IC-NRLF 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 GULICK 
 
When Prompt Action is Necessary 
 
 ACCIDENTS 4ND 
 EMERGENCIES 
 
 By CHARLES W. DULLES, M.V. 
 
 will be found an Unfailing Guide 
 
 Fifth Edition, with new illustrations, some in color, 
 indicating plainly the manual treatment prescribed 
 
 12mo. Cloth. Net, $1.00 
 
 How to stop bleeding of main blood-vessel of the arm 
 
 This valuable little manual has been written with the 
 object of detailing concisely the best course to pursue for 
 the speedy relief of injured persons, till the arrival of 
 skilled assistance, including poisoning, drowning, frac- 
 tures, hemorrhages, wounds, etc. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 BY 
 
 MUSCULAR EXERCISE 
 
 LUTHER HALSEY GULICK, M.D., 
 
 DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF GREATER NEW YORK ; PRESIDENT OF 
 AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION SOCIETY, ETC. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 { UNIVERSITY ) 
 
 illustrate t> 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO. 
 
 1012 WALNUT STREET 
 1904 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1904, BY P. BLAKISTON'S SON & Co. 
 
 ft 
 
 REPRINTED FROM VOL. VII OF "COHEN'S SYSTEM OF PHYSIOLOGIC THERAPEUTICS," PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 P. BLAKISTON'S SON & Co. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The material in this little book grew up gradually through the 
 exigencies of a lecture course on the Philosophy of Exercise. The sub- 
 ject-matter appeared in the "Y. M. C. A. Athletic League Letter" in 
 1899-1900. 
 
 The range of topics discussed indicates my indebtedness to many 
 persons. My first impulses toward working out my own thought on 
 the subject came from my instructor, Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent, of Har- 
 vard University. The direction of my study was largely influenced 
 for years by Dr. E. M. Hartwell, then of Johns Hopkins. To the in- 
 spiration of President G. Stanley Hall I owe the biologic point of view. 
 To Dr. Wm. T. Harris I owe my first thought in regard to the relation 
 of exercise to the vegetative processes. To Dr. T. M. Balliet, Superin- 
 tendent of Schools, I also owe much. I do not wish to saddle these 
 gentlemen with the responsibility for these ideas, for many of them are 
 my own. 
 
 If I have succeeded in my endeavor this book will be of service to 
 those who wish a general view of the subject, whether for use in medicine 
 or education. 
 
 L. H. G 
 
 161886 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I P AGES 
 
 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 1-28 
 
 General Aim, i. Exercise, and Evolution, 2. City and Exercise, 3. 
 Occupation, 3. Schools, 4. Balance between Neural and Muscular 
 Expenditure, 5. Special Classes, 6. Exercise in Accordance with 
 Function, 7. Physiology of Exercise, 9: Effect upon the Muscle- 
 cell, 9; Effect on the Body as a Whole, 9; Special Effects of Muscular 
 Exercise, 10; Position during Exercise, n; Physiologic Load, 13. 
 Neurologic Considerations, 15: Moderate and Excessive Exercise, 16; 
 Physical Exercise and Cerebral Development of the Brain, 17; 
 Fatigue, 18; Co-operation among Contiguous Nerve-centers, 18; 
 Muscular Contraction and Psychic Activity, 21. Limits of Special- 
 ization in Exercise, 24; Somatic Harmony, 25; Competition, 26. 
 Dosage of Exercise, 26. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 MATERIA GYMNASTICA; SPORTS AND GAMES; SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS,. . . 29-64 
 Walking and Running, 29. Calisthenics, 31. Pulley-weight Exer- 
 cise, 33. Heavy Gymnastic Apparatus Exercises, 37. Track and 
 Field Athletics, 39. Athletic Games, 39. Wrestling, Boxing and 
 Fencing, 41. Bicycling, 42. Golf, 43. Horseback-riding, 43. 
 Bowling, 43. Rowing, 44. Relation of Physical Exercise to Age 
 and Sex, 44. Baseball, Cricket, Hockey, Shinney, Basket ball, 46. 
 Football, 47. MEDICALLY CONSIDERED: Condition, 51; Habit, 52; 
 Strength, 53; Endurance, 53. SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS: German 
 Gymnastics, 54; Swedish Gymnastics, 56; English Physical Exercises, 
 58; Delsarte, 59; Sargent, 60; Emerson, 61; Young Men's Christian 
 ^^Associations, 62. Dancing, 63. 
 
 INDEX 65 
 
 Vll 
 
X 
 
 OF THE A 
 
 UNIVERSITY I] 
 
 OF 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION BY MUSCULAR 
 EXERCISE, 
 
 V 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 General Aim. Exercise and Evolution. City and Exercise. Occupa- 
 tion. Schools. Balance between Neural and Muscular Expenditure. 
 Special Classes. Exercise in Accordance with Function. Physiology o} 
 Exercise: Effect on the Muscle-cell; Effect on the Body as a Whole; Special 
 Effects of Muscular Exercise; Position during Exercise; Physiologic Load. 
 Neurologic Considerations: Moderate and Excessive Exercise; Physical 
 Exercise and Cerebral Development of the Brain; Fatigue; Co-operation 
 among Contiguous Nerve-centers; Muscular Contraction and Psychic 
 Activity. Limits of Specialization in Exercise; Somatic Harmony; Com- 
 petition. Dosage of Exercise. 
 
 General Aim 
 
 For our purposes muscular exercise may be considered from three 
 viewpoints : 
 
 1 . In relation to its use as a definite remedial measure in a few patho- 
 logic conditions. 
 
 2. In relation to the development of the individual in structure and 
 function. 
 
 3. In relation to general somatic vigor. Somatic vigor is the essence 
 of that power of resistance which the organism shows to the invasion of 
 disease. It is well known that the power of resistance varies much in 
 the individual from time to time; pathogenic bacteria will at one time 
 be destroyed promptly, while at another they will gain a foothold and 
 multiply. 
 
 Disease must be avoided by the prevention of inoculation ; but, what is 
 of equal importance, it must be averted by the maintenance of such 
 
2 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 bodily vigor that the maximum of resistance will be offered by the organ- 
 ism itself. 
 
 Special Considerations. The physician has three questions to answer 
 about muscular exercise : 
 
 1 . What specific exercises will be effective in given pathologic states? 
 Under this head I discuss nothing here. It is my province to examine 
 the general effects of exercise together with the detailed effects of specific 
 exercises and sports. 
 
 2. What character and quantity of exercise are needed for the grow- 
 ing organism, to insure balanced development? Physicians must pass 
 upon the claims of various systems of gymnastics that are offered for 
 adoption by schools, as well as upon the necessity for, and the character 
 of, work outside of school. It is hoped that the data given will be suffi- 
 cient for full and intelligent answers to these questions. 
 
 3. What exercises are best adapted under various conditions, such as 
 age, sex, and the like, to render most active the general somatic life of 
 the individual? This question I hope to answer with some degree of 
 definiteness. 
 
 I am aware that some of the more important conclusions here set 
 forth are not in accord with the accepted doctrines of many teachers of 
 physical training; yet these views will be seen to have their justification 
 both in clinical experience and in biologic science. While I shall in the 
 main confine my work to conclusions and their practical application, 
 certain preliminary considerations need to be stated, to form a rational 
 basis for the practical directions that follow. 
 
 Exercise and Evolution. Those conditions under which the body 
 was given its present size, shape, and structure are in general the condi- 
 tions adapted to maintaining the fullest functional activity. During 
 the unnumbered years of evolutionary time, muscular exercise in labor, 
 war, or the chase has been one of the major elements of human experience. 
 Upon neuromuscular ability the race has depended for survival, even 
 when its ancestors were in a condition of development yet more elemen- 
 tary than that of savage life. A biologist, having brought to him a 
 human body and being asked for a statement of its functions from an 
 examination of the structure, would say that both in form and function 
 the organism must have been adapted to a life of considerable muscular 
 exertion; that this appeared, first, from the proportions of the muscular 
 system; that the lungs as well as the heart indicated far more capacity 
 than would be needed for a life exclusively or even largely sedentary; 
 and, finally, that the nervous system was designed predominantly for 
 
EFFECT OF CIVILIZATION ON MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT. 3 
 
 the initiation or control of muscular movements. The health of such an 
 organism depends upon the balanced co-operation of all its parts. These 
 parts have become adjusted to a certain general balance in the activities 
 of the nutritive, neural, and muscular tissues. No argument is necessary 
 to the evolutionist to show that the necessity for muscular exercise has 
 been constant and predominant throughout the whole history of the 
 life of the species ; that it has been so constant and so large a factor in 
 adjustment to the total environment as to have had a chief share in de- 
 termining the character of the organism itself ; and that those conditions 
 which have been decisive in determining the form and functions of the 
 organism are the conditions in which it functionates the best. 
 
 The argument for muscular exercise from the standpoint of evolution | 
 is thus the strongest that can be presented. The environment of the 
 organism cannot be changed in other respects with impunity. Man 
 has become adapted to breathing air of a certain approximate con- 
 stitution, and he is at his best in this environment. He has become 
 measurably able to carry Jtiis environment with him with reference, for 
 instance, to temperature, and somewhat with reference to light; but the 
 general fact remains that perfect adaptation to environment is most 
 definitely related to health. 
 
 City and Exercise. Man has by conscious direction so utilized artifi- 
 cial coverings as to be able to maintain a certain thermic environment 
 in spite of variations in the natural temperature of the atmosphere. The 
 time is rapidly approaching when he must generally take as consciously 
 under his direction the matter of muscular exercise, because the process 
 of civilization is taking away from him those natural demands for mus- 
 cular exercise which have been its efficient ca"use during the ages of evo- 
 lution. The conditions of human life in civilized countries have changed 
 more since the development of the steam-engine than they had for 
 thousands of years previously. In the United States the proportion of 
 steam power to manual labor is represented by a steam-engine of nj 
 horse-power to every male adult inhabitant. The bulk of the heavy 
 work in the civilized world is done by machinery and not by human 
 muscles. There is still a good deal of muscular work performed, but it 
 is decreasing rapidly. It is least among the most civilized peoples, and 
 among these peoples is least among the most civilized classes. . The 
 management of machinery demands not muscular force, but muscular 
 skill and intelligence. 
 
 Occupation. In connection with this specialization, there have 
 arisen a whole group of so-called diseases of occupation, some of these 
 related definitely to the specialization itself such as writer's ccamp. 
 
4 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 In the handling of machinery the tendency is to have individuals 
 make comparatively few movements many times. The more general 
 activities of early farm life called for a far more varied set of muscular 
 movements. For example, personal experience on the farm for a short 
 period embraced the following forms of exercise : driving the cows home 
 and milking them, caring for horses and stables, sharpening tools, hand- 
 ling hay and grain with pitchfork, driving a horse-rake, digging pota- 
 toes, cleansing large milk cans, making wooden handles for tools, dish- 
 washing, building rail fence, chopping wood, helping with cross-cut saw 
 (two men), working on a threshing-machine, hoeing weeds in a potato 
 patch, husking corn, sawing wood with a buck-saw, repairing in wood- 
 work, helping to build a stone fence, digging out woodchucks, hunting 
 gray squirrels, and a multitude of minor exertions that slip the memory. 
 Let these activities be compared with those of the mill operative who 
 "tends a machine" of some kind, or with those of the salesman in a 
 store, or the clerk in a bank, and the contrast becomes evident. 
 
 Finally, it is to be remembered that the process of urbanization 
 is a progressive one, needing continually greater attention from the 
 physician. In 1790 considerably less than 4 per cent, of the population 
 of the United States lived in cities and villages. A general comparison 
 with the present condition is hardly fair because of the immense tracts 
 of sparsely settled country that have been acquired since then; but 
 in spite of this, the census of 1900 (Abstract of Census, page 38) shows 
 that only 59.8 per cent, of the population are now classified as living 
 in country districts. The change from 96 per cent, to 59.8 per cent, in 
 one hundred and ten years is instructive. The lesson is still more 
 dramatically told by a study of the urban growth in some of the more 
 stable eastern States Massachusetts has only 8.5 per cent, in country 
 districts, Connecticut 25.1 per cent., New Jersey 29.4 per cent., New 
 York 27.1 per cent., Rhode Island 5 per cent. 
 
 Schools. Another process that is rendering conscious attention to 
 muscular exercise necessary is the growth in school population, and the 
 increase in the length of time during which children go to school. In 
 1840, out of a total population of 17,069,453, there was a school popu- 
 lation of 2,025,565, or ii per cent. In 1890, out of a total population of 
 62,622,250, there was a school population of 14,768,965, or 23 per cent. 
 The normal life of the child is one of steady activity during the waking 
 hours. We are taking away for five hours a day a large part of this 
 activity. It will be shown further on that exercise is fundamentally 
 related to growth, so that the harmfulness of this lessening of exercise by 
 school limitations during the early years of life is readily seen. Not only 
 
EFFECT OF CIVILIZATION ON MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT. 5 
 
 is muscular exercise decreased by school life, but pressure is brought to 
 bear to increase the attention to psychic things. Thus, there is a coin- 
 cident decrease in muscular expenditure and an increase in lines that are 
 purely neural. 
 
 Intercommunication. There are further factors that are changing 
 the balance between the neural and muscular expenditures of the body'; 
 for instance, in modern life the growth of the news- communicating 
 agencies, shown not only in the tremendous increase in the postal 
 service, but in the development of the telegraph, the telephone, and the 
 daily press. Two kinds of results may be traced to these sources: 
 
 1. A vast increase in the amount of business done in a given time, 
 without any decrease in the necessary expenditure of thought. That 
 the modern business man accomplishes a vastly greater quantity of 
 business than his ancestors did in the same length of time is as evident 
 to those who are familiar with modern conditions as it is impossible to 
 set forth statistically. 
 
 2. News-communicating agencies bring us into contact with the 
 whole world as never before, and thus emotion, which is a peculiarly 
 exhausting form of psychic activity, is stimulated. The daily press 
 deluges our minds with the tragic occurrences of the world. Then, 
 again, the development of city life diminishes the amount of sunshine 
 that the average individual will get, and in most cases also the quantity 
 of fresh air. The tremendous growth in the use of drugs affecting the 
 nervous system reflects a corresponding increase in disorders of that 
 system. The increase in women's diseases with the progress of civiliza- 
 tion, and the decrease in the muscular work of women, are more than 
 mere coincidence, as is shown by the comparatively robust health of 
 women who do regular physical work; even when it is carried on to 
 the extent found among female acrobats working in circuses, we still 
 find great health and vigor, contrasting markedly with the health of 
 women whose lives have but little of muscular activity. Attention has 
 frequently been called to the inferiority of stock born and bred in the 
 conditions of city life. This was first pointed out by Rousseau, and has 
 been since stated repeatedly. It appears that the city is a sort of bio- 
 logic furnace which in the course of three or four generations pretty 
 thoroughly burns up vitality, and that the addition of country stock is 
 essential for the perpetuation of family life in the city. 
 
 General Results. All these differences coincident with civilization 
 and the development of the city are disturbing the balance of expenditure 
 between the neural and muscular systems. In muscular exercise triere 
 is the neural element, but in mental and emotional activity there is not 
 
6 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 the muscular. The result is a new balance in the total activity of the 
 body, a different environment with reference to activity from that which 
 the organism is adapted to, or has previously had. 
 
 Special Classes. Let us now note a little more in detail the different 
 classes in the city with reference to their physical activity. The workers 
 in factories and shops, handling machinery for approximately ten hours 
 a day, make an immense number of movements of a more or less uniform 
 character. The clerical classes bookkeepers, stenographers, salesmen 
 have considerable walking to do, handling goods, going on errands, and 
 the like. Most of them do no work that involves deep breathing or 
 quickening of the circulation. Their muscles do not have a physiologic 
 amount of labor from one month's end to another, except the small 
 muscles involved in writing or similar occupations. We find them as a 
 class with sunken chests, small arms, more or less round-shouldered, and 
 with but little physical endurance or muscular strength. The cardiac 
 muscle is not specially vigorous. Business men lead lives that are largely 
 sedentary. The burden of their work is done at the desk. Such men 
 are often fat, with protuberant abdomens. They have even less mus- 
 cular labor to perform than the clerical class. Women who work in 
 factories have already been considered. Women who do domestic 
 service have sufficient muscular activity of varied character, and so far as 
 this element is concerned nothing is needed. Mistresses of households, 
 while they are about a great deal, do so little work involving activity 
 of the large groups of muscles that these muscles are rarely in a con- 
 dition of normal vigor. Manual laborers in a community are com- 
 paratively healthy. 
 
 The object of the discussion so far is to show that in civilized com- 
 munities the environment that has been making during untold ages for 
 the present shape and functions of the human body has so changed 
 that the normal requirements of daily life for muscular activity are in- 
 sufficient to keep the organism in that condition of vigor necessary to 
 the best health ; and hence that to maintain the body in conditions of 
 health and vigor, conscious attention to this factor of environment is of 
 increasing necessity. 
 
 FUNCTION MAKES STRUCTURE 
 
 This, the well-worn formula of the evolutionist, may be applied in 
 two directions. First, it implies that to produce any given effect upon 
 the structure of the organism, we should institute exercises that are 
 calculated to achieve the desired perfection of structure. Secondly, 
 
EXERCISE IN ACCORDANCE WITH FUNCTION 7 
 
 it implies that except under certain pathologic conditions, the kind of 
 exercise best adapted to produce the balanced and healthful develop- 
 ment of the body as a whole or of its parts is, in the main, the kind of 
 exercise for which the part exercised is best adapted. 
 
 The first point needs hardly more than the statement. ' Leaving out 
 of account pathologic cases, if the heart is to be increased in structure 
 we prescribe gradually progressive exercises that make a greater de- 
 mand on the heart, with the result that it is gradually built up to meet 
 this increased demand. Upon this is founded the special work of Oertel, 
 Schott, and others. If the muscles of the upper extremities seem to be 
 deficient in size, we prescribe exercise that demands the functioning of 
 these muscles, and we expect the function to be the indirect agency that 
 shall produce growth and structure. If we find the muscles of the back 
 of a growing girl flabby and poorly nourished, with the spine in the 
 early stage of scoliosis, the first indication is to increase the power and 
 efficiency of the faulty muscles. This is accomplished by increasing the 
 function of the parts, and the structure rapidly follows the function. 
 This general law applies not only to the development of muscle-tissue, 
 but to other tissues as well. It has been shown that the bones of both 
 horses and men that do work in which power is demanded have a heavier 
 specific gravity and a greater density of structure than the bones of 
 those engaged in less laborious occupations. 
 
