THE GIFT OF Mary Newbold Ha]e (Mrs. / i chard Vv'al den Hale) REEF POINT GARDENS LIBRARY The Gift of Beatrix Farrand to the General Library University of California, Berkeley 7 LANDSCAPE ARCH. LIBRARY PUBLISHERS' PEEFACE GRATS SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY THIS work consists of the " LESSONS IN BOTANY " and the " FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY," bound together in one complete volume, forming a most popular and comprehensive SCHOOL BOTANY, adapted to beginners and advanced classes, to Agricultural Colleges and Schools, as well as to all other grades in which the science is taught ; it is also adapted for use as a hand-book to assist in analyzing plants and flowers in field study of botany, either by classes or individuals. The book is intended to furnish Botanical Classes and beginners with an easier introduction to the Plants of this country, and a much more comprehensive work, than is tne MANUAL. Beginning with the first principles, it progresses by easy stages until the student, who is at all diligent, is enabled to master the intricacies of the science. It is a Grammar and Dictionary of Botany, and comprises the common Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees of the Southern as well as the Northern and Middle States, including the commonly cultivated, as well as the native species in fields, gardens, pleasure-grounds, or house culture, and even the conservatory plants ordinarily met with. This work supplies a great desideratum to the Botanist and Botanical Teacher, there being no similar class-book published in this country. 352 GRAY'S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, ILLUSTRATED BY OVER 360 WOOD ENGRAVINGS, FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS, BY ISAAC SPRAGUB. TO WHICH IS ADDED A COPIOUS GLOSSARY, OR DICTIONARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS. BY ASA GRAY, FISHER PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. NEW YOEK: IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & COMPANY, 138 & 140 GRAND STREET. CHICAGO: 133 & 135 STATE STREET. 1872. LANDSCAPE Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by GEORGE P. PUTNAM & CO., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by ASA GRAY, in the Clerk's Office or the District Court for the District of Massachusetts. Add to Lib. PREFACE. THIS book is intended for the use of beginners, and for classes in the common and higher schools, in which the elements of Botany, one of the most generally interesting of the Natural Sciences, surely ought to be taught, and to be taught correctly, as far as the instruction proceeds. While these Lessons are made as plain and simple as they well can be, all the subjects treated of have been carried far enough to make the book a genuine Grammar of Botany and Vegetable Physiology, and a sufficient introduction to those works in which the plants of a country especially of our own* are described. Accordingly, as respects the principles of Botany (including Vege- table Physiology), this work is complete in itself, as a school-book for younger classes, and even for the students of our higher seminaries. For it comprises a pretty full account of the structure, organs, growth, and reproduction of plants, and of their important uses in the scheme of creation, subjects which certainly ought to be as generally understood by all educated people as the elements of Natural Philosophy or Astron- omy are ; and which are quite as easy to be learned. The book is also intended to serve as an introduction to the author's Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States (or to any similar work describing the plants of other districts), and to be to it what a grammar and a dictionary are to a classical author. It consequently con- tains many terms and details which there is no necessity for young stu- dents perfectly to understand in the first instance, and still less to commit to memory, but which they will need to refer to as occasions arise, when they come to analyze flowers, and ascertain the names of our wild plants. To make the book complete in this respect, a full Glossary, or Diction- ary of Terms used in describing Plants, is added to the volume. This con- tains very many words which are not used in the Manual of Botany ; but as they occur in common botanical works, it was thought best to in- troduce and explain them. All the words in the Glossary which seemed to require it are accented. IV PREFACE. It is by no means indispensable for students to go through the volume before commencing with the analysis of plants. When the proper season for botanizing arrives, and when the first twelve Lessons have been gone over, they may take up Lesson XXVIII. and the following ones, and pro- ceed to study the various wild plants they find in blossom, in the manner illustrated in Lesson XXX., &c., referring to the Glossary, and thence to the pages of the Lessons, as directed, for explanations of the various distinctions and terms they meet with. Their first essays will necessarily be rather tedious, if not difficult; but each successful attempt smooths the way for the next, and soon these technical terms and distinctions will become nearly as familiar as those of ordinary language. Students who, having mastered this elementary work, wish to extend their acquaintance with Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology, and to con- sider higher questions about the structure and classification of plants, will be prepared to take up the author's Botanical Text-Book, an Introduction to Structural Botany, or other more detailed treatises. No care and expense have been spared upon the illustrations of this volume; which, with one or two exceptions, are all original. They were drawn from nature by Mr. Sprague, the most accurate of living botanical artists, and have been as freely introduced as the size to which it was needful to restrict the volume would warrant. To append a set of questions to the foot of each page, although not un- usual in school-books, seems like a reflection upon the competency or the faithfulness of teachers, who surely ought to have mastered the lesson be- fore they undertake to teach it ; nor ought facilities to be afforded for teaching, any more than learning, lessons by rote. A full analysis of the contents of the Lessons, however, is very convenient and advantageous. Such an Analysis is here given, in place of the ordinary table of con- tents. This will direct the teacher and the learner at once to the leading ideas and important points of each Lesson, and serve as a basis to ground proper questions on, if such should be needed. ASA GRAY. HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, January 1, 1857. *** Revised August, 1868, and alterations made adapting it to the new edition of Manual, and to Field, Forest, and Garden Botany, to which this work is the proper introduction and companion. A. G. ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS.* LESSON I. BOTANY AS A BRANCH OF NATURAL HISTORY. . . p. 1. 1. Natural History, its subjects. 2. The Inorganic or Mineral Kingdom, what it is : why called Inorganic. 3. The Organic world, or the world of Or- ganized beings, why so called, and what its peculiarities. 4. "What kingdoms it comprises. 5, 6. Differences between plants and animals. 7. The use of plants : how vegetables are nourished ; and how animals. 8. Botany, how defined. 9. Physiology, and Physiological Botany, what /iey relate to. 10. Systematic Botany, what it relates to : a Flora, what it is. 11. Geographical Botany, Fossil Botany, &c., what they relate to. LESSON II. THE GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. . p. 4. 12. The Course of Vegetation : general questions proposed. 13. Plants formed on one general plan. 14. The Germinating Plantlet : 15. exists in miniature in the seed: 16. The Embryo; its parts: 17, 18. how it develops. 19. Opposite growth of Root and Stem : 20. its object or results : 21,22. the different way each grows. LESSON III. GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED ; continued, p. 9. 23. Recapitulation : Ascending and Descending Axis. 24, 25. The Germi- nating Plantlet, how nourished. 26. Deposit of food in the embryo, illustrated in the Squash, &c. : 27. in the Almond, Apple-seed, Beech, &c. : 28. in the Bean: 29. in the Pea, Oak, and Buckeye : peculiarity of these last. 30, 31. Deposit of food outside of the embryo : Albumen of the seed : various shapes of embryo. 32, 33. Kinds of embryo as to the number of Cotyledons : di- cotyledonous : monocotyledonous : polycotyledonous. 34, 35. Plan of vegeta- tion. 36. Simple-stemmed vegetation illustrated. LESSON IV. THE GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS AND BRANCHES, p. 20. 37, 38. Branching : difference in this respect between roots and stems. 39. Buds, what they are, and where situated : 40. how they grow, and what they become. 41. Plants as to size and duration: herb, annual, biennial, perennial: shrub : tree. 42. Terminal Bud. 43. Axillary Buds. 44. Scaly Buds. 45. Naked Buds. 46. Vigor of vegetation from buds illustrated. 47 - 49. Plan and arrangement of Branches : opposite : alternate. 50. Symmetry of Branches, * The numbers in the analysis refer to the paragraphs. a* VI ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. what it depends on: 51. how it becomes incomplete: 51-59. how varied. 53. Definite growth. 54. Indefinite growth. 55. Deliquescent or dissolving stems, how formed. 56. Excurrent stems of spire-shaped trees, how produced. 57. Latent Buds. 58. Adventitious Buds. 59. Accessory or supernumerary Buds. 60. Sorts of Buds recaaitulatcd and defined. LESSON V. MORPHOLOGY OF BOOTS p. 28. 61 - 64. Morphology; what the term means, and how applied in Botany. 65. Primary Root, simple ; and, 66. multiple. 67. Rootlets ; how roots absorb : time for transplantation, &c. 68. Great amount of surface which a plant spreads out, in the air and in the soil ; reduced in winter, increased in spring. 69. Absorbing surface of roots increased by the root-hairs. 70. Fibrous roots for absorption. 71. Thickened or fleshy roots as storehouse of food. 72, 73. Their principal forms. 74. Biennial roots ; their economy. 75. Perennial thickened roots. 76. Potatoes, &c. are not roots. 77. Secondary Roots, their economy. 78. Sometimes striking in open air, when they are, 79. Aerial Roots ; illustrated in Indian Corn, Mangrove, Screw Pine, Banyan, &c. 80. Aerial Rootlets of Ivy. 81. Epiphytes or Air-Plants, illustrated. 82. Parasitic Plants, illustrated by the Mistletoe, Dodder, &c. LESSON VI. MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. ... p. 36. 83 85. Forms of stems and branches above ground. 86. Their direction or habit of growth. 87. Culm, Caitdex, &c. 88. Suckers : propagation of plants by division. 89. Stolons : propagation by layering or laying. 90. Offsets. 91. Runners. 92. Tendrils; how plants climb by them : their disk-like tips in the Virginia Creeper. 93. Tendrils arc sometimes forms of leaves. 94. Spines or Thorns ; their nature : Prickles. 95. Strange forms of stems. 96. Subter- ranean stems and branches. 97. The Rootstock or Rhizoma, why stem and not root. 98. Why running rootstocks are so troublesome, and so hard to de- stroy. 99-101. Thickened rootstocks, as depositories of food. 102. Their life and growth. 103. The Tuber. 104. Economy of the Potato-plant. 105. Gradations of tubers into, 106. Corms or solid bulbs : the nature and economy of these, as in Crocus. 107. Gradation of these into, 108. the Bulb : nature of bulbs. 109,110. Their economy. 111. Their two principal sorts. 112. Bulb- lets. 113. How the foregoing sorts of stems illustrate what is meant by mor- phology. 114. They are imitated in some plants above ground. 115. Consoli- dated forms of vegetation, illustrated by Cactuses, &c. 116. Their economy and adaptation to dry regions. LESSON VII. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES. . p. 49. 117. Remarkable states of leaves already noticed. 118, 119. Foliage the natural form of leaves : others are special forms, or transformations ; why so called. 120. Leaves as depositories of food, Especially the seed-leaves ; and, 121. As Bulb-scales. 122. Leaves as Bud-scales. 123. As Spines. 124. As Ten- drils. 125. As Pitchers, 126. As Fly-traps. 127 - 129. The same leaf serving various purposes. ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. Vll LESSON VIII. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. ... p. 54. 130. Foliage the natural state of leaves. 131. Leaves a contrivance for in- creasing surface : the vast surface of a tree in leaf. 132, 133. The parts of a leaf. 134. The blade. 135. Its pulp or soft part and its framework. 136. The latter is wood, and forms the ribs or veins and veinlets. 137. Division and use of these. 138. Venation, or mode of veining. 139. Its two kinds. 140. Nctted-veined or reticulated. 141. Parallel-veined or nerved. 142. The so- called veins and nerves essentially the same thing; the latter not like the nerves of animals. 143. How the sort of veining of leaves answers to the num- ber of cotyledons and the kind of plant. 144. Two kinds of parallel-veined leaves. 145, 146. Two kinds of netted-veined leaves. 147. Relation of the veining to the shape of the leaf. 148 - 151. Forms of leaves illustrated, as to general out- line. 152. As to the base. 153. As to the apex. LESSON IX. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE ; continued, p. 61. 154, 155. Leaves either simple or compound. 156-162. Simple leaves il- lustrated as to particular outline, or kind and degree of division. 163. Com- pound leaves. 164. Leaflets. 165. Kinds of compound leaves. 166, 167. The pinnate, and, 168. the palmate or digitate. 169. As to number of leaflets, &c. 170. Leaflets, as to lobing, &c. 171, 172. Doubly or trebly compound leaves of both sorts. 173. Peculiar forms of leaves explained, such as : 174. Perfoliate: 175. Equitant: 176. Those without blade. 177. Phyllodia, or flattened petioles. 178. Stipules. 179. Sheaths of Grasses ; Ligule. LESSON X. THE ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES p. 71. 181. Phyllotaxy, or arrangement of leaves on the stem : general sorts of ar- rangement. 182. Leaves arise only one from the same place. 183. Clustered or fascicled leaves explained. 184. Spiral arrangement of alternate leaves. 185. The two-ranked arrangement. 186. The three-ranked arrangement. 187. The five-ranked arrangement. 188. The fractions by which these are expressed. 189. The eight-ranked and the thirteen-ranked arrangements. 190. The series of these fractions, and their relations. 191. Opposite and whorled leaves. 192. Symmetry of leaves, &c. fixed by mathematical rule. 193. Vernation, or arrangement of leaves in the bud. 194. The principal modes. LESSON XI. THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM, OR INFLORESCENCE p. 76. 195. Passage from the Organs of Vegetation to those of Fructification or Re- production. 196. Inflorescence: the arrangement of flowers depends on that of the leaves. 197. They are from either terminal or axillary buds. 198. In- determinate Inflorescence. 199. Its sorts of flower-clusters. 200. Flower- stalks, viz. peduncles and pedicels, bracts and bractlets, &c. 201. Raceme. 202. Its gradation into (203) a Coiymb, and that (204) into (205) an Umbel, 206. Centripetal order of development 207. The Spike. 208. The Head. Till ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. 209. Spadix. 210. Catkin or Amcnt. 211, 212. Compound inflorescence of the preceding kinds. 213. Panicle. 214. Thyrsus. 215. Determinate In- florescence explained. 216, 217. Cyme: centrifugal order of development 218. Fascicle. 219. Glomcrule. 221. Analysis of flower-clusters. 222. Com- biuation of the two kinds of inflorescence in the same plant. * LESSON XII. THE FLOWER : ITS PARTS OR ORGANS p. 84. 223. The Flower. 224. Its nature and use. 225. Its organs. 226. The Floral Envelopes or leaves of the flower.. Calyx and Corolla, together called (227) Perianth. 228. Petals, Sepals. 229. Neutral and "double" flowers, those destitute of, 230. The Essential Organs : Stamens and Pistils. 231,232. The parts of the flower in their sue cession. 233. The Stamen : its parts. 234. The Pistil : its parts. LESSON XIII. THE PLAN or THE FLOWER p. 88. 235. Flowers all constructed upon the same plan. 236. Plan in vegetation referred to. 237 - 239. Typical or pattern flowers illustrated, those at once perfect, complete, regular, and symmetrical. 241. Imperfect or separated flowers. 242. Incomplete flowers. 243. Symmetry and regularity. 244. Irregular flow- ers. 245. Unsymmetrical flowers. 246. Numerical plan of the flower. 247. Alternation of the successive parts. 248. Occasional obliteration of certain parts. 24f*- Abortive organs. 250. Multiplication of parts. LESSON XIV. MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER p 96. 251. Recapitulation of the varied forms under which stems and leaves appear. 252. These may be called metamorphoses. 253. Flowers are altered branches ; how shown. 254. Their position the same as that occupied by buds. 255, 256. Leaves of the blossom are really leaves. 257. Stamens a different modifi- cation of the same. 258. Pistils another modification ; the botanist's idea of a pistil. 259. The arrangement of the parts of a flower answers to that of the leaves on a branch. LESSON XV. MORPHOLOGY OF THE CALYX AND COROLLA. . . p. 99. 260. The leaves of the blossom viewed as to the various shapes they assume ; as, 261. by growing together. 262. Union or cohesion of parts of the same sort, rendering the flower, 263. Monopetalous or monoscpalous ; various shapes de- fined and named. 265 The tube, and the border or limb. 266. The claw and the blade, or lamina of a separate petal, &c. 267. When the parts are distinct, polyscpalous, and polypetalons. 268. Consolidation, or the growing together of the parts of different sets. 269. Insertion, what it means, and what is meant by the terms Free and Hypogynous. 270. Perigynous insertion. 271, 272. Coherent or adherent calyx, &c. 273. Epigynous. 274. Irregularity of parts. 275. Papilionaceous flower, and its parts. 276. Labiate or bilabiate flowers. 277, 278. Ligulate flowers : the so-called compound flowers. ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. IX LESSON XVI. .^ESTIVATION, OR THE ARRANGEMENT OP THE CALYX AND COROLLA IN THE BUD. ... p. 108. 279. ^Estivation or Prsefloration defined. 280. Its principal modes illustrated, viz. the valvate, induplicate, reduplicate, convolute or twisted, and imbricated. 282, 283. Also the open, and the plaited or plicate, and its modification, the supervolute. LESSON XVII. MORPHOLOGY OF THE STAMENS p. 111. 284. Stamens considered as to, 285. Their insertion. 286. Their union with each other. 287, 288. Their number. 289. Their parts. 290. The Filament. 291. The Anther. 292, 293. Its attachment to the filament. 294. Its structure. 295. Its mode of opening, &c. 296. Its morphology, or the way in which it is supposed to be constructed out of a leaf; its use, viz. to produce, 297. Pollen. 298. Structure of pollen-grains. 299. Some of their forms. LESSON XVIII. MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS p. 116. 300. Pistils as to position. 301. As to number. 302. Their parts ; Ovary, style, and stigma. 303, 304. Plan of a pistil, whether simple or compound. 305, 306. The simple pistil, or Carpel, and how it answers to a leaf. 307. Its sutures. 308. The Placenta. 309. The Simple Pistil, one-celled, 310. and with one style. 311,312. The Compound Pistil, how composed. 313. With two or more cells : 314. their placentai in the axis : 315. their dissepiments or parti- tions. 316, 317. One-celled compound pistils. 318. With a free central pla- centa. 319, 320. With parietal placenta}. 321. Ovary superior or inferior. 322. Open or Gymnospcrmous pistil : Naked-seeded plants. 323. Ovules. 324. Their structure. 325, 326. Their kinds illustrated. LESSON XIX. MORPHOLOGY OF THE RECEPTACLE p. 124. 327. The Receptacle or Torus. 328-330. Some of its forms illustrated. 331. The Disk. 332. Curious form of the receptacle in Nelumbium. LESSON XX. THE FRUIT p. 126. 333. What the Fruit consists of. 334. Fruits which are not such in a strict botanical sense. 335. Simple Fruits. 336, 337. The Pericarp, and the changes it may undergo. 338. Kinds of simple fruits. 339. Fleshy fruits. 340. The Berry. 341. The Pepo or Ground-fruit. 342. The Pome or Apple-fruit. 343- 345. The Drupe or Stone-fruit. 346. Diy fruits. 347._The Achenium : nature of the Strawberry. 348. Raspberry and Blackberry. 349. Fruit in the Com- posite Family : Pappus. 350. The Utricle. 351. The Caryopsis or Grain. 352. The Nut : Cupule. 353. The Samara or Key-fruit. 354. The Capsule or Pod. 355. The Follicle. 356. The Legume and Loment. 357. The true Capsule. 358,359. Dehiscence, its kinds. 361. The Silique. .362. The Silicle. 363. The Pyxis. 364. Multiple or Collective Fruits. 365. The Strobile or Cone. X ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. LESSON XXL THE SEED p. 134. 366. The 'Seed ; its origin. 367. Its parts. 360,369. Its coats. 370. The Aril or Arillus. 371. Names applied to the parts of the seed. 372. The Ker- nel or Nucleus. 373. The Albumen. 374, 375. The Embryo. 376. The Radicle. 377. The Cotyledons or Seed-leaves : the monocotyledonous, dicoty- ledonous, and polycotyledonous embryo. 378. The Plumule. 379. The circle of vegetable life completed. LESSON XXII. How PLANTS GROW p. 138. 380, 381. Growth, what it is. 382. For the first formation or beginning of a plant dates farther back than to, -383. the embryo in the ripe seed, which is already a plantlet. 384. The formation and the growth of the embryo itself. 385. Action of the pollen on the stigma, and the result. 386. The Embryonal Vesicle, or first cell of the embryo. 387. Its growth and development into the embryo. 388. Growth of the plantlet from the 'seed. 389. The plant built up of a vast number of cells. 390. Growth consists of the increase in size of cells, and their multiplication in number. LESSON XXIII. VEGETABLE FABRIC : CELLULAR TISSUE. . . p. 142. 391, 392. Organic Structure illustrated : Cells the units or elements of plants. 393. Cellular Tissue. 394, 395, 397. How the cells are put together. 396. Inter- cellular spaces, air-passages. 398 Size of cells. 399. Rapidity of their produc- tion. 400. Their walls colorless ; the colors owing to their contents. 401. The walls sometimes thickened. 402. Cells are closed and whole ; yet sap flows from one cell to another. 403. Their varied shapes. LESSON XXIV. VEGETABLE FABRIC : WOOD. p. 145. 404. All plants at the beginning formed of cellular tissue only ; and some never have anything else in their composition. 405. Wood soon appears in most plants. 406. Its nature. 408. Wood-cells or Woody Fibre. 409. Hard wood and soft wood. 410. Wood-cells closed and whole ; yet they convey sap. 411. They communicate through thin places: Pine-wood, &c. 412. Bast-cells or fibres of the bark. 413. Ducts or Vessels. 414. The principal kinds. 415. Milk-vessels, Oil-receptacles, &c. LESSON XXV. ANATOMY OF THE ROOT, STEM, AND LEAVES, p. 149. 416. The materials of the vegetable fabric, how put together. 417-419. Structure and action of the rootlets. 420. Root-hairs. 421. Structure of tho stem. 422. The two sorts of stem. 423. The Endogenous. 423. The Exo- genous : 425. more particularly explained. 426. Parts of the wood or stem itself. 427. Parts of the bark. 428. Growth of the exogenous stem year after yoar. 429. Growth of the bark, and what "becomes of the older pnrts. 431. Changes in the wood ; Sap-wood. 432. Heart-wood. 433. This no longer liv- ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. xl ing. 434. What the living parts of a tree are ; their annual renewal. 435. Cambium-layer or zone of growth in the stem ; connected with, 436. new root- lets below, and new shoots, buds, and leaves above. 437. Structure of a leaf: its two parts, the woody and the cellular, or, 438. the pulp ; this contains the green matter, or Chlorophyll. 439, 440. Arrangement of the cells of green pulp in the leaf, and structure of its epidermis or skin. 441. Upper side only endures the sunshine. 442. Evaporation or exhalation of moisture from the leaves. 443. Stomates or Breathing-pores, their structure and use. 444. Their numbers. LESSON XXVI. THE PLANT IN ACTION, DOING THE WORK OF VEGETATION p. 157. 446. The office of plants to produce food for animals. 447. Plants feed upon earth and air. 449. Their chemical composition. 450. Two sorts of material. 451, 452. The earthy or inorganic constituents. 453. The organic constituents. 454. These form the Cellulose, or substance of vegetable tissue ; composition of cellulose. 455. The plant's food, from which this is made. 456. Water, furnishing hydrogen and oxygen. 458. Carbonic acid, furnishing, 457. Carbon. 459. The air, containing oxygen and nitrogen ; and also, 460. Carbonic acid; 461. which is absorbed by the leaves, 462., and by the roots. 46$. Water and carbonic acid the general food of plants. 464. Assimilation the proper work of plants. 465. Takes place in green parts alone, under the light of the sun. 466-468. Liberates oxygen gas and produces Cellulose or plant-fabric. 469. Or else Starch ; its nature and use. 470. Or Sugar; its na- ture, &c. The transformations starch, sugar, &c. undergo. 471. Oils, acids, &c. The formation of all these products restores oxygen gas to the air. 472. There- fore plants purify the air for animals. 473. While at the same time they pro- duce all the food and fabric of animals. The latter take all their food ready made from plants. 474. And decompose starch, sugar, oil, &c., giving back their ma- terials to the air again as the food of the plant ; at the same time producing ani- mal heat. 475. But the fabric or flesh of animals (fibrine, gelatine, &c.) contains nitrogen. 476. This is derived from plants in the form of Protcine. Its nature and how the plant forms it. 477. Earthy matters in the plant form the earthy part of bones, &c. 478. Dependence of animals upon plants ; showing the great object for which plants were created. LESSON XXVII. PLANT-LIFE. p. 166. 479. Life ; manifested by its effects ; viz. its power of transforming matter : 480. And by motion. 481, 482. Plants execute movements as well as animals. 483. Circulation in cells. 484. Free movements of the simplest plants in their forming state. 485. Absorption and conveyance of the sap. 486. Its rise into the leaves. 487. Explained by a mechanical law ; Endosmose. 488. Set in ac- tion by evaporation from the leaves. 489. These movements controlled by the plant, which directs growth and shapes the fabric by an inherent power. 490 - 492. Special movements of a conspicuous sort ; such as seen in the bending, twining, revolving, and coiling of 'stems and tendrils ; in the so-called sleeping and waking states of plants - in movements from irritation, and striking spon- taneous motions. Xii ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. 493. Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants. 494. What they comprise ; why so called. 495. To be studied in other works. LESSON XXVIII. SPECIES AND KINDS p. 173. 496. Plants viewed as to their relationships. 497. Two characteristics of plants and animals : they form themselves, and, 498. They exist as Individu- als. The chain of individuals gives rise to the idea of, 499, 500. Species : as- semblages of individuals, so like that they are inferred to have a common an- cestry. 501. Varieties and Races. 502. Tendency of the progeny to inherit all the peculiarities of the parent ; how taken advantage of in developing and fixing races. 503. Diversity and gradation of species ; these so connected as to show all to be formed on one plan, all works of one hand, or realizations of the conceptions of one mind. 504. Kinds, what they depend upon. 505. Genera. 506. Orders or Families. 507. Suborders and Tribes. 508 Classes. 509. The two great Series or grades of plants. 510. The way the various divisions in classification are ranked. LESSON XXIX. BOTANICAL NAMES AND CHARACTERS. ... p. 178. 511, 512. Classification ; the two purposes it subserves. 513. Names : plan of nomenclature. 514, 515. Generic names, how formed. 516. Specific names, how formed. 517. Names of Varieties. 518, 519. Names of Orders, Sub- orders, Tribes, &c. 520, 521. Characters. LESSONS XXX. -XXXII. 'How TO STUDY PLANTS, pp. 181, 187, 191. 522 - 567. Illustrated by several examples, showing the mode of analyzing and ascertaining the name of an unknown plant, and its place in the system, c. LESSON XXXIII. BOTANICAL SYSTEMS p. 195. 568-571. Natural System. 572, 573. Artificial Classification. 574. Arti- ficial System of Linnaeus. 575. Its twenty-four Classes, enumerated and de- fined. 576. Derivation of their names. 577, 578. Its Orders. LESSON XXXIV. How TO COLLECT SPECIMENS AND MAKE AN HERBARIUM p. 199. 579-582. Directions for collecting specimens. 583, 584. For drying and preserving specimens. 585, 586 For forming an Herbarium. GLOSSARY, OR DICTIONARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS p. 203 FIRST LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, LESSON I. BOTANY AS A BRANCH OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1. THE subjects of Natural History are, the earth itself and the beings that live upon it. 2. The Inorganic World, or Mineral Kingdom, The earth itself, with the air that surrounds it, and all things naturally belonging to them which are destitute of life, make up the mineral kingdom, or in- organic world. These are called inorganic, or unorganized, because they are not composed of organs, that is, of parts which answer to one another, and make up a whole, such as is a horse, a bird, or a plant. They were formed, but they did not grow, nor proceed from previous bodies like themselves, nor have they the power of pro- ducing other similar bodies, that is, of reproducing their kind. On the other hand, the various living things, or those which have pos- sessed life, compose 3. The Organic World, the world of organized beings. These consist of organs ; of parts which go to make up an individual, a being. And each individual owes its existence to a preceding one like itself, that is, to a parent. It was not merely formed, but produced. At first small and imperfect, it grows and develops by powers of its own ; it attains maturity, becomes old, and finally dies. It was formed of inorganic or mineral matter, that is, of earth and air, indeed ; but only of this matter under the influence of life : and after life departs, sooner or later, it is decomposed into earth and air again. 2 BOTANY, WHAT IT RELATES TO. [LESSON 1. 4. The organic world consists of two kinds of beings ; namely, 1. Plants or Vegetables, which make up what is called the Vegetable Kingdom; and, 2. Animals, which compose the Animal Kingdom. 5. The Differences between Plants and Animals seem at first sight so obvious and so great, that it would appear mere natural to inquire how they resemble rather than how they differ from each other. What likeness does the cow bear to the grass it feeds upon ? The one moves freely from place to place, in obedience to its own will, as its wants or convenience require : the other is fixed to the spot of earth where it grew, manifests no will, and makes no movements that are apparent to ordinary observation. The one takes its food into an internal cavity (the stomach), from which it is absorbed into the system : the other absorbs its food directly by its surface, by its roots, leaves, &c. Both possess organs ; but the limbs o/ members of the animal do not at all resemble the roots, leaves, blossoms, &c. of the plant. All these distinctions, however, gradu- ally disappear, as we come to the lower kinds of plants and the lower animals. Many animals (such as barnacles, coral-animals, and polyps) are fixed to some support as completely as the plant is to the soil ; while many plants are not fixed, and some move from place to place by powers of their own. All animals move some of their parts freely ; yet in the extent and rapidity of the motion many of them are surpassed by the common Sensitive Plant, by the Venus's Fly-trap, and by some other vegetables ; while whole tribes of aquatic plants are so freely and briskly locomotive, that they have until lately been taken for animals. It is among these microscopic tribes that the animal and vegetable kingdoms most nearly approach each other, so nearly, that it is still uncertain where to draw the line between them. 6. Since the difficulty of distinguishing between animals and plants occurs only, or mainly, in those forms which from their minuteness are beyond ordinary observation, we need not further concern ourselves with the question here. One, and probably the most absolute, difference, however, ought to be mentioned at the outset, because it enables us to see what plants are made for. It is this : 7. Vegetables are nourished by the mineral kingdom, that is, by the ground and the air, which supply all they need, and which they are adapted to live upon ; while animals are entirely nourished by vegetables. The great use of plants therefore is, to take portions of LESSON 1.] BOTANY, WHAT IT RELATES TO. 3 earth and air, upon which animals cannot subsist at all, and to con- vert these into something upon which animals can subsist, that is, into food. All food is produced by plants. How this is done, it is the province of Vegetable Physiology to explain. 8. Botany is the name of the science of the vegetable kingdom in general. 9. Physiology is the study of the way a living being lives, and grows, and performs its various operations. The study of plants in this view is the province of Vegetable Physiology. The study of the form and structure of the organs or parts of the vegetable, by which its operations are performed, is the province of Structural Botany. The two together constitute Physiological Botany. With this de- partment the study of Botany should begin ; both because it lies at the foundation of all the rest, and because it gives that kind of knowledge of plants which it is desirable every one should possess ; that is, some knowledge of the way in w r hich plants live, grow, and fulfil the purposes of their existence. To this subject, accordingly, a large portion of the following Lessons is devoted. 10. The study of plants as to their kinds is the province of Sys- tematic Botany. An enumeration of the kinds of vegetables, as far as known, classified according to their various degrees of resemblance -or difference, constitutes a general System of plants. A similar ac- count of the vegetables of any particular country or district is called a Flora of that country or district. 11. Other departments of Botany come to view when instead of regarding plants as to what they are in themselves, or as to their relationship with each other we consider them in their relations to other things. Their relation to the earth, for instance, as respects their distribution over its surface, gives rise to Geographical Botany, or Botanical Geography. The study of the vegetation of former times, in their fossil remains entombed in the crust of the earth, gives rise to Fossil Botany. The study of plants in respect to their uses to man is the province of Agricultural Botany, Medical Botany^ and the like. 4 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 2. LESSON II. THE GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 12. The Course Of Vegetation, We see plants growing from the seed in spring-time, and gradually developing their parts : at length they blossom, bear fruit, and produce seeds like those from which they grew. Shall we commence the study of the plant with the full-grown herb or tree, adorned with flowers or laden with fruit ? Or shall we commence with the seedling just rising from the ground ? On the whole, we may get a clearer idea of the whole life and structure of plants if we begin at the beginning, that is, with the plantlet springing from the seed, and follow it throughout its course of growth. This also agrees best with the season in which the study of Botany is generally commenced, namely, in the spring of the year, when the growth of plants from the seed can hardly fail to attract attention. Indeed, it is this springing forth of vegeta- tion from seeds and buds, after the rigors of our long winter, clothing the earth's surface almost at once with a mantle of freshest verdure, which gives to spring its greatest charm. Even the dullest beholder, the least observant of Nature at other seasons, can then hardly fail to ask : What are plants ? How do they live and grow ? What do they live upon ? What is the object and use of vegetation in general, and of its particular and wonderfully various forms ? These questions it is the object of the present Lessons to answer, as far as possible, in a simple way. 13. A reflecting as well as observing person, noticing the re- semblances between one plant and another, might go on to inquire whether plants, with all their manifold diversities of form and appearance, are not all constructed on one and the same general plan. It will become apparent, as we proceed, that this is the case ; that one common plan may be discerned, which each par- ticular plant, whether herb, shrub, or tree, has followed much more closely than would at first view be supposed. The differences, wide as they are, are merely incidental. What is true in a general way of any ordinary vegetable, will be found to be true of all, only with great variation in the details. In the same language, though in varied phrase, the hundred thousand kinds of plants repeat the same LESSON 2.] GROWTH OP THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. story, are the living witnesses and illustrations of one and the same plan of Creative Wisdom in the vegetable world. So that the study of any one plant, traced from the seed it springs from round to the seeds it produces, would illustrate the whole subject of vege- table life and growth. It matters little, therefore, what particular plant we begin with. 14. The Germinating Plantlet, Take for example a seedling Maple. Sugar Maples may be found in abundance in many places, starting from the seed (i. e. germinating) in early spring, and Red Maples at the beginning of summer, shortly after the fruits of the season have ripened and fallen to the ground. A pair of narrow green leaves raised on a tiny stem make up the whole plant at its first appearance (Fig. 4). Soon a root appears at the lower end of this stemlet ; then a little bud at its upper end, between the pair of leaves, which soon grows into a second joint or stem bearing another pair of leaves, resembling the ordinary leaves of the Red Maple, which the first did not. Figures 5 and 6 represent these steps in the growth. 15. Was this plantlet formed in the seed at the time of germination, something as the chick is formed in the egg during the process of incu- bation ? Or did it exist before in the seed, ready formed ? To decide this question, we have only to inspect a sound seed, which in this instance requires no microscope, nor any other instrument than a sharp knife, by which the coats of the seed (previously soaked in water, if dry) may be laid open. We find within the seed, in this case, the little plantlet ready formed, and nothing else (Fig. 2) ; namely, a pair of leaves like those of the earliest seedling (Fig. 4), only smaller, borne on a stemlet just like that of the seedling, only much shorter, and all snugly coiled up within the protecting seed-coat. The plant then exists beforehand in the seed, in miniature. It was not formed, but only devel- FIG. 1. A winged fruit of Red Maple, witli the seed-bearing portion cut open, to show the seed. 2. This seed cut open to show the embryo plantlet within, enlarged. 3. The embryo taken out whole, and partly unfolded. 4. The same after it has begun to grow ; of the Qatural size. 1* 6 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 2, oped, in germination ; when it had merely to unfold and grow, to elongate its rudimentary stem, which takes at the same time an upright position, so as to bring the leaf-bearing end into the light and air, where the two leaves expand ; while from the opposite end, now pushed farther downwards into the soil, the root begins to grow. All this is true in the main of all plants that spring from real seeds, although with great diversity in the particulars. At least, there is hardly an excep- tion to the fact, that the plantlet exists ready formed in the seed, in some shape or other. 16. The rudimentary plantlet contained in the seed is called an Embryo. Its little stem is named the Radicle, because it was supposed to be the root, when the difference between the root and stem was not so well known as now. It were better to name it the Caulicle (i. e. little stem) ; but it is not expedient to change old names. The seed-leaves it bears on its sum- mit (here two in number) are technically called Cotyledons. The little bud of undeveloped leaves which is to be found between the co- tyledons before germination in many cases (as in the Pea, Bean, Fig. 17, &c.), has been named the Plumule. 17. In the Maple (Fig. 4), as also in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 28), and the like, this bud, or plumule, is not seen for some days after the seed-leaves are expanded. But soon it appears, in the Maple as a pair of minute leaves (Fig. 5), erelong raised on a stalk which carries them up to some distance above the cotyledons. The plantlet (Fig. 6) now consists, above ground, of two pairs of leaves, viz. : 1. the cotyledons or seed-leaves, borne on the summit of the original stemlet (the radicle) ; and 2. a pair of ordinary leaves, raised on a second joint of stem which has grown from the top of the first. Later, a third pair of leaves is formed, and raised on a third joint of stem, proceeding from the summit of the second (Fig. 7), just as that did from the first ; and so on, until the germi- nating plantlet becomes a tree. FIG. 5. Germinating Red Maple, which has produced its root beneath, and ia developing a second pair of leaves above. G. Same, further advanced. LESSON 2.] GROWTH OP THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 18. So the youngest seedling, and even the embryo in the seed, is already an epitome of the herb or tree. It has a stem, from the lower end of which it strikes root : and it has leaves. The tree itself in its whole vegetation has nothing more in kind. To become a tree, the plantlet has only to repeat itself upwardly by producing more similar parts, that is, new por- tions of stem, with new and larger leaves, in succession, while beneath, it pushes its root deeper and deeper into the soil. 19. The Opposite Growth of Root and Stem began at the beginning of germi- nation, and it continues through the whole life of the plant. While yet buried in the soil, and perhaps in total darkness, as soon as it begins to grow, the stem end of the embryo points towards the light, curving or turning quite round if it happens to lie in some other direction, and stretches upwards into the free air and sunshine ; while the root end as uniformly avoids the light, bends in the opposite direction to do so if necessary, and ever seeks to bury itself more and more in the earth's bosom. How the plantlet makes these movements we cannot explain. But the object of this instinct is obvious. It places the plant from the first in the proper position, with its roots in the moist soil, from which they are to absorb nourishment, and its leaves in the light and air, where alone they can fulfil their office of digesting what the roots absorb. 20. So the seedling plantlet finds itself provided with all the organs of vegetation that even the oldest plant possesses, namely, root, stem, and leaves ; and has these placed in the situation where each is to act, the root in the soil, the foliage in the light and air. Thus established, the plantlet has only to set about its proper work. 21. The different Mode of Growth of Root and Stem may also be here mentioned. Each grows, not only in a different direction, but in a different way. The stem grows by producing a set of joints, each from FIG. 7. Germinating Red Maple., further developed. 8 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 2. the summit of its predecessor ; and each joint elongates throughout every part, until it reaches its full length. The root is not composed of joints, and it lengthens only at the end. The stem in the embryo (viz. the radicle) has a certain length to begin with. In the pump- kin-seed, for instance (Fig. 9), it is less than an eighth of an inch long : but it grows in a few days to the length of one or two inches (Fig. 10), or still more, if the seed were deeper covered by the soil. It is by this elongation that the seed-leaves are raised out of the soil, so as to expand in the light and air. The length they acquire varies with the depth of the covering. When large and strong seeds are too deeply buried, the stemlet sometimes grows to the length of several inches in the endeavor to bring the seed-leaves to the sur- face. The lengthening of the succeeding joints of the stem serves to separate the leaves, or pairs of leaves, from one another, and to ex- pose them more fully to the light. 22. The root, on the other hand, begins by a new formation at the base of the embryo stem ; and it continues to increase in length solely by additions to the extremity, the parts once formed scarcely elongating at all afterwards. This mode of growth is well adapted to the circumstances in which roots are placed, leaving every part undisturbed in the soil where it was formed, while the ever-advan- cing points readily insinuate themselves into the crevices or looser portions of the soil, or pass around the surface of solid obstacles. LESSON 3.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 9 LESSON III. GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. Continued. 23. So a plant consists of two parts, growing in a different manner, as well as in opposite directions. One part, the root, grows down- wards into the soil : it may, therefore, be called the descending axis. The other grows upwards into the light and air : it may be called the ascending axis. The root grows on continuously from the ex- tremity, and so does not consist of joints, nor does it bear leaves, or anything of the kind. The stem grows by a succession of joints, each bearing one or more leaves on its summit Root on the one hand, and stem with its foliage on the other, make up the whole plantlet as it springs from the seed ; and the full-grown herb, shrub, or tree has nothing more in kind, only more in size and number. Before we trace the plantlet into the herb or tree, some other cases of the growth of the plantlet from the seed should be studied, that we may observe how the same plan is worked out under a variety of forms, with certain differences in the details. The mate- rials for this study are always at hand. We have only to notice what takes place all around us in spring, or to plant some common seeds in pots, keep them warm and moist, and watch their germination. 24. The Germinating Planllel feeds on Nourishment provided beforehand. The embryo so snugly ensconced in the seed of the Maple (Fig. 2, 3, 4) has from the first a miniature stem, and a pair of leaves already green, or which become green as soon as brought to the light. It has only to form a root by which to fix itself to the ground, when it becomes a perfect though diminutive vegetable, capable of providing for itself. This root can be formed only out of proper material : neither water nor anything else which the plantlet is imbibing from the earth will answer the purpose. The proper material is nourish- ing matter, or prepared food, more or less of which is always pro- vided by the parent plant, and stored up in the seed, either in the embryo itself, or around it. In the Maple, this nourishment is stored up in the thickish cotyledons, or seed-leaves. And there is barely enough of it to make the beginning of a root, and to provide for the lengthening of the stemlet so as to bring up the unfolding seed-leaves where they may expand to the light of day. But when this is done, S&F 2 10 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 3. the tiny plant is already able to shift for itself; that is, to live and continue its growth on what it now takes from the soil and from the air, and elaborates into nourishment in its two green leaves, under the influence of the light of the sun. 25. In most ordinary plants, a larger portion of nourishment is provided beforehand in the seed ; and the plantlet consequently is not so early or so entirely left to its own resources. Let us examine 4 a number of cases, selected from very common plants. Sometimes, as has just been stated, we find this 26. Deposit Of Food in the Embryo itself, And we may observe it in every gradation as to quantity, from the Maple of our first illus- tration, where there is very little, up to the Pea and the Horsechestnut, where there is as much as there possibly can be. If we strip off the coats from the large and flat seed of a Squash or Pumpkin, we find nothing but the em- bryo within (Fig. 9) ; and almost the whole bulk of this consists of the two seed-leaves. That these contain a good supply of nourishing matter, is evident from their sweet taste and from their thickness, although there is not enough to obscure their leaf-like appearance. It is by feeding on this supply of nour- ishment that the germinating Squash or Pumpkin (Fig. 10) grows so rapidly and so vigorously from the seed, lengthening its stemlet to more than twenty times the length it had in the seed, and thickening it in proportion, sending out at once a number of roots from its lower end, and soon developing the plumule (16) from its upper end into a third leaf: meanwhile the two cotyledons, relieved from the nourishment with which their tissue was gorged, have expanded into useful green leaves. 27. For a stronger instance, take next the seed of a Plum or Peach, or an Almond, or an Apple-seed (Fig. 11, 12), which shows FIG. 9. Embryo of a Pumpkin, of the natural size j the cotyledons a little opened. JO. The same, when it has germinated. LESSON 3.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 11 the same thing on a smaller scale. The embryo, which here also makes up the whole bulk of the kernel of the seed, differs from that of the Pumpkin only in having the seed-leaves more thickened, by the much larger quantity of nourishment stored up in their tissue, so large and so pure in- deed, that the almond becomes an article of food. Fed by this abundant supply, the second, and even the third joints of the stem, with their leaves, shoot forth as soon as the stemlet comes to the surface oi the soil. The Beech-nut (Fig. 13), with its sweet and eatable kernel, consisting mainly of a pair of seed-leaves folded together, and gorged with nourishing matter, offers another instance of the same sort : this ample store to feed upon enables the germinating plantlet to grow with remarkable vigor, and to develop a second joint of stem, with its pair of leaves (Fig. 14), before the first pair has expanded or the root has ob- tained much foothold in the soil. 28. A Bean affords a similar and more familiar illustration. Here the co- tyledons in the seed (Fig. 16) are so thick, that, although they are raised out of ground in the ordinary way in ger- mination (Fig. 17), and turn greenish, yet they never succeed in becoming leaf- like, never display their real nature of leaves, as they do so plainly in the Ma- ple (Fig. 5), the Pumpkin (Fig. 10), the Morning-Glory (Fig. 8, 26-28), &c. Turned to great account as magazines of food for the germinating plantlet, they fulfil this special office admirably, but FIG. 11. An Apple-seed cut through lengthwise, showing the embryo with its thickened cotyledons. 12. The embryo of the Apple, taken out whole, its cotyledons partly separated. FIG. 13. A Beech-nut, cut across. 14. Beginning germination of the Beech, showing the plumule growing before the cotyledons have opened or the root has scarcely formed. 15. The same, a little later, with the second joint lengthened. 12 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [^LESSON 3. they were so gorged and, as it were, misshapen, that they became quite unfitted to perform the office of foliage. This office is accordingly first performed by the succeeding pair of leaves, those of the plumule (Fig. 17, 18), which is put into rapid growth by the abundant nourishment contained in the large and thick seed-leaves. The latter, having fulfilled this office, soon wither and fall away. 29. This is carried a step farther in the Pea (Fig. 19, 20), a near relative of the Bean, and in the" Oak (Fig. 21, 22), a near relative of the Beech. The differ- ence in these and many other similar cases is this. The cotyledons, which make up nearly the whole bulk of the seed are exces- sively thickened, so as to become nearly hemispherical in shape. They have lost all likeness to leaves, and all power of ever fulfilling the office of leaves. Ac- cordingly in germination they remain unchanged within the husk or coats of the seed, never growing themselves, but supplying abundant nourishment to the plumule (the bud for the forming stem) between them. This pushes forth from the seed, shoots upward, and gives rise FIG. 16. A Bean : the embryo, from which seed-coats have been removed : the small stem is seen above, bent down upon the edge of the thick cotyledons. 17. The same in early germination ; the plumule growing from between the two seed-leaves. 18. The germination more advanced, the two leaves of the plumule unfolded, and raised on a short joint of stem. FIG. 19. A Pea : the embryo, with the seed-coats taken off. 20. A Pea in germination. LESSON 3.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 13 to the first leaves that appear. In most cases of the sort, the radicle, or short original stemlet of the embryo be- low the cotyledons (which is plainly shown in the Pea, Fig. 19), lengthens very little, or not at all ; and so the cotyledons remain under ground, if the seed was covered by the soil, as every one knows to be the case with Peas. In these (Fig. 20), as also in the Oak (Fig. 22), the leaves of the first one or two joints are imperfect, and mere small scales ; but genuine leaves immedi- ately follow. The Horsechestnut and Buck- eye (Fig. 23, 24) furnish another instance of the same sort. These trees are nearly related to the Maple ; but while the seed- leaves of the Maple show themselves to be leaves, even in the seed (as we have already seen), and when they germinate fulfil the office of ordinary leaves, those of the Buckeye and of the Horsechestnut (Fig. 23), would never be suspected to be the same organs. Yet they are so, only in another shape, exceedingly thickened by the accumulation of a great quantity of starch and other nourishing matter in their substance ; and besides, their contigu- ous faces stick together more or less firmly, so that they never open. But the stalks of these seed-leaves grow, and, as they lengthen, push the radicle and the plumule out of the seed, when the former develops downwardly the root, the latter upwardly the leafy stem and all it bears (Fig. 24). 30. Deposit of Food outside Of the Embryo. Very often the nourish- ment provided for the seedling plantlet is laid up, not in the embryo itself, but around it. A good instance to begin with is furnished by the common Morning-Glory, or Convolvulus. The embryo, taken out of the seed and straightened, is shown in Fig. 26. it consists of a short stemlet and of a pair of very thin and delicate green leaves, having no stock of nourishment in them for sustaining the FIG. 21. An acorn divided lengthwise. 22. The germinating Oak. GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 3. earliest growth. On cutting open the seed, however, we find this embryo (considerably crumpled or folded together, so as to occupy less space, Fig. 25) to be surround- ed by a mass of rich, mucilaginous matter (becoming rather hard and solid when dry), which forms the principal bulk of the seed. Upon this stock the embryo feeds in ger- mination ; the seed-leaves absorbing it into their tissue as it is rendered soluble (through certain chemical changes) and dissolved by the wa- ter which the germinating seed im- bibes from the moist soil. Having by this aid & ss lengthened its radicle into a stem of consider- able length, and formed the beginning of a root at its lower end. already imbedded in the soil (Fig. 27), the cotyledons now disengage themselves from the seed-coats, and ex- pand in the light as the first pair of leaves (Fig. 28). These immediately begin to elaborate, under the sun's influence, what the root imbibes from the soil, and the new nourishment so produced is used, partly to increase the size of the little stem, root, and leaves already existing, and partly to produce a second joint of stem with its leaf (Fig. 29), then a third with its leaf (Fig. 8) ; and so on. 31. This maternal store of food, deposited in the seed along with the embryo (but not in its substance), the old botanists likened to FIG. 23. Buckeye : a seed divided. 24. A similar seed in gemination. FIG. 25. Ssed and embryo of Morning-Glory, cut across. 2fi. Embryo of the same, de. tached and straightened. 27. Germinating Morning-Glory. 28. The same further advanced; its two thin seed-leaves expanded. LESSON 3.] GROWTH OP THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 15 the albumen, or white of the egg, which encloses the yolk, and therefore gave it the same name, the albumen of the seed, a name which it still retains. Food of this sort for the plant is also food for animals, or for man ; and it is this albumen, the floury part of the seed, which forms the principal bulk of such important grains as those of Indian Corn (Fig. 38 - 40), Wheat, Rice, Buck- wheat, and of the seed of Four-o'clock, (Fig. 36, 37), and the like. In all these last-named cases, it may be ob- served that the embryo is not enclosed in the albumen, but placed on one side of it, yet in close contact with it, so that the embryo may absorb readily from it the nourishment it requires when it begins to grow. Sometimes the embryo is coiled around the outside, in the form of a ring, as in the Purslane and the Four-o'clock (Fig. 36, 37) ; sometimes it is coiled within the albumen, as in the Potato (Fig. 34, 35) ; some- times it is straight in the centre of the albumen, occupying nearly its so 32 34 ss whole length, as in the Barberry (Fig. 32, 33), or much smaller and near one end, as in the Iris (Fig. 43) ; or some- times so minute, in the midst of the al- bumen, that it needs a magnifying-glass to find it, as in the But- 37 FIG. 29. Germination of the Morning Glory more advanced : the upper part only ; showing the leafy cotyledons, the second joint of stem with its leaf, and the third with its leaf just developing. FIG. 30. Section of a seed of a Peony, showing a very small embryo in the albumen, near one end. 31. This embryo detached, and more magnified. FIG. 32. Section of a seed of Barberry, showing the straight embryo in the middle of the albumen. 