description, symptoms, prognosis, and 
 
 treatment 317 
 
 premaxillary, fractures, description and treatment 312 
 
 spavin. (See Spavin.) 
 Bones 
 
 cannon, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 325 
 
 cranial, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment 310 
 
 diseases, description 284 
 
 dislocations and luxations, cause, symptoms, and treatment 336 
 
 of face, fractures, description, and treatment 311 
 
 of fetlock and foot, description 369 
 
 of hip, fractures, causes 167 
 
 one system of locomotion 275, 277 
 
 sesamoid, fractures, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 328 
 
 Botfly, treatment 61 
 
 Bowels, twisting, volvulus, or gut-tie, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56 
 
 Brain 
 
 and membranes, inflammation, description 192, 193 
 
 and nervous system, anatomy and physiology 190 
 
 anemia, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 203 
 
 compression, causes, symptoms, and treatment 201 
 
 concussion, causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention 202 
 
 congestion, or megrims, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, and 
 
 prevention 197 
 
 description 191 
 
 dropsy, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203 
 
 Bran, value as feed 40 
 
 Broken knee, open joints, synovitis, and arthritis, cause, prognosis, and treat- 
 ment 332 
 
 Broken wind, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment 137 
 
 Bronchitis 
 
 and broncho-pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment 129 
 
 chronic, description and treatment 119 
 
 Broncho-pleuro-pneumonia, description 135 
 
 Broncho-pneumonia and bronchitis, description, symptoms, and treatment 129 
 
 Bruise of frog, causes, symptoms, and treatment 399 
 
 Bruises, description and treatment 464 
 
 Burns and scalds, treatment 455, 471 
 
 Calculi- 
 biliary, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment 74 
 
 or stones, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment 55
 
 592 INDEX. 
 
 Calculi Continued. Page. 
 
 or stones, in stomach, symptoms and treatment 64 
 
 renal, description, symptoms, and treatment 98 
 
 uretral, description and treatment 99 
 
 urinary, classification 98 
 
 urinary, stone, or gravel 94, 97 
 
 Calculus 
 
 in sheath, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description and treat- 
 ment 103 
 
 or stone, and tumor in bladder 169 
 
 urethral, or stone in urethra, description, symptoms, and treatment 102 
 
 vesical, stone in bladder, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms and 
 
 treatment 100 
 
 Calk wounds, description and treatment 379 
 
 Callosities 
 
 description 448 
 
 sloughing, horny sloughs, or sitfasts, description and treatment 448, 470 
 
 Cancer, epithelial, or epitbelioma, description and treatment 449 
 
 Canker 
 
 of foot, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392 
 
 or grease (inflammation of heels with sebaceous secretion), description, 
 
 causes, symptoms, and treatment 444 
 
 Cannon bone 
 
 description 369 
 
 fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 325 
 
 Capped elbow, cause, symptoms, and treatment 354 
 
 Capped hock, cause, symptoms, and treatment 359 
 
 Capped knee, description, cause, treatment, etc 357 
 
 Cardiac enlargement, or hypertrophy of heart, description, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 237 
 
 Caries of cartilage, or tumor of haw, description and treatment 261 
 
 Carrots, value as feed '. 41 
 
 Cartilaginous quittor, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 389 
 
 Cartilage nictitans, or winking cartilage (the haw), description 253 
 
 Castration 
 
 bleeding after operation, treatment 149 
 
 by covered operation, method 151 
 
 of cryptorchids, or ridglings, method 148 
 
 of mare, method 151 
 
 of stallions, methods 147 
 
 pain after operation, treatment 149 
 
 successful method 148 
 
 Cataract, remarks 272 
 
 Catarrh- 
 chronic, nasal gleet, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and treat- 
 ment 108 
 
 gastro-intestinal, or indigestion, cause, symptoms, and treatment 61 
 
 nasal, or cold in head, symptoms and treatment 107 
 
 Cerebral hemorrhage, or apoplexy, causes, symptoms, and treatment 200 
 
 Cerebritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 193 
 
 Cerebro-spinal meningitis, eo-called, or forage poisoning, causes, symptoms, 
 
 and treatment 217 
 
 Cervical choke, description 47, 48 
 
 Chaff for feeding 39
 
 INDEX. 593 
 
 Page. 
 Chaps on knee and hock, scratches, or cracked heels, description, causes, and 
 
 treatment 443 
 
 Chest walls, wounds penetrating, description and treatment 140 
 
 Cheyletus, or Gamarus pteroptoides, animal parasites 452 
 
 Chicken acari, or Dermanyssw gallinae, animal parasite of skin 452 
 
 Chigoe, or jigger- 
 larvae of Trombidium, Leptus americanus, animal parasite of skin 452 
 
 (Pulex penetrans), bite, treatment 454 
 
 Choke- 
 cervical, description 47, 48 
 
 pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic, symptoms and treatment 47 
 
 Chorea, or St. Vitus dance, description and treatment 207 
 
 Chorioptes 
 
 bovis (Symbiotes equi, Dermatophagus equi), animal parasite of skin 452 
 
 spathiferus, animal parasite of skin 452 
 
 Choroiditis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 265 
 
 Chronic bronchitis, description and treatment 119 
 
 Circinate ringworm, or Tinea tonsurans, description, symptoms, treatment 449 
 
 Circulation organs, methods of examination 15 
 
 Clubfoot, description 372 
 
 Clysters, or enemas, description and manner of administering 32 
 
 Cocked ankles, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment 374 
 
 Coffinbone, description 370 
 
 Coffin joint, description 370 
 
 Cold in head, or nasal catarrh, symptoms and treatment 107 
 
 Colic- 
 bloat, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 
 
 cramp, or spasmodic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58 
 
 flatulent, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 
 
 obstruction, caused by impaction of large intestine, symptoms and treat- 
 ment 52 
 
 specific forms 50 
 
 wind, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 
 
 worm, description, symptoms, and treatment 59 
 
 tympanitic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 
 
 Compression of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 201 
 
 Concussion 
 
 of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 202 
 
 spinal, causes and treatment 215 
 
 Conformation 
 
 of foot, faults 372 
 
 of horse 12 
 
 Congenital scrotal hernia, description and treatment 67 
 
 Congestion 
 
 active, causes 485 
 
 and inflammation of skin, description of kinds 434 
 
 and inflammation of testicles, or orchitis, causes, symptoms, and treat- 
 ment 142 
 
 description 484 
 
 of brain, or megrims, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 197 
 
 of heart, description and symptoms 240 
 
 of lungs, description and treatment 120 
 
 of skin, red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434 
 
 of skin, with small pimples, or papules, description and treatment 436 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 38
 
 594 INDEX. 
 
 Congestion Continued. Page. 
 
 of spine, cause, symptoms, and treatment 213 
 
 passive, causes 486 
 
 Conjunctivitis, or external ophthalmia, description, causes, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 262 
 
 Constipation, or costiveness, cause and treatment 54, 160 
 
 Constitution of horse 12 
 
 Consumption, or tuberculosis, note 136 
 
 Convulsions, description and treatment 206 
 
 Cord- 
 spermatic, strangulated, cause and treatment 149 
 
 spermatic, tumors, causes and treatment 150 
 
 spinal, description 192 
 
 Cornea 
 
 ulcers, treatment 265 
 
 white specks and cloudiness, cause and treatment 266 
 
 Corn, or maize, how to feed 40 
 
 Corns, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 394 
 
 Coronary band, description 371 
 
 Coronet 
 
 description 370 
 
 fractures, symptoms and treatment 327 
 
 Costiveness, or constipation, cause and treatment 54, 160 
 
 Cough, chronic, description 139 
 
 Cracked heels, or scratches, causes, and treatment 443 
 
 Cramp 
 
 of hind limb, or spasm of thigh, description and treatment 205 
 
 or spasmodic, colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58 
 
 Cramps 
 
 of hind limbs, cause and treatment 160 
 
 or spasms, causes and treatment 205 
 
 Cranial bones, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment 310 
 
 Cranium, tumor within, description of kinds 204 
 
 Crookedfoot, description 373 
 
 Croup and diphtheria, mistakes in diagnosis 117 
 
 Cryptorchids, or ridglings, castration, method 148 
 
 Curb of hock, cause, symptoms, and treatment 349 
 
 Cutaneous quittor, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 381 
 
 Cuticle, description 432 
 
 Cyanosis of newborn foals, description .' 240 
 
 Cystic calculus, or stone in bladder, description, symptoms and treatment 100 
 
 Cystic disease of wall of womb, or vesicular mole, description and treatment. . 158 
 Cysticercut fotularis 
 
 parasite of bladder 87 
 
 ? parasite of eye 273 
 
 Cystitis, inflammation of bladder, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment PO 
 