 The second application of this formula is that the body as a whole, and 
 each of its parts, is best exercised in accordance with its natural function. 
 The far-reaching character of this principle is not easily seen at first 
 glance. The upper extremity is obviously adapted for the handling of 
 objects. The great range of movements allowed by the shoulder-joint 
 as contrasted with the hip- joint, the structure of the forearm as compared 
 with the leg, allowing not only flexion and extension, but pronation and 
 supination in the arm, the more delicate structure of the hand, the in- 
 dependence of the phalanges, the more differentiated nerve-supnly to 
 the muscular tissue all point to a difference in function in thes two 
 organs: the lower extremity as a whole being adapted for power, the 
 upper extremity for varied action, delicacy, quickness of movement, and 
 the like. It is true that the upper extremity may be trained so that the 
 weight of the body shall be handled by it alone for considerable periods. 
 This is done by performers on the horizontal bar, the German horse, 
 rings, and the trapeze; but it is a departure from the normal function of 
 the arms and results in limitation of the movements at the shoulder- 
 joint, the stiffening of the ligaments of the hand, and general perversion 
 of function. On the other hand, it is possible to train the legs to exer- 
 
8 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 ~"\ 
 
 cises of great skill and delicacy ; jugglers who learn to handle objects with 
 bheir feet while lying on their backs accomplish this result ; but in neither 
 case are the results worth the labor expended. They are not in line with 
 the natural functions of the organs, and the best development of each 
 part of the organism is related to its natural function. Our aim should be 
 not to see what each part can be trained to do, but to get each part into 
 'ts normal condition. The body can be trained to do and to endure 
 many things that are not only useless, but harmful. Because a man 
 can learn to walk on his hands is no sufficient argument for men to 
 adopt that mode of locomotion; because the shoulder-joint can be made 
 to resemble somewhat the hip- joint is no reason why it should be made 
 to do so; so that, excepting conditions dependent upon pathologic states, 
 it may be safely said as a general proposition that the exercise of the 
 body as a whole, and of its parts in particular, should be related to the 
 natural functions of the part. 
 
 Vis naturae. With normal heredity and normal environment the 
 individual will develop a balanced organism. The constant tendency 
 of the organism is to develop along suitable lines. Upon the germ plasm 
 is written' the law of development of the individual. Environment may 
 hinder or accelerate this development : if it is one-sided or otherwise per- 
 verted, the results will be abnormal, but the essential character of the 
 protoplasm cannot be altered. This fact is of supreme importance in the 
 physical education of the young. It has been customary to measure 
 the various parts with great exactness, and then to attempt to prescribe 
 exercise that shall meet the specific needs of each part, as shown by its 
 deviation from the average of the species. Theoretic reasoning as well 
 as experience shows that such work is generally useless. What is needed 
 in normal cases is to supply normal conditions of food, rest, exercise, 
 sleep, and the like. That which is a perfectly symmetric body for one 
 person will not be so for another. When the deviations from the average 
 are so marked as to be pathologic, or when there is specific disease that 
 must be combated, the conditions are somewhat different. What are 
 now referred to are the smaller differences, which are entirely normal. 
 For instance, the fact that the left arm is a quarter or even half an inch 
 less in girth than the right arm is not a matter for special consideration. 
 If both arms be given vigorous work, they will become equal not only 
 in measurement but in power as well. This I have repeatedly demon- 
 strated upon both the growing and the full-grown organism. It is 
 commonly said that the girth of the neck and of the flexed upper arm 
 and of the calf should be the same, and some have spent much time in the 
 endeavor to secure such measurements ; but more basal than such arti- 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE 9 
 
 ficial conception of symmetry is the standard of development contained 
 in the germ plasm of each person. If vigorous all-round exercises pro- 
 duce such measurements in the individual, they are then the best for 
 that individual. If not, the endeavor to secure them is prejudicial 
 rather than helpful. In subjects of so-called nervous temperament, 
 with long, rather slender bones and small joints, the muscular pro- 
 portions differ from those in whom opposite conditions obtain, and the 
 attempt by means of artificial standards to force individuals of these 
 two types into the same physical form is most unwise. We may demand 
 similar functions from the bodies of the two, but the proportions of the 
 body will take care of themselves. It is our business to furnish a suit- 
 able environment and demand the normal functions. Natural tendencies 
 may then be depended upon to render the structure normal, or at least 
 to give it that type best adapted for the life of the individual. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE 
 
 The contraction of a single muscle involves three major elements: 
 activity in the motor center, a nerve-current to the muscle ,\ contraction 
 of muscle-fibers. Let us note the general effect of exercise in these three 
 divisions. 
 
 Effect upon the Muscle-cell. The contraction of the muscle-substance 
 \s accomplished by a mechanism as yet beyond ultimate analysis. Energy 
 is expended. Some of the highly complex cell-constituents are -broken 
 down and extruded. The cell at once proceeds to absorb from the sur- 
 rounding plasma additional food materials, particularly carbohydrates 
 and oxygen. Thus, muscular activity results in the constant change 
 of some of the essential elements of the muscle-cell itself, which is kept 
 in a state of increased efficiency proportionate to its use. Both the num- 
 ber and the size of muscle-cells are increased by exercise. The sar- 
 colemma appears to be slightly increased in strength. The growth in 
 this, the fibrous part of the muscle, is well shown in the toughness of 
 muscles taken from animals that are heavily worked as compared with 
 those that are not so worked, or with the flesh from animals that have 
 never been worked hard; the fibers being coarser and heavier, the 
 tendons thicker and less yielding, the whole muscle firmer. 
 
 General Effects of Muscular Exercise 
 
 The absorption by the muscle-cells of oxygen and carbohydrates from 
 the blood plasma has immediate and ultimate effects upon the body as a 
 whole. When muscular energy is expended, the blood is altered in consti- 
 tution. Such blood flowing through the respiratory center in considerable 
 
IO EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 quantities causes increased respiratory movements. All the muscles of 
 respiration are thus brought into immediate and often vigorous action, 
 even the accessory muscles being called on promptly when there is partic- 
 ular need of rapidly augmenting the oxygen supply. The blood circulating 
 through the lungs makes up its oxygen tension, the added activity of 
 respiration changes the air in the lungs, with the result that during exercise 
 the percentage of oxygen in the lungs is greater than usual. The contrac- 
 tion of the muscular fibers squeezes the -lymph-vessels and the smaller 
 veins so that blood and lymph are pressed onward toward the heart. 
 This, together with stimulation of the ce'nters governing circulation in the 
 medulla, causes increased cardiac activity. The quickening and deepen- 
 ing of respiration also are effective in the aspiration of the thorax. By 
 these various means the circulation of the blood is at once markedly 
 stimulated, and the arteries supplying the muscles exercised are im- 
 mediately somewhat dilated. We thus have a completely adjusted 
 mechanism for augmenting food-supply and eliminating waste. The 
 muscle-cell eliminates the products of combustion in the form of carbon 
 dioxid and of urea or some of its antecedents. These are carried away 
 by the circulation, which is now accelerated, the carbon dioxid being 
 eliminated by the lungs, the urea by the kidneys. The greater consump- 
 tion by the cell of carbohydrates and proteids affects the organism in 
 ways that are somewhat analogous to the enlarged need of oxygen, but 
 instead of causing oxygen hunger there is produced hunger for 'food. 
 Through the influence again of the vasomotor system, the whole digestive 
 tract comes eventually into a state of heightened activity, in part owing 
 to the increased blood-supply, but chiefly to direct neural stimulation. 
 The consciousness of hunger is more marked, and gradually the normal 
 individual will be led to eat more food as certainly and as definitely as 
 he is prompted 4;o breathe more air. A third group of activities is due 
 to the heat evolved by the rapid combustion in the muscles. This is 
 kept down by the dilatation of the superficial arteries and capillaries 
 which increases surface radiation. At the same time the sweat-glands 
 are influenced through the sympathetic nervous system to operate with 
 more or less vigor, throwing sweat upon the skin. The evaporation of 
 this sweat cools the body, and is a potent factor in preventing the rise 
 of the body-temperature. Thus, through muscular exercise, the function 
 of respiration, circulation, nutrition, and excretion are all profoundly 
 affected, and the heat-controlling mechanisms of the skin and sweat- 
 glands are stimulated to greater action. 
 
 Special Effects of Muscular Exercise. Let us now examine somewhat 
 more in detail certain special features of bodily exercise. 
 
SPECIAL EFFECTS OF MUSCULAR EXERCISE II 
 
 Every muscle tends to contract, even during rest. This is due to two 
 causes: the elasticity of muscle-tissue, and a certain amount of stimula- 
 tion that is constantly being sent to the muscle. The tension is greater 
 when the muscle is healthy and when its proper nerve-center is in 
 normal state, than when other conditions obtain. Again, the strength 
 of this contraction varies directly as the strength of the muscle; thus, 
 when the pectorals are developed out of proportion to the trapezius and 
 other muscles, the normal pull of the pectorals will overbalance the pull 
 of the trapezius and rhomboidei, with the result that the shoulders will 
 be drawn forward. (When the flexors of the fingers are developed far 
 more than the extensors, the fingers will hang in a semiflexed position.) 
 The tendency of much of the gymnastics of the heavy type performed 
 on gymnastic apparatus is to develop the flexors not only of the arms, 
 but of the trunk, more than the extensors, with the result not only that* 
 the hand is nearly contracted when at rest, the elbow hanging partially 
 flexed, but the shoulders are drawn forward, the spine is bent, and the 
 ribs are depressed by the action of the recti and the two obliques. In 
 order to preserve the balance of power* between the flexors and extensors 
 of the arms, and particularly of e trunk, it is necessary to give approxi- 
 mately twice as much work to the extensors as to the flexors. Thus, 
 in doing work with the pulley-weight apparatus, a person should spend, 
 approximately twice as much time tacmg the apparatus as with the back 
 to it. . 
 
 Muscles and ligarneiits^encf to assume e position during rest that 
 
 they occupy during exercise. If, for instance, the muscles of the fore- 
 arm are exercised vigorouslyin a contracted position, as they are in 
 rowing, when the man is through rowing his fingers will stay almost 
 flexed; and if he rows day after day for a good while, only with difficulty 
 can the fingers be wholly extended. The muscles that contract the 
 fingers have overbalanced the extensor muscles, and are holding these 
 fingers in the flexed condition. On the other hand, the back of a coal- 
 heaver is an illustration of muscles that are stretched, and at the same 
 time strong. The coal-heaver has developed a powerful back, but he 
 has used his back in the bent condition, so that while he has great masses 
 of muscle upon his back, it is difficult for him to straighten himself, and 
 after some years of such work he cannot do so at all. The parts have 
 become so accustomed to the bent position that they retain it perma- 
 nently. 
 
 Thus, the position taken during exercise is of the greatest importance. 
 If a person takes pulley-weight exercise with the spine in a forward 
 position, the ribs depressed, and the chest flat, that very exercise will 
 
12 ^SXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 tend to make this position a permanent one; and yet this is exactly the 
 position that uninstructed individuals commonly take in gymnasiums 
 when doing pulley-weight work. Again, work on the parallel bars, 
 particularly the bent-arm work, is usually taken with the spine flexed, 
 and with the ribs in a depressed condition, the pectorals being in active 
 contraction, as are also the muscles of the abdomen. The tendency is 
 to perpetuate in the individual the form held during the exercise. We 
 are all familiar with those who have done a great deal of such parallel 
 bar work, and have observed the flatness of their chests in spite of the 
 large development of the greater pectorals. 
 
 The general effects of exercise are in relation to the number of foot- 
 pounds of work performed. By the general effects of exercise are meant 
 the effects upon the heart, lungs, digestive organs, nervous system, and 
 general cell-metabolism. We shall not here consider the eifects of ex- 
 tended attention, or concentration of mind; that will come later on. 
 We are now considering merely the general effects of exercise upon the 
 body. I may extend my index-finger as many times as possible, until 
 I am thoroughly exhausted, without producing any great effect upon 
 my heart, lungs, or digestive organs; although I may produce an effect 
 upon my nervous system from the exhaustion that would supervene 
 from excessive work. The exercise of so small a muscle has compara- 
 tively little effect upon the great organic functions of the body. The 
 amount of mental effort put into the exercise does not appear to be 
 directly related to the activity of the heart and lungs. If I stoop down 
 and raise myself I am not at all fatigued, but I have done that which 
 has an immediate effect upon the body as a whole. The heart is in- 
 creased in action from five to twenty beats in the minute, and the breath- 
 ing is accelerated, even by a single movement of this character; there 
 has been comparatively little nervous, but a great deal of muscular, ex- 
 penditure. Such an effort might be equal to a hundred foot-pounds of 
 energy, whereas the most vigorous effort of my will might not suffice to 
 perform a hundred foot-pounds of work by the contraction of the small 
 muscle referred to before the extensor indicis. In seeking, then, the 
 general effects of exercise upon the body, we must exercise those groups 
 of muscles with which it is easiest to perform large amounts of work. 
 These are obviously the great muscular groups of the body the flexors 
 and extensors of the thigh, and the muscles of the back, abdomen, and 
 shoulders. These five groups include by far the strongest muscles in 
 the body. Upon their exercise we must chiefly depend for effect upon 
 the vital organs. Exercise of the muscles of the forearm and upper arm 
 is somewhat effective; but so much inferior are these muscles in size 
 
EXERCISE AND CIRCULATION 13 
 
 and power to the other muscles referred to, that great reliance cannot be 
 placed upon them. When muscles contract, we can foretell to a nicety 
 how much effect there will be upon the heart and lungs, if we know the 
 number of foot-pounds of energy to be expended. This is our most 
 valuable criterion. Because of their greater natural capacity for skill, 
 as well as because of the more showy character of their work, it is 
 common in gymnasiums to find chief attention given to the development 
 of the arm muscles. The fallacy of this is easily seen. 
 
 Physiologic Load. There is a load for each muscle, and for each 
 group of muscles, under which it can do its maximum of work. This 
 we call its physiologic load. It is the load under which the greatest 
 effect can be produced upon the organism. If the element of time is 
 considered, the load must be altered to correspond. There is thus a 
 physiologic load for each muscle for each length of time. It has been 
 demonstrated that muscle will contract more vigorously and effectively 
 when it is pulling a certain load than it will when contracting free; thus, 
 the advantage of working against a weight of some kind. This weight 
 can usually be the weight of the body in some form or another, except 
 in the case of the arms, which are not well adapted to handling the 
 weight of the body. For the arms we use apparatus in order to bring 
 about this contraction under a loacITand the longer the exercise is to 
 last, the lighter we make the load. It is not sufficient that we shall 
 contract the upper arm so many times; it must contract under a given 
 load in order to secure the proper physiologic result. 
 
 Exercise a Factor in Promoting the Circulation of Fluids in the Body. 
 In this respect it is second only to the contraction of the heart. In 
 the great muscle-groups of the body the lymph circulation is chiefly 
 carried on by the contraction of the muscles. These press upon the 
 lymph-spaces and urge the lymph on. The circulation of blood, as 
 well as of lymph, in the abdominal organs is accelerated by exercise and 
 by deep breathing. When the diaphragm makes large excursions, the 
 abdominal organs are alternately pressed upon and released. The 
 valves in the large veins are so arranged that the fluids can only go in 
 one direction. Thus, it is clear that the relation of deep breathing to 
 the circulation of blood in these organs is intimate. This indicates 
 the great limitations imposed upon the health of the abdominal organs 
 by anything that restricts the breathing, and one of the reasons why 
 deep breathing is so effective in bringing about a state of vigor in the 
 whole organism. Deep breathing seems to increase the freedom with 
 which the return flow of the blood from the head is effected. This 
 perhaps is not a major effect, but it certainly should be reckoned with. 
 
14 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 The quantity of oxygen absorbed that is, taken from the air of the 
 lungs into the blood plasma and into the hemoglobin varies in propor- 
 tion to the need of oxygen in the body far more than in proportion to the 
 quantity of air inhaled and exhaled at each breath. One may by delib- 
 erate effort breathe with rapidity and amplitude. The result is that the 
 air in the lungs is more free from carborTdioxid than is usual. This, 
 however, will not raise the oxygen 'absorption in the body. The oxygen 
 tension in the blood plasma remains measurably constant. The way 
 to increase oxygen absorption by the tissues is to do work -that increases 
 the breaking-down of oxygen compounds. Thus, there is more demand 
 created for oxygen, deep breathing results, and this deep breathing is 
 effective in the promotion of oxygen absorption. We thus see the 
 fallacy of expecting to rejuvenate the tissues of the body by voluntary 
 deep breathing. Such deep breathing may have useful effect in strength- 
 ening the accessory muscles of respiration; or by means of the wide 
 excursions of the diaphragm moving back and forth the abdominal 
 contents and thus affecting the vigor of these organs ; but its usefulness 
 is not primarily related to increased absorption of oxygen. 
 
 Effort on the part of individual muscles requires the fixation of the 
 thorax and thus increases intrathoracic pressure. This effectively pre- 
 vents the return of the blood to the veins leading into the thorax, and 
 produces a passive congestion, which is most noticeable in the head. 
 The staring eyeballs of a person making a vigorous effort, lasting a 
 number of seconds, are familiar to all. The filling up of the great veins 
 in the neck and head merely indicates the process that is going on all over 
 the body. 
 
 Agitation of the body tends to accelerate intestinal peristalsis and 
 hepatic circulation. This is noticed in the effect that riding a hard- 
 trotting horse has on those of sedentary habits. For this reason run- 
 ning is more effective than bicycling in its effect upon the abdominal 
 organs. Extended movements at the waist are also effective in their 
 relation to the abdominal organs, the three factors being as already 
 mentioned: increased peristalsis, increased circulation of contained 
 liquids, stimulation by means of the wide excursions of the diaphragm. 
 
 Position of the Thorax and Curve of the Spine during Exercise. When 
 the dorsal region of the spine is flexed, the ribs are depressed, the chest is 
 flat and the amount of space for the heart and lungs is less than when the 
 opposite conditions obtain; the difference in the anteroposterior diam- 
 eter in the two positions being often as much as three-fourths of an 
 inch. When the trunk is thus cramped, the heart becomes embarrassed 
 and irregular during severe exercise far more quickly than when the ribs 
 
NEUROLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS 15 
 
 and spine are both extended. This may be due primarily to the inter- 
 ference with respiration and circulation. Another point that has been 
 demonstrated clinically is that the flexed position of the spine and the 
 depressed condition of the ribs are associated with a less active process of 
 digestion and feebler peristaltic activity. It is thus of fundamental 
 importance, when we wish to secure the general effects of exercise upon 
 the body, that such exercise be taken with the spine in the erect position, 
 and the ribs well everted. The tendency during much of exercise, unless 
 there is special instruction, is to stand or sit in the flexed position. This 
 should not be allowed. 
 
 NEUROLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 Automatic and Voluntary Exercises. Movements that are made with 
 regularity and constant force are soon taken in charge by the lower 
 neural centers. They are directed by the hind-brain, or possibly by the 
 upper centers in the spinal cord. This frees not only the upper motor 
 centers, but the seat of consciousness, as well. Fatigue is more closely 
 related to exhaustion of these upper motor centers, or even of the con- 
 sciousness, than to exhaustion of the muscle-cell. Movements made 
 ' automatically have far more effect upon the body in proportion to the 
 amount of fatigue they produce than have those exercises demanding 
 constant attention. The comparative fatigue of walking upon a smooth 
 road and upon railroad ties placed at uneven distances is a familiar 
 example of this principle. The automatic nerve apparatus does not"" 
 become fatigued readily. The general effect upon the body, and the 
 effects upon the muscle-cells, the digestive organs, the organs of circu- 
 lation and respiration, etc., are, however, not affected by the source 
 of the neural stimulus to muscular contraction they are the same 
 whether the exercises be automatic or voluntary. A typical example 
 of a rhythmic exercise is bicycling at a moderate gait over a reasonably 
 smooth road after one has become thoroughly familiar with riding. The 
 somatic effect of the exercise is the same as when one is riding in a narrow 
 track, but in the latter case constant attention is demanded and fatigue 
 rapidly supervenes. Thus, physicians who have to do with individuals 
 who are, as a whole, in need of muscular exercise, but who are already 
 partially exhausted neurally, often have occasion to make large use of 
 rhythmic exercises. 
 
 The relation between neural and muscular expenditure is not con- 
 stant. Every increase in rapidity of movement calls for proportionally 
 more neural energy than muscular energy. This is well illustrated by a 
 
l6 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 person starting in the hundred-yard dash: the waiting with attention 
 strained for the pistol-shot, and then the immense rapidity of the start, 
 demand more neural energy many times over than does getting up the 
 same degree of speed more slowly. It also demands, of course, more 
 muscular energy to overcome inertia, but the neural demands are far 
 greater in proportion than are the muscular demands. One starting a 
 number of times in succession may become so fatigued that the hands 
 will tremble violently when the muscles are still comparatively fresh. 
 This is exceedingly important in the application of so-called calisthenic 
 drills. When one wishes the individual to follow the commands of the 
 leader the instant they are given, a far higher degree of attention is de- 
 manded than when he may follow more slowly. A teacher of gymnas- 
 tics who is anxious that his class shall present a creditable appearance 
 will constantly insist that the commands shall be followed instantly. 
 This is unfortunate for the pupil who already has the least tendency to 
 neural fatigue. It is harder, too, on adults or the middle-aged than on 
 young persons, because reaction-time is slower in the former classes. 
 After a drill or a set of exercises has been memorized so perfectly that 
 conscious attention is no longer needed, the conditions, of course, have 
 changed ; but pupils in the gymnasium do not usually reach this condition. 
 For this reason, from the standpoint of the general effects of exercise, 
 it is important that there shall not be great haste in the following of 
 commands, and indeed it is preferable that there be but few commands, 
 but that the work be done largely by imitation; that being the more 
 direct, simple, and neurally least expensive, form of instruction. In 
 recommending patients to take exercise in gymnasiums, great care should 
 be taken as to the character of the teaching with reference to these 
 points. When the patient is primarily deficient in muscular strength 
 or digestive ability, but has no tendency toward neurasthenia, the in- 
 dications do not preclude the utilization of exercises made upon com- 
 mand. But in the far more common cases among urban residents, in 
 which there is a tendency to nervous exhaustion, exercises of this char- 
 acter are usually, if not always, injurious. I have seen many patients 
 injured rather than benefited by them. 
 
 Moderate and Excessive Exercise. Another consideration in the 
 comparison of neural and muscular expenditure involved in a given 
 exercise relates to the effect of moderate as compared with extreme 
 activity. The law will not hold in regard to extremely light loads; but 
 leaving the latter out of consideration, the larger the muscular load, the 
 greater the comparative nervous effort in the expenditure involved. It 
 is true that even the mechanical effect of lifting 25 pounds one foot twice, 
 
EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BRAIN STRUCTURE 17 
 
 is not quite the same as that of lifting 50 pounds one foot once, and 
 hence the effects upon the muscle-cells and the viscera differ in these two 
 cases. But there is a still greater difference in the effects upon the 
 nervous system. More neural energy is demanded to cause the muscles 
 to contract once with the 5o-pound load than to contract twice with 
 the 2 5 -pound load. This matter is therefore important with reference 
 to the same class of persons mentioned under the preceding head. They 
 should be given moderately heavy work, but of sufficient duration to 
 accomplish the result, rather than be made to accomplish results with 
 a few large efforts. A common and useful test is to notice the 'hands 
 when held with fingers extended and free from each other, the arm being 
 held away from the body. If the fingers are trembling, there has prob- 
 ably been 4oo much effort. One may do considerable work, in small 
 doses, without producing this effect; but even a moderate quantity of 
 work in one or two large doses will quickly induce it, and it is then often / 
 followed by sleeplessness and indigestion. 
 
 Of how much importance is physical exercise in the development of 
 the brain? From one- third to one-half of the brain surface is concerned 
 in making muscles contract, definite areas being in relation with definite 
 muscles or groups of muscles; but this does not prevent these parts of 
 the brain from being used in other ways also. Although we know but 
 little about the function of the different portions of the brain, we do 
 know that it is necessary to have muscular exercise of any group of 
 muscles, if the corresponding nerve-center is to be developed. Careful 
 examinations have been made of the brains of subjects who had very early / 
 lost a limb, and it has been shown that the brain-centers normally active 
 in the management of the muscles of the amputated limb were never 
 developed. Hence, if the full development of the entire motor area of 
 the brain is to be achieved, the muscular functions of the body must be 
 exercised to their full capacity. Not merely must each muscle become 
 powerful, but the faculties of co-ordination and control must be devel- 
 oped. These appear to be even more closely related with the finer 
 organization of the nerve-structure, than is the exhibition of power. 
 
 There are some nerve-centers having to do with muscular con- 
 traction that ripen, without ever having the subordinate muscles in 
 active operation; for instance, the respiratory center. The new-born 
 babe finds its respiratory apparatus, neural and muscular, in perfect 
 condition for operation. It may be that when a sufficient number of 
 thousands of years have passed, the whole brain will be in the condition 
 in which the respiratory and a few of the other brain-centers are now. 
 Physical education then will be nil, and we shall look to physical exer- 
 
ig EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 cise merely as a hygienic measure to insure health, all the neuromuscular 
 mechanisms ripening and coming into perfect function through the in- 
 heritance from countless generations of ancestors. At the present dayr 
 however, varied muscular exercise is absolutely indispensable in the 
 development of the brain ; and upon the right development of the brain 
 is dependent the large bulk of our psychic activities. 
 X^HFatigue. The subject of fatigue must interest all physical trainers. 
 Muscular fatigue, as we usually speak of it, is our consciousness of the 
 .partial exhaustion of the motor centers controlling the rrfuscles that have 
 been worked. In ordinary life we do not often experience genuine 
 fatigue of the muscle-cell ; but this is not the only form of fatigue. When 
 certain brain-centers are fatigued, we can then turn to other centers, 
 centers concerned with other muscular groups, and operate them. When 
 these in turn are fatigued, we can call on still others; but long before 
 there comes the exhaustion of the motor elements for all the muscles, 
 there is another fatigue that supervenes, so that muscles that have not 
 been concerned in the activity cannot be operated with either power or 
 accuracy. This is not due merely to the presence in the circulation of 
 the 'fatigue stuffs' produced by the exhausted muscles or by their nerve- 
 centers, although this is undoubtedly an element. If we call this will 
 fatigue, it then becomes of importance to find the point in the training 
 of the muscular system at which the maximum of benefit to the physical 
 organism can be secured without appreciably lessening the power of 
 the individual as shown by his ability to will. It is a matter of common 
 observation that there is no form of exertion so exhausting as emotional 
 activity. Excitement and worry are prime factors in the production of 
 exhaustion. We shall consider later on in the detailed study of 
 various exercises their emotional aspect; thus, the difference in effect 
 of an exercise such as sparring when it is done face to face with an op- 
 ponent, and when the movements are done alone. We shall leave the 
 consideration of this point for treatment at that time. 
 
 Co-operation among Contiguous Nerve-centers. One of the most 
 potent arguments for a large amount of exercise during young manhood 
 is that nerve-centers may draw power from neighboring nerve-centers. 
 Conversely, it has been shown that exhaustion of contiguous motor 
 areas may come through the efforts of a single center so small as that 
 governing the flexor indicis, if tins activity be kefrt^up long enough. All 
 are familiar with the fact that extreme exhaustion in one line inca- 
 pacitates us in others. This may be partially explained oifthe ground 
 of fatigue stuffs being poured into the blood-current; but the far more 
 rapid recovery of animals when these fatigue stuffs have been produced 
 
f 
 
 t 
 
 */ 
 
 RELATION OF EXERCISE TO DEVELOPMENT IQ 
 
 outside the body and then injected than when mey have been produced 
 in the body, would be in line with the clinical observation already 
 mentioned. Thus, we see the great importance of the thorough develop- 
 ment of the motor area of the brain. Men of intellectual ability may 
 not have well-developed muscular systems; but it is rather unusual to 
 find men of extended intellectual capacity for work during many years 
 who have not during adolescence engaged in vigorous and extended exer- 
 cise. The motor brain seems to be a sort of battery furnishing power 
 for intellectual labor; but it furnishes endurance rather than force. The 
 natural interests of young men in exercises of an extreme character 
 would indicate to us that there is some organic need of such exercise 
 during these years, for we cannot think of such instincts having arisen 
 spontaneously ; they must have arisen by natural selection and therefore 
 meet a demand in the individual. 
 
 The kind of exercise demanded during the succeeding years of the 
 life of an individual must be related to his changing characteristics 
 throughout these years. In recommending exercise of the neuromuscular 
 apparatus from the standpoint of motor education, we must first ask the 
 question: What is the condition of this apparatus? We know that the 
 brain, spinal cord, and muscles of the new-born infant are in a far 
 different condition from those of the adult. We know that its capacity 
 for muscular activity not only differs from that of the adult in power, 
 but even more so in control. The comparatively recent efforts of the 
 neurologists have, however, given us ample ground for procedure; al- 
 though, hitherto, the physical trainers have taken but small notice of 
 this most important series of facts. 
 
 The general order of development of the motor centers seems to be as 
 follows: first, are developed those that have to do with functions already 
 reasonably perfect at birth respiration, circulation, sucking, crying, 
 and other movements that need no particular training. The motor 
 centers for the control of the skeletal muscles develop in the order of 
 their distance from the trunk; thus, shoulder before elbow, elbow before 
 wrist, wrist before fingers. There is some overlapping, but in the main 
 the progression is of this character. At birth the child has perfect 
 grasping movements, but the independent control of the fingers comes 
 comparatively late. It is not done with readiness until after seven in 
 most children. This order of development is merely that shown in 
 general by embryologic investigations. -Those movements that are 
 racially the most elementary or the most early, come first in the individ- 
 ual. The interest that the child shows in special forms of activity is an 
 excellent guide to the order of development of the motor activities. 
 
20 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 This order of development of the nervous system is important with 
 reference to educational gymnastics, because otherwise they are ab- 
 normal. Nothing but disaster can be expected if we attempt to force 
 motor education out of its natural order. The education of any part is 
 best done when that part is ripening. If this is accomplished, the part 
 may be further perfected at any time during later life. If it is not 
 accomplished, the part can never be made to reach its highest develop- 
 ment by later education. The development of the motor areas for the 
 trunk takes place during the first two or three years of life. The arms 
 and legs are pretty well under control at the age of five or six % The 
 interest of boys in marbles; in all forms of machinery; in throwing, shoot- 
 ing and similar exercises, indicates the growth of the finer motor areas 
 between the years of seven and twelve. The interest of girls during the 
 same years in sewing and playing with dolls, which involve the finer 
 activities, is an indication in a similar direction. The activity of the 
 speech center begins early, but has its greater development within the 
 first three or four years. When special attention is given to specific 
 exercises demanding skill in distal groups of muscles before the more prox- 
 imal muscles have been trained, we often find neuroses supervening. 
 Dr. Hartwell has made extended studies in regard to stammering and 
 stuttering in this relation. In former days those destined for a musical 
 career were put at their special work for instance, on the violin at as 
 early an age as four; but experience has shown that such education 
 ought not to be begun until the child is seven or eight years of age. 
 This experience is in accord with the neurologic fact just mentioned, that 
 the motor centers for the fingers and wrist begin to acquire special 
 activity after the age of eight years. The selection of voluntary exercises 
 for the development of this neuromuscular mechanism ought, then, to 
 be practically completed before the boy or girl reaches the teens, for 
 the apparatus is pretty well developed by that time. Gymnastics, so 
 called, affect chiefly the larger groups of muscles. The finer groups 
 concerned in independent finger movements, activities of the larynx, 
 facial and tongue movements, are not trained by gymnastics; their exer- 
 cise must of necessity come in other ways. The playing of games of 
 children, as we shall see later on, involves the discipline of these motor 
 centers; thus, gymnastics to be of the greatest educational value ought 
 to come during the first three or four years, or at least the first six or 
 seven years, of the child's life; but for many reasons it is obviously ab- 
 surd to attempt to have children during these years do gymnastic work. 
 We are thus driven to the conclusion that the primary object of gym- 
 nastic exercises, such as are prevalent in our gymnasiums, cannot be 
 
PSYCHIC EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 21 
 
 solely that of neuromuscular education, and that for this process of 
 education we must depend upon other agencies than voluntary gym- 
 nasium work. 
 
 Muscular Exercise and Cerebral Hygiene. As we have seen, the ab- 
 sorption of oxygen by the blood plasma and the digestion of foods are 
 both related to muscular activity. The constitution of the blood, then, 
 is related definitely to muscular activity. The power of the heart and 
 the healthy tone of the arterial system are both related to the quantity 
 of muscular exercise. These points have much to do with normal, 
 healthy cerebral activity. A vigorous heart, a respiratory system that 
 performs its functions effectively, digestive organs that keep the blood 
 rich in tissue-forming and energy -expending elements, form the material 
 basis for cerebral health. 
 
 Muscular Exercise and Vasomotor Hygiene. The vasomotor system \ 
 has been called the hub around which organic life revolves. The control 
 of the blood-supply of the body appears to govern not only activity, but 
 emotion as well. The vasomotor system appears to be the basis of the 
 emotional nature, bearing somewhat the same relation to emotions that 
 the brain does to intellect. This is in accord with the observed facts 
 that insanities are prone to begin with perverted feelings, and that the 
 wild delusions of religious devotees, hallucinations, and the like are more 
 frequently found among those who have not had vigorous muscular 
 exercise than among those that have had such exercise. A balanced 
 activity of the vasomotor system is secured only when it is called on for . 
 its normal functions in connection with the regulation of the blood-flow 
 to muscles in vigorous use. In those who take but little muscular exer- 
 cise the vasomotor system is far more liable to irregularities. One who 
 does mental work and neglects to take exercise is likely to have cold 
 hands and feet. Sane notions in regard to daily activities are thus re- 
 lated to a vigorous functioning and balance of the vasomotor system. 
 