33. Its embryo detached. FIG. 34. Section of a Potato-seed, showing the embryo coiled in the albumen. 35. Its embryo detached. FIG. 36. Section of the seed of Four-o'clock, showing the embryo coiled round the outside of the albumen. 37. Its embryo detached- 16 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 3 tercup or the Columbine, and in the Peony (Fig. 30, 31), where, however, it is large enough to be distinguished by the naked eye. Nothing is more curious than the various shapes and positions of the embryo in the seed, nor more interesting than to watch its de- velopment in germination. One point is still to be noticed, since the botanist considers it of much importance, namely : 32. The Rinds of Embryo as to the Number of Cotyledons, In all the figures, it is easy to see that the embryo, however various in shape, is constructed on one and the same plan ; it consists of a radicle or stemlet, with a pair of cotyledons on its summit. Botanists there- fore call it dicotyledonous, an inconveniently long word to express the fact that the embryo has two cotyledons or seed-leaves. In many cases (as in the Buttercup), the cotyledons are indeed so minute, that they are discerned only by the nick in the upper end of the little embryo ; yet in germination they grow into a pair of seed-leaves, just as in other cases where they are plain to be seen, as leaves, in the seed. But in Indian Corn (Fig. 40), in Wheat, the Onion, the Iris (Fig. 43), &c., it is well known that only one leaf appears at first from the sprouting seed : in these the embryo has only one cotyle- don, and it is therefore termed by the botanists monocotyledo- nous ; an extremely long word, like the other, of Greek derivation, which means one-cotyle- doned. The rudiments of one or more other leaves are, indeed, commonly present in this sort of embryo, as is plain to see in Indian Corn (Fig. 38 - 40), but they form a bud situated above or within the cotyledon, and enclosed by it more or less completely ; so that they evidently belong to the plumule (16) ; and these leaves appear in the seedling plantlet, each from within its predecessor, and there- fore originating higher up on the forming stem (Fig. 42, 44). This will readily be understood from the accompanying figures, with their explanation, which the student may without difficulty verify for him- FIG. 38. A grain of Indian Corn, flatwise, cut away a little, so as to show the embryo, lying on the albumen, which makes the principal bulk of the seed. FIG. 39. Another grain of Corn, cut through the middle in the opposite direction, divid- ing the embryo through its thick cotyledon and its plumule, the latter consisting of two leaves, one enclosing the other. FIG. 40. The embryo of Corn, taken out whole : the thick mass is the cotyledon ; the narrow body partly enclosed by it is the plumule ; the little projection at its base is the very short radicle enclosed in the sheathing base of the first leaf of the plumule. LESSON 3.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 17 self, and should do so, by examining grains of Indian Corn, soaked in water, before and also during germination. In the Onion, Lily, and the Iris (Fig. 43), the monocotyledonous embryo is simpler, consisting apparently of a simple oblong or cylindrical body, in which no distinction of parts is visible : the lower end is radicle, and from it grows the root ; the rest is a cotyledon, which has wrapped up in it a minute plumule, or bud, that shows itself when the seeds sprout in germi- Dation. The first leaf which appears above ground in all these cases is not the cotyledon. In all seeds with one coty- ledon to the embryo, this remains in the seed, or at least its upper part, while its lengthening base comes out, so as to extricate the plumule, which shoots upward, and de- velops the first leaves of the plantlet. These appear one above or within the other in succes- sion, as is shown in Fig. 42 and Fig. 44, the first commonly in the form of a little scale or imperfect leaf; the second or third and the 4l following ones as the real, ordinary leave? of the plant. Meanwhile, from the root end of the embryo, a root (Fig. 41, 44), or soon a whole cluster of roots (Fig. 42) , makes its appearance. 33. In Pines, and the like, the embryo con- sists of a radicle or stemlet, bearing on its summit three or four, or often from five to ten slender cotyledons, arranged in a circle (Fig. 45), and expanding at once into a circle of as many green ' leaves in germination (Fig. 46). Such embryos are said to be polycotyledonous, that is, as the word denotes, many- cotyledoned. 34. Plan of Vegetation, The student who has understandingly followed the growth of the embryo in the seed into the seedling plantlet, com- posed of a root, and a stem of two or three joints, each bearing a FIG. 41. Grain of Indian Corn in germination. FIG. 42. The same, further advanced- 2* 18 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 3. leaf, or a pair (rarely a circle) of leaves, will have gained a cor- rect idea of the plan of vegetation in general, and have laid a good foundation for a knowledge of the whole structure and physiology 43 of plants. For the plant goes on to grow in the same way throughout, by mere repetitions of what the early germinating plantlet displays to view, of what was contained, in miniature or in rudiment, in the seed itself. So far as vegetation is concerned (leaving out of view' for the present the flower and fruit), the full-grown leafy herb or tree, of whatever size, has nothing, and does nothing, which the seedling plantlet does not have and do. The whole mass of stem or trunk and foliage of the complete plant, even of the largest forest-tree, is composed of a succession or multiplication of similar parts, one arising from the summit of another, each, so to say, the offspring of the preceding and the parent of the next. 35. In the same way that the earliest portions of the seedling stem, with the leaves they bear, are successively produced, so, joint by joint in direct succes- sion, a single, simple, leafy stem is developed and carried up. Of such a simple leafy stem many a plant consists (before flowering, at least), many herbs, such as Sugar-Cane, Indian Corn, the Lily, the tall Banana, the Yucca, &c. ; and among trees the Palms and the Cycas (wrongly called Sago Palm) exhibit the same simplicity, their stems, of whatever age, being unbranched columns (Fig. 47). (Growth in diameter is of course to be considered, as well as growth in length. That, and the question how growth of any kind takes place, we will consider hereafter.) But more commonly, as soon as the plant has produced a main stem of a cer- tain length, and displayed a certain amount of foliage, it begins to FIG. 43. Section of a seed of the Iris, or Flower-de-Luce, showing its small embryo in the albumen, near the bottom. FIG. 44. Germinating plantlet of the Iris. FIG. 45. Section of a seed of a Pine, with its embryo of several cotyledons. 40. Early seedling Pine, with its stemlot, displaying its six seed-leaves. LESSON 3.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 19 produce additional stems, that is, branches. The branching plant we will consider in the next Lesson. 36. The subjoined figures (Fig. 47) give a view of some forms of simple-stemmed vegetation. The figure in the foreground on the left represents a Cycas (wrongly called in the conservatories Sago Palm). Behind it is a Yucca (called Spanish Bayonet at the South) and two Cocoanut Palm-trees. On the right is some Indian Corn, and behind it a Banana, 20 GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. [LESSON 4. LESSON IV. THE GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS AND BRANCHES. 37. WE have seen how the plant grows so as to produce a root, and a simple stem with its foliage. Both the root and stem, how- ever, generally branch. 38. The branches of the root arise without any particular order. There is no telling beforehand from what part of a main root they will spring. But the branches of the stem, except in some extra- ordinary cases, regularly arise from a particular place. Branches or shoots in their undeveloped state are 39. Buds, These regularly appear in the axils of the leaves, that is, in the angle formed by the leaf with the stem on the upper side ; and as leaves are symmetrically arranged on the stem, the buds, and the branches into which the buds grow, necessarily par- take of this symmetry. 40. We do not confine the name of bud to the scaly winter-buds which are so conspicuous on most of our shrubs and trees in winter and spring. It belongs as well to the forming branch of any herb, at its first appearance in the axil of a leaf. In growing, buds lengthen into branches, just as the original stem did from the plumule of the embryo (16) when the seed germinated. Only, while the original stem is implanted in the ground by its root, the branch is implanted on the stem. Branches, therefore, are repetitions of the main stem. They consist of the same parts, namely, joints of stem and leaves, growing in the same way. And in the axils of their leaves another crop of buds is naturally produced, giving rise to another generation of branches, which may in turn produce still another generation ; and so on, until the tiny and simple seedling develops into a tall and spreading herb or shrub ; or into a massive tree, with its hundreds of annually increasing branches, and its thousands, perhaps millions, of leaves. 41. The herb and the tree grow in the same way. The difference is only in size and duration. An Herb dies altogether, or dies down to the ground, after it has ripened its fruit, or at the approach of winter. LESSON 4.] GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. 21 An annual herb flowers in the first year, and dies, root and all, after ripening its seed : Mustard, Peppergrass, Buckwheat, &c., are examples. A biennial herb such as the Turnip, Carrot, Beet, and Cabbage grows the first season without blossoming, survives the winter, flowers after that, and dies, root and all, when it has ripened its seed. A perennial herb lives and blossoms year after year, but dies down to the ground, or near it, annually, not, however, quite down to the root : for a portion of the stem, with its buds, still survives ; and from these buds the shoots of the following year arise. A Shrub is a perennial plant, with woody stems which continue alive and grow year after year. A Tree differs from a shrub only in its greater size. 42. The Terminal Bud, There are herbs, shrubs, and trees which do not branch, as we have already seen (35) ; but whose stems, even when they liva for many years, rise as a simple shaft (Fig. 47). These plants grow by the continued evolution of a bud which crowns the summit of the stem, and which is therefore called the terminal bud. This bud is very conspicuous in many branching plants also ; as on all the stems or shoots of Maples (Fig. 53), Horsechestnuts (Fig. 48), or Hickories (Fig. 49), of a year old. When they grow, they merely prolong the shoot or stem on which they rest. On these same shoots, however, other buds are to be seen, regularly arranged down their sides. We find them situated just over broad, flattened places, which are the scars left by the fall of the leaf-stalk the autumn previous. Before the fall of the leaf, they would have been seen to occupy their axils (39) : so they are named 43. Axillary Buds, They were formed in these trees early in the summer. Occasionally they grow at the time into branches : at least, some of them are pretty sure to do so, in case the growing terminal bud at the end of the shoot is injured or destroyed. Otherwise they lie dormant until the spring. In many trees or shrubs (such for example as the Sumach and Honey-Locust) these axillary buds do not show themselves until spring ; but if FIG. 48. Shoot of Horsechestmit, of one year's growth, taken in autumn after the leaves have fallen. 22 GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. [LESSON 4. searched for, they may be detected, though of small size, hidden under the bark. Sometimes, although early formed, they are con- cealed all summer long under the base of the leaf- stalk, hollowed out into a sort of inverted cup, like a candle-extinguisher, to cover them ; as in the Locust, the Yellow-wood, or more strikingly in the Button- wood or Plane-tree (Fig. 50). 44. Such large and conspicuous buds as those of the Horsechestnut, Hickory, and the like, are scaly ; the scales being a kind of imperfect leaves. The use of the bud-scales is obvious ; namely, to protect the tender young parts beneath. To do this more effectually, they are often coated on the outside with a varnish which is impervious to wet, while within they, or the parts they enclose, are thickly clothed with down or wool ; not really to keep out the cold of winter, which will of course penetrate the bud in time, but to shield the interior against sudden changes from warm to cold, or from cold to warm, which are equally injurious. Scaly buds commonly belong, as would be expect- ed, to trees and shrubs of northern climates ; while naked buds are usual in tropical regions, as well as in herbs everywhere which branch during the summer's growth and do not endure the winter. 45. But naked buds, or nearly naked, also occur in several of our own trees and shrubs ; sometimes pretty large ones, as those of Hob- FfG. 49. Annual shoot of the Shaphark Hickory. FIG. 50. Bud and loaf of the Buttonwood, or American Piano-tree. LESSON 4.] GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. 23 blebush (while those of the nearly-related Snowball or High Bush- Cranberry are scaly) ; but more commonly, when naked bucis occur in trees and shrubs of our climate, they are small, and sunk in the bark, as in the Sumac ; or even partly buried in the wood until they begin to grow, as in the Honey-Locust. 46. Vigor Of Vegetation from Buds, Large and strong buds, like those of the Horsechestnut, Hickory, and the like, on inspection will be found to contain several leaves, or pairs of leaves, ready formed, folded and packed away in small compass, just as the seed-leaves are packed away ia the seed : they even contain all the blossoms of the ensuing season, plainly visible as small buds. And the stems upon which these buds rest are filled with abundant nourishment, which was deposited the summer before in the wood or in the bark. Under the surface of the soil, or on it, covered with the fallen leaves of autumn, we may find similar strong buds of our perennial herbs, in great variety ; while beneath are thick roots, rootstocks, or tubers, charged with a great store of nourishment for their use. As we regard these, we shall readily perceive how it is that vegetation shoots forth so vigorously in the spring of the year, and clothes the bare and lately frozen surface of the soil, as well as the nuked boughs of trees, almost at once with a covering of the freshest green, and often with brilliant blossoms. Everything was prepared, and even formed, beforehand : the short joints of stem in the bud have only to lengthen, and to separate the leaves from each other so that they may unfold and grow. Only a small part of the vege- tation of the season comes directly from the seed, and none of the earliest vernal vegetation. This is all from buds which have lived through the winter. 47. This growth from buds, in manifold variety, is as interesting a subject of study as the growth of the plantlet from the seed, and is still easier to observe. We have only room here to sketch the general plan ; earnestly recommending the student to examine at- tentively their mode of growth in all the common trees and shrubs, when they shoot forth in spring. The growth of the terminal bud prolongs the stem or branch: the growth of axillary 1/uds pro- duces branches. 48. The Arrangement of Branches is accordingly the same as of axillary buds ; and the arrangement of these buds is the same as that of the leaves. Now leaves are arranged in two principal ways : they are either opposite or alternate. Leaves are opposite \vhen 24 GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. [LESSON 4. there are two borne on the same joint of stem, as in the Horse- chestnut, Maple (Fig. 7), Honeysuckle (Fig. 132), Lilac, &c.; the two leaves in such cases being always opposite each other, that is, on exactly opposite sides of the stem. Here of course the buds in their axils are opposite, as we observe in Fig. 48, where the leaves have fallen, but their place is shown by the scars. And the branches into which the buds grow are likewise opposite each other in pairs. 49. Leaves are alternate when there is only one from each joint of stem, as in the Oak (Fig. 22), Lime-tree, Poplar, Buttonwood (Fig. 50), Morning-Glory (Fig. 8), not counting the seed-leaves, which of course are opposite, there being a pair of them ; also in Indian Corn (Fig. 42), and Iris (Fig. 44). Consequently the axillary buds are also alternate, as in Hickory (Fig. 49) ; and the branches they form alternate, making a different kind of spray from the other mode, one branch shooting on the one side of the stem and the next on some other. For in the alternate arrangement no leaf is on the same side of the stem as the one next above or next below it, 50. Branches, therefore, are arranged with symmetry ; and the mode of branching of the whole tree may be foretold by a glance at the arrangement of the leaves on the seedling or stem of the first year. This arrangement of the branches according to that of the leaves is always plainly to be recognized ; but the symmetry of branches is rarely complete. This is owing to several causes ; mainly to one, viz.: 51. It never happens that all the bud? grow. If they did, there would be as many branches in any year as there were leaves the year before. And of those which do begin to grow, a large portion perish, sooner or later, for want of nourishment or for want of light. Those which first begin to grow have an advantage, which they are apt to keep, taking to themselves the nourishment of the stem, and starving the weaker buds. 52. In the Horsechestnut (Fig. 48), Hickory (Fig. 49), Mag- nolia, and most other trees with large scaly buds, the terminal bud is the strongest, and has the advantage in growth, and next in strength are the upper axillary buds : while the former continues the shoot of the last year, some of the latter give rise to branches, while the rest fail to grow. In 'the Lilac also, the upper axillary buds are stronger than the lower; but the terminal bud rarely LESSON 4.] GROWTH OP PLANTS FROM BUDS. 25 appears at all ; in its place the uppermost pair of axillary buds grow, and so each stem branches every year into two ; making a re- peatedly two-forked ramification. 53. In these and many similar trees and shrubs, most of the shoots make a definite annual growth. That is, each shoot of the season develops rapidly from a strong bud in spring, a bud which gen- erally contains, already formed in miniature, all or a great part of the leaves and joints of stem it is to produce, makes its whole growth in length in the course of a few weeks, or sometimes even in a few days, and then forms and ripens its buds for the next year's similar rapid growth. 54. On the other hand, the Locust, Honey-Locust, Sumac, and, among smaller plants, the Rose and Raspberry, make an indefinite annual growth. That is, their stems grow on all summer long, until stopped by the frosts of autumn or some other cause ; con- sequently they form and ripen no terminal bud protected by scales, and the upper axillary buds are produced so late in the season that they have no time to mature, nor has the wood time to solidify and ripen. Such stems therefore commonly die at the top in winter, or at least all their upper buds are small and feeble ; and the growth of.the succeeding year takes place mainly from the lower axillary buds, which are more mature. Most of our perennial herbs grow in this way, their stems dying down to the ground every year : the part beneath, however, is charged with vigorous buds, well pro- tected by the kindly covering of earth, ready for the next year's vegetation. 55. In these last-mentioned cases there is, of course, no single main stem, continued year after year in a direct line, but the trunk is soon lost in the branches ; and when they grow into trees, these commonly have rounded or spreading tops. Of such trees with deliquescent stems, that is, with the trunk dissolved, as it were, into the successively divided branches, the common American Elm (Fig. 54) furnishes a good illustration. 56. On the other hand, the main stem of Pines and Spruces, as it begins in the seedling, unless destroyed by some injury, is carried on in a direct line throughout the whole growth of the tree, by the development year after year of a terminal bud : this forms a single, uninterrupted shaft, an excurrent trunk, which can never be con- founded with the branches that proceed from it. Of such spiry or spire-shaped trees, the Firs or Spruces are the most perfect and 26 GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. [LESSON 4. familiar illustrations (Fig. 54) ; but some other trees with strong terminal buds exhibit the same character for a certain time, and in a less marked degree. 57. Latent Buds, Some of the axillary buds grow the following year into branches ; but a larger number do not (51). These do not necessarily die. Often they survive in a latent state for some years, visible on the surface of the branch, or are smaller and concealed under the bark, resting on the surface of the wood : and when at any time the other buds or branches happen to be killed, these older latent buds grow to supply their place ; as is often seen when the foliage and young shoots of a tree are destroyed by insects. The new shoots seen springing directly out of large stems may sometimes originate from such latent buds, which have preserved their life for years. But commonly these arise from 58. Adventitious Buds, These are buds which certain shrubs and trees produce anywhere on the surface of the wood, especially where it has been injured. They give rise to the slender twigs which often feather so beautifully the sides of great branches or trunks of our American Elms. They sometimes form on the root, which naturally is destitute of buds ; and they are sure to appear on the trunks and roots of Willows, Poplars, and Chestnuts, when these are wounded or mutilated. Indeed Osier- Willows are pollarded, or cut off, from time to time, by the cultivator, for the purpose of producing a crop of slender adventitious twigs, suitable for basket-work. Such branches, being altogether irregular, of course interfere with the natural sym- metry of the tree (50). Another cause of irregularity, in certain trees and shrubs, is the formation of what are called 59. Accessory OF Supernumerary Buds, There are cases where two, three, or more buds spring from the axil of a leaf, instead of the single one which is ordinarily found there. Sometimes they are placed one over the other, as in the Aristolochia or Pipe- Vine, and in the Tartarian Honeysuckle (Fig. 51) ; also in the si Honey-Locust, and in the Walnut and Butternut (Fig. 52), where the upper supernumerary bud is a good way out of the axil and above the others. And this is here stronger FIG. 51. Tartarian Honeysuckle, with three accessory buds in one axil. LESSON 4.] GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. 27 than the others, and grows into a branch which is considerably out of the axil, while the lower and smaller ones commonly do not grow at all. In other cases the three buds stand side by side in the axil, as in the Hawthorn, and the Red Maple (Fig. 53). If these were all to grow into branches, they would stifle or jostle each other. But some of them are commonly flower-buds : in the Red Maple, only the middle one is ^\ a leaf-bud, and it does not grow until after those on each side of it have ex- panded the blossoms they contain. 60. Sorts Of Buds, It may be useful to enumerate the kinds of buds which have now been mentioned, referring back to the paragraphs in which the pe- culiarities of each are explained. Buds, then, are either terminal or lateral. They are Terminal when they rest on the apex of a stem (42). The earliest terminal bud is the plumule of the embryo (16). Lateral, when they appear on the side of a stem : of which the only regular kind is the Axillary (43), namely, those which are situated in the axils of leaves. Accessory or Supernumerary (59), when two or more occur in addition to the ordinary axillary bud. 53 Adventitious (58), when they occur out of the axils and without order, on stems or roots, or even on leaves. Any of these kinds may be, either Naked, when without coverings ; or scaly, when protected by scales (44, 45). Latent, when they survive long without growing, and commonly without being visible externally (57). Leaf-buds, when they contain leaves, and develop into a leafy shoot. Flower-buds, when they contain blossoms, and no leaves, as the FIG. 52. Butternut branch, with accessory buds, the uppermost above the axil. FIG. 53. Red-Maple branch, with accessory buds placed side by side. MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. [LESSON 5. side-buds of the Red-Maple, or when they are undeveloped blossoms. These we shall have to consider hereafter. Figure 54 represents a spreading-topped tree (American Elm), the stem dividing off into branches ; and some spiiy trees (Spruces on the right hand, and two of the Arbor- Vitae on the left) with ex- current stems. LESSON V, MORPHOLOGY (i.e. VARIOUS SORTS AND FORMS) OF ROOTS. 61. Morphology, as the name (derived from two Greek words) denotes, is the doctrine of forms. In treating of forms in plants, the botanist is not confined to an enumeration or description of the shapes or sorts that occur, which would be a dull and tedious business, but he endeavors to bring to view the relations between one form and another ; and this is an interesting study. 62. Botanists give particular names to all the parts of plants, and also particular terms to express their principal varieties in form. They ?ise these terms with great precision and advantage in describ- ing the species or kinds of plants. They must therefore be denned and explained in our books. But it would be a great waste of time LESSON 5.] MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. 29 for the young student to learn them by rote. The student should rather consider the connection between one form and another ; and notice how the one simple plan of the plant, as it has already been illustrated, is worked out in the greatest variety of ways, through the manifold diversity of forms which each of its three organs of vege- tation root, stem, and leaf is made to assume. 63. This we are now ready to do. That is, having obtained a g neral idea of vegetation, by tracing the plant from the seed and the bud into the herb, shrub, or tree, we proceed to contemplate the principal forms under which these three organs occur in different plants, or in different parts of the same plant ; or, in other words, to study the morphology of the root, stem, and leaves. 64. Of these three organs, the root is the simplest and the least varied in its modifications. Still it exhibits some widely different kinds. Going back to the beginning, we commence with 65. The simple Primary Root, which most plants send down from the root-end of the embryo as it grows from the seed ; as we have seen in the Maple (Fig 5 - 7), Morning-Glory (Fig. 8 and 28), Beech (Fig. 14, 15), Oak and Buckeye (Fig. 22-24), &c. This, if it goes on to grow, makes a main or tap root, from which side- branches here and there proceed. Some plants keep this main root throughout their whole life, and send off only small side branches ; as in the Carrot (Fig. 58) and Radish (Fig. 5*9) : and in some trees, like the Oak, it takes the lead of the side-branches for many years, unless accidentally injured, as a strong tap-root. But commonly the main root divides off very soon, and is lost in the branches. We have already seen, also, that there may be at the beginning 66. Multiple Primary Roots, We have noticed them in the Pump- kin (Fig. 10), in the Pea (Fig. 20), and in Indian Corn (Fig. 42). That is, several roots have started all at once, or nearly so, from the seedling stem, and formed a bundle or cluster (a fascicled root, as it is called), in place of one main root. The Bean, as we observe in Fig. 18, begins with a main root , but some of its branches soon overtake it, and a cluster of roots is formed. 67. Absorption of Moisture by Roots, The branches of roots as they grow commonly branch again and again, into smaller roots or rootlets ; in this way very much increasing the surface by which the plant connects itself with the earth, and absorbs moisture from it. The whole surface of the root absorbs, so long as it is fresh and new ; and the newer the roots and rootlets are, the more freely do they 3* 30 MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. [LESSON 5. imbibe. Accordingly, as long as the plant grows above ground, and expands fresh foliage, from which moisture much of the time largely escapes into the air, so long it continues to extend and multiply its roots in the soil beneath, renewing and increasing the fresh surface for absorbing moisture, in proportion to the demand from above. And \vhen growth ceases above ground, and the leaves die and fall, or no longer act, then the roots generally stop growing, and their soft and tender tips harden. From this period, therefore, until growth begins anew the next spring, is the best time for transplant- ing ; especially for trees and shrubs, and herbs so large that they cannot well be removed without injuring the roots very mnch. 68. We see, on considering a moment, that an herb or a tree consists of two great surfaces, with a narrow part or trunk between them, one surface spread out in the air, and the other in the soil. These two surfaces bear a certain proportion to each other ; and the upper draws largely on the lower for moisture. Now, when the leaves fall from the tree in autumn, the vast sur- face exposed to the air is reduced to a very small part of what it was before ; and the remainder, being covered with a firm bark, cannot lose much by evap- oration. In common herbs the whole surface above ground perishes in au- tumn ; and many of the rootlets die at the same time, or soon afterwards. So that the living vegetable is reduced for the time to the smallest compass, to the thousandth or hundred-thou- sandth part of what it was shortly before, and what remains alive rests in a dormant state, and may now be transplanted without much danger of harm. If any should doubt whether there is so great a difference between the summer and the winter size of 56 plants, let them compare a lily-bulb with the full-grown Lily, or calculate the surface of foliage which FIG. 55. Seedling Maple, of the natural size, showing the root hairs. 5G. A bit of the end of the root magnified. LESSON 5.] MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. 31 a tree exposes to the air, as compared with the surface of its twigs. 69. The absorbing surface of roots is very much greater than it appears to be, on account of the root-hairs, or slender fibrils, which abound on the fresh and new parts of roots. These may be seen with an ordinary magnifying-glass, or even by the naked eye in many cases ; as in the root of a seedling Maple (Fig. 55), where the surface is thickly clothed with them. They are not root- lets of a smaller sort ; but, when more magnified, are seen to be mere elongations of the surface of the root into slender tubes, which through their very delicate walls imbibe moisture from the soil with great avidity. They are com- monly much longer than those shown in Fig. 56, which represents only the very tip of a root moderately magnified. Small as they are indi- vidually, yet the whole amount of absorbing surface added to the rootlets by the countless numbers of these tiny tubes is very great. 70. Roots intend- ed mainly for ab- sorbing branch free- ly, and are slender or thread-like. When the root is prin- cipally of this- character it is said to be fibrous ; as in Indian Corn (Fig. 42), and other grain, and to some extent in all annual plants (41). 71. The Root as a Storehouse of Food. In biennial and many perennial herbs (41), the root answers an additional purpose. In the course of the season it becomes a storehouse of nourishment, and enlarges or thickens as it receives the accumulation. Such roots are said to be fleshy ; and different names are applied to them according to FIG. 57 58, 59. Forms of fleshy or thickened root*. 32 MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. [LESSON 5. their shapes. We may divide them all into two kinds ; 1st, those consisting of one main root, and 2d, those without any main root. 72. The first are merely different shapes of the top-root ; which is Conical, when it thickens most at the crown, or where it joins the stem, and tapers regularly downwards to a point, as in the Common Beet, the Parsnip, and Carrot (Fig. 58) : Turnip-shaped or napiform, when greatly thickened above ; but abruptly becoming slender below; as the Turnip (Fig. 57) : and, Spindle-shaped, or fusiform, when thickest in the middle and tapering to both ends; as the common Radish (Fig. 59). 73. In the second kind, where there is no main root, the store of nourishing matter may be distributed throughout the branches or cluster of roots gener- ally, or it may be accumulated in some of them, as we see in the tuberous roots of the Sweet Potato, the common Peony, and the Dahlia (Fig. GO). 74. All but the last of these illustra- t rations are taken from biennial plants. These grow with a large tuft of leaves next the ground, and accumulate nour- ishment all the first summer, and store up all they produce beyond what is wanted at the time in their great root, which lives over the winter. We know very well what use man and other animals make of this store of food, in the form of starch, sugar, jelly, and the like. From the second year's growth we may learn what use the plant itself makes of it. The new shoots then feed upon it, and use it to form with great rapidity branches, flower-stalks, blossoms, fruit, and seed ; and, having used it up, the whole plant dies when the seeds have ripened. 75. In th'e same way the nourishment contained in the separate tuberous roots of the Sweet Potato and the Dahlia (Fig 60) is fed upon in the spring by the buds of the stem they belong to ; and as they are emptied of their contents, they likewise die and decay. But meanwhile similar stores of nourishment, produced by the second year's vegetation, are deposited in new roots, which live through the FIG. 60. Clustered tuberous roots of the Dahlia, with tha bottom of tho stem they belong to. LESSON 5.] MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. 33 next winter, and sustain the third spring's growth, and so on ; these plants being perennial (41), or lasting year after year, though each particular root lives little more than one year. 76. Many things which commonly pass for roots are not really roots at all. Common potatoes are tuberous parts of stems, while sweet potatoes are roots, like those of the Dahlia (Fig. 60). The dif- ference between them will more plainly appear in the next Lesson. 77. Secondary Roots, So far we have considered only the original or primary root, that which proceeded from the lower end of the first joint of stem in the plantlet springing from the seed, and its subdivisions. We may now remark, that any other part of the stem will produce roots just as well, whenever favorably situated for it ; that is, when covered by the soil, which provides the darkness and the moisture which is congenial to them. For these secondary roots, as they may be called, partake of the ordinary disposition of the organ : they avoid the light, and seek to bury themselves in the ground. In Indian Corn we see roots early striking from the second and the succeeding joints of stem under ground, more abundantly than from the first joint (Fig. 42). And all stems that keep up a connection with the soil such as those which creep along on or beneath its surface are sure to strike root from almost every joint. So will most branches when bent to the ground, and covered with the soil : and even cuttings from the branches of most plants can be made to do so, if properly managed. Propagation by buds depend* upon this. That is, a piece of a plant which has stem and leaves, either developed or in the bud, may be made to produce roots, and so become an independent plant. 78. In many plants the disposition to strike root is so strong, that they even will spring from the stem above ground. In Indian Corn, for example, it is well known that roots grow, not only from all those joints round which the earth is heaped in hoeing, but also from those several inches above the soil : and other plants produce them from stems or branches high in the air. Such roots are called 79. Aerial Roots, All the most striking examples of these are met Vvith, as we might expect, in warmer and damper climates than ours, and especially in deep forests which shut out much of the light ; this being unfavorable to roots. The Mangrove of tropical shores, which occurs on our own southern borders; the Sugar Cane, from which, roots strike just as in Indian Corn, only from higher up the stem ; the Pandanus, called Screw Pine (not from its resemblance to a S&F 3 34 MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. [LESSON 5. Pine-tree, but because it is like a Pine-apple plant) ; and the famous Banyan of India, and some other Fig-trees, furnish the most remark- able examples of roots, which strike from the stem or the branches in the open air, and at length reach the ground, and bury them- selves, when they act in the same manner as ordinary roots. 80. Some of our own common plants, however, produce small aerial rootlets ; not for absorbing nourishment, but for climbing. By these rootlets, that shoot out abundantly from the side of the stems and branches, the Trumpet Creeper, the Ivy of Europe, and our Poison Rhus, here called Poison Ivy, fasten themselves firmly to walls, or the trunks of trees, often ascending to a great height, Here roots serve the same purpose that tendrils do in the Grape- Vine and Virginia Creeper. Another form, and the most aerial of all roots, since they never reach the ground, are those of 81. Epiphytes, or Alr-PlantS, These are called by the first name (which means growing on plants), because they are generally found upon the trunks and branches of trees ; not that they draw any nourishment from them, for their roots merely adhere to the bark, and they flourish just as well upon dead wood or any other con- venient support. They are called air-plants because they really live altogether upon what they get from the air, as they have no connection with the soil. Hundreds of air-plants grow all around us without attracting any attention, because they are small or hum- ble. Such are the Lichens and Mosses that abound on the trunks or boughs of trees, especially on the shaded side, and on old walls, fences, or rocks, from which they obtain no nourishment. But this name is commonly applied only to the larger, flower-bearing plants which live in this way. These belong to warm and damp parts of the world, -where there is always plenty of moisture in the air. The greater part belong to the Orchis family and to the Pine-Apple family ; and among them are some of the handsomest flowers known. We have two or three flowering air-plants in the Southern States, though they are not showy ones. One of them is an Epidendrum growing on the boughs of the Great-flowered Magnolia : another is the Long-Moss, or Black Moss, so called, although it is no Moss at all, which hangs from the branches of Oaks and Pines in all the warm parts of the Southern States. (Fig 61 represents both of these. The upper is the Epidendrum conopseum ; the lower, the Black Moss, Tillandsia usneoides.) 82. Parasitic Plants exhibit roots under yet another remarkable LESSON 5.J MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. 85 aspect. For these are not merely fixed upon other plants, as air- plants are, but strike their roots, or what answer to roots, into them, and feed on their juices. Not only Moulds and Blights (which are plants of very low organization) live in this predacious way, but many flowering herbs, and even shrubs. One of the latter is the Mistletoe, the seed of which germinates on the bough of the tree where it falls or is left by birds ; and the forming root penetrates the bark and engrafts itself into the wood, to which it becomes united as firmly as a natural branch to its parent stem ; and indeed the parasite lives just as if it were a branch of the tree it grows and feeds on. A most common parasitic herb is the Dodder; which abounds in low grounds everywhere in summer, and coils its long and slender leafless, yellowish stems resembling tangled threads of yarn round and round the stalks of other plants ; wherever they touch piercing the bark with minute and very short rootlets in the form of suckers, which draw out the nourishing juices of the plants laid hold of. Other parasitic plants, like the Beech-drops and Pine-sap, fasten their roots under ground upon the roots of neighboring plants, and rob them of their rich juices. 86 MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. [LESSON 6. LESSON VI. MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. 83. THE growth of the stem in length, and the formation of branches, have been considered already. Their growth in thick- ness we may study to more advantage in a later Lesson. The very various forms which they assume will now occupy our attention, beginning with 84. The Forms of Stems and Brunches above ground, The principal differences as regards size and duration have been mentioned before (41); namely, the obvious distinction of plants into herbs, shrubs, and trees, which depends upon the duration and size of the stem. The stem is accordingly Herbaceous, when it dies down to the ground every year, or after blossoming. Sujffrutescent, when the bottom of the stem above the soil is a little woody, and inclined to live from year to year. Suffruticose, when low stems are decidedly woody below, but herbaceous above. Fruticose, or shrubby, when woody, living from year to year, and of considerable size, not, however, more than three or four times the height of a man. Arborescent, when tree-like in appearance, or approaching a tree in size. Arboreous, when forming a proper tree trunk. 85. When the stem or branches rise above ground and are ap- parent to view, the plant is said to be caulescent (that is, to have a caulis or true stem). When there is no evident stem above ground, but only leaves or leaf-stalks and flower-stalks, the plant is said to be acaulescent, i. e. stemless, as in the Crocus, Bloodroot, common Violets, &c., and in the Beet, Carrot, and Radish (Fig. 59), for the first season. There is a stem, however, in all such cases, only it remains on or beneath the ground, and is sometimes very short. Of course leaves and flowers do not arise from the root. These concealed sorts of stem we will presently study. 86. The direction taken by stems, &c., or their mode of growth, LESSON 6.] SUCKERS, STCLONS,,. AND OFFSETS. 37 gives rise to several terms, which may be briefly mentioned: such as Diffuse, when loosely spreading in all directions. Declined, when turned or bending over to one side. Decumbent, reclining on the ground, as if too weak to stand. Assurgent or ascending, when rising obliquely upwards. Procumbent or prostrate, lying flat on the ground from the first. Creeping, or repent, when prostrate stems on or just beneath the ground strike root as they grow ; as does the White Clover, the little Partridge-berry, &c. Climbing, or scandent, when stems rise by clinging to other ob- jects for support, whether by tendrils, as do the Pea, Grape- Vine, and Virginia Creeper (Fig. 62) ; by their twisting leaf-stalks, as the Virgin's Bower ; or by rootlets, like the Ivy, Poison Ivy, and Trumpet Creeper (80). Twining, or voluble, when stems rise by coiling themselves spirally around other stems or supports ; like the Morning-Glory and the Bean. 87. Certain forms of stems have received distinct names. The jointed stem of Grasses and Sedges is called by botanists a culm ; and the peculiar scaly trunk of Palms and the like (Fig 47) is sometimes called a caudex. A few forms of branches the gardener distinguishes by particular names ; and they are interesting from their serving for the natural propagation of plants from buds, and for suggesting ways by which we artificially multiply plants that would not propagate themselves without the gardener's aid. These are suckers, offsets, stolons, and runners. 88. Slickers are ascending branches rising from stems under ground, such as are produced so abundantly by the Rose, Raspberry, and other plants said to multiply " by the root." If we uncover them, we see at once the great difference between these subterranean branches and real roots. They are only creeping branches under ground. Remarking how the upright shoots from these branches become separate plants, simply by the dying off of the connecting under-ground stems, the gardener expedites the result by cutting them through with his spade. That is, he propagates the plant " by division." 89. Stolons are trailing or reclining branches above ground, which strike root where they touch the soil, and then send up a vigorous shoot, which has roots of its own, and becomes an independent plant when the connecting part dies, as it does after a while. The Currant 4 38 MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. [LESSON 0. and the Gooseberry naturally multiply in this way, as well as by suckers (which we see are just the same thing, only the connecting part is concealed under ground). They must have suggested the operation of layering, or bending down and covering with earth branches which do not naturally make stolons ; and after they have taken root, as they almost always will, the gardener cuts through the connecting stem, and so converts a rooting branch into a sepa-" rate plant. 90. Offsets, like those of the Houseleek, are only short stolons, with a crown of leaves at the end. 91. Runners, of which the Strawberry presents the most familiar example, are a long and slender, tendril-like, leafless form of creep- ing branches. Each runner, after having grown to its full length, strikes root from the tip, and fixes it to the ground, then forms a bud there, which develops into a tuft of leaves, and so gives rise to a new plant, which sends out new runners to act in the same way. In this manner a single Strawberry plant will spread over a large space, or produce a great number of plants, in the course of the summer ; all connected at first by the slender runners , but these die in the following winter, if not before, and leave the plants as so many separate individuals. 92. Tendrils are branches of a very slender sort, like runners, not destined like them for propagation, and therefore always destitute of buds or leaves, but intended for climbing. Those of the Grape- Vine, of the Virginia Creeper (Fig. 62), and of the Cucumber and FIG. C2. Piece of the stem of Virginia Creeper, bearing a leaf and a tendril. C3. Tips of a tendril, about the natural size, showing the disks by which they hold fast to walls, tc. LESSON 6.] RUNNERS, TENDRILS, SPINES. 39 Squash tribe are familiar illustrations. The tendril commonly grows straight and outstretched until it reaches some neighboring support, such as a stem, when its apex hooks around it to secure a hold ; then the whole tendril shortens itself by coiling up spirally, and so draws the shoot of the growing plant nearer to the supporting object. When the Virginia Creeper climbs the side of a building or the smooth bark of a tree, which the tendrils cannot lay hold of in the usual way, their tips expand into a flat disk or sucker (Fig. 62, 63), which adheres very firmly to the wall or bark, enabling the plant* to climb over and cover such a surface, as readily as the Ivy does by means of its sucker-like little rootlets. The same result is effected by different organs, in the one case by branches in the form of ten- drils ; in the other, by roots. 93. Tendrils, however, are not always branches ; some are leaves, or parts of leaves, as those of the Pea (Fig. 20). Their nature in each case is to be learned from their position, whether it be that of a leaf or of a branch. In the same way 94. Spines OF Thorns sometimes represent leaves, as in the Bar- berry, where their nature is shown by their situation outside of an axillary bud or branch. In other words, here they have a bud in their axil, and are therefore leaves; so we shall have to mention them in another place. Most commonly spines are stunted and hardened branches, arising from the axils of leaves, as in the Haw- thorn and Pear. A neglected Pear-tree or Plum-tree shows every gradation between ordinary branches and thorns. Thorns sometimes branch, their branches partaking of the same spiny character : in this way those on the trunks of Honey-Locust trees (produced from adventitious buds, 58) become exceedingly complicated, and horrid. The thorns on young shoots of the Honey-Locust may appear some- what puzzling at first view ; for they are situated some distance above the axil of the leaf. Here the thorn comes from the upper- most of several supernumerary buds (59). Prickles, such as those of the Rose and Blackberry, must not be confounded with thorns : these have not the nature of branches, and have no connection with the wood ; but are only growths of the bark. When we strip off the bark, the. prickles go with it. 95. Still stranger forms of stems and branches than any of these are met with in some tribes of plants, such as Cactuses (Fig. 76). These will be more readily understood after we have considered some of the commoner forms of 40 MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. [LESSON 6. 96. Subterranean Stems and Branches, These are very numerous and various ; but they are commonly overlooked, or else confounded with roots. From their situation they are out of the sight of the superficial observer : but if sought for arid examined, they will well repay the student's attention. For the vegetation that is carried on under ground is hardly less varied, and no less interesting and im- portant, than that which meets our view above ground. All their forms may be referred to four principal kinds ; namely, the Rkizo- ma or Rootstock, the Tuber, the Corm, and the Bulb. 97. The RootstOCk, OF Rllizoma, in its simplest form, is merely a creeping stem or branch (86) growing beneath the surface of the soil, or partly covered by it. Of this kind are the so-called creeping, running, or scaly roots, such as those by which the Mint (Fig. 64), the Scotch Rose, the Couch-grass or Quick-grass, and many other plants, spread so rapidly and widely, " by the root," as it is said. 64 That these are really stems, and not roots, is evident from the way in which they grow; from their consisting of a succession of joints; and from the leaves which they bear on each joint (or node, as the botanist calls the place from which leaves arise), in the form of small scales x just like the lowest ones on the upright stem next the ground. Like other stems, they also produce buds in the axils of these scales, showing the scales to be leaves ; whereas real roots bear neither leaves nor axillary buds. Placed, as they are, in the damp and dark soil, such stems naturally produce roots, just as the creeping stem does where it lies on the surface of the ground ; but the whole appearance of these roots, their downward growth, and their mode of branching, are very different from that of the subter- ranean stem they spring from. 98. It is easy to see why plants with these running rootstocks take such rapid and wide possession of the soil, often becoming great pests to farmers, and why they are so hard to get rid of. They are FIG. G4. Rootstocks, or creeping subterranean branches, of the Peppermint. LESSON 6.J SUBTERRANEAN FORMS : ROOTSTOCKS. 41 always perennials (41) ; the subterranean shoots live over the first winter, it' not longer, and are provided with vigorous buds at every joint. Some of' these buds grow in spring into upright stems, bearing foliage, to elaborate the plant's crude food into nourishment, and at length produce blossoms for reproduction by seed ; while many oth- ers, fed by nourishment supplied from above, form a new generation of subterranean shoots ; and this is repeated over and over in the course of the season or in succeeding years. Meanwhile as the sub- terranean shoots increase in number, the older ones, connecting the series of generations into one body, die off year by year, liberating the already rooted side-branches as so many separate plants ; and so on indefinitely. Cutting these running rootstocks into pieces, therefore, by the hoe or the plough, far from destroying the plant, only accelerates the propagation ; it converts one many-branched plant into a great number of separate individuals. Even if you divide the shoots into as many pieces as there are joints of stem, each piece (Fig. 65) is already a plantlet, with its roots and with a bud in the axil of its scale-like leaf (either latent or apparent), and having prepared nourishment enough in the bit of stem to develop this bud into a leafy stem ; and so a single plant is all the more speedily converted into a multitude. Such plants as the Quick- grass accordingly realize the fable of the Hy- dra ; as fast as one of its many branches is cut 65 off", twice as many, or more, spring up in its stead. Whereas, when the subterranean parts are only roots, cutting away the stem com- pletely destroys the plant, except in the rather rare cases where the root produces adventitious buds (58). 90. The more nourishment rootstocks contain, the more readily do separate portions, furnished with buds, become independent plants. It is to such underground stems, thickened with a large amount of starch, or some similar nourishing matter stored up in their tissue, that the name of rhizoma or rootstock is commonly applied ; such, for example, as those of the Sweet Flag or Calamus, of Ginger, of Iris or Flower-de-luce (Fig. 133), and of the Solomon's Seal (Fig. 66). 100. The rootstocks of the common sorts of Iris of the gardens usually lie on the surface of the ground, partly uncovered ; and they bear real leaves (Fig. 133), which closely overlap each other ; FIG. 65. A piece of the running rootstock of the Peppermint, with its node or joint, and an axillary bud ready to grow. A* 42 MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AXD BRANCHES. [LESSON 6. the joints (i. e. the internodes, or spaces between each leaf) being very short. As the leaves die, year by year, and decay, a scar left in the form of a ring marks the place where each leaf was attached. Instead of leaves, rootstocks buried under ground com- monly bear scales, like those of the Mint (Fig. G4), which are im- perfect leaves. 101. Some rootstocks are marked with large round scars of a different sort, like those of the Solomon's Seal (Fig. 66), which gave this name to the plant, from their looking something like the impres- sion of a seal upon wax. Here the rootstock sends up every spring an herbaceous stalk or stem, which bears the foliage and flowers, and dies in autumn ; and the seal is the circular scar left by the death and separation of the dead stalk from the living rootstock. As but one of these is formed each year, they mark the limits of a year's growth. The bud at the end of the rootstock in the figure, which was taken in summer, will grow the next spring into the stalk of the season, which, dying in autumn, will leave a similar scar, while another bud will be formed farther on, crowning the ever-advancing summit or growing end of the stem. 102. As each year's growth of stem, in all these cases, makes its own roots, it soon becomes independent of the older parts. And after a certain age, a portion dies off behind, every year, about as fast as it increases at the grow- ing end ; ' death following life with equal and certain step, with only a narrow interval be- tween. In vigorous plants of Solomon's Seal 'f or Iris, the living rootstock is several inches or a foot in length ; while in the short rootstock of FIG. 6. Rootstock of Solomon's Seal, with the bottom of the stalk of the season, and th bud for the next year's growth. FIG. G7. The very short rootstock and bud of a Trillium or Birturoot. LESSON 6.] SUBTERRANEAN FORMS I TUBERS. 43 Trillium or Birthroot (Fig. 67) life is reduced to a very narrow span, only an inch or less intervening between death beneath and young life in the strong bud annually renewed at the summit. 103. A Tuber is a thickened portion of a rootstock. When slender subterranean branches, like those of the Quick-grass or Mint (Fig. 64), become enlarged at the growing end by the accumulation there of an abundance of solid nourishing matter, tubers are produced, like those of the Nut-grass of the Southern States (which accordingly be- comes a greater pest even than the Quick-grass), and of the Jerusalem Artichoke, and the Potato. The whole formation may be seen at a glance in Figure 68, which represents the subterranean growth of a Potato-plant, and shows the tubers in all their stages, from shoots just beginning to enlarge at the tip, up to fully-formed potatoes. And Fig. 69, one of the forming tubers moderately magnified, plainly shows the leaves of this thickening shoot, in the form of little scales. It is under these scales that the eyes appear (Fig. 70) : and these are evidently axillary buds (43). 