 Dermanyssus gattiwe, or chicken acari, animal parasite of skin 452 
 
 Dermatitis gramtlosa, or boils '. 442 
 
 Dermatocoptes equi, animal parasite of skin 452 
 
 Dermatodede equi, animal parasite of skin 452 
 
 Dermalophagus equi, animal parasite of skin , 452 
 
 Dermatorrhagia parasitica, or bleeding skin eruptions, description and treatment. 441 
 
 Dermis, or true skin, description 432
 
 INDEX. 595 
 
 Diabetes Page, 
 insipidus, diuresis, polyuria, or excessive secretion of urine, causes, symp- 
 toms, and treatment 79 
 
 mellitus, saccharine diabetes, glycosuria, or inosuria, causes, symptoms, 
 
 and treatment 80 
 
 Diaphragmatic hernia, description 70 
 
 Diaphragm 
 
 rupture, cause and symptoms 141 
 
 spasm, or thumps, description and treatment 141, 205 
 
 Diarrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment 62 
 
 Digestive organs, diseases, chapter by Ch. B. Michener 34-74 
 
 Digestive tract, examination 21 
 
 Dilatation 
 
 of heart, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239 
 
 of veins, varicose veins, or varix, causes and treatment 247 
 
 Dioctophyme renale, roundworm of kidney 87 
 
 Diphtheria and croup, mistakes in diagnosis 117 
 
 Diseases, general, chapter by Rush Shippen Huidekoper 482-545 
 
 Dislocations and luxations of bones, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 336 
 
 Distemper. (See Strangles. ) 
 
 Diuresis, polyuria, diabetes insipidus, or excessive secretion of urine, causes, 
 
 symptoms, and treatment 79 
 
 Douche, nasal, in administering medicines 31 
 
 Dourine, or maladie du coi't, description and treatment 146 
 
 Drench, methods. - 29 
 
 Dropsies, synovial, remarks '. 330 
 
 Dropsy 
 
 general, of fetus, description and treatment 173 
 
 of abdomen in foal, or ascites, description and treatment. 172 
 
 of abdomen, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment 71 
 
 of amnion, description and treatment 159 
 
 of brain, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203 
 
 of limbs, perineum, and abdomen, description and treatment 159 
 
 of scrotum, or hydrocele, symptoms and treatment 144 
 
 of womb, cause, symptoms, and treatment 158 
 
 Dysentery, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 64 
 
 Echinococcus 
 
 parasite of eye 273 
 
 parasite of kidney 87 
 
 Ectropion and entropion, or eversion and inversion of eyelid, causes and 
 
 treatment 259 
 
 Eczema, or inflammation with blisters, description and treatment 437 
 
 Edematous pneumonia, definition, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 520-524 
 
 Elbow- 
 capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment 354 
 
 muscles, sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343 
 
 Electric shock, causes, description, and treatment 224 
 
 Electuries, or pastes, description and manner of administering 29 
 
 Embolism 
 
 air, or air in veins, note 247 
 
 and thrombus, description, symptoms, and treatment 244 
 
 Embryotomy of parts at abnormal births 182 
 
 Emphysema, or swelling of fetus with gas, description and treatment 173 
 
 Encephalitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 193 
 
 Endarteritis, and arteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment 240
 
 596 INDEX. 
 
 Endocarditis, or inflammation of lining membrane of heart, cause, symptoms, 
 
 and treatment ......................... . ................................ 229 
 
 Enemas, or clysters, description and manner of administering ............... 32 
 
 Engorgement colic, description, symptoms, and treatment .................. 50 
 
 Enteritis, definition ...................................................... 50 
 
 Entropion and ectropion, or inversion and eversion of eyelid, causes and 
 
 treatment .............................................................. 259 
 
 Epilepsy, or falling fits, symptoms and treatment .......................... 207 
 
 Epithelial cancer, or epithelioma, description and treatment ................. 449 
 
 Epithelioma 
 
 degeneration of penis, or papillioraa ................................... 145 
 
 or epithelial cancer, description and treatment ......................... 449 
 
 Equine variola, or horsepox, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc ............ 524-529 
 
 Eruptions, bleeding skin, or Dermatorrhagia parasitica, description and treat- 
 
 ment .................................................................. 441 
 
 Erysipelas, description, cause, and treatment ...... .' ........................ 446 
 
 Erythema, congestion of skin, or red effloresence, description and treatment. 434 
 Esophagus 
 
 dilatation, causes, symptoms, and treatment ........................... 49 
 
 or gullet, treatment for foreign bodies ............. . .............. ...... 46 
 
 stricture, description and treatment .................................... 49 
 
 Eversion 
 
 and inversion of eyelid, or ectropion and entropion, causes and treatment. 259 
 
 of bladder, description and treatment .................................. 93 
 
 or womb after difficult parturition, treatment .......................... 185 
 
 Exostosis, cause, description, and treatment ................................ 284 
 
 Extravasation of blood of penis, causes and treatment ....................... 145 
 
 Eye 
 
 diseases, chapter by James Law ..................................... 251-273 
 
 examination ................ ......................................... 254 
 
 haw, or winking cartilage, description .................................. 253 
 
 lachrymal apparatus .................................................. 254 
 
 muscles, description .................................................. 253 
 
 palsy of nerve of sight, o ^maurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment... 272 
 
 parasites affecting, description of different kinds ........................ 273 
 
 watering, or obstruction of lachrymal apparatus, description and remedies. 261 
 Eyeball- 
 
 description ........................................................... 251 
 
 tumors affecting ...................................................... 272 
 
 Eyelid 
 
 diseases, description of different kinds ................................. 255 
 
 inflammation, causes and treatment .................................... 257 
 
 inversion and eversion, or entropion and ectropion, causes and treatment. 259 
 
 sty, or furuncle (boil), affecting, description and treatment ............. 259 
 
 torn, or wounds affecting, description and treatment .................... 260 
 
 warts and tumors affecting, description and treatment ................... 260 
 
 Face bones, fractures, description and treatment ............................ 311 
 
 Facial paralysis, cause and symptoms ...................................... 210 
 
 Fainting, or syncope, symptoms and treatment ............................. 237 
 
 Farcy 
 
 and glanders, definition, causes, etc ................................. 532-544 
 
 chronic, symptoms .......................... - ........................ 538 
 
 Fatty degeneration of heart, causes, symptoms, and treatment ............... 239 
 
 Favus, or honeycomb ringworm, description and treatment ................. 450
 
 INDEX. 597 
 
 Page. 
 