 Muscular contraction appears to be closely related to the genesis of 
 many forms of psychic activity. Not only do the vasomotor and mus- 
 cular systems express the thinking, feeling, and willing of the individual, 
 but the muscular apparatus itself appears to be a fundamental part of j 
 the apparatus for these psychic states. Without the muscular system, 
 the necessary material for psychic activity cannot be provided. The 
 three processes of thinking, feeling, and willing are more or less closely 
 connected with a rehearsal, both neural and muscular, of the acts by 
 which the original material for the mental process came in. As G. Stan- 
 ley Hall puts it: "We think in terms of muscular action, more or less 
 remote, and all the parts that were concerned in the original activities 
 
22 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 are more or less active in the thought. Nerve currents are constantly 
 going to the muscles and coming from sense organs, all being a part of 
 the thinking apparatus." If this be true, the fulness of the neuromus- 
 cular experiences during early life would appear to be related to the 
 opportunity for later psychic range. This is borne out by the fact that 
 both in animals and in men the scale of intelligence corresponds to the 
 number of possible muscular co-ordinations. The more complicated the 
 neuromuscular apparatus, the higher the intelligence. It is true that 
 the individual profits mainly by racial inheritance of all these compli- 
 cated mechanisms ; but even so we may expect to find that the individuals 
 who live a life of psychic activity have been, on the whole, those who 
 'during early life have had a rich and full experience of muscular co- 
 ordinations. It is not difficult to perform a few simple experiments to 
 illustrate this point. If one repeats the alphabet as rapidly as possible, 
 it takes about four seconds. If, now, one thinks the repetition of the 
 alphabet, but without making any muscular movements, it takes approx- 
 imately the same length of time. During the severe effort to repeat as 
 rapidly as possible one becomes conscious that the mechanism involved 
 is the same as when repetition is actually done. One can feel the latent 
 movement if I may use the expression of the larynx, lips, and tongue. 
 To think the alphabet in terms of writing, takes about the same length 
 of time that it actually does to write it. Thus, the speed of muscular 
 movements is related definitely to the speed of our thinking; and 
 this rule, moreover, is one of those that "work both ways." It is not, 
 however, merely in reference to the intellect that the muscular system is 
 important. The sensibilities, or feelings, or emotions ar$ definitely 
 related both to muscular and to visceral states. We are accustomed to 
 think of the expression of the body, particularly the expression of the 
 face, as merely the outward manifestation of the inward state. The 
 modern psychology, however, is telling us that this muscular contraction 
 is a necessary part of the feeling itself, and that when the muscular ex- 
 pression of the feeling can be inhibited, the feeling itself is not the same. 
 Rage is not rage until it expresses itself in muscular action of some form. 
 It may be merely in the stiffening of the whole body, the clinching of the 
 hands, or the forcible compression of the jaws. When we come to the 
 regal faculty, the will, modern psychology again asserts that will must 
 express itself in terms of muscular activity, and that power of the will 
 in its origin bears a relation to firmness of muscle, to power of muscular 
 contraction. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 SPECIALIZATION IN EXERCIS 
 
 SPECIALIZATION 
 
 One of the natural tendencies of boys, girls, and young men is to 
 specialize in certain forms of interesting muscular activity rather than to 
 take exercise that symmetrically develops the whole body. This is per- 
 haps best shown by the college athlete, who not only specializes in base- 
 ball but even in a single position on the nine; or he may specialize in 
 pole-vaulting, throwing the hammer, running the mile, or any other 
 of the numerous athletic events. In the gymnasium he may specialize 
 in any single group of muscular performances, although these are not so 
 attractive to the average man. There has been far more condemnation 
 of such specialization, together with pointing out of its evil results, than 
 there has been critical study of its nature and advantages. In the light 
 of evolution it is hardly to be supposed that such general interest should 
 have arisen without there being some useful element in it. The argument 
 relative to the place of specialization in physical training can only be 
 constructed upon the general place of specialization in evolution. Spe- . 
 cialization is at the root of all evolution. It is only when the early forms 
 of animal and vegetable life begin to set apart cells for special activity 
 that they begin to rise in the scale of efficiency and intelligence. Certain 
 groups of cells that have been specially developed for the performance of 
 certain actions perform these actions- far more efficiently than would 
 otherwise be possible. This is to the advantage of the organism as a 
 whole. For this reason we find a constantly increasing specialization 
 going on in the human body. The various tissues are made up of cells 
 that have become so highly differentiated from the elementary form, 
 which has been most faithfully preserved by the amoeba, that it is with 
 difficulty they are recognized as its descendants ; but all of them are merely 
 emphasizing certain functions that were common to the original cells. 
 This is no less true of the contractile muscle-cells than of the co- 
 ordinating brain-cells, or the connective-tissue cells. Thus, the whole 
 development of the individual has been related to specialization. This 
 holds not only with reference to the body, but with reference to the 
 development of intelligence and feeling. The individual as a whole 
 also tends to specialize. It has been the common practice among 
 physical trainers to endeavor to overcome this natural tendency 
 toward specialization. It has been said that the left arm should be 
 trained to be as strong and as skilful in every way as is the right arm. 
 The practice that has been given to the perfecting of the right arm in 
 penmanship, in playing the violin, in working with machinery, and in 
 all directions that demand skill, must now be divided by two, in order 
 
24 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 that the left arm shall be as well trained as is the right. But even this 
 would not accomplish its end, because in most persons the neural appara- 
 tus governing the left side of the body does not have the capacity of the 
 right-hand side for finer organization. The ages of evolution have 
 brought to man as compared with woman special ability for throwing. 
 I have repeatedly endeavored to train the left side of the body to throw 
 a ball as readily as does the right hand ; but even with the best training 
 the ordinary man will still throw with his left hand in the same way that 
 a woman does with her right hand. But, even if we should succeed in 
 the endeavor to perfect the left hand correspondingly to the right, what 
 would be the gain? It would be at a large cost of skill on the part of the 
 right hand. The individual as a whole would not be more healthy or 
 more efficient. He would have two members both able to do the same 
 thing, and yet rarely has he need for but one of them at a time. This 
 illustration must suffice to indicate some of the limitations of the useful- 
 ness of all-round training. 
 
 The Limits of Specialization. The limit of specialization in the cells 
 of the body is easily seen. The nutritive ability of the cell must never 
 be interfered with. Any other function or every other function may be 
 altered or largely lost through specialization; but the ability to convert 
 inert matter into proper cell-substance must be retained by every cell 
 that continues to live, and the highest degree of specialization is inti- 
 mately concerned with this fundamental organic requirement for life. 
 We find this same fundamental organic need conserved in the specializa- 
 tion of the individual as a whole. Any degree of specialization that does 
 not violate this fundamental condition of nutrition, does not seem to 
 be at variance with the best needs of the organism as a whole. 
 
 In what ways may specialization in athletics or gymnastics interfere 
 with this fundamental, nutritive ability of the organism? It may inter- 
 fere with the respiration, so that the blood is not kept free from carbon 
 dioxid, and the tissues of the body rapidly degenerate because not sup- 
 plied sufficiently with oxygen. Thus, specialization which leads to the 
 breathing of bad air, or to faulty positions of the thorax, violates our 
 fundamental condition. Specialization that interferes with the circula- 
 tion by producing hypertrophy or irregular action of the heart, such as 
 we find when that organ is compelled to work under pressure, likewise 
 violates our fundamental condition. When the energy of the system is 
 drafted off to such an extent through muscular channels that the more 
 fundamental centers, which have to do with organic life, are deficient in 
 power, a condition of asthenia supervenes that is not to be tolerated. 
 This we often find in individuals who have been overtrained. But when 
 
SOMATIC HARMONY 25 
 
 these fundamental conditions are conserved, when the specialization 
 does not interfere with respiration, circulation, digestion, or the control 
 of the organic life through the nervous system, it is not only harmless 
 but eminently desirable. 
 
 Somatic Harmony. Bodily symmetry is not so desirable as bodily 
 harmony. The body is symmetrical when the two halves are precisely 
 alike in form and function. This we never find; even the two sides of 
 the face are different ; the two sides of the brain are different ; the limbs 
 are never precisely alike, and in function they vary even more than they 
 do in structure. The most perfect statues are non-symmetrical. Fig-/ 
 ures of faces in which the two sides are made exactly alike appear to be 
 lifeless. Differentiation even here has its fundamental significance. 
 Harmony exists when the different parts are so related to one another 
 as to produce a whole in which each part is exactly adapted to perfect 
 co-operation with every other part. This is the highest ideal. 
 
 If one attempts to judge any form of athletics with reference to this 
 standard, one must ask, first, Does it violate any of the fundamental con- 
 ditions of organic life? or, to put the question positively and more fairly, 
 Does it favor the fundamental conditions, the fundamental necessities of 
 respiration, circulation, nutrition, and nerve action? If it favors these, 
 it is useful from the physical standpoint. If at the same time, it interests 
 the individual, it is probably useful from a psychic standpoint. It is a 
 matter of comparative indifference that a man should always jump from 
 the left foot, or that he should use his tennis racket with the right hand, 
 or that he should always do the wolf vault to the right and the flank 
 vault to the left. These activities do not interfere with the organic 
 necessities of life, and they do favor the contraction and relaxation of 
 muscles which we have seen to be associated with healthful living. 
 Exercises that do interfere with the somatic life must be avoided, as 
 has been already pointed out. To make the left arm equal in measure- 
 ments to the right may not even please the esthetic sense, it certainly is 
 but little related to health and vigor ; but to put the thorax in that con- 
 dition in which the heart and lungs shall operate most freely is a matter 
 of the greatest importance. To keep the spine in that position in which 
 the abdominal organs shall all be maintained in normal site and relation 
 is also of great concern, and yet in past years we have given far more 
 attention to the mere matter of equalizing muscular measurements or 
 muscular strengths, and but secondary attention to the larger matters 
 which are related to the somatic life f the individual. 
 
 To state the case concretely: A man may specialize in any form of 
 gymnastics or athletics that he pleases, so long as a judicious balance is " 
 
26 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 maintained between the various nutritive functions of the body. Good 
 respiration, good circulation, good digestion, healthy but not extreme 
 nervous activity, are the desiderata, and will be considered more in 
 detail later on. To illustrate now by undesirable specialization: we 
 should prohibit exclusive specialization in such exercises as the hundred- 
 yard dash, pole-vaulting, running high or running broad jumping; and 
 v'in work on parallel bar, horizontal bar, and like forms of activity. The 
 former group of exercises calls for too much nervous expenditure, and 
 not enough of steady exercise; while the latter calls for development of 
 the shoulders at the expense of the parts below the hips, and fails to 
 provide sufficient respiratory exercise, the result being a lack of develop- 
 ment of both circulatory and respiratory systems. 
 
 Competition. One of the evils most commonly decried in connection 
 with athletics is excess in competition. A judicious balance must be 
 observed here. When the individual is suffering from any form of ner- 
 vous exhaustion, competition is unqualifiedly bad; for it increases the 
 nervous expenditure in ways already indicated, but to a heightened 
 extent. When it is for other than neural purposes that the individual 
 is to exercise, competition may form a stimulus that will maintain in- 
 terest for long periods in work which otherwise would be dropped. Thus, 
 sparring or bowling can sometimes be relied on for exercise when other 
 equally valuable forms are not sufficiently attractive to the individual 
 to induce him to persevere in them. A moderate degree of competition 
 will help rather than hinder the ordinary man. The extreme competitions 
 such as are seen in intercollegiate contests, cannot be defended upon 
 physiologic grounds; for overexertion is far more common in such con- 
 nection than in any other related to physical training. 
 
 Dosage. Only general considerations need to be discussed. Exercise 
 is too severe for the best results to be achieved if the performer does not 
 completely recover from the incident fatigue during the subsequent 
 night. The more nearly normal and vigorous the condition of the pa- 
 tient, the larger and more infrequent may be the dosage; the less habitu- 
 ated to exercise, the smaller and the more frequent the dose. 
 
 It is my practice, when working for the general vigor of a patient 
 who is entirely under my direction, to divide the daily exercise into five 
 or six doses. Each period has exercise of some particular type, although 
 all are related to the requirement of general somatic vigor rather than 
 to any technical skill. On rising, fifteen minutes of deep breathing exer- 
 cises are often taken. The patient lies flat on the floor and breathes as 
 deeply as possible ten times, then rests ten seconds. This is repeated 
 four or five times. Then with each inhalation the arms are raised to a 
 
EXERCISES FOR GENERAL VIGOR 27 
 
 line through the shoulders. This tends to help the lateral expansion of 
 the chest (Fig. i). The same number of movements is carried out as 
 in the former case. After this the arms are raised vertically, which 
 assists inspiration, and, as before, the movements are repeated four, 
 five, or six times (Fig. 2). The arm movements give the variety 
 necessary to avoid tedium. The total effect of such a group of exercises 
 is considerable, and unless the patient is already vigorous, his muscles 
 will be rendered sore. One should ordinarily begin with a quarter of 
 
 FIG. i. EXERCISE TO WIDEN THE CHEST. 
 
 FIG. 2. EXERCISE TO DEEPEN THE CHEST. 
 
 this amount, or even less, and by adding a few exercises each day, work 
 up to the full dose in the course of two weeks. During these move- 
 ments the patient has vigorously exercised the chief muscles of the 
 trunk, and has definitely stimulated the circulation through all the ab- 
 dominal organs. At first he will very probably be rendered dizzy. He 
 should work more slowly under these conditions, and a few days will re- 
 move the difficulty. 
 
 The object of the supine position is to extend the spine, as this favors 
 the expansion of the thorax. The muscles that hold the trunk erect 
 
28 EXERCISE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 are also freed from activity, and this also allows increased mobility of 
 the ribs. 
 
 At about ten in the morning a series of short fifteen-second, slow 
 runs, each run followed by absolute rest, will steadily increase the 
 general strength. In the beginning of such exercise great care must be 
 taken that the heart is not overtaxed. This exercise should be followed 
 by a bath and rest. In the afternoon a long, slow bicycle ride, or a game 
 of golf, is useful. The doses in running may be steadily increased till 
 three or four miles are covered daily at a steady dog-trot. 
 
 The general principle consists in beginning well within the ability of 
 the patient, and by steadily increasing, small doses, at frequent intervals, 
 to train up the whole organism to greater power. This general principle 
 can be adapted to the daily requirements of life, as to business, meals, 
 etc. A routine of gymnasium exercise with pulley- weight or other appa- 
 ratus may well take the place of one period of exercise, although exercise 
 out-of-doors is generally more useful than work indoors. 
 
 Often patients wish work of a vigorous type prescribed that will en- 
 able them to do all they can in a few moments. The evils of this are 
 that the neural expenditure will usually exceed the muscular; sufficient 
 time is not taken to allow the thorough flushing of the parts with fresh 
 lymph, and the immense benefit of long-continued forced or full breath- 
 ing is lost. In such cases the individual has merely added to his daily 
 work a certain amount of muscular labor. In all cases in which bodily 
 health and vigor are sought this is a dangerous experiment, and will 
 probably result in still further reducing the stock of vitality. It must 
 be remembered that muscular labor, like all other forms of exertion, is 
 expensive, not recuperative, of energy. Muscular exercise is useful, then, 
 only when the organism has both time and power to rebuild the tissue 
 broken down by it. To add muscular exercise to the daily routine of 
 one already overworking is bad therapeutics. In my own experience 
 it has resulted in hastening the oncoming of the general disability which 
 it was intended to prevent. 
 
 In order, then, for muscular exercise to be useful in the case of over- 
 worked persons, the following conditions must be fulfilled: 
 
 1 . Sufficient diminution of other work, so that the organism is free to 
 devote its energy to the constructive processes that should follow 
 exercise. 
 
 2. The adaptation of the quantity of the exercise to the recuperative 
 powers of the individual. This will be found to be a constantly increas- 
 ing quantity. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 MATERIA GYMNASTICA; SPORTS AND GAMES; SYSTEMS OF 
 
 GYMNASTICS 
 
 Walking and Running; Calisthenics; Pulley-weight Exercises; Heavy 
 Gymnastic Apparatus Exercises; Track and Field Athletics; Athletic 
 Games; Wrestling, Boxing, and Fencing; Bicycling; Golf; Horseback- 
 riding; Bowling; Rowing. Relation of Physical Exercise to Age and 
 Sex. Baseball, Cricket, Hockey, Shinney, Basket-ball, and Football. 
 Characteristics of Hygienic Gymnastics: School Gymnastics. Training 
 Medically Considered: i. Condition; 2. Habit; 3. Strength; 4. En- 
 durance. Systems of Gymnastics: German Gymnastics; Swedish Gym- 
 nastics; English Physical Exercises; Delsarte; Sargent; Emerson; Young 
 Men's Christian Associations. 
 
 Let us now examine briefly the characteristics of the chief forms of 
 general muscular exercise available for ordinary use. The following 
 'classification may serve for practical purposes, although open to theo- 
 retic objections: 
 
 1 . Walking and running. 
 
 2. Calisthenic exercises Indian clubs, dumb-bells, wands. 
 
 3 . Pulley- weight exercises. 
 
 4. Heavy gymnastic apparatus exercises. 
 
 5. Track and field athletics. 
 
 6. Athletic games. 
 
 7. Wrestling, boxing, fencing. 
 
 8. Bicycling. 
 
 9. Golf, horseback-riding, bowling, rowing. 
 
 i. Walking and Running 
 
 In many gymnasiums formal marching is much^affected. In order that 
 the command may be obeyed promptly, close attention is necessary, and 
 although in the course of time obedience becomes automatic, this con- 
 dition is rarely reached in the ordinary gymnasium. Whenever great 
 precision is demanded, particularly when the commands are to be exe- 
 cuted with absolute uniformity, close attention to the orders is necessary. 
 
 29 
 
30 MATERIA GYMNASTICA 
 
 Hence, as the chief effects of this exercise are neural, it should not be 
 indulged in by patients who are nervously overworked. Simple march- 
 ing without complicated commands or movements, especially without 
 rapid movements, appears to be unobjectionable from the physiologic, 
 as well as from the psychologic, viewpoint. 
 
 Walking is the form of exercise most generally utilized. The effects 
 vary according to speed, duration, and the character of the ground 
 passed over. When the walk is not too rapid for the natural swing of the 
 leg to bring the foot forward at the completion of each step, it is a very 
 moderate exercise. The support of the pelvis upon the legs in alter- 
 nation is an entirely automatic process ; cardiac activity is somewhat, but 
 not greatly accelerated; and the respiration is quickened in proportion 
 to the energy expended. The objection commonly raised against walk- 
 ing as a general exercise is that the arms are not used, and that the 
 muscles of the trunk receive no exercise. During rapid walking, on the 
 other hand, the arms are used continuously; at each stride the pelvis is 
 slightly rotated in order to lengthen the stride; the psoas magnus and 
 the long head of the rectus femoris are called into active operation in 
 pulling the thigh forward, while the action of the same muscles is needed 
 to pull the leg forward, particularly at the end of the step. The general 
 discussion under the head of specialization has shown that exercise of all 
 the muscles of the body is not indispensable, but that the important 
 element is the exercise of large groups of muscles. This is accomplished 
 to a large extent by walking, particularly by walking as rapidly as four 
 miles in the hour. When much exercise at this rate seems inadvisable, 
 the same result can be attained by interrupting the walk with frequent 
 rests. This point has been discussed under the head of dosage. 
 
 The agitation of the body at every step tends directly to stimulate 
 the functions of all the abdominal organs. In this respect, walking far 
 excels bicycling, in which the body is relatively motionless being sup- 
 ported on the tuberosities of the ischium. When the patient can utilize 
 the advantages of a hill, walking can be made even more effective than 
 on the level. There is no better or quicker way of modifying the great 
 organic functions of respiration, circulation, and digestion than by walk- 
 ing up a grade. This should be done with frequent rests in order to 
 prevent embarrassment of the cardiac or pulmonary systems; but for 
 reasons already discussed under dosage it is important that the exer- 
 cise be sufficient to call for steady, conscious effort. 
 
 The effects of running differ from those of walking somewhat in 
 kind, but even more in degree. In running at any ordinary rate of 
 
CALISTHENICS 31 
 
 speed the leg does not have to be pulled forward at each stride; and, 
 on the other hand, the up-and-down motion of the body is greater in 
 running than in walking; thus, the effect upon the abdominal organs 
 is greater, the energy expended is greater, and the effect upon the gen- 
 eral system is more marked. The increased activity of the diaphragm 
 also stimulates the circulation of blood in the abdominal organs. Run- 
 ning should not be pursued to the point of circulatory or respiratory 
 embarrassment, not only because of the effect upon these organs them- 
 selves, but because at this point great effort of the will is necessary to 
 force the individual to continue; it is thus neurally exhausting. The 
 maximum of general effect is secured by a series of short runs with 
 complete rest between, rather than by walking slowly for a long dis- 
 tance. Rapid running so quickly exhausts the organism as to be but 
 little suited for general exercise. 
 