104. Let us glance for a moment at the economy or mode of life of the Potato-plant, and similar vegetables, as shown in the mor- FIG, 68. Forming tubers of the Potato. 69. One of the very young potatoes, moderately magnified. 70. Slice of a portion through an eye, more magnified. 44 MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. [LESSON 6. phology of the branches, that is, in the different forms they appear under, and the purposes they serve. The Potato-plant has three principal forms of branches : 1. Those that bear ordinary leaves, expanded in the air, to digest what they gather from it and what the roots gather from the soil, and convert it into nourishment. 2. After a while a second set of branches at the summit of the plant bear flowers, which form fruit and seed out of a portion of the nourishment which the leaves have prepared. 3- But a larger part of this nourishment, while in a liquid state, is carried down the stem, into a third sort of branches under ground, and accumulated in the form of starch at their extremities, which become tubers, or deposi- tories of prepared solid food; just as in the Turnip, Carro% Dahlia, &c. (Fig. 57 - GO), it is deposited in the root. The use of the store of food is obvious enough. In the autumn the whole plant dies, except the seeds (if it formed them) and the tubers ; and the latter are left disconnected in the ground. Just as that small portion of nourishing matter which is deposited in the seed (3, and Fig. 34) feeds the embryo when it germinates, so the much larger portion deposited in the tuber nourishes its buds, or eyes, when they likewise grow, the next spring, into new plants. And the great supply enables them to shoot with a greater vigor at the beginning, and to produce a greater amount of vegetation than the seedling plant could do in the same space of time ; which vegetation in turn may prepare and store up, in the course of a few weeks or months, the largest quantity of solid nourishing material, in a form most available for food. Taking advantage of this, man has transported the Potato from the cool Andes of South America to other cool cli- mates, and makes it yield him a copious supply of food, especially in countries where the season is too short, or the summer's heat too little, for profitably cultivating the principal grain-plants. 105. All the sorts of subterranean stems or branches distinguished by botanists pass into one another by gradations. We have seen how nearly related the tuber is to the rootstock, and there are many cases in which it is difficult to say which is the proper name to use. So likewise, 106. The Coi'm, OF Solid Bulb, like that of the Indian Turnip and the Crocus (Fig. 71), is just a very short and thick rootstock; as will be seen by comparing Fig. 71 with Fig. 67. Indeed, it grows go very little in length, that it is often much broader than long, as in the Indian Turnip, and the Cyclamen of our greenhouses. Corms LESSON 6.] SUBTERRANEAN FORMS : BULBS. 45 are usually upright, producing buds on their upper surface and roots from the lower. But (as we see in the Crocus here figured) buds may shoot from just above any of the faint cross lines or rings, which are the scars left by the death and decay of the sheathing bases of former leaves. That is, these are axillary buds. In these extraordinary (just as in ordinary) stems, the buds are either axillary or terminal. The whole mode of growth is just the same, only the corm does not increase in length faster than it does in thickness. After a few years some of the buds grow into new corms at the expense of the old one ; the young ones taking the nourishment from the parent, and storing up a large part of it in their own tissue. When exhausted in this way, as well as by flowering, the old corm dies, and its shrivelled and decaying remains may be found at the side of or beneath the present generation, as we see in the Crocus (Fig. 71). 107. The corm of a Crocus is commonly covered with a thin and dry, scaly or fibrous husk, consisting of the dead remains of the bases of former leaves. When this husk consists of many scales, there is scarcely any distinction left between the corm and 108. The Bulb, This is an extremely short subterranean stem, usually much broader than high, producing roots from underneath, and covered with leaves or the bases of leaves, in the form of thick- ened scales. It is, therefore, the same as a corm, or solid bulb, only it bears an abundance of leaves or scales, which make up the greater part of its bulk. Or we may regard it as a bud, with thick and fleshy scales. Compare a Lily-bulb (Fig. 73) with the strong scaly buds of the Hickory and Horsechestnut (Fig. 48 and 49), and the resemblance will be apparent enough. 109. Bulbs serve the same purpose as tubers, rootstocks, or corms. The main difference is, that in these the store of food for future growth is deposited in the stem ; while in the bulb, the greater part is deposited in the bases of the leaves, changing them into thick scales, which closely overlap or enclose one another, because the etem does not elongate enough to separate them. That the scales FIG. 71. Conn or solid bulb of a Crocus. 72. The same, cut through lengthwise. 46 MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. . [LESSON 6. of the bulb are the bases of leaves may be seen at once by follow- ing any of the ground-leaves (root-leaves as they are incorrectly called) down to their origin in the bulb. Fig. 75 represents one of them from the White Lily ; the thickened base, which makes a scale, being cut off below, to show its thickness. After 73 74 having lasted its time and served its purpose as foliage, the green leaf dies, down to the thickened base, which remains as a scale of the bulb. And year after year, as the bulb grows from the centre, to produce the vege- tation and the flowers of the season, the outer scales yield up their store of nourishment for the purpose, and perish. 110. Each scale, being a leaf, may have a bud in its axil. Some of these buds grow into leafy and flowering stems above ground : others grow into new bulbs, feeding on the parent, and at length destroying it, in the same f ( / / way that corms do, as just described (106). 111. When the scales are broad and enwrap all that is within so as to form a succession of coats, one over another, the bulb is said to be tunicated or coated. The Tulip, Hyacinth, Leek, and Onion afford such familiar examples of coated bulbs that no figure is needed. When the scales are narrow and separate, as in the Lily (Fig. 73), the bulb is said to be scaly. 112. BulblctS are small bulbs formed above ground on some plants ; as in the axils of the leaves of the common bulbiferous Lily of the gardens, and often in the flower-clusters of the Leek and Onion. They are plainly nothing but bulbs with thickened scales. They never grow into branches, but detach themselves when 75 full grown, and fall to the ground, to take root there and form new plants. 113. From the few illustrations already given, attentive students FIG. 73. Bulb of the Meadow or Canada Lily. 74. The same, rut through lengthwise. FIG. 75. A lower leaf of White Lily, with its base under ground thickened into a bulb- scale. LESSON G.] CONSOLIDATED FORMS OF VEGETATION. 47 can hardly fail to obtain a good idea of what is meant by morphology in Botany ; and they will be able to apply its simple principles for themselves to all forms of vegetation. They will find it very inter- esting to identify all these various subterranean forms with the com- mon plan of vegetation above ground. There is the same structure, and the same mode of growth in reality, however different in ap- pearance, and however changed the form, to suit particular conditions, or to accomplish particular ends. It is plain to see, already, that the plant is constructed according to a plan, a very simple one, which is exhibited by all vegetables, by the extraordinary no less than by the ordinary kinds ; and that the same organ may appear under a great many different shapes, and fulfil very different offices. 114. These extraordinary shapes are not confined to subterra- nean vegetation. They are all repeated in various sorts of fleshy plants ; in the Ilouseleek, Aloe, Agave (Fig. 82), and in the many and strange shapes which the Cactus family exhibit (Fig. 76) ; shapes which imitate rootstocks, tubers, corms, &c. above ground. All these we may regard as 115. Consolidated Forms Of Vegetation. While ordinary plants are constructed on the plan of great spread of surface (131), these are formed on the plan of the least possible amount of surface in proportion to their bulk. The Cereus genus of Cactuses, for ex- ample, consisting of solid columnar trunks (Fig. 76, &), may be likened to rootstocks. A green rind serves the purpose of foliage ; but the surface is as nothing compared with an ordinary leafy plant of the same bulk. Compare, for instance, the largest Cactus known, the Giant Cereus of the Gila River (Fig. 76, in the background), which rises to the height of fifty or sixty feet, with a common leafy tree of the same height, such as that in Fig. 54, and estimate how vastly greater, even without the foliage, the surface of the latter is than that of the former. Compare, in the same view, an Opuntia or Prickly-Pear Cactus, its stem and branches formed of a succes- sion of thick and flattened joints (Fig. 76, a), which may be likened to tubers, or an Epiphyllum (d), with shorter and flatter joints, with an ordinary leafy shrub or herb of equal size. And finally, in Me Ion- Cactuses or Echinocactus (c), with their globular or bulb-like shapes, we have plants in the compactest shape ; their spherical fig- ure being such as to expose the least possible amount of its bulk to the air. 116. These consolidated plants are evidently adapted and designed 48 MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. [LESSON G. for very dry regions ; and in such only are they found. Similarly, bulbous and conn-bearing plants, and the like, are examples of a form of vegetation which in the growing season may expand a large surface to the air and light, while during the period of rest the living vegetable is reduced to a globe, or solid form of the least possible surface ; and this is protected by its outer coats of dead and dry scales, as well as by its situation under ground. Such plants exhibit another and very similar adaptation to a season of drought. And they mainly belong to countries (such as Southern Africa, and parts of the interior of Oregon and California) which have a long hot season during which little or no rain falls, when, their stalks and foliage above and their roots beneath being early cut off by drought, the plants rest securely in their compact bulbs, filled with nourishment, and retaining their moisture with great tenacity, until the rainy season comes round. Then they shoot forth leaves and flowers with wonderful rapidity, and what was perhaps a desert of arid sand becomes green with foliage and gay with blossoms, almost in a day. This will be more perfectly understood when the nature and use of foliage have been more fully considered. (Fig. 76 represents several forms of Cactus vegetation.) LESSON 7.J MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES. 49 LESSON VII. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES. 117. IN describing the subterranean forms of the stem, we have been led to notice already some of the remarkable forms under which leaves occur ; namely, as scales, sometimes small and thin, as those of the rootstocks of the Quick-grass, or the Mint (Fig. 64), sometimes large and thick, as those of bulbs (Fig. 73-75), where they are commonly larger than the stem they belong to. We have seen, too, in the second Lesson, the seed-leaves (or cotyledons) in forms as unlike foliage as possible ; and in the third Lesson we have spoken of bud-scales as a sort of leaves. So that the botanist recog- nizes the leaf under other forms than that of foliage. 118. We may call foliage the natural form of leaves, and look upon the other sorts as special forms, as transformed leaves: by this term meaning only that what would have been ordinary leaves under other circumstances (as, for instance, those on shoots of Mint, Fig. 64, had these grown upright in the air, instead of creeping under ground) are developed in special forms to serve some particular purpose. For the Great Author of Nature, having designed plants upon one simple plan, just adapts this plan to all cases. So, when- ever any special purpose is to be accomplished, no new instruments or organs are created for it, but one of the three general organs of the vegetable, root, stem, or leaf, is made to serve the purpose, and is adapted to it by taking some peculiar form. 119. It is the study of the varied forms under this view that con- stitutes Morphology (61), and gives to this part of Botany such great interest. We have already seen stems and roots under a great variety of forms. But leaves appear under more various and widely different forms, and answer a greater variety of purposes, than do both the other organs of the plant put together. We have to con- sider, then, leaves as foliage, and leaves as something else than foliage. As we have just been noticing cases of leaves that are not foliage, we may consider these first, and enumerate the principal kinds. 120. Leaves as Depositories Of Food, Of these we have had plenty of instances in the seed-leaves, such as those of the Almond, Apple- 50 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES. [LESSON 7. seed (Fig. 11), Beech (Fig. 13-15), the Bean and Pea (Fig. 16- 20), the Oak (Fig. 21, 22), and Horsechestnut (Fig. 23, 24) ; where the food upon which the plantlet feeds when it springs from the seed is stored up in its cotyledons or first leaves. And we have noticed how very unlike foliage such leaves are. Yet in seme cases, as in the Pumpkin (Fig. 10), they actually grow into green leaves as they get rid of their burden. 121. Bulb-Scales (Fig. 73-75) of- fer another instance, which we were considering at the close of the last Lesson. Here a part of the nourish- ment prepared in the foliage of one year is stored up in the scales, or subterranean thickened leaves, for the early growth and flowering of the next year ; and this enables the flowers to appear before the leaves, or as soon as they do ; as in Hyacinths, Snow- drops, and many bulbous plants. 122. Leaves as Bud-scales, &c, True to its nature, the stem produces leaves even under ground, where they cannot serve as foliage, and where often, as on rootstocks and tubers (97 - 103), they are' not of any use that we know of. In such cases they usually appear as thin scales. So the first leaves of the stems of herbs, as they sprout from the ground, are generally mere scales, such as those of an Asparagus shoot ; and such are the first leaves on the stem of the seedling Oak (Fig. 22) and the Pea (Fig. 20). Similar scales, however, often serve an im- portant purpose; as when they form the covering of buds, where they protect the tender parts within (44). That bud-scales are FIG. 77. Leaves of a developing bud of the Low Sweet Buckeye (Genius parviflora), showing a nearly complete set of gradations from a scale to a compound leaf of five leafleUs. LESSON 7.] SPINES, TENDRILS, AND PITCHERS. 51 leaves is plainly shown, in many cases, by the gradual transition between them and the first foliage of the shoot. The Common Lilac and the Shell-bark Hickory are good instances of the sort. But the best illustration is fur- nished by the Low Sweet Buckeye of the Southern States, which is often cultivated as an ornamental shrub. From one and the same growing bud we may often find all the grada- tions which are shown in Fig. 77. 123. Leaves as Spines occur in several plants. The most familiar instance is that of the Com- mon Barberry. In almost any summer shoot, most of the gradations may be seen between the ordinary leaves, with sharp bristly teeth, and leaves which are reduced to a branching spine or thorn, as shown in Fig. 78. The fact that the spines of the Barberry produce a leaf-bud in their axil also proves them to be leaves. 124. Leaves as Tendrils are to be seen in the Pea and the Vetch (Fig. 20, 127), where the upper part of each leaf becomes a tendril, which the plant uses to climb by ; and in one kind of Vetch the whole leaf is such a tendril. 1 25. Leaves as Pitchers, or hollow tubes, are familiar to us in the common Pitcher- plant or Side-saddle Flower (Sarracenia, Fig. 79) of our bogs. These pitchers are generally half-full of water, in which flies and other insects are drowned, often in such numbers as to make a rich manure for the plant, no doubt ; though we can hardly imagine this to be the design of the pitcher. Nor do we per- ceive here any need of a contrivance to hold water, since the roots of these plants are always well supplied by the wet bogs where they grow. FIG. 78. Summer shoot of Barberry, showing the transition of leaves into spines. FIG. 79. Leaf of Sarracenia purpurea, entire, and another with the upper part cut off. 52 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES, [LESSON 7 126. Leaves as Fly-traps, Insects are caught in another way, and more expertly, by the most extraordinary of all the plants of this country, .the Dionoea or Venus's Fly- trap, which grows in the sandy bogs around ' Wilmington, North Carolina. Here (Fig. 81) each leaf bears at its summit an appendage which opens and shuts, in shape something like a steel- trap, and operating much like one. For when open, as it commonly is when the sun shines, no sooner does a fly alight on its surface, and brush against any one of the several long bristles that grow there, than the trap suddenly closes, often capturing the intruder, pressing it all the harder for its struggles, and com- monly depriving it of life. If the fly escapes, the trap soon slowly opens, and is ready for another capture. When retained, the insect is after a time moistened by a secretion from minute glands of the inner sur- face, and is apparently digested ! How such and various other movements are made by plants, some as quick as in this case, others very slow, but equally wonderful, must be considered in a future Lesson. 127. Leaves serving both Ordinary and Special Purposes. Let us now remark, that the same leaf frequently answers its gen- eral purpose, as foliage, and some special purpose besides. For example, in the Dio- naea, the lower part of the leaf, and prob- ably the whole of it, acts as foliage, while the appendage serves its mysterious purpose >^%\ as a fly-catcher. In the Pea and Vetch * \\ (Fig. 20, 127), the lower part of the leaf is foliage, the upper a tendril. In the Pitcher-plants of the Indian Archipelago (Nepenthes, Fig. 80) which are not rare in conserva- tories, the lower part of the leaf is expanded and acts as foliage ; FIG. 80. Leaf of Nepenthes: leaf, tendril, and pitclier combined. FIG. 81. Leaves of Dionsea : the trap in one of them open, in the others closed. LESSON 7.J THICKENED AND FLESHY LEAVES. 53 farther on, it is contracted into a tendril, enabling the plant to climb ; the end of this tendril is then expanded into a pitcher, of five or six inches in length, and on the end of this is a lid, which exactly closes the mouth of the pitcher until after it is full grown, when the lid opens by a hinge ! But the whole is only one leaf. 128. So in the root-leaves of the Tulip or the Lily (Fig. 75), while the green leaf is preparing nourishment throughout the grow- ing season, its base under ground is thickened into a reservoir for storing up a good part of the nourishment for next year's use. 129. Finally, the whole leaf often serves both as foliage, to pre- pare nourishment, and as a depository to store it up. This takes place in all fleshy-leaved plants, such as the Houseleek, the Ice- plant, and various sorts of Mesembryanthemum, in the Live-for-ever of the gardens to some extent, and very strikingly in the Aloe, and in the Century-plant. In the latter it is only the green surface of these large and thick leaves (of three to five feet in length on a strong plant, and often three to six inches thick near the base) which acts as foliage ; the whole interior is white, like the interior of a potato, and almost as heavily loaded with starch and other nourish- ing matter. (Fig. 82 represents a young Century-plant, Agave Americana.) 54 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 8. LESSON VIII. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. 130. HAVING in the last Lesson glanced at some of the special or extraordinary forms and uses of leaves, we now return to leaves in their ordinary condition, namely, as foliage. We regard this as the natural state of leaves. For although they may be turned to account in other and very various ways, as we have just seen, still their proper office in vegetation is to serve as foliage. In this view we may regard 131. Leaves as a Contrivance for Increasing the Surface of that large part of the plant which is exposed to the light and the air. This is shown by their expanded form, and ordinarily slight thickness in comparison with their length and breath. "While a Melon-Cactus (115, Fig. 76) is a striking example of a plant with the least pos- sible amount of surface for its bulk, a repeatedly branching leafy herb or tree presents the largest possible extent of surface to the air. The actual amount of surface presented by a tree in full leaf is much larger than one would be apt to suppose. Thus, the Wash- ington Elm at Cambridge a tree of no extraordinary size was some years ago estimated to produce a crop of seven millions of leaves, exposing a surface of 200,000 square feet, or about five acres, of foliage. 132. What is done by the foliage we shall have to explain in another place. Under the present head we are to consider ordinary leaves as to their parts and their shapes. 133. The Parts Of the Leaf. The principal part of a leaf is the blade, or expanded portion, one face of which naturally looks toward the sky, the other towards the earth. The blade is often raised on a stalk of its own, and on each side of the stalk at its base there is sometimes an appendage called a stipule. A complete leaf, there- fore consists of a Hade (Fig. 83, &), a foot-stalk or leaf-stalk, called the petiole (p), and a pair of stipules (st). See also Fig. 136. 134. It is the blade which we are now to describe. This, as being the essential and conspicuous part, we generally regard as the leaf: and it is only when we have to particularize, that we speak of the blade, or lamina, of the leaf. LESSON 8.] THEIR VENATION. 135. Without here entering upon the subject of the anatomy of the leaf, we may remark, that leaves consist of two sorts of mate- rial, viz. : 1. the green pulp, or parenchyma ; and 2. the fibrous framework, or skeleton, which extends throughout the soft green pulp and supports it, giving the leaf a strength and firmness which it would not otherwise possess. Besides, the whole surface is cov- ered with a transparent skin, called the epidermis, like that which covers the surface of the shoots, &c. 136. The framework consists of wood, a fibrous and tough material which runs from the stem through the leaf-stalk, when there is one, in the form of parallel threads or bundles of &j fibres ; and in the blade these spread out in a horizontal direction, to form the ribs and veins of the leaf. The stout main branches of the framework (like those in Fig. 50) are called the ribs. When there is only one, as in Fig. 83, &c., or a middle one decid- edly larger than the rest, it is called the midrib. The smaller divisions are termed veins; and their still smaller subdivisions, veinlets. 137. The latter subdivide again and again, until they become so fine that they are invisible to the naked eye. The fibres of which they are composed are hollow ; forming tubes by which the sap is brought into the leaves and carried to every part. The arrangement of the framework in the blade is termed the 138. Venation, or mode of veining. This corresponds so complete- ly with the general shape of the leaf, and with the kind of division when the blade is divided or lobed, that the readiest way to study and arrange the forms of leaves is first to consider their veining. 139. Various as it appears in different leaves, the veining is all reducible to two principal kinds ; namely, the parallel-veined and the netted-veined. 140. In netted-veined (also called reticulated) leaves, the veins branch, off from the main rib or ribs, divide into finer and finer FIG. 8a Leaf of the Quince: b, blade ; p, petiole ; st, stipules. 56 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 8, reinlets, and the brandies unite with each other to form meshes of network. " That is, they anastomose, as anatomists say of the veins and arteries of the body. The Quince-leaf, in Fig. 83, shows this kind of reining in a leaf with a single rib. The Maple, Basswood, and Buttonwood (Fig. 50) show it in leaves of several ribs. 141. In parallel-veined leaves, the whole framework consists of slender ribs or veins, which run parallel with each other, or nearly so, from the base to the point of the leaf, not dividing and sub- dividing, nor forming meshes, except by very minute cross-veinlets. The leaf of any grass, or that of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 84) will furnish a good illustration. 142. Such simple, parallel veins Linnreus, to distinguish them, called nerves, and parallel-veined leaves are still commonly called nerved leaves ; while those of the other kind are said to be veined ; terms which it is conven- ient to use, although these " nerves " and " veins " are all the same thing, and have no likeness to the nerves of animals. 143. Netted-veined leaves belong to plants which have a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons, such as the Maple (Fig. 1 -7), Beech (Fig. 15), Pea and Bean (Fig. 18, 20), and most of the illustra- tions in the first and second Lessons. While parallel-veined or nerved leaves belong to plants with one cotyledon or true seed-leaf; such as the Iris (Fig. 134) and Indian Corn (Ffg. 42). So that a mere glance at the leaves of the tree or herb enables one to tell what the structure of the embryo is, and to refer the plant to one or the other of these two grand classes, which is a great convenience. For generally when plants differ from each other in some one important respect, they differ correspondingly in other respects as well. 144. Parallel- veined leaves are of two sorts ; one kind, and the commonest, having the ribs or nerves all running from the base to the point of the leaf, as in the examples already given ; while in another kind they run from a midrib to the margin ; as in the com- FIG. 84. A (parallel-veined) leaf of the Lily of the Valley. LESSON 8.] THEIR FORMS AS TO GENERAL OUTLINE. 57 mon Pickerel-weed of our ponds, in the Banana (Fig. 47), and many similar plants of warm climates. 145. Netted- veined leaves are also of two sorts, as is shown in the examples already referred to. In one case the veins all rise from a single rib (the midrib), as in Fig. 83. Such leaves are called feather-veined or p innately-veined ; both terms meaning the same thing, namely, that the veins are arranged on the sides of the rib like the plume of a feather on each side of the shaft. 146. In the other case (as in the Button wood, Fig. 50, Maple, &c,), the veins branch off from three, five, seven, or nine ribs, which spread from the top of the leaf-stalk, and run through the blade like the toes of a web-footed bird. Hence these are said to be palmately or digitately veined, or (since the ribs diverge like rays from a centre) radiate-veined. 147. Since the general outline of leaves accords with the frame- work or skeleton, it is plain that feather-veined leaves will incline to elongated shapes, or at least will be longer than broad ; while in radiate-veined leaves more rounded forms are to be expected. A glance at the following figures shows this. Whether we consider the veins of the leaf to be adapted to the shape of the blade, or the green pulp to be moulded to the framework, is not very material. Either way, the outline of each leaf corresponds with the mode of spreading, the extent, and the relative length of the veins. Thus, in oblong or elliptical leaves of the feather-veined sort (Fig. 87, 88), the principal veins are nearly equal in length ; while in ovate and heart-shaped leaves (Fig. 89, 90), those below the middle are longest; and in leaves which widen upwards (Fig. 91-94), the veins above the middle are longer than the others. 148. Let us pass on, without particular reference to the kind of veining, to enumerate the principal 149. Forms of Leaves as to General Outline, It is necessary to give names to the principal shapes, and to define them rather precisely, since they afford the easiest marks for distinguishing species. The same terms are used for all other flattened parts as well, such as the petals of the flowers ; so that they make up a great part of the descriptive language of Botany. We do not mention the names of common plants which exhibit these various shapes. It will be a good exercise for young students to look them up and apply them. 150. Beginning with the narrower and proceeding to the broadest forms, a leaf is said to be SF 4 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 8. Linear (Fig. 85), when narrow, several times longer than wide, and of the same breadth throughout. Lanceolate, or lance-shaped, when several times longer than wide, and tapering upwards (Fig. 86), or both upwards and downwards. Oblong (Fig. 87), when nearly twice or thrice as long as broad. -Elliptical (Fig. 88) is oblong with a flowing outline, the two ends alike in width. Oval is the same as broadly elliptical, or elliptical with the breadth considerably more than half the length. Ovate (Fig. 89), when the outline is like a section of a hen's-egg lengthwise, the broader end downward. Orbicular, or rotund (Fig. 102), circular in outline, or nearly so. 151. When the leaf tapers towards the base, instead of upwards, it may be Oblanceolate (Fig. 91), which is lance-shaped, with the more tapering end downwards ; Spatulate (Fig. 92), round- ed above and long and narrow below, like a spatula ; Obovate (Fig. 93), or in- versely ovate, that is, ovate with the narrower end down ; or Cuneate, or cuneiform, that is, wedge-shaped (Fig. 94), broad above and tapering by straight lines to an acute angle at the base. 1^2. As to tllC Base, its shape characterizes several forms, such as Cordate, or heart-shaped (Fig. 90, 99, 8), when a leaf of an ovate form, or something like it, has the outline of its rounded base turned in (forming a notch or sinus) where the stalk is attached. JReniform, or kidney-shaped (Fig. 100), like the last, only rounder and broader than long. FIG. 85-90. Various forms of feather-veined leavea. FIG. 91- Oblanceolate, 92. spatulate, 93. obovate, 94. wedge-shaped, feather-veined leaves. LESSON 8.] THEIR PARTICULAR FORMS. 59 Auriculate, or eared, having a pair of small and blunt projections, or ears, at the base, as in one species of Magnolia (Fig. 96). Sagittate, or arrow-shaped, where such ears are pointed and turned downwards, while the main body of the blade tapers upwards to a point, as in the com- mon Sagittaria or Ar- row-head, and in the Arrow-leaved Polygo- num (Fig. 95). Hastate, or halberd- shaped, when such lobes at the base point outwards, giving the leaf the shape of the halberd of the olden time, as in another Polygonum (Fig. 97). Peltate, or shield-shaped, (Fig. 102,) is the name applied to a curious modification of the leaf, commonly of a rounded form, where the footstalk is attached to the lower surface, instead of the base, and 100 103 therefore is naturally likened to a shield borne by the outstretched arm. The common Watershield, the Nelumbium, and the White Water-lily, and also the Mandrake, exhibit this sort of leaf. On comparing the shield-shaped leaf of the common Marsh Pennywort (Fig. 102) with that of another common species (Fig. 101), we see at once what this peculiarity means. A shield-shaped leaf is like a FIG. 95. Sagittate, 96. auriculate, 97. halberd-shaped, leaves. FIG. 98 - 102. Various forms of radiate- vined leaves. 60 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 8. kidney-shaped (Fig. 100) or other rounded leaf, with the margins at the base brought together and united. 153. As to the Apex, the following terms express the principal variations. Acuminate, pointed, or taper-pointed, when the summit is more or less prolonged into a narrowed or tapering point, as in Fio-. 97. Acute, when ending in an acute angle or not prolonged point, as in Fig. 104, 98, 95, &c. Obtuse, when with a blunt or rounded point, as in Fig. 105, 89, &c. Truncate, with the end as if cut off square, as in Fig. 106, 94. Refuse, with the rounded summit slightly indented, forming a very shallow notch, as in Fig. 107. Emarginate, or notched, indented at the end more decidedly, as in Fig. 108. Obcordate, that is, inversely heart-shaped, where an obovate leaf is more deeply notched at the end (Fig. 109), as in White Clover and Wood-sorrel ; so as to resemble a cordate leaf (Fig. 99) inverted. Cuspidate, tipped with a sharp and rigid point ; as in Fig. 110. Mucronate, abruptly tipped with a small and short point, like a projection of the midrib ; as in Fig. 111. Aristate, awn-pointed, and bristle-pointed, are terms used when this mucronate point is extended into a longer bristle-form or other slender appendage. The first six of these terms can be applied to the lower as well as to the upper end of a leaf or other organ. The others belong to the apex only. IDS FIG. 103 - 111. Forms of the apex of leaves. LKSSON 9.] SIMPLE AND COMPOUND LEAVES. 61 LESSON IX. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. SIMPLE AND COM- POUND LEAVES, STIPULES, ETC. 154. IN the foregoing Lesson leaves have been treated of in their simplest form, namely, as consisting of a single blade. But in many- cases the leaf is divided into a number of separate blades. That is, 155. Leaves are either Simple or Compound, They are sr ,id to be simple, when the blade is all of one piece : they are compound, when the blade consists of two or more separate pieces, borne upon a common leaf-stalk. And between these two kinds every interme- diate gradation is to be met with. This will appear as we proceed to notice the principal 156. Forms of Leaves as to particular Outline or degree of division. In this respect, leaves are said to be Entire, when their general outline is completely filled out, so that the margin is an even line, without any teeth or notches ; as in Fig. 83, 84, 100, &c. Serrate, or saiv-toothed, when the margin only is cut into sharp teeth, like those of a saw, and pointing forwards; as in Fig. 112; also 90, &c. \ 112 113 114 115 11G 117 Dentate, or toothed, when such teeth point outwards, instead of forwards ; as in Fis^. 113. FIG. 112- 117. Kinds of margin ofleaves. 6 62 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. ["LESSON 9. Crenate, or scalloped, when the teeth are broad and rounded ; as in Fig. 114, 101. Repand, undulate, or wavy, when the margin of the leaf forms a wavy line, bending slightly inwards and outwards in succession ; as in Fig. 115. Sinuate, when the margin is more strongly sinuous, or turned inwards and outwards, as in Fig. 116. Incised, cut, or jagged, when the margin is cut into sharp, deep, and irregular teeth or incisions, as in Fig. 117. 157. When leaves are more deeply cut, and with a definite number of incisions, they are said, as a general term, to be lobed ; the parts being called lobes. Their number is expressed by the phrase two- lobed, three-lobed, Jive-lobed, many-lobed, &c., as the case may be. When the depth and character of the lobing needs to be more par- ticularly specified, as is often the case, the following terms are employed, viz. : Lobed, when the incisions do not extend deeper than about half- way between the margin and the centre of the blade, if so far, and are more or less rounded ; as in the leaves of the Post-Oak, Fig. 118, and the Hepatica, Fig. 122. Cleft, when the incisions extend half-way down or more, and especially when they are sharp, as in Fig. 119, 123. And the phrases two-cleft, or, in the Latin form, bifid ; three-cleft, or trifid; four-cleft, or quadrijid ; jive-cleft, or quinqucfid, &c. ; or many-cleft, in the Latin form multifid, express the number of the segments, or portions. Parted, when the incisions are still deeper, but yet do not quite reach to the midrib or the base of the blade ; as in Fig. 120, 124. And the terms two-parted, three-parted, &c. express the number of such divisions. Divided, when the incisions extend quite to the midrib, as in the lower part of Fig. 121 ; or to the leaf-stalk, as in Fig. 125; which makes the leaf compound. Here, using the Latin form, the leaf is said to be bisected, trisected (Fig. 125), &c., to express the number of the divisions. 158. In this way the degree of division is described. We may likewise express the mode of division. The notches or incisions, being places where the green pulp of the blade has not wholly filled up the framework, correspond with the veining ; as we perceive on comparing the figures 118 to 121 with figures 122 to 125. The LESSON 9.] LOBED OR DIVIDED LEAVES. G3 upper row of figures consists of feather-veined, or, in Latin form, pinnately-veined leaves (145); the lower row, of radiate-veined or palmately -veined leaves (14G). 120 122 124 159. In the upper row the incisions all point towards the midrib, from which the main veins arise, the incisions (or sinuses) being between the main veins. That is, being pinnately veined, such leaves are pinnately lobed (Fig. 118), pinnately cleft, or pinnatifid (Fig. 119), pinnately parted (Fig. 120), or pinnately divided (Fig. 121), according to the depth of the incisions, as just denned. 160. In the lower row of figures, as the main veins or ribs all proceed from the base of the blade or the summit of the leaf-stalk, so the incisions all point in that direction. That is, palmately-vemed leaves are palmately lobed (Fig. 122), palmately cleft (Fig. 123), palmately parted ( Fig. 1 24) , or palmately divided ( Fig. 125). Some- times, instead of palmately, we say digitately cleft, &c., which means just the same. ' 161. To be still more particular, the number of the lobes, &c. may come into the phrase. Thus, Fig. 122 is a palmately three- lobed; Fig. 123, a palmately three-cleft ; Fig. 124, & palmately three- parted; Fig. 125, a palmately three-divided, or trisected, leaf. The FIG. 118 - 121. Pinnately lobed, cleft, parted, and divided leaves. FIG. 122-125. Palmately or digitately lobed, cleft, parted, and divided leaves. C4 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. ["LESSON 9. Sugar-Maple and the Button wood (Fig. 50) have palmately Jive- lobed leaves ; the Soft White-Maple palmately Jive-parted leaves; and so on. And in the other sort, the Post-Oak has pinnately seven- to nine-lobed leaves ; the Red-Oak commonly has pinnately seven- to nine-cleft haves, &c., &c. 1G2. The divisions, lobes, &c. may themselves be entire (without teeth or notches, 15G), as in Fig. 118, 122, &c. ; or serrate (Fig. 124), or otherwise toothed or incised (Fig. 121) ; or else lobed, cleft, parted, &c. : in the latter cases making twice pinnatifid, twice pal- mately or pinnately lobed, parted, or divided leaves, &c. From these illustrations, the student will perceive the plan by which the bota- nist, in two or three words, may describe any one of the almost endlessly diversified shapes of leaves, so as to convey a perfectly clear and definite idea of it. ^ 1G3. Compound Leaves, These, as already stated (155), do not differ in any absolute way from the divided form of simple leaves. A compound leaf is one which has its blade in two or more entirely separate parts, each usually with a stalklet of its own : and the stalk- let is often jointed (or articulated) with the main leaf-stalk, just as this is jointed with the stem. When this is the case, there is no doubt that the leaf is compound. But when the pieces have no Ftalklets, and are not jointed with the main leaf-stalk, the leaf may be considered either as simple and divided, or compound, according to the circumstances. FIG. 126. Pinnate with an odd leaflet, or odd-pinnate. 127. Pinnate with a tendril J28. Abruptly pinnate leaf. LESSON 9.] COMPOUND LEAVES. 164. The separate pieces or little blades of a compound leaf are called leaflets. 165. Compound leaves are of two principal kinds, namely, the pinnate and the palmate ; answering to the two modes of veining in reticulated leaves (145-147), and to the two sorts of lobed or di- vided leaves (153, 159). 166. Pinnate leaves are those in which the leaflets are arranged on the sides of a main leaf-stalk ; as in Fig. 126 - 128. They answer to the feather-veined (\.e.pinnately-veined) simple leaf; as will be seen at once, on comparing Fig. 126 with the figures 118 to 121. The leaflets of the former answer to the lobes or divisions of the latter ; and the continuation of the petiole, along which the leaflets are arranged, answers to the midrib of the simple leaf. 167. Three sorts of pinnate leaves are here given. Fig. 126 is pinnate with an odd or end leaflet, as in the Common Locust and the Ash. Fig. 127 is pinnate with a tendril at the end, in place of the odd leaflet, as in the Vetches and the Pea, Fig. 128 is abruptly pinnate, having a pair of leaflets at the end, like the rest of the leaf- lets ; as in the Honey- Locust. 168. Palmate (also named digitate) leaves are those in which the leaflets are all borne on the very tip of the leaf-stalk, as in the Lupine, the Common Clover (Fig. 136), the Virginia Creeper (Fig. 62), and the Horsechestnut and Buckeye (Fig. 129). They answer to the radiate-veined or palmately- veined simple leaf; as is seen by comparing Fig. 136 with the figures 122 to 125. That is, the Clover- leaf of three leaflets is the same as a palmately three-ribbed leaf cut into three separate leaflets. And such a simple five-lobed leaf as that of the Sugar-Maple, if more cut, so as to separate the parts, would pro- duce a palmate leaf of five leaflets, like that of the Horsechestnut or Buckeye (Fig. 129). 169. Either sort of compound leaf may have any number of leaf- lets ; though palmate leaves cannot well have a great many, since they are all crowded together on the end of the main leaf-stalk. FIG. 120. Palmate leaf of five leaflet, of the Sweet Buckeye. 6* 66 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 9. Some Lupines have nine or eleven ; the Horsechestnut has seven, the Sweet Buckeye more commonly five, the Clover three. A pin- nate leaf often has only seven or five leaflets, as in the Wild Bean or Groundnut ; and in the Common Bean it has only three ; in some rarer cases only two ; in the Orange and Lemon only one! The joint at the place where the leaflet is united with the petiole alone distinguishes this last case from a simple leaf.* 170. The leaflets of a com- pound leaf may be either entire g (as in Fig. 126-128), or ser- rate, or lobed, cleft, parted, &c. : in fact, they may pre- sent all the variations of simple leaves, and the same terms equally apply to them. 171. When this division is carried so far as to separate what would be one leaflet into two, three, or several, the leaf becomes doubly or twice com- pound, either pinnately orpal- mately, as the case may be. For example, while some of the leaves of the Honey-Locust are simply pinnate, that is, once pinnate, as in Fig. 128, the greater part * When the botanist, in describing leaves, wishes to express the number cf leaflets, he may use terms like these : Unifoliolate, for a compound leaf of a single leaflet ; from the Latin vnum, one, andfoUolum, leaflet. Bifoliolate, of two leaflets, from the Latin Us, twice, &r\dfoliolum, leaflet. Trifoliolote (or ternate), of three leaflets, as the Clover; and so on. When he would express in one phrase both the number of leaflets and the way the leaf is compound, he writes : Palmately bifoliolate, trlfolidate,plurifollolate (of several leaflets), &c., or else Pinnately U-, tri-, quadri-, or pluri-foitdate (that is, of two, three, four, five, or several leaflets), as the case may be. FIG. 130. A twicc-pinnato (abruptly) loaf of the Honcv-LocusU LESSON 9.] PERFOLIATE LEAVES, ETC. G7 are bipinnate, i.e. twice pinnate, as in Fig. 130. If these leaflets were again divided in the same way, the leaf would become thrice pinnate, or tripinnate, as in many Acacias. The first divisions are called pinnae ; the others, pinnules ; and the last, or little blades, leaflets. 172. So the palmate leaf, if again compounded in the same way, becomes twice palmate, or, as we say when the divisions are in threes, twice ternate (in Latin form litemate) ; if a third time com- pounded, thrice ternate or triternate. But if the division goes still further, or if the degree is variable, we simply say that the leaf is decompound ; either palmately or pinnately so, as the case may be. Thus, Fig. 138 represents a four times ternately compound, in other words a ternately decompound, leaf of our common Meadow Rue. 173. So exceedingly various are the kinds and shapes of leaves, that we have not yet exhausted the subject. "We have, however, mentioned the principal terms used in describing them. Many others will be found in the glossary at the end of the volume. Some peculiar sorts of leaves remain to be noticed, which the student might not well understand without some explanation ; such as 174. Perfoliale Leaves, A common and simple case of this sort is found in two species of Uvularia or Bell wort, where the stem appears to run through the blade of the leaf, near one end. If we look at this plant in summer, after all the leaves are formed, we may see the meaning of this at a glance. For then we often find upon the same stem such a series of leaves as is given in Fig. 131 : the low- er leaves are perfoliate, those next above less so ; then some (the fourth and fifth) with merely a heart-shaped clasping base, and finally one that is merely sessile. The leaf, we perceive, becomes perfoliate by the union of the edges of the base with each other around the stem ; just as the shield-shaped leaf, Fig. 102, comes from the union of the edges of the base of such a leaf as Fig. 101. Of the same sort are the upper leaves of most of FIG. 131. Leaves of Uvularia (Bcllvvort) ; the lower ones perfoliate, the others merely clasping, or tho uppermost only sessile. 68 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSOX 9. the true Honeysuckles (Fig. 132): but here it is a pair of oppo- site leaves, with their contiguous broad bases grown together, which makes what seems to be one round leaf, with the stem running through its centre. This is seen to be the case, by comparing together the upper and the lowest leaves of the same branch. Leaves of this sort are said to be connate-per foliate. 175. Equitant Leaves, While ordinary leaves spread horizontally, and present one face to the sky and the other to the earth, there are some that present their tip to the sky, and their faces right and left to the horizon. Among these are the equitant leaves of the Iris or Flower-de-Luce. On careful inspection we shall find that each leaf was formed folded together length- wise, so that what would be the upper surface is within, and all grown together, ex- cept next the bottom, where each leaf covers the next younger one. It was from their strad- dling over each other, like a man on horseback (as is seen in the cross-section, Fig. 134), that Linnasus, with his lively fancy, called these equitant leaves. 176. Leaves with no distinction of Petiole and Blade, The leaves of Iris just mentioned show one form of this. The flat but narrow leaves of Jonquils, Daffodils, and the like, are other in- stances. Needle-shaped leaves, like those of the Pine (Fig. 140), Larch (Fig. 139), and Spruce, and the awl-shaped as well as the scale-shaped leaves of Junipers, Red Ce- FIG. 132. Branch of a Yellow Honeysuckle, with connate-perfoliate leaves. FIG. 133. Rootstock and equitant leaves of Iris. 131. A section across the cluster of leaves at tne bottom. LESSOX 9.J miLLODIA, STIPULES, ETC. 69 dar, and Arbor- Vitce (Fig. 135), are different examples. These last are leaves serving for foliage, but having as little spread of surface as possible. They make up for this, however, by their immense numbers. 177. Sometimes the petiole expands and flattens, and. takes the place of the blade ; as in numerous New Holland Acacias, some of which are now common 'in greenhouses. Such counterfeit blades are called phyUodia, meaning leaf-like bodies. They may be known from true blades by their standing edgewise, their margins being directed upwards and downwards ; while in true blades the faces look upwards and downwards ; excepting in equitant leaves, as al- ready explained, and in those which are turned edgewise by a twist, such as those of the Callis- temon or Bottle-brush Flower of our greenhouses, and other Dry Myrtles of New Holland, &c. 178. Stipules, the pair of appendages which is found at the base of the peti- ole in many leaves (133), should also be considered in respect to their very varied forms and appearances. More commonly they appear like little blades, on each side of the leaf-stalk, as in the Quince (Fig. 83), and more strikingly in the Hawthorn and in the Pea. Here they remain as long as the rest of the leaf, and serve for the same purpose as the blade. Very commonly they serve for bud-scales, and fall off when the leaves expand, as in the Fig-tree, 137 and the Magnolia (where they are large and conspicuous), or soon FIG. 135. Twig of Arbnr-Vitffi, with its two sorts of leaves : viz. some awl-shaped, the others scale-like ; the latter on the branchlets, a. FIG. 138. Leaf of Red Clover : st, stipules, adhering to the base of p, the petiole : ft, blade of three leaflets. FIG. 137. Part of stem and leaf of Priuce's-Feathcr ; Polygonum orientale) with the united sheathing stipules forming a sheath. 70 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 9. afterwards, as in the Tulip-tree. In the Pea the stipules make a very conspicuous part of the leaf; while in the Bean they are quite small ; and in the Locust they are reduced to bristles or prickles. Sometimes the stipules are separate and distinct (Fig. 83) : often they are united with the base of the leaf-stalk, as in the Eose and the Clover (Fig. 136) : and sometimes they grow together by both margins, so as to form a sheath around the stem, above the leaf, as in the Button wood, the Dock, and almost all the plants of the Polygonum Family (Fig. 137). 179. The sheaths of Grasses bear the blade on their summit, and therefore represent a form of the petiole. The small and thin ap- pendage which is commonly found at the top of the sheath (called a ligule) here answers to the stipule. FIG. 138. Ternately-decompound leaf of Meadow Rue (Thalictrum Cornuti). LESSON 10.] ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES. 71 LESSON X. ^ THE ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES. 180. UNDER this head we may consider, 1. the arrangement of leaves on the stem, or what is sometimes called PHYLLOTAXY (from two Greek words meaning leaf-order) ; and 2. the ways in which they are packed together in the bud, or their VERNATION (the word meaning their spring state). 181. Phyllotaxy, As already explained (48, 49), leaves are ar- ranged on the stem in two principal ways. They are either Alternate (Fig. 131, 143), that is, one after another, only a single leaf arising from each node or joint of the stem ; or * Opposite (Fig. 147), when there is a pair of leaves on each joint of the stem ; one of the two leaves being in this case always situ- ated exactly on the opposite side of the stem from the other. A third, but uncommon arrangement, may be added ; namely, the Whorled, or verticillale (Fig. 148), when there are three or more leaves in a circle (ivliorl or verticil) on one joint of stem. But this is only a variation of the opposite mode; or rather the latter ar- rangement is the same as the whorled, with the number of the leaves reduced to two in each whorl. 182. Only one leaf is ever produced from the same point. When two are borne on the same joint, they are always on opposite side? of the stem, that is, are separated by half the circumference ; when in whorls of three, four, five, or any other number, they are equally distributed around the joint of stem, at a distance of one third, one fourth, or one fifth of the circumfer- ence from each other, according to their number. So they always have the greatest possible divergence from each other. Two or more leaves be- longing to the same joint* of stem never stand side by side, or one above the other, in a cluster. 183. What are called clustered or fascicled leaves, and which FIG. 139. Clustered or fascicled leaves of the Larch. 72 ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES ON THE STEM [LESSON 10. appear to be so, are always the leaves of a whole branch which remains so very short that they are all crowded together in a bundle or rosette ; as in the spring leaves of the Barberry and of the Larch (Fig. 139). In these cases an examination shows them to be nothing else than alternate leaves, very much crowded on a short spur ; and some of these spurs are seen in the course of the season to lengthen into ordinary shoots with scattered alternate leaves. So, likewise, each cluster of two or three needle-shaped leaves in Pitch Pines (as in Fig. 140), or of five leaves in White Pine, answers to a similar, extremely short branch, springing from the axil of a thin and slender scale, which represents a leaf of the main shoot. For Pines produce two kinds of leaves ; 1. primary, the proper leaves of the shoots, not as foliage, but in the shape of delicate scales in spring, which soon fall away ; and 2. secondary, the fascicled leaves, from buds in the axils of the former, and these form the actual foliage. 184. Spiral Arrangement of Leaves, If we examine any alternate-leaved stem, we shall find that the leaves are placed upon it in symmetrical order, and in a way per- fectly uniform for each specie?, but different in different plants. If we draw a line from the insertion (i. e. the point of attachment) of one leaf to that of the next, and so on, this line will wind spirally around the stem as it rises, and in the same species will always have just the same number of leaves upon it for each turn round the stem. That is, any two successive leaves will always be separated from each other by just an equal portion of the circumference of the stem. The distance in height between any two leaves may vary greatly, even on the same shoot, for that depends upon the length of the internodes or spaces between each leaf; but the distance as measured around the circumference (in other words, the angular divergence, or angle formed by any two successive leaves) is uniformly the same. 185. The greatest possible divergence i*, of course, where the second leaf stands on exactly the opposite side of the stem from the first, the third on the side opposite the second, and therefore over the FIG. 140. Piece of a branchlet of Pitch Pine, with three leaves in a fascicle or bundle, in tbo axil <;f a thin fcalo w!:ich answer* to a primary leaf. The bundle is surrounded at the >a.sc by a sliort sheath, formed of the delicate scales of the axillary bud. LESSON 10.] IN A SPIRAL ORDER. 73 first, and the fourth over the second. This brings all the leaves into two ranks, one on one side of the stem and one on the other ; and is therefore called the two-ranked arrangement. It occurs in all Grasses, in Indian Corn, for instance ; also in the Spiderwort, the Bellwort (Fig. 131) and Iris (Fig. 132), in the Basswood or Lime- tree, &c. This is the simplest of all arrangements. 186. Next to this is the three-ranked arrangement, such as we see in Sedges, and in the Veratrum or White Hellebore. The plan of it is shown on a Sedge in Fig. 141, and in a diagram or cross- section underneath, in Fig. 142. Here the second leaf is placed one third of the way round the stem, the third leaf two thirds of the way round, the fourth leaf accordingly directly over the first, the fifth over the second, and so on. That is, three leaves occur in each turn round the stem, and they are separated from each other by one third of the circumference. 187. The next and one of the most com- mon is the Jive-ranked arrangement ; which is seen in the Apple (Fig. 143), Cherry, Poplar, and the greater part of our trees and shrubs. In this case the line traced from leaf to leaf will pass twice round the stem before it reaches a leaf situated di- rectly over any below (Fig. 144). Here the sixth leaf is over the first; the leaves stand in five perpendicular ranks, equally distant from each other ; and the distance between any two successive leaves is just two fifths of the circumference of the stem. 188. The five-ranked arrangement .is expressed by the fraction f. This fraction denotes the divergence of ihe successive leaves, i. e. the angle they form with each other : the numerator also expresses the number of turns made round the stem by the spiral line in complet- ing one cycle or set of leaves, namely i! ; and the denominator gives the number of leaves in each cycle, or the number of perpendicular FIG. 141. Piece of the stalk of a Sedge, with the leaves cut away, leaving their bases : the leaves are numbered in order, from J to 6. 142. Diagram or cross-section of the same, all in one plane j the leaves similarly numbered. 7 74 ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES ON THE STEM. [LESSON 10. ranks, namely o. In the same way the fraction stands for the two-ranked mode, and for the three-ranked : and so these different 113 sorts are expressed by the series of fractions , , f . And the other cases known follow in the same numerical progression. 