 Feces, impaction of rectum 170 
 
 Feet, interfering, causes, symptoms, and treatment 373 
 
 Femur, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment 323 
 
 Fetlock 
 
 and ankle skin, note 371 
 
 and foot bones, description 369 
 
 ankle, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369-430 
 
 joint, description 370 
 
 knuckling, causes, symptoms, and treatment ., 347 
 
 sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 376 
 
 Fetus 
 
 adherent to walls of womb, description, cause, and treatment 171 
 
 excessive size 171 
 
 general dropsy, description and treatment 173 
 
 or foal, prolonged retention, cause and treatment 160 
 
 swelling with gas, or emphysema, description and treatment 173 
 
 tumors, or inclosed ovum, description and treatment 174 
 
 Fever, description, causes, and treatment 493-498 
 
 Fibrous bands constricting and crossing neck of womb, description and treat- 
 ment 170 
 
 Fibrous constriction of vagina or vulva, cause and treatment 171 
 
 FUaria 
 
 conjunctive, parasite of eye 273 
 
 equina, parasite of eye 273 
 
 h&morrhagica, threadworm causing skin disease 441 
 
 irriians, parasite causing summer sores, description and treatment 442 
 
 muMipapillosa, threadworm causing bleeding skin eruptions 441 
 
 palpebralis, parasite of eye 273 
 
 Fistulas, causes, symptoms, and treatment 477-481 
 
 Fits, falling, or epilepsy, symptoms and treatment 207 
 
 Flatfoot, description 372 
 
 Flatulent colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 
 
 Flea, or pulex, prevention and treatment of bite 454 
 
 Flesh fly (Sarcophaga carnaria), note 453 
 
 Flexor 
 
 metatarsis, rupture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 352 
 
 pedis perforans, description 371 
 
 pedis perforatus, description 371 
 
 tendons or their sheath, and suspensory ligaments, sprains, cause, symp- 
 toms, and treatment 345 
 
 Flies, method of attacking horses, prevention and treatment for bite 453 
 
 Flooding, or bleeding from womb, treatment 184 
 
 Flyblow, or grubs in skin, description and treatment 453 
 
 Foal- 
 contractions of muscles, description and treatment 173 
 
 monstrosities, description of kinds, causes, and treatment 174 
 
 natural presentation * 164 
 
 prolonged retention, cause and treatment 160 
 
 water in head, or hydrocephalus, description and treatment 172 
 
 Foals, newborn, cyanosis affecting, description 240 
 
 Food- 
 kinds to give 36 
 
 musty and moldy, effect on digestive organs 38 
 
 preparation 41
 
 598 INDEX. 
 
 Foot (See also Hoof. ) Page. 
 
 anatomical review 369,559 
 
 and fetlock bones, description 369 
 
 canker, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392 
 
 conformation, faults 372 
 
 fetlock, and ankle, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369-430 
 
 mange, description and treatment 452 
 
 punctured wounds, description, symptoms, and treatment 400 
 
 sand-cracks, causes, symptoms, and treatment 405 
 
 sole, description 371 
 
 Forage poisoning, or cerebro-spinal meningitis, symptoms and treatment 217 
 
 Forearm, fracture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 321 
 
 Founder, or laminitis 
 
 acute, subacute, and chronic, description 421 
 
 complications 422 
 
 curative measures 428 
 
 description and causes '. 414 
 
 following parturition, cause 188 
 
 sequel of superpurgation 64 
 
 symptoms ..' 417 
 
 treatment and prevention 426 
 
 Fractures 
 
 causes and symptoms 297 
 
 description of different kinds 297 
 
 of different bones, description 310 
 
 prognosis and treatment 303 
 
 Frog- 
 bruises, causes, symptoms, and treatment : 399 
 
 description 371 
 
 Frostbites, description, symptoms, and treatment 379 
 
 Furuncle 
 
 or boil, description and treatment 439 
 
 or sty (boil ), of eyelid, description and treatment 259 
 
 Galls, harness, or sitfasts, description and treatment 448, 470 
 
 Gallstones, or biliary calculi, symptoms and treatment 74 
 
 Gamarus pteroptoides and cheyletus, animal parasites of skin 452 
 
 Gangrene 
 
 or mortification, causes 136 
 
 or mortification, description, symptoms, and treatment 473 
 
 Gas, swelling of fetus, or emphysema, description and treatment 173 
 
 Gastritis, definition 50 
 
 Gastro-enteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment 65 
 
 Gastro-intestinal catarrh, or indigestion, description, cause, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 61 
 
 Generative organs, diseases affecting, chapter by James Law 142-189 
 
 Genito-urinary passages, method of medication 33 
 
 Gestation, extra-uterine, description, symptoms, and treatment 157 
 
 Glanders 
 
 acute, symptoms 541 
 
 and farcy, definition, causes, etc 532-544 
 
 chronic, symptoms 540 
 
 treatment.. 544
 
 INDEX. 599 
 
 Glands Page. 
 
 lymphatic, description, symptoms, and treatment 249 
 
 sebaceous, description 433 
 
 sweat, description 434 
 
 Gleet- 
 inflammation of urethra, of urethritis, symptoms and treatment 93 
 
 nasal, chronic catarrh, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 108 
 
 Glossitis, description and treatment 45 
 
 Glottis, spasm, description . . 205 
 
 Glycosuria, saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, or inosuria, causes, symp- 
 toms, and treatment 80 
 
 Grains for feeding 39 
 
 Grasses, important feed 41 
 
 Gravel 
 
 urinary calculi, or stone, causes 97 
 
 urinary calculi, or stone, description 94 
 
 Grease, or canker, causes, symptoms, and treatment 444 
 
 Grubs 
 
 or flyblow, description and treatment 453 
 
 under the skin, description and treatment 453 
 
 Grunting, testing 118 
 
 Gullet, or esophagus, treatment for foreign bodies 46 
 
 Gunshot wounds, description and treatment. 469 
 
 Gut-tie, volvulus, or twisting of bowels, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56 
 
 Guttural pouches, description and treatment 128 
 
 Hairs on skin, description 433 
 
 Harbaugh, W. H., chapter on " Diseases of respiratory organs" 104-141 
 
 Harness galls, or sitfasts, description and treatment 448, 470 
 
 Harvest bug, larvae of Trombidium, Leptus americanus, jigger (chigoe), animal 
 
 parasite of skin _. 452 
 
 Haw- 
 tumor, or caries of cartilage of the eye, description and treatment 261 
 
 or winking cartilage of the eye, description 253 
 
 Hay, kinds for feeding 38 
 
 Heart- 
 adventitious growths, description, symptoms, and treatment 236 
 
 anatomy and physiology 225 
 
 and blood vessels, diseases, remarks 228 
 
 blood vessels, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower.. 225-250 
 
 circulation of blood, description 226 
 
 congestion, description and symptoms 240 
 
 dilatation, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239 
 
 fatty degeneration, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239 
 
 hypertrophy, or cardiac enlargement, description, symptoms, and treat- 
 ment 237 
 
 inflammation of lining membrane, or endocarditis, cause, description, 
 
 symptoms, and treatment 229 
 
 inflammation of muscular structure, or myocarditis, symptoms, alterations, 
 
 and treatment 229 
 
 inflammation of sac inclosing, or pericarditis, causes, symptoms, and treat- 
 ment 233 
 
 inflammatory diseases., description and treatment 229
 
 600 INDEX. 
 
 Heart Continued. Page. 
 
 palpitation, description, symptoms, and treatment 236 
 
 rupture, description and cause 240 
 
 valvular disease, description, symptoms, and treatment 235 
 
 weakness, causes, symptoms, and treatment 240 
 
 Heat exhaustion, sunstroke, or heat stroke, symptoms, pathology, treatment, 
 
 and prevention 199 
 
 Heaves, broken wind, or asthma, definitions, symptoms, and treatment 137 
 
 Heels 
 
 contracted, or hoof-bound, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 403 
 cracked, scratches, or chaps on knee and hock, description, causes, and 
 
 treatment 443 
 
 inflammation, with sebaceous secretion, grease, or canker, description, 
 
 causes, symptoms, and treatment 444 
 
 Hematuria, or bloody urine, cause and treatment 82 
 
 Hemiplegia, or paralysis of one side, or half the body, description and symp- 
 toms 208 
 