 Alternate slow running and walking meets so many of the conditions 
 of general exercise, both negative and positive, that I am confident it will 
 have a large place in the future as it has had in the past in general exer- 
 cise. It is not of prime necessity that the muscles of the arms be greatly 
 exercised. Slow walking with running brings into play the general 
 activities of the body in an excellent way. In gymnasiums having no 
 running track it is possible to have a large number running on the gym- 
 nasium floor by means of what is called 'maze running.' 
 
 2. Calisthenics 
 
 Although it is convenient to classify together the different forms of 
 calisthenics, they vary much in respect to each other. The primary 
 consideration is in regard to the movement of the trunk. If the legs 
 and body remain stationary, the apparatus and arms alone are moved. 
 The exercise in this case is then generally of a moderate character, and 
 dependent more upon skill than upon strength. On the other hand, 
 when the whole body is moved, the exercise acquires a far more vigorous 
 character, although it may still retain its characteristics in regard to 
 the demand of skill. When the body remains stationary, and in each 
 hand is a light wooden dumb-bell or Indian club, the muscular exercise 
 is insignificant. If the movements are complicated and follow each 
 other with speed, the neural expenditure is large. Those forms of 
 exercise which one is most likely to see in girls' schools are often of a 
 beautiful character, done with grace and precision, but are little adapted 
 for the purposes of hygienic exercise or the stimulation of the general 
 functions of the body. They depend more upon memory, upon skill, 
 
32 MATERIA GYMNASTICA 
 
 upon instant attention, than upon muscular power. When, however : 
 the body is swayed or swung at each movement, there is added to the 
 slight weight of the apparatus the weight of the whole body. When the 
 floor is touched with the dumb-bells at every fourth movement, no 
 matter what the other movements may be, it means that the weight of 
 the body must be raised approximately 18 inches, which implies a con- 
 siderable degree of muscular labor, and therefore secures the general 
 effects of exercise. 
 
 Exercises with calisthenic apparatus may be difficult, first, because of 
 the muscular effort demanded; second, because of the accuracy with 
 which the movements must be executed; third, because of the demands 
 made on the attention and on the memory. It is therefore difficult to 
 pass on the value of calisthenics as a whole. When the desideratum 
 is the general effect of exercise upon the individual, the drill should 
 primarily call for exertion of the large groups of muscles of the legs and 
 trunk, and not primarily for either accuracy or memory or attention. 
 In prescribing exercise and in recommending a course of gymnastics 
 this point should be kept clearly in mind, for serious nervous collapse has 
 often been accelerated by means of exercise the primary effects of which 
 were not muscular but neural. Calisthenic exercises prepared for ex- 
 hibition purposes must almost of necessity be of this latter type; for 
 they are more beautiful, and appeal to the public mind in a way that the 
 more vigorous but less accurately executed movements of a larger type 
 cannot. The movements should be performed by the leader and then 
 imitated by the class rather than done to command, when it is desired to 
 increase the muscular and decrease the neural expenditure. When 
 calisthenic drills have to be memorized, it is again unfortunate for the 
 individual who wishes to escape neural expenditure. I have seen pre- 
 scribed for a group of young ladies calisthenic exercises that took twenty- 
 three minutes to execute. These movements were done to count, each 
 person keeping the count in her own mind. After a certain number of 
 counts each movement was changed without any command from the 
 leader, each pupil depending upon her own memory to execute the proper 
 movement. Thus, to the comparatively insignificant amount of mus- 
 cular exercise demanded by the particular drill in question, there was 
 added a somewhat complicated intellectual operation, which is exactly 
 what is to be avoided. The general effects of exercise are to be attained 
 by calisthenic drills only when the great muscles of the back and 
 thighs and of the shoulders are brought constantly and vigorously into 
 action. 
 
 In Indian club work, when the clubs are light and swung without 
 
PULLEY-WEIGHT EXERCISES 
 
 33 
 
 movement of the body, there is little effect upon the organism as a whole. 
 Swinging heavy Indian clubs, however, that cannot be handled by the 
 small muscular group of the hand and forearm, is accomplished "By the 
 larger groups of the trunk and shoulder, the hand and wrist in this case 
 being merely used as prehensile organs. Exercise with clubs of a heavy 
 character cannot, of course, be so complicated as it can be when the clubs 
 
 FIG. 3. EXERCISE FOR DORSAL MUSCLES. 
 
 FIG. 4. PULLEY WEIGHT. 
 
 are light; thus, we increase the muscular and decrease the neural effect 
 by such a change. Hence, work with heavy Indian clubs has more 
 general effect upon the body than work with light clubs. 
 
 3. Pulley- weight Exercises 
 
 There is a large class- of gymnastic machines the central element of 
 which is a weight attached to a rope that passes over a pulley. To the 
 
34 
 
 MATERIA GYMNASTICA 
 
 distal end of the rope is affixed a handle or some other means of attach- 
 ment to the individual. The weights are usually variable, depending 
 upon the load that it is desired to give to the muscle and the size of the 
 muscular group to be exercised. The general object of all pulley -weight 
 exercises is to isolate special groups of muscles. This end is largely, 
 although not entirely attained. The so-called Zander machines used most 
 extensively in Sweden accomplish this end more perfectly than any 
 others; but they are used so exclusively in connection with medical 
 
 FIG. 
 
 5. EXERCISE FOR SHOULDER 
 MUSCLES. 
 
 FIG. 6. ALTERNATE ARM-EXERCISE. 
 
 gymnastics that they should be considered under that head. 
 
 The pulley -weight exercises deserve to be viewed by themselves. They 
 exercise muscles in anatomic groups, rather than in such combinations as 
 are found in the ordinary gymnastic and athletic exercises. Putting a 
 dumb-bell to the floor and lifting it again is a single operation physio- 
 logically, but anatomically it involves the co-operation of most of the 
 large groups of muscles of the body. 
 
 The object of isolating the muscular groups is that each may be 
 given precisely that load which is best adapted for its own develop- 
 ment, and thus to produce the maximum of effect upon it. Another 
 
PULLEY-WEIGHT EXERCISES 
 
 35 
 
 reason is that when exercise is of a local character, it is possible for the 
 vasomotor system to direct to the muscles involved a larger blood- 
 supply than is possible when many groups are exercised at once. The 
 dilatation of arterioles supplying groups of muscles in exercise is effec- 
 tive only when there are not so many groups exercising at once as to 
 demand the bulk of the blood-supply. In the latter case all that can be 
 done is, by means of increased cardiac activity and the limitation of the 
 blood-supply to the abdominal organs, to send a greater proportion of the 
 total quantity of blood to the muscles in general. This accelerates the 
 general circulation of the body. It thus appears that the food-supply of 
 
 f IG. 7. EXERCISE FOR LUMBAR MUSCLES. FIG. 8. EXERCISE FOR BACK AND WAIST. 
 
 any given group of muscles may be temporarily increased more rapidly 
 when this group is exercised alone, as is done by pulley-weights, than 
 when it is exercised coincidently with a large number of other groups. 
 In the movement referred to stooping to the ground and rising again 
 muscles belonging to both sides of the trunk and to all the limbs are 
 brought into play. The result is an increase of the circulation through- 
 out the whole body. This, however, does not correspond to the degree 
 of local physiologic effect that is produced when these same groups are 
 exercised separately. We thus see the primary indication for the use 
 of pulley-weight machines. They are excellent to develop weak parts, 
 
36 MATERIA GYMNASTICA 
 
 to bring into activity muscular groups that for some particular reason 
 are behind their fellows. It is possible in connection with the various 
 attachments of these pulley-weight machines to exercise almost any of 
 the larger groups of muscles of the body and limbs. By taking them in 
 rotation, all the muscular groups may well be exercised in succession. 
 There is, however, another way in which these machines may be 
 used with a resultant effect that is quite different. In using a dumb-bell 
 advantage is taken of the downward pull of gravity to furnish work for 
 the muscles. In the same way exercises of a general character may 
 be done with these pulley-weight machines, the difference between them 
 and the dumb-bell being that with the former the pull is lateral instead 
 of vertical. A ten-pound dumb-bell is equivalent to a ten-pound weight 
 on the end of a rope, but in the case of the pulley-weight the pull is 
 
 FIG. 9. PARALLEL BARS. 
 
 exerted in a horizontal direction. This fact may be taken advantage 
 of in altering some of the muscular leverages of the body by one of the 
 so-called 'chest -weight' machines. These are pulley-weight apparatus 
 in which the handle is approximately at the height of the shoulders. 
 Let a person stand sideways to one of these machines and take the 
 handle with the proximal hand, pull it to the floor, extend it along the 
 floor as far away from the machine as possible, then lift the handle as 
 far vertically as possible, and ultimately let the handle come back to its 
 original position. In this we have a movement as general in its effect 
 upon the muscles involved as any done with the dumb-bells. The 
 effect upon the muscles of the trunk differs, however, in that the effort 
 involves far more of a lateral pull than when it is merely gravity that is 
 being resisted. Such an exercise is not a movement of muscular iso- 
 lation, and it therefore produces the general effects of exercise upon the 
 
HEAVY GYMNASTIC APPARATUS 37 
 
 body and its organs. There are, moreover, mental reasons for the use 
 of such apparatus. Many patients require that something shall be done 
 which appears impressive. The power of suggestion is most potent even 
 in the attainment of physiologic results from exercise. 
 
 One of the most common difficulties in connection with the use of 
 these machines is the tendency of most individuals to stand with the 
 thorax in an unphysiologic position while going through the exercises. 
 In prescribing such exercises particular attention must be given to this 
 point. The spine should be kept rigidly erect, with the thorax in the so- 
 called active position. 
 
 The use of pulley-weight exercises appears to be but slightly expensive 
 from the neural standpoint, far less so than more complicated exercises 
 
 -IP 
 
 FIG. 10. GERMAN HORSE. 
 
 requiring less muscular effort. This indicates one direction of their 
 usefulness. Business or professional men wishing a general exercise, or 
 one preliminary to general exercise, may be given a series of movements 
 that shall in quick succession exercise the chief muscular groups of the 
 body, and thus prepare them gradually for more vigorous exertions. 
 
 4. Heavy Gymnastic Apparatus 
 
 It is somewhat difficult to characterize the whole subject of ap- 
 paratus work, as it varies not only with the kind of apparatus used, 
 but also with the way in which it is used. In general we may say that 
 the object of the apparatus is to afford a stationary support or base of 
 operation for the body. Gymnastic work is thus in contrast with 
 calisthenics, in which the apparatus is moved while the body remains 
 relatively stationary. 
 
38 MATERIA GYMNASTICA 
 
 Let us examine, first, apparatus exercises in which the individual is 
 engaged for from ten to twenty seconds continuously. During this time 
 the weight of the body is supported almost continuously by the arms. 
 On the rings or horizontal bar, or suspended ladder, the arms are largely 
 overhead; on the horse, or low bar, the arms are held downward; but in 
 both cases the weight is supported from the shoulders. It is the general 
 agreement that such exercise persisted in continuously for a long time leads 
 to enlargement of the shoulder and strengthening of its ligaments, limita- 
 tion of the freedom of its movements, and the pronounced development 
 of the flexors of the fingers so that the latter are usually held in an almost 
 flexed position. Referring back to one of our original propositions, that 
 function makes structure, we see that the supporting of the weight of the 
 body with the arms has resulted in so changing the shoulder-joint as to 
 make it better adapted for the handling of the weight of the body, in 
 this respect becoming more like the hip-joint. If we admit that each 
 part of the body should be exercised in accordance with its natural 
 function, we should condemn such exercises; for the arms have been 
 developed through the handling of objects other than the body. In their 
 natural state the muscles of the arm and chest are competent to hold the 
 body temporarily, but not to do the work demanded of them in heavy 
 gymnastics. 
 
 If, now, we use the apparatus somewhat more as an obstacle to 
 get over or around than as something to rest upon, each exercise 
 lasting but a second or two, we shall change the character of the 
 work, and shall overcome the difficulties referred to. It is perfectly 
 physiologic to have the arms support the body for a moment, as in 
 vaulting or climbing, in which the. arms and legs are used alter- 
 nately. This brings us to the desirable type of apparatus work, which 
 affords variety without lessening the general effects of exercise. The 
 result is obtained by a larger number of exercises of a more moderate 
 character. Lifting a weight with the two legs is as much exercise as 
 raising it with one arm. The same number of foot-pounds of energy 
 is expended in the two cases. When the weight is raised by the legs, 
 large masses of muscle are used the work is thus done easily; when it 
 is done by one arm, comparatively small masses of muscle are engaged, 
 hence it is done with difficulty. It is not to be understood that exercises 
 involving more than momentary support by the arms should never be 
 used. An individual who has worked for a year or two will naturally 
 develop in accordance with the growth of his own strength and apti- 
 tude. A man with small hips and light legs will do readily what a man 
 of different build could not accomplish without unwise straining. In 
 
SPORTS AND GAMES 
 
 39 
 
 general, however, more substantial and better results, especially as to 
 the heart and lungs, are achieved by quick apparatus work with mo- 
 mentary arm support than by exercises under the opposite conditions. 
 
 5. Track and Field Sports 
 
 Actual competition differs much from training. That which I shall 
 speak of now is the result of the exercise that a man gets who practises 
 moderately. Track and field sports correspond to the more elementary 
 activities of savage life running, jumping, throwing, and the like. 
 They involve psychic characteristics that differentiate them from 
 gymnastics. There is a joy in doing them that is not usually found in 
 gymnastics. 
 
 The quantity of exercise to be derived from any given sport is so- 
 limited that sports do not appear to be suited for general exercise. It 
 is difficult for a high jumper to do enough high jumping alone to get 
 general exercise out of it. The jumping is not interesting unless it is 
 high enough to involve an effort in each jump. If it is so high as this, 
 then it is more an exercise of will, co-ordination, and nerve-force than of 
 muscle. A man coming from such exercises, especially when they have 
 been extreme, will find his hands trembling, and will show other signs of 
 neural rather than of muscular fatigue. It may be said that a man 
 should simply make moderate efforts, that he should make none of the 
 extreme efforts that call for the undesirable neural expense. The answer 
 to this is that the formation of such habits is detrimental to the real con- 
 test ; that the man who trains himself to run slowly will form habits of 
 running slowly, so that he will never be able to run with greatest speed. 
 
 Training for long-distance running is an exception to much of what 
 has been said about track and field sports. This sport calls almost ex- 
 clusively for general, rather than for local exercise. 
 
 If a man will run quickly through a variety of sports jumping a 
 little, putting the shot a little, pole-vaulting a little and not try too 
 hard in any one, he will get a good deal of exercise out of the pastime. 
 But the number of men content to do this is small. Young men before 
 they are twenty-five, who are in the period of final ripening of the neuro- 
 muscular mechanism, thoroughly enjoy the keen competition of these 
 sports. For such individuals, it is my belief that the sports themselves 
 are beneficial. 
 
 6. Games 
 
 It is not possible to characterize the physical activities of games as a 
 whole. They vary from the intense labor involved in football to the 
 
40 SPORTS AND GAMES 
 
 almost exclusively intellectual occupation of chess. We are not now con- 
 cerned with the more intellectual games ; we liave to do with those which 
 involve muscular power * The amount of work that can be done without 
 fatigue during games is astonishing. This is especially evident when one 
 considers the fatigue that results from tlie same amount of muscular 
 work done under the immediate control of the conscious will. 
 
 Basket Ball. There is no game that demands more varied and con- 
 stant muscular exercise than basket ball; hence, we must note its 
 qualities. The muscular work demanded by basket ball is varied; the 
 large muscles of tne back are contracted frequently in stooping; the 
 muscles of the abdomen are exercised vigorously every time the individ- 
 ual starts to run ; the arms are in constant motion handling or endeavor- 
 ing to handle a light object, occasionally in defending the body from 
 running into a piece of apparatus; the legs are in constant and varied 
 activity, and there is great call for action of the heart and lungs ; there is 
 much agitation of the abdominal organs. In these respects /basket ball 
 is an ideal exercise! The game has a minimum of local effect. We 
 rarely find muscular groups built up by basket ball, although the game 
 calls for the activity of nearly all of them. It does put them all in a con- 
 dition of vigorous functioning ability, but it does not usually increase 
 tissue. It does increase the power of the circulatory and respiratory 
 apparatus. The game, when played under conditions of intense com- 
 petition, involves a strain on the attention, exceedingly rapid starting 
 and stopping, so that the neural expense is great; it is here that basket 
 ball experts chiefly suffer. Before a person is able to play well enough 
 to be a member of a team in which there is intense competition, he has 
 played for a sufficiently long time to become somewhat habituated to it ; 
 still the nervously exhausting effects are common. It should be recalled 
 that the game is expending these efforts in lines to which the race, if not 
 the individual, is accustomed; and that - accordingly nothing like the 
 same effect is produced by an equal degree of concentration here, as it 
 would be if spent in other lines. This point is important, but has 
 possibly not been much considered heretofore. The same degree of con- 
 centration and effort directed in most other lines would quickly exhaust 
 the individual. Even in basket ball few persons are able to stand two 
 intense games a week. 
 
 When the game is played rapidly, the organ that is the most over- 
 worked appears to be the heart, and it is doubtful if this difficulty can be 
 obviated without altering the game as a whole. Allowing one minute's 
 rest for every five minutes of play might help, but even here the absolute 
 quantity of work done by the heart remains the same. For a person who 
 
WRESTLING, BOXING, AND FENCING 41 
 
 shows any sign of nervous exhaustion, the intense competition of any 
 such game as basket ball must prove unqualifiedly injurious. If we re- 
 move the more intense competitions, and use more of the recreative 
 element, we achieve an excellent physiologic, neural, and psychic result. 
 
 This discussion of basket ball may perhaps serve to indicate the 
 general characteristics of useful games, and the way in which one can 
 arrive at conclusions in regard to their usefulness. The following ques- 
 tions answered about any given game will give useful information : 
 
 Does it involve frequent contraction of the great muscular groups 
 of the body? Does it demand moderate efforts? What are its effects 
 upon the heart and lungs? Does the game keep the chest in such a 
 position as to interfere in any way with the functions of circulation and 
 respiration? Are the various series of contractions intermittent, so that 
 the muscles have time to recover their tone, and are not overcome by 
 fatigue? Is the danger of competition such as will lead men to excessive 
 expenditure? Are there any parts of the body that are so called into 
 action as to render their development excessive ? Is the game adapted to 
 the stage of life of the individuals for whom it is designed ? . 
 