189. The next is the eight-ranked arrange- ment, where the ninth leaf stands over the first, and three turns are made around the stem to reach it ; so it is expressed by the fraction |. This is seen in the Holly, and in the common Plantain. Then comes the thirteen-ranked ar- rangement, in which the fourteenth leaf is over the first, after five turns around the stem. Of this we have a good example in the common Houseleek (Fig. 146). 190. The series so far, then, is , , f , f , T 5 ? ; the numerator and the denomi- nator of each fraction being those of the two next pre- ceding ones added together. At this rate the next higher should be / T , then ^f, and so on ; and in fact just such cases are met with, and (commonly) no others. These higher sorts are found in the Pine Fam- ily, both in the leaves and the cones (Fig. 324), and in many other plants with small and crowd- ed leaves. But the number of the ranks, or of leaves in each cycle, can here rarely be made out by direct inspection: they may be ascer- tained, however, by certain simple mathematical computations, which are rather too technical for these Lessons. X H FIG. 143. Shoot with its leaves 5-ranked, the sixth leaf over the first ; as in the Apple-tree. FIG. 144. Diagram of this arrangement, with a spiral line drawn from the attachment of one leaf to the next, and so on ; the parts on the side turned from the eye are fainter. FIG. 145. A ground-plan of the same ; the section of the leaves similarly numbered ; a dotted line drawn from the edge of one leaf to that of the next completes the spiral. FIG. 146. A young plant of the Honecleek, with the leaves (not yet expanded) numbered, and exhibiting the 13-rankcd arrangement* LESSON 10.] ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES IN THE BUD. 7o 191. The arrangement of opposite leaves (181) is usually very simple. The second pair is placed over the intervals of the first ; the third over the intervals of the second, and so on (Fig. 147) ; the successive pairs thus crossing each other, commonly at right angles, so as to make four upright rows. And whorled leaves (Fig. 148) follow a similar plan. 192. So the place of every leaf on every plant is fixed beforehand by unerring mathematical rule. As the stem grows on, leaf after leaf ap- pears exactly in its predes- tined place, producing a per- fect symmetry ; a symme- try which manifests itself not in one single monotonous pattern for all plants, but in a definite number of forms exhibited by different spe- cies, and arithmetically ex- pressed by the series of frac- tions, J, -, f , f , yV? A> & c v according as the formative energy in its spiral course up the developing stem lays down at corresponding intervals 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, or 21 ranks of alternate leaves. 193. Vernation, sometimes called Prcefoliation, relates to the way in which leaves are disposed in the bud (180). It comprises two things ; 1st, the way in which each separate leaf is folded, coiled, or packed up in the bud ; and 2d, the arrangement of the leaves in the bud with respect to one another. The latter of course depends very much upon the phyllotaxy, i. e. the position and order of the leaves upon the stem. The same terms are used for it as for the arrange- ment of the leaves of the flower in the flower-bud : so we may pass them by until we come to treat of the flower in this respect. 194. As to each leaf separately, it is sometimes straight and open in vernation, but more commonly it is either bent, folded, or rolled up. When the upper part is bent down upon the lower, as the young blade in the Tulip-tree is bent upon the leafstalk, it is said to be infiexed or reclined in vernation. When folded FIG. 147. Opposite leaves of the Spindle-tree or Burning-bush. FIG. 148. Whorled or verticillate leaves of Galium or Bedstraw. 76 ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM. [LESSON 11. by the midrib so that the two halves are placed face to face, it is conduplicate (Fig. 149), as in the Magnolia, the Cherry, and the Oak : when folded back and forth like the plaits of a fan, it is plicate or plaited (Fig. 150), as in the Maple and Currant. If rolled, it may 'be so either from the tip downwards, as in Ferns and the Sundew (Fig. 154), when in unrolling it resembles the head of a crosier, and is said to be circinate ; or it may be rolled up parallel with the axis, either from one edge into a coil, when it is convolute (Fig. 151), as in the Apricot and Plum, or rolled from both edges towards the midrib; sometimes inwards, when it is involute (Fig. 152), as in the Violet and Water-Lily ; sometimes outwards, when it is revolute (Fig. 153), in the Rosemary and Azalea. The figures are diagrams, representing sections through the leaf, in the way they were represented by Linnaeus. 153 LESSON XL THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM, OR INFLO- RESCENCE. 195. TITUS far we have been considering the vegetation of the plant, and studying those parts, viz. root, stem, and leaves, by which it increases in size and extent, and serves the purpose of its indi- vidual life. But after a time each plant produces a different set of organs, viz. flowers, fruit, and seed, subservient to a different purpose, that is, the increase in numbers, or the continuance of the LESSON 11.] INDETERMINATE INFLORESCENCE. 77 species. The plant reproduces itself in new individuals by seed. Therefore the seed, and the fruit in which the seed is formed, and the flower, from which the fruit results, are named the Organs of Reproduction or Fructification. These we may examine in succes- sion. We begin, of course, with the flower. And the first thing to consider is the 196. Inflorescence, or the mode of flowering, that is, the situation and arrangement of blossoms on the plant. Various as this arrange- ment may seem to be, all is governed by a simple law, which is easily understood. As the position of every leaf is fixed beforehand by a mathematical law which prescribes where it shall stand (192), so is that of every blossom ; and by the same law in both cases. For flowers are buds, developed in a particular way ; and flower- buds occupy the position of leaf-buds, and no other As leaf-buds are either terminal (at the summit of a stem or branch, 42), or axillary (in the axil of a leaf, 43), so likewise 197. Flowers are either terminal or axillary. In blossoming as in vegetation we have only buds terminating (i. e. on the summit of) stems or branches, and buds from the axils of leaves. But while the same plant commonly produces both kinds of leaf-buds, it rarely bears flowers in both situations. These are usually either all axil- lary or all terminal; giving rise to two classes of inflorescence, viz. the determinate and the indeterminate. 198. Indeterminate Inflorescence is that where the flowers all arise from axillary buds ; as in Fig. loo, 156, 157, &c. ; and the reason why it is called indetermi- nate (or indefinite] is, that while the axillary buds give rise to flowers, the terminal bud goes on to grow, and continues the stem indefinitely. 199. Where the flowers arise, as in Fig. 155, singly from the axils of the ordinary leaves of the plant, they do not form flower- clusters, but are axillary and solitary. But when several or many flowers are produced near each other, the accompanying leaves are usually of smaller size, and often of a different shape or character : then they are called bracts, ; and the flowers thus brought together FIG. 155 Moneywort (Lysimachia nummularia) of the gardens, with axillary flowers 7* 78 ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM. [LESSON 11. form one cluster or inflorescence. The sorts of inflorescence of the indeterminate class which have received separate names are chiefly the following : viz. the Raceme, the Corymb, the Umbel, the Spike, the Head, the Spadix, the Catkin, and the Panicle. 200. Before illustrating these, one or two terms, of common oc- currence, may be defined. A flower (or other body) which has no stalk to support it, but which sits directly on the stem or axis it pro- ceeds from, is said to be sessile. If it has a stalk, this is called its peduncle. If the whole flower-cluster is raised on a stalk, this is called the peduncle, or the common peduncle (Fig. 156, p) ; and the stalk of each particular flower, if it have any, is called the pedicel or partial peduncle (p*). The portion of the general stalk along which flowers are dis- posed is called the axis of inflorescence, or, when cov- ered with sessile flowers, the rhachis (back-bone), and sometimes the receptacle. The leaves of a flower- cluster generally are termed bracts. But when we wish particularly to distinguish them, those on the peduncle, or main axis, and which have a flower in their axil, take the name of bracts (Fig. 156, b) ; and those on the pedicels or partial flower-stalks, if any, that ofbractlets (Fig. 156, b 1 ). 201. A Raceme (Fig. 156, 157) is that form of flower- cluster in which the flowers, each on their own foot- stalk or pedicel, are arranged along a common stalk or axis of inflorescence ; as in the Lily of the Valley, Currant, Choke-Cherry, Barberry, &c. Each flower comes from the axil of a small leaf, or bract, which, m however, is often so small that it might escape notice, and which sometimes (a^ in the Mustard Family) disappears alto- gether. The lowest blossoms of a raceme are of course the oldest, and therefore open first, and the order of blossoming is ascending, from the bottom to the top. The summit, never being stopped by a terminal flower, may go on to grow, and often does so (as in the common Shepherd's Purse), producing lateral flowers one after an- other the whole summer long. 202. All the various kinds of flower-clusters pass one into another FIG. 156. A Raceme, with a general peduncle (/>), pedicels (;>'), bracts (i), and bract- lets LESSON ll.j RACEME, CORYMB, UMBEL, ETC. 79 by intermediate gradations of every sort. For instance, if we lengthen the lower pedicels of a raceme, and keep the main axis rather short, it is converted into 203. A Corymb (Fig. 158). This is the same as a raceme, except that it is flat and broad, either convex, or level-topped, as in the Hawthorn, owing to the lengthening of the lower pedicels while the uppermost remain shorter. 204. The main axis of a corymb is short, at least in comparison with the lower pedicels. Only suppose it to be so much contracted that the bracts are all brought into a cluster or circle, and the corymb becomes 205. An Umbel (Fig. 159), as in the Milkweed and Primrose, a sort of flower-cluster where the pedicels all spring apparently from the same point, from the top of the peduncle, so as to resemble, when spreading, the rays of an umbrella, whence the name. Here the pedicels are sometimes called the rays of the umbel. And the bracts, when brought in this way into a cluster or circle, form what is called an involucre. 206. For the same reason that the order of blossoming in a ra- ceme is ascending (201), in the corymb and umbel it is centripetal, that is, it proceeds from the margin or circumference regularly to- wards the centre ; the lower flowers of the former answering to the outer ones of the latter. Indeterminate inflorescence, therefore, is said to be centripetal in evolution. And by having this order of blossoming, all the sorts may be distinguished from those of the other, or the determinate class. In all the foregoing cases the flowers are raised on pedicels. These, however, are very short in many instances, or are wanting altogether; when the flowers are sessile (200). They are so in FIG. 157. A raceme. 158. A corymb 159. AJJ umbel. 80 ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM. [LESSON 11. 207. The Spike, This is a flower-cluster with a more or less lengthened axis, along which the flowers are sessile or nearly so; as in the Mullein and the Plantain (Fig. 160). It is just the same as a raceme, therefore, without any pedicels to the flowers. 208. The J/ead is a round or roundish cluster of flowers which are sessile on a very short axis or receptacle, as in the Button-ball, Button-bush (Fig. 161), and Red Clover. It is just what a spike would become if its axis were shortened ; or an umbel, if its pedicels were all shortened until the flowers became sessile or apparently so. The head of the Button-bush (Fig. 161) is naked ; but that of the Thistle, of the Dandelion, the Cichory (Fig. 221), and the like, is surrounded by empty bracts, which form an involucre. Two particular forms of the spike and the head have received particular names, namely, the Spadix and the Catkin. 209. A Spadix is nothing but a fleshy spike or head, with small and often imperfect flowers, as in the Calla, the Indian Turnip (Fig. 162), Sweet Flag, &c. It is commonly covered by a peculiar enveloping leaf, called a spathe. FIG. 160. Spike of the common Plantain or Ribwort. FIG. 161. Head of the Button-bush (Cephalanthus). FIG. 1G2. Spadix and spathe of the Indian Turnip ; the latter cut through below. LESSON 11.] DETERMINATE INFLORESCENCE, 81 210. A (ill kill Of Ament is the name given to the scaly sort of spike of the Birch and Alder, the Willow and Poplar, and one sort of flower-clusters of the Oak, Hickory, and the like ; on which ac- count these are called Amentaceous trees. 211. Sometimes these forms of flower-clusters become compound. For example, the stalks which, in the simple umbel such as has been described (Fig. 159), are the pedicels of single flowers, may themselves branch in the same way at the top, and so each become the support of a smaller umbel ; as is the case in the Parsnip, Cara- way, and almost the whole of the great family of what are called Umbelliferous (i. e. umbel-bearing) plants. Here the whole is termed a compound umbel ; and the smaller or partial umbels take the name in English of umbellets. The general involucre, at the base of the main umbel, keeps that name ; while that at the base of each umbellet is termed a partial involucre or an involucel. 212. So a corymb (Fig. 158) with its separate stalks branching again, and bearing smaller clusters of the same sort, is a compound corymb ; of which the Moun- tain Ash is a good example. A raceme where what would be the pedicels of single flowers become stalks, along which flowers are disposed on their own pedicels, forms a compound raceme, as in the Goafs-beard and the False Spikenard. But when what would have been a raceme or a corymb branches irregularly into an open and more or less compound flower-cluster, we have what is called 213. A Panicle (Fig. 163); as in the Oat and in most common Grasses. Such a raceme as that of the diagram, Fig. 156, would be changed into a panicle like Fig. 163, by the production of a flower from the axil of each of the bractlets b 1 . 214. A Thyrsus is a compact panicle of a pyram- idal or oblong shape ; such as a bunch of grapes, I63 or the cluster of the Lilac or Horsechestnut. 215. Determinate Inflorescence is that in which the flowers are from terminal buds. The simplest case is where a stem bears a soli- tary, terminal flower, as in Fig. 1G3. This stops the growth of FIG. 1C3. A Panicle S & F 5 82 ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM. [LESSON 11. the stem ; for its terminal bud, being changed into a blossom, can no more lengthen in the manner of a leaf-bud. Any further growth c b e b % must be from axillary buds developing into branches. If such branches are leafy shoots, at length terminated by single blossoms, the inflorescence still consists of solitary flowers at the summit of the stem and branches. But if the flowering branches bear only bracts in place of ordinary leaves, the result is the kind of flower-cluster called 216. A Cyme, This is commonly a flat-topped or con- vex floAver-cluster, like a corymb, only the blossoms are from terminal buds. Fig. 164 illustrates the simplest cyme in a plant with opposite leaves, namely, with three Q 7 flowers. The middle flower, a, terminates the stem ; 1 L the two others, b 5, terminate short branches, one from the axil of each of the uppermost leaves; and being later than the middle one, the flowering proceeds from the centre outwards, or is centrifugal; just the op- posite of the indeterminate mode, or that where all the flower-buds are axillary. If flowering branches appear from the axils below, the lower ones are the later, so that the order of blossoming continues centrif- ugal or descending (which is the same thing), as in Fig. 166, mak- ing a sort of reversed raceme ; a kind of cluster which is to the true raceme just what the flat cyme is to the corymb. 217. Wherever there are bracts or leaves, buds may be produced from their axils and appear as flowers. Fig. 165 represents the case where the branches, b b, of Fig. 1 64, each with a pair of small FIG. ]C3 a. Diagram of an opposite-leaved plant, with a single terminal flower. 1C4. Bame, with a cyme of three flowers ; a, the first flower, of the main axis ; b b, those of branches. 1G5. Same, with flowers of the third order, c c. 1G6. Same, with flowers only of the second order from all the axils ; the central or uppermost opening first, and so on downwards. LESSON 11.] SORTS OF FLOWER-CLUSTERS. 83 leaves or bracts about their middle, have branched again, and pro- duced the branchlets and flowers c c, on each side. It is the con- tinued repetition of this which forms the full or compound cyme, such as that of the Laurustinus, Hobblebush, Dogwood, and Hy- drangea (Fig. 167). 218. A Fascicle, like that of the Sweet- William and Lychnis of the gardens, is only a cyme with the flowers much crowded, as it were, into a bundle. 219. A Glomerule is a cyme still more compacted, so as to form a sort of head. It may be known from a true head by the flowers not expanding centripetally, that is, not from the circumference to- wards the centre, or from the bottom to the top. 220. The illustrations of determinate or cymose inflorescence have been taken from plants with opposite leaves, which give rise to the most regular cymes. But the Rose, Cinquefoil, Buttercup, and the like, with alternate leaves, furnish equally good examples of this class of flower-clusters. 221. It may be useful to the student to exhibit the principal sorts of inflorescence in one view, in the manner of the following Analysis of Flower-Clusters, I. INDETERMINATE OR CENTRIPETAL. (198.) Simple ; and with the Flowers borne on pedicels, Along the sides of a lengthened axis, RACEME, 201- Along a short axis ; lower pedicels lengthened, CORYMB, 203- Clustered on an extremely short axis, UMBEL, 205. Flowers sessile, without pedicels (206), Along an elongated axis, SPIKE, 207. On a very short axis, HEAD, 208. with their varieties, the SPADIX, 209, and CATKIN, 210. Branching irregularly, PANICLE, 213. with its variety, the THYRSUS, 214. II. DETERMINATE OR CENTRIFUGAL. (215.) Open, mostly flat-topped or convex, CYME, 216. Contracted into a bundle, FASCICLE, 218. Contracted into a sort of head, GLOMERULE, 219. 222. The numbers refer to the paragraphs of this Lesson. The various sorts run together by endless gradations in different plants. The botanist merely designates the leading kinds by particular names. Even the two classes of inflorescence are often found com- bined in the same plant. For instance, in the whole Mint Family 84 THE FLOWER. [LESSON 12. k the flower-clusters are centrifugal, thnt is, are cymes or fascicles ; but they are themselves commonly disposed in spikes or racemes, which are centripetal, or develop in succession from below up- wards. LESSON XII. THE FLOWER: ITS PARTS OR ORGANS. 223. HAVING considered, in the last Lesson, the arrangement of flowers on the stem, or the places from which they arise, we now direct our attention to the flower itself. 224. Nature and Use Of the Flower. The object of the flower is the production of seed. The flower consists of all those parts, or organs, which are subservient to this end. Some of these parts are neces- sary to the production of seed. Others serve merely to protect or support the more essential parts. TIC. 1C7. Cyme of the Wild Hydrangea (with neutral flowers in the border). LESSON 12.] ITS PARTS OR ORGANS* 85 225. TllC Organs Of the Flower are therefore of two kinds ; namely, first, the protecting organs, or leaves of the flower, also called the floral envelopes, and, second, the essential organs. The latter are situated within or a little above the former, and are enclosed by them in the bud. 226. The Floral Envelopes in a complete flower are double ; that is, they consist of two whorls (181), or circles of leaves, one above or within the other. The outer set forms the Calyx ; this more com- monly consists of green or greenish leaves, but not always. The inner set, usually of a delicate texture, and of some other color than green, and in most cases forming the most showy part of the blos- som, is the Corolla. 227. The floral envelopes, taken together, are sometimes called the Perianth. This name is not much used, however, except in cases where they form only one set, at least in appearance, as in the Lily, or where, for some other reason, the limits between the calyx and the corolla are not easily made out. 228. Each leaf or separate piece of the corolla is called a Petal ; each leaf of the calyx is called a Sepal. The sepals and the petals or, in other words, the leaves of the blossom serve to protect, support, or nourish the parts within. They do not themselves make a perfect flower. 229. Some plants, however, naturally produce, besides their per- fect flowers, others which consist only of calyx and corolla (one or both), that is, of leaves. These, destitute as they are of the essential organs, and incapable of producing seed, are called neutral flowers. We have an example in the flowers round the margin of the cyme of the Hydrangea (Fig. 1G7), and of the Cranberry-Tree, or Snowball, in their wild state. By long cultivation in gardens the whole cluster' has been changed into showy, but useless, neutral flowers, in these and some other cases. What are called double flowers, such as full Roses (Fig. 173), Buttercups, and Camellias, are blossoms which, under the gardener's care, have developed with all their essential organs changed into petals. But such flowers are always in an unnatural or monstrous condition, and are incapable of maturing seed, for want of 230. The Essential Organs, These are likewise of two kinds, placed one above or within the other ; namely, first, the Stamens or fertil- izing organs, and, second, the Pistils, which are to be fertilized and bear the seeds. 8 86 THE FLOWER. [LESSON 12. 231. Taking them in succession, therefore, beginning from below, or at the outside, we have (Fig. 168, 169), first, the calyx or outer circle of leaves, which are individually termed sepals (a) ; secondly, the corolla or inner circle of delicate leaves, called petals (b) ; then a set of stamens (c) ; and in the centre one or more pistils (d). The end of the flower-stalk, or the short 168 axis, upon which all these parts stand, is called the Torus or Receptacle. 232. We use here for illus- fK (II \\ t& 111 / * tration the flower of a spe- cies of Stonecrop (Sedum ter- natum), which is a com- \^\\%J mon plant wild in the Middle States, and in gardens almost everywhere, because, al- though small, it exhibits all the parts in a perfectly simple and separate state, and so answers for a sort of pattern flower, better than any larger one that is common c and well known. 233. A Stamen consists of two parts, namely, the Filament or stalk (Fig. 170, ), and the Anther (b). The latter is * the only essential part. It is a case, commonly with two lobes or cells, each opening lengthwise by a slit, at the proper time, and discharging a pow- der or dust-like substance, usually of a yellow color. This powder is the Pollen, or fertilizing matter, to produce which is the sole office of the stamen. 234. A Pistil is distinguished into three parts ; namely, beginning from below, the Ovary, the Style, and the Stigma. The Ovary is the hollow case or young pod (Fig. 171, a), containing rudimentary seeds, called Ovules (d). Fig. 172, representing a pistil like that of FIG. 1C8. Flower of a Stonecrop : Pednm trrnatmn. FIG. If 9. Two parts of each kind of the same flower, displayed and enlarged. FIG. 170. A stamen : a, the filament ; &, the anther, discharging pollen. FIG. 171. A pistil divided lengthwise, showing the interior of the ovary, a, and ita ovules, d ; fr, the Htyle ; c, stigma. FIG. 172. A pistil, enlarged ; the ovary cut across to show the ovules within. FIG. 173. " Double " Rosa ; the essential organs all replaced by petals. LESSON 12.] ITS PARTS OR ORGANS. Fig. 160, d, but on a larger scale, and with the .ovary cut across, shows the ovules as they appear in a transverse section. The style (Fig. 171, b) is the tapering part above, sometimes long and slender, sometimes short, and not rarely altogether wanting, for it is not an essential part, like the two others. The stigma (c) is the tip or some other portion of the style (or of the top of the ovary when there is no distinct style), consisting of loose tissue, not cov- ered, like the rest of the plant, by a skin or epi- dermis. It is upon the stigma that the pollen falls ; and the result is, that the ovules contained in the ovary are fertilized and become seeds, by having an embryo (16) formed in them. To the pistil, therefore, all the other organs of the blos- som are in some way or other subservient : the stamens furnish pollen to fertilize its ovules ; the corolla and the calyx form coverings which pro- tect the whole. 234\ These are all the parts which belong to any flower. But these pails appear under a variety of forms and combinations, some of them greatly disguising their natural appearance. To understand the flower, therefore, under whatever guise it may assume, we must study its plan. J 68 FLAN OF THE FLOWER. [LESSON 13. LESSON XIII. THE PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 235. THE FLOWER, like every other part of the plant, is formed upon a plan, which is essentially the same in all blossoms ; and the student should early get a clear idea of the plan of the flower. Then the almost endless varieties which different blossoms present will be at once understood whenever they occur, and will be regarded with a higher interest than their most beautiful forms and richest colors are able to inspire. 236. We have already become familiar with the plan of the vege- tation; with the stem, consisting of joint raised upon joint, each bearing a leaf or a pair of leaves ; with the leaves arranged in sym- metrical order, every leaf governed by a simple arithmetical law, which fixes beforehand the precise place it is to occupy on the stem; and we have lately learned (in Lesson 11) how the position of each blossom is determined beforehand by that of the leaves ; so that the shape of every flower-cluster in a bouquet is given by the same sim- ple mathematical law which arranges the foliage. Let us now con- template the flower in a similar way. Having just learned what parts it consists of, let us consider the plan upon which it is made, and endeavor to trace this plan through some of the various forms which blossoms exhibit to our view. 237. In order to give at the outset a correct idea of the blossom, we took, in the last Lesson, for the purpose of explaining its parts, a perfect, complete, regular, and symmetrical flower, and one nearly as simple as such a flower could well be. Such a blossom the botanist regards as 238. A Typical Flower, that is, a pattern flower, because it well ex- emplifies the plan upon which all flowers are made, and serves as what is called a type, or standard of comparison. 239. Another equally good typical flower (except in a single re- spect, which will hereafter be mentioned), and one readily to be ob- tained in the summer, is that of the Flax (Fig. 174). The parts differ in shape from those of the Stonecrop ; but the whole plan is evidently just the same in both. Only, while the Stonecrop has ten stamens, or in many flowers eight stamens, in till cases just twice LESSON 13.] PERFECT AND IMPERFECT FLOWERS. 89 as many as there are petals, the Flax has only five stamens, or just as many as the petals. Such flowers as these are said to be Perfect, because they are provided with both kinds of essential organs (230), namely, stamens and pistils ; Complete, because they have all the sorts of organs which any flower has, namely, both calyx and corolla, as well as stamens and pistils ; Regular, because all the parts of each set are alike in shape and size ; and Symmetrical, because they have an equal number of parts of each sort, or in each set or circle of organs. That is, there are five sepals, five petals, five stamens, or in the Stonecrop ten stamens (namely, two sets of five each), and five pistils. 240. On the other hand, many flowers do not present this perfect symmetry and reg- ularity, 'or this completeness of parts. Accord- ingly, we may have 241. Imperfect, or Separated Flowers ; which are those where the stamens and pistils are in separate blossoms ; that is, one sort of flowers has stamens and no pistils, and another has pistils and no sta- mens, or only imperfect ones. The blossom which has stamens but no pistils is called a staminate or sterile flower (Fig. 176) ; and the corresponding one with pistils but no stamens is called a pistil- late or fertile flower (Fig. 177). The two sorts may grow on distinct plants, from different roots, as they do in the Willow and Poplar, the Hemp, and the Moonseed FIG. 174. Flowers of the common Flax : a perfect, complete, regular, and symmetrical blossom, all its parts in fives. 175. Half of a Flax-flower divided lengthwise, and enlarged. FIG. 175. Stamiuate flower cf Moonseed (Menispermum Cauadeuse). 177. Pistillate flower of the smie. . . 8* 90 PLAN OF THE FLOWER. [LESSON 13. (Fig. 176, 177) ; when the flowers are said to be dioecious (from two Greek words meaning in two households). Or the two may occur on the same plant or the same stem, as in the Oak, Walnut, Nettle, and the Castor-oil Plant (Fig. 178); when the flowers are said to be mo- noecious (that is, in one household). A flower may, however, be perfect, that is, have both stamens and pistils, and yet be incomplete. 242. Incomplete Flowers are those in which one or both sorts of the floral envelopes, or leaves of the blossom, are wanting. Some- times only one sort is wanting, as in the Castor-oil Plant (Fig. 178) and in the Anem- one (Fig. 179). In this case the missing sort is always supposed to be the inner, that is, the corolla ; and accordingly such flowers are said to be opetalous (meaning without petals). Occasionally both the corolla and the calyx are wanting, when the flower has no proper cover- ings or floral envelopes at all. It is then said to be naked, as in the Lizard's- tail (Fig. 180), and in the Willow. 243. Our two pattern flowers (Fig. 168, 174) are regular and symmetrical (239). We commonly expect this to be the case in living things. The corresponding parts of plants, like the limbs or members of ani- mals, are generally alike, and the whole arrange- ment is symmetrical. This symmetry pervades the blossom, especially. But the student may often fail to perceive FIG. 178. Monrccious flowers, i. e. one staminate (*) and one pistillate (p) flower, of tlie Castor-oil Plant, growing on the paine stem. FIG. 179. Apctalous (incomplete) flower of Anemone Pennsylvania!. FIG. 180. A naked (but perfect.) flower of the Lizard 's-taiL LESSON 13.J IRREGULAR AND UNSYMMETRICAL FLOWERS 91 it, at first view, at least in cases where the plan is more or less obscured by the leaving out (obliteration) of one or more of the members of the same set, or by some in- equality in their size and shape. The latter circumstance gives rise to 244. Irregular Flowers, This name is given to blossoms in which the different members of the same sort, as, for exam- ple, the petals or the stamens, are unlike in size or in form. We have familiar cases of the sort in the Larkspur (Fig. 1 184), and Monkshood (Fig. 1S5, 186); also in the Via- let (Fig. 181, 182). In the latter it is the corolla principally which is ir- regular, one of the petals being larger than the rest, and extended at the base into a hollow protuberance or spur. In the Larkspur (Fig. 183), both the calyx and the corolla par- take of the irregularity. This and the Monkshood are likewise good ex- amples of 2o. Unsymmetrical Flowers. We call them unsymmetrical, when the different sets of organs do not agree in the number of their parts. The ar calyx of Larkspur (Fig. 183, 184) consists of five sepals, which, larger than the rest, is prolonged behind into a large but the corolla is made of only four petals (of two shapes) ; irregul one of spur; FIG. 181. Flower of a Violet. 182. Its calyx and corolla displayed : the five smaller parts are the sepals; the five intervening larger ones are the petals. FIG. 183. Flower of a Larkspur. 184. Its calyx and corolla displayed ; the five larger pieces arc the sepals ; the four smaller, the petals. 92 PLAN OF THE FLOWER. [LESSON 13. the fifth, needed to complete the symmetry, being left out. And the Monkshood (Fig. 185, 186) has five very dissimilar sepals, and a corolla of only two, very small, curiously-shaped petals ; the three need- ed to make up the symmetry being left out. For a flower which is unsymmet- rical but regular, we may take the com- mon Purslane, which has a calyx of only two sepals, but a corolla of five petals, from seven to twelve stamens, and about six styles. The Mustard, and all flowers of that family, are un- symmetrical as to the stamens, these being six in number (Fig. 188, while the leaves of the blossom (sepals and petals) are each only four (Fig. 187). Here the stamens are irregular also, two of them being shorter than the other four. 246. Numerical Plan of the Flower, Although not easy to make out in all cases, yet generally it is plain to see that each blossom is based upon a particular number, which runs through all or most of its parts. And a prin- cipal thing which a botanist notices when examin- ing a flower is its numerical plan. It is upon this that the symmetry of the blossom depends. Our two pattern flowers, the Stonecrop (Fig. 168) and the Flax (Fig. 174), are based upon the number five, which is exhibited in all their parts. Some flowers of this same Stonecrop have their parts in fours, and then that number runs throughout ; namely, there are four sepals, four petals, eight stamens (two sets), and four pistils. The Mustard (Fig. 187, 188), Radish, FIG. 185. Flower of a Monkshood. 18^. Its parts displayed : the five larppr pieces are the sepals ; the two small ones under the hood are petals ; the stamens and pistils are in the centre. FIG. 187. Flower of Mustard. 188. Its stamens and pistil separate and enlarged. LESSON 13.] THE RELATIVE POSITION OF ITS PARTS. 93 &c., also have their flowers constructed on the plan of four as to the calyx and corolla, but this number is interfered with in the stamens, either by the leaving out of two sta- mens (which would complete two sets), or in some other way. Next to five, the most common number in flowers is three. On this number the flowers of Lily, Crocus, Iris, Spiderwort, and Trillium (Fig. 189) are constructed. In the Lily and Crocus the leaves of the flower at first view appear to be six in one set ; but the bud or just- opening blossom plainly shows these to consist of an outer and an inner circle, each of three parts, namely, of calyx and corolla, both of the same bright color and delicate texture. In the Spiderwort and Trillium (Fig. 189) the three outer leaves, or sepals, are green, and dif- ferent in texture from the three inner, or the petals ; the stamens are six (namely, two sets of three each), and the pistils three, though partly grown together into one mass. 247. Alternation of Parts, The symmetry of the flower is likewise shown in the arrangement or relative position of successive parts. The rule is, that the parts of successive circles alternate with one another. That is, the petals stand over the intervals between the sepals ; the stamens, when of the same number, stand over the intervals between the petals ; or when twice as many, as in the Trillium, the outer set alternates with the petals, and the inner set, alternating with the other, of course stands before the petals ; and the pistils alter- nate with these. This is shown in Fig. 189, and in the diagram, or cross-section of the same in the bud, Fig. 190. And Fig. 191 is a similar diagram or ground-plan (in the form of a FIG. 189. Flower of Trillium erectum, or Birthroot, spread out a little, and viewed from Above. FTG. 190. Diagram or ground-plan of the same, as it would appear in a cross-section of the bud ; the parts all in the same relative position. FIG. 191. Diagram, or ground-plan, of the Flax-flower, Fig. 174. $4 PLAN OF THE FLOWER. [LESSON 13, section made across the bud) of the Flax blossom, the example of a pattern symmetrical flower taken at the beginning of this Lesson, with its parts all in fives. 248. Knowing in this way just the position which each organ should occupy in the flower, it is readily understood that flowers often become unsymmetrical through the loss of some parts, which belong to the plan, but are obliterated or left out in the execution. For ex- ample, in the Larkspur (Fig. 183, 184), as there are five sepals, there should be five petals likewise. We find only four ; but the vacant place where the fifth belongs is plainly rec- ognized at the lower side of the flower. Also the similar plan of the Monkshood (Fig. 186) equally calls for five petals ; but three of them are entirely obliterated, and the two that remain are reduced to slender bodies, which look as unlike or- dinary petals as can well be imagined. Yet their position, answer- ing to the intervals between the upper sepals and the side ones, reveals their true nature. All this may perhaps be more plainly shown by corresponding diagrams of the calyx and corolla of the Larkspur and Monkshood (Fig. 192, 193), in which the places of the missing petals are indicated by faint dotted lines. The oblitera- tion of stamens is a still more common case. For example, the Snapdragon, Foxglove, Gerardia, and almost all flowers of the large Figwort family they belong to, have the parts of the calyx and corolla five each, but only four stamens (Fig. 194); the place on the upper side of the flower where the fifth stamen belongs is vacant. That there is in such cases a real obliteration of the miss- ing part is shown by the 249. Abortive Organs, or vestiges which are sometimes met with ; bodies which stand in the place of an organ, and represent it, although wholly incapable of fulfilling its office. Thus, in the Fig- wort family, the fifth stamen, which is altogether missing in Gerardia (Fig. 194) and most others, appears in the Figwort as a little scale, and in Pentstemon (Fig. 195) and Turtlehead as a sort of filament without any anther ; a thing of no use whatever to the plant, but FIG. 192. Diagram of the calyx and corolla of a Larkspur. 193. Similar diagram of Monkshood. The dotted lines show where the petals are wanting , one in the former, three in the Utter. LESSON 13. I A.BORTIVE ORGANS. 95 very interesting to the botanist, since it completes the symmetry of the blossom. And to show that this really is the lost stamen, it now and then bears an anther, or the rudiment of one. So the flower of Catalpa should likewise have five stamens ; but we seldom find more than two good ones. Still we may generally discern the three others, as vestiges or half-obliterated stamens (Fig. 196). In separated flowers the rudiments of pistils are often found in the sterile blossom, and rudimentary sta- mens in the fertile blossom, as in Moon- eeed (Fig. 177). 250. Multiplication of Parts. Quite in the opposite way, the simple plan of the flower is often more or less obscured by f ^ an increase in the number of parts. In the White Water-Lily, and in many Cactus-flowers (Fig. 197), all the parts are very numerous, so that it is hard to say upon what number the blos- som is constructed. But more com- moDly some, of the sets are few and definite in the number of their parts. The Buttercup, for instance, has five sepals and five petals, but many sta- mens and pistils ; so it is built upon the plan of five. The flowers of Mag- nolia have indefinitely numerous stamens and pistils, and rather numerous floral envelopes ; but these latter are plainly distinguishable into sets of three ; namely, there are three sepals, and six petals in two circles, or nine in three circles, showing that these blossoms are con- structed on the number three. FIG. 194. Corolla of a purple Gerardia laid open, showing the four stamens ; tli -3 cross hows where the fifth stamen would be, if present. FIG. 195. Corolla, laid open, and stamens of Pentstemon grandiflorus of Iowa, &.C., with a sterile filament in the place of the fifth stamen, and representing it. FIG. 196. Corolla of Catalpa laid open, displaying two good stamens and throe abortive vestiges of stamens. 96 MORPHOLOGY OP THE .FLOWER. [LESSON 14. LESSON XIV. MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER. 251. IN all the plant till we came to the blossom we found nothing but root, stem, and leaves (23, 118). However various or strange their shapes, and whatever their use, everything belongs to one of these three organs, and everything above ground (excepting the rare case of aerial roots) is either stem or leaf. We discern the stem equally in the stalk of an herb, the trunk and branches of a tree, the trailing or twining Vine, the straw of Wheat or other Grasses, the columnar trunk of Palms (Fig. 47), in the flattened joints of the Prickly-Pear Cactus, and the rounded body of the Melon Cactus (Fig. 76). Also in the slender runners of the Strawberry, the tendrils of the Grape-vine and Virginia Creeper, the creeping subterranean shoots of the Mint and Couchgrass, the tubers of the Potato and Artichoke, the solid bulb of the Crocus, and the solid part or base of scaly bulbs ; as is fully shown in Lesson 6. And in Lesson 7 and elsewhere we have learned to recognize the leaf alike in the thick seed-leaves of the Almond, Bean, Horsechestnut, and the like (Fig. 9-24), in the scales of buds (Fig. 77), and the thickened FIG. 187. A Cactus-flower, viz. of Mamillaria cspitosa of the Upper Missouri LESSON 14.] ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES IN THE BUD. 97 scales of bulbs (Fig. 73-75), in the spines of the Barberry and the tendrils of the Pea, in the fleshy rosettes of the Houseleek, the strange fly-trap of Dionasa (Fig. 81), and the curious pitcher of Sar- racenia (Fig. 79). 252. Now the student who understands these varied forms or metamorphoses of the stem and leaf, and knows how to detect the real nature of any part of the plant under any of its disguises, may readily trace the leaf into the blossom also, and perceive that, as to their morphology, 253. Flowers are altered Branches, and their parts, therefore, altered leaves. That is, certain buds, which might have grown and length- ened into a leafy branch, do, under other circumstances and to ac- complish other purposes, develop into blossoms. In these the axis remains short, nearly as it is in the bud ; the leaves therefore remain close together in sets or circles ; the outer ones, those of the calyx, generally partake more or less of the character of foliage ; the next set are more delicate, and form the corolla, while the rest, the sta- mens and pistils, appear under forms very different from those of ordinary leaves, and are concerned in the production of seed. This is the way the scientific botanist views a flower ; and this view gives to Botany an interest which one who merely notices the shape and counts the parts of blossoms, without understanding their plan, has no conception of. 254. That flowers answer to branches may be shown first from their position. As explained in the Lesson on Inflorescence, flowers arise from the same places as branches, and from no other ; flower- buds, like leaf-buds, appear either on the summit of a stem, that is, as a terminal bud, or in the axil of a leaf, as an axillary bud (196). And at an early stage it is often impossible to foretell whether the bud is to give rise to a blossom or to a branch. 255. That the sepals and petals are of the nature of leaves is evident from their appearance ; persons who are not botanists com- monly call them the leaves of the flower. The calyx is most gen- erally green in color, and foliaceous (leaf-like) in texture. And though the corolla is rarely green, yet neither are proper leaves always green. In our wild Painted-Cup, and in some scarlet Sages, common in gardens, the leaves just under the flowers are of the brightest red or scarlet, often much brighter-colored than the corolla itself. And sometimes (as in many Cactuses, and in Carolina All- spice) there is sueh a regular gradation from the last leaves of the 9 98 MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER. [LESSON 14. plant (bracts or bractlets) into the leaves of the calyx, that it is im- possible to say where the one ends and the other begins. And if sepals are leaves, so also are petals ; for there is no clearly fixed limit between them. Not only in the Carolina Allspice and Cactus (Fig. 197), but in the Water-Lily (Fig. 198) and a variety of flowers with more than one row of petals, there is such a complete transition between calyx and corolla that no one can surely tell how many of the leaves belong to the one and how many to the other. 256. It is very true that the calyx or the corolla often takes the form of a cup or tube, instead of being in separate pieces, as in Fig. 194-196. It is then composed of two or more leaves grown together. This is no objection to the petals being leaves ; for the same thing takes place with the ordinary leaves of many plants, as, for instance, in the upper ones of Honeysuckles (Fig. 132). 257. That stamens are of the same general nature as petals, and therefore a modification of leaves, is shown by the gradual transitions that occur between the one and the other in many blossoms ; es- pecially in cultivated flowers, such as Roses and Camellias, when they begin to double, that is, to change their stamens into petals. Some wild and natural flowers show the same interesting transitions. The Carolina Allspice and the White Water-Lily exhibit complete gradations not only between sepals and petals, but between petals and stamens. The sepals of the Water-Lily are green outside, but white and petal-like on the inside ; the petals, in many rows, grad- ually grow narrower towards the centre of the flower ; some of these are tipped with a trace of a yellow anther, but still are petals ; the next are more contracted and stamen-like, but with a flat petal-like filament; and a further narrowing of this completes the genuine sta- men. A series of these stages is shown in Fig. 198. 258. Pistils and stamens now and then change into each other in some Willows ; pistils often turn into petals in cultivated flowers ; and in the Double Cherry they occasionally change directly into small green leaves. Sometimes a whole blossom changes into a cluster of green leaves, as in the " green roses " which are occa- sionally noticed in gardens, and sometimes it degenerates into a leafy branch. So the botanist regards pistils also as answering to leaves. And his idea of a pistil is, that it consists of a leaf with its margins curved in\iards till they meet and unite to form a closed cavity, the ovary, while the tip is prolonged to form the style and bear the stigma ; as will be illustrated in the Lesson upon the Pistil. LESSON 15.] THE CALYX AND COROLLA. 99 259. Moreover-, the arrangement of the parts of the flower answers to that of leaves, as illustrated in Lesson 10, either to a succes- sion of whorls alternating with each other in the manner of whorled leaves, or in some regular form of spiral arrangement. LESSON XV. MORPHOLOGY OF THE CALYX AND COROLLA. 260. HAVING studied the flower as a whole, we proceed to con- eider more particularly its several parts, especially as to the principal differences they present in different plants. We naturally begin with the leaves of the blossom, namely, the calyx and corolla. And first as to 261. The Growing together Of Parts, It is this more than anything else which prevents one from taking the idea, at first sight, that the flower is a sort of very short branch clothed with altered leaves. For most blossoms we meet with have some of their organs grown together more or less. We have noticed it as to the corolla of Ge- rardia, Catalpa, &c. (Fig. 194-196), in Lesson 13. This growing FIG. 198. Succession of sepals, petals, pradations between petals and stamens, ar.d true etamens, of the Nyniphjea, or White Water-Lily. 100 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. [LESSON 15. together takes place in two ways : either parts of the same kind, or parts of different kinds, may be united. The first we may call simply the union, the second the consoli- dation, of parts. 262. Ullion OF Cohesion with one another of parts of the same sort. We very com- monly find that the calyx or the corolla is a cup or tube, instead of a set of leaves. Take, for example, the flower of the Stra- monium or Thorn-Apple, where both the calyx and the corolla are so (Fig. 199) ; likewise the common Morning-Glory, and the figures 201 to 203, where the leaves of the corolla are united into one piece, but those of the calyx are separate. Now there are numerous cases of real leaves growing together much in the same way, those of the common Thorough- wort, and the upper pairs in Woodbines or Honeysuckles, for example (Fig. 132) ; so that we might expect it to occur in the leaves of the blossom also. And that this is the right view to take of it plainly appears from the transitions everywhere met with in different plants, between a calyx or a corolla of separate pieces and one forming a perfect tube or cup. Figures 200 to 203 show one complete set of such gradations in the corolla, and Fig. 204 to 206 another, in short and open corollas. How many leaves or petals each corolla is formed of may be seen by the number of points or tips, or of the notches (called sinuses) which answer to the inter- vals between them. 263. When the parts are united in this way, whether much or little, the corolla is said to be monopetalous, and the calyx mono- sepalous. These terms mean " of one petal," or " of one sepal " ; that is, of one piece. Wherefore, taking the corolla or the calyx as a whole, we say that it is parted when the parts are separate almost to the base, as in Fig. 204 ; cleft or lobed when the notches do not extend below the middle or thereabouts, as in Fig. 205 ; FTG. 199. Flower of the common Stramonium ; both the calyx and the corolla with then parts united tnto a tube. LESSON 15.] UNION OF PARTS. 101 toothed or dentate, when only the tips are separate as short points ; entire, when the border is even, without points or notches, as in the common Morning-Glory, and very nearly so in Fig. 203 ; and so on ; the terms being just the same as those applied to leaves and all other flat bodies, and illustrated in Lessons 8 and 9. 264. There is a set of terms applied particularly to calyxes, corollas, or other such bodies of one piece, to express their general shape, which we see is very various. The following are some of the principal : Wheel-shaped, or rotate ; when spreading out at once, without a tube or with a very short one, something in the shape of a wheel or of its diverging spokes, as in the corolla of the Potato and Bitter- sweet (Fig. 204, 205). Salver-shaped, or salver-form ; when a flat-spreading border is raised on a narrow tube, from which it diverges at right angles, 204 205 206 like the salver represented in old pictures, with a slender handle beneath. The corolla of the Phlox (Fig. 208) and of the Cypress- Vine (Fig. 202) are of this sort. FIG. 200. Corolla of Soapwort (the same in Pinks, &c.), of 5 separate, long-clawed petals. FIG. 201. Flower of Gilia or Ipomopsis coronopifolia ; the parts answering to the claws of the petals of the last figure here all united into a tube. FIG. 202. Flower of the Cypress- Vine ; the petals a little farther united into a five-lobed spreading border. FIG. 203. Flower of the small Scarlet Morning-Glory, the five 'petals it is composed of perfectly united into a trumpet-shaped tube, with the spreading border nearly even (or entire). FIG. 204. Wheel-shaped and five-parted corolla of Bittersweet (Solanum Dulcamara). FIG. 205. Wheel-shaped and five-cleft corolla of the common Potato. FIG. 20G. Almost entire and very open bell-shaped corolla of a Ground Cherry (Physalis) 9* 102 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. [LESSON 15. Bell-shaped, or campanulate ; where a short and broad tube widens upward, in the shape of a bell, as in Fig. 207. Funnel-shaped, or funnel-form ; gradually spreading at the sum- mit of a tube which is narrow below, in the shape of a funnel or tunnel, as in the corolla of the common Morning-Glory, and of the Stramonium (Fig. 199). Tubular ; when prolonged into a tube, without much spreading at the border, as in the corolla of the Trumpet Honeysuckle, the calyx of Stramonium (Fig. 199), &c. 211 265. In most of these cases we may distinguish two parts ; namely, the lube, or the portion all in one piece and with its sides upright or nearly so ; and the border or limb, the spreading portion or summit. The limb may be entire, as in Fig. 203, but it is more commonly lobed, that is, partly divided, as in Fig. 202, or parted down nearly to the top of the tube, as in Fig. 208, &c. 2G6. So, likewise, a separate petal is sometimes distinguishable into two parts ; namely, into a narrowed base or stalk-like part (a? in Fig. 200, where this part is peculiarly long), called the claw, and a spreading and enlarged summit, or body of the petal, called the lamina or blade. 267. When parts of the same set are not united (as in the Flax, Cherry, &c., Fig. 212-215), we call them distinct. Thus the sepals or the petals are distinct when not at all united with each other. As a calyx with sepals united into one body is called monosepalous (263, that is, one-sepalled), or sometimes monophyllous, that is, one-leaved ; so, on the other hand, when the sepals are distinct, it is said to be FIG. 207. Flower of the Harebell, with a campanulate or bell-shaped corolla. 208. Of a Phlox, with salver-shaped corolla. 209. Of Dead-Nettie (Laminm), with labiate ring-ent (or gaping) corolla. 210. Of Snapdragon, with labiate personate corolla. 211. Of Toad-Flax, with a similar corolla spurred at the base. LESSON 15.] CONSOLIDATION OF PARTS. 103 polyscpaloiiS) that is, composed of several or many sepals. And a corolla with distinct petals is said to be polypetalous. 2G8. Consolidation, the growing together of the parts of two or more different sets. In the most natural or pattern flower (as explained in Lessons 13 and 14), the several parts rise from the receptacle or axis in succes- sion, like leaves upon a very- short stem ; the petals just above or within the sepals, the stamens just above or within these, and then the pistils next the summit or 2l2 centre. Now when contiguous parts of different sorts, one within the other, unite at their base or origin, it obscures more or less the plan of the flower, by consolidating organs which in the pattern flower are entirely separate. 269. The nature of this con- solidation will be at once un- derstood on comparing the fol- lowing series of illustrations. Fig. 212 represents a flower of the common Flax, cut through lengthwise, so as to show the attachment (or what the bot- anist calls the insertion) of all the parts. Here they are all inserted on, that is grow out of, the receptacle or axis of the blossom. In other words, there is no union at all of the parts of contiguous circles. So the parts are said to be free. And the sepals, petals, and stamens, all springing of course from beneath the pistils, which are on the very summit of the axis, are said to be hypogynous (a term composed of two Greek words, mean- ing " under the pistil "). FIG. 212. A Flax-flower, cut through lengthwise. FIG. 213. Flower of a Cherry, divided in the same way. FIG. 214. Flower of the common Purslane, divided lengthwise. 104 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. [LESSON 15. 270. Fig. 213 is a flower of a Cherry, cut through lengthwise in the same way. Here the petals and the stamens grow out of, that is, are inserted on, the calyx ; in other words they cohere or are consolidated with the base of the calyx up to a certain height. In such cases they are said to be perigynous (from two Greek words, meaning around the pistil). Thje consolidation in the Cherry is con- fined to the calyx, corolla, and stamens : the calyx is still free from the pistil. One step more we have in 271. Fig. 214, which is a similar section of a flower of a Purslane. Here the lower part of the . ... calyx (carrying with it or course the petals and stamens) is coherent with the surface of the whole lower half of the ovary. Therefore the calyx, seeming to rise from the mid- dle of the ovary, is said to be half superior, instead of being inferior, as it is when entirely free. It is better to say, however, calyx half-adherent to the ovary. Every gradation occurs between /? such a case and that of a calyx altogether free or inferior, as we see in different Purslanes and Saxifrages. The consol- idation goes farther, 272. In the Apple, Quince, Hawthorn (Fig. 215), &c. Here the tube of the calyx is consolidated with the whole surface of the ovary ; and its limb, or free part, therefore appears to spring from its top, instead of underneath it, as it naturally should. So the calyx is said to be superior, or (more properly) adherent to, or coherent with, the ovary. In most cases (and very strikingly in the Evening Primrose), the tube of the calyx is continued on more or less beyond the ovary, and has the petals and stamens consolidated with it for some dis- tance; these last, therefore, being borne on the calyx, are said to be perigynous, as before (270). FIG. 215. Flower of a Hawthorn, divided lengthwise. FIG. 21G. Flower of tbe Cranberry, divided lengthwise LESSON 15.] IRREGULARITY OF PARTS. 