 Hemoglobinuria, azoturia, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, 
 
 prevention, and treatment 82 
 
 Hemoptysis, or bleeding from lungs, causes, description, and treatment 136 
 
 Hemorrhage 
 
 process of healing and method of treatment 461 
 
 spinal, symptoms and treatment 214 
 
 Hemorrhoids, or piles, description and treatment 66 
 
 Hemostasia, description and treatment 460 
 
 Hepatitis, or inflammation of liver, symptoms, causes, and treatment 72 
 
 Hernia 
 
 congenital scrotal, description and treatment 67 
 
 diaphragmatic, description 70 
 
 inguinal, description, symptoms, and treatment 67 
 
 of womb, description and treatment 168 
 
 or rupture, description of different kinds 67 
 
 scrotal, cause 67 
 
 umbilical, description and treatment 69 
 
 ventral, description and treatment 68 
 
 Herpes, description and treatment 441 
 
 High blowing, description 119 
 
 Hip- 
 bone, or os innominatum, description, symptoms, and treatment 317 
 
 bones, fractured, causes 167 
 
 joint, luxation, description and treatment .". 338 
 
 lameness, description, symptoms, and treatment 344 
 
 Hock- 
 
 and knee, chaps or scratches, description, causes, and treatment 443 
 
 capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment 359 
 
 curb, cause, symptoms, and treatment 349 
 
 fractures, note 325 
 
 Holcombe, A. A., chapter on "Diseases of ankle, fetlock, and foot " 369-430 
 
 Honeycomb ringworm, or favus, description and treatment 450 
 
 Hoof. (See abo Foot. ) 
 
 -bound, or contracted heels, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. . 403 
 
 description f 371 
 
 growth 564 
 
 healthy, characteristics 672
 
 INDEX. 601 
 
 Hoof Continued. Page 
 
 physiological movements 569 
 
 preparation for the shoe 578 
 
 Hoofs- 
 unshod, care 571 
 
 various forms '. 573 
 
 Hornets, bees, and wasps, treatment for stings 454 
 
 Horny sloughs (sitfasts), or sloughing callosities, description and treatment. 448, 470 
 
 Horsepox, or equine variola, causes, symptoms, and treatment 524-529 
 
 Horses, anatomy, description 276 
 
 Horseshoe. (See Shoe.) 
 Horse, sick 
 
 attitude and general condition indicative of disease 10 
 
 conformation and constitution 12 
 
 examination, chapter by Leonard Pearson 9-27 
 
 history of diseases necessary in examination 10 
 
 Huidekoper, Eush Shippen, chapter on "General diseases '' 482-544 
 
 Humerus, fractures, symptoms and treatment 320 
 
 Hydrocele, or dropsy of scrotum, symptoms and treatment 144 
 
 Hydrocephalus 
 
 or dropsy of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203 
 
 or water in head, of foal, description and treatment 172 
 
 Hydrophobia. (See Rabies. ) 
 
 Hydrothorax, treatment 134 
 
 Hypertrophy of heart, or cardiac enlargement, description, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 237 
 
 Hypoderma-lineata, note 453 
 
 Icterus, jaundice, or yellows, description and treatment 73 
 
 Impaction 
 
 of large intestine, cause of obstruction colic, symptoms and treatment 52 
 
 of rectum with feces 170 
 
 Indigestion, or gastro-intestinal catarrh, description, causes, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 61 
 
 Infectious anemia 
 
 chapter by John R. Mohler 551-554 
 
 cause and localities infected 55*1 
 
 diagnosis and treatment 553 
 
 symptoms and lesions 552 
 
 Inflammation 
 
 acute, of kidneys, or acute nephritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment. . 84 
 
 and abscess of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treatment.. 249 
 
 and congestion of skin, description of kinds 434 
 
 and congestion of teats and udder, symptoms and treatment. . . 188 
 
 and congestion of testicles, or orchitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment- . 142 
 
 chronic, of kidneys, causes, symptoms, and treatment 86 
 
 description, symptoms, termination, and treatment 487^93 
 
 local, and abscess of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treat- 
 ment 249 
 
 of bladder, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment 90 
 
 of brain and its membranes, description 192, 193 
 
 of eyelids, causes and treatment 257 
 
 of heels, with sebaceous secretion, grease, or canker, description, causes, 
 
 symptoms, and treatment 444 
 
 of lining membrane of heart, or endocarditis, cause, description, symp- 
 toms, and treatment 229 
 
 of liver, or hepatitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment 72 
 
 of membranes, a complication of influenza - - . 505 
 
 of membranes of spinal cord, causes, symptoms, and treatment- - - 211
 
 602 INDEX. 
 
 Inflammation Continued. Page, 
 of muscular structure of heart, or myocarditis, symptoms, alterations, and 
 
 treatment , 229 
 
 of nerve, or neuritis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 
 
 of pharynx, description 112 
 
 of sac inclosing heart, or pericarditis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and 
 
 treatment 233 
 
 of substance of spinal cord, or myelitis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and 
 
 treatment 213 
 
 of urethra, urethritis, or gleet, symptoms and treatment 93 
 
 of womb and peritoneum, symptoms and treatment 187 
 
 with blisters, or eczema, description and treatment 437 
 
 with pustules, description and treatment 438 
 
 Inflammatory diseases of the heart, description and treatment 229 
 
 Influenza, definition, symptoms, termination, complications, and treatment. 498-508 
 
 Inguinal hernia, description, symptoms, and treatment 67 
 
 Inhalation, manner of administering medicines 31 
 
 Injections, methods of administering medicines 31 
 
 Inosuria, saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, or glycosuria, causes, symp- 
 toms, and treatment ; 80 
 
 Insufflation, description 31 
 
 Interfering 
 
 and speedy cuts, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 362 
 
 of feet, causes, symptoms, and treatment 373 
 
 Intestinal 
 
 paralysis, cause 210 
 
 worm, or Ascaris equorum, note 60 
 
 Intestines 
 
 and stomach, diseases, remarks 49 
 
 calculi, or stones, description, symptoms, and treatment 65 
 
 large, impaction, cause of obstruction colic, symptoms and treatment 52 
 
 paralysis, description and treatment 56 
 
 spasms 205 
 
 Intussusception, or invagination, description, symptoms, and treatment 56 
 
 Invagination, or intussusception, description, symptoms, and treatment 56 
 
 Iritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 265 
 
 Irritation, nervous, of skin, or pruritus, description and treatment 441 
 
 Jaundice, icterus, or yellows, description and treatment 73 
 
 Jaw, lower, fracture, description, causes, and treatment 312 
 
 Jigger, or chigoe, Leptus americanus, animal parasite of skin 453 
 
 Joint 
 
 hip, luxation, description and treatment 337 
 
 shoulder, displacement, description and treatment 337 
 
 Jointa 
 
 diseases, note 329 
 
 open, cause, prognosis, and treatment 332 
 
 Kidneys 
 
 acute inflammation, or acute nephritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 84 
 
 chronic inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 86 
 
 bladder worm and round worm affecting 87 
 
 tumors, note 87 
 
 Knee- 
 broken, cause, prognosis, and treatment 332 
 
 capped, description, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 357 
 
 fracture, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 322
 
 INDEX. 603 
 
 Knee Continued. Page, 
 or hock, chaps, scratches, or cracked heels, description, causes, and treat- 
 ment 443 
 