 7. Wrestling, Boxing, Fencing 
 
 Putting these exercises in the order of muscular strength, and the 
 inverse order of skill demanded, we say; first, wrestling; second, sparring; 
 third, the various forms of fencing. Actual work in any of these three 
 is so dangerous, and accidents are so common, that only practice or 
 training, as distinguished from contesting, is to be considered as available 
 for exercise. 
 
 Wrestling is so much a matter of weight as to be done always in 
 classes, and it is but rarely that a man of one class is fitted to compete 
 with those of a heavier class. The individual efforts are great; they 
 follow each other rapidly, and the exercise therefore violates some of our 
 fundamental laws. It may not, however, be at all out of place to have 
 wrestling movements done in pairs in gymnasium work, no throws being 
 allowed on the floor, holds and breaks alone being counted. The great 
 interest that most people have in these exercises is evident to all. It is 
 to be explained upon the hypothesis of their importance from the racial 
 standpoint. No other exercises are so likely to be associated with anger, 
 because, I suppose, anger was associated with fighting in the beginning; 
 and it is only one of the achievements of modern civilization that a great 
 battle can be fought without personal animosity between those in charge. 
 
 Sparring. Anger has been associated with fighting so long that one 
 instinctively comes into a state of mind of belligerency and readiness for 
 
42 SPORTS AND GAMES 
 
 anger even when practising sparring. Sparring demands more from the 
 nervous system and less from the muscular than does wrestling, although 
 both of these demand much from the heart and lungs. 
 
 Fencing demands a maximum from the nervous system, and not a 
 great amount from the muscular system. The thighs are held in a position 
 that is fatiguing, more from holding the positions than from the active 
 exercise involved. This static contraction of muscle is far more ex- 
 pensive than contraction with relaxation, because it demands the 
 steady innervation of the groups involved, as well as because it does not 
 favor the circulation of the blood and lymph. Those who fence much 
 acquire a more or less marked scoliosis, a lowering of one shoulder, and 
 an undue development of the fencing arm. The attention must be held 
 in fencing as in no other exercise. It must never for a moment be re- 
 laxed. The movements must respond with the greatest speed to the 
 direction of the will. Thus, we get the maximum of neural expenditure 
 with a comparatively small amount of muscular work. This does not 
 appear to obtain in practising the single-stick drills and other exercises, 
 which are really calisthenics done in the form of fencing, but appear to be 
 more interesting than most other forms of calisthenic exercises. 
 
 Thus, with reference to track and field athletics as well as these 
 three combative exercises, it may be possible to secure gymnasium work 
 from them that shall be definitely interesting and valuable on account 
 of the psychologic setting of these activities in the history of the race. 
 
 8. Bicycling 
 
 So soon as the wheel has been thoroughly mastered, riding becomes 
 largely an automatic process. The chief labor is accomplished by the 
 extensors of the thigh and leg. These being large groups of muscles, 
 the circulation and respiration as well as the general nutritive activities 
 of the body are stimulated, the acceleration being directly in propor- 
 tion to the number of foot-pounds of energy expended. Pursued at a 
 moderate gait, and for moderate distances, bicycling is in many respects 
 an ideal exercise. So soon as the speed becomes extreme, as with all 
 other exercises, we find neural expenditure becoming great, for the 
 motor centers must be consciously stimulated and the 1 attention must 
 constantly be given to the work itself. This is equally true when 
 the exercise is unduly prolonged. When one becomes accustomed to 
 the wheel, riding from ten to fifteen miles daily, at the rate of seven to 
 eight miles an hour, over a good road, is moderate exercise. Riding 
 more than twelve miles an hour even on a good road is rather severe 
 exercise. Since the production of saddles that allow the weight to be 
 
BOWLING 43 
 
 sustained by the tuberosities of the ischium, objections that formerly 
 obtained in regard to the wheel have been largely removed, and thus do 
 not need discussion here. One respect in which walking and running 
 are better than bicycling is that the trunk is agitated far more by the 
 former exercises than by bicycling. Thus, circulation in the abdominal 
 organs is stimulated more in the one case than the other. 
 
 9. Golf 
 
 One of the forms of exercise now coming into great popularity is golf. 
 It needs no extended discussion, for its advantages and limitations are 
 manifest from previous discussions. It involves considerable time 
 spent out-of-doors, hence is exceedingly advantageous. It involves a 
 large amount of walking; the attention is constantly engaged, and is 
 thus kept from reverting to business and other cares. This is a great 
 point in its favor. The exercise involved in it, while somewhat extended, 
 is of a moderate character. It is thus evident that there are few exer- 
 cises that afford such excellent opportunities for middle-aged men and 
 for women of all ages, for whom more severe exercise would be out of 
 the question. Its great advantage is that interest in it is maintained 
 for years. 
 
 Horseback-riding 
 
 The peculiar effect of horseback-riding is due to the up-and-down 
 motion of the horse, which agitates the abdominal organs. This is 
 effective in proportion as the gait of the horse is hard or easy. The 
 necessity for the balancing of the trunk while gripping the saddle 
 with the knees, gives to the rider the general effects of exercise. In its 
 effect upon the abdominal organs, notably the liver, we get marked 
 results from horseback-riding. The gait most active therapeutically 
 is, of course, the trot. There is a kind of delight that many persons 
 take in this exercise that is in its favor, and must be borne in mind in 
 ordering it. 
 
 Bowling 
 
 This is a form of exercise often exceedingly enjoyed by business and 
 professional men, although not so much so by young men. Unfortun- 
 ately, the ventilation in bowling alleys is usually poor. The exercise 
 is moderate and in the main excellent, although it is of a somewhat one- 
 sided character. I have failed to see any unfortunate results from 
 bowling even when it is indulged to some excess. The interest in the 
 game is such as to warrant its being used as a general form of exercise. 
 
44 SPORTS AND GAMES 
 
 Rowing 
 
 Ordinary rowing in a row-boat differs markedly from the effects of 
 rowing when it is done in a shell on sliding seat and at racing speed. In 
 the former case, it may be classed as a general exercise of moderate 
 severity, with particular effect upon the forearm, shoulders, and back. 
 In the latter case it is an exercise of great severity, with chief effect upon 
 the thighs, back, and forearm, and particularly upon the heart. For 
 purposes of general exercise, this latter style of rowing may be left out 
 of account. The one important point to be kept in mind in connection 
 with ordinary rowing is that the back should be kept flat; for in 
 this condition alone are the heart and lungs operating to the best 
 advantage. 
 
 Relation of Physical Exercise to Age and Sex. Let us now consider the 
 application of the whole foregoing discussion in relation to age and sex. 
 Let us follow the needs of the growing organism from infancy to old 
 age, observing the place that muscular exercise has in each period. In 
 general, it may be said that the importance of muscular exercise de- 
 creases with every succeeding year of life. The infant without mus- 
 cular exercise would fail to develop fundamental physical as well as 
 psychic qualities. All that is needed for the exercise of the infant is 
 opportunity. Freed as much as possible from the restraints of clothing, 
 the infant should be allowed to play freely for considerable periods 
 every day. The instinctive play of mothers with their children seems 
 to be an entirely rational process, an agency which through natural 
 selection has tended toward the development, and hence the survival, of 
 the young. The study of these instinctive mother-plays form an inter- 
 esting commentary on the order of development of the child's neuro- 
 muscular system and his sense organs. They are, however, done by the 
 mother without any conscious educational purpose. 
 
 Soon the play instincts of the child lead it into experimentation with 
 all the objects at hand, and in all available ways. It will play with sand, 
 with blocks; will run/will throw. The order of development of these 
 plays is, in the main, a definite and logical one, from the' simple to the 
 complex, from central to peripheral movements. During the first six 
 or seven years of life the child will take ample exercise if given oppor- 
 tunity to do so. All that is necessary is to furnish the implements. 
 It is far better to have these implements of the kind that allows the child 
 to exercise his own constructive instincts than to give him complete toys, 
 such as railroad trains, wind-mills, and the like. No possible scheme of 
 physical training can do as much for the child as his natural play; for 
 

 
 EVOLUTION IN PLAY 
 
 his natural play is the result of selection working through the un- 
 fathomable ages of evolution. At about seven, games come to be of 
 predominant interest to children, particularly games involving the ele- 
 ment of competition. It is here that the various forms of tag are devel- 
 oped, such as 'cross tag,' 'prisoner's base,' 'black man,' and the like. 
 Elementary games of ball, 'hide and seek,' 'duck on the rock,' games 
 with marbles, 'leap frog,' begin to be attractive, and the child develops 
 an interest in track and field sports. The care of land and the love of 
 animals is accentuated during this period, and the instincts for hunting 
 and fishing usually assert themselves. This period represents the onto- 
 genetic acquirement of those capacities that precede the dawn of even 
 barbaric human life. It represents a stage in which the individual de- 
 pended upon individual combat for existence. During these years the 
 physician will have to be careful that the number of hours taken for 
 school work does not so encroach upon the hours of play as to render 
 these racial achievements impossible. The boy or girl who has oppor- 
 tunity for the playing of games, who has a sufficient number of play- 
 mates, and sufficient space to play, will be found to develop suitably. 
 Cities are being built up so compactly, however, that it is becoming 
 necessary to make special efforts to get playgrounds. This is already 
 being done in most of the large cities, and the movement will be favored 
 by all who consider the organic requirements of the individual during this 
 stage of life. 'Play is far more important for the child's development 
 than formal scnool educational gymnastics during these yearsj Through 
 these plays, bodily skill as well as vigor of heart and lungs is gained, and 
 the muscles are called upon for constant and varied activity. It is true 
 that they do not seem to have the logical development that can be found 
 in systematic gymnastics, but I believe that this is only a seeming lack. 
 If one considers the plays and games of boys and girls during an entire 
 year, he will find a progressive and most complicated and elaborate 
 scheme. It is true that during the marble season boys will play but 
 little else than marbles, but the season is soon over. It is followed by 
 top season, or kite season, or some other sport. These sports have a 
 seasonal rotation, and occur every year with more uniformity even than 
 the seasons. The time for marbles or tops can be predicted with far 
 more accuracy than can the arrival of robins or the advent of spring. 
 If one looks at the range of sports covered in this methodically hap- 
 hazard fashion for a year, it will at once be evident that the curriculum 
 of sport is a rather complete one. It will be evident that the child dur- 
 ing the year has had exercises for skill of hand, quickness of eye, the de- 
 velopment of the muscles of the trunk as well as of those of the limbs; 
 
46 SPORTS AND GAMES 
 
 that heart and lungs have been given vigorous training; and, in fact, the 
 whole organism has been called into play in a way that is entirely im- 
 possible by gymnastics. We have already seen that gymnastics deal 
 largely with the chief muscular groups. The neuromuscular plays of 
 boys and girls include not only all the muscular combinations developed 
 by gymnastics, but the finer muscles of the hand, of the face, and of the 
 larynx as well. Play also includes an emotional development and a 
 training of the will ; it involves self-control and the development of those 
 instincts of competition and self-reliance which are basal to the develop- 
 ment of character. Gymnastics seem more logical, but are in reality far 
 less so. 
 
 The human embryo in coming to term, passes in gross outline through 
 the life-history of the race from the amoeba up. Conscious human 
 guidance is not only unnecessary but would be injurious in the en- 
 deavor to guide the development of the cells. The developing embryo 
 does not start directly toward the adult human form. It pursues a 
 most circuitous route. This is equally true in regard to the child's 
 development after birth. Nature's forces are competent to lead to the 
 full development of the body whenever they are given the opportunity 
 to do so. One element that must be conserved by human consciousness 
 is the environment favorable to play which civilization constantly tends 
 to remove. Human society has developed far more experience than has 
 become incorporated in the neural structure of the individual. Thus, 
 conscious education in matters that relate to elements learned during 
 the civilized life of the race must be taught by society, and schools 
 are therefore a necessity; but the basal elements of education the 
 development of the body, of the feelings may be trusted wholly to 
 nature. She needs but the opportunity. The embryo of the chick is 
 enveloped in the shell. In many respects it would be fortunate if the 
 play life of the child could be similarly enveloped in a shell, so that 
 civilization could not take away that which has been its means of develop- 
 ment from time immemorial. City life is bringing large numbers of 
 children close together. This is in itself not wholly normal; hence, 
 there must be a kind of supervision of plays to prevent the evil effects 
 of such undue crowding. This, again, merely represents the effort to 
 supply nature with her customary environment. 
 
 Approximately at puberty, interest culminates in the great Anglo- 
 Saxon sports of baseball, cricket, hockey, shinney, basket ball, and the 
 like. These great games are played in teams in which the individual 
 is subordinated to the whole. They represent a later evolutionary stage 
 than do the games of the preceding period, which are individualistic. 
 
SPECIAL EXERCISES FOR ADOLESCENTS 47 
 
 They are interesting to the physician because of their physiologic char- 
 acter. They represent the extreme form of muscular exercise ex- 
 treme not only with reference to individual efforts, but extreme in 
 duration. The extreme example is found in football. Not only does 
 each individual make many efforts of as powerful a nature as possible, 
 but he makes them rapidly, so that a rare degree of endurance is de* 
 manded even in an ordinary game. A man without special training 
 cannot play even four or five minutes without becoming sore. It is my 
 opinion that these extreme forms of exercise are related to the final 
 toughening of the individual for the achievements of life. They rep- 
 resent the final ripening of the muscular system and its development 
 into full functioning ability. They represent also that development 
 of the large motor centers of the brain which is certainly related to the 
 capacity for continued severe intellectual labor during subsequent 
 years. In the li^ht of its immediate effects, I do not believe that foot- 
 ball is justifiable/) In the light of its relatioli to the development of 
 power, I believe hat it is justifiable where it can be suitably controlled 
 and limited; but many individuals have attained these same effects 
 through severe manual labor on the farm or in the shop without the 
 physical or psychic dangers attending certain phases of football play. 
 It is only fair to add that an analysis of football accidents shows that 
 they are in the main due to (i) play ing -when one is not in training; or 
 (2) allowing boys to play against those notably heavier than them- 
 selves; or (3) allowing those to play who are too young, too slight, too 
 weak, or too awkward. Mass plays and tripping always involve some 
 degree of danger. In some way, however, every adolescent ought to do 
 muscular labor of considerable severity for a considerable period. Is 
 it not interesting to note that these severe exercises are brought about 
 instinctively by nature through the tremendous interest in athletic 
 sports during these adolescent years, and that these activities take the 
 general form of the combats of savage tribal life? 
 
 After the age of twelve, it will be necessary for the physician in many 
 cases to order special exercise. The intellectual life is commencing to 
 be of dominant interest to boys and girls. Public opinion, as well as the 
 lack of opportunity, may prevent them from gratifying the instincts 
 which, as we have seen, lead to bodily development. The physician will 
 often have to say that the boy or the girl must be given opportunity for 
 exercise. Out-of-doors exercise is best, and it should be more or less in 
 accord with the native interests of the period. Camping out in primitive 
 style, with hunting and fishing and many other savage occupations, 
 
48 SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS 
 
 seems to be an ideal form of physical life. But that which is most desir- 
 able is usually least possible ; it often happens that for lack of place and 
 time the individual cannot take advantage of the natural instincts. 
 Under these conditions, what is to be done? The individual must work 
 in a gymnasium. Under what conditions will the best results be at- 
 tained ? How may the exercises be so ordered as to bring the greatest 
 advantage to the individual ? 
 
 This brings us to the consideration of the characteristics of gym- 
 nasium work when done predominantly from the standpoint of health. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HYGIENIC GYMNASTICS 
 
 , ^ . 
 
 1. The day's exercise should begin and end either with work for the 
 smaller groups of muscles, or with graded work for the larger groups of 
 muscles. Thus, the heart and lungs are gradually led up to and away 
 from the severest effort. The muscles themselves are not suddenly 
 called on for their most intense work. This is the fundamental idea con- 
 tained in the Swedish " day's order." It may be true that we terminate 
 actual gymnasium work with the maximum of effort, as by a run, or a 
 basket ball game ; but it must not be forgotten that following this is the 
 walk to the dressing-room, the bath, the rubbing down, the quiet dress- 
 ing and sitting around, and the going about one's business. The entire 
 curve showing the intensity of effort must take these details into con- 
 sideration. 
 
 2. Each part of the body should be exercised in general according to 
 its natural function. This refers to the quantity as well as to the char- 
 acter of the work. Thus, the great muscular groups of the body should 
 do a large amount of hard work. The heart and lungs should be called 
 on for activity, the arms and shoulders- should be called on for skill and 
 quick work, the legs for power and endurance. As the individual ad- 
 vances in strength and power from year to year, more and more weight 
 may be handled to advantage. This is the normal progress of individual 
 growth and development, and no absolute standard can be fixed. While 
 in the individual unaccustomed to exercise, the body should not be sup- 
 ported by the arms for any length of time, the same caution does not 
 necessarily apply after one or two years of effort. In most cases this 
 prohibition would take away work on the high horizontal bar from the 
 first year. 
 
 . 3. Each individual muscular effort should be well within the capacity 
 of the performer. It not only should be absolutely moderate, it should 
 be relatively moderate. That which is moderate for a strong man would 
 
HYGIENIC GYMNASTICS 49 
 
 be excessive for a weak man. For a man who has just come to the 
 gymnasium moderate work would be needed, which would be absurdly 
 insufficient for a man who had done a year or two of work. 
 
 4. There should be a large number of individual exercises. Thus, 
 the sum total of the work done may be considerable. The stronger the 
 person, the stronger the effort that he can make to advantage. It is 
 thus important in invalids to begin with minute doses, and to proceed 
 by steadily increasing stages toward work that will demand and obtain 
 the larger activity desired. Again, the individual thoroughly accus- 
 tomed to exercise will derive but little benefit from such minute doses; 
 the doses must be adapted to the degree of strength and habituation of 
 the individual. 
 
 5. So far as possible, the exercise should correspond to the psychic 
 needs of the stage of development of the individual who is exercising. 
 Thus, the needs of adolescents are not the same as those of business 
 or professional men. The fundamental psychic characteristics of each 
 group must be constantly kept in mind. The play of adolescents repre- 
 sents great needs that cannot safely be ignored, as they are intimately 
 associated with the deepest interest of the individual. Whenever it is 
 possible to introduce simple elements of competition with adolescents, 
 it is well to consider the advisability of doing so, as this is the natural 
 period for competition, and the great' interest that is aroused in con- 
 tests should be jealously guarded. 
 