105 273. But if the tube of the calyx ends immediately at the summit of the ovary, and its lobes as well as the corolla and stamens are as it were inserted directly on the ovary, they are said to be epigynous (meaning on the pistil), as in Cornel, the Huckleberry, and the Cran- berry (Fig. 216). 274. Irregularity of Parts in the calyx and corolla has already been noticed (244) as sometimes obstructing one's view of the real plan of a flower. There is infinite variety in this respect ; but what has already been said will enable the student to understand these irreg- ularities when they occur. We have only room to mention one or two cases which have given rise to particular names. A very common kind, among polypetalous (267) flowers, is 275. The Papilionaceous flower of the Pea, Bean, and nearly all that family. In this we have an irregular corolla of a peculiar shape, which Linnaeus likened to a butterfly (whence the term, papilio being the Latin name for a but- terfly) ; but the resemblance is not very obvious. The five pet- als of a papilionaceous corolla (Fig. 217) have received different names taken from widely different objects. The upper and larger petal (Fig. 218, s), which is gen- erally wrapped round all the rest in the bud, is called the standard or banner. The two side petals (w) are called the wings. And the two anterior ones (&), the blades of which commonly stick together a little, and which en- close the stamens and pistil in the flower, from their forming a body shaped somewhat like the keel, or rather the prow, of an ancient boat, are together named the keel. 276. The Labiate or bilabiate (that is, two-lipped) flower is a very common form of the monopetalous corolla, as in the Snapdragon FIG. 217. Front view of the papilionaceous corolla of the Locust-tree. 218. The parts of the same, displayed' S&F 6 106 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. [LESSON 15. (Fig. 210), Toad-Flax (Fig. 211), Dead-Nettie (Fig. 209), Catnip, Horsemint, &c. ; and in the Sage, the Catalpa, &c., the calyx also is two-lipped. This is owing to unequal union of the different parts of the same sort, as well as to diversity of shape. In the corolla two of the petals grow together higher than the rest, sometimes to the very top, and form the upper lip, and the three remaining ones join on the other side of the flower to form the lower lip, which therefore is more or less three-lobed, while the upper lip is at most only two- lobed. And if the calyx is also two-lipped, as in the Sage, since the parts of the calyx always alternate with those of the corolla (247), then the upper lip has three lobes or teeth, namely, is com- posed of three sepals united, while the lower has only two ; which is the reverse of the arrangement in the corolla. So that all these flowers are really constructed on the plan of five, and not on that of two, as one would at first be apt to suppose. In Gerardia, &c. (Fig. 194, 195), the number five is evident in the calyx and corolla, but is more or less obscured in the stamens (249). In Catalpa this num- ber is masked in the calyx by irregular union, and in the stamens by abortion. A different kind of irregular flower is seen in 277. The Ligulate or strap- shaped corolla of most com- pound flowers. What was called the compound flower of a Dandelion, Succory (Fig. 221), Thistle, Sunflower, As- ter, Whiteweed, &c., consists of many distinct blossoms, closely crowded together into a head, and surrounded by an involucre (208). People who are not botanists commonly take the whole for one flower, the involucre for a calyx, and corollas of the outer or of all the flowers as petals. And this is a very natural mistake when the flowers around the edge have flat and open or strap-shaped corollas, while the rest are regular and tubular, but small, as in the Whiteweed, Sunflower, &c. Fig. 219 represents such a case in a Coreopsis, with the head, or so-called compound flower, cut through ; and in Fig. 220 we see one of the perfect flowers of the centre or disk, with a reg- ular tubular corolla (a), and with the slender bract (#) from whose FIG. 219. Head of flowers (the so-called " compound flower ") of Coreopsis, divided lengthwise. LESSON 15.] SO-CALLED COMPOUND FLOWERS. 107 axil it grew ; and also one belonging to the margin, or ray, with a strap-shaped corolla (c), borne in the axil of a leaf or bract of the involucre (d). Here the ray-flower consists merely of a strap- shaped corolla, raised on the small rudiment of an ovary ; it is therefore a neutral flower, like those of the ray or margin of the cluster in Hydrangea (229, Fig. 167), only of a different shape. More commonly the flowers with a strap-shaped corolla are pis- tillate, that is, have a pistil only, and produce seed like the others, as in Whiteweed. But in the Dandelion, Succory (Fig. 221, 222), and all of that tribe, these flowers are perfect, that is, bear both stamens and pistils. And moreover all the flowers of the head are strap-shaped and alike. 278. Puzzling as these strap-shaped corollas appear at first view, an attentive inspection will generally reveal the plan upon which they are constructed. We can make out pretty plainly, that each one consists of five petals (the tips of which commonly appear as five teeth at the extremity), united by their contiguous edges, except on FIG. 220. A slice of Fig. 219, more enlarged, with one tubular perfect flower (a) left standing on the receptacle, with its bracelet or chaff (6), one ligulate, neutral ray-flower (e), and part of another: d, section of bracts or leaves of the Involucre. FIG. 222. Head of flowera of Succory, cut through lengthwise and enlarged. 108 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. [LESSON 16. one side, and spread out flat. To prove that this is the case, we have only to compare such a corolla (that of Coreopsis, Fig. 220, c, or one from the Succory, for instance) with that of the Cardinal-flower, or of any other Lobelia, which is equally split down along one side ; and this again with the less irregular corolla of the Woodbine, par- tially split down on one side. LESSON XVI. JESTIVATION, OR THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE CALYX AND CO- ROLLA IN THE BUD. 279. JESTIVATION or Prcefloration relates to the way in which the leaves of the flower, or the lobes of the calyx or corolla, are placed with respect to each other in the bud. This is of some importance in distinguishing different families or tribes of plants, being generally very uniform in each. The estivation is best seen FIG. 221. Compound flowers, i. e. heads of flowers, of Succory. LESSON 16.] THEIR ARRANGEMENT IN THE 3UD. 109 by making a horizontal slice of the flower-bud when just ready to open ; and it may be expressed in diagrams, as in Fig. 223, 224. 280. The pieces of the calyx or the corolla either overlap each other in the bud, or they do not. When they do not, the aestivation is commonly Valvate, as it is called when the pieces meet each other by their abrupt edges without any infolding or overlapping ; as the calyx of the Linden or Basswood (Fig. 223) and the Mallow, and the corolla of the Grape, Virginia Creeper, &c. Or it may be Induplicate, which is valvate with the margins of each piece pro- jecting inwards, or involute (like the leaf in Fig. 152), as in the calyx of Virgin's-Bower and the corolla of the Potato, or else Reduplicate, like the last, but the margins projecting outwards instead of inwards ; these last being mere vari- ations of the valvate form. 281. When the pieces overlap in the bud, it is in one of two ways : either every piece has one edge in and one edge out ; or some pieces are wholly outside and others wholly inside. In the first case the aestivation is Convolute or twisted, as in the corolla of Geranium (most com- monly, Fig. 224), Flax (Fig. 191), and of the Mallow Family. Here one edge of every petal covers the next before it, while its other edge is covered by the next behind it. In the second case it is Imbricated or imbricate, or breaking joints, like shingles on a roof, as in the calyx of Ge- ranium (Fig. 224) and of Flax (Fig. 191), and the corolla of the Linden (Fig. 223). In these cases the parts are five in number ; and the regular way then is (as in the calyx- of the figures above cited) to have two pieces en- tirely external (1 arid 2), one (3) with one edge covered by the first, while the other edge covers that of the adjacent one on the other side, and two (4 and 5) wholly within, their margins at least being covered by the rest. That is, they just represent a circle of five leaves spirally arranged on the five-ranked or f plan (187, 188, and Fig. 143-145), only with the stem shortened so as to bring the parts close together. The spiral arrangement of the parts of FIG. 223. Section across the flower-bud of Linden. FIG. 234. Section across the flower-bud ol Geranium : the sepals numbered in their order- 10 110 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE BUD. ^LESSON 16. the blossom is the same as that of the foliage, an additional evi- dence that the flower is a sort of branch. The petals of the Linden, with only one outside and one inside, as shown in Fig. 223, exhibit a gradation between the imbricated and the convolute modes. When the parts are four in number, generally two opposite ones overlap the other two by both edges. When three in number, then one is outer- most, the next has one edge out and the other covered, and the third is within, being covered by the other two; as in Fig. 190. This is just the three-ranked (^) spiral arrangement of leaves (186, and Fig. 171). 282. In the Mignonette, and some other flowers, the estivation is open ; that is, the calyx and corolla are not closed at all over the other parts of the flower, even in the young bud. 283. When the calyx or the corolla is tubular, the shape of the tube in the bud has sometimes to be considered, as well as the way the lobes are arranged. For example, it may be Plaited or plicate, that is, folded lengthwise ; and the plaits may either be turned outwards, forming projecting ridges, as in the corolla of Campanula ; or turned inwards, as in the corolla of the Gentian, &c. When the plaits are wrapped round all in one direc- tion, so as to cover one another in a convolute manner, the aestivation is said to be Supervohite, as in the corolla of Stramonium (Fig. 225) and the Morning-Glory ; and in the Morning-Glory it is twisted besides. FIG. 225. Upper part of the corolla of a Stramonium (Datura mcteloides), in the bud. Underneath is a cross-section of the same. LESSON 17.] THE STAMENS. Ill LESSON XVII. MORPHOLOGY OF THE STAMENS. 284. THE STAMENS exhibit nearly the same kinds of variation in different species that the calyx and corolla do. They may be dis- tinct (that is, separate from each other, 267) or united. They may be free (269), or else coherent with other parts : this concerns 285. Their Insertion, or place of attachment, which is most com- monly the same as that of the corolla. So, stamens are Hypogynous (269), when they are borne on the receptacle, or axis of the flower, under the pistils, as they naturally should be, and as is shown in Fig. 212. Perigynous, when borne on (that is coherent below with) the calyx ; as in the Cherry, Fig. 213. Epigynous, when borne on the ovary, appar- ently, as in Fig. 216. To these we may add Gynandrous (from two Greek words, answer- ing to " stamens and pistil united"), when the stamens are consolidated with the style, so as to be borne by it, as in the Lady's Slipper (Fig. 226) and all the Orchis Family. Also Epipetalous (meaning on the petals), when they are borne by the corolla; as in Fig. 194, and in most monopetalous blossoms. As to 286. Their Union with each Other, the stamens may be united by their filaments or by their anthers. In the former case they are Monadelphous (from two Greek words, meaning " in one brother- hood "), when united by their filaments into one set, usually into a ring or cup below, or into a tube, as in the Mallow Family, the Passion-flower, and the Lupine (Fig. 228). Diadelphous (in two brotherhoods), when so united in two sets, as in the Pea and almost all papilionaceous flowers (275): here the stamens are nine in one set, and one in the other (Fig. 227). FIG. 226. Style of a Lady's Slipper (Cypripedimn), and stamens united with it : a, a, the anthers of the two good stamens ; st., an abortive stamen, what should be its anther changed into a petal-like body ; stiff. , the etigma. 112 THE STAMENS. [LESSON 17. Triadelphous, in three sets or parcels, as in the common St. Johns- wort ; or Polyadelphous, when in more numerous sets, as in the Loblolly Bay, where they are in five clusters. On the other hand, stamens are said to be Syngenesious, when united by their an- thers (Fig. 229, 230), as they are in Lobelia, in the Violet (slightly), and in what are called compound flowers, such as the Thistle, Sunflower, Coreopsis (Fig. 220), and Suc- cory (Fig. 222). In Lobelia, and in the Squash and Pumpkin, the stamens are united both by their anthers and their filaments. 287. Their Number in the flower is sometimes expressed by terms compounded of the Greek numerals and the word used to signify stamen ; as, monandrous, for a flower having only one stamen ; diandrous, one with two stamens ; triandrous, with three stamens ; te- trandrous, with four stamens ; pentandrous, with five stamens ; and so on, up to polyan- drous (meaning with many stamens), when there are twenty or a larger number, as in a Cactus (Fig. 197). All such terms may be found in the Glossary at the end of the book. 288. Two terms are used to express particular numbers with un. equal length. Namely, the stamens are didynamous when only four in number, two longer than the other two, as in the Mint, Catnip, Gerardia (Fig. 194), Trumpet-Creeper, &c. ; and tetradynamous, when they are six, with four of them regularly longer than the other two, as in Mustard (Fig. 188), and all that family. 289. Their Parts, As already shown (233), a stamen consists of two parts, the Filament and the Anther (Fig. 231). 290. The Filament is a kind of stalk to the anther : it is to the anther nearly what the petiole is to the blade of a leaf. Therefore it is not an essential part. As a leaf may be without a stalk, so the anther may be sessile, or without a filament. When present, FIG. 227. Diadelphous stamens of the Pea, &c. 228. Monadelphous stamens of tho Lupine. FIG. 229. Syngenesious stamens of Coreopsis (Fig. 220, a), &c. 230. Same, with th tube of anthers split down on one side and spread open. LESSON 17.] THEIR STRUCTURE AND PARTS. 113 the filament may be of any shape ; but it is commonly thread-like, as in Fig. 231, 234, &c. 291. The Anther is the essential part of the stamen. It is a sort of case, filled with a fine powder, called Pollen, which serves to fertilize the pistil, so that it may perfect seeds. The anther may be considered, first, as to 292. Its Attachment to the filament. Of this there are three ways ; namely, the anther is Innate (as in Fig. 232), when it is attached by its base to the very apex of the filament, turning neither inwards nor outwards ; or Adnate (as in Fig. 233), when at- tached by one face, usually for its whole length, to the side of the fila- ment ; and Versatile (as in Fig. 234), when fixed by its middle only to the very point of the filament, so as to swing loosely, as we see it in the Lily, in Grasses, &c. 293. In both the last-named cases, 232 233 234 the anther either looks inwards or out- wards. When it is turned inwards, or is fixed to that side of the filament which looks towards the pistil or centre of the flower, the anther is incumbent or introrse, as in Magnolia and the Water-Lily. When turned outwards, or fixed to the outer side of the filament, it is extrorse, as in the Tulip-tree. 294. Its Structure, &c. There are few cases in which the stamen bears any resemblance to a leaf. Nevertheless, the botanist's idea of a stamen is, that it answers to a leaf developed in a peculiar form and for a special purpose. In the filament he sees the stalk of the leaf; in the anther, the blade. The blade of a leaf consists of two similar sides ; so the anther consists of two lobes or cells, one answer- ing to the left, the other to the right, side of the blade. The two lobes are often connected by a prolongation of the filament, which answers to the midrib of a leaf' this is called the connective. It is very con- spicuous in Fig. 252, where the connective is so broad that it separates the two cells of the anther to some distance from each other. FIG. 231. A stamen : a, filament ; b, anther discharging pollen. FIG. 232. Stamen of Isopyrum, with innate anther. 233. Of Tulip-tree, with adnate (arid xtrorse) anther. 234. Of Evening Primrose, with versatile anther. 10* 114 THE STAMENS. [LESSON 17. 295. To discharge the pollen, the anther opens (or is dehiscent) at maturity, commonly by a line along the whole length of each cell, and which answers to the margin of the leaf (as in Fig. 231); but when the anthers are extrorse, this line is often on the outer face, and when introrse, on the inner face of each cell. Sometimes the anther opens only by a chink, hole, or pore at the top, as in the Azalea, Pyrola or False Wintergreen (Fig. 235), &c. ; and sometimes a part of the face separates as a sort of trap-door (or valve), hinged at the top, and opening to allow the escape of the pollen, as in the Sassafras, Spice-bush, and Barberry (Fig. 236). Most anthers are really four-celled when young ; a slender partition running lengthwise through each cell and dividing it into two compartments, one answering to the upper, and the other to the lower, layer of the green pulp of the leaf. Oc- casionally the anther becomes one-celled. This takes place mostly by confluence, that is, the two cells running together into one, as they do slightly in Pentstemon (Fig. 237) and thoroughly in the Mallow Family (Fig. 238). But sometimes it occurs by the obliteration or disappear- ance of one half of the anther, as in the Globe Ama- ranth of the gardens (Fig. 239). 296. The way in which a stamen is supposed to be constructed out of a leaf, or rather on the plan of a leaf, is shown in Fig. 240, an ideal figure, the lower part representing a stamen with the top of its anther cut away ; the upper, the corresponding upper part of a leaf. The use of the anther is to produce 297. Pollen, This is the powder, or fine dust, commonly of a yel- low color, which fills the cells of the anther, and is discharged during blossoming, after which the stamens generally fall off or wither away. FIG. 235. Stamen of Pyrola ; the anther opening by holes at the top. FIG. 23G. Stamen of Barberry ; the anther opening by uplifted valves. FIG. 237. Stamen of Pentstemon pubescens ; anther-cella slightly confluent. FIG. 238. Stamen of Mallow ; the two cells confluent into one, opening round the margin. FIG. 239. Anther of Globe Amaranth, of only one cell ; the other cell wanting. FIG. 240 Diagram of the lower part of an anther, cut across above, and the upper part o( a loaf, to show how the one answers to the other. LESSON 17.] POLLEN. 1J.5 Under the microscope it is found to consist of grains, usually round or oval, and all alike in the same species, but very different in different plants. So that the plant may sometimes be recognized from the pollen alone. 298. A grain of pollen is made up of two coats ; the outer coat thickish, but weak, and frequently adorned with lines or bands, or studded with points ; the inner coat is extremely thin and delicate, but extensible, and its cavity is filled with a thickish fluid, often rendered turbid by an immense number of minute grains that float in it. When wet, the grains absorb the water and swell so much that many kinds soon burst and discharge their contents. 299. Figures 241 - 250 represent some common sorts of pollen, magnified one or two hundred diameters, viz. : A pollen-grain of the Musk Plant, spirally grooved. One of Sicyos, or One-seeded Cucumber, beset with bristly points and marked by smooth bands. One of the Wild Balsam-Apple (Echinocystis), grooved lengthwise. One of Hibiscus or Rose-Mallow, studded with prickly points. One of Succory, many-sided, and dotted with fine points. A grain of the curious compound pollen of Pine. One from the Lily, smooth and oval. One from Enchanter's Nightshade, with three small lobes on the angles. Pollen of Kalmia, composed of four grains united, as in all the Heath family. A grain from an Evening Primrose, with a central body and three large lobes. The figures number from left to right, beginning at the top. 116 THE PISTILS. [LESSON 18. LESSON XVIII. MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS. 300. THE PISTIL, when only one, occupies the centre of the flower ; when there are two pistils, they stand facing each other in the centre of the flower ; when several, they commonly form a ring or circle ; and when very numerous, they are generally crowded in rows or spiral lines on the surface of a more or less enlarged or elongated receptacle. 301. Their number in a blossom is sometimes expressed, in Sys- tematic Botany, by terms compounded of the Greek numerals and the Greek word used to signify pistil, in the following way. A flower with one pistil is said to be monogynous ; with two, digynous ; with three, trigynous ; with four, tetragynous ; with five, pentagynous, and so on ; with many pistils, polygynous, terms which are explained in the Glossary, but which there is no need to commit to memory. 302. The Paris Of a Pistil, as already explained (234), are the Ovary ', the Style, and the Stigma. The ovary is one essential part : it contains the rudiments of seeds, called Ovules. The stigma at the summit is also essential : it receives the pollen, which fertilizes the ovules in order that they may become seeds. But the style, the tapering or slender column commonly borne on the summit of the ovary, and bearing the stigma on its apex or its side, is no more neces- sary to a pistil than the filament is to the stamen. Accordingly, there is no style in many pistils : in these the stigma is sessile, that is, rests directly on the ovary. The stigma is very various in shape and appearance, being sometimes a little knob (as in the Cherry, Fig. 213), sometimes a small point, or small surface of bare, moist tissue (as in Fig. 254-25G), and sometimes a longitudinal crest or line (as in Fig. 252, 258, 267, 269), and also exhibiting many other shapes. 303. The pistil exhibits an almost infinite variety of forms, and many complications. To understand these, it is needful to begin with the simple kinds, and to proceed gradually to the complex. And, first of all, the student should get a clear notion of 304. The Plan or Ideal Structure of the Pistil, or, in other words, of the way in which a simple pistil answers to a leaf. Pistils are either LESSON 18.] SIMPLE PISTILS. 117 simple or compound. A simple pistil answers to a single leaf. A compound pistil answers to two or more leaves combined, just as a monopetalous corolla (263) answers to two or more petals, or leaves of the flower, united into one body. In theory, accordingly, 305. The Simple Pistil, OF Carpel (as it is sometimes called), consists of the blade of a leaf, curved until the margins meet and unite, form- ing in this way a closed case or pod, which is the ovary. So that the upper face of the altered leai" answers to the inner surface of the ovary, and the lower, to its outer surface. And the ovules are borne on what answers to the united edges of the leaf. The tapering sum- mit, rolled together and prolonged, forms the style, when there is any ; and the edges of the altered leaf turned outwards, either at the tip or along the inner side of the style, form the stigma. To make this perfectly clear, compare a leaf folded together in this way (as in Fig. 251) with a pistil of a Garden Paeony, or Larkspur, or with that in Fig. 252 ; or, later in the season, notice how these, as ripe pods, split down along the line formed by the united edges, and open out again into a sort of leaf, as in the Marsh- Marigold (Fig. 253). In the Double- flowering Cherry the pistil occasion ally is found changed back again into a small green leaf, partly folded, much as in Fig. 251. 306. Fig. 172 represents a simple pistil on a larger scale, the ovary cut through to show how the ovules (when numerous) are attached to what answers to the two margins of the leaf. The Stonecrop (Fig. 168) has five such pistils in a circle, each with the side where the ovules are attached turned to the centre of the flower. 307. The line or seam down the inner side, which answers to the united edges of the leaf, and bears the ovules, is called the ventral or inner Suture. A corresponding line down the back of the ovary, and which answers to the middle of the leaf, is named the dorsal or outer Suture. 308. The ventral suture inside, where it projects a little into the FIG. 251. A leaf rolled up inwards, to show how the pistil is supposed to be formed. FIG. 252. Pistil of Isopyrum biteroatum cut across, with the inner suture turned towards the eye. FIG. 253. Pod or rip pistij of the Caltha, or Marsh-Marigold, after opening. 113 THE PISTILS. [LESSON 18. cavity of the ovary, and bears the ovules, is called the Placenta. Obviously a simple pistil can have but one placenta ; but this is in its nature double, one half answering to each margin of the leaf. And if the ovules or seeds are at all numerous, they will be found to occupy two rows, one for each margin, as we see in Fig. 252, 172, in the Marsh-Marigold, in a Pea-pod, and the like. 309. A simple pistil obviously can have but one cavity or cell ; except from some condition out of the natural order of things. But the converse does not hold true : all pistils of a single cell are not simple. Many compound pistils are one-celled. 310. A simple pistil necessarily has but one style. Its stigma, however, may be double, like the placenta, and for the same reason (305) ; and it often exhibits two lines or crests, as in Fig. 252, or it may even be split into two lobes. 311. The Compound Pistil consists of two, three, or any greater number of pistil-leaves, or carpels (305), in a circle, united into one body, at least by their ovaries. The Culti- vated Flax, for exam- ple (Fig. 212), has a compound pistil com- posed of five simple ones with their ovaries united, while the five styles are separate. But in one of our wild species of Flax, the styles are united into one also, for about half their length. So the Common St. John's-wort of the fields has a compound ovary, of three united carpels, but the three styles are separate (Fig. 255), while some of our wild, shrubby species have the styles also combined into one (Fig. 256), although in the fruit they often split into three again. Even the ovaries may only partially combine with each other, as we see in different species of Saxifrage, some having their two pistils nearly separate, while in others they FIG. 254. Pistil of a Saxifrage, of two simple carpels or pistil-leaves, united at the bas only, cut across both above and below. FIG. 255. Compound pistil of common St. John's-wort, cut across: styles separate. FIG. 256. The same of shrubby St. John's-wort ; the throe styles united into one. LESSON 18.] COMPOUND PISTILS. 119 are joined at the base only, or else below the middle (as in Fig. 254), and in some they are* united quite to the top. 312. Even when the styles are all consolidated into one, the stig- mas are often separate, or enough so to show by the number of their lobes how many simple pistils are combined to make the compound one. In the common Lily, for instance, the three lobes of the stigma, as well as the three grooves down the ovary, plainly tell us that the pistil is made of three combined. But in the Day-Lily the three lobes of the stigma are barely discernible by the naked eye, and m the Spiderwort (Fig. 257) they are as perfectly united into one as the ovaries and styles are. Here the number of cells in the ovary alone shows that the pistil is compound. These are all cases of 313. Compound Pistils with two or more Cells, namely, with as many cells as there are simple pistils, or carpels, that have united to compose the organ. They are just what would be formed if the simple pistils (two, three, or five in a circle, as the case may be), like those of a Pteony or Stonecrop, all pressed together in the centre of the flower, were to cohere by their contiguous parts. 314. As each simple ovary has its placenta, or seed- bearing line (308), at the inner angle, so the resulting compound ovary has as many axile placentae, (that is, as many placenta in the axis or centre) as there are pistil-leaves in its composition, but all more or less consolidated into one. This is shown in the cross-sections, Fig. 254-256, &c. 315. The partitions (or Dissepiments, as they are technically named) of a compound ovary are accordingly part of the walls or the sides of the carpels which compose it. Of course they are double, one layer belonging to each carpel ; and in ripe pods they often split into the two layers. 316. We have described only one, though the commonest, kind of compound pistil. There are besides 317. One-Celled Compound Pistils. These are of two sorts, those with axile, and those with parietal placentae. That is, first, where the ovules or seeds are borne in the axis or centre of the ovary, and, secondly, where they are borne on its walls. The first of these cases, or that FIG. 257. Pistil of Spiderwort (Tradescantia) : the throe-celled drarj cut across. 120 THE PISTILS. [LESSON 18. 318. With a Free Central Placenta, is what we find in Purslane (Fig. 214), and in most duckweeds (Fig. 258, 259) and Pinks. The difference between this and the foregoing case is only that the delicate partitions have very early vanished ; and traces of them may often be detected. Or sometimes this is a variation of the mode 319. With Parietal Placenta, namely, with the ovules and seeds borne on the sides or wall (parietes) of the ovary. The pistil of the Prickly Poppy, Bloodroot, Violet, Frost-weed (Fig. 261), Gooseberry, and of many Hypericums, are of this sort. To understand it perfectly, we have only to imagine two, three, or any number of carpel-leaves (like that of Fig. 251), arranged in a circle, to unite by their 259 contiguous edges, and so form one ovary or pod (as we have endeavored to show in Fig. 260) ; very much as in the Stramonium (Fig. 199) the five petals unite by their edges to compose a mono- petalous corolla, and the five sepals to form a tubular calyx. Here each carpel is an open leaf, or partly open, bearing ovules along its margins ; and each placenta consists of the contiguous margins of two pistil-leaves grown together. 320. All degrees occur between this and the sev- eral-celled ovary with the placentae in the axis. Com- pare, for illustration, the common St. John's-worts, Fig. 255 and 256, with Fig. 262, a cross-section of the ovary of a different species, in which the three large placentae meet in the axis, but scarcely unite, and with Fig. 263, a similar section of the ripe pod of the same plant, showing three parietal placentae borne on imperfect partitions projecting a little way into the general cell. Fig. 261 is the same in plan, but with hardly any trace of partitions ; that is, the united edges of the leaves only slightly project into the cell. FIG. 258. Pistil of a Sandwort, with the ovary divided lengthwise ; and 259, the same divided transversely, to show the free central placenta. FIG. 260. Plan of a one^elled ovary of three carpel -leaves, with parietal placentm, cut across below, where it is complete ; the upper part showing the top of the three leaves it ia composed of, approaching, but not united. FIG. 201. Cross-section of the ovary of Frost-weed (Heliauthemuiu), with three parietal placcntou bearing ovule*. LESSON 18.] OPEN PISTILS. 121 321. The ovary, especially when compound, is often covered by and united with the tube of the calyx, as has already been explained (272). We describe this by saying either " ovary adherent," or " calyx adherent," &c. Or we say u ovary inferior" when the tube of the calyx is adherent throughout to the surface of the ovary, so that its lobes, and all the rest of the flower, appear to be borne on its summit, as in Fig. 215 and Fig. 216; or "half- inferior" as in the Purslane (Fig. 214), where the calyx is adherent part way up ; or "superior" where the calyx and the ovary are not combined, as in the Cherry (Fig. 213) and the like, that is, where these parts are free. The term " ovary superior," therefore, means just the same as "calyx inferior"; and " ovary inferior," the same as " calyx superior." 322. Open or Gymnospermous Pistil, This is what we have in the whole Pine family, the most peculiar, and yet the simplest, of all pistils. While the ordinary simple pistil in the eye of the botanist represents a leaf rolled together into a closed pod (305), those of the Pine, Larch (Fig. 264), Cedar, and Arbor- Vitae (Fig. 265, 266) are plainly open leaves, in the form of scales, each bearing two or more ovules on the inner face, next the base. At the time of blossoming, these pistil-leaves of the young \j cone diverge, and the pollen, so abundantly shed from the staminate blossoms, falls di- rectly upon the exposed ovules. Afterwards the scales close over each other until the seeds are ripe. Then they separate again, that the seeds may be shed. As their ovules and seeds are not enclosed in a pod, all such plants are said to be Gymnospermous, that is, naked-seeded. FIG. 262. Cross-section of the ovary of Hypericum graveolens. 263. Similar section of the ripe pod of the same. FIG. 264. A pistil, that is, a scale of the cone, of a Larch, at the time of flowering; inside view, showing its pair of naked ovules. FIG. 265. Branchlet of the American Arbor- Vita, considerably larger than in nature, terminated by its pistillate flowers, each consisting of a single scale (an open pistil), together forming a small cone. FIG. 266. One of the scales or pistils of the last, removed and more enlarged, the inside exposed to view, showing a pair of ovules on its base. 11 122 THE PISTILS. [LESSON 18.' 323. Ovnles (234). These are the bodies which are to become seeds. They are either sessile, that is, stalkless, or else borne on a stalk, called the Funiculus. They may be produced along the whole length of the cell, or only at some part of it, generally either at the top or the bottom. In the former case they are apt to be numerous ; in the latter, they may be few or single (solitary, Fig. 267-269). As to their direction, ovules are said to be ) Horizontal, when they are neither turned upwards nor down- wards, as in Fig. 252, 261 ; Ascending, when rising obliquely upwards, usually from the side of the cell, not from its very base, as in the Buttercup (Fig. 267), and the Purslane (Fig. 214) ; Erect, when rising upright from the base of the cell, as in the Buck- wheat (Fig. 268) ; Pendulous, when hanging from towards the top, as in the Flax (Fig. 212); and Suspended, when hanging perpendicularly from the very sum- mit of the cell, as in the Anemone (Fig. 269), Dogwood, &c. All these terms equally apply to seeds. 324. An ovule consists of a pulpy mass of tissue, the Nucleus or kernel, and usually of one or two coats. In the nucleus the embryo is formed, and the coats become the skin or coverings of the seed. There is a hole ( Orifice or Foramen) through the coats, at the place which answers to the apex of the ovule. The part by which the ovule is attached is its base ; the point of attachment, where the ripe seed breaks away and leaves a scar, is named the Hilum. The place where the coats blend, and cohere with each other and with the nucleus, is named the Chalaza. We will point out these parts in illustrating the four principal kinds of ovule. These are not difficult to understand, although ovules are usually so small that a good mag- nifying-glass is needed for their examination. Moreover, their names, all taken from the Greek, are unfortunately rather formidable. 325. The simplest sort, although the least common, is what is called the Orthotropous, or straight ovule. The Buckwheat affords a good FIG. 267. Section of the ovary of a Buttercup, lengthwise, showing its ascending ovule. FIG. QC8. Section of the ovary of Buckwheat, showing the erect ovule. FIG. 2C9. Section of the ovary of Anemone, showing its suspended ovule. LESSON 18.] OVULES. 123 instance of it : it is shown in its place in the ovary in Fig. 268, also detached in Fig. 270, and a much more magnified diagram of it in Fig. 274. In this kind, the orifice (/) is at the top, the chalaza and the hilum (c) are blended at the base or point of attachment, which is at the opposite end ; and the axis of the ovule is straight. If such an ovule were to grow on one side more than on the other, and double up, or have its top pushed round as it enlarges, it would become a Campylotropous or curved ovule, as in Cress and Chickweed (Fig. 271). Here the base remains as in the straight kind, but its apex with the orifice is brought round close to it. Much the most com- mon form of all is the Anatropous or inverted ovule. This is shown in Fig. 2G7, and 273 ; also a much enlarged section lengthwise, or diagram, in Fig. 275. To understand it, we have only to suppose the first sort (Fig. 270) to be inverted on its stalk, or rather to have its stalk bent round, applied to one side of the ovule lengthwise, and to grow fast to the coat down to near the orifice (y') ; the hilum, therefore, where the seed-stalk is to break away (^), is close to the orifice ; but the chalaza (c) is here at the top of the ovule ; between it and the hilum runs a ridge or cord, called the Rhaphe (?), which is simply that part of the stalk which, as the ovule grew and turned over, adhered to its surface. Lastly, the Amphitropous or half-anatropous ovule (Fig. 272) differs from the last only in having a shorter rhaphe, ending about half-way between the chalaza and the orifice. So the hilum or attachment is not far from the middle of one side, while the chalaza is at one end and the orifice at the other. 326. The internal structure of the ovule is sufficiently displayed in the subjoined diagrams, representing a longitudinal slice of two FIG. 270. Orthotropous ovule of Buckwheat : c, hilum and chalaza ; /, orifice. FIG. 271. Campylotropous ovule of a Chickweed : c, hilum and chalaza ; /, orifice. FIG. 272. Amphitropous ovule of Mallow : /, orifice ; A, hilum ; r, rhaplio ; c, chalaza. FIG. 273. Anatropous ovule of a Violet; the parts lettered as in the last. 124 THE RECEPTACLE. [LESSON 19. ovules ; Fig. 274, an orthotropous, Fig. 275, an anatropous ovule. The letters correspond in the two ; c, the chalaza ; f, the orifice ; r, rhaphe (of which there is of course none in Fig. 274) ; />, the outer coat, called primine ; s, inner coat, called secundine ; n, nu- cleus or kernel. LESSON XIX. MORPHOLOGY OF THE RECEPTACLE. 327. THE RECEPTACLE (also called the Torus) is the axis, or stem, which the leaves and other parts of the blossom are attached to (231). It is commonly small and short (as in Fig. 169) ; but it sometimes occurs in more conspicuous and remarkable forms. 328. Occasionally it is elongated, as in some plants of the Caper family (Fig. 276), making the flower really look like a branch, hav- ing its circles of leaves, stamens, &c., separated by long spaces or internodes. 329. The Wild Geranium or Cranesbill has the receptacle pro- longed above and between the insertion of the pistils, in the form of a slender beak. In the blossom, and until the fruit is ripe, it is concealed by the five pistils united around it, and their flat styles covering its whole surface (Fig. 277). But at maturity, the five small and one-seeded fruits separate, and so do their styles, from the beak, and hang suspended from the summit. They split off elasti- LESSON 19.] THE RECEPTACLE. 125 cally from the receptacle, curving upwards with a sudden jerk, whioh scatters the seed, often throwing it to a considerable distance. 330. When a flower bears a great many pis- tils, its receptacle is gen- erally enlarged so as to give them room ; some- times becoming broad and flat, as in the Flow- ering Raspberry, some- times elongated, as in the Blackberry, the Mag- nolia, &c. It is the re- ceptacle in the Straw- berry (Fig. 279), much enlarged and pulpy when ripe, which forms the eatable part of the fruit, and bears the small seed-like pistils on its surface. In the Rose (Fig. 280), instead of being convex or conical, the receptacle is deeply con- cave, or urn-shaped. Indeed, a Rose-hip may be likened to a strawberry turned inside out, like the finger of a glove reversed, and the whole covered by the adherent tube of the calyx, which remains beneath in the strawberry. 331. A Disk is a part of the re- ceptacle, or a growth from it, en- larged under or around the pistil. It is hypogynous (269), when free from all union either with the pistil or the calyx, as in the Rue and the Orange (Fig. 281). It is perigy- nous (270), when it adheres to the base of the calyx, as in the Bladder-nut and Buckthorn (Fig. 282, FIG. 276. Flower of Gynandropsis , the receptacle enlarged and flattened where it bears the sepals and petals, then elongated into a slender stalk, bearing the stamens (in appearance, but they are monadelphous) above its middle, and a compound ovary on its summit. FIG. 277. Young fruit of the common Wild Cranesbill. FIG. 278. The same, ripe, with the five pistils splitting away from the long beak or recvp* tacle, and hanging from its top by their styles. FIG. 279. Longitudinal section of a young strawberry, enlarged. FIG. 280. Similar section of a young Rose-hip. FIG. 281. Pistil of the Orange, with a large hypogynous disk at its base. 11* 126 THE FRUIT. [LESSON 20. 283). Often it adheres both to the calyx and to the ovary, as in New Jersey Tea, the Apple, &c., consolidating the whole together. In such cases it is sometimes carried up and expanded on the top of the ovary, as in the Parsley and the Ginseng families, when it is said to be epigynous (273). 332. In Nelumbium, a large Water-Lily, abounding in the wa- 288 283 ters of our Western States, the singular and greatly enlarged receptacle is shaped like a top, and bears the small pistils immersed in separate cavities of its flat upper surface (Fig. 284). LESSON XX. THE FRUIT. 333 THE ripened ovary, with its contents, becomes the Fruit. When the tube of the calyx adheres to the ovary, it also becomes a part of the fruit : sometimes it even forms the principal bulk of it, as in the apple and pear. 334. Some fruits, as they are commonly called, are not fruits at all in the strict botanical sense. A strawberry, for example (as we have just seen, 330, Fig. 282), although one of the choicest fruits in the common acceptation, is only an enlarged and pulpy receptacle, bearing the real fruits (that is, the ripened pistils) scattered over its FIG. 282. Flower of a Buckthorn, with a large perigynous disk. 283. The same, divided. FIG. 284 Receptacle of Nelumbium, in fruit. LESSON 20.] ITS KINDS. 127 surface, and too small to be much noticed. And mulberries, figs, and pine-apples are masses of many fruits with a pulpy flower-stalk, &c. Passing these by for the present, let us now consider only 335. Simple Fruits, These are such as are formed by the ripening of a single pistil, whether simple (305) or compound (311). 336. A simple fruit consists, then, of the Seed-vessel (technically called the Pericarp}, or the walls of the ovary matured, and the seeds, contained in it. Its structure is generally the same as that of the ovary, but not always ; because certain changes may take place after flowering. The commonest change is the obliteration in the growing fruit of some parts which existed in the pistil at the time of flowering. The ovary of a Horsechestnut, for instance, has three cells and two ovules in each cell ; but the fruit never has more than three seeds, and rarely more than one or two, and only as many cells. Yet the vestiges of the seeds that have not matured, and of the wanting cells of the pod, may always be detected in the ripe fruit. This oblitera- tion is more complete in the Oak and Chestnut. The ovary of the first likewise has three cells, that of the second six or seven cells, each with two ovules hanging from the summit. We might there- fore expect the acorn and the chestnut to have as many cells, and two seeds in each cell. Whereas, in fact, all the cells and all the ovules but one are uniformly obliterated in the forming fruit, which thus becomes one-celled and one-seeded, and rarely can any vestige be found of the missing parts. 337. On the other hand, a one-celled ovary sometimes becomes several-celled in the fruit by the formation of false partitions, com- monly by cross-partitions, as in the jointed pod of the Sea-Rocket and the Tick-Trefoil (Fig. 304). 338. Their Rinds, In defining the principal kinds of simple fruits which have particular names, we may classify them, in the first place, into, 1. Fleshy Fruits-, 2. Stone Fruits; and 3. Dry Fruits. The first and second are of course indehiscent ; that is, they do not split open when ripe to discharge the seeds. 339. In fleshy fruits the whole pericarp, or wall of the ovary, thickens and becomes soft (fleshy, juicy, or pulpy) as it ripens. Of this the leading kind is 340. The Berry, such as the gooseberry and currant, the blueberry and cranberry, the tomato, and the grape. Here the whole flesh is equally soft throughout. The orange is merely a berry with a leathery rind. 123 THE FRUIT. [LESSON 20. 341. The PepO, or Gourd-fruit, is the sort of berry which belongs to the Gourd family, mostly with a hard rind and the inner portion softer. The pumpkin, squash, cucumber, and melon are the prin- cipal examples. 342. The Pome is a name applied to the apple, pear, and quince ; fleshy fruits like a berry, but the principal thickness is calyx, only the papery pods arranged like a star in the core really belonging to the pistil itself (333). 343. Secondly, as to fruits which are partly fleshy and partly hard, one of the most familiar kinds is 344. The Drupe, or Stone-fruit ; of which the cherry, plum, and peach (Fig. 285) are familiar examples. In this the outer part of the thickness of the pericarp becomes fleshy, or softens, like a berry, while the inner hardens, like a nut. From the way in which the pistil is con- structed (305), it is evident that the fleshy part here answers to the lower, and the stone to the upper, side of the leaf; a leaf always consisting of two layers of green pulp, an upper and an under layer, which are considerably different (439). 345. Whenever the walls of a fruit are separable into two layers, the outer layer is called the Exocarp, the inner, the Endocarp (from Greek words meaning "outside fruit" and " inside fruit"). But in a drupe the outer portion, being fleshy, is likewise called Sarcocarp (which means " fleshy fruit"), and the inner, the Putamen or stone. The stone of a peach, and the like, it will be perceived, belongs to the fruit, not to the seed. When the walls are separable into three layers, the outer layer is named either exocarp or Epicarp ; the middle one is called the Mesocarp (i. e. middle fruit) ; and the inner* most, as before, the Endocarp. 346. Thirdly, in dry fruits the seed-vessel remains herbaceous in texture, or becomes thin and membranaceous, or else it hardens throughout. Some forms remain closed, that is, are indehiscent (338) ; others are dehiscent, that is, split open at maturity in some regular way. Of indehiscent or closed dry fruits the principal kinds are the following. 347. The Aehenilim, or AJcene, is a small, one-seeded, dry, indehis- FIG. 285. Longitudinal section of a peach, showing the flesh, the stone, and the seed. LESSON 20.] ITS KINDS. 129 cent fruit, such, as is popularly taken for a naked seed : but it is plainly a ripened ovary, and shows the re- mains of its style or stigma, or the place from which it has fallen. Of this sort are the fruits of the Buttercup (Fig. 286, 287), the Cinque-foil, and the Strawberry (Fig. 279, 288) ; that is, the real fruits, botanically speaking, of the latter, which are taken for seeds, not the large juicy receptacle on the surface of which they rest (330). Here the akenes are A~^____ : .:-.~- simple pistils (305), very numerous in the same j[ ^p|r flower, and forming a head of such fruits. In the Nettle, Hemp, &c., there is only one pistil to each blossom. 348. In the raspberry and blackberry, each grain is a similar pistil, like that of the strawberry in the flower, but ripening into a miniature stone-fruit, or drupe. So that in the strawberry we eat the receptacle, or end of the flower-stalk ; in the rasp- berry, a cluster of stone-fruits, like cherries on a very small scale ; and in the blackberry, both a juicy receptacle and a cluster of stone-fruits covering it (Fig. 289, 290). 349. The fruit of the Composite family is also an achenium. Here the surface of the ovary is covered by an adherent calyx-tube, as is evident from the position of the corolla, apparently standing on its summit (321, and Fig. 220, a). Sometimes tho limb or divisions of the calyx are entirely wanting, as in Mayweed (Fig. 291) and Whiteweed. Sometimes the limb of the calyx forms a crown or cup on the top of the achenium, as in Succory (Fig. 292); in Coreopsis, it often takes the form of two blunt teeth or scales ; in the Sunflower (Fig. 293), it consists of two FIG. 286. Achenium of Buttercup. 287. Same^put through, to show the seed within. FIG. 288. Slice of a part of a ripe strawberry, enlarged ; some of the achenia shown cut through. FIG. 289. Slice of a part of a blackberry. 299 One of the grains or drupes divided, more enlarged ; showing the flesh, the stone, and the seed, as in Fig. 285. S&F 7 130 THE FRUIT. [LESSON 20. thin scales which fall off at the touch ; in the Sneezeweed, of about five very thin scales, which look more like a calyx (Fig. 294) ; and in the Thistle, Aster, Sow-Thistle (Fig. 295), and hundreds of others, it is cut up into a tuft of fine bristles or hairs. This is called the Pappus ; a name which properly means the down like that of the Thistle ; but it is applied to all these forms, and to every other under which the limb of the calyx of the " compound flowers " appears. In Lettuce, Dandelion (Fig. 296), and the like, the achenium as it matures tapers upwards into a slender beak, like a stalk to the pappus. 350. A Utricle is the same as an achenium, but with a thin and bladdery loose pericarp ; like that of the Goosefoot or Pigweed (Fig. 297). When ripe it bursts open irregularly to discharge the seed ; or sometimes it opens by a circular line all round, the upper part falling off like a lid ; as in the Amaranth (Fig. 298). 351. A Caryopsis, or Grain, differs from the last only in the seed adhering to the thin pericarp throughout, so that fruit and seed are in- corporated into one body; as in wheat, In- dian corn, and other kinds of grain. 352. A Nut is a dry and indehiscent fruit, commonly one-celled and one-seeded, with a hard, crus- taceous, or bony wall, such as the coconnut, hazelnut, chestnut, and the acorn (Fig. 21, 299). Here the 299 involucre, in the form of a cup at the base, is called the Cupule. In the Chestnut it forms the bur ; in the Hazel, a leafy husk. FIG. 291. Achenium of Mayweed (no pappus). 292. That of Succory (its pappus a shal- low cup). 293. Of Sunflower (pappus of two deciduous scales). 294. Of Sneezeweed (Ilele- riiiim), with its pappus of five scales. 295 V Of Sow-Thistle, with its pappus of delicate downy hairs. 300. Of the Dandelion, its pappus raised on a long heak. IG. 297. Utricle of the common Pigweed (Chenopodium album). FIG. 298. Utricle (pyxis) of Amaranth, opening all round (circumcissile). FIG. 299. Nut (acorn) of the Oak, with its cup (or cupule). LESSON 20.] ITS KINDS. 131 353. A Samara, or Key-fruit, is either a nut or an achenium, or any other indehiscent fruit, furnished with a wing, like that of the Maple (Fig. 1), Ash (Fig. 300), and Elm (Fig. 301). 354. The Capsule, or Pod, is the general name for dry seed-vessels which split or burst open at maturity. But several sorts of pod are distin- guished by particular names. Two of them belong to simple pistils, namely, the Follicle and the Legume. 355. The Follicle is a fruit of a simple pistil opening along the inner suture (S07). The pods of the Poeony, Col- umbine, Larkspur, Marsh-Marigold (Fig. 302), and Milkweed are of this kind. The seam along which the follicle opens answers to the edges of the pistil-leaf (Fig. 251, 253). 356. The Legume or true Pod, like the Pea-pod (Fig. 3C2 303), is similar to the follicle, only it opens by the outer as well as the inner or ventral suture (307), that is, by what answers to the midrib as well as by what answers to the united margins of the leaf. It splits therefore into two pieces, which are called valves. The le- gume belongs to plants of the Pulse family, which are accordingly termed Leguminosce, that is, leguminous plants. So the fruits of this family keep the name of legume, whatever their form, and whether they open or not. A legume divided across into one-seeded joints, which separate when ripe, as in Tick-Trefoil (Fig. 304), is named a Loment. 357. The true Capsule is the pod of a compound pistil. Like the ovary it resulted from, it may be one-celled, or it may have as many cells as tjiere are carpels in its composition. It may discharge its seeds through chinks or pores, as in the Poppy, or burst irregularly in some part, as in Lobelia and the Snapdragon ; but commonly it splits open (or is dehiscent) lengthwise into regular pieces, called valves. FIG. 300. Samara or key of the White Ash. 301. Samara of the American Elm. FIG. 302. Follicle of Al:irsh-.Marigold (Caltha palustris). FIG. 303. Legume of a Sweet Pea, opened. FIG. 304. Loracnt or Jointed legumio of Tick-Trefoil (UexmoJiuuiJ. 132 THE FRUIT. [LESSON 20. 358. Dehiscence of a pod resulting from a compound pistil, when regular, takes place in one of two principal ways, which are best shown in pods of two or three cells. Either the pod splits open down the middle of the back of each cell, when the dehiscence is loculicidal^ as in Fig. 305 ; or it splits through the partitions, after which each cell generally opens at its inner angle, when it is septicidal, as in Fig. 306. These names are of Latin derivation, the first meaning " cutting into the cells " ; the second, " cut- ting through the partitions." Of the first sort, the Lily and Iris (Fig. 305) are good examples ; of the second, the Rhododen- dron, Azalea, and St. John's-wort. From the structure of the pistil (305-311) the student will readily see, that the line down the back of each cell answers to the dorsal suture of the carpel ; so that the pod opens by this when loculicidal, while it separates into its component carpels, which open as follicles, when septicidal. Some pods open both ways, and so split into twice as many valves as the carpels of which they are formed. 359. In loculicidal dehiscence the valves naturally bear the par- titions on their middle ; in the septicidal, half the thickness of a partition is borne on the margin of each valve. See the diagrams, Fig. 307-309. A variation of either mode sometimes occurs, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 309, where the valves break away from the partitions. This is called septifragal dehiscence ; and may be seen in the Morning-Glory. 360. Three remaining sorts of pods are distinguished by proper names, viz. : FIG. 305. Capsule of Iris (vrith loculicidal dehiscence), below cut across. FIG. 306. Pod of a Marsh St. John's-wort, with septicidal dehiscence. FIG. 307. Diagram of septicidal ; 308, of loculicidal ; and 309, of septifragal dehiscence. LESSON 20.] MULTIPLE FRUITS. 133 361. The Silique (Fig. 310), the peculiar pod of the Mustard fam- ily ; which is two-celled by a false partition stretched across between two parietal placentae. It generally opens by two valves from below upwards, and the placentae with the partition are left behind when the valves fall off. 362. A Silide OF Pouch is only a short and broad silique, like that of the Shepherd's Purse, of the Candy-tuft, &c. 363. The Pyxis is a pod which opens by a circular hori- zontal line, the upper part forming a lid, as in Purslane (Fig. 311), the Plantain, Hen- bane, &c. In these the dehiscence extends all round, or is circumcissile. So it does in Fig. 298, which represents a sort of one- seeded pyxis. In Jeffersonia or Twin-leaf, the line does not separate quite round, but leaves a portion to form a hinge to the lid. 364. Multiple OF Collective Fruits (334) are, properly speaking, masses of fruits, resulting from several or many blossoms, aggre- gated into one body. The pine-apple, mulberry, Osage-orange, and the fig, are fruits of this kind. This latter is a peculiar form, how- ever, being to a mulberry nearly what a Rose-hip is to a strawberry (Fig. 279, 280), namely, with a hollow receptacle bearing the flowers concealed inside ; and the whole eatable part is this pulpy common receptacle, or hollow thickened flower-stalk. 365. A Strobile, or Cone (Fig. 314), is the pe- culiar multiple fruit of Pines, Cypresses, and the like ; hence named Coniferce, viz. cone- bearing plants. As already shown (322), these cones are made of open pistils, mostly in the form of flat scales, regularly overlying each other, and pressed together in a spike or head. Each scale bears one or two naked seeds on its inner face. When the cone is ripe and dry, the scales turn back or diverge, and the seed peels off and falls, generally carrying with it a wing, which was a part of the lining of the scale, and which facilitates the dispersion of the seeds by the wind (Fig. 312, 313). In Arbor- Vitae, the scales FIG. 310. Silique of Spring Cress (Cardamine rhomboidea), opening. FIG. 311. The pyxis, or pod, of the common Purslane FIG. 312. Inside view of a scale from the cone of Pitch-Pine ; with one of the seeda (Fig. 313) detached ; the other in its place on the scale. 12 134 THE SEED. [LESSON 21. of the small cone are few, and not very unlike the leaves (Fig. 2G5). In Cypress they are very thick at the top and narrow at the base, so as to make a peculiar sort of closed cone. In Juniper and Red Ce- dar, the few scales of the very small cone become fleshy, and ripen into a fruit which might be taken for a berry. LESSON XXI. THE SEED. 366. THE ovules (323), when they have an embryo (or unde- veloped plantlet, 16) formed in them, become seeds. 