 Knees, sprung, cause, symptoms, and treatment 348 
 
 Knuckling 
 
 of fetlock, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 347 
 
 or cocked ankles, description, causes, and treatment 374 
 
 Labor pains, prematrre, cause and treatment 166 
 
 Lachrymal apparatus of eye 
 
 description 254 
 
 obstruction, or watering eye, description and remedy 261 
 
 Lameness 
 
 definition; physiology and description 279 
 
 how to detect the seat 283 
 
 how to discover I 280 
 
 its causes and treatment, chapter by A. A. Liautard 274-368 
 
 of hip, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 344 
 
 of shoulder, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 340 
 
 Laminae, sensitive, description 372 
 
 Laminitis, or founder (See Founder, or laminitis. ) 
 
 Lampas, description and treatment 44 
 
 Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring, description and treatment 117, 210 
 
 Laryngitis, or sore throat, description, symptoms and treatment 112 
 
 Larynx, spasms, description and treatment 116 
 
 Law, James 
 
 chapter on "Diseases of the eye" 251-273 
 
 chapter on ' ' Diseases of the generative organs " 142-189 
 
 chapter on "Diseases of the skin " 431^158 
 
 chapter on "Diseases of the urinary organs" 75-103 
 
 Lead poisoning, or plumbism, causes, symptoms, and treatment 223 
 
 Leptus americanus, or harvest bug, animal parasite of skin 452 
 
 Leucorrhea, description and treatment 188 
 
 Liautard, A., chapter on "Lameness: Its causes and treatment" 274-368 
 
 Lice, or pediculi, description and treatment for bite 454 
 
 Ligament 
 
 suspensory, description 370 
 
 suspensory, rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 377 
 
 Ligaments 
 
 description and functions '. 278 
 
 suspensory, sprains, causes, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 345 
 
 Limbs 
 
 hind, cramp, cause and treatment 159 
 
 perineum, and abdomen, dropsy, description and treatment 159 
 
 Linseed, ground, value as laxative 40 
 
 Liver 
 
 diseases, remarks 71 
 
 inflammation, or hepatitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment 72 
 
 rupture, causes, symptoms, and treatment 73 
 
 Lockjaw, or tetanus, causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 219 
 
 Locomotor ataxia, or incoordination of movement, description 209 
 
 Loins, sprains, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 367 
 
 Lucilia csesar, or bluebottle, and L. kominivorax, or screwworm fly, note 453
 
 604 INDEX. 
 
 Lung- Page. 
 
 al>sce88, and suppuration, symptoms 135 
 
 fever, or pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment *. 122 
 
 Lungs 
 
 bleeding, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment 136 
 
 congestion, description and treatment 120 
 
 description 120 
 
 Luxations and dislocations of bones, cause, symptoms, and treatment 336 
 
 Lymphangitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 250 
 
 Lymphatic 
 
 glands, local inflammation, and abscess affecting, description, symptoms, 
 
 and treatment 249 
 
 system, diseases, description 249 
 
 Lymphatics, heart, and blood vessels, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trum bower . 225-250 
 Madness, rabies, or hydrophobia, cause, symptoms, treatment, and preven- 
 tion 222, 547 
 
 Maize, or corn, how to feed 40 
 
 Maladie du coi't, or dourine, description and treatment 146 
 
 Mange 
 
 autumn, and mange of foot, description and treatment 452 
 
 or acariasis, note 450 
 
 Mare 
 
 castration, method 151 
 
 pregnant, hygiene 156 
 
 sterility, causes and treatment 151 
 
 Masturbation, or self-abuse, remedy 145 
 
 Meat fly, or Musca vomiloria, note 453 
 
 Medicines, methods of administering, chapter by Ch. B. Michener 28-33 
 
 Megrims, or congestion of brain, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc. 197 
 
 Melanosis, or black pigment tumor, description and treatment 449 
 
 Membrane 
 
 lining, of heart, inflammation, or endocarditis, cause, description, symp- 
 toms, and treatment 230 
 
 of nose, thickening, symptoms and treatment 110 
 
 Membranes 
 
 inflammation, a complication of influenza 505 
 
 mucous, visible, and skin may indicate disease 13 
 
 of brain, inflammation, description 192, 193 
 
 of spinal cord, inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 211 
 
 Meningitis 
 
 causes, symptoms, and treatment 193 
 
 spinal, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 211 
 
 Metatarni, flexor, rupture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 352 
 
 Michener, Ch. B. 
 
 chapter on " Diseases of the digestive organs " 34-74 
 
 chapter on "Methods of administering medicines" 28-33 
 
 chapter on "Wounds and their treatment" 459-481 
 
 Mirro*poron furfur, vegetable parasite of skin 450 
 
 Mohler, John R. 
 
 chapter on "Osteoporosis, or bighead " 559-564 
 
 chapter en " Mycotic lymphangitis " 545-547 
 
 chapter en " Infectious anemia" 551-554 
 
 Mole, vesicular, or cystic disease of walls of womb, description and treatment. 158 
 
 Moles, or anidian monsters, description 158 
 
 Monstrosities in foal, description of kinds, causes, and treatment 175 
 
 Moonblindness, or periodic ophthalmia, causes, symptoms, treatment 268 
 
 Mortification, or gangrene. (See Gangrene.)
 
 INDEX. 605 
 
 Page. 
 
 Mouth diseases, remarks 44 
 
 Mucous membranes, visible, and skin may indicate disease 13 
 
 Musca vomitoria, or meat fly, note 453 
 
 Muscles 
 
 and tendons, diseases 340 
 
 contraction in foal, description and treatment 173 
 
 of elbow, sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343 
 
 of eye, description 253 
 
 one system of locomotion 275, 276 
 
 Mycotic lymphangitis 
 
 and glanders, differentiation 547 
 
 chapter by John R. Mohler 545-547 
 
 diagnosis and treatment 547 
 
 symptoms and lesions 546 
 
 Myelitis, or inflammation of substance of spinal cord, causes, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 213 
 
 Myocarditis, or inflammation of muscular structure of heart, symptoms, alter- 
 ations, and treatment 229 
 
 Nasal 
 
 catarrh, or cold in head, symptoms and treatment 107 
 
 douche, used in administering medicines 31 
 
 gleet, chronic catarrh, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 108 
 
 polypus, description and treatment Ill 
 
 Navel 
 
 discharge of urine, or persistent urachus, description and treatment 92 
 
 string, constriction of a member, description 171 
 
 Navicular 
 
 bone, description 370 
 
 disease, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 409 
 
 Neck of womb, twisting, description and treatment 168 
 
 Nephritis, acute, or acute inflammation of kidneys, causes, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment .. 84 
 
 Nerve 
 
 inflammation, or neuritis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 
 
 tumor, or neuroma, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 
 
 Nerves 
 
 injuries, description and treatment 216 
 
 spinal, designations 192 
 
 Nervous system 
 
 and brain, anatomy and physiology 190 
 
 diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower 190-224 
 
 examination 24 
 
 Nettlerash, surfeit, or urticaria, description and treatment 440 
 
 Neuritis, or inflammation of a nerve, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 
 
 Neuroma, or tumor of a nerve, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 
 
 Nose 
 
 bleeding, causes and treatment 112 
 
 membrane, thickening, symptoms and treatment 110 
 
 Nostrils, tumors and wounds, treatment 106 
 
 Obstruction colic, cause 52 
 
 Open joints. (See Joints.) 
 