 6. It is important that exercise be considered constantly with refer- 
 ence to the position of the trunk. For this great lesson we are indebted, 
 as already stated, to the Swedes. We cannot afford to play games or do 
 exercises in which the trunk is thrown into a position that embarrasses 
 the heart or lungs. The organic functions of respiration and circulation 
 are too important to be interfered with in any way. It must be remem- 
 bered that the body tends to assume during rest the position it took 
 during exercise; and we must constantly endeavor during exercise to 
 keep the trunk, the ribs, and the spine in that position which we wish 
 them to maintain all the time. 
 
 7. The degree of memory and attention demanded from the pupils 
 should be minimized. Thus, they should not do much work that demands 
 the committing to memory of long series of exercises. The teachers 
 should constantly do the remembering for their pupils, teaching the 
 exercises by example rather than requiring the pupil to remember them. 
 The rest of two or three seconds between the movements of the dumb- 
 bell drill to observe a new exercise is beneficial to the heart, which beats 
 rapidly during such work in most individuals. The degree of attention 
 
50 SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS 
 
 demanded should be enough to keep the mind from other work, and yet 
 should not be of the strained or voluntary character that is demanded 
 in following intricate calisthenics. 
 
 School Gymnastics 
 
 In this connection it is well to consider briefly the characteristics of 
 such school gymnastics as should be universally introduced. We have 
 already seen that the normal development of the body may be left to 
 nature if a suitable environment be provided. The demands of school 
 life are that children shall remain measurably still for five hours a day, 
 most of the time seated at a desk. In most schools the desks are not 
 adapted to the length of the spinal column and of the arms and legs of 
 the individual, so that unsymmetrical sitting postures are constantly 
 assumed, and growth of the body is correspondingly unsymmetrical. 
 The constant sitting still deprives the muscles of that activity which we 
 have shown to be natural to childhood. By insisting on quiet, we have 
 interfered with nature in two ways: first, by taking away a great deal of 
 time that she usually gives to exercise; and, second, by keeping the 
 child for long hours in a more or less unnatural position. The aim of 
 school gymnastics must be to remedy these two alterations of the en- 
 vironment which are rendered necessary by the demands of civilization. 
 This combating of the effect of the school desk upon the body can best 
 be done by a few minutes' vigorous exercise of the large groups of mus- 
 cles at frequent intervals. Except when the ventilation in the building 
 is perfect, the windows should be opened at the end of every hour and 
 the pupils should all be given vigorous exercise for two minutes. These 
 exercises should be especially directed to the maintaining of a correct 
 carriage and to the vigorous exercise of the large muscles of the back and 
 thighs. There will naturally be introduced accessory movements of the 
 arms and legs to add variety and increase the interest. The essentials 
 of school gymnastics are correct carriage of the trunk and exercises 
 calculated to strengthen the back and thighs. This will involve increased 
 cardiac and respiratory activity. Such a scheme of exercise as this does 
 not involve difficult exercises nor expert teachers ; they can be carried on 
 by the regular teachers. They do not make a very heavy demand on the 
 time given to definite intellectual achievement. 
 
 On the other hand, the attempt to secure by school gymnastics com- 
 plete motor education must fail because of the limited time that under 
 the best of conditions can be given to gymnastics during the school 
 period, as well as because of the limited range of material available as 
 compared with that available during play. The complicated motor 
 
TRAINING OF ATHLETES FOR CONDITION 51 
 
 development which forms the basis of later skill in life, even including 
 that of an intellectual character, comes chiefly through the development 
 of the hand, lips, tongue, and larynx. The development of the hand, 
 as shown by Dr. Seguin and others, is of the greatest importance; hence, 
 in motor education, manual training, Sloyd, marbles, work with jack- 
 knife, tools, and machinery, all seem to have a definite and important 
 place. They are basal to education in the individual as they have been 
 in the race. The object of school gymnastics is to combat the effects of 
 long sitting at school desks. For true motor education, we must de- 
 pend on play and manual training. Children out of school hours must 
 be given full opportunity to play. In school they must be given oppor- 
 tunity to combat the special conditions presented by sitting still at the 
 school desk. Scoliosis is far more common among girls than among 
 boys. It is rarely found among those who have a fair degree of muscular 
 development of the back. Such simple school exercises as we have 
 proposed will in my judgment largely prevent scoliosis in the developing 
 child. 
 
 TRAINING MEDICALLY CONSIDERED 
 
 It is no part of this treatise to consider the general subject of training 
 from the standpoint of the athlete. We aim to consider those conditions 
 with which the physician may have to deal. The subject may be con- 
 sidered under four general heads: (i) The physical condition of the 
 individual; (2) the special athletic habit that is to be formed; (3) the mus- 
 cular power involved in the exercise; (4) the endurance demanded. In 
 training for any object whatever, these four points must be kept con- 
 stantly in mind. Each of them will affect markedly the character and 
 quantity of the work that the individual should do. 
 
 i. Condition. It occurs frequently that an athlete is overworked 
 so that there results a condition technically known as 'staleness' *. e., 
 the expenditure of the body exceeds the income. The income of the 
 body is related not only to the amount of food ingested, but also to the 
 capacity of the several cells of the body to convert this food into active 
 protoplasm. The individual can always eat enough if the food is avail- 
 able; but all individuals sooner or later find a limit to their capacity of 
 converting food into protoplasm. I do not know what the nature of 
 this limitation is, but believe it to be fundamentally a neural one. This 
 condition of staleness will come far more quickly in some persons than 
 in others. Its first premonitory sign is a decrease in weight. Less buoy- 
 ancy is felt ; work is less enjoyable; each effort takes a greater exertion of 
 
52 SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS 
 
 the will. This matter of condition is one of supreme importance from the 
 medical as well as from the athletic standpoint. Every athlete should 
 come to his contest at the very summit of his ability and feelings. This 
 he cannot possibly do if he is overworked. Good feelings are indicative 
 of good strength. The slight extra degree of skill that can be secured 
 by excessive training will never compensate for the loss that comes 
 to the one who is overtrained. If the overtraining is serious, break- 
 down may result; boils are apt to form, and diarrhea sometimes sets in. 
 In former days athletes were far more apt to be overtrained than they 
 are at present; but even now nervous men are prone to be overtrained. 
 One should do every day a little less, rather than a little more work than 
 he can recover from at night. It is a common error of beginners to do all 
 that is possible every day, and to endeavor by force of will to make up 
 for lack of condition. Day after day they force themselves through the 
 exercises that have been laid down for them, even though the muscles 
 remain sore, and they feel increasingly disinclined for the athletic work. 
 
 A man should feel like doing his work. He may overwork in two 
 ways : by doing so much in one day as to demand several days for recuper- 
 ation; or, more commonly, by doing each day a trifle more than he ought 
 to do. In the latter case he adds each day a trifle to the fatigue, and 
 soon comes into a state in which he is liable to colds or any disease that 
 may be prevalent. His whole system is in a condition of depleted 
 vitality. He has but little power of resistance either to unfavorable 
 environment or disease. Overtraining is rendered more probable when 
 emotional or mental strain is added to physical work. It is a common 
 and advantageous practice for the athlete to refrain almost entirely from 
 severe exercise for one, two, or three days immediately before a contest; 
 he thus comes to it with the greatest degree of freshness and vigor. 
 
 2. Habit. In every athletic exercise a certain degree of skill is de- 
 manded, the acquisition of which consists in the formation of certain 
 habits. A man will never do his best in any sport until he has learned 
 to do it unconsciously, until he is able to put his whole attention into the 
 muscular effort. In the running high jump, for instance, so long as a 
 man has to pay attention to getting the right step, to making the spring 
 from precisely the right spot, to turning his body at the critical moment, 
 he will not jump high. When, however, he has learned all of these 
 points so that he does not have to think about them, he can put his whole 
 effort into the jump itself. He will then do his best. His jumping must 
 become largely an automatic process. His mind must be reserved for 
 the effort itself. This formation of habits is entirely a neural process; 
 it does not relate to strength. The habit is formed not by a few extreme 
 
TRAINING FOR CONDITION 53 
 
 efforts but by many moderate ones. This illustration from the high 
 jump is not unique; the same general truth underlies all sports. Even 
 in such a matter as long-distance running, the gait must become auto- 
 matic before the individual can do his best. An illustration of the way 
 in which habits are formed may be taken from the sport already referred 
 to the running high jump. Let the stick be placed at such a height 
 that it can be easily cleared by the athlete, and let him make this jump 
 a large number of times each day. Eventually starting from a certain 
 distance from the stick, the athlete will find that his feet come with 
 automatic precision into just the right place and that his last stride 
 will carry him into exactly the position for jumping. Gradually the 
 stick may be raised, but it should always be well within the jumping 
 ability of the performer. During the early part of the training, the en- 
 deavor to jump as high as possible will surely get the athlete into bad 
 habits. What is imperative in the early stages is the formation of style. 
 This can only be done by constant, persistent repetition. Gradually the 
 athlete will be able to put in increasing effort, and thus to jump his best, 
 and still preserve his style. It is the custom among the uninitiated to 
 jump as high as possible every day. The bulk of the trials thus 
 are at heights that are not cleared, with the result that the individual 
 never is able to jump as high as he should and as he could learn to jump 
 by the other method. These general- principles apply to all branches of 
 sport in which skill is required. 
 
 3. Strength. The development of strength must follow that of habit. 
 Strength, like habit, requires constant and persistent exercise, and is 
 acquired by performing many moderate movements rather than a few 
 excessive ones. The development of the muscle-groups involved in any 
 given form of activity is achieved by the daily persistent exercise of that 
 group rather than by occasional excessive exercise. In most athletics 
 sufficient strength is acquired by practising the exercise itself; occasion- 
 ally as, for example, in throwing the hammer special work can with 
 advantage be given for the development of the back and the sides of 
 the trunk. 
 
 4. Endurance. This relates not only to capacity for long-continued 
 exercises, such as long-distance running, but also for the repetition of a 
 single exercise like that of high jumping, which must be repeated a great 
 many times. It involves respiratory and cardiac capacity, and, equally 
 with these, power from the motor centers. Endurance in long-distance 
 running is most often found in those with long trunks. This I believe 
 is related to the larger space afforded for the heart and lungs. Let us 
 picture the central operations in a man beginning to run rapidly: the 
 
54 SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS 
 
 large and powerful muscles of the legs, thighs, and trunk are contracting 
 with great force and frequency. Steps are being taken approximately 
 at the rate of four a second. Each step is about six feet in length. At 
 this rate he is running 100 yards in 12 J seconds. The large muscles in- 
 volved press the blood contained in the veins toward the heart, which in 
 turn immediately contracts with greater vigor and rapidity, forcing a 
 return current of blood into the arteries. The blood from the muscles 
 is thrown into the lungs. The pulmonary capillaries are dilated a trifle 
 more than usual, which limits somewhat the total superficial area of ex- 
 posure to the contained air a condition of temporary embarrassment 
 supervenes, known as being 'out of breath.' The muscles of the legs 
 soon ache, and the runner lessens his speed. The heart beats with in- 
 creased rapidity, gradually a balance in respiration and circulation is 
 restored, and the individual comes to what is known as 'second wind/ 
 One of the objects in training is to make this preliminary process as rapid 
 as possible. It is possible for most athletes to reach a state of training 
 in which there is no initial embarrassment. The whole apparatus meets 
 all the demands made upon it and operates with force and vigor until 
 the motor centers are too much exhausted to permit of the exercise being 
 continued. Such endurance is acquired only by practice. Generally 
 that practice is best which is most nearly analogous to the exercise in- 
 volved. In training for rowing, endurance is often acquired by running, 
 because running demands less attention than rowing. If the individual 
 rowed enough to gain all the endurance that is needed, he would probably 
 do the latter part of it in a slipshod way. This would make toward the 
 production of bad habits. There should be no rowing except when it is 
 done with the very best possible stroke. This general principle of doing 
 exercises only when they can be done best is an important one, and must 
 constantly be kept in mind. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS 
 
 Up to this point we have been considering the general principles 
 underlying the use of muscular exercise as a therapeutic agent. Let 
 us now examine in brief the various gymnastic systems. 
 
 German Gymnastics. In the latter part of the last century there was 
 much interest aroused in educational circles through the work of Guts- 
 muths, who was a broad-minded, scholarly teacher of gymnastics. 
 Early in this century, F. L. Jahn began a most active propaganda in 
 
GERMAN GYMNASTIC SYSTEMS 55 
 
 favor of general physical training. He was a patriot and felt that the 
 salvation of the nation depended upon the building up of a strong 
 people, and in physical training he saw a major means to this end. His 
 primary interest in physical training was a national or political one. 
 He is known as 'the father of German gymnastics.' His work was 
 largely based upon that of Gutsmuths. The exercises used and the 
 apparatus devised were chiefly of the spontaneous kind : running, climb- 
 ing, throwing, jumping, wrestling, sparring, swimming, were all vigor- 
 ously practised. There gradually arose the pieces of gymnastic ap- 
 paratus the German horse, parallel bars, and horizontal bar. Teachers 
 and pupils alike strove to invent new exercises. There was no special 
 physiologic study of the effects of these exercises. The empirical result 
 was seen to be good. A little later in the century a pedagogue arose by 
 the name of Spiess, who systematized and classified all of these exer- 
 cises, particularly all the exercises that could be carried on in the school- 
 room. He is known as 'the father of German school gymnastics.' His 
 influence has been profound upon the whole system of German gym- 
 nastics, removing them from the plane of natural and spontaneous exer- 
 cise to the rigid observance of schemes and plans. The exercises were 
 arranged with reference to their adaptability to the school-room rather 
 than upon a physiologic basis. 
 
 In the middle of this century there was a considerable influx into 
 this country of Germans embracing political exiles and others who 
 maintained their individuality. They organized societies for the carry- 
 ing on of German gymnastics, and the German Turnvereins of to-day 
 are the continuation of these societies. They have gradually departed 
 somewhat from the corresponding societies in Germany, but not in essen- 
 tial matters. Much emphasis is laid on exercises performed with vari- 
 ous types of heavy apparatus. Thus, we see a great deal of work upon 
 the horizontal bar, the parallel bars, the German horse, and the like, 
 which when unwisely used result in the physique and carriage of the 
 so-called typical gymnast : N his shoulders are often pulled forward through 
 the overdevelopment of the pectorals ; his chest is not large but has large 
 muscular masses upon it; his shoulders and arms are superbly developed, 
 his legs only passably so. His carriage in walking or running is usually 
 rather heavy. In all exercises involving the support of his own body by 
 the hands he is thoroughly at home, while in running, jumping, pole- 
 vaulting, boxing, wrestling, and particularly in exercises of endurance, 
 he is uncomfortable. The gymnasium exercises of a given individual in 
 the course of an evening's work are arranged primarily upon physiologic 
 principles. The German Turnvereins have been more successful than 
 
56 SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS 
 
 any other organization, except the Young Men's Christian Associations, 
 in maintaining institutions for the carrying-on of popular gymnastics. 
 The character of their work is related to the German temperament 
 American young men do not usually remain members of their societies 
 long. German gymnastics are essentially national in character; they 
 involve patience and thoroughness, they demand hard work and con- 
 tinuous effort ; but they do not seem to afford the opportunity for the 
 kind of sport which is the national heritage of the English-speaking 
 people. The German is almost exclusively individualistic in hO&: gym-l 
 \ nasties and athletics, while the Englishman and American go in very 
 largely for team games. 
 
 Swedish Gymnastics. Early in the century a man of rare scholastic 
 ability, P. H. Ling, awoke to the importance of physical training, 
 particularly, though indirectly, through the work of Gutsmuths. He 
 eventually located in Stockholm, and worked out several different 
 schemes of exercise. The one with which his name has been most 
 prominently identified was a plan of exercises for schools the so- 
 called Swedish educational gymnastics. He also laid the basis for the 
 Swedish movement cure, Swedish military gymnastics, etc. The 
 groundwork for this scheme was physiologic. Exercises always fol- 
 low each other in a definite order, the reason for this order being their 
 effect upon the body in various ways. The plan is strictly progressive, 
 the movements being arranged in groups in a sequence of difficulty. 
 Thus, if we should put in ten parallel columns the ten chief groups of 
 exercise, and arrange the exercises in each column in the order of their 
 difficulty, beginning with the easiest and ending with the most diffi- 
 cult, the first exercise of each group would form the first day's ex- 
 ercises, the second day wJuld be devoted to the second exercise in 
 each group, the third day to the third exercise, and so on. Thus, each 
 day would see an advance upon the preceding day, and yet the sequence 
 of the exercises and their physiologic relations to one another would not 
 alter from day to day. The curve of effort was studied most carefully. 
 The pupils were all to be exercised in the regular dress of the school-room 
 between two study periods; thus, they could not exercise sufficiently 
 to make them perspire, which would necessitate a change of clothing. 
 The exercises had to be adapted largely to the school-room. The bio- 
 logic science of Ling's time was exceedingly crude; and for this reason, 
 as well as on account of the characteristic of Ling's mind, much of his 
 physiology is fantastic. 
 
 The three essentials of Swedish gymnastics are: 
 
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS 57 
 
 1. The day's order, which is the physiologic sequence of the exer- 
 cises carried on each day. 
 
 2. The gymnastic progression, which is the sequence of the move- 
 ments from day to day. 
 
 Of these two I have already spoken. 
 
 3. The movements are always done to word of command, and are 
 not learned by imitation. The reason for this last point is that the will 
 of the pupil may be wholly engaged, and thus better execution secured. 
 
 Ling intended, and most of his pupils have maintained, that these 
 educational gymnastics form a complete system of physical education 
 designed to bring all of the bodily powers to healthy maturity. From 
 this standpoint Swedish gymnastics are not defensible, for they lay 
 insufficient emphasis upon endurance, that capacity of heart and lung^N 
 which we have seen to be of great importance. Furthermore, they 
 require the constant voluntary attention of the pupil, and are thus as 
 far removed as possible from free play. It should be said, however, that 
 Swedish gymnastics were never designed to take the place of free out- 
 door play. 
 
 The most modern authority on these gymnastics, however, has taken. 
 a far more defensible position in regard to Swedish gymnastics than 
 have his predecessors. He maintains that the fundamental object of 
 the school gymnastics is a corrective one, designed to combat the effects 
 of the school desk upon the organism. He maintains that sitting at a 
 desk four or five hours a day develops a tendency for the spine and 
 shoulders to assume an abnormal position, and that Swedish gymnas- 
 tics have their chief claim to consideration because of the stress laid 
 upon the proper carriage and movements of the trunk. He also admits 
 that Swedish gymnastics should lay no claim to be a universal plan 
 of neuromuscular education. 
 