367. The Seed, like the ovule from which it originates, consists of its coats, or integuments, and a kernel. 368. The Seed-COatS are commonly two (324), the outer and the inner. Fig. 315 shows the two, in a seed cut through lengthwise. The outer coat is often hard or crustaceous, whence it is called the Testa, or shell of the seed ; the inner is thin and delicate. 369. The shape and the markings, so various in dif- ferent seeds, depend mostly on the outer coat. Sometimes it fits FIG. 314. Cone of Pitch-Pine (Pinus rigida). FIG. 315. Seed of Basswood cut through lengthwise : a, the hilum or ecar j b, the outer ceat ; c, the inner.; and in growth the plant moves 35 170 PLANT-LIFE. [LESSON 27. the particles of matter, arranges them, and shapes the fabric in a manner which we cannot at all explain by any mechanical laws. The organs are not shaped by any external forces ; they shape themselves, and take such forms and positions as the nature of each part, or the kind of plant, requires. 490. Special Movements, Besides growing, and quite independent of it, plants not only assume particular positions, but move or bend one part upon another to do so. Almost every species does this, as well as what are called sensitive plants. In springing from the seed, the radicle or stem of the embryo, if not in the proper position already, bends itself round so as to direct its root-end downwards, and the stern-end or plumule upwards. It does the same when covered so deeply by the soil that no light can affect it, or when growing in a perfectly dark cellar. But after reaching the light, the stem bends towards that, as every one knows ; and bends towards the stronger light, when the two sides are unequally ex- posed to the sun. It is now known that the shoot is bent by the shortening of the cells on the more illuminated side ; for if we split the bending shoot in two, that side curves over still more, while the opposite side inclines to fly back. But how the light causes the cells to shorten on that side, we can no more explain, than we can tell how the will, acting through the nerves, causes the contraction of the fibres of the muscles by which a man bends his arm. We are sure that the bending of the shoot has nothing to do with growth, because it takes place after a shoot is grown ; and the del- icate stem of a young seedling will bend a thousand times faster than it grows. Also because it is yellow light that most favors growth and the formation of vegetable fabric, while the blue and violet rays produce the bending. Leaves also move, even more freely than steins. They constantly present their upper face to the light ; and when turned upside down, they twist on their stalks, or curve round to recover their original position. The free ends of twining stems, as of Hop, or Morning Glory, or Bean, which appar- ently hang over to one side from their weight, are in fact bent over, and, the direction of the bend constantly changing, the shoot is steadily sweeping round the circle, making a revolution every few hours, or even more rapidly in certain ca j es, until it reaches a neighboring support, when, by a continuation of the same move- ment, it twines around it. Most tendrils revolve in the same way, sometimes even more rapidly; while others only turn from the LESSON 27.] MOVEMENTS. 171 light ; this is especially the case with those that cling to walls or trunks by sucker-like disks, as Virginia Creeper, p. 38, fig. 62. When an active tendril comes into contact with a stem or any such extraneous body, it incurves at the point of contact, and so lays hold of the support : the same contraction or tendency to curve affecting the whole length of the tendril, it soon shortens into a coil, part coil- ing one way, part the other, thus drawing the shoot up to the sup- porting body ; or, if the tendril be free, it winds up in a simple coil. This movement of tendrils is so prompt in the Star-Cucumber (Sic- yos) in Echinocystis, and in two sorts of Passion-flower, that the end, after a gentle rubbing, coils up by a movement rapid enough to be readily seen. In plants that climb by their leaf-stalks, such as Maurandia and Tropseolum, the movements are similar, but much too slow to be seen. 491. The so-called sleep of plants is a change of position as night draws on, and in different ways, according to the species, the Locust and Wood-Sorrel turning down their leaflets, the Honey Locust raising them upright, the Sensitive Plant turning them for- wards one over another ; and the next morning they resume their diurnal position. One fact, among others, showing that the changes are not caused by the light, but by some power in the plant itself, is this. The leaves of the Sensitive Plant close long before sunset ; but they expand again before sunrise, under much less light than they had when they closed. In several plants the leaves take the nocturnal position when brushed or jarred, in the common Sensi- tive Plant very suddenly, in other sorts less quickly, in the Honey Locust a little too slowly for us to see the motion. The way in which blossoms open and close, some when the light increases, some when it diminishes, illustrates the same thing. The stamens of the Barberry, when touched at the base on the inner side, as by an insect seeking for honey, or by the point of a pin, make a sudden jerk forward, and in the process commonly throw some pollea upon the stigma, which stands a little above their reach. 492. In many of these cases we plainly perceive that a useful end is subserved. But what shall we say of the Venus's Fly-trap of North Carolina, growing where it might be sure of all the food a plant can need, yet provided with an apparatus for catching insects, and actually capturing them expertly by a sudden motion, in the manner already described (126, Fig. 81)? Or of the leaflets of the 172 CRYPTOCAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. [LESSON 27. Desmodium gyrans of the East Indies, spontaneously falling and rising by turns in jerking motions nearly the whole day long ? We can only say, that plants are alive, no less than animals, and that it is a characteristic of living things to move. * # * CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 493. IN all the foregoing Lessons, we have had what may be called plants of the higher classes alone in view. There are others, composing the lower grades of vegetation, to which some allusion ought to be made. 494. Of this sort are Ferns or Brakes, Mosses, Liverworts, Lichens, Sea-weeds, and Fungi or Mushrooms. They are all classed together under the name of Flowerless Plants, or Crypto- gamous Plants; the former epithet referring to the fact that they do not bear real blossoms (with stamens and pistils) nor seeds (with an embryo ready-formed within). Instead of seeds they have spores, which are usually simple cells (392). The name Cryptogamous means, of hidden fructification, and intimates that they may have something answering to stamens and pistils, although not the same ; and this is now known to be the ca^e with most of them. 495. Flowerless plants are so very various, and so peculiar in each family, that a volume would be required to illustrate them. Curious and attractive as they are, they are too difficult to be studied botanically by the beginner, except the Ferns, Club-Mosses, and Horse-tails. For the study of these we refer the student at once to the Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, and to the Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. The structure and physiology of these plants, as well as of the Mosses, Liverworts, Lichens, Sea- weeds, and Fungi, are explained in the Structural Botany, or Botanical Text-Book, and in other similar works. When the student has become prepared for the study, nothing can be more interesting than these plants of the lowest orders. LESSON 28.] SPECIES AND KINDS. 173 LESSON XXVIII. SPECIES AND KINDS. 496. UNTIL now, we have been considering plants as to their structure and their mode of life. We have, as it were, been read- ing the biography of an individual plant, following it from the tiny seedling up to the mature and fruit-bearing herb or tree, and learning how it grows and what it does. The botanist also considers plants as to their relationships. 497. Plants and animals, as is well known, have two great pecu- liarities : 1st, they form themselves ; and 2d, they multiply them- selves. They reproduce themselves in a continued succession of 498. Individuals (3). Mineral things occur as masses, which are divisible into smaller and still smaller ones without alteration of their properties (391). But organic things (vegetables and ani- mals) exist as individual beings. Each owes its existence to a parent, and produces similar individuals in its turn. So each indi- vidual is a link of a chain ; and to this chain the natural-historian applies the name of 499. Species. All the descendants from the same stock therefore compose one species. And it was from our observing that the sev- eral sorts of plants or animals steadily reproduce themselves, or, in other words, keep up a succession of similar individuals, that the idea of species originated. So we are led to conclude that the Cre- ator established a definite number of species at the beginning, which have continued by propagation, each after its kind. 500. There are few species, however, in which man has actually observed the succession for many generations. It could seldom be proved that all the White Pine trees or White Oaks of any forest came from the same stock. But observation having familiarized us with the general fact, that individuals proceeding from the same stock are essentially alike, we infer from their close resemblance that these similar individuals belong to the same species. That is, we infer it when the individuals are as much like each other as those are which we know to have sprung from the same stock. 501. We do not infer it from every resemblance ; for there is the resemblance of kind, as between the White Oak and the Red Oak, 15* 1"4 SPECIES AND KINDS. [LESSON 28. and between the latter and the Scarlet Oak : these, we take for granted, have not originated from one and the same stock, but from three separate stocks. Nor do we deny it on account of every difference ; for even the sheep of the same flock, and the plants raised from peas of the same pod, may show differences, and such differences occasionally get to be very striking. When they are pretty well marked, we call them Varieties. The White Oak, for example, presents two or three varieties in the shape of the leaves, although they may be all alike upon each particular tree. The question often arises, practically, and it is often hard to answer, whether the difference in a particular case is that of a variety, or is specific. If the former, we may commonly prove it to be so by finding such intermediate degrees of difference in various individuals as to show that no clear line of distinction can be drawn between them ; or else by observing the variety to vary back again, if not in the same individual, yet in its offspring. Our sorts of Apples, Pears, Potatoes, and the like, show us that differences which are permanent in the individual, and con- tinue unchanged through a long series of generations when propa- gated by division (as by offsets, cuttings, grafts, bulbs, tubers, &c.), are not likely to be reproduced by seed. Still they sometimes are so : and such varieties are called Races. These are strongly marked varieties, capable of being propagated by seed. Our different sorts of Wheat, Indian Corn, Peas, Radishes, &c., are familiar examples : and the races of men offer an analogous instance. 502. It should be noted, that all varieties have a tendency to be reproduced by seed, just as all the peculiarities of the parent tend to be reproduced in the offspring. And by selecting those plants which have developed or inherited any desirable peculiarity, keeping them from mingling with their less promising brethren, and selecting again the most promising plants raised from their seeds, we may in a few generations render almost -any variety transmissible by seed, so long as we take good care of it. In fact, this is the way the cultivated or domesticated races, so useful to man, have been fixed and preserved. Races, in fact, can hardly, if at all, be said to exist independently of man. But man does not really produce them. Such peculiarities often surprising enough now and then originate, we know not how (the plant sports, as the gardeners say) ; they are only pre- served, propagated, and generally further developed, by the culti- LESSON 28.] CLASSIFICATION. 175 vator's skilful care. If left alone, they are likely to dwindle and perish, or else revert to the original form of the species. 503. Botanists variously estimate the number of known species of plants at from seventy to one hundred thousand. About 3,850 species of the higher classes grow wild in the United States east of the Mississippi. So that the vegetable kingdom exhibits a very great diversity. Between our largest and highest-organized trees, such as a Magnolia or an Oak, and the simplest of plants, reduced to a single cell or sphere, much too minute to be visible to the naked eye, how wide the difference ! Yet the extremes are con- nected by intermediate grades of every sort, so as to leave no wide gap at any place ; and not only so, but every grade, from the most complex to the most simple, is exhibited under a wide and most beautiful diversity of forms, all based upon the one plan of vegeta- tion which we have been studying, and so connected and so an- swering to each other throughout as to convince the thoughtful botanist that all are parts of one system, works of one hand, realiza- tions in nature of the conception of One Mind. We perceive this, also, by the way in which the species are grouped into 504. Kinds. If the species, when arranged according to their re- semblances, were found to differ from one another about equally, that is, if No. 1 differed from No. 2 just as much as No. 2 did from No. 3, and No. 4 from No. 5, and so on throughout, then, with all the diversity in the vegetable kingdom there is now, there would yet be no foundation in nature for grouping species into kinds. Species and kinds would mean just the same thing. We should classify them, no doubt, for convenience, but our classification would be arbitrary. The fact is, however, that species resemble each other in very un- equal degrees. Some species are almost exactly alike in their whole structure, and differ only in the shape or proportion of their parts ; these, we say, belong to one Genus. Some, again, show a more gen- eral resemblance, and are found to have their flowers and seeds con- structed on the same particular plan, but with important differences in the details; these belong to the same Order or Family. Then, taking a wider survey, we perceive that they all group themselves under a few general types (or patterns), distinguishable at once by their flowers, by their seeds or embryos, by the character of the seedling plant, by the structure of their stems and leaves, and by their general appearance : these great groups we call Classes. Finally, we distinguish the whole into two great types or grades; 176 SPECIES AND KINDS. |_LESSON 28. the higher grade of Flowering plants, exhibiting the full plan of vegetation, and the lower grade of Flowerless plants, in which vegetation is so simplified that at length the only likeness between them and our common trees or Flowering plants is that they are both vegetables. From species, then, we rise first to 505. Genera (plural of Genus). The Rose kind or genus, the Oak genus, the Chestnut genus, &c., are familiar illustrations. Each genus is a group of nearly related species, exhibiting a particular plan. All the Oaks belong to one genus, the Chestnuts to another, the Beech to a third. The Apple, Pear, and Crab are species of one genus, the Quince represents another, the various species of Haw- thorn a third. In the animal kingdom the common cat, the wild cat, the panther, the tiger, the leopard, and the lion are species of the cat kind or genus ; while the dog, the jackal, the different species of wolf, and the foxes, compose another genus. Some genera are represented by a vast number of species, others by few, very many by only one known species. For the genus may be as perfectly represented in one species as in several, although, if this were the case throughout, genera and species would of course be identical (504). The Beech genus and the Chestnut genus would be just as distinct from the Oak genus even if but one Beech and one Chestnut were known ; as in- deed was the case formerly. 506. Orders OF Families (the two names are used for the same thing in botany) are groups of genera that resemble each other ; that is, they are to genera what genera are to species. As familiar illustra- tions, the Oak, Chestnut, and Beech genera, along with the Hazel genus and the Hornbeams, all belong to one order, viz. the Oak Fam- ily ; the Birches and the Alders make another family ; the Poplars and Willows, another; the Walnuts (with the Butternut) and the Hickories, another. The Apple genus, the Quince and the Haw- thorns, along with the Plums and Cherries and the Peach, the Raspberry, with the Blackberry, the Strawberry, the Rose, and many other genera, belong to a large order, the Rose Family. 507. Tribes and Suborders, This leads us to remark, that even the genera of the same order may show very unequal degrees of resem- blance. Some may be very closely related to one another, and at the same time differ strikingly from the rest in certain important partic- ulars. In the Rose Family, for example, there is the Rose genus itself, with the Raspberry genus, the Strawberry, the Cinquefoil, &e. near it, but by no means so much like it as they are like each LESSON 28.] ORDERS, CLASSES, ETC. 177 other : this group, therefore, answers to what is called a Tribe ; and the Rose itself stands for another tribe. But we further observe that the Apple genus, the Hawthorns, the Quince, and the June- berry, though of the same order, and nearly related among them- selves, differ yet more widely from the Rose and its nearest relations; and so, on the other hand, do the Plum and Cherry, the Peach and the Almond. So this great Rose Family, or Order, is composed of three groups, of a more marked character than tribes, groups which might naturally be taken for orders ; and we call them Sub- orders. But students will understand these matters best after a few lessons in studying plants in a work describing the kinds. 508. Classes, These are great assemblages of orders, as already explained (51 5). The orders of Flowering Plants are numerous, no less than 134 being represented in the Botany of the Northern United States ; but they all group themselves under two great classes. One class comprises all that have seeds with a mono- cotyledonous embryo (32), endogenous stems (423), and generally parallel-veined leaves (139) ; the other, those with dicotyledonous embryo, exogenous stems, and netted-veined leaves ; and the whole aspect of the two is so different that they are known at a glance. 509. Finally, these two classes together compose the upper Series or grade of Flowering or Phcenogamous Plants, which have their counterpart in the lower Series of Flowerless or Cryptogamous Plants, composed of three classes, and about a dozen orders. 510. The universal members of classification are CLASS, ORDER, GENUS, SPECIES, always standing in this order. When there are more, they take their places as in the following schedule, which comprises all that are generally used in a natural classification, proceeding from the highest to the lowest, viz. : Series, CLASS, ~^>t Subclass, ORDER, or FAMILY, ^v^ v*^-^ Suborder, Tribe, Subtribe, GENUS, Subgenus or Section, SPECIES, Variety, ^j : S&F-9 178 BOTANICAL NAMES. [LESSON 29. LESSON XXIX. BOTANICAL NAMES AND CHARACTERS. 511. PLANTS are classified, i. e. are marshalled under their re- spective classes, orders, tribes, genera, and species, and they are 'characterized, that is, their principal characteristics or distinguish- ing marks are described or enumerated, in order that, First, their resemblances or differences, of various degrees, may be clearly exhibited, and all the species and kinds ranked next to those they are most related to ; and Secondly, that students may readily ascertain the botanical names of the plants they meet with, and learn their peculiarities, properties, and place in the system. 512. It is in the latter that the young student is chiefly interested. And by his studies in this regard he is gradually led up to a higher point of view, from which he may take an intelligent survey of the whole general system of plants. But the best way for the student to learn the classification of plants (or Botany as a system), is to use it, in finding out by it the name and the peculiarities of all the wild plants he meets with. 513. Names. The botanical name of a plant, that by whicli a botanist designates it, is the name of its genus followed by that of the species. The name of the genus or kind is like the family name or surname of a person, as Smith, or Jones. That of the species answers to the baptismal name, as John, or James. Accordingly, the White Oak is called botanically Quercus alba ; the first word, or Quercus, being the name of the Oak genus ; the second, alba, that of this particular species. And the Red Oak is named Quercus rubra ; the Black -Jack Oak, Quercus nigra ; and so on. The bo- tanical names are all in Latin (or are Latinized), this being the common language of science everywhere ; and according to the usage of that language, and of most others, the name of the species comes after that of the genus, while in English it comes before it. 514. Generic Names, A plant, then, is named by two words. The generic name, or that of the genus, is one word, and a substantive. Commonly it is the old classical name, when the genus was known to the Greeks and Romans ; as Quercus for the Oak, Fagus for the LESSON 29.] BOTANICAL NAMES. 179 Beech, Coryhis, the Hazel, and the like. But as more genera be- came known, botanists had new names to make or borrow. Many are named from some appearance or property of the flowers, leaves, or other parts of the plant. To take a few examples from the early pages of the Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, in which the derivation of the generic names is explained. The genus Hepatica, p. 6, comes from the shape of the leaf resembling that of the liver. Myosurus, p. 10, means mouse-tail. Delphin- ium, p. 12, is from delphin, a dolphin, and alludes to the shape of the flower, which was thought to resemble the classical figures of the dolphin. Zanthorhiza, p. 13, is from two Greek words meaning yellow-root, the common name of the plant. Cimicifuga, p. 14, is formed of two Latin words, meaning, to drive away bugs, the same as its common name of Bugbane, the Siberian species being used to keep away such vermin. Sanguinaria, p. 26, is named from the blood-like color of its juice. 515. Other genera are dedicated to distinguished botanists or pro- moters of natural science, and bear their names : such are Magnolia, p. 15, which commemorates the early French botanist, Magnol, and Jejfersonia, p. 20, named after President Jefferson, who sent the first exploring expedition over the Rocky -Mountains. Others bear the name of the discoverer of the plant in question ; as, Sarracenia, p. 23, dedicated to Dr. Sarrazin of Quebec, who was one of the first to send our common Pitcher-plant to the botanists of Europe ; and Claytonia, p. 65, first made known by the early Virginian botanist Clayton. 516. Specific Names, The name of the species is also a single word, appended to that of the genus. It is commonly an adjective, and therefore agrees with the generic name in case, gender, &c. Sometimes it relates to the country the species inhabits ; as, Clay- tonia Virginica, first made known from Virginia ; Sanguinaria Canadensis, from Canada, &c. More commonly it denotes some obvious or characteristic trait of the species; as, for example, in Sarracenia, our northern species is named purpurea, from the pur- ple blossoms, while a more southern one is named flava, because its petals are yellow ; the species of Jeffersonia is called diphylla, meaning two-leaved, because its leaf is divided into two leaflets. Some species are named after the discoverer, or in compliment to a botanist who has made them known ; as, Magnolia Fraseri, named after the botanist Fraser, one of the first to find this species ; Ra- 180 BOTANICAL NAMES AND CHARACTERS. [LESSON 29. worthia Michauxii, p. Go, named for the early botanist Michaux ; and Polygala Nuttallii, in compliment to Mr. Nuttall, who described it under another name. Such names of persons are of course writ- ten with a capital initial letter. Occasionally some old substantive name is used for the species ; as Magnolia Umbrella, p. 49, and Ra- nunculus Flammula, p. 41. These are also written with a capital initial, and need not accord with the generic name in gender, &c. 517. The name of a variety, when it is distinct enough to require any, is made on the same plan as that of the species, and is written after it; as, Ranunculus Flammula, variety reptans, p. 41 (5. e. the creeping variety), and R. abortivus, variety micranthus, p. 42, or the small-flowered variety of this species. 518. Names Of Groups, The names of tribes, orders, and the like, are in the plural number, and are commonly formed by prolonging the name of a genus of the group taken as a representative of it. For example, the order of which the Buttercup or Crowfoot genus, Ranunculus, is the representative, takes from it the name of Ranun- culacece (Manual, p. 34) ; meaning Plantce Ranunculacece when written out in full, that is, Ranunculaceous Plants. This order comprises several tribes ; one of which, to which Ranunculus itself belongs, takes the name of Ranunculea ; another, to which the genus Clematis, or the Virgin's-Bower, belongs, takes accordingly the name of Clematidece ; and so on. So the term Rosacece (mean- ing Rosaceous plants) is the name of the order of which the Rose (Rosa) is the well-known representative ; and Rosea is the name of the particular tribe of it which comprises the Rose. 519. A few orders are named on a somewhat different plan. The great order Leguminosa, for instance (Manual, p. 123), is not named after any genus in it ; but the fruit, which is a legume (356), gives the name of Leguminous Plants. So, likewise, the order Umbelliferte (Manual, p. 187) means Umbelliferous or Umbel-bearing Plants; and the vast order Composite (Manual, p. 215) is so named because it consists of plants whose blossoms are crowded into heads of the sort which were called "compound flowers" by the old botanists (277). 520. Characters. The brief description, or enumeration in scien- tific terms, of the principal distinctive marks of a species, genus, order, or other group, as given in botanical works, is called its Character. Thus, in the Manual, already referred to, at the begin- LESSON 30.] HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 181 ning, the character of the first great series is given ; then that of the first class, of the first subclass, and of the first division under it. Then, after the name of the order, follows its character (the ordinal character) : under the name of each genus (as, 1. Clematis, p. 35) is added the generic character, or description of what essentially distinguishes it ; and finally, following the name of each specie?, is the specific character, a succinct enumeration of the points in which it mainly differs from other species of the same genus. See, for illustration, Clematis Viorna, p. 36, where the sentence immediately following the name is intended to characterize that species from all others like it. 521. Under this genus, and generally where we have several spe- cies of a genus, the species are arranged under sections, and these often under subsections, for the student's convenience in analysis, the character or description of a section applying to all the species under it, and therefore not having to be repeated under each species. Under Clematis, also, are two sections with names, or sub-genera, which indicates that they might almost be regarded as two distinct genera. But these details are best understood by practice, in the actual studying of plants to ascertain their name and place. And to this the student is now ready to proceed. LESSON XXX. HOTV TO STUDY PLANTS. 522. HAVING explained, in the two preceding Lessons, the gen- eral principles of Classification, and of Botanical Names, we may now show, by a few examples, how the student is to proceed in applying them, and how the name and the place in the system of an unknown plant are to be ascertained. 523. We suppose the student to be provided with a hand magni- fying-ylass, and, if possible, with a simple microscope, i. e. with a magnify ing-glass, of two or more different powers, mounted on a support, over a stage, holding a glass plate, on which small flowers or their parts may be laid, while they are dissected under the mi- croscope with the points of needles (mounted in handles), or divided 16 182 HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. [LESSON 30. by a sharp knife. Such a microscope is not necessary, except for very small flowers; but it is a great convenience at all times, and is indispensable in studying the more difficult orders of plants. o24. We suppose the student now to have a work in which the plants of the country or district are scientifically arranged and described : if in the Southern Atlantic States, Dr. Chapman's Flora of the Southern Stales ; if north of Carolina and Tennessee, Gray's Manual of the Botany of the United States, fifth edition ; or, as cov- ering the whole ground as to common plants, and including also all the common cultivated plants, Gray's Field, Forest, and Garden Botany, which is particularly arranged as the companion of the present work ; that containing brief botanical descriptions of the plants, and this the explanation of their general structure, and of the technical terms employed in describing them. To express clearly the distinctions which botanists observe, and which furnish the best marks to know a plant by, requires a good many technical terms, or words used with a precise meaning. These, as they are met with, the student should look out in the Glossary at the end of this volume. The terms in common use are not so numerous as they would at first appear to be. With practice they will soon be- come so familiar as to give very little trouble. And the application of botanical descriptive language to the plants themselves, indicating all their varieties of form and structure, is an excellent discipline for the mind, equal, if not in some respects superior, to that of learn- ing a classical language. 525. The following illustrations and explanations of the way to use the descriptive work are, first, for The Field, Forest, and Garden Bot- any, that being the one which will be generally used by beginners and classes. This and the Lessons, bound together in a single compact volume, will serve the whole purpose of all but advanced students, teachers, and working botanists. Thus equipped, we proceed to 526. The Analysis of a Plant, A Buttercup will serve as well as any. Some species or other may be found in blossom throughout nearly the whole spring and summer ; and, except at the very beginning of the season, the fruit, more or less developed, may be gathered with the blossom. To a full knowledge of a plant the fruit is essential, although the name may almost always be ascer- tained without it. This common yellow flower being under exam- ination, we are to refer the plant to its proper class and order or LESSON 30.] HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 183 family. The families are so numerous, and so generally distinguish- able only by a combination of a considerable number of marks that the student must find his way to them by means of a contrivance called an Analytical Key. This Key begins on p. 12. 527. It takes note of the most comprehensive possible division of plants, namely those "producing true flowers and seeds," and those "not producing flowers, propagated by spores." To the first of these, the great series of PH^ENOGAMOUS or FLOWERING PLANTS, the plant under examination obviously belongs. 528. This series divides into those " with wood in a circle, or in concentric annual circles or layers around a central pith, netted-veined leaves, and parts of the flower mostly in fives or fours," to which might be added the dicotyledonous embryo, but that in the present case is beyond the young student's powers, even if the fruit were at hand; and into those " with wood in separate threads scattered through the diameter of the stem, not in a circle," also the u leaves mostly parallel-veined, and parts of the flower almost always in threes, never in fives." Although the hollowness of the stem of the present plant may obscure its internal structure, a practised hand, by throwing the light through a thin cross section of the stem under the glass, would make it evident that its woody bundles were all in a circle near the circumference, yet this could hardly be expected of an unassisted and inexperienced beginner. But the two other and very obvious marks, the netted-veined leaves, and the number five in both cnlyx and corolla, certify at once that the plant belongs to the first claf Ferns. Spadix: a fleshy spike of flowers ; p. 80, fig. 162. Spnthaceous : resembling or furnished with a Spathe: a bract which inwraps an inflorescence; p. 80, fig. 162. Spdtulate, or Spathulate: shaped like a spatula; p. 58, fig. 92. Special Movements, p. 170. Species, p. 173. Specific Character, p. 181. Specific Names, p. 179. Spicate : belonging to or disposed in a spike. Spiciform : in shape resembling a spike. Spike: an inflorescence like a raceme, only the flowers are sessile ; p. 80, fig. 160. Spikclet : a small or a secondary spike ; the inflorescence of Grasses. Spine: a thorn ; p. 39. Spindle-shaped- tapering to each end, like a radish ; p. 31, fig. 59. Spinescent : tipped by or degenerating into a thorn. Spinose, or Spinifcrous: thorny. Spiral arrangement of leaves, p. 72. Spiral vessels or ducts, p. 148. Sporangia, or Spdrocarps : spore-cases of Ferns, Mosses, &c. Spore : a body resulting from the fructification of Cryptogamous plants, in them taking the place of a seed. Spdrule: same as a spore, or a small spore. Spur: any projecting appendage of the flower, looking like a spur, as that of Larkspur, fig. 183. Stfoantate, Srjuamose, or Squamaceous : furnished with scales (squamw}. Squame'llate or Squdmulose: furnished with little scales (squamellce or squamulce). Squdmiform: shaped like a scale. Squarrose: where scales, leaves, or any appendages, are spreading widely from the axis on which they are thickly set. Squdrnilose : diminutive of sqnairose ; slightly squarrose. Stalk; the stem, petiole, peduncle, &c., as the case may be. Stamen, p. 86, 111. Staminate : furnished with stamens ; p. 89. Stamineal : relating to the stamens. Staminddiiun : an abortive stamen, or other body resembling a sterile stamen. Standard: the upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla; p. 105, fig. 217, 218, s, Starch: a well-known vegetable product; p. 163. 232 GLOSSARY. Station : the particular place, or kind of situation, in which a plant naturally occurs. Stellate, Stellular: starry or star-like; where several similar parts spread out from a common centre, like a star. Stem, p. 36, &c. Stemless : destitute or apparently destitute of stem. Sterile: ban-en or imperfect; p. 89. St{gma: the part of the pistil which receives the pollen; p. 87. Sligmdtic, or Stiymatose : belonging to the stigma. Stipe (Latin stipes) the stalk of a pistil, &c., when it has any ; the stem of a Mushroom. Stipel: a stipule of a leaflet, as of the Bean, c. Stipellate: furnished with stipcls, as the Bean and some other Leguminous plants. i Stipitate: furnished witli a stipe, as the pistil of Cleomc, fig. 276. Stipulate : furnished with stipules. Stipules: the appendages one each side of the base of certain leaves ; p. 69. Stolons: trailing or reclined and rooting shoots ; p. 37. Stoloiiiferous : producing stolons. Stomate (Latin stoma, plural stomata) : the breathing-pores of leaves, &c. ; p. l. r >6. Strap-shaped: long, flat, and narrow; p. 106. Striate, or Striated: marked with slender longitudinal grooves or channels (Latin sir ice). Strict : close and narrow ; straight and narrow. Str/yiHose, Striyose : beset with stout and apprcssed, scale-like or rigid bristles. Strobildceous : relating to, or resembling a Strdbile : a multiple fruit in the form of a cone or head, as that of the Hop and of the Pine; fig. 314, p. 133. Strdphiole : same as caruncle. Strophiolate : furnished with a strophiolc. Struma : a wen ; a swelling or protuberance of any organ. Style: a part of the pistil which bears the stigma ; p. 86. Stylopodium : an epigynous disk, or an enlargement at the base of the style, found in Umbelliferous and some other plants. Sub-, as a prefix : about, nearly, somewhat ; as subcordatc, slightly cordate : sub- serrate, slightly serrate : subaxillary, just beneath the a.xil, &c., &c. Suberose: corky or cork-like in texture. Subclass, p. 177, 183. Suborder, p. 176. Subtribe, p. 177. Subulate: awl-shaped; tapering from a broadish or thickish base to a sharp point ; p. 68. Succulent : juicy or pulpy. Suckers: shoots from subterranean branches; p. 37. Suffrut¢ : slightly shrubby or woody at the base only ; p. 36. Sugar, p. 163. Sulcate : grooved longitudinally with deep furrows. Supernumerary Buds: p. 26. Supc'rvolute : plaited and convolute in bud ; p. 110, fig. 225. Supra-axillary : borne above the axil, ns some buds ; p. 26, fig. 52. Siipra-decomjjound : many times compounded or divided. GLOSSARY. 233 Surcufase : producing suckers, or shoots resembling them. Suspended: hanging down. Suspended ovules or seeds hang from the very summit of the cell which contains them ; p. 122, fig. 269. Sutural: belonging or relating to a suture. Suture: the line of junction of contiguous parts grown together; p. 117. Stvord-shaped : vertical leaves with acute parallel edges, tapering above to a point; as those of Iris, fig. 133. Symmetrical Flower: similar in the number of parts of each set; p. 89. Syndntheroiis, or Syngenesious: where stamens are united by their anthers ; p. 1 1 2, fig. 229. Syncdrpous (fruit or pistil) : composed of several carpels consolidated into one. System, p. 195. Systematic Botany: the study of plants after their kinds; p. 3. Taper-pointed: same as acuminate; p. 60, fig. 103. Tap-root : a root with a stout tapering body ; p. 32. Tawny: dull yellowish, with a tinge of brown. Taxdnomy : the part of Botany which treats of classification. Teijmm : a name for the inner seed-coat. Tendril: a thread-shaped body used for climbing, p. 38: it is either a branch, as in Virginia Creeper, fig. 62 ; or a part of a leaf, as in Pea and Vetch, fig. 127. Terete : long and round ; same as cylindrical, only it may taper. Terminal : borne at, or belonging to, the extremity or summit. Terminology : the part of the science which treats of technical terms ; same as glossology. Te'rnate: in threes; p. 66. Ternately : in a tcrnate way. Testa: the outer (and usually the harder) coat or shell of the seed; p. 134. Tetra- (in words of Greek composition) : four; as, Tetracdccous : of four cocci or carpels. Tetradynamous : where a flower has six stamens, two of them shorter than the other four, as in Mustard, p. 92, 112, fig. 188. Tetragonal : four-angled. Tetrdgynons : with four pistils or styles; p. 116. Tetrdmerous : with its parts or sets in fours. Tetrdndrous: with four stamens; p. 112. Theca : a case ; the cells or lobes of the anther. Thorn : see spine ; p. 39. Thread-shaped: slender and round, or roundish like a thread ; as the filament of stamens generally. Throat : the opening or gorge of a monopetalous corolla, &c., where the border and the tube join, and a little below. Thyrse or Thyrsus: a compact and pyramidal panicle; p. 81. Tomentose : clothed with matted woolly hairs (tomentum). Tongue-shaped: long, flat, but thickish, and blunt. Toothed: furnished with teeth or short projections of any sort on the margin ; used especially when these are sharp, like saw-teeth, and do not point for- wards ; p. 61, fig. 113. Top-shaped: shaped like a top, or a cone with its apex downwards. 20* 234 GLOSSARY. Tdrose, Tdrulose : knobby ; where a cylindrical body is swollen at intervals. Torus: the receptacle of the flower; p. 86, 124. Tree, p. 21. Tri-, in composition : three ; as Triadelphous : stamens united by their filaments into three bundles; p. 112. Tridndrous : where the flower has three stamens ; p. 112. Tribe, p. 176. Trichdtomous : three-forked. Tricdccous : of three cocci or roundish carpels. Tricolor; having three colors. Tricdstate: having three ribs. Tricuspidate : three-pointed. Tride'ntate: three-toothed. Triennial : lasting for three years. Trifdrious : in three vertical rows ; looking three ways. Trtfid: three-cleft; p. 62. Trifoliate : three-leaved. Trifdliolate : of three leaflets ; p. 66. Trifurcate: three-forked. Trigonous: three-angled, or triangular. Tritjynous: with three pistils or styles ; p. 116. Trijugate: in three pairs (jugi)- Tri/dbed, or Trilobate : three-lobcd ; p. 62. Trildcular: three-celled, as the pistils or pods in fig. 225-227. Trimerous: with its parts in threes, as Trillium, fig. 189. Trinervate : three-nerved, or with three slender ribs. Tricecious : where there are three sorts of flowers on the same or different indi- viduals ; as in Red Maple. Tripartite : separable into three pieces. Tripartite : three-parted ; p. 62. Tripe'talous : having three petals ; as in fig. 189. Triphylhus : three-leaved ; composed of three pieces. Tripmnate: thrice pinnate; p. 66. Tripinndtifid : thrice pinnately cleft; p. 64. Triple-ribbed, Triple-nerved, &c. : where a midrib branches into three near tho base of the leaf, as in Sunflower. Triquetrous : sharply three-angled ; and especially with the sides concave, like a bayonet. Triseriul, or Triseriate : in three rows, under each other. Tristicltous : in thi-ee longitudinal or perpendicular ranks. Tristiymdtic, or Tristigmatose : having three stigmas. Trisulcate ; three-grooved. Trite'rnate: three times ternate ; p. 67. Trivial Name : the specific name. Trochlear : pulley-shaped. Trumpet-shaped: tubular, enlarged at or towards the summit, as the corolla of Trumpet-Creeper. Truncate : as if cut off at the top ; p. 60, fig. 106. Tube, p. 102. Trunk : the main stem or general body of a stem or tree. Tuber: a thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, provided with eyes (buds) on the sides ; as a potato, p. 43, fig. 68. Tubercle : a small excrescence. Tubercled, or Tuberculate : bearing excrescences or pimples. Tuberous : resembling a tuber. Tuberiferous : bearing tubers. Tubular: hollow and of an elongated form ; hollowed like a pipe. GLOSSARY. 235 Tumid: swollen ; somewhat inflated. Tunicate ; coated ; invested with layers, as an onion ; p. 4G. Turbinate: top-shaped. Turgid: thick as if swollen. Turio (plural tuhmes) : young shoots or suckers springing out of the ground; as Asparagus-shoots. Turnip-shaped: broader than high, narrowed below; p. 32, fig. 57. Ticin : in pairs (see geminate], as the flowers of Linnsea Twining : ascending by coiling round a support, like the Hop ; p. 37. Typical : well expressing the characteristics of a species, genus, c, Umbel: the umbrella-like form of inflorescence ; p. 79, fig. 159. Umbellate : in. umbels. Umbelliferous : bearing umbels. Umbellet : a secondary or partial umbel ; p. 81. Umbilicate : depressed in the centre, like the ends of an apple. Umbonate: bossed ; furnished with a low, rounded projection like a boss (umbo}' Uinbrdculiform ; umbrella-shaped, like a Mushroom, or the top of the style of Sarracenia. Unarmed : destitute of spines, prickles, and the like. Uncinate : hook-shaped ; hooked over at the end. Under-shrub : partially shrubby, or a very low shrub. Undulate : wavy, or wavy -margined ; p. 62. Unequally pinnate : pinnate with an odd number of leaflets; p. 65. Unguiculate: furnished with a claw (unguis] ; p. 102, i. e. a narrow base, as the petals of a Rose, where the claw is very short, and those of Pinks (fig. 200), where the claw is very long. Uni-, in compound words : one ; as Unifltirons : one-flowered. Unifo'liate : one-leaved. Unifoliolate : of one leaflet; p. 66. Unijugate: of one pair. Unildbiate: one-lipped. Unilateral : one-sided. Unilocular: one-celled, as the pistil in fig. 261, and the anther in fig. 238, 239. Uniovulate: having only one ovule, as in fig. 213, and fig. 267-269. Unise"rial : in one horizontal row. Unisexual : having stamens or pistils only, as in Moonseed, fig. 176, 177, &c. Univalved: a pod of only one piece after dehiscence, as fig. 253. Urceolate : urn-shaped. Utricle : a small, thin-walled, one-seeded fruit, as of Goosefoot ; p. 130, fig. 350. Utricular : like a small bladder. Vdginate: sheathed, surrounded by a sheath (vagina}. Valve : one of the pieces (or doors) into which a dehiscent pod, or any similar body, splits; p. 131, 114. Valcate, Valvular : opening by valves. Valvate in aestivation, p. 109. Variety, p. 174, 177. Vascular: containing vessels, or consisting of vessels, such as ducts ; p. 146, 148. Vaulted: arched; same SLS fornicate. Vegetable Physiology, p. 3. Veil : the calyptra of Mosses. (Manual, p. 607 ) Veins : the small ribs or branches of the framework of leaves, &c. ; p. 55. 236 GLOSSARY. Veined, Veiny : furnished with evident veins. Veinless: destitute of veins. Veinlets : the smaller ramifications of veins. Velate: furnished with a veil. Velutinous : velvety to the touch. Venation : the veining of leaves, &c. ; p. 55. Venose : veiny ; furnished with conspicuous veins. Ventral: belonging to that side of a simple pistil, or other organ, which looks towards the axis or centre of the flower ; the opposite of dorsal ; as the Ventral Suture, p. 117. Ve'ntricose : inflated or swelled out on one side. Ve'mdose : furnished with veinlets. Vermicular : shaped like worms. Vernation : the arrangement of the leaves in the bud ; p. 75. Ve'rnicose : the surface appearing as if varnished. Verrucose : warty ; beset with little projections like warts. Versatile: attached by one point, so that it may swing to and fro, as the anthers of the Lily and Evening Primrose ; p. 113, fig. 234. Vertex : same as the apex. Vertical : upright ; perpendicular to the horizon, lengthwise. Verticil: a whorl ; p 71. Verticillate : whorled; p. 71, 75, fig. 148. Vesicle : a little bladder. Embryonal Vesicle, p. 139. Vesicular: bladdery. Vessels : ducts, &c. ; p. 146, 148. Ve'xillary, Vexillar: relating to the Vextllwm: the standard of a papilionaceous flower; p. 105, fig. 218, *. Villose: shaggy with long and soft hairs (villosity .) Vimineous: producing slender twigs, such as those used for wicker-work. Vine: any trailing or climbing stem ; as a Grape-vine. Vire'scent, Viridescent: greenish; turning green. Virgate : wand-shaped, as a long, straight, and slender twig. Viscous, Viscid: having a glutinous surface. Vitta (plural vittce) : the oil-tubes of the fruit of Umbelliferse. Vdluble: twining, as the stem of Hops and Beans ; p. 37. Wavy : the surface or margin alternately convex and concave ; p. 62. Waxy : resembling beeswax in texture or appearance. Wedge-shaped: broad above, and tapering by straight lines to a narrow base, p. 58, fig. 94. Wheel-shaped: see rotate; p. 102, fig. 204, 205. Whorl, Whorled: when leaves, &c. are arranged in a circle round the stem, p. 71, 75, fig. 148. Wing: any membranous expansion. Wings of papilionaceous flowers, p. 105. Winged: furnished with a wing; as the fruit of Ash and Elm, fig. 300, 301. Wood, p. 145. Woody: of the texture or consisting of wood. Woody Fibre, or Wood-Cells, p. 146. Woolly: clothed with long and entangled soft hairs ; as the leaves of Mullein. THE END. FIELD, FOREST, AND GARDEN BOTANY Jfultr, 4f0r*st, mxfr BOTANY, * A SIMPLE INTRODUCTION TO THE COMMON PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI, BOTH WILD AND CULTIVATED. BY ASA GEAY, FISHER PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. NEW YOEK: IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, .& COMPANY, 138 & 140 GRAND STREET. CHICAGO: 133 & 135 STATE STREET. 1872. Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1868, by ASA GRAY, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts, PREFACE. THIS book is intended to furnish botanical classes and generally with an easier introduction to the plants of this country than is the Manual, and one which includes the common cultivated as well as the native species. It is made more concise and simple, 1. by the use of somewhat less technical language ; 2. by the omis- sion, as far as possible, of the more recondite and, for the present purpose, less essential characteTs ; and also of most of the obscure, insignificant, or rare plants which students will not be apt to meet with or to examine, or which are quite too difficult for beginners ; such as the Sedges, most Grasses, and the crowd of Golden Rods, Asters, Sunflowers, and the like, which require very critical study. On the other hand, this small volume is more comprehensive than the Manual, since it comprises the common herbs, shrubs, and trees of the Southern as well as the Northern and Middle States, and all which are commonly cultivated or planted, for ornament or use, in fields, gardens, pleasure-grounds, or in house-culture, including even the conservatory plants ordinarily met with. It is very desirable that students should be able to use exotic as well as indigenous plants in analysis ; and a scientific acquaintance with the plants and flowers most common around us in garden, field, and green-house, and which so largely contribute to our we'll-being and enjoyment, would seem to be no less important than in the case of our native plants. If it is worth while so largely to assemble around us ornamental and useful trees, plants, and flowers, it is cer- tainly well to know what they are and what they are like. To stu- dents in agricultural schools and colleges this kind of knowledge will be especially important. One of the main objects of this book is to provide cultivators, gardeners, and amateurs, and all who are fond of plants and flowers, with a simple guide to a knowledge of their botanical names and 10 PREFACE. structure. There is, I believe, no sufficient work of this kind in the English language, adapted to our needs, and available even to our botanists and botanical teachers, for whom the only recourse is to a botanical library beyond the reach and means of most of these, and certainly quite beyond the reach of those whose needs I have here endeavored to supply, so far as I could, in this small volume. The great difficulties of the undertaking have been to keep the book within the proper compass, by a rigid exclusion of all extraneous and unnecessary matter, and to determine what plants, both native and exotic, are common enough to demand a place in it, or so uncommon that they may be omitted. It is very unlikely that I can have chosen wisely in all cases and for all parts of the country, and in view of the different requirements of botanical students on the one hand and of practical cultivators on the other, the latter commonly caring more for made varieties, races, and crosses, than for species, which are the main objects of botanical study. But I have here brought together, within less than 350 pages, brief and plain botanical descriptions or notices of 2,650 species, belonging to 947 genera ; and have constructed keys to the natural families, and analyses of their contents, which I hope may enable students, who have well studied the First Lessons, to find out the name, main char- acters, and place of any of them which they will patiently examine in blossom and, when practicable, in fruit also. If the book an- swers its purpose reasonably well, its shortcomings as regards culti- vated plants may be made up hereafter. As to the native plants omitted, they are to be found, and may best be studied, in the Man- ual of the Botany of the Northern United States, and in Chapman's Flora of the Southern United States. This book is designed to be the companion of the First Lessons in Botany, which serves as grammar and dictionary; and the two may be bound together into one compact volume, forming a comprehen- sive School Botany. For the account of the Ferns and the allied families of Cryptoga- mous Plants I have to record my indebtedness to Professor D. C. Eaton of Yale College. These beautiful plants are now much cul- tivated by amateurs ; and the means here so fully provided for studying them will doubtless be appreciated. HARVARD UNIVERSITY HERBARIUM, Cambridge, Massachusetts, August 29, 1868. PREFACE. 11 the sheets for the present impression, many small errors of the press, most of them relating to accentuation, have now been cor- rected. January, 1870. SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS. THE SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS employed in this work are few. The signs are : for an annual plant. (D " a biennial plant. 11 il a perennial plant. The signs for degrees, minutes, and seconds are used for feet, inches, and lines, the latter twelve to the inch. Thus 1 means a foot in length or height, &c. ; 2', two inches ; 3", three lines, or a quarter of an inch. The latter sign is seldom used in this work. The dash between two figures, as "5-10," means from five to ten, &c. " Fl." stands for flowers or flowering. " Cult." " for cultivated. " Nat." " for naturalized. N., E., S., W." for North, East, South, and West. The geographical abbreviations, such as " Eu." for Europe, and the common abbreviations for the names of the States, need no particular explanation. 12 CC Ed O CC H Hi ,P O ^J H eo o ro s i- P4 cf ^ I w S 3 W p^ ^ w si PH J * O M g g I ^ a ^ W S < W co 2 M CO COTYLEDONOUS PLANTS, p. 13 COTYLEDOXOUS PLANTS, p. 13 hH 1 ( O O 1 "S Ci c g 1; O 3 ^ Jr 7; D 1 VJ .. 1 o c LJ 1 1: o 9Q fe r^ *j: o ^3 - 5 f^ H3 "PH X rt 1 w g 1 S p C O 7 i i ^i "~x ^ o ci J| r. O S s CO rs B c? O 2 s, ^' |~7p S VI c ' O 1 r 5 1 9 S 5 .0 'o i T"K r5 H 1 ~ d O g o ^ ^ r o EA Ti. T~ w 'o ^ 1 H 'a s ^' -5 ^:- A . ts 1 | i s X' o Lj o i , ^ 5; | > w O A "-^ rf) O a *r ^ o ^^ g 7; '~ ~ "o '^ 1 o . ^0 3 "S - o 1 1 1 1 .s g C -^ en 1 J i 1 5' P ANALYTICAL KEY. 13 . CO r-< T) ^i | x 1 5 S 1 i P H PH QQ GO 5 C 03 P O GO P O CO O i C0 3 <5 h3 < H i-5 2 h3 s s s h- 5 w y W t* O3 P-! Pu PH jj 5 t-3 PH UBCLAS ^< r4 2 MONO <1 |-H i i 1 cc HH ^ S P i i GO Tft X . . . 8 t 1 s ^-^ "2 s' H t g o "S c .2 8 03 G . g c c ^ . i , o o o q S I "5 s "co . PS O E 'S o cc P O H O b 1- holly separate S-i o g H, o 1 "^ 1 i o 5 5 O o 13 * 'S P ^ 4j M .S j- 2 1 ~> aa \ 1 o 45 s O i M o 7: ^ r^' o ~ CO en _2 O ^ ^ 2 | u-! ^r h S 8 8 1 g ^ ^ o o o n s .rt ^ ? 1 1 M 'p 4 r p s" 1 2 _^ ^ 8 'ft tH 1 3 5 Lt O ? i2 r g ^ J 'ft '^ r ^" r ^ E: 5 | CO H i-q PH 03 O P H ^ H H C S O CO P O ^ H O O ft ft ft Jzf ^T ^T o-oo I-H I I HH J O3 CO t-H (H HH > > > ~" hH I-H ft Pi ft CO CO CQ & & P gii o c o 2 8 ^ on a long receptacle. . . . MAGNOLIA F. 42 t> Nelumbium, WATER-LILY F. 46 lollow fleshy receptacle, ;e CALYCANTHUS F. 130 npound. ..'.... Rose, ROSE F. 115 1 Q\ r- ^H 3 r^ !>. t> 00 00 i^ i^ 00 cl ^. o GO C 3 POLYGALA F. VITCH-HAZEL F. ft} ^ p^ fsj psj P^ P=J w a w s H s w > H PM O & p W K 5s . . 5yo c .2 fi z . . 1 4J -~L a . 's c? 1 . o z ^ * * i * * ^, * ^3 s a c IP . 3 fl r 1 JO, 2 o S S g ^ ^ cj 'S r o 4 S S S i-, ^ S /-, >> . J B " PH . 5 r> ^s ^ s .5 to "S to O ^ |HI ?! .' 6iif li g to to * < ' 9 J3 .S S^o^^ es ^ S i r/j i co CC W W CO -n i ^ HH m B s 1 1 O T3 "3 T3 T3 ^3 S Q w v w ^ i ^ S ^5 { C^ C^ < 02 ^ S ANALYTICAL KEY. 20 ANALYTICAL KEY. ^ ^H t-0(N c^ .-.-.(M 1 <^^S fe W )-3 W HP o a s-i . oil -S I . - * - ANALYTICAL KEY. 21 O ** ""I 55 0* ** p- CO J5 ^ pc< fctn >-} W-^Q OK^KO '"3 g gWQ g*3 ^ |H |*1 gg ^{4 W fr * s PH > < o < o M5 B S3S ) ^ OJ 'T CO gs,!I|I ^5 ^ S * * SL a? pq O a o o tn Q 8 * ' -..ft. . g | S H? ^ ^ - '-'.I- 1 -.2 fl '^^ |^ * W . S s co a-^^ . ^ CO X cf ' S '3 ^ 'Eb - <1 .2* . * p 8 '5 . ^ ' . w ^ >> ^3 * ^ ji *s I "I * H o ^ . . W 1: - '* ' o ' tv a? fe si a . * - 1 i 1 f i jfil g .-a 1 I iri :i:i|- 2 ? H-( . *s - -1 Is ' JJ ' a| ' 1 - -a!" CO ^ 1 I ^ c> ^^ * co ^ * 11..'.^ 11 'III !i\'i* !ri* S ^ -3 s .2 .S | | ^ 8||f* J a Sis | HUl! ? lifts sK-IIl Er-asis* CTALOUS DIV A Flowers n P-IIJ- ^2 S = 8 . ! S 6|H1 "^ 'S j2 ^ M "g 1 g .S 0-3 f 5 * 1 a 'g -* ^8 ss-rill Uf-si 8 it fill t*f fiilitjijil! 1 Ij S|| iss iJ8 i ^ i ^-S-^^^lx'S 1 1 111 its 1 1 1 1 ; | - 1 fcc^'lsxs!^ ^ s -1> S f S J > * # 1 S l^fiiiilfll 1 ^> 8 S |' o -^ -2 o ^* Q ** c o HH iiii.fi'^'g'i ^^s^wCTiN'g .S o ^ ^ 6 -o ' " o +s <*- ' r ^ns i; ^ O 'C c p3 *3 ? st!"w3 ^^^r rS >03H->^wg glg^^^cgg HT^^OOO -~ S 2 E 2 p3O(UCOo'S"c3 s^-S s^ 1 Js *g JP J3 g >>> .tJOO^tSStt! J 5 ^ -* ^ s ,_r HB^ S. -H v -3 -a T "s S'Sl^ls^ S S 02 Tl ! v I ? ?} T S O 2 O O ' * J 1 1 J > J - ^Jc PH ^ H H H . ANALYTICAL KEY. 25 ANALYTICAL KEY. co m s = i- 0) C-1 s i o s o QO CM -t co (M ** o o Co-* o> ci > i S 1 I 4^ g - - 1 a^ g i sin -i- s perfect, in a spike, i alternate, pinnate < DS palmately compo 1 q=l 1- 1 X base of its tube har t of nut-like fruit : i :e : seed solitary. .2 | -5 >H 5 Z O 1 ' 1 3 JD M o i f 'Zj - I ~ * 1 g | ^ . 'PH . -S ^ f g ^ r; ^ S - >, > il 5fr;X^I>, P ^S^=s.- 1 g s i ? S i i . 5 s i ? 5 s i * 1 . 