 Ophthalmia 
 
 external, or conjunctivitis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 262 
 
 internal, causes, symptoms, and treatment 265 
 
 periodic, or moonblindness, causes, symptoms, and treatment 268 
 
 Optic nerve, paralysis, or amaurosis, cause 210
 
 606 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 Orchitis, or congestion and inflammation of testicles, causes, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 142 
 
 Os innominatum, or fracture of hip bone, description, symptoms, and treatment. 317 
 
 Os pedis, or third phalanx, fractures, cause and treatment 327 
 
 Osteoporosis, or bighead, chapter by John R. Mohler 559-564 
 
 Ostitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment . 284 
 
 Overreach, description, symptoms, and treatment 378 
 
 Ovum, inclosed, or tumors of fetus, description and treatment 174 
 
 Palpitation of heart, description, symptoms, and treatment 236 
 
 Palsy 
 
 of nerve of sight, or amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 272 
 
 or paralysis, description and causes 208 
 
 Pancreas and spleen, diseases, remarks 74 
 
 Papilloma, epithelioma, or degeneration of penis 145 
 
 Papules, or congestion of skin with small pimples, description and treatment. 436 
 Paralysis 
 
 facial, symptoms and cause; local paralysis 210 
 
 general, cause 208 
 
 of bladder, description and cause 89, 210 
 
 of hind legs, cause and treatment 160 
 
 of intestines, cause 56, 210 
 
 of one side or half the body, or hemiplegia, description and symptoms 208 
 
 of optic nerve, or amaurosis, cause 210 
 
 of penis, cause and treatment 145 
 
 of pharynx, description and treatment 46 
 
 of rectum and tail, cause 210 
 
 or palsy, description and causes 208 
 
 transverse, of hind extremities, or paraplegia, description and symptoms. 209 
 
 treatment 210 
 
 Paraph ymosis and phymosis, description and treatment 150 
 
 Paraplegia, or transverse paralysis of hind extremities, cause and treatment.. 209 
 Parasites 
 
 animal, of skin, description of kinds 450 
 
 causing worm colic 59, 60 
 
 in eye, description of kinds 273 
 
 specific kinds affecting urinary organs 87 
 
 vegetable, of skin, description of kinds, symptoms, and treatment 449 
 
 Parasitic pityriasis, description and treatment 450 
 
 Parturition 
 
 different presentations 176 
 
 difficult, from narrow pelvis, cause and treatment 165, 166 
 
 symptoms 164 
 
 Pastern joint, description 370 
 
 Pastes, or electuaries, description and manner of administering 29 
 
 Patella- 
 fracture, description 324 
 
 pseudoluxations, descriptions, symptoms, cause, and treatment 338 
 
 Pearson, Leonard, chapter on "Examination of a sick horse" 9-27 
 
 Pediculi, or lice, description and treatment for bite 454 
 
 Pelvis 
 
 and vagina, tumors affecting, description and treatment 167 
 
 bones, fracture, different kinds 316 
 
 narrow, cause of difficult parturition, cause and treatment 166
 
 INDEX. 607 
 
 Penis Page 
 
 degeneration, papilloma, or epithelioma 145 
 
 extravasation of blood and paralysis, causes and treatment 145 
 
 sheath, and abdomen, swelling, cause and treatment 149 
 
 warts, treatment ~.. 145 
 
 Pericarditis 
 
 a complication of influenza 505 
 
 or inflammation of sac inclosing the heart, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 233 
 
 Perineum, limbs, and abdomen, dropsy, description and treatment 159 
 
 Periostitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 284 
 
 Peritoneum and womb, inflammation, symptoms and treatment 187 
 
 Peritonitis . 
 
 a complication of influenza 505 
 
 description, symptoms, and treatment 70 
 
 Phalanx, first, second, and third, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment. 326, 327 
 
 Pharyngeal polypus, description and treatment Ill 
 
 Pharyngitis, description and treatment 45 
 
 Pharynx 
 
 inflammation, description 112 
 
 paralysis, description and treatment 46 
 
 Phlebitis, or diseases of veins, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. . 246 
 
 Phymosis and paraphymosis, description and treatment 150 
 
 Physiology and anatomy of brain and nervous system 190 
 
 Piles, or hemorrhoids, description and treatment 66 
 
 Pills, or balls, description and manner of administering 28 
 
 Pimples, small, or congestion of skin, description and treatment 436 
 
 Pityriasis, or scaly skin disease, description and treatment 440 
 
 Plantar cushion, description 372 
 
 Pleurisy 
 
 a complication of influenza 505 
 
 description, symptoms, and treatment ' 131 
 
 Pleuro-dynia, symptoms and treatment 140 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia, description and treatment 135 
 
 Plumbism, or lead poisoning, causes, symptoms, and treatment 223 
 
 Pneumonia 
 
 edematous, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 520-524 
 
 or lung fever, description, symptoms, and treatment 122 
 
 Poisoning * 
 
 albuminoid, or azotemia, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 82 
 
 forage, or cerebro-spinal meningitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 217 
 
 lead, or plumbism, causes, symptoms, and treatment 223 
 
 Poll evil 477 
 
 Polypus 
 
 nasal, description and treatment Ill 
 
 pharyngeal, description and treatment Ill 
 
 Polyuria, diuresis, diabetes insipidus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 77 
 
 Pouches, guttural, description and treatment 128 
 
 Poultry, acariasis. description and treatment 452 
 
 Powders, manner of administering 28 
 
 Pregnancy 
 
 duration 155 
 
 mare, hygiene 156 
 
 medication 154
 
 608 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Premaxillary bone, fracture, description and treatment 312 
 
 Preputial calculus, calculus in sheath, description and treatment 103 
 
 Presentations at birth, abnormal 176-181 
 
 Pruritis, or nervous irritation of skin, description and treatment 441 
 
 Pseudoluxations of patella, description, symptoms, cause, and treatment 338 
 
 Psoroptes equi, animal parasite of skin 451 
 
 Psoroptic acariasis, description and treatment 451 
 
 Ptyal ism, or salivation, description and treatment , 45 
 
 Pulex 
 
 or flea, prevention and treatment for bite 454 
 
 penetrans, or chigoe, bite, treatment 454 
 
 Pulse, how to count 1 15 
 
 Purpura hemorrhagica 
 
 description, symptoms, and treatment 247 
 
 or anasarca, causes, symptoms, and treatment 508 
 
 Pustules, inflammation, description and treatment 438 
 
 Quittor, description of different kinds 380 
 
 Rabies, description, symptoms, and treatment 222, 545 
 
 Rectum 
 
 and tail, paralysis, cause 210 
 
 impaction with feces 170 
 
 method of administering medicines 32 
 
 Red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434 
 
 Renal calculi, description, symptoms, and treatment 98 
 
 Respiratory organs 
 
 description 104 
 
 diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh 104-141 
 
 methods of examination 17 
 
 Retinitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 265 
 
 Ribs, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 315 
 
 Ridglings, or cryptorchids, castration, method 148 
 
 Ringbone, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 289, 413 
 
 Ringworm 
 
 circinate, or Tinea tonsurans, description, symptoms, and treatment 449 
 
 honeycomb, or favus, description and treatment 450 
 
 Roaring and thick wind, description and treatment 117, 210 
 
 Roundworm of the kidney t 87 
 
 Rubber pads in shoes, uses 576 
 
 Rupture 
 
 of an artery, description, symptoms, and treatment 244 
 
 of diaphragm, causes and symptoms 141 
 
 of flexor metatarsi, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 352 
 
 of heart, description and cause 240 
 
 of liver, cause, symptoms, and treatment 73 
 
 of stomach, result of engorgement colic, symptoms and treatment 51, 52 
 
 of suspensory ligament, description, symptoms, and treatment 377 
 
 of vagina, description and treatment 187 
 
 or hernia, description of different kinds 67 
 
 or laceration of womb, causes and treatment - 186 
 
 Saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, glycosuria, or inosuria, causes, symp- 
 toms, and treatment 80 
 
 Sacrum, fractures, description and treatment 316 
 
 St. Vitus dance, or chorea, description and treatment 207
 
 INDEX. 609 
 
 Page. 
 