 The details of the day's order and of the gymnastic progression have 
 also been modified in ways that the earlier teachers of Swedish gymnas- 
 tics would have called radical. Whatever may be thought of these 
 details of Swedish gymnastics, the following general conclusions will 
 probably be accepted by most authorities : 
 
 1. That Swedish gymnastics do secure good carriage of the trunk; 
 and that they are adapted to combating the evil effects of the school desk 
 upon the pupil. 
 
 2. That they do demand close attention from the pupil, and hence 
 must not be regarded as in any sense recreative in their character. 
 They cannot take the place of play. They demand the same quality 
 that study does attention. 
 
58 SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS 
 
 3. That they do not afford, nor is it claimed that they afford, a general 
 plan of physical education. 
 
 English Physical Exercise. In considering this different type of 
 gymnastic exercise, we shall inevitably appear to place Swedish gym- 
 nastics and English gymnastics upon the same plane, whereas they can- 
 not justly be placed upon such a plane. The German gymnastics are 
 popular and universal. They are carried on not only in the schools, but 
 by the German Turnvereins wherever German people are found ; whereas 
 the Swedish gymnastics are largely the product of governmental activity. 
 There is a strong, new movement in Sweden for carrying on popular 
 gymnastics; but the popular characteristics of these gymnastics are 
 more like the German system than they are like the Swedish educa- 
 tional gymnastics. In England, on the other hand, the exercise is 
 largely carried on not for the sake of the exercise, but for the sake of 
 the sport. To be sure, there are gymnastic societies. For many years 
 there has flourished in London a German Gymnastic Society, which has 
 done splendid work, and there has gradually grown up a school of 
 English gymnasts who follow the German lines very closely. There 
 is also another group who have followed the Swedish principles, and 
 are carrying on a more or less successful work. 
 
 For all that, the great bulk of the physical training carried on in 
 England is not to be characterized as gymnastics at all. The English 
 school-boy, with his long vacations and frequent holidays, improves 
 his time not by gymnastics, but by athletics. His characteristic games 
 and sports and exercises are running, jumping, throwing, wrestling, 
 boxing, cricket, football, lawn tennis, hunting, fishing, horseback- 
 riding, rowing, mountain-climbing, and so on. These exercises furnish 
 conditions more similar to those under which the body was developed in 
 evolutionary ^times than do the more or less artificial exercises of the 
 gymnasium. 'Each part of the body is exercised in accordance with the 
 way in which it is developed; the heavy work is done by the legs, work 
 demanding speed and agility is done by the arms ; the arms do not sup- 
 port the weight of the body for long periods as they often have to do in 
 systems of gymnastics. It is true in theory that in the gymnasium all 
 of these exercises or at least exercises demanding similar qualities of 
 body and mind^ may be carried on ; but as a matter of fact it is well- 
 nigh impossible to realize this aim. 
 
 Thus, if we compare the typical all-round German gymnast with the 
 typical all-round English university athlete, we find a real contrast. 
 The typical English athlete is the man who has never given particular 
 
GYMNASTS AND ATHLETES 59 
 
 attention to muscular development of any kind. He is fairly strong, 
 is erect and graceful. He is a fleet runner, and has splendid endur- 
 ance. He rides horseback; can spar and wrestle. He has played his 
 game of football, and has rowed on one of the many crews in his 
 university. He is quick, hardy, can take care of himself in an emer- 
 gency, is used to handling himself in a crowd. He cannot do any par- 
 ticular gymnastic feats with skill, nor is he much interested in them. 
 During later life he will drop his active participation in most of the more 
 strenuous sports; but he will ride, play golf, swim, row, and will always 
 maintain a keen interest in these things. The typical gymnast who has 
 worked for a period of years in a gymnasium has powerful arms and 
 shoulders ; the individual fibers of the muscles stand out prominently ; he 
 has a powerful grip. The muscles upon his chest and shoulder-blades 
 are prominent. His chest appears large; but this may be due rather to 
 excessive muscle than to the position of the ribs; the thorax is rather 
 flat from repeated severe exertion of the abdominal muscles. The 
 muscles of the legs are vigorous, but are light in proportion to the 
 development of the shoulders and arms. He can do almost any- 
 thing on the apparatus when suspended by his arms, but he cannot 
 run for long distances, and is not graceful as a walker or jumper. 
 He is not particularly interested in athletics; football he regards as 
 brutal. He is not accustomed to handling himself in a crowd. All 
 his exercises for years have been with reference to handling himself as 
 an object rather than with handling other things or persons as objects. 
 The fundamental difference between gymnastics and athletics appears 
 to be that in athletics the results to be sought are objective, they re- 
 late to number as to space in jumping, time in running, etc. ; whereas, 
 in gymnastics they relate more to the form in which the movement is 
 done and hence are subjective. The athlete competes against time and 
 space the gymnast in self-control. 
 
 Delsarte. The system of gymnastics which is known by this name 
 is one of the most unsatisfactory to discuss that the teacher meets. 
 Delsarte was a Parisian; his aim was to train the individual so as to be 
 able to express the most fully by means of the body all emotion and 
 thought. He devised no system of gymnastics, although he did have 
 certain movements which, he maintained, aided much in securing per- 
 fect control of the body. Thus, his school is essentially a school of 
 expression, and in no essential respect a school of physical training. 
 Followers of his, particularly in this country, have taken exercises 
 taught by himself or by his pupils, and have constructed from them a 
 
60 SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS 
 
 so-called system of gymnastics ; and one of the most prominent has even 
 gone so far as to teach a system of 'Delsarte for health.' The work 
 done is good, the results are excellent; but in what respects they can be 
 called 'Delsarte,' I do not know. 
 
 There has also grown up a school of society gymnastics how to 
 stand, how to sit, how to go upstairs, how to carry the arms and hands, 
 how to carry the head and neck in the most approved style, etc. Much 
 of this is excellent, but cannot rightfully lay claim either to the name of 
 Delsarte, or to be a system of physical training. 
 
 Sargent. The most original contribution to physical training that 
 has been made in America is that of Dr. Dudley A. Sargent, of Harvard 
 University. There had previously been in use in one or two places 
 machines in which a rope passing over a pulley had a weight attached 
 to one end and a handle to the other. Pulling on this handle in various 
 positions was utilized as a means of muscular exercise. Dr. Sargent 
 took this undeveloped mechanism, and differentiated a large number of 
 machines adapted to exercising nearly all of the chief muscular groups of 
 the body. The weight attached to the rope is made variable so as to be 
 suited not only to the size of the muscular group to be exercised, but 
 also to the strength of the one exercising. These machines have come 
 into exceedingly wide use, and no American gymnasium would be con- 
 sidered complete to-day without some of them. Their usefulness seems 
 to .depend upon the following facts, already discussed more in detail: 
 Muscles can be built up more rapidly when exercised separately than 
 when large numbers are exercised together, for they can be better sup- 
 plied with blood and lymph when exercised a few at a time. The use of 
 the apparatus is not attended by danger of any kind ; they are adapted as 
 well to the exceedingly strong as to the exceedingly weak. The variety 
 of exercise involved is considerable. By means of intelligent use of the 
 various machines it is possible to develop nearly all of the muscular 
 groups of the body, and hence many have maintained that this is a 
 perfect system of physical training. But it must not be forgotten that 
 the general effects of exercise are far more important than the local 
 effects upon individual groups of muscles. A man may be perfectly 
 developed in the way suggested and still have but comparatively little 
 strength of heart or capacity of lungs, both of which are of more im- 
 portance than great muscular development. Then, again, the develop- 
 ment of muscular power in the way suggested does not aid particularly 
 in the acquirement of those capacities for co-ordination those acquired 
 reflexes, that are so prominently demanded in athletic sports and that 
 
/* EMERSON'S SYSTEM 61 
 
 give to the individual more perfect control of his body. Those who have 
 developed themselves to the full extent by means of these machines, 
 having become the modern strong men of the college, are not as a class 
 men who are able to use their strength either for continuous periods 
 such as distance running or in ways that demand skill wrestling, 
 boxing, and the like. They have simply developed great power of in- 
 dividual muscular contractions. 
 
 The mistake of supposing such development to be an universal 
 system has not been made by Dr. Sargent himself, for he is an earnest 
 advocate of other forms of muscular exercise as well. 
 
 Emerson. Mr. C. W. Emerson is one of those whose work is far better 
 than was its formulation. Among teachers of physical training he is not 
 recognized as an authority. His work is that of the head of a school of 
 oratory. The aim of his scheme of gymnastics is to give to the individual 
 control of the body. It is also claimed that in acquiring this control a 
 superb carriage is cultivated and the conditions for health are actively 
 maintained. His system consists of a comparatively small number of 
 exercises which are repeated from day to day and from year to year. 
 These exercises are all done without apparatus of any kind. The two 
 principles upon which his work depends are not usually understood, for 
 they have not yet been stated with the force which they deserve. He 
 was the first one in America to emphasize the great importance of the 
 position of the trunk with particular reference to the health of the con- 
 tained viscera. He has long maintained, and his position has been sus- 
 tained by modern investigators, that visceral prolapse to a slight extent 
 is more or less common in all individuals whose chests are relaxed and 
 whose abdomens are protuberant. He has shown further that the posi- 
 tion in which the spine is erect and the ribs in the so-called ' active posi- 
 tion' favors the return of the thoracic and abdominal viscera to their 
 normal positions, and thus tends to restore their normal functions. 
 The unscientific way in which this thought has been stated has prevented 
 its author from receiving the credit for it which he deserves. 
 
 His other major thought is that a comparatively few exercises, all 
 of which tend to give to the individual control of himself poise, balance, 
 and the like and all of which also tend to put and keep the trunk in the 
 best possible condition, are better than a far greater number of exercises 
 which cannot be done equally well. He therefore says that the best 
 progression in the physical training of the pupil is a progression in 
 excellence in the performing of these exercises. 
 
 It is thus seen at once that Emerson's is not a general system of 
 
62 SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS 
 
 physical training. It does not aim at cultivating endurance nor does it 
 achieve the general effects of exercise. It aims to give good carriage and 
 graceful control of the limbs. These two ends are accomplished with 
 considerable success, as many of his pupils will bear witness. 
 
 Young Men's Christian Associations. During the last thirty years 
 there has been gradually developing in the Young Men's Christian As- 
 sociations of the United States, partly by the process of natural selec- 
 tion and partly by deliberate effort, a scheme of gymnastics specially 
 adapted to the conditions which obtain in these Associations. They 
 now have about 500 gymnasiums with upward of 100,000 active 
 members. The general plan of exercise carried on in most of these 
 gymnasiums is as follows : *%. | d Q J^ 
 
 1. The day's work begins and ends either with work for the smaller 
 groups of muscles, or with gradual work for the larger groups; thus the 
 heart and lungs are led gradually to and from the severest effort. In 
 many cases the actual gymnasium work terminates with the maximum 
 of effort, such as a run; but it must not be forgotten that this is followed 
 by the bath and dressing, rubbing down, and the like. A curve that 
 shall show the intensity of effort must take this into consideration. 
 
 2. It is the aim to exercise each part of the body in general accord 
 with its natural functions. This refers to the quantity as well as to the 
 character of the work. The arms are not allowed to support the body 
 on the gymnastic apparatus for long periods at a time, and there is com- 
 paratively little of the so-called heavy gymnastics. 
 
 3. Each individual muscular effort is well within the ability of the 
 performer. 
 
 4. There is a large number of individual exercises, so that the sum 
 total of the work done may be considerable. 
 
 5. In so far as possible the exercise corresponds to the psychic needs 
 and stage of development of the individual. Thus, the needs of adoles- 
 cents are not the same as those of business men. Competition is de- 
 liberately and intelligently used in a restricted way. 
 
 6. Great emphasis is laid upon the position of the trunk. This is 
 with special reference to the effects upon the contained viscera. 
 
 7. The amount of memory and attention demanded from the pupils 
 is minimized. Thus, there is little or no committing to memory of 
 series of long exercises. The whole trend of the work taught is toward 
 athletics rather than toward gymnastics. Games are used exclusively. 
 The gymnastics that are taught partake more and more of the character 
 of athletics. Thus, on the parallel bars and the German horse few exer 
 
DANCING 63 
 
 cises are used in which the body is supported by the arms, but many in 
 which the apparatus is regarded as an obstacle to be overcome in various 
 ways. 
 
 DANCING 
 
 A separate paragraph may be devoted to the subject of dancing, 
 partly because dancing is the only or the principal form of active phys- 
 ical exertion taken by a comparatively large number of persons during 
 certain months of the year, and partly because of the scanty recognition 
 it has received from systematic writers on therapeutic exercise. Its 
 abuses need not be dilated upon; its uses are to be recognized. 
 
 Dancing has from the earliest times been a considerable factor in the 
 physical life of many persons, and its evolutionary and sociologic signi- 
 ficance should not be overlooked. The pleasurable features of the exer- 
 cise and the associated influence of music are no mean factors in its 
 physiologic and hygienic effects. The dancing-schools have been effi- 
 cient aids in teaching good posture of the body and grace of movement. 
 Dancing itself, consisting of a very large number of movements of the^ 
 larger groups of muscles of the body, is an excellent exercise from the 
 physiologic standpoint. Heart, lungs, digestion, as well as muscular- 
 tissue, are all involved. 
 
 There is slowly but surely coming into our secondary schools and 
 colleges a recognition of dancing as a bodily discipline. I refer not to 
 society dances, but to the old folk-dancing, much of which involves 
 bodily movements. This is excellent, and will enrich the physical 
 training program, making it increasingly effective and at the same time 
 increasingly interesting. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 | UNIVERSITY ) 
 
 OF 
 
 JLJFQRNA 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Adolescence, 46 
 
 Age and sex, relation of physical exercise to 44 
 
 Apparatus, gymnastic, heavy, 37 
 
 Automatic exercises, 15 
 
 Basket Ball, 40 
 
 Bicycling, 42 
 
 Bodily symmetry 25 
 
 Bowling, 43 
 
 Brain, 17 
 
 importance of physical exercise in development of, 17 
 
 Calisthenics, 31 
 
 Cerebral hygiene, 21 
 
 Circulation of fluids, 13 
 
 City and exercise 3 
 
 Competition, 26 
 
 Condition, 51 
 
 Co-operation among contiguous nerve-centers, 18 
 
 Dancing, 63 
 
 " Day's Order, " Swedish, 48 
 
 Delsarte, 59 
 
 Diseases of occupation, 3 
 
 Dosage, 26 
 
 Educational gymnastics, 20, 56 
 
 Effort, 14 
 
 Emerson, C. W., 61 
 
 Endurance, 53 
 
 English physical exercise 58 
 
 Evolution and exercise, 2 
 
 Excessive and moderate exercises, 16 
 
 Exercise and evolution 2 
 
 physiology of, 9 
 
 position during, 1 1 
 
 Exercises, automatic, 15 
 
 voluntary, 15 
 
 Fatigue, 18 
 
 Fencing, 42 
 
 Field and track sports, 39 
 
 Fluids, circulation of, 13 
 
 Football, 47 
 
 Footpounds of work, 12 
 
 Function makes structure, 6 
 
 Games, 39 
 
 General effects of muscular exercise, 9 
 
 65 
 
66 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 German gymnastics, 54 
 
 Goif, :...-. 43 
 
 Gutsmuths, 54 
 
 Gymnastic apparatus, heavy, 37 
 
 Gymnastics, educational, 20, 56 
 
 German, 54 
 
 hygienic, 48 
 
 schools, 50 
 
 society, 60 
 
 Swedish, 56 
 
 systems of, 54 
 
 Habit, 52 
 
 Health and schools, 4 
 
 Heavy gymnastic apparatus, . . . : 37 
 
 Hepatic circulation, 14 
 
 Horseback riding, 43 
 
 Hygienic gymnastics, 48 
 
 Importance of physical exercise in development of brain, 17 
 
 Indian club, 32 
 
 Instincts, play, 44 
 
 Intrathoracic pressure, 14 
 
 Jahn, F. L., 54 
 
 Limits of specialization, 24 
 
 Ling, P. H., 56 
 
 Materia gymnastica, 29 
 
 Moderate and excessive exercises, 16 
 
 Motor centers, order of development of, 19 
 
 Muscle-cell, '. 9 
 
 Muscles, position of, during exercise, 1 1 
 
 " tend to contract even during rest, 1 1 
 
 Muscular exercise, general effects of, 9 
 
 special effects, 10 
 
 Natural function, 48 
 
 Nerve-centers, co-operation among contiguous, . . . 18 
 
 Neurologic considerations, 15 
 
 Occupation, diseases of, 3 
 
 Order of development of motor centers 19 
 
 Oxygen absorbed, 14 
 
 Peristalsis, 14 
 
 Physiologic load, 13 
 
 Physiology of exercise, 9 
 
 Play instincts, 44 
 
 Position during exercise, % . 1 1 
 
 " thorax, spine, 14 
 
 Psychic activity and muscular contraction, 21 
 
 Pulley-weight exercises, 33 
 
 Relation of physical exercise to age and sex, 44 
 
 Running and walking, 29 
 
 Sargent, Dr. Dudley A., 60 
 
 School gymnastics, 50 
 
 Schools and health, 4 
 
INDEX 67 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Scoliosis, . 51 
 
 Seguin, 51 
 
 Sex and age, relation of physical exercise to, 44 
 
 Society gymnastics, 60 
 
 Somatic harmony, 25 
 
 Sparring, 41 
 
 Special effects of muscular exercise, 10 
 
 " exercise 47 
 
 Specialization, 23 
 
 Spiess, 55 
 
 Spine, 14 
 
 " position of, 14 
 
 Strength, 53 
 
 Structure, function makes, 6 
 
 Suggestion 37 
 
 Swedish "Day's Order, " 48 
 
 gymnastics, 56 
 
 Systems of gymnastics, 54 
 
 Thorax, 14 
 
 position of, 14 
 
 Track and field sports 39 
 
 Training, 51 
 
 Turnvereins, 55 
 
 Useful games 41 
 
 Vasomotor hygiene, '21 
 
 Vis naturas, 8 
 
 Voluntary exercises, 15 
 
 Walking and running 29 
 
 Wrestling, ' 41 
 
 Young Men's Christian Association, 62 
 
 Zander machines 34 
 

 
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