1 * 5 : seeds erect, iging- 11 I ' -u ^ ^ 8? ** ^^ s 1 1 1 " fWmli o 3 ^ ** >r 4 : calyx as well as corolla none : fli 4, enclosed by the persistent calyx : 1< i _tc V? h O JE r >, to >. '?J J= 01 ^ 1 of 5 ^ i c X 1 I CJ s v^ S 1 | -i J 1H ^ jjj 1 X "S ,a f 0> ^= S 1 | i 2 S x covering to the thin akene, making j x greenish, sometimes colored or corol "~- 'S n - ej O rt |E 3 c; ">, x Styles or stigmas 2 or 3, or 2 -3-cleft : Flowers crowded with dry and sea 1 | | "*^ ' Leaves chiefly alternate, oftei Leaves opposite, entire. s none, except as an adherent covering , with one or two ovules in each cell. , with 3 - 4-celled nut-like little fruits i rarely trees, with monoecious flowers, r hanging from the summit of the cell out hollow stems, perfect flowers, and s, with 2-celled ovary, and winged fru n-s, joined at their base and winged fro le key, winged from the apex or almos .e key, thin-winged all round : leaves i s with wingless 2 - 4-celled fruit, no m sometimes dioecious flowers: stamens >wers : stamens about 24, white : seed; o 1 eo *- r2 pS2 "-C **3 .22 22 ^ .1 "S o .js > li O _>;. >- 3 flif Mi-. 171 ^1}iS;l*J--' 73j%-|55o| <" & S S S Perfect or Perfect flc ^ n in CO S CO op I I 1 1 1 1 1 ^ S ] fc 1 I H 1 ORCHIS F. '* ! K i W ! C5 ei i i i | 1 25 CO ' I' ^ | O . . ij ; CO ^5 W *o 1 | 1 O 3 s- o CO 1 o i p 1 I* eg B| % U . w a C 1 2 ^ O fa 1 cC I K o y CO CO - 1 |H r \ m .- c to h O - ^ "^ t HH ^* 9 03 o o ; ^^ ,2 3 '5 ^ p 1 O E 1 i c 1 CO 1 i 1 eS distinct o S 5 'S 1 qH p ^^ I > O S 1 *s t-i Q h f * o CO jiJ c? -N - o o o ^^ H y_P s c ^* L-J C o o 5" c^ 00 g r 1 1 iC c; 1 o 1 i 1 s HH tore than one, mostly numerou tostly netted-veined between th ly one as to the ovary, ianth adherent to the ovary, or | C j$ Flowers dioecious or polygam Flowers perfect. Anthers only one or two, i 5 | ^ | af 5 1 5 ft S ANALYTICAL KEY. 29 30 ANALYTICAL KEY. OS (N CO w * * s ^H - ^ s I? 5J eg T^ & p o w >ming a jwer mos 1 -s 5 p< . fcC ^ 1 1 o o tC . H - - ! f g 1 C5. it c <=> 'p* 3 3 I ene or grain, the axil. . the spikelet, ti 1 * C ^ C *H .2 * '~ ,2 HH a~ 22 C ^ .: * ^ ANALYTICAL KEY. 31 - vate-lanceolate leaves, and banana-shaped fruit 3' - 4' long. A. parvifl6ra is a small-flowered, and A. grandiflbra a large-flowered species of S. E. States, both small-fruited, and A. pygmssa is a dwarf one with nearly evergreen leaves far South. 4. MENISPERMACE^I, MOONSEED FAMILY. "Woody or partly woody twiners, with small dioecious flowers; their sepals and petals much alike, and one before the other (usu- ally 6 petals before as many sepals) ; as many or 2 o times as many stamens ; and 2-6 pistils, ripening into 1 -seeded little stone- fruits or drupes ; the stone curved, commonly into a wrinkled or ridged ring ; the embryo curved with the^atonc. Leaves palmate or peltate : no stipules. Anthers commoulyuA-lobed. 1. COCCULUS. Sepals, petals, and stamens each G. 2. MENISPERMUM. Sepals and petals G or 8. Stamens in sterile flowers 12 - 20. 1. COCCULUS. (Name means a little berry.) Only one species in IT. S. C. Carolinus, CAROLINA C. Somewhat uo\vny Heaves ovate or heart- shaped, -entire or sinuate-lobed ; flowers greenish, in summer ; fruits red, as large as peas. From Virginia S. & W. , 2. MENISPBRMUM, MOONSKED. (Xamo from the shape of the stone of the fruit.) Only one species, M. Canadense, CANADIAN: MOONSKKD. Almost smnntn : leaves peltate near the edge; flowers white, in late summer; fruits bLi<-k ; ln<.kin:r like small grapes. 5. BERBERIDACE^, BARBERRY FAMILY. Known generally by the perfect flowers, having a petal before each sepal, and a stamen before each petal, with anther opening by a pair of valves like trapdoors, hinged at the top (l>>sons, p. 114, fig. 236), and a single simple pistil. But No. C has nu- merous stamens, 5 and G have more petals than sepals, and the anthers of 2 and 6 open lengthwise, in the ordinary way. Tlajre are commonly bracts or outer sepals behind the true ones. All blos- som in spring, or the true Barberries in early summer. * Shrubs or shrubby : stamens 6 : berry few-seedtd. 1. BERBERIS. Flowers yellow, in racemes : petals with two deep-coloured spots at the base. Leaves simple, or simply pinnate. Wood and inner bark yellow. Leaves with sharp bristly or spiny teeth. 2. NANDINA. Flowers white, in pamcles : anthers opening lengthwise. Leave* twice or thrice pinnate. * # Perennial herbs. M- With one to three twice or thrice ternately compound leaves. 8. EPIMEDIUM. Stamens 4. Petals 4 hollow spurs or hoods. Pod seve^H seeded. Leaflets with bristly teeth. BARBERRY FAMILY. 45 4. CAULOPHYLLUM. Stamens 6. Petals 6 broad and thickish bodies much shorter than the sepals. Ovary bursting or disappearing early, leaving the two ovules to develop into naked berry -like, or rather drupe-like, spherical seeds on thick stalks. - -*- With simply 2 - Q-jjarted leavts, and solitary while flowers : sepals falling when the blossom opens. Seeds numerous, parietal. Pistils rarely inure than one ! 5. JEFFERSONlA. Flower on a scape, rather preceding the 2-parted root-leaves. Petals (oblong) and stamens mostly 8. Fruit an ovate pod, opening by a cross-line hall-way round, the top forming a conical lid. Seeds with an aril on one side. 6. PODOPHYLLUM. Flower in the fork between the two peltate 5 - 9-parted leaves : root-leaf single and peltate in the middle, umbrella-like. Petals G - 9, large and broad. Stamens usually 12-18. Fruit an oval, large and sweet, eatable berry ; the seeds imbedded in the pulp of the large parietal placenta. 1. BERBEEIS, BARBERRY. (Old Arabic name.) The two sorts or sections have sometimes been regarded as distinct genera. 1. TRUE BARBERRY ; ivith simple leaves, clustered in the axil of compound spines. B. Vlllgaris, COMMON B. of Eu. Planted, and run wild in thickets and by roadsides ; has drooping many-llowered racemes, and oblong red and sour borries ; leaves obovate-oblong, fringed with closely-set bristly teeth, with a joint in the very short petiole (like that in an orange-leal'), clustered in the axils of triple or miltiple spines, which answer to leaves of the shoot of the previous season (see Lessons, p. 51, lig. 78). B. Canadensis, WILD B. In the Alleghanics from Virginia S., and rarely cult., a low bush, with few-flowered racemes, oval red berries, and less bristly or toothed leaves. 2. MAHONIA ; with pinnate and evergreen leaves, spiny-toothed leaflets, and clustered racemes of early spring Jlowers : berries blue or black ivith a bloom. Planted for ornament. B. Aquifolium, HOLLY B. or MAHOXIA, from Oregon, c., rises to 3 -4 high ; leaflets 5 - 9, shining, finely reticulated. B. repens, CHEEPING or Low M., from Rocky Mountains, is more hardy, rises only 1 or less, and has rounder, usually fewer, pale or glaucous leaflets.' B. nervosa, also called GLUM\CEA, from the husk-like long and pointed bud-scales at the end of the stems, which rise only a few inches above the ground ; leaflets 11-21, along the strongly-jointed stalk, lance-ovate, several-ribbed from the base. Also from Oregon. B. Japonica, JAPAN M., tall, rising fully 6 high, the rigid leaflets with only 3 or 4 strong spiny teeth on each side, is coming into ornamental grounds. 2. NANDINA. (The native Japanese name.) A single species, viz. N. domestica. Cult, in cool greenhouse, &c., from Japan : very com- pound large leaves : the berries more ornamental than the blossoms. 3. EPIMEDIUM, BARREN-WORT. (Old Greek name, of uncertain meaning.) Low herbs, with neat foliage : cult, for ornament. E. Alpinum, of European Alps, has a panicle of odd-looking small flowers ; the yellow petals not larger than the reddish sepals. E. macranthum, LARGE-FLOWERED E. of Japan, with similar foliage, has large white flowers with very, long-spurred petals. 4. CAULOPHYLLUM, COHOSII. The only species of the genus is C. thalictroides, BLUE COIIOSH. Wild in woods, with usually only one stem-leaf and that close to the top of the naked stem (whence the name of the genus, meaning stem-leaf), and thrice ternate, but, having no common petiole, it looks like three leaves ; and there is a larger and more compound radical leaf, with a long petiole. The leaves are glaucous and resemble those of Tltalii-trniu (as the specific name indicates), but the leaflets are larger. Seeds verv hard, with a thin blue pulp. 4G WATER-LILY FAMILY. 6. JEFPERS6NIA, TWIN-LEAF. (Named for Thomas Jefferson.) J. diphylla, sometimes called KHEUMAT ISM-ROOT. Wild in rich woods, W. & S., sometimes cult. ; the pretty white flower and the leaves both long- stalked, from the ground, appearing in early spring. 6. PODOPHYLLUM, MAY-APPLE, or MANDRAKE. (Name means foot-leaf, the 5 - 7 -parted leaf likened to a webbed-foot.) P. pelttum. Wild in rich soil : the long running rootstocks (which are poisonous and medicinal) send up in spring some stout stalks terminated by a large, 7 -9-lobed, regular, umbrella-shaped leaf (i. e. peltate in the middle), and some which bear two one-sided leaves (peltate near their inner edge), with a large white flower nodding in the fork. The sweet pulpy fruit as large as a pullet's egg, ripe in summer : rarely 2 or more to one flower. 6. '^NYMPELffiSACRaS, WATER-LILY FAMILY. Aquatic perennial herbs, with the leaves which float on the surface of the water or rise above it mostly peltate or roundish- heart-shaped, their margins inrolled in the bud, long-petioled ; axil- lary 1 -flowered peduncles ; sepals and petals hardly ever 5, the latter usually numerous and imbricated in many rows. The genera differ so widely in their botanical characters that they must be described separately. One of them is the famous Amazon Water- Lily, VICTORIA REGIA, with floating leaves 3 feet or more in diam- eter, and the magnificent flowers almost in proportion; while the dull flowers of Water-shield are only half an inch long. 1. BRASENIA. Sepals and petals each 3 or 4, narrow, and much alike, dull pur- ple. Stamens 12-18 : filaments slender. Pistils 4 -18, forming iudehisceut 1 - 3-seeded pods. All the parts separate and persistent. Ovules commonly on the dorsal suture ! Embryo, &c. as in Water-Lily. 2. NELUMBIUM. Sepals and petals many and passing gradually into each other, deciduous. Stamens very many, on the receptacle, the upper part of which is enlarged into a top-shaped body, bearing a dozen or more ovaries, eacli tipped with a flat stigma and separately immersed in as many hollows. (Les- sons, p. 126, fig. 284.) In fruit these form 1-seeded nuts, resembling small acorns. The whole kernel of the seed is embryo, a pair of flesh}' and farina- ceous cotyledons enclosing a plumule of 2 or 3 rudimentary green leaves. 3. N YAIPKLEA. Sepals 4, green outside. Petals numerous, many times 4, pass- ing somewhat gradually into the numerous stamens (Lessons, p. 99, fig. 198): both organs grow attached to the globular many-celled ovary, the former to its sides which they cover, the latter borne 'on its depressed summit. Around a little knob at the top of the ovary the numerous stigmas radiate as in a poppy-head, ending in long and narrow incurved lobes. Fruit like the ovary enlarged, still covered by the decaying persistent bases of the petals : numerous seeds cover the partitions. Ripe seeds each in an arillus or bag open at the top. (Lessons, p. 135, fig. 318.) Embryo, like that of Nelumbium on a very small scale, but enclosed in a bag, and at the end of the kernel, the rest of which is mealy albumen. 4. NUPHAR. Sepals usually 6 or 5, partly green outside. Petals many small and thickish bodies inserted under the ovary along with the very numerous short stamens. Ovary naked, truncate at the top, which is many-rayed by stigmas, fleshy in fruit: the internal structure as in Nymphsea, only there is no arillus to the seeds. 1. BBASENIA, WATER-SHIELD. (Name unexplained.) One species, B. pelt&ta. In still, rather deep water : stems rising to the surface, slen- der, coated with clear jelly, bearing floating oval centrally-peltate leaves (2 1 -3' long), and purplish small* flowers, produced all summer. 2. NELUMBIUM, NELUMBO. (Ccyloncsc name.) Rootstocks inter- rupted and tuberous, sending up, usually out of water, very long petioles and PITCHKR-PLANT FAMILY. 47 peduncles, bearing very large (l-2 wide) and more or less dish-shaped or cup-shaped centrally-peltate entire leaves, and great flowers (5' -10' broad), in summer. Seeds, also the tubers, eatable. N. lufceum, YELLOW N. or WATER CHINQUEPIN. Common W. & S. : introduced, by Indians perhaps, at Sodus Bay, N. Y., Lyme, Conn., and below Philadelphia. Flower pale dull yellow : anther hook-tipped. N. specibsum, SHOWY N., LOTUS or SACRED BEAN of India, with pinkish flowers and blunter anthers : cult, in choice conservatories. 3. NYMPH^SA, WATER-LILY, POND-LILY. (Dedicated to the Water-Nymphs.) Long prostrate rootstocks, often as thick as one's arm, send up floating leaves (rounded and with a narrow cleft nearly or quite to the petiole) and large handsome flowers, produced all summer : these close in the afternoon : the fruit ripens under water. N. Odorata, SWEET-SCENTED WHITE W. Common in still or slow water, especially E. Flower richly sweet-scented, white, or sometimes pinkish, rarely pink-red, variable in size, as are the leaves ; seeds oblong. 1ST. tuberbsa, TUBER-BEARING W. Common through the Great Lakes, and W. & S. Flower nearly scentless (its faint odor like that of apples), pure white, usually larger (4' -9' in diameter), as are also the leaves (8' -15' wide) ; petals broader and blunter ; seeds almost globular ; rootstock bearing copious tubers like " artichokes," attached by a narrow neck and spontaneously separating. N. CSDrulea, BLUE W., of Egypt, &c., cult, in aquaria ; a tender species, with eremite-toothed leaves, and blue or bluish sweet-scented flowers, the petals fewer and acute. 4. J^tlPHAR, YELLOW POND-LILY, or SPATTER-DOCK. (Old Greek name. ) Rootstock, &c. as in Nymphaja : leaves often rising out of water : flowers by no means showy, yellow, sometimes purplish-tinged, pro- duced all summer : fruit ripening above water. "N. advena is the common species, everywhere ; has 6 unequal sepals or sometimes more ; petals, or what answer to them, truncate, shorter than the stamens and resembling them ; the thickish leaves rounded or ovate-oblong. N. luteum, rare N. ; has smaller flowers, with 5 sepals, petals dilated upwards and more conspicuous, and a globular fruit with a narrow neck : the var. pumilum, a small variety, has flowers only 1', and leaves l'-5' in diameter ; rather common N. N. sagittifblia, ARROW-LEAVED N., from North Carolina S. ; has sagit- tate leaves (1 by 2'), and 6 sepals. This and the last produce their earlier leaves under water and very thin. 7. SARRACENIACE^l, PITCHER-PLANT FAMILY. Consists of one South American plant, of the curious DARLING- TONIA CALIFORNICA in the mountains of California, and of the following : 1. SARRACENIA. (Named for Dr. Sarrasin of Quebec.) SIDESADDLE- FLOWER, a most unmeaning popular name. Leaves all radical from a per- ennial root, and in the form of hollow tubes or pitchers, winged down the inner side, open at the top, where there is a sort of arching blade or hood. The whole foliage yellowish green or purplish. Scape tall, naked, bearing a single large nodding flower, in early summer. Sepals 5, with 3 bractlets at the base, colored, persistent. Petals 5, fiddle-shaped, incurved over the pel- tate and umbrella-shaped 5-anglcd petal-like great top to the style. Stamens very numerous. Ovary 5-celled. Pod many-seeded, rough-warty. S. purpurea, PURPLE S. or PITCHER-PLANT of the North, where it is common in bogs. Leaves pitcher-shaped, open, with an erect round-heart- shaped hood and a broad side-wing, purple-veiny ; flower deep purple. 48 POPPY FAMILY. S. rubra, RED-FLOWERED TRUMPET-LEAF of S. States : sometimes cult, in greenhouses. Leaves trumpet-shaped, slender, a foot long, with a narrow wing and an erect ovate pointed hood ; flower crimson-purple. S. Dmmmbndii, GREAT TRUMPET-LEAF of Florida : sometimes cult. Leaves much like the last, but 2 or 3 long, upper part of the tube and the roundish erect hood variegated and purple-veiny ; and the deep-purple flower very large. S. psittacina, PARROT PITCHER-PLANT of S. States, and rarely cult. Leaves short and spreading, with a narrow tube, a broad wing, and an inflated globular hood, which is incurved over the mouth of the tube, spotted with white ; flower purple. S. variolaris, SPOTTED TRUMPET-LEAF of S. States. Leaves erect, trumpet-shaped, white-spotted above, longer than the scape, with a broad wing, and an ovate hood arching over the orifice ; flower yellow. S. flava, YELLOW TRUMPET-LEAF of S. States : cult, more commonly than the rest, as a curiosity, and almost hardy N. Leaves trumpet-shaped,** 2 long, erect, yellowish or purple-veiny, with a narrow wing, and an erect round- ish but pointed hood, a tall scape, and yellow flower. 8. PAPAVERACE-SI, POPPY FAMILY. Herbs with milky or colored juice, regular flowers, a calyx mostly of 2 sepals which fall when the blossom opens, petals twice or 3-5 times as many, numerous stamens on the receptacle, and a com- pound 1-celled ovary, with 2 or more parietal placentae. Fruit a pod, many-seeded. Juice narcotic, as in Poppy (opium), or acrid. No. 5 has watery juice, with the odor of muriatic acid, and the calyx like a cap or lid ; No. 7 has no petals and few seeds. * Petals crumpled in the flower-bud, whiih droops on its peduncle before opening. 1. PAP A VEIL Stigmas united into a many-rayed circular body which is closely sessile on the ovary. Pod globular or oblong, imperfectly many-celled bv the projecting placentas which are covered with numberless seeds, opening only by pores or chinks at the top. Juice white. 2. STY LOP HO RUM. Stigma 3 - 4-lobed, raised on a style. Pod ovoid, bristly, opening from the top into 3 or 4 valves, leaving the thread-like placentae be- tween them. Juice 3 r ellow. 3. CHKLIDONIUM. Stigma 2-lobed, almost sessile. Pod linear, with 2 placenta?, splitting from below into 2 valves. Juice orange. * * Petals more or less crumpled in the bud, ichich is erect before opening. 4. AR6EMONE. Stigma 3-6-lobed, almost sessile. Sepals and oblong pod prickly ; the latter opening by valves from the top, leaving the thread-like placentse between. Juice yellow. 5. FSCHSCHOLTZIA. Sepals united into a pointed cap which falls off entire. Receptacle or end of the flower-stalk dilated into a top-shaped body, often with a spreading rim. Stigmas 4-6, spreading, unequal ; but the placentae only 2. Pod long and slender, grooved. Juice colorless. * * * Petals not crumpled in the bud, which does not droop. 6. SANGUINARIA. Sepals 2 : but the petals 8- 12. Stigma 2-lobed, on a short style. Pod oblong, with 2 placentas. Juice orange-red. * * * * Petals none. Flowers in panicles, drooping in the bud. 7. BOCCONIA. Sepals 2, colored. Stigma 2-lobed. Pod few-seeded. Juice reddish. 1. PAPAVEB, POPPY. (Ancient name.) We have no truly wild spe- cies : the following are from the Old World. # Annuals, flowering in summer : cult, ami ?/vw/s nf cult i rut ion. P. SOmniferum, OPIUM POPPY. Cult, for ornament, especially double- flowered varieties, and for medical uses. Smooth, glaucous, with clasping and wavy leaves, and white or purple flowers. nceran. ickly, 1-2 C '\ or yellowish, \ r, sometimes f(j FUMITORY FAMILY. 49 P. Rbcbas, CORN POPPY of Eu. Low, bristly, with almost pinnate leaves, and deep red or scarlet flowers with a dark eye, or, when double, of various colors ; pod obovate. P. dubium, LONG-HEADED P. Leaves with their divisions more cut than the last ; flowers smaller and lighter red, and pod oblong-clavatc : run wild in fields in Penn. * # Perennial: cult, for ornament : flowering in late spring. P. orientale, ORIENTAL P. Rough-hairy, with tall flower-stalks, almost pinnate leaves, and a very large deep-red flower, under which are usually some leafy persistent bracts. Var. BRACTEATUM, has these bracts larger, petals still larger and deeper red, with a dark spot at the base. 2. STYLOPHORUM, CELANDINE POPPY. (Name means style- Ix-arcr, expressing a difference between it and Poppy and Celandine.) 1J. S. diphyllum. From Penn. W. in open woods ; resembling Celandine, but low, and with far larger (yellow) flowers, in spring. 3. CHELIDONIUM, CELANDINE. (From the Greek word for the Swallow. } 1|. C. majUS, the only species, in all gardens and moist waste places ; l-4 high, branching, with pinnate or twice pinnatifid leaves, and small yellow flowers in a sort of umbel, all summer ; the pods long and slender. 4. ARGEMONE, PRICKLY POPPY. (Meaning of name uncertain.) A. Mexicana, MEXICAN P. Waste places and gardens. Prickly, 1- high ; leaves sinuate-lobed, blotched with white ; flowers yellow or pretty large, in summer. Var. ALB IF LOR A has the flower larger, very large, white ; cult, for ornament. 5. ESCHSCHOLTZIA. (Named for one of the discoverers, Eschscholtz, the name easier pronounced than written.) E. Californica, Californian annual, now common in gardens ; with pale dissected leaves, and long-pedunclcd large flowers, remarkable for the top- shaped dilatation at the base of the flower, on which the extinguisher-shaped calyx rests : this is forced off whole by the opening petals. The latter arc bright orange-yellow, and the top of the receptacle is broad-rimmed. Var. DouGLAsn wants this rim, and its petals are pure yellow, or sometimes Avhite; but the sorts are much mixed in the gardens ; and there are smaller varieties under different names. 6. SANGUINARIA, BLOOD-ROOT. (Name from the color of the juice.) 1J. S. Canadensis, the common and only species ; wild in rich woods, hand- some in cultivation. The thick red rootstock in early spring sends up a rounded- rcniforrn and palmate-lobed veiny leaf, wrapped around a flower-bud : as the leaf comes out of ground and opens, the scape lengthens, and carries up the hand- some, white, mauy-petalled flower. 7. BOCCONIA. (Named in honor of an Italian botanist, Bocconi.) U B. COrdata, CORDATE B., from China, the only hardy species ; a strong root sending up very tall leafy stems, with round-cordate lobed leaves, which are veiny and glaucous, and large panicles of small white or pale rose-colored flow- ers, late in summer. 9. PUMARIACE^l, FUMITORY FAMILY. Like the Poppy Family in the plan of the flowers ; but the 4- " petalled corolla much larger than the 2 soale-like sepals, also irrejr- - ular and closed, the two inner and smaller petals united by their 4 50 FUMITORY FAMILY, spoon -shaped tips, which enclose the anthers of the 6 stamens in two sets, along with the stigma : the middle anther of each set is 2-celled, the lateral ones 1 -celled. Delicate or tender and very smooth herbs, with colorless and inert juice, and much dissected or compound leaves. * Corolla heart-shaped or 2-spurred at base : pod several-seeded. 1. DICENTRA. Petals slightly cohering with each other. Seeds crested. 2. ADLUMIA. Petals all permanently united into one slightly heart-shaped body, which encloses the small pod. Seeds crestless. Climbing by the very compound leaves. * * Corolla with only one petal spurred at base. 3. CORYDALIS. Ovary and pod slender, several-seeded. Seeds crested. 4. KUMAR] A. Ovary and small closed fruit globular, 1-seeded. 1. DICENTRA (meaning two-spurred in Greek). Commonly but wrongly t/ named DICLYTRA or DIELYTRA. 1J. Fl. in spring. ' * Wild species, low, with delicate decompound leaves and few-flowered scapes sent- up from the ground in early spring. D. Cucullaria, DUTCHMAN'S BREECHES. Common in leaf-mould in woods N. Foliage and flowers from a sort of granular-scaly bulb ; corolla white tipped with yellow, with the two diverging spurs at the base longer than the pedicel. D. Canaddnsis, CANADIAN D. or SQUIRREL-CORN. With the last N. Separate yellow grains, like Indian corn, in place of a scaly bulb ; the corolla narrower and merely heart-shaped at base, white or delicately flesh-colored, sweet-scented ; inner petals much crested at tip. D. eximia is rarer, wild along the Allcghanies, occasionally cult., has coarser foliage, and more numerous flowers than the last, pink-purple, and pro- duced throughout the summer, from tufted scaly rootstocks. * * Cultivated exotic, taller and coarser, leaf (/-stemmed, many-flowered. D. spectabilis, SHOWY D. or BLEEDING HEART. From N. China, vcrv ornamental through spring and early summer, with ample Peony-like leaves, and long drooping racemes of bright pink-red heart-shaped flowers (!' long) : the two small sepals fall off in the bud. 2. ADLtfMLA, CLIMBING FUMITORY. (Named in honor of a Mr, Ad/uin. ) (D The only species is A. Cirrh6sa. Wild in low shady grounds from NCAV York W. & S. and cult. ; climbing over bushes or low trees, by means of its 2 - 3-pinnately com- pound delicate leaves, the stalks of the leaflets acting like tendrils ; flowers flesh- colored, panicle I, all summer. 3. CORYDALIS. (Greek name for Fumitory.) Our species are leafy- stemmed, (T) or (D, wild in rocky places, fl. spring and summer. C. glaiica, PALE CORYDALIS. Common, 6' -3 high, very glaucous, with the whitish flowers variegated with yellow and pink, a short and rounded spur, and erect pods. C. flayula, YELLOWISH C. From Penn. S. & W. : has the flowers pa'e yellow, with the tips of the outer petals wing-crested ; seeds sharp-edged. : other- wise like the next. C. aiirea, GOLDEN C. From Vermont W. & S. Low and spreading ; flowers golden-yellow with a longish spur, and crestless tips, hanging pods, and smooth blunt-edged seeds. 4. FUMARIA, FUMITORY. (Name from fumus, smoke.) Low, leafy-stemmed, with finely cut compound leaves. F. officinalis, COMMON F. Common in old gardens, waste places, and dung-heaps ; a delicate small weed, with a close spike of small pinkish crimson- tipped flowers, in summer. MUSTARD FAMILY. 51 10. CRUCIFER^I, MUSTARD FAMILY. Herbs, with watery juice, of a pungent taste (as exemplified in Horseradish, Mustard, Water-Cress, &c.), at once distinguished by the cruciferous flower (of 4 sepals, 4 petals, their upper part gen- erally spreading above the calyx in the form of a cross), the tetra- dynamous stamens (i. e. 6, two of them shorter than the other four) ; and the single 2-celled pistil with two parietal placentae, forming the kind of pod called a silique, or when short a silicic. (See Lessons, p. 92, fig. 187, 188, for the flower, and p. 133, fig. 310, for the fruit.) The embryo fills the whole seed, and has the radicle bent up against the cotyledons. Flowers in racemes, which are at first short, like simple corymbs, but lengthen in fruiting : no bracts below the pedi- cels. The blossoms are all nearly alike throughout the family ; so that the genera are mainly known by the fruit and seed, which are usually to be had before all the flowers have passed. 1. Fruit a true pod, opening lengthwise by two valves, which fall away and leave tlie tkiu persistent partition when ripe. * Seeds or ovules more than two in each cell. *- Pod beaked or pointed beyond the summit of the valves, or the style witii a conical base. Seeds spherical, Hie cotyledons wrapped around the radicle. 1. BRASSICA, Flowers yellow. Pods oblong or linear. *- Pod not beaked or conspicuously pointed, M- Neither flattened nor 4-sided, but the cross-section nearly circular. 2. SISYMBRIUM. Pods in the common species shortish, lance-awl-shaped, close- pressed to the stem. Seeds oval, marginless. Flowers small, yellowish. 3. NASTURTIUM. Pods shortish or short (from oblong-linear to almost spherical). Seeds in 2 rows in each cell, globular, marginless. Flowers yellow or white. 4. HESPERIS. Pods long and slender, with a single row of marginless seeds in each cell (as broad as the partition); the radicle laid against the back of one of the cotyledons. Flowers rather large, pink-purple. Stigma of 2 erect blunt lobes. 6. MALCOLMIA. Pods somewhat thickened at the base. Stigma of 2 pointed lobes. Otherwise as No. 4. 6. MATTHIOLA. Pods long and narrow : seeds one-rowed in each cell (as broad as the partition), flat, wing-margined; the radicle laid against one edge of the broad cotyledons. Flowers pink-purple, reddish, or varying to white, large and showy. -* -M- Pod long and slender, linear, 4-sided (the cross section square or rhombic), or if flattened having a strong salient midrib to the valves. Seeds marginltss, mostly single-rowed in each cell. Flowers yellow or orange, never white. a. Lateral sepals sac-sliaped at the base. 7. CHEIRANTHUS. Seeds flat; the radicle laid against the edge of the broad cotyledons. Flowers showy. Leaves entire. b. Sepnls nearly equal and alike at the base. 8. ERYSIMUM. Seeds oblong; the radicle laid against the back of one of the narrow cotyledons. Leaves simple. 9. B ABB ARE A*. Seeds oval; the radicle laid against the edge of the broad cotyledons. Leaves lyrate or pinnatifid. 2. SISYMBRIUM, Seeds oblong; the radicle laid against the back of one of the cotyledons. Flowers small. Leaves twice pinnatifid. .M. -M. m. Pod flattened parallel to the partition ; the valves flat or flatlish : so are the seeds: radicle against the edge of the cotyledons. Flowers white or purple. 10. ARABIS. Pod long and narrow-linear, not opening elastically ; the valves with a midrib. Seeds often winged or margined. 11. CARDAMINE. Pods linear or lanceolate; the valves with no or hardly any midrib, opening elastically from the base upwards. Seeds marginless and slender-stalked, one-rowed' in each cell. No scaly-toothed rootstock. 52 MUSTARD FAMILY. 12. DENTARIA. Pods, &c. as in the preceding. Seed-stalks broad and flat. Stem 2-3-leaved in the middle, naked below, springing from a horizontal scaly-toothed or irregular fleshy rootstock. 13. LUNARIA. Pods oval or oblong, large and very flat, stalked ahove the calyx. Seeds winged, 2-rowed in each cell. Flowers pretty large, purple, li. DRABA. Pods round-oval, oblong or linear, flat. Seeds wingless, 2-rowed in each cell. Flowers small, white in the common species. -M. .M. -M. .,.,. Pod short, fialtish parallel to the broad partition. Flowers yellow, small. 15. CAMELINA. Pods turgid, obovate or pear-shaped. w. ++ *+ -w- tt- Pod short, very much flattened contrary to the narrow partition ; the valves therefore deeply boat-shaped. Flwcers white, small. 16. CAPSELLA. Pods obovate-triangular, or triangular with a notch at the top. * * Seeds or the ovules single or sometimes 2 in each cell. Pods short and fiat. +- Corolla irregular, the petals being very unequal. 17. IBERIS. Flowers in short and flat-topped clusters, white or purple ; the two petals on the outer side of the flower much larger than the others. Pods scale-shaped, roundish or ovate, much flattened contrary to the very narrow partition, notched at the wing-margined top. H- -- Corolla regular, small. 18. LEPIDIUM. Pods scale-shaped, much flattened contrary to the very narrow partition, often notched or wing-margined at the top. 'Flowers white. 19. ALYSSUM. Pods roundish, flattened parallel to the broad partition. Seeds flat, commonly wing-margined. Flowers yellow or white. ^ 2. Fruit indehiscent, -wing-like, 1-seeded. 20. ISATIS. Flowers yellow. Fruit 1-celled, 1-seeded, resembling a small samara or ash-fruit. 3. Fruit fieshy, or when ripe and dry corky, not opening by valves, 2 -many-seeded. 21. CAKILE. Fruit jointed in the middle ; the two short joints 1-celled, 1-seeded. Seed oblong. 22. RAPHANUS. Fruit several-seeded, with cellular matter or with constrictions between the spherical seeds. 1. BRASSICA, CABBAGE, MUSTARD, &c. (Ancient Latin name of Cabbage. Botanically the Mustards rank in the same genus.) (T) Cult. from En., or run wild as weeds ; known by their yellow flowers, beak-pointed pods, and globose seeds, the cotyledons wrapped round the radicle. B. oleracea, CABBAGE. The original is a sea-coast plant of Europe, with thick and hard stem, and pretty large pale yellow flowers ; the leaves very gla- brous and glaucous ; upper ones entire, clasping the stem, not auricled at the base : cult, as a biennial, the rounded, thick, and fleshy, strongly veined leaves collect into a head the first year upon the summit of a short and stout stem. Var. BROCCOLI is a state in which the stem divides into short fleshy branches, bearing clusters of abortive flower-buds. Var. CAULIFLOWER has the nour- ishing matter mainly concentrated in short imperfect flower-branches, collected into a flat head. Var. KOHLRABI has the nourishing matter accumulated in the stem, which forms a turnip-like enlargement above ground, beneath the cluster of leaves. KALE is more nearly the natural state of the species, the fleshy leaves not forming a head. B. campdstris, of the Old World ; like the last, hat with brighter flowers ; the lower leaves pinnatifid or divided and rough with stiff hairs, and the upper auricled at the base, is represented in cultivation by the Var. COLZA or RAPE, with small annual root, cult, for the oil of the seed. Var. TURNIP (B. NAPUS) ; cult, as a biennial, for the nourishment accumulated in the napiform white root. Var. RUTABAGA or SWEDISH TURNIP, has a longer and yellowish root. B. Sinipastrum, or Sinapis arv&isis, CHARLOCK. A troublesome weed of cultivation in grainfields, annual, with the somewhat rough leaves barely toothed or little lobed, and nearly smooth pods spreading in a loose raceme, the seed-hearing part longer than the conical (usually empty) beak. B. (or Sinapis) alba, WHITE MUSTARD. Cult, and in waste places, an- nual ; the leares all pinnatifid and rough-hairy ; pods spreading in the raceme, MUSTARD FAMILY. 53 bristly, the lower and turgid few-seeded portion shorter than the 1-sccded stout and flattened beak ; seeds large, pale brown. B. (or Sinapis) nigra, BLACK MUSTARD. Cult, and in waste places; leaves less hairy and less divided than the last ; pods erect in the raceme or spike, smooth, short, 4-sided (the valves having a strong midrib), and tipped with the short empty conical base of a slender style; seeds dark brown, smaller, and more pungent than in the last. 2. SISYMBRIUM, HEDGE MUSTARD. (The ancient Greek name.) S. offlcinale, COMMON H. Coarse weed in waste places, with branch- ing stems, runcinatc leaves, and very small pale yellow flowers, followed by awl-shaped obscurely 6-sided pods close pressed to the axis of the narrow spike. S. canescens/ HOARY H. or TANSY-MUSTARD. Commonly only S. & W., hoary, with finely cut twice-pinnatind leaves, minute yellowish flow- ers, and oblong-club-shaped 4-sided pods on slender horizontal pedicels. 3. NASTURTIUM, WATER-CRESS, HORSERADISH, &c. (Name from nasiis tortus, convulsed nose, from the pungent qualities.) Here are combined a variety of plants, widely different in appearance : the following are the commonest. * Nat. from Eu. : the white petals twice the length of the calyx, y. 3ST. officinale, WATER-CRESS. Planted or run wild in streamlets, spread- ing and rooting, smooth, with pinnate leaves of 3-11 roundish or oblong leaf- lets ; fl. all summer ; pods broadly linear, slightly curved upwards on their spreading pedicels. Young plants eaten. N. Arinoracia, HORSERADISH. Planted or run wild in moist soil ; with very large oblong or lanceolate leaves, chiefly from the ground, crenate, rarely cut or pinnatifid ; pods globular, but seldom seen. The long deep root is a familiar condiment. * * Indigenous species, in wet places : petals yellow or yellowish. N. palllstre, MARSH-CRESS. A very common homely weed, erect, l-3 high, with pinnatifid or lyrate leaves of several oblong cut-toothed leaflets, small yellowish floAvers, and small oblong or ovoid pods. N'. sessilifl6rum, like the last, but with less lobed leaves, very minute sessile flowers, and longer oblong pods, is common from Illinois S. And there are 2 or 3 more in some parts, especially S. 4. HESPERIS, ROCKET. (Greek for evening, the flowers being then fragrant.) y H. matronalis, COMMON or DAME R. Tall and rather coarse plant in country gardens, from Eu., inclined to run wild in rich shady soil ; with oblong or lanceolate toothed leaves, and rather large purple flowers, in summer, fol- lowed by (2' -4') long and slender pods. 5. MALCbLMIA. (Named for W. Malcolm, an English gardener.) M. maritima, MAHON STOCK, called VIRGINIA STOCK in England, but comes from the shores of the Mediterranean : a garden annual, not much cult., a span high, Avith pale green oblong or spatulate nearly entire leaves, and pretty pink-red flowers changing to violet-purple, also a white var. (much smaller than those of true Stock) ; pods long and slender. 6. MATTHIOLA, STOCK or GILLIFLOWER. (Named for the early naturalist', Matthioli.} Cult, garden or house plants, from Eu., hoary-leaved, much prized for their handsome and fragrant, pretty large, pink, reddish, or white floAvers, of which there are very double and showy varieties. M. incana, COMMON STOCK, y. Stout stem becoming almost woody : not hardy at the N. M. annua, TEN-WEEK STOCK. Probably only an herbaceous variety of the last ; floAvers usually not double. - MUSTARD FAMILY. 7. CHEIHATTTHUS, WALLFOWER. (Cheiri is the Arabic name.) Like Stocks, but slightly if at all hoary, and the flowers orange, brown-red- dish, or yellow, y. C. Cheiri, COMMON WALLFLOWER. Cult, from S. Eu., not hardy N., i much-prized house-plant ; stem woody, crowded with the narrow and pointed entire leaves. 8. ERYSIMUM. (Name from Greek, and meaning to draw blisters, from the acridity.) E. asperum, WESTERN WALLFLOWER. Wild from Ohio W. & S. ; like the wild state of the Wallflower, with bright yellow or orange flowers, but the seeds are different, and the long pods quite square in the cross-section ; the leaves somewhat toothed and hoary. (2) 1J. E. cheiranthoides, TREACLE-MUSTARD or WORMSEED MUSTAKD. A rather irisignificant annual, wild or run wild in waste moist places, with slen- der branches, lanceolate almost entire leaves, and small yellow flowers, followed by shortish and obscurely 4-sided pods on slender spreading pedicels. 9. BARB ARE A, WINTER-CRESS. (The Herb of Santa Barbara.) Different from the last genus in the seeds, divided leaves, and in the general aspect. Leaves used by some as winter salad, but bitterish. y. B. vulgaris, COMMON W. or YELLOW ROCKET. Smooth, common in old gardens and other rich soil, with green lyrate leaves, and bright yellow flowers, in spring and summer ; pods erect, crowded in a dense raceme, much thicker than their pedicels. B. praecox, EARLY W. or SCURVY-GRASS. Cult, from Pcnn. S. for early salad, beginning to run wild, probably a variety of the last, with more numerous and narrower divisions to the leaves ; the less erect pods scarcely thicker than their pedicels. 10. ARABIS, ROCK-CRESS. (Name from Arabic.) Fl. spring and summer. Leaves mostly simple and undivided. * Wild species, on rocks, fyc. : flowers white or whitish, not showy. A. lyrata, Low R. A delicate, low, nearly smooth plant, with a cluster of lyrate root-leaves ; stem-leaves feAV mid narrow ; bright white petals rather conspicuous ; pods slender, spreading. A. hirsilta, HAIRY R. Strictly erect, l-2 high; stem-leaves many and sagittate ; small greenish-white flowers and narrow pods erect. A. laevigata, SMOOTH R. Erect, l-2 high, glaucous; upper leaves sagittate ; flowers rather small ; pods 3' long, very narrow and not very flat, recurving ; seeds winged. A. Canad6nsis, CANADIAN or SICKLEPOD R. Tall, growing in ravines ; stem-leaves pointed at both ends, pubescent ; petals whitish, narrow ; pods 3' long, scythe-shaped, very flat, hanging ; seeds broadly winged. * * Wild, on river banks : flowers pink-purple, rather showy. Ij. A. hesperidoides, ROCKET R. Smooth, erect, l-3 high; with rounded or heart-shaped long-petioled root-leaves, ovate-lanceolate stem-leaves (2' -6' long), the lower on a winged petiole or with a pair of small lateral lobes ; petals long-clawed ; pods spreading, narrow ; seeds wingless. Banks of the Ohio and S. W. * * * Garden species : flowers white, showy. U A. alpina, ALPINE R., and its variety ? A. ALBIDA, from Eu., low and tufted, hairy or soft-downy, are cult, in gardens ; fl. in early spring. 11. CARDAMINE, BITTER-CRESS. (Ancient Greek name.) U C. hirsilta, SMALL B. A low and branching insignificant herb, usually not hairy, with slender fibrous root, pinnate leaves, the leaflets angled or loothcd, and small white flowers, followed by narrow upright pods : common in moist soil, fl. .spring and summer. MUSTARD FAMILY. 55 C. prat6nsis, CUCKOO-FLOWER or LADIES' SMOCK. Stem ascending from a short perennial rootstock ; the pinnate leaves with rounded and stalked entire small leaflets ; flowers in spring, showy, pink or white : in bogs at the north, and a douhle-flowered variety is an old-fashioned plant in gardens. C. rhpmboidea. Stems upright from a small tuber, simple, bearing rather large white or rose-purple flowers in spring, and simple angled or sparingly toothed leaves, the lowest rounded or heart-shaped, the upper ovate or oblong : in wet places northward. 12. DENTARIA, TOOTHWORT. (From the Latin dens, a tooth.) y. D. diph^lla, TWO-LEAVED T., PEPPER-ROOT, or CRINKLE-ROOT. So called from the fleshy, long and toothed rootstocks, which are eaten and taste like Water-Cress ; there are only 2 stem leaves, close together, each of 3 rhom- bic-ovate and toothed leaflets, and the root-leaf is similar ; flowers quite large, white, in spring. Woods in vegetable mould, N. D. laciniata, LACINIATE T. Rootstock necklace-form or constricted in 2 or 3 places, scarcely toothed ; stem-leaves 3 in a whorl, each 3-partcd into linear or lanceolate leaflets, which are cut or cleft into narrow teeth, or the lateral ones 2-lobed ; flowers purplish, in spring : banks of streams. 13. LUNABIA, HONESTY or SATIN-FLOWER, (Name from Luna, the moon, from the shape of the broad or rounded pods.) @ 1J. L. biennis, COMMON HONESTY. Not native to the country, but cultivated in old-fashioned places, for the singular large oval pods, of which the broad white partitions, of satiny lustre, remaining after the valves have fallen, are used for ornament ; leaves somewhat heart-shaped ; flowers large, pink-purple, in early summer. L. rediviva, PERENNIAL HONESTY, is a much rarer sort, with oblong pods ; seldom met with here. 14. DRABA, WHITLOW-GRASS. (Name is a Greek word, meaning acrid.) Low herbs, mostly with white flowers : the commoner species are the following : fl. early spring ; winter annuals. 3D. Caroliniana. Leaves obovate, hairy, on a very short stem, bearing a short raceme or corymb on a scape-like peduncle 1' - 4' high ; petals not notched ; pods broadly linear, much larger than their pedicels : in sandy waste places. D. verna. A diminutive plant, with a tuft of oblong or lanceolate root- leaves, and a scape l'-3' high; petals 2-cleft ; pods oval or oblong, in a ra- ceme, shorter than their pedicels : in sandy waste places. 15. CAMELINA, FALSE-FLAX. (An old name, meaning dwarf-flax-, the common species was fancied to be a degenerate flax.) C. sativa, COMMON F. A weed, in grain and flax-fields, l-2 high, with lanceolate leaves, the upper ones sagittate and clasping the stem ; small pale-yellow floAvers, followed by obovate turgid pods in a long loose raceme ; style conspicuous. 16. CAPSELLA, SHEPHERD'S-PURSE. ( Name mean s a tittle pod.) C. Bursa-Past6ris, COMMON S. The commonest of weeds, in waste places ; root-leaves pinnatifid or toothed, those of the stem sagittate and partly clasping ; small white flowers followed by the triangular and notched pods, in a long raceme. 17. IB|lRIS, CANDYTUFT. (Name from the country, Iberia, an old name for Spain.) Low garden plants, from Europe, cultivated for ornament; different from the rest of the order in the irregular corollas. I. umbellata, COMMON C. . Lower leaves lanceolate, the upper linear and entire ; flowers purple-lilac (or pale), in flat clusters, in summer. I. sempervirens, EVERGREEN C. U Rather woody-stemmed, tufted, with bright green lanceolate or linear-spatulate thickish entire leaves, and flat clusters of pure white flowers, in spring. 50 CAPER FAMILY. 18. LEPIDIUM, PEPPERGRASS. (A Greek word, meaning little scak, from the puds.) Our common species have incised or pinnatifid leaves, aiul very smajl white or whitish flowers. Q) L. Virginicum, WILD P. A common weed by roadsides, with petals, and usually only 2 stamens ; the little pods orbicular and scarcely margined at the notched top ; seeds flat, the radicle against the edge of the cotyledons. L. ruderale, introduced from Europe, is much less common, more branched, with no petals, smaller scarcely notched pods, and turgid seeds, the radicle against the back of one of the cotyledons. L. sativum, GARDEN P. Cult, as a cress, has petals, and the larger ovate pods are winged and slightly notched at the top. 19. ALYSSUM, MAD WORT. (Name refers to being a fancied remedy for canine madness.) Cult, for ornament ; from Eu. A. maritimum, SWEET ALYSSUM. A spreading little plant, from Eu- rope, fl. all summer in gardens, or in the greenhouse in winter, green or slightly hoary, with lanceolate or linear entire leaves tapering at the base, and small white honey-scented flowers, in at length elongated racemes, the round little pods with a single seed in each cell. A variety much used for borders has pabr and white-edged leaves. A. saxatile, ROCK A. Low, hoary-leaved, with abundant bright yellow flowers, in spring ; cult, from Europe. '1^ 20. ISATIS, WOAD. (Name of obscure derivation.) One common species of Eu., I. tinct6ria, DYER'S WOAD. Rather tall, glabi-ous and glaucous, with the stem-leaves lanceolate and entire, sessile and somewhat sagittate ; the ra- cemes of small yellow flowers panicled, succeeded by the hanging samara-like closed pods ; fl. in early summer. Old gardens, formerly cult, for a blue dye. 21. CAKILE, SEA-ROCKET. (An old Arabic name.) C. Americana, AMERICAN S. A fleshy herb, wild on the shore of the sea and Great Lakes, with obovate wavy-toothed leaves, and purplish flowers. 22. RAPHANUS, RADISH. (Ancient Greek name, said to refer to the rapid germination of the seeds.) (T) All from the Old World. R. sativus, RADISH. Cult, from Eu. ; with lyratc lower leaves, purple and whitish flowers, and thick and pointed closed pods ; the seeds separated by irregular fleshy false partitions : cult, for the tender and fleshy pungent root : inclined to run wild. R. caudatUS, RAT-TAIL R., from India, lately introduced into gardens, rather as a curiosity, is a probable variety of the Radish, with the narrow pod a foot or so long, eaten Avhen green. H. Raphanistrum, WILD R. or JOINTED CHARLOCK. Troublesome weed in cult, fields, with rough lyrate leaves, yellow petals changing to whitish or purplish, and narrow long-beaked pods, which are divided across between the several seeds, so as to become necklace-form. 11. CAPPARIDACE^l, CAPER FAMILY. In our region these are herbs, resembling Cruciferce, but with stamens not tetradynamous and often more than 6, no partition in the pod (which is therefore 1 -celled with two parietal placentas), and kidney-shaped seeds, the embryo rolled up instead of folded to- gether : the leaves commonly palmately compound, and the herbage bitter and nauseous instead of pungent. But in warm regions the Cress-like pungency sometimes appears, as in capers, the pickled flower-buds of CAPPARIS SPINOSA, of the Levant. This and its near relatives are trees or shrubs. riTTOSFOKUM FAMILY. 57 1. CLEOME. Calyx 4-cleft Petals 4. Stamens 6, on a short thickened recep- tacle. Ovarv and many-seeded pod iu ours raised above the receptacle on a long stalk. 'Style very short or none. Usually aii appendage on one side of the 'receptacle/ 2. GYNANDROl'SIS.' Sepals 4. Stamens borne on the long stalk of the ovary far above the petals. Otherwise as in No. 1. 3. POLAN1SIA. Sepals 4. Stamens 8-32. Ovary and pod sessile or short- stalked on the receptacle. Style present. Otherwise nearly as No. 1. 1. CLEOME. (From a Greek word meaning closed, the application not obvious.) (i) C. piingens. Tall (2 -4 high), clammy-pubescent, with little spines or prickly points (whence the name) in place of stipules, about 7 broadly lanceolate leaflets, but the bracts simple and ovate or heart-shaped, and a raceme of large and handsome flowers, with long-clawed pink or purple petals and declined sta- mens. Cult, from S. America, for ornament, and run wild S. G. integrifblia, much smaller, very smooth, with 3 leaflets and the pink petals without claws, is wild in Nebraska, &c., and lately introduced to gardens. 2. GYNANDROPSIS. (Greek-made name, meaning that the stamens appear to be on the pistil.) (Lessons, p. 125, fig. 276.) G. pentaph^lla. Nat. from Carolina S. from West Indies, is a clammy- pubescent weed, with 5 leaflets to the leaves and 3 to the bracts ; the white petals on claws. 3. POLANf SIA. (Greek-made name, meaning many-unequal, referring to the stamens.) P. grav^olens. A heavy-scented (as the name denotes), rather clammy, low herb, with 3 oblong leaflets, and small flowers with short white petals, about 1 1 scarcely longer purplish stamens, and a short style ; fl. summer. Wild on gravelly shores, from Conn. W. 12. RESEDACE-E1, MIGNONETTE FAMILY. Herbs, with inconspicuous flowers in spikes or racemes ; rep- resented by the main genus, 1. RESEDA, MIGNONETTE, c. (From a Latin word, to assuage, from supposed medical properties.) Calyx 4-7-parted, never closed even in the bud. Petals 4 7, unequal, cleft or notched, those of one side of the flower appendagcd within. Stamens 10-40, borne on a sort of disk dilated on one side of the flower. Ovary and pod composed of 3 - 6 carpels united not quite to the top into a 3 -^6-lobed or 3 - 6-horned 1 -celled pistil which opens at the top long before the seeds arc ripe. The seeds are numerous, kidney- shaped, on 3 - 6 parietal placentas. Leaves alternate. R. odorata, COMMON MIGNONETTE. Cult, (from N. Africa) as an an- nual, for the delicious scent of the greenish-white flowers ; the anthers orange ; petals 6, the posterior ones cut into several fine lobes ; stems low ; some leaves entire and oblong, others 3-lobcd. R. Lut^qla, JDYEK'S M. or WELD. Nat. along roadsides, tall, with lanceolate entire leaves, and a long spike of yellowish flowers ; petals 4. 13. PITTOSPORACE^a, PITTOSPORUM FAMILY. A small family of shrubs and trees, belonging mostly to the south- ern hemisphere, in common cultivation represented only by one house-plant, a species of 1. PITTOSPORUM. (Name means pitchy seed in Greek, the seeds being generally covered with a sticky exudation.) Flowers regular, of 5 sepals, 58 VIOLET FAMILY. 5 petals, and 5 stamens ; the claws of the petals sometimes slightly united : ovary one-celled with three parietal placenta, a single style and stigma. Fruit a globular woody pod, many-seeded. P. Tobira, COMMON P. A low tree, cultivated as a house-plant (from Japan), with obovatc and retusc evergreen leaves crowded at the end of the branches, which arc terminated by a small sessile umbel of white fragrant flowers, produced in winter. 14. VIOLACE^EI, VIOLET FAMILY. Commonly known only by the principal genus of the order, viz. 1. VIOLA, VIOLET. (Ancient Latin name.) Sepals 5, persistent. Pet- als 5, more or less unequal, the lower one with a sac or spur at the base. (Lessons, p. 91, fig. 181, 182.) Stamens 5, short: the very broad flat fila- ments conniving and slightly cohering around the pistil, which they cover, all but the end of the style and the (usually one-sided) stigma, bearing the anthers on their inner face, two of these spurred at the base. Ovary and pod 1 -celled, with 3 parietal placenta?, containing several rather large seeds. Herbs, with stipules to the alternate leaves, and 1-flowered peduncles. * STEMLESS VIOLETS, with leaves and peduncles all from creeping or sub. terranean rootstocks, there being no proper ascending steins : all flowering in spring, also producing inconspicuous flowers and most of the fruitful pods, all summer, concealed among the leaves. *- Garden species, from Europe: fm grant. V. Odorata, SWEET VIOLET. Cult, from Eu., the tufts spreading hy creeping runners ; leaves rounded heart-shaped, more or less downy ; flowers purple-blue (violet-color) varying to bluish and white, single or in cultivation commonly full double. Hardy ; while the ITALIAN VIOLET, the variety used for winter-blooming, with leaves smoother and brighter green and flowers paler or grayish-blue, is tender northward. *- H- Wild species : slightly sweet-scented or scentless. -* Flowers blue or violet-color. V. Selkirk!!, SELKIRK'S V. Small, only 2' high, the rounded henrt- shapcd leaves spreading flat on the ground ; the flower large in proportion, its thick spur nearly as long as the beardless petals : on shady banks, only N. V. sagittata, ARUOAV-LEAVKD V. One of the commonest and earliest ; leaves varying from oblong-heart-shaped to ovate and often rather halberd- shaped, the earlier ones on short and margined petioles ; flower large in propor- tion ; spur short and sac-shaped, as in all the following. V. CUCUllata, COMMON BLUE V. The tallest and commonest of the blue violets, in all low grounds, with matted fleshy and scaly-toothed rootstocks, erect and heart-shaped or kidney-shaped obscurely serrate leaves, with the sides at the base rolled in when young, on long petioles ; flowers sometimes pale or variegated with white. V. palmata, HAND-LEAP V., is a variety of the last, with the leaves, or all the later ones, 3 - 7-cleft or parted ; common southward. V. pedata, BIRD-FOOT V. Grows in sandy or light soil, from a short and thick or tuber-like rootstock ; the leaves all cut into linear divisions or lobes ; the flower large, beardless, usually light violet-color : sometimes the two upper petals deep dark violet, like a pansy. V. delphimf61ia, LARKSPUR-LEAVED V., takes the place of the preced- ing in prairies, &c. W. and is like it, but has the lateral petals bearded. ++ *- Flowers (small) white, the lower petal, purplish-veined. V. blanda, SWEET WHITE V. Very common, with faintly sweet-scented flowers, all the petals beardless; leaves rounded heart-shaped or 'kidney -shaped. V. pr!mul86f61!a, PRIMROSE-LEAVED V. Common S., between the last and next, has oblong or ovate leaves. V. lanceolata, LANCE-LEAVED V. Commonest S., has lanceolate leaves tapering into long petioles, and beardless petals. SUNDEW FAMILY. 59 .M. ++ -M. Flowers yellow. V. rotundif61ia, ROUND-LEAVED V. Only in cold woods N. ; the roundish heart-shaped leaves flat on the ground, becoming large and shining in summer ; spreads by runners ; flower small. * * LEAFY-STEMMED VIOLETS, wild, perennial: flowering in, spring and summer. -i Flowers yellow, short-spurred : stem 2 4-leuved above, naked below. V. pubescens, DOWNY YELLOW V. Common in rich woods ; soft- downy, also a rather smooth variety; leaves broadly heart-shaped. V/hastata, IIALHKRD-LKAVED V. Scarce W. & S. ; smoother; leaves oblong-heart-shaped, halberd-shaped, or 3-lobed ; flower small. H- -i- Flowers not yelloiv : stem branched, leafy below : leaves rounded, heart-shaped. V. striata, PALE V. Not rare N. & W., low; flowers creamy-white, with lower petal purple-lined ; spur short ; stipules large in proportion, strongly fringe-toothed. V. canina, DOG V., the Amcr. variety : common in low grounds ; low, with creeping branches or short runners, fringe-toothed stipules, and spur half the length of the violet flower. V. rostrata, LONG-SPURRED V. Shady hills N. & W. ; 6' high, with fringe-toothed stipules, and slender spur longer than the pale violet petals. V. Canadensis, CANADA V. Common in rich woods N. & W., taller than the others, l-2 high, larger-leaved, with entire stipules; flowers all summer, the petals white or purplish above, the upper ones violet-purple under- neath ; spur very short and blunt. * *- * PANSY ViOLETS,_//*om Europe, with leafy and branching stems, and large leaf-like stipules : flowering through the spring and summer. V. tricolor, PANSY or HEART'S-EASE. Cult, or running wild in gardens, low, with roundish leaves, or the upper oval and lowest heart-shaped ; "stipules lyrate-pinnatifid ; petals of various colors, and often variegated, and under culti- vation often very largo and showy, the spur short and blunt. Var. ARVENSIS, is a field variety, slender and small-flowered, thoroughly naturalized in some 1> luces. (1) fu) 21 V. COrnuta, HORNED V. From the Pyrenees, cult, in borders of late ; has stipules merely toothed, and light violet-purple flowers with a very long and slender spur. 2/ 15. DROSERACE^E, SUNDEW FAMILY. Bog-herbs, with regular flowers, on scapes ; leaves in a tuft at the root, glandular-bristly or bristly-fringed, and rolled up from the apex in the bud, in the manner of Ferns ; the persistent sepals and withering-persistent petals each 5; stamens 5-15 with their anthers turned outward ; and a 1-celled many-seeded pod. Represented by two genera. 1. DROSKRA. Stamens 5. Styles 3-5, but 2-partecl so as to seem like 6-10. Ovarv with 3 parietal placenta?. Reddish-colored and sticky-glandular. 2. DIONvEA. Stamens 15. Style 1: stigma lobed and fringed. Ovules nnd seeds all at the broad base of the ovary and pod. Leaves terminated by a bristly-bordered fly-trap. 1. DBOSERA, SUNDEW. (Name means in Greek dewy, or beset with dew-drops, the gland surmounting the bristles of the leaves producing a clear and dew-like drop of liquid, which is glutinous, and serves to catch small flics.) Flowers small, in a 1 -sided spike or raceme, each opening only once, in sun- shine, in summer. 2/ * Flowers small, white : leaves with a blade. D. rotundif61ia, ROUND-LEAVED S. The commonest species in peat- bogs, white round leaves on long petioles spreading in a tuft. When a small fly or other insect is caught by the sticky glands on "the upper face of the leaf, GO ROCK-ROSE FAMILY. the bristles of the outer rows very slowly turn inwards, so that their glands help to hold the prey ! D. longifdlia, LODGER-LEAVED S. In very wet bogs or shallow water, with spatulate-oblong leaves, some of them erect, oYi long petioles. D. brevif61ia, SHORT-LEAVKD S. In wet sand, only at the S. ; small ; scape only 2' - 5' high, few-flowered ; leaves short, wedge-shaped. * * Flowers rose-purple : no blade to the leaf. D. fllifdlia, THREAD-LEAVED S. In wet sandy soil near the coast, from Plymouth, Mass., to Florida ; leaves erect, thread-shaped ; scape G' - 12' high, from a bulb-like base ; flowers handsome, ' or more broad. 2. DION M A, VENUS'S FLY-TRAP. (Named for the mother of Venus. ) 11 Only one species, D. muscipula. Grows only in sandy bogs near Wilmington, N. Car., but kept in conservatories as a great curiosity. (See Lessons, p. 5:2, fig. 81, for the leaves, and the way they catch insects !) Flowers white, borne in an umbel-like cyme on a scape 1 high, in sprin . 16. CISTACE^I, ROCK-ROSE FAMILY. Shrubby or low herbaceous plants, with regular flowers ; a per- sistent calyx of 5 sepals, two of them exterior and resembling bracts; the petals and stamens on the receptacle ; the style single or none ; ovary 1-celled with 3 or o parietal placenta} (Lessons, fig. 2G1), bearing orthotropous ovules. Represented in greenhouses by one showy species, CISTUS LADANIFERUS of Europe (not common), and in sandy woods and fields by the following wild plants. 1. HELIANTHEMUM. Petals 5, crumpled in the bud, fugacious (falling :it the close of the first day). Stamens and ovules many in the complete flower: placentas 3. Style none or short 2. HUDSONIA. Petals as in the last. Calyx narrow. Stamens 9 -30. Style slender. Ovules few. 3. LECHKA. Petals 3, persistent, not longer than the calyx. Stamens 3-12. Style none. Pod partly 3-cel!ed, 6-seeded. 1. HELIANTHEMUM, FROSTWEED. (Name from Greek words for sun and flower, the blossoms opening only in sunshine. Popular name, from crystals of ice shooting from the cracked bark at the root late in the autumn.) Low, yellow-flowered, in sandy or gravelly soil. ^ H. Canad^nse, CANADIAN or COMMON F. Common, and the only one N. ; has lance-oblong leaves hoary beneath; flowers produced all summer, some with showy corolla 1' broad and many stamens ; others small and clus- tered along the stem, with inconspicuous corolla and 3-10 stamens ; the latter produce small few-seeded pods. H. COrymb6sum, only along the coast S., is downy all over, with smaller flowers clustered at the top of the stem, and larger ones long-peduncled. H. Carolinianum, grows only S., is hairy, with green leaves, the lower obovate and clustered ; flowers all largc-pctalled and scattered, in spring. 2. HUDSONIA. (For an English botanist, William Hudson.) Heath-like little shrubs, 6' -12' high, nearly confined to sandy shores of the ocean and Great Lakes, with minute downy leaves closely covering the branches, and small yellow flowers, opening in sunshine, in spring and summer. H. ericoides, HEATH-LIKE II. Greenish; leaves awl-shaped; flowers peduneled. From New Jersey N. H. tomentbsa, Dowxv II. Hoary with soft down ; leaves oblong r : H. all summer. PURSLANE FAMILY. 69 21. PORTULACACEJE, PURSLANE FAMILY. Succulent-leaved herbs, with 2 sepals and 5 petals, the stamens sometimes many, sometimes few, and then one before each petal ; ovary 1-celled, becoming a pod, with many or few kidney-shaped seeds on a central placenta, or on slender seed-stalks from the base. Seeds as in the Pink Family. 1. PORTULACA. Stamens more numerous than the petals. Style cleft into several slender divisions. Lower part of the ovary and many-seeded pod united with the bottom of the calyx; the upper part when mature falling off as a lid. Flowers opening only once, in sunshine. 2. TALINUM. Stamens more numerous than the petals. Style 3-lobed at the summit. Calyx free from the ovary, deciduous. Pod 3-valved, many-seeded. Flowers opening only once, in sunshine. 3. CALANDKINIA. Stamens numerous. Style 3-cleft at the summit. Calyx free from the ovary, persistent, enclosing the 3-valved many-seeded pod. Flowers opening only once, in sunshine. 4. CLAYTONIA. Stamens 5, one attached to the base of each petal. Style 3-cleft at the summit. Calyx persistent, free from the few-seeded pod. Flowers usually opening for more than one day. 1. PORTULACA, PURSLANE. ( Old Latin name for Purslane. ) Leafy and branching, low and spreading, with fleshy sessile leaves ; fl. all summer. (Lessons, p. 103, fig. 214.) P. oleracea, COMMON P. Very smooth, with prostrate stems, obovate or wedge-form leaves, and small sessile flowers opening only in bright sunshine and for a short time ; the petals pale yellow. The commonest garden weed, sometimes used as a pot-herb. P. pilosa, HAIRY P. Wild far S., has linear terete leaves, with a tuft of beard-like hairs in the axils, and rather large pink flowers. P. grandiflbra, GREAT-FLOWERED P., is probably a variety of the last, from South America, commonly cult, for ornament ; the large very showy flowers brilliant purple, crimson, red, sometimes white or yellow, or with light centre, of many shades or variations. 2. TALINUM. (Name unexplained.) One wild species in some places. T. teretifdlium, TERETE-LEAVED T. Low and smooth, with thick and fleshy root, short stems bearing crowded linear terete leaves, and a slender naked peduncle, many-flowered ; petals rose-purple. Serpentine rocks, Penn- sylvania, and rarer west and south : fl. all summer. Ij. 3. CALANDRINIA. (Named for a Swiss botanist, Calandrini.) Culti- vated for ornament in choice gardens : fl. all summer. C. discolor. Cult, as an annual, from Chili ; very glabrous, making a rosette of fleshy spatulate leaves at the root (these glaucous above and tinged with piirple beneath), and sending up a naked flower-stem, bearing a raceme of lai'ire rose-purple flowers, 2' in diameter. C. Menzi&sii, MENZIES' C. Low, spreading, leafy-stemmed annual, from Oregon and California, with bright green and tender lance-spatulate leaves, and crimson flowers (nearly 1' broad) in a short leafy raceme. 4. CLAYTONIA, SPRING BEAUTY. (Named for John Clayton, an early botanist in Virginia. ) Low, smooth herbs : ours producing only a pair of stem leaves and a short raceme of flowers. * Stem simple from a round tuber : leaves separate : fi. early spring. ^ C. Virginica, NARROW-LEAVED S. In moist woods, one of the prettiest spring flowers ; petals rose-color with pink veins ; leaves linear-lanceolate. C. Caroliniana, BROADER-LEAVED S. In rich woods ; commonest N. and along the Allegnanies, smaller than the other, with oblong-spa tu late or lance-oblong leaves only 1' or 2' long. 70 MALLOW FAMILY. * * Stem-leaves united into one usually rounded blade or cup underneath the tmall and ivhitish flowers : fl. summer. C. perfoli&ta occurs in some gardens, from Oregon and California; small, of no beauty ; root-leaves tufted, spatulate or lanceolate. 22. MALVACE^I, MALLOW FAMILY. Known by the monadelphous numerous stamens, their tgbe con- nected with the base of the petals, kidney-shaped 1-celled anthers (Lessons, p. 114, fig. 238), the calyx valvate and the corolla con- volute in the bud. Herbs or shrubs, with alternate palmately-veined and often lobed leaves, evident stipules, and regular flowers, the true sepals and the petals 5. There is commonly an involucre of several bracts, resembling an outer calyx. Seeds kidney-shaped : the leafy cotyledons crumpled or doubled up, in some mucilaginous albumen. Innocent plants, mucilaginous, with a very tough fibrous bark. 1. Anthers all borne in a cluster at the top of the short tube of filaments. # Ovaries numerous and separate, crowded in a head, in fruit becoming little \-seeded pods or akenes. Involucre conspicuous as a soi't uf vuter calyx. Herbs. 1. MALOPE. Involucre of 3 ovate or heart-shaped leaves. Annuals. 2. KITAIBELIA. Involucre of 6 - 9 ovate aud pointed leaves united at the base. Perennial. * * Ovaries several or many united in a ring around an axis, in fruit commonly falling away separately, each l-seeded. Ours are all herbs. +- Stigmas running down the side of the slender styles. 3. ALTILEA. Involucre of 6-9 bracts united at the base. Axis of the fruit not projecting nor enlarged. 4. LAVATEEA. Involucre of 3 - 6 more united bracts. Axis of the fruit over- topping the carpels. 5. MALVA. Involucre of only 3 separate bracts. Petals obcordate, otherwise entire. Carpels beakless. 6. CALLIERHOE. Involucre of 1 - 3 bracts or none. Petals wedge-shaped and truncate, denticulate or cut-fringed at the end. Carpels with a sort of beak at the summit. 7. NAPJEA. Involucre none. Flowers diojcious ! t- -t- Stiymas capitate or truncate at the apex of the styles. 8. ANODA. Involucre none. Fruit depressed, very flat and star-shaped, the sides of the numerous carpels evanescent: seed nearly horizontal. 9. SID A. Involucre none. Fruit separating into 5 or more closed carpels, or each 2-valved at the apex: seed hanging. * * # Ovaries and cells of the fruit 2 - several-seeded. 10. ABUTILON. Involucre none. Carpels each 3 - several-seeded. 11. MODIOLA. Involucre of 3 bractlets. Carpels each 2-seeded, with a cross partition between the upper and lower seed. 2. Anthers borne along the outside of the tube of Jilaments. Ovary and fruit 3- several-celled : stigmas capitate. Involucre present. Herbs, shrubs, * Involucre of several or many bracts. 12. MALVA VISCUS. Branches of the style arid stigmas 10, twice as many as the cells of the ovary. Petals not separating and spreading. Fruit berry-like: cells l-seeded. 13. KOSTKLETZKYA. Branches of the style and stigmas 5. Pod 5-celled; the cells single-seeded. 14. HIBISCUS. Branches of the style or stigmas and cells of the ovary 6. Pod S-cclled^oculicidal; the cells many-seeded. * * Involucre of 3 large and heart-shaped leaf -like bracts. 15. GOSSYPIUM. Styles united into one: stigmas 3-5, as many as the cells of the pod. Seeds numerous, bearing cotton. MALLOW FAMILY. 71 1. MALOPE. (Ancient Greek narae for some kind of Mallow.) Herbs, resembling Mallows, from the Mediterranean region ; cult, as garden annuals : fl. summer. M. triflda, THREE-LOBED M. Smooth, with rounded leaves, the upper ones 3-lobed ; the handsome flowers 2' or more broad, rose-color, veined with purple or rose- red, also a white var. M. malaeoides is rarer, hairy, low, with oblong-ovate toothed leaves, long peduncles, and rose-colored flowers. If, 2. KITAIBELIA. (Named for Paul Kitaibel, a botanist of Hungary, where the plant grows wild.) Fl. summer. The only species is K. vitifdlia, VINE-LEAVED K. Cult. -in gardens; a rough-hairy herb, 2 - 3 high, rather clammy at the summit, with acutely 5-lobed and toothed leaves, involucre longer than the true calyx, and dull white corolla l' b*oad when expanded, 24 3. ALTHJEA. (From Greek word meaning to cure, used in medicine as an emollient.) Tall herbs (the Shrubby Althaea belongs not to this genus, but to Hibiscus), natives only of the Old World : fl. summer and autumn. A. officinalis, MARSH-MALLOW. Rarely cult., but has run wild on the coast E. ; a rather coarse downy plant, with 'ovate, sometimes a little heart- ehaped or 3-lobed leaves, and clusters of short-peduncled flowers in their axils ; corolla 1' broad, rose-color. The thick root is used for its mucilage, and for making Marsh-Mallow paste. 1}. A. rbsea, HOLLYHOCK. Cult, from Syria, with tall and simple hairy stem, rugose rounded and heart-shaped angled or 5 - 7-lobed leaves, and large flowers on very short peduncles, forming a long spike ; corolla of all shades of rose, purple, white, or yellow, single or double, 3' - 4' broad. 4. LAVATERA. (Named for the brothers Lavater, of Zurich.) A sort of Mallow, sometimes cult, in gardens, from Europe :' fl. all summer. L. trimestris, THREE-MONTH L. or FLOWERING MALLOW. Smooth of ismoothish, l-2 high ; lower leaves round-kidney-shaped, crenate, upper heart- shaped, uppermost 3-lobed ; floWers 2' - 3' broad, rose-color, rarely white ; in fruit a broad disk-shaped or umbrella-like expansion of th top of the axis com- pletely covers the carpels. L. Thuringiaca. GERMAN- L. Rather downy, smaller; leaves mostly 3-lobed; flowers long-peduncled, l^'-2' broad, rose-color; in fruit the axis pro- jects much beyond the ring of carpels as a pointed cone. 2/ L. arbbrea, TREE MALLOW. Not quite hardy N., has a stout stem 2 -6 high, woody below, rounded 5 9-lobed rather doAvny leaves, pale purple flow- ers 1^' broad, on short pedicels, in a terminal raceme or narrow panicle ; the axis of the fruit (Hke that of Mallow) not projecting beyond the carpels. 2/ 5. MALVA, MALLOW. (Latin alteration of an old Greek word, mean- ing soft or emollient.) All from Europe or the Orient, but several have run wild in fields and along roadsides : fl. all summer and autumn. * Flowers small, white or whitish, not conspicuous nor handsome. M. rotimdifblia, COMMON or ROUND-LEAVED M. Weed in cult, grounds ; with procumbent stems from a strong deep root, rounded kidney- shaped crenate leaves on very long petioles, rather slender peduncles, and fruit not Avrinkled. 1J. M. crispa, CURLED M. In country gardens, rarely in waste places ; with erect stem (4 -6 high) leafy to the top, rounded 5 - 7-lobed or angled leaves very much crisped round the margin, flowers clustered and almost sessile in the axils, and fruit slightly wrinkled. * * Flowers larger, more or less showy, l'-2' in diameter; the purple, rose-color, or sometimes white petals much exceeding the calyx : stem erect. M. Mauritiana, sometimes called TREE MALLOW. Cult. ; 3 - 5 hi^h, with rounded 5-lobed smooth or smoothish leaves, and clusters in their axils" of 72 M ALI.oW 1 AM I I \. IV in diameter, the petal color or white, striped \vith dark purple t.r \ inlet veins M. Sylv68tris, lln.n M. Hardens and roadsiilt'M ; 2 - .V hii-li. lu'anch Ith rather sharply .' ~ lohed leaves, :iud purple rose colored (lowers rather MU dler than in l!n- la-.l ; tVnil wrinkled veiny. .> "ty M. AlCOft. (iardens ; % J -I 1 ' hiiji, hairy. \\illi stcin-leAVeS parted almost. to the base into l\ :") divisions \\liirh arc a; vain ,'t :"> rlrfi or cut toothed ; and (lowers in clusters or terminal racemes; t'ofollu lloc]) IXJSO-COlQJfj ly' '-!' I. road ; iVuil smooth, ininii(c'!\ wrinkled veinv. ^( M. IHOSch^la, Mi>u Nl. (iar.Kus, lind cM-ain-d lo roadsides, ! lliu'll, rallicr liain, \\illi llu- h.-rlia-.i- lainllx musk scrnri-d, lra\ cs aUonl lliriro |Mr!cd or i-nl inlo .-drndrr linear lol>i-s, and sliorl |>rdnnrlv'd lloucrs soniculiat or raiviiK-d ; rorolla IV Kroad. rose color or \\liilr; t'rnil do\\n\. 0. CALLIRRHOE. (A C.m-k m\ tholoi-ical II.-UIH-. :i|i|iliiMl lo N. . \iurrican plauls.) Sprcics clncll\ larllu-r W, and S., hccomiii:; ralhrr coininon in rlio'u-i- gardens. Klo\\rrs i-nin>on. inan\c. or n-d purple, vcr\ .slut\\>, pro- all Miiiiinrr. C. triangUl&ta. l>r\ prairii-s iVoni Wi-i-onsiit S. ; stems cnM, i?" \\\g\\ ; n i.in. n!ar, halNcrd shaped, or (In- lo\\ rsi lieart sliaped, tin- upper ent lotted or .'< -."> elel'l ; llo\\ ers soineu hal |anieled and short pednneled ; imolncre as louj; as the calx \ ; eorolla 1 .1 ' or less in diameter ; carpels of the t'rnil e\eu on I lie hack, lipped \\ith a short point. ('. UlYOlUOr&ta. Wild from plains of Xehravka S., and enlt. for orna meni ; >tenN -pi\adin^ on tho ground. 1 .'$ loiiu' ; stipules eonspicnons ; lea\os nMinded, .' parted or cleft and cut lohed, shorter than (he a\illar\ pednu- rh'S ; imolncre shorter than thecd\\; cotolla :' or more hroad ; ear[icls of tho tVuit retienlati'd, tipped \\ith a llat and inconspicnons l>,-ak. dd C. Pftp^lVOI*. NN dd in rich uoodlands from (ieoiyia to Te\a^, and spar- dt. ; .stems short, a->cendm:v. t'e\\ leased ; leaves :\ ,"> parted \\iih lance- lilh'av di\ IMOIIS, or the louest rathei" iieart shaped and cleft into ohlou^ lohcs ; a\illar\ peduncles \cr\ ^ofien I' 1 ) loiii;- ; imolncre of 1 - ;> hraets or none; corolla' _" or more hroiid ; carpi'ls of the fruit \\rinkled or reticulati-d and \\ith a stout nicnrvc.l heal. C. digitftttl. N\'dd in prairies of Arkansas an. I Texts; \^ hi-h ; leaves uiosth from the root, .' ~ parted into lon^ linear sometime^ _> ;; cleft di\ is- ions ; pe.luncles Ion-- and >leuder ; iiixolucre none; eorolla I.V-U' hi'oad, the (riii-c toothed at the end ; fruit nearh as m tlu> last. * * li,x>t alt- ml,' r or (ti{ h-rin<> : 'it r/XK/r smooth. ,O e-'" 1 C. pOd&tR. \N'dd ni !'. l'c\as ; not rare cult.; stem t-reet, I -."> hi;:h. leafy ; leaves rounded, : 7 lohed or |iarted and the \\ ed^e shapi'd div i^ioiis clcl't u % cut; peduncles slender, longer than the leaves; inv olnerc none ; corolla ahont I . luoad, the petals minntelv eio.led at the end ; carpels of the fruit smooth and even on the hack, ami \villi a stout conspicuous heak. 7. NAP^SA, Ul APT MA! 10\V. l I'n.m I Jnvk uanu- lor ,/// .>rm//.A o/' (It? t/ri>rt N. ) (Mdv one species, N. dioloa. In \allevs, chiellv in limestone districts of IVuu.. Virginia. and W. A rather coarse, rOQghUh herh ; stem 4 - 7 hi:;h ; leaves '. |i partv-d iilhl their lohes cut and toothed, the lowest often l l> in diameter; llo\\evs small, in panielcd cor v mhs, in summer. 8. ANODA. (Origin of the name ohseure.) l.o\v herbs from Mexico. l'e\ :s, k \ i , sparin^U cult, tor ornament. Stems, v \e. hirsute: |>eihincles and slender, 1 tlo\\eri-d. Krnit in the form of a mam ra\ ed star, sup- ) ortcd by the spreadim; ."> ra\e.l ealv \ : when ripe the rim of each carpel falls ;v xvi'th (lie scc.l it i-mhraces, the sides or partitions disappearing. r A. haat^ta has mostly halln-rd shaped K'aves. and blue or \iolet only 1' - l^ ' in diameter ; "lobes of the calyx oxate. scarcely pointed. At \l 1 M\ 1 VM1M. 73 A. cristata has wosti\ triAOgularyor obaourel) haihord shaped and toothed It-axes. and purple or rOM-Qolorw orolla l" in diameter. loU . ,.( il,, irianunlar. taper pointed. 9. SIDA. ( Ancient name, of ohscnre meanin:-.) Mostlx rather small llo\\ cred or \\eedx herhs. \\Jih ^ \ _> stxlo> and carpels ; il. summer niitl iiulmnn. * /Vf//.7f\s n.rilltin,. iwo/Ai f/r/Aw. S. Spinbs.M. S. named in.ni the little pointed projection or tnhcrdc :U lhr> hase of the petiole. lul \\ huh can hardlx he milt ! a >]inr ; s(rn\s nuu'h hl'MiU'linl. lO'-UD'' hi^h ; K>;\o> hnur <-\ aic. MMT:IIO. uiinud'lx f-ol'i ilounx ; |)Cihinclr-> \n\ shori ; ll.MM-r \ .T\ small : |>ol OVfttO, oi' .. CWp^li, r.-n-h s|>lu'lui:; al lop ml.- ;' points. A fonunon \\w\ S. >!' NY\\ ^ ork. ffi S. rhoillbif61ia. Hut Ilio lo:nos arr h:inll\ vhouihit'. usii:il!\ Ian. oblong, sliorl pr(iolv-l, scrrnlr. p:ilo and \\hil i.-h do\\n\ In-nralU ; si. in . ! ;? higll, nun li liraiu-hod ; in'dunrK^ ralhor Ion- ; ilo\\ ,T -.mall; trim .1 [0 Ol I poinlrd vanx'ls. A \\ QMJ MI!\ S. ,1 S. ElliottiL Noarlv smooth. 1" .jo i,i..j, : Irav.'s linrar or lan.-colalr. srrrati'. shorl |viioK>d ; llo\\.-r 1' broad, on a slioi'i pi'dnurlc ; (Vnil of 10- la m-arlv l>lnn( carprls. Woodlands S. J/ tcln'tc S. Nauom. Smooth: stem simple, 1 7 htffh; h-axcs round.-d. :eieft. the lohes toothed and tapor-pointod ; corolla ahont 1' hroa.l ; styles and colls of the jto.l 10. \Yild in S. renn. ami Yin:. Cull, in old gardens. ^ 10. ABUTILON. 1NPIAN MM IOW (Origin of name ohsenre.) Rosemhle. Sida. hut cells more than one seeded ; lloxxors nsnaln A. Avicdnnso, YII\II i.rxr c u i, loft and old gardens, 3 .vinYh: It-axes ronndi-.h heart shaped, lapcr pointotl. soft xelxelx ; peduncles shoi lei thiill peliolo. 1 :5 lloxvercd ; corolla oram.c \ .-lloxx ; fruit' of 1 *J 1 j muted hau v carpels xxith spreadm". 1'eaks. Kl aiilninn. . r A. StriatUlll, STRIPED \\:\ riLON, Cult, in L-.n-cnhonses. v\c, from Ura ,1. a tall shrnh. x erx smooth, xxith rounded heart shaped M-lohed h-a\t-^. (ho lohes \erx taper pointed, and prctlx lar ; -.e soliiarx tloxxers lian-m- on a x ci \ lt>niv and Slender petlnncle : ct>nlla not spreadin-, o|.cn. 01 an; e , O',M ed. xxiih tlet-pt-r or lrt>x\nish vtMnin^ or sn~ipos. 11. MODIOLA. (Tho sh..,po of Ihe ,lcprcsM-,l fruil likened to ihe Koman mt-asnro ;W;Wrw.) rnHMJinhont or spveadm-. small lloxx erc.l. xxt-ed\ planls. M. multillda. Virginia and S.. in loxx :.; rounds ; loa\os .'< - 7 cleft ami out. or the earlier ones rounded and nmlixided; tloxxers red. V hroad; fruit hairy at tho lop. 12. MALVAVfSCUS. (Name COmpO*l Of llWlW. M.-illow. ami visits. birdlime, from the ffllltittOUS pnlp of the horrx like Iruil .) Shrnhhx planls. xxilh shoxx \ searlet tloxxors. of peculiar .appearance, the petals not expaudm.". hut remainim; convolute around the lower part of the slender projecting and soon tvxisted column, hold together as il xxcrehx a little side lohe near fho haso of tho inner od^o. M. al'b6rOHS, tho eommon West India sjiooios. cult in some hot h- has heart shaped leaxcs lom-.cr than hroad. ami yolloxx i;di fruit M. Dl'limimSl.ldii, ol 'l'e\as, if housed iu inter tloxxers all summer in open :-.r,. und. is soli tloxxnx. xxith more ronntle.l an.l s,.mc\\hat ;5 lol-ed leav. snid scarlcl t'ruii. 13. KOSTEL^ITZSKYA. (Nam-d fora Hohemian hotanist. K,*t,-!,-l;sly.) lake llihisens. onlx the -ells of ovary and Iriiit 1 seeded. Kl. summer. K. Virgillica, YIKI.IXIVX 1\. In and near salt marshes, from NY\\ York and Ncxx ,1. -rsc_\ S : ronirhish hairy. 'J l< 5 hi^h : leaves heart sh-ipcd or mo ilv :? -lohod. t>ftcn halht-rd shaped ; tloxxors s mcx\hai racomcd or panicl..!. purple. I' - U' hnad. ^/ 74 MALLOW FAMILY. 14. HIBISCUS, "ROSE-MALLOW. (Ancient name, of obscure origin.) Flowers showy, usually large, in summer and autumn. * Tall shrubs or even trees, exotics. H. Syriacus, TREE H. or SHRUBBY ALTHAEA, of gardens and grounds, common, native of the Levant : nearly smooth, with wedge-ovate and 3-lobed leaves, and short-peduncled flowers in their axils, in autumn, about 3' broad, purple, rose-color, white, c., often double. H. Rosu-Sinensis. CHINA H. or ROSE or CHINA. Cult, in conserva- tories, from East Indies (where the splendid corollas, which stain black, are used to black shoes) : very smooth, with bright green ovate and pointed somewhat toothed leaves, and very showy flowers on slender peduncles, 4' or 5' broad, scarlet-red (rarely rose-purple or even white), often double. # # Herbs, with persistent and regular 5-lobed calyx, and a short pod. - Wild species, but sometimes cultivated, tall and large. 2/ H. COCCineus, GREAT RED H. or ROSE-MALLOW. Marshes from Caro- lina S. ; very smooth, 4 - 7 high, with leaves 5 -parted or deeply cleft into long lanceolate and taper-pointed divisions, and bright-red corolla 6' -11' broad, the petals narrowed below. H. militaris, HALBERD-LEAVED R. Low grounds from Pennsylvania and Illinois S. ; smooth, 3 -4 high, with ovate or heart-shaped toothed or 3-lobed leaves, some of them halberd-shaped, and slendcr-peduncled llowers, with inflated calyx, and flesh-colored corolla 4'.- 5' broad. H. MoscheutOS, SWAMP R. Common in brackish marshes and up the larger livers ; 3 - 7 high, soft-downy ; the ovate pointed and often 3-lobed leaves hoary beneath, generally smooth above ; peduncles slender; corolla 4' - G' broad, pale rose or white, with or without a darker centre ; pod smooth. H. grandifldrus, LARGE-PL. R. Swamps, from Illinois and Carolina S. ; like the last, but leaves soft-downy both sides, and pod velvety-hairy. H. aculeatUS, PRICKLY or ROUGH R. Swamps only S. ; rough with stiff bristles and bristly points, 2 - 6 high ; leaves 3 - 5-cleft and the divisions mostly toothed ; flowers short-pcduncled ; leaves of the involucre often forked ; corolla yellow with a purple centre, 4' broad ; pod bristly. -- H- Exotic low species, in gardens or cultivated grounds. (T) H. Tridnum, BLADDER KETMIA or FLOWER-OF-AN-HOUR. Rather hairy, l-2 high, with the leaves toothed, or the upper 3-parted into lanceolate lobes, the middle lobe much longest ; calyx inflated and bladdery ; corolla about 2- broad, sulphur-yellow with a blackish eye, open only in midday sunshine. * * * Herbs, with caly.r splitting down one side, and generally fa/ling off at once, and with long or narrow pyramidal or angled pod: natives of Jasi Indies. H. esculentUS, OKRA or GUMBO. Nearly smooth, with rounded heart- shaped 5-1 o bed toothed leaves, greenish-yellow flowers on slender peduncle (invo- lucre falling early), and narrow pods 3' or 4' long, which arc very mucilaginous, and when green cooked and eaten, or used to thicken soups : cult. S. (f) H. Manihot. Smoothish, with leaves 5 - 7 -parted into long narrow divis- ions ; the large and showy corolla pale yellow with a dark eye; the leaves of the involucre hairy and soon falling off: introduced or cult. S." W. 2/ 15. GOSSlTPIUM, COTTON. (Name given by Pliny, from the Arabic.) Plants now diffused over warm countries, most valuable for the wool on the seeds : the species much mixed up. G. herbaceum, COMMON COTTON. Cult. S. Leaves with 5 short and roundish lobes ; petals pale yellow or turning rose-color, purple at base. G. Barbadense, BARBADOES OR SEA-!SLAND C. Cult, on the coast S. Inclining to be shrubby at base ; branches black-dotted ; leaves with 5 longer lance-ovate and taper-pointed lobes ; leaves of the involucre Avith very long and slender teeth ; petals yellowish or whitish with purple base. G. arb6reum, I'KKE C. Cult. S., only for curiosity, has 5-7 nearly lanceolate and taper-pointed lobes to the leaves, leaves of involucre slightly toothed, and a purple corolla with a darker centre. CAMELLIA OR TEA FAMILY. 75 23. STERCULIACE-2E, STERCULIA FAMILY. Chiefly a tropical family, to which belongs the THEOBROMA or CHOCOLATE-TREE ; in common cultivation known here only by a single species of 1. MAHERNIA. (Name an anagram of Hermannia, a genus very like it.) Calyx, corolla, &c. as in the Mallow Family ; but the stamens only 5, one before each petal ; the filaments monadelphous only at the base and en- larged about the middle, and the anthers with 2 parallel cells. The edges of the base of the petals rolled inwards, making a hollow claw. Ovary 5-celled, with several ovules in each cell : styles 5, united at the base. M. verticill&ta. Cult, from Cape of Good Hope, in conservatories pro- ducing a succession of honey-yellow sweet-scented small blossoms, on slender peduncles, all winter and spring ; a sort of woody perennial, with slender and spreading or hanging roughish branches and small green irregularly pinnatifid leaves ; the specific name given because the leaves seem to be whorled ; but this is because the stipules, which are cut into several linear divisions, imitate leaves. 24. TILIACE^E, LINDEN FAMILY. Chiefly a tropical family, represented here only by an herbaceous CORCHORUS on our southernmost borders, and by the genus of fine trees which gives the name. 1. TILIA, LINDEN, LIME-TREE, BASS WOOD. (The old Latin name.) Sepals 5, valvate in the bud, as in the Mallow Family, but decidu- ous. Petals 5, imbricated in the bud, spatulatc-oblong. Stamens numerous ; their filaments cohering in 5 clusters, sometimes with a petal-like body in each cluster ; anthers 2-celled. Pistil with a 5-celled ovary, having 2 ovules in each cell, in fruit becoming a rather woody globular 1 - 2-sceded little nut. Style 1 : stigma 5-toothed. Embryo with a slender radicle and leaf-like lobcd cotyledons folded up in the albumen. Trees with mucilaginous shoots, fibrous inner bark (bast), soft white wood, alternate roundish and serrate leaves more or less heart-shaped and commonly oblique at the base, deciduous stipules, and a cyme of small, dull cream-colored, honey-bearing floAvers, borne in early summer on a nodding axillary peduncle which is united to a long and narrow leaf-like bract. # A. petal-like scale before each petal, to the base of which the stamens are joined. T. Americana, AMERICAN LINDEN or COMMON BASSWOOD. A hand- some and large forest-tree, with leaves of rather firm texture and smooth or smoothish both sides, or in one variety thinner and more downy but not white beneath. T. heterophylla, WHITE LINDEN. Along the Alleghany region from Penn. and Kentucky S. ; has larger leaves silvery white with a fine down under- neath. * * No scales with the stamens. Natives of Europe. T. Europsea, EUROPEAN L., embraces both the SMALL-LEAVED variety, which is commonly planted about cities, and the LARGE-LEAVED or DUTCH L., with leaves as large and firm as those of our wild Basswood. 25. CAMELLIACE^l, CAMELLIA or TEA FAMILY. Trees or shrubs, with alternate and simple feather-veined leaves, and no stipules ; the flowers large and showy, mostly axillary, reg- ular, with both sepals and petals imbricated in the bud ; the very numerous stamens with filaments more or less united at the has-e with each other and with the base of the corolla : anthers 2-celled : ovary and thick or woody pod 5-celled, with one or more seeds iu 76 CAMELLIA OR TEA FAMILY. each cell. ; The petals themselves are commonly more or less united at their base ; they are 5 or sometimes 6 or even more in number in natural flowers, and in cultivated plants apt to be in- creased by doubling. * Exotics, from China, Japan, $c. : some of the inner stamens entirely separate : commonly there is a gradation from bracts to sepals and petals. 1. CAMELLIA. Numerous separate inner stamens within the ring or cup formed by the united bases of the very numerous outer stamens. Style 3 - 5-cleft. Seeds large, usually single in each cell of the thick and woody pod. Leaves evergreen, serrate. 2. THE A. Separate interior stamens only as many as the petals (5 or 6): other- wise nearly like Camellia: flowers less showy; bracts under the calyx incon- spicuous. * * Natives of Southeastern States : stamens all united at the base. 3. GORDONIA. Stamens in 6 clusters, one attached to the base of each petal. Style columnar: stigma 5-rayed. Seeds several, more or less winged. Leaves coriaceous or thickish. 4. STUARTIA. Stamens uniformly united by a short ring at the base of the fila- ments. Seeds 2 in each cell, wingless. Leaves thin and deciduous. 1. CAMELLIA. (Named for G. Camellus or Kamel, a missionary to China in the 17th century.) C. Japonica, JAPAN CAMELLIA, with oval or oblong pointed and shining leaves, and terminal or nearly terminal flowers, simple or double, red, white, or variegated, of very many varieties, is the well-known and only common species j fl. through the winter, hardy only S. 2. THE A, TEA-PLANT. (The Chinese name.) Genus too slightly dif- ferent from Camellia. Shrubs, natives of China and Japan, sparingly cult, for ornament. T. viridis, GREEN or COMMON T. Leaves oblong or broadly lanceolate, much longer than wide ; the white flowers (!' or more broad) nodding on short stalks in their axils. T. Bohea, BOHEA T. Leaves smaller and broader in proportion ; proba- bly a mere variety of the other. 3. GORDONIA. (Named for Dr. Gordon and another Scotchman of the same name.) G. Lasianthus, LOBLOLLY BAY. A handsome shrub or small tree, in swamps near the coast from Virginia S., with evergreen and smooth lance- oblong leaves tapering to the base and minutely serrate, and showy white flow- ers 2' - 3' across, in spring and summer, on a slender peduncle ; the stamens short, on a 5-lobed cup. G. pubescens, also called FRANKLfNiA, after Dr. Franklin. Grows only in Georgia and Florida ; a tall, ornamental shrub or small tree, with thinner and deciduous leaves whitish downy beneath, as are the sepals and (white) petals, and longer style and filaments, the latter in 5 distinct parcels one on the base of each petal. 4. STUARTIA. (Named for John Stuart, the Lord Bute at the time of the American Revolution.) Ornamental shrubs, with thin leaves and handsome white flowers 2' or 3' across, in late spring or early summer, wild in shady woods of Southern States. S. Virginica, grows in the low country from Virginia S. ; shrub 8 - 12 high, Avith finely serrate leaves soft-downy underneath, pure white petals, purple stamens, one style, and a roundish pod. S. pentagyna, belongs to the mountains S. of Virginia, and in cult, is hardy N. ; has smoother leaves and rather larger very handsome flowers, their petals jagged-edged and tinged with cream-color, the sepals often reddish out- side, 5 separate styles, and a 5-anglcd pointed pod. GERANIUM FAMILY. 77 26. LINAGES, FLAX FAMILY. A small family, represented here only by the main genus, 1. LINUM, FLAX. (The classical Greek and Latin name.) Flowers (see Lessons, p. 89, fig. 174, 175, and p. 93, fig. 191) usually opening for only one day, and in sunshine, regular and symmetrical ; the persistent sepals, deciduous petals, slightly monadelphous stamens, and mostly the styles 5, but the latter are sometimes fewer, occasionally partly united : ovary and pod with as many 2-seedcd cells as there are styles, or mostly twice as many and one-seeded, each cell being divided more or less by a false partition. Seeds with a mucilaginous coat and a large straight oily embryo. Leaves simple, nearly sessile, and entire. Fl. all summer. * Wild species, annuals or scarcely perennials, ivith small yellow flowers. L. Virginianum, the commonest WILD FLAX, in dry woods, 2 high, with spreading or recurving terete branches at the summit of the stem ; the leaves oblong or lanceolate, only the lower spatulate and opposite ; flowers scattered ; styles separate ; pod little larger than a pin's head. L. Striatum, also common, mostly in boggy grounds, h'ke the first ; but has the branches shorter, scattered along the stem, and sharply 4-anglcd with intermediate grooves (whence the name) ; most of the stem-leaves opposite and oblong ; flowers more crowded. L. SUlcatum, much less common, in dry soil, also has grooved (upright) branches, but the leaves are linear and scattered ; flowers and pods twice as large ; sepals sharp-pointed, 3-nerved and with rough glandular margins ; styles united half-way up. * * Cultivated, hardy, herbaceous, with 5 styles and largish handsome flowers. L. USltatissimum, COMMON FLAX. Cult, from Old World, and inclined to. run wild in fields ; with narrow lanceolate leaves, corymbose rich blue flow- ers, and pointed sepals. L. perenne, PERENNIAL FLAX. Cult, from Eu. in some varieties, for ornament, wild beyond the Mississippi ; less tall than the foregoing, narrower- leaved ; sepals blunt ; petals sky-blue, sometimes pale, at least towards the base. %. L. grandifl6rum, LARGE-PL. RED FLAX. Cult, as an annual, from North Africa ; 1 high, with linear or lanceolate leaves, and showy crimson-red flowers. y. * * * Cultivated in conservatories, shrubby, tcith 3 styles and larqe flowers, L. trigynum, of India, has rather large elliptical leaves, and a succession of large and showy bright-yellow flowers. 27. GERANIACE.ZE, GERANIUM FAMILY. As now received a large and multifarious order, not to be char- acterized as a whole in any short and easy way, including as it does Geraniums, .Nasturtiums, Wood-Sorrels, Balsams, &c., which have to be separately described. 1. Flowers regular and symmetrical : sepals persistent. Herbs. 1. OXALIS. Sepals and petals 5, the former imbricated, the latter convolute in the bud. Stamens 10, monadelphous at base, the alternate ones shorter. Styles 6, separate on a 5-celled ovary, which becomes a membranaceous several-seeded pod. Juice four and "watery. Leaves commonly of three obcordate or two-lobed leaflets, which droop at nightfall. Flowers usually open only in sunshine. 2. LTMNANTHES. Sepals and petals 5, the former valvate, the latter convolute in the bud. Glands on the receptacle 5. Stamens 10, separate at the base. Style 1, five-lobed at the apex, rising from the centre of a deeply five-lobed ovary, which in fruit becomes 5 separate thickish and wrinkled akenes. Leaves pinnate ; the leaflets cut or cleft. 78 GERANIUM FAMILY. 3. FLCERKEA. Sepals, small petals, stigmas, and lobes of the ovary 3 ; and stamens 6 : otherwise like Limnanthes. 4. GERANIUM. Sepals and petals 5, the former imbricated, the latter commonly convolute in the bud. Glands on the receptacle 5, alternate with the petals. Stamens 10, monadelphous at the base, the alternate filaments shorter, but usually bearing anthers. Style 5-cleft. Ovary 5-celled, 5-lobed, the lobes separating when ripe into 5 two-ovuled but one-seeded carpels or little pods, which remain hanging by their long naked recurving styles as these split off, from below upwards, from a long central beak or axis. (Lessons, p. 125, fig. 277, 278.) Leaves with stipules. Herbage scented. 6. EROD1UM. Stamens with anthers only 5. Styles when they split off from the beak bearded inside, often twisting' spirally : otherwise as Geranium. ^ 2. Flowers somewhat irregular, Geranium-like. Shrubby or fleshy-stemmed. 6. PELARGONIUM. Sepals and petals 6 ; the base of one sepal extends down- ward on one side the pedicel forming a narrow tube or adherent spur, and the two petals on that side of the flower differ from the rest more or less in size or shape. Stamens with anthers fewer than 10, commonly 7. Pistil, &c. as in Geranium. Herbage scented. Leaves with stipules. 3. Flowers very irregular, spurred, also unsymmetrical. Tender herbs. 7. TROPjEOLUM. Sepals 5, united at the base, and in the upper side of the flower extended into a long descending spur. Petals 5, or sometimes fewer, usually with claws : the two upper more or less different from the others and inserted at the mouth of the spur. Stamens 8, unequ-il or dissimilar ; filaments usually turned downwards and curving. Ovary of 3 lobes sur- rounding the base of a single style, in fruit becoming 3 thick and fleshy closed separate carpels, each containing a single large seed. Herbs, clfcribiiig by their long leafstalks ; the watery juice with the pungent odor and taste of Cress. Leaves alternate : stipules none or minute. Peduncles axillary, one-flowered. 8. IMPATIENS. Sepals and petals similarly colored, the parts belonging to each not readily distinguished. There are 3 small outer pieces, plainly sepals, on one side of the flower ; then, on the other side, a large hanging sac contracted at the bottom into a spur or little tail; within are two small unequally 2-lobed petals, one each side of the sac. Stamens 5, short, conniving or lightly cohering around and covering the 5-celled ovary, which in fruit becomes a several-seeded pod : this bursts elastically, flying in pieces at the touch, scattering the seeds, separating into 5 twisting valves and a thickish axis. Style none. Seeds rather large. Erect, branching, succulent-stemmed herbs, with simple leaves and no stipules. 1. OXALIS, WOOD-SORREL. (Name from Greek words meaning sour- salt, from the oxalates or " salt-of-sorrel " contained in the juice.) * 'Native species, flowering through the summer : leaflets broadly obcordate. O. Stricta, YELLOW W. Extremely common in waste or cultivated soil and open woodlands ; stems 3'- 12' high, leafy ; slender peduncles bearing an umbel of 2 6 small yellow flowers, followed by slender pods. (T) ^/ O. Acetosella, TRUE W. Common in mossy woods N. ; the leafstalks and 1 -flowered scapes 2' -4' high from a creeping scaly-toothed rootstock; flower rather large, white with delicate reddish veins. 2/ O. violacea, VIOLET W. Common S., rarer N., in rocky or sandy soil ; leafstalks and slender scape from a scaly bulb, the flowers several in an umbel, middle-sized, violet. JJ. * * Cultivated in conservatories, from Cape of Good Hope. O. B6wiei, a stemless species, with a small bnlb on a spindle-shaped root; leafstalks and few-flowered scapes 6' -10' high; broad obcordate leaflets almost 2' long ; petals deep rose-color, 1' long. O. speci6sa is more hairy ; leaflets obovate and scarcely notched, com- monly crimson underneath, only 1' long ; scapes short, 1 -flowered ; petals 1^' long, pink-red with a yelloAvish base. O. iiava, from a strong bulb sends up to tlic surface a short scaly stem, bearing thick flatfish leafstalks and short 1 -flowered scapes; the leaflets 6-10 and linear ; petals nearly 1' long, yellow, often edged with reddish. GERANIUM FAMILY. 79 O. versioolor, the commoner and prettiest species, from small bulbs scuds up slender stems, 2' -3' high, bearing at summit leaves of 3 almost linear leaf- lets notched at the end, and slender 1 -flowered peduncles ; petals 1' long, white or tinged with rose, with bright pink-red margins underneath, so that the blos- som is red when rolled up in the bud or closed in shade, but white above when it opens in sunshine. * * * Cultivated from South America for the edible tubers. O. crenata, the OCA of Peru, rather common in France, bears abundance of potato-like tubers as large as pullet's-eggs ; stem leafy, 2 high ; leaflets ohcordate; peduncles several-flowered; petals yellow, rather large, crenate or several-notched at the end. 2. LIMNANTHES. (Name from Greek words for marsh flower: but in fact the plant flourishes in merely moist soil.) L. Douglasii. Cult, for ornament from California ; a low and spreading, mostly smooth, and slightly succulent garden annual, with leaves of 5-7 oblong or lanceolate and often 3 - 5-cleft leaflets, and rather neat flowers (in summer), solitary on slender axillary peduncles ; the petals white with a yellow base, wedge-oblong, notched at the end, twice the length of the calyx, about ' long. 3. FLCERKEA, FALSE MERMAID. (Named for Flcerke, a German botanist.) F. proserpinacoides, in marshes and wet alluvial soil ; a small and in- significant plant, with the 3-5 leaflets lanceolate and entire, or rarely 2 - 3- cleft ; the axillary and pedttncled flower inconspicuous (in spring and summer), the oblong petals shorter than the calyx and entire. 4. GERANIUM, CRANE SBILL. (From old Greek name for the Crane, alluding probably to the long beak in fruit.) The following are wild species of the country : the so-called Geraniums of cultivation belong to Pelargonium. Sepals usually slender-pointed. Fl. spring and summer. G. maculatum, WILD or SPOTTED CRANESBILL. Common in wood- lands and open grounds ; stem erect from a stout root or rootstock, about 2 high, hairy, branching and terminating in long peduncles bearing a pair of flowers ; leaves palmately parted into 5-7 wedge-shaped divisions cut and cleft at the end, sometimes whitish-blotched ; petals wcdge-obovate, light purple, ' long, bearded on the short claw. ^ G. Carolinianum, CAROLINA C. In open and mostly barren soil; stems erect or soon diffusely branched from the base, only 6' - 18' high ; leaves palmately parted into 5 much cleft and cut divisions ; peduncles and pedicels short ; flowers barely half as large as in the foregoing, the pale rose-colored pet- als notched at the end. (D @ G. Robertianum, HERB ROBERT. Common N. in shady rocky places ; very strong-scented, loosely hairy, diffusely spreading ; leaves finely cut, being divided/into 3 twicc-phmatifid divisions; flowers small ; petals pink or red p ur p le ^

- Exotic : anthers raised on evident filaments. E. Europseus, EUROPEAN SPINDLE-TREE. Occasionally planted, but inferior to the foregoing ; a rather low shrub, with lance-ovate or oblong short- petiolcd leaves, about 3-flowered peduncles, 4 greenish oblong petals, and a smooth 4-lobed red fruit, the aril orange-color. * # Leaves evergreen, serrulate : filaments and style rather slender. E. Japonicus, JAPAN S. Planted S. under the name of CHINESE Box, there hardy, but is a greenhouse plant N. ; has obovate shining and bright green leaves (also a form with white or yellowish variegation), several-flowered peduncles, 4 obovate whitish petals, and smooth globular pods. 35. SAPINDACE^E, SOAPBERRY FAMILY. Trees, shrubs, or one or two herbaceous climbers, mostly with compound or lobed leaves, and unsymmetrieal flowers, the stamens sometimes twice as many as the petals or lobes of the calyx, but commonly rather fewer, when of equal number alternate with the petals ; these imbricated in the bud, inserted on a disk in the bottom of the calyx and often coherent with it : ovary 2 - 3-celled, sometimes 2 3-lobed, with 1 3 (or in Staphylea several) ovules in each cell. The common plants belong to the three following suborders. SOAPBERRY FAMILY. 8$ I. BLADDER-NUT FAMILY ; has perfect and regular flowers, stamens as many as the petals, several bony seeds with a straight embryo in scanty albumen, and opposite compound leaves both stipulate and stipellate. 1. STAPHYLEA. Erect sepals, petals, and stamens 5; the latter borne on the margin of a fleshy disk which lines the bottom of the calyx. Styles 3, slen- der, separate or lightly cohering: ovary strongly 3-lobed, in fruit becoming a bladdery 3-lobed 3-celled and several-seeded large pod. Shrubs, with pin- nately compound leaves of 3 or 5 leaflets. II. SOAPBERRY FAMILY PROPER ; has flowers often polygamous or diojcious, and more or less irregular or unsymmetri- cal, only 1 or 2 ovules, ripening but a single seed in each cell of the ovary, the embryo coiled or curved, without albumen. No stipules. # Leaves alternate. Pod bladdery-inflated, except in No. 4. 2. CARDIOSl'ERMUM. Herbs, with twice ternate and cut-toothed leaves, climb- ing by hook-like tendrils in the flower-clusters. Sepals 4, the inner pair larger. Petals 4, each with an appendage on the inner face, that of the two upper large and petal-like, J5f the two lower crest-like and with a deflexed spur or process, raised on a claw. Disk irregular, enlarged into two glands, one before each lower petal. Stamens 8, turned towards the upper side of the flower away from the glands, the filaments next to them shorter. Styles or stigmas 3, short: ovary triangular, 3-celled, with a single ovule rising from the middle of each cell. Fruit a large and thin bladdery 3-lobed pod : seeds bony, globose, with a scale-like heart-shaped aril adherent to the base. 3. KCELREUTERIA. Small tree, with pinnate leaves. Sepals 5. Petals 3 or 4 (the place of the others vacant), each with a small 2-parted scale-like appen- dage attached to its claw. Disk enlarging into a lobe before each petal. Stamens 5-8. declined: filaments hairy. Style single, slender: ovary trian- gular, 3-celled, with a pair of ovules in each cell. Pod bladdery, 3-lobed, 3-celled. 4. SAL'INDUS. Trees, with abruptly pinnate leaves. Sepals and petals each 5, or rarely 4; the latter commonly with a little scale or appendage adhering to the short claw. Stamens mostly 8, equal. Style single: ovary 3-lobed, 3-celled, with a single ovule in each cell. Fruit mostly a globular and fleshy 1-celled berry (the other cells abortive), filled with a large globular seed, its coat crustaceous : cotyledons thick and fleshy. * * Leaves opposite, of 5 - 9 digitate leaflets. Pod leathery, not inflated. 6. jESCULUS. Trees or shrubs. Calyx 5-lobed or 5-toothed. Petals 4 or 5, more or less unequal, on claws enclosed in the calyx, not appendaged. Sta- mens 7, rarelv 6 or 8: filaments slender, often unequal. Style single, as also the minute stigma: ovary 3-celled, with a pair of ovules in each cell. Fruit a leathery pod, splitting at maturity into 3 valves, ripening 1-3 very large, chestnut-like, hard-coated seeds: the kernel of these consists of the very- thick cotyledons firmly joined together, and a small incurved radicle. III. MAPLE FAMILY ; has flowers generally polygamous or dioecious, and sometimes apetalous, a mostly 2-lobed and 2-celled ovary, with a pair of ovules in each cell, ripening a single seed in each cell of the winged fruit. Embryo with long and thin coty- ledons, coiled or crumpled. (See Lessons, p. 0, fig. 1-3, &c.) Leaves opposite : no stipules. 6. ACER. Trees, or a few only shrubs, with palmately-lobed or even parted leaves. Calyx mostly 5-cleft. Petals as many or none, and stamens 3 - 8 or rarely more, borne on the edge of the disk. Styles or stigmas 2, slender. Fruit a pair of samaras or key-fruits, united at the base or inner face and winged from the back. Occasionally the ovary is 3-celled and the fruit 3-winged. 7. NEGUNDO. Trees, with pinnate leaves of 3 - 7 leaflets, and dioecious very small flowers, without petals or disk; the calyx minute: stamens 4 or 5. Fruit, &c. of Acer. S&F _ 15 90 SOAPBERRY FAMILY. 1. STAPHYLEA, BLADDER-NUT. (Name from a Greek word for a bunch of grapes, little applicable.) S. trif61ia, AMERICAN B. Shrub 8 -10 high, with greenish striped branches, 3 ovate pointed serrate leaflets, deciduous stipules, and hanging raceme-like clusters of white flowers at the end of the branchlets of the season, in spring, followed by the large bladdery pods. Low ground, common N. & \V. S. pinnata, EUROPEAN B., occasionally planted, is very similar, but has five leaflets. 2. CARDIOSPERMUM, BALLOON- VINE, HEART-SEED. (The latter is a translation of the Greek name.) C. Halicacabum, the common species, wild in the S. W. States, is cult, in gardens, for the curious inflated pods ; it is a delicate herb, climbing over low plants or spreading on the ground, with small white flowers, in summer. 3. KCELREUTERXA. (Named for Kcdreuter, a German botanist.) K. paniculata, a small tree from China, planted in ornamental grounds ; has pinnate leaves of numerous thin and coarsely toothed or cut leaflets, and a terminal ample branched panicle of small yellofr flowers, in summer, followed by the bladdery pods. 4. SAPINDUS, SOAPBERRY. (Sapo Indus, i. e. Indian soap, the berries used as a substitute for soap. ) S. marginatUS, wild S. & W. : a small tree, with 8 -20 broadly lanceolate falcate leaflets on a wingless but often margined common stalk, and small white flowers in panicles, in summer, the whitish berries as large as bullets. 5. ^SCULTJS, HORSE-CHESTNUT, BUCKEYE. (Ancient name of an Oak or other mast-bearing tree, applied to these trees on account of their large chestnut-like seeds. These, although loaded with farinaceous nourishment, are usually rendered uneatable, and even poisonous, by a bitter narcotic principle.) Flowers in a terminal crowded panicle, in late spring or early summer. 1. TRUE HORSE-CHESTNUTS: natives of Asia, with broad and spreading petals on short claws, and fruit more or less beset with prickly points. JE. Hippocastanum, COMMON H. Tall fine tree, with 7 leaflets, and large flowers of 5 petals, Avhite, and spotted with some purple and yellowish ; stamens 7, declined : of late there is a double-flowered variety. -33. rubiciinda, RED H. Less tall, flowering even as a shrub, with brighter green leaves of 5 - 7 leaflets, flowers with 4 rose-red petals not so spreading, and mostly 8 stamens less declined. Probably a hybrid between Horse-Chestnut and some red Buckeye. 2. Californian, with 4 broad spreading petals on rather slendei" claws. JE. Californica, CALIFORNIAN H. Low tree, of 5 slender-stalked leaf- lets, and a long very compact raceme-like panicle of small white or rosy-tinged flowers ; stamens 5-7, slender ; fruit large, with some rough points. 3. BUCKEYES : of Atlantic U. S., with 4 erect and smaller petals on slender claws. JE. parvifl6ra, SMALL, BUCKEYE. "Wild in the upper country S., and Slanted N. ; shrub 3 - 9 high, with 5-7 leaflets soft downy underneath, slen- er raceme-like panicle 1 long, and capillary stamens very much longer than the narrow white petals ; flowering N. as late as midsummer ; fruit smooth ; seeds small, almost eatable. JE. glabra, FETID or OHIO BUCKEYE. W. of the Alleghanies ; tall tree, with 5 nearly smooth leaflets, a short panicle, stamens moderately longer than the somewhat uniform pale yellow petals, and fruit prickly roughened like that of Horse-Chestnut. JE. flava YELLOW or SWEET BUCKEYE. W. & S. ; tree or shrub, with 5-7 smooth or smoothish leaflets, a short dense panicle, oblong calyx, and SOAPBERRY FAMILY. 91 stamens not exceeding the connivent light yellow petals, these of two dissimilar pairs, the longer pair with very small blade ; fruit smooth. Var. purpurascens, PURPLISH B., has both calyx and corolla tinged with purple or reddish, and leaflets generally downy underneath. JE. Pavia, KED BUCKEYE. S. & W. ; shrub or low tree, like the last, but leaves generally smooth ; the longer and tubular calyx and the petals bright red : showy in cultivation. 6. ACER, MAPLE. (The classical Latin name.) Mostly fine trees. * Flowers in late spring or early summer, appearing more or less later than the leaves, in usually drooping racemes or corymbs, commonly terminating a 2 - 4-leaved shoot of the season, greenish or yellowish, with petals : stamens more than 5, generally 8. i- EUROPEAN MAPLES, planted for ornament and shade. A. Pseudo-Platanus, SYCAMORE M. A fine tree, with spreading branches, ample 5-lobed leaves whitish and rather downy beneath, on long reddish petioles, the lobes toothed, long racemes, and moderately spreading wings to the pubescent fruit. A. platanoides, NORWAY M., here so called. A handsome, round- headed tree, with thin and broad smooth leaves, bright green both sides, their 5 short lobes set with 2-5 coarse and taper-pointed teeth, a small corymb of flowers, and flat smooth fruit with wings 2' long, diverging in a straight line. Juice milky leaves holding green later than the others. - *- OREGON and CALIFORNIAN MAPLES, beginning to be planted East. A. Circinatum, ROUND-LEAVED or VINE M. Tall, spreading shrub with thin and rounded moderately 7 9-lobed leaves, their lobes serrate, small corymbs of purplish flowers, and wings of fruit diverging in a straight line. A. macroph^llum, LARGE-LEAVED M. Small timber-tree, with thick- ish leaves 6' 12' across and deeply 5 7-lobed, the lobes with one or two sinuate lobes or coarse teeth, many yellowish flowers in a compact raceme, and hairy fruit with ascending wings. H- -t- )- NATIVE STRIPED and MOUNTAIN MAPLES. A. spicatum, MOUNTAIN M. Tall shrub, common N., with slightly 3- lobed and coarsely toothed leaves downy beneath, and upright dense raceme's of small flowers, followed by small fruits with diverging narrow wings. The latest- flowering species. A. Pennsylvanicum, STRIPED M., also called MOOSE-WOOD and STRIPED DOGWOOD. Small tree, common N., with light-green bark striped with darker lines, large thin leaves finely sharply serrate all round, and at the end with 3 short and very taper-pointed lobes, slender hanging racemes of rather large green flowers, and fruit with diverging wings. * * SUGAR MAPLES. Flowers appearing with the leaves in spring, in umbel- like clusters, on long drooping pedicels, greenish-yellow, without petals : sta- mens 7 or 8. A. saccharinum, ROCK or SUGAR M. Large tree, common especially N., valuable for timber and for the sugar of its sap ; with rather deeply 3-5- lohed leaves pale or whitish beneath, the sinuses open and rounded, a*id the lobes with one or two sinuate coarse teeth; calyx bell-shaped and hairy-fringed; wings of fruit ascending, barely 1' long. Var. nigrum, BLACK SUGAR M., a form with leaves green or greener and more or less downy beneath, even when old, the sinus at the base apt to be deep and narrow. * * * SOFT MAPLES. Flowers in earliest spring, much preceding the leaves, in umbel-like clusters from separate lateral bads : pedicels at first short, the fruiting ones lengthening and drooping : stamens 3 - 6 : fruit ripe and fall- ing in early summer. A. dasycarpum, WHITE or SILVER M. A handsome tree in low grounds, with long and spreading or drooping branches, soft white wood, very 92 POLYGALA FAMILY. deeply 5-lobed leaves silvery-white and when young downy beneath, the narrow lobes coarsely cut and toothed ; flowers greenish, in earliest spring, without petals ; fruit woolly when young, but soon smooth, 2' - 3' long including the great diverging wings. A. rubruiu, RED or SWAMP M. Rather small tree, in wet grounds, with soft white wood, reddish twigs, moderately 3 - 5-lobed leaves whitish be- neath, the middle lobe longest, all irregularly serrate ; flowers scarlet, crimson, or sometimes yellowish (later than in the foregoing species) ; fruit smooth, with the slightly spreading wings 1 ' or less in length, often reddish. 7. NEGUNDO, ASH-LEAVED MAPLE, BOX-ELDER. (Obscure or unmeaning name.) "N. aceroides. A handsome, rather small tree, common from Penn. S. & W., with light green twigs, and drooping clusters of small greenish flowers, in spring, rather earlier than the leaves, the fertile ones in drooping racemes, the oblong fruits half the length of the very veiny wing; leaflets ovate, pointed, coarsely toothed, very veiny. A variety with white- variegated leaves is lately cult, for ornament. 36. POLYGALACEJE, POLYGALA FAMILY. Bitter, some of them medicinal plants, represented mainly, and here wholly, by the genus 1. POLYGALA, MILKWORT. (Name from Greek words, meaning much milk; but the plants have no milky juice at all; they are thought to have been so named from a notion that in pasturage they increased the milk of cows.) Flowers remarkably irregular, in outward appearance as if papiliona- ceous like those of the next family, but really of a quite different structure. Calyx persistent, of 5 sepals ; three of them small, viz. two on the lower, and one on the upper, side of the blossom ; and one on each side called wings which are larger, colored, and would be taken for petals. Within these, on the lower side, are three petals united into one body, the middle one keel-shaped and often bearing a crest or appendage. Stamens 8 or sometimes 6 ; their filaments united below into a split sheath, separating above usually in two equal sets, concealed in the hooded middle petal : anthers 1 -celled, opening by a hole at the top. Style curved and commonly enlarged above or variously irregular. Ovary 2-celled, with a single ovule hanging from the top of each cell, becoming a small flattish 2-seeded pod. Seed with an appendage at the attachment (caruncle) : embryo straight, with flat cotyledons in a little albu- men. Leaves simple, entire, without stipules. Our native species are nu- merous, mostly with small or even minute flowers, and are rather difficult to study. The following are the commonest. 1 . Native species, low herbs, mostly smooth. # Flowers yellow, some turning green in drying, in dense spikes or heads : leaves alternate. Growing in low or wet places in pine-barrens, S. E. FL summer. t- Numerous short spikes or heads in a corymb. P. cym6sa. Stem l-3 high, branching at top into a compound corymb of spikes ; leaves linear, acute, the uppermost small ; no caruncle to the seed. From North Carolina S. P. ramdsa. Stem 6' - 12' high, more branched ; lowest leaves obovatc or spatulate, upper ones lanceolate ; a caruncle at base of seed. Delaware and S. *- -*- Short and thick spike or head single : root-leaves clustered. P. llltea, YELLOW BACHELOR'S-BUTTON of S. Stem 5'- 12' high ; lower leaves spatulate or obovate, upper lanceolate ; flowers bright orange. P. nana. Stems 2' -4' high, in a cluster from the spatulate or linear root- leaves ; flowers lighter yellow. * * Flowers purple or rose-color, in a single dense spike terminating the stem or branches: no subterranean Jlowers. Fl. all summer, (i) TOLYGALA FAMILY. 93 - Leaves all alternate, narrow. P. incarnata. From Penn. W. & S. ; stem slender, 6'- 12' high ; leaves minute and awl-shaped ; the three united petals extended below into a long and slender tube, the crest of the middle one conspicuous. P. sanguinea. Sandy damp ground : stem 4' - 8' high, leafy to the top ; leaves obiong-linear ; flowers bright rose-purple (sometimes pale or even white), in a thick globular at length oblong head or spike, without pedicels. P. fastigiata. Pine-barrens from New Jersey S. ; slender, 4' - 10' high, with smaller narrow-linear leaves, and oblong dense spike of smaller rose-purple flowers, on pedicels as long as the pod ; bracts falling off. P. Nuttallii. Sandy soil, from coast of Mass. S. ; lower than the fore- going ; flowers rather looser in more cylindrical spikes, greenish-purple ; awl- sliuped bracts remaining on the axis after the flowers or fruits have fallen. * * Leaves all or all the lower ones in whorls of four. P. cruciata. Low grounds : stems 3' - 10' high, 4-angled, and with spread- ing branches ; leaves linear or spatnlatc, mostly in fours ; spike thick and short, nearly sessile, its axis rough with persistent bracts where the flowers have fallen ; wings of the flower broad-ovate or heart-shaped, bristly-pointed. P. brevif61