 Salivation, or plyalism, description and treatment 45 
 
 Sand-cracks of foot, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 405 
 
 Sarcocele, description and treatment 143 
 
 Sarcophaga carnaria, or flesh fly, note i 453 
 
 Sarcoptes 
 
 mutatis, animal parasite of skin 451 
 
 scabiei equi, animal parasite of skin 450 
 
 Sarcoptic acariasis 
 
 description, symptoms, and treatment 450 
 
 of fowls, description and treatment 451 
 
 Scalds and burns, treatment 455, 471 
 
 Scalma, symptoms, treatment, etc 515-518 
 
 Scaly skin disease, or pityriasis, description and treatment. 440 
 
 Scapula, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment 319 
 
 Scorpion and tarantula, treatment for sting or bite 455 
 
 Scratches, or chaps on knee and hock, or cracked heels, causes and treatment. 443 
 
 Screw-worm fly, or Lucilia hominivorax, note 453 
 
 Sprotal or congenital hernia, cause, description, and treatment 67 
 
 Scrotum, dropsy, or hydrocele, symptoms and treatment 144 
 
 Sebaceous glands, description 433 
 
 Self-abuse, or masturbation, remedy 145 
 
 Sesamoid bones, fracture, cause, symptoms, treatment, etc 328 
 
 Sesainoid sheath, inflammation, or navicular disease, description, symptoms, 
 
 and treatment 408 
 
 Sesamoids, description 369 
 
 Sexual and urinary organs, examination 26 
 
 Sheath- 
 calculus, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description, treatment. 103 
 
 of flexor tendons, sprains, cause, symptoms, and treatment 345 
 
 penis, and abdomen, swelling, cause and treatment 149 
 
 Shock, electric, description and treatment 224 
 
 Shoe- 
 bar, uses 582 
 
 detailed description 578 
 
 hot fitting 582 
 
 Shoeing 
 
 chapter by John W. Adams 565-587 
 
 preliminary examination 575 
 
 preparation of the hoof , 578 
 
 rubber pads 582 
 
 Shoes, special peculiarities of chief classes 580 
 
 Shoulder 
 
 joint, displacement,- description and treatment 337 
 
 lameness, description, causes, symptoms," and treatment 340 
 
 Sick horse. (See Horse, sick.) 
 
 Sidebones, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 291, 411 
 
 Sinuses, collection in, chronic catarrh, or nasal gleet, causes, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 108 
 
 Sitfasts 
 
 or harness galls, description and treatment 470 
 
 horny sloughs, or sloughing callosities, description and treatment 448 
 
 Skin 
 
 and visible mucous membranes may indicate disease 13 
 
 animal parasites affecting, description of kinds 450 
 
 H. Doc. 795, 59-2 39
 
 610 INDEX. 
 
 Skin Continued. Page. 
 
 bleeding eruptions, description and treatment 441 
 
 congestion, red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434 
 
 disease, scaly, or pityriasis, description and treatment 440 
 
 diseases, chapter by James Law 431-458 
 
 grubs under, description and treatment 453 
 
 hairs, description 433 
 
 inflammation and congestion, description of kinds.... 434 
 
 nervous irritation, or pruritis, description and treatment 441 
 
 of fetlock and ankle, note 371 
 
 structure, divisions 432 
 
 true, or dermis, description 432 
 
 vegetable parasites, description of kinds, symptoms and treatment 449 
 
 wounds, description of different kinds and treatment 456 
 
 Sloughs, horny, sitfasts, or sloughing callosities, description and treatment. 448, 470 
 
 Snake bites, treatment 455 
 
 Sole of foot, description 371 
 
 Sores, summer, caused by Filaria irritans, treatment 441, 442 
 
 Sore throat, or laryngitis, description, symptoms, and treatment 142 
 
 Spasmodic or cramp colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58 
 
 Spasm 
 
 of diaphragm, or thumps, description and treatment 141, 205 
 
 of glottis or intestines, description and treatment 205 
 
 of larynx, description and treatment 116 
 
 of neck of bladder, causes, symptoms, and treatment 87, 205 
 
 of neck of womb, description and treatment 170 
 
 of thigh, or cramp of hind limb, description and treatment 205 
 
 Spasms, or cramps, causes and treatment 205 
 
 Spavin 
 
 blood, bog spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment 331 
 
 description, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 293 
 
 Speedy cuts and interfering, description, symptoms, treatment, etc 362 
 
 Spermatic cord 
 
 strangulated, cause and treatment . ... 149 
 
 tumors, causes and treatment 150 
 
 Spinal 
 
 anemia, symptoms and treatment 214 
 
 compression and concussion, cause, description, and treatment 214 
 
 concussion, causes and treatment 215 
 
 congestion, cause, symptoms, and treatment 213 
 
 cord, description 192 
 
 cord, inflammation of membranes, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 211 
 
 cord, inflammation of substance, or myelitis, causes, symptoms, treatment. 213 
 
 hemorrhage, symptom, and treatment 214 
 
 meningitis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 211 
 
 nerves, designation 192 
 
 tumors, symptoms and treatment 215 
 
 Spleen and pancreas, diseases, remarks 74 
 
 Splint, description, symptoms, cause, and treatment 286 
 
 Sprain 
 
 of elbow muscles, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343 
 
 of fetlock, causes, symptoms, and treatment 376 
 
 Sprains 
 
 description and treatment 340 
 
 of loins, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 367
 
 INDEX. 611 
 
 Sprains Continued. Page. < 
 of suspensory ligaments and of flexor tendons or their sheath, cause, symp- 
 toms, and treatment 345 
 
 Sprung knees, cause, symptoms, and treatment 348 
 
 Staphyloma, or bulging cornea, description and treatment 273 
 
 Stallion- 
 castration, methods 147 
 
 sterility, cause and treatment 151 
 
 Sterility in mare and stallion, cause and treatment 151 
 
 Stiles, Ch. Wardell, chapter on "Surra" 554-559 
 
 Stomach 
 
 and intestines, diseases, remarks 49 
 
 calculi, or stones, symptoms and treatment 54 
 
 rupture, result of engorgement colic, symptoms and treatment 51, 52 
 
 Stomatitis, description and treatment 45 
 
 Stone 
 
 in bladder, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and 
 
 treatment 100 
 
 in urethra, or urethral calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment 102 
 
 or calculus, and tumor in bladder 169 
 
 urinary calculi, or gravel, description 94, 97 
 
 Stones 
 
 or calculi, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment 55 
 
 or calculi, in stomach, symptoms and treatment 54 
 
 Strangles, definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment 513-516 
 
 Strangulated spermatic cord, cause and treatment 149 
 
 Stricture 
 
 of esophagus, description and treatment 49 
 
 of urethra, description and treatment 94 
 
 Stringhalt, description, cause, and treatment 207, 364 
 
 Strongylus 
 
 equinum, parasite of kidney 87 
 
 equinus, intestinal worm 60 
 
 mdgaris, intestinal worm 60 
 
 vulgaris, worm causing one form of aneurism 243 
 
 Sty, furuncle, or boil of eyelid, description and treatment 259 
 
 Suffraginis, description 370 
 
 Summer sores, caused by Filaria irritans, description and treatment 442 
 
 Sunstroke, heat stroke, or heat exhaustion, symptoms, treatment, etc 199 
 
 Superpurgation, description and treatment 63 
 
 Suppositories, description and uses 32 
 
 Suppuration and abscess in lung, symptoms 135 
 
 Surfeit, nettlerash, or urticaria, description and treatment 440 
 
 Surra 
 
 chapter by Ch. Wardell Stiles 554-559 
 
 climatic conditions ; animals affected ; and lethality 554 
 
 diagnosis and treatment 559 
 
 method of infection, symptoms 555 
 
 Suspensory ligament 
 
 and flexor tendons or their sheaths, sprains, cause, symptoms, treatment.. 345 
 
 description 370 
 
 rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 377 ; i 
 
 Sutures, description and uses 461 j 
 
 Swamp fever. (See Infectious anemia. ) 
 
 Sweat glands, description ^.434)
 
 612 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 Symbioles equi, Dermatoprutgux cqui, or Chorioptes tpathiferus, animal parasite of 
 
 skin 452 
 
 Syncope, or fainting, symptoms and treatment 237 
 
 Synovial 
 
 dropsies, remarks 330 
 
 sacs, diseases, description 330 
 
 Synovitis, cause, prognosis, and treatment 332 
 
 Tail and rectum, paralysis, cause 210 
 
 Tarantula and scorpion, treatment for bite and sting ._.: 455 
 
 Teats, sore, scabs, cracks, warts, cause and treatment 189 
 
 Teeth- 
 diseases; period of dentition 42 
 
 irregularities, remedies 43 
 
 Temperament of horse 12 
 
 Temperature, method of determining 17 
 
 Tendon sheaths, wounds, description and treatment 469 
 
 Tendons 
 
 and muscles, diseases 340 
 
 flexor, or their sheath, sprains, cause, symptoms, and treatment 345 
 
 functions 277 
 
 lacerated, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 350 
 
 of foot, function 370 
 
 Testicles- 
 abnormal -number; causes of degeneration 144 
 
 or orchitis, congestion and inflammation, causes, symptoms, treatment.. 142 
 
 Tetanus, or lockjaw, causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 219 
 
 Thick wind and roaring, description and treatment 117 
 
 Thigh, spasm, or cramp of hind limb, description and treatment .- 205 
 
 Thoracic choke, description and treatment 47, 49 
 
 Thoroughpin, blood spavin, and bog spavin, description and -treatment 331 
 
 Threadworms causing bleeding skin eruptions 441 
 
 Throat- 
 abscesses affecting, treatment 46 
 
 sore, or laryngitis, description, symptoms, and treatment 112 
 
 Thrombosis, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 365 
 
 Thrombus and embolism, description, symptoms, and treatment 244 
 
 Thrush, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392 
 
 Thumps, or spasm of diaphragm, description and treatment 141, 205 
 
 Tibia, fractures, symptoms and treatment 324 
 
 Ticks, description and treatment .' 453 
 
 Timothy, best hay for feeding 38 
 
 Tinea tomurans, or circinate ringworm, description and treatment 449 
 
 Tissues, description 482 
 
 Toothache, how to determine and treat 43 
 
 Trichiasis, or turned eyelashes, description and treatment 260 
 
 Trichophifton toraiiranx, vegetable parasite of skin 449 
 
 Trumlxnver, M. R. 
 
 chapter on "Diseases of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics " 225-250 
 
 chapter on "Diseases of nervous system" 190-224 
 
 Tuberculosis, or consumption, note 136 
 
 Tumor 
 
 and calculus, or stone in bladder 169 
 
 of haw, or caries of cartilege, description and treatment 261
 
 INDEX. 613 
 
 Tnmor Continued. Page. 
 
 of nerve, or neuroma, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 
 
 on spermatic cord, causes and treatment 150 
 
 Tumors 
 
 and \varts of eyelids, description and treatment 260 
 
 black pigment, or melanosis, description and treatment 449 
 
 in nostrils, treatment 106 
 
 in vagina and pelvis, description and treatment 167 
 
 of eyeball, remarks 272 
 
 of fetus, or inclosed ovum, description and treatment 174 
 
 of kidneys, note 87 
 
 of spine, symptoms and treatment 215 
 
 of udder, cause and treatment 189 
 
 or abnormal growths, cause of colic 57 
 
 within cranium, description of kinds 204 
 
 Twins, remarks 176 
 
 Tympanitic colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 
 
 Udder- 
 congestion and inflammation, symptoms and treatment 188' 
 
 tumors, cause and treatment 189 
 
 Ulceration, description, causes, and treatment 474 
 
 Ulcers on cornea, treatment 265 
 
 Umbilical hernia, description and treatment 69 
 
 Urachus, persistent, or discharge of urine by navel, description and treatment. 92 
 
 Uremia, description, symptoms, and treatment 223 
 
 Urethra 
 
 inflammation, urethritis, or gleet, symptoms and treatment 93 
 
 stone, or urethral calculus, description, symptoms and treatment 102 
 
 stricture, description and treatment 94 
 
 Urethral calculus, or stone in urethra, description, symptoms and treatment.. 102 
 
 Urethritis, inflammation of urethra, or gleet, symptoms and treatment 93 
 
 Uretral calculi, description and treatment 99 
 
 Urinary 
 
 and sexual organs, examination 26 
 
 calculi, classification 98 
 
 calculi, stone, or gravel, description and causes 94, 97 
 
 disorders, causes '. 75 
 
 organ? , diseases, chapter by James Law 75-103 
 
 organs, parasites affecting 87 
 
 organs, symptoms of disease 77 
 
 organs, uses 75 
 
 Urine 
 
 analysis 95 
 
 bloody, or hematuria, cause and treatment 82 
 
 discharge by navel, or persistent urachus, description and treatment 92 
 
 excessive secretion, diuresis, polyuria, diabetes iusipidus, causes, symp- 
 toms, and treatment .- 79 
 
 how to examine 77 
 
 of healthy horse, description 27 
 
 Urocystitis, inflammation of bladder, or cystitis, symptoms and treatment 90 
 
 Urticaria, nettlerash, or surfeit, description and treatment 440 
 
 Vagina 
 
 and pelvis, tumors affecting, description and treatment 167 
 
 rupture, description and treatment 187
 
 614 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Vaginal walls, effusion of blood 169 
 
 Valvular disease of heart, symptoms and treatment f 235 
 
 Varicecele, description and treatment 144 
 
 Varicose veins, varix, or dilatation of veins, causes and treatment' : 247 
 
 Variola, equine, or horsepox, causes, symptoms, and treatment 524-529 
 
 Veins 
 
 description 228 
 
 dilatation, varicose veins, or varix, causes and treatment 247 
 
 diseases, or phlebitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 246 
 
 Ventral hernia, description and treatment 68 
 
 Vertebrae, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment 313 
 
 Vesical calculus, stone in bladder, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, 
 
 and treatment 100 
 
 Vesicular mole, or cystic disease of walls of womb, description and treatment. 158 
 
 Volvulus, gut-tie, or twisting of bowels, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56 
 
 Vulva, or vagina, fibrous constriction, cause and treatment 171 
 
 Warte 
 
 and tumors of eyelids, description and treatment 260 
 
 description and treatment ; 448 
 
 on penis, treatment 145 
 
 Wasps, bees, and hornets, stings, treatment 454 
 
 Water- 
 impure, cause of disease; time to give 34 
 
 in head, or hydrocephalus of foal, description and treatment 172 
 
 Watering eye, or obstruction of lachrymal apparatus, description and remedy. 261 
 
 Whistling, description 119 
 
 Wind- 
 broken, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment 137 
 
 colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 
 
 Windgalls, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 330, 375 
 
 Windpipe, description 128 
 
 Winking cartilage, or cartilago nictitans, description 253 
 
 Womb 
 
 and peritoneum, inflammation, symptoms, and treatment 187 
 
 bleeding, or flooding, treatment 184 
 
 dropsy, cause, symptoms, and treatment 158 
 
 aversion, description and method of treatment 185 
 
 hernia, description and treatment 168 
 
 laceration, or rupture, causes and treatment 186 
 
 neck, twisting, description and treatment 168 
 
 Worm colic, description, symptoms, and treatment 59 
 
 Worms, bladder, affecting kidneys 87 
 
 Wounds 
 
 and their treatment, chapter by Ch. B. Mlchener 459-481 
 
 gunshot, description and treatment 469 
 
 healing under a scab, treatment 462 
 
 in nostrils, cause and treatment 106 
 
 lacerated and contused, description and treatment 463 
 
 penetrating walls of chest, description and treatment 140 
 
 poisoned, description and treatment. .. 470 
 
 punctured, description, symptoms, and treatment 400, 465 
 
 Yellows, jaundice, or icterus, description and treatment 73 
 
 o
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 REC'D M' H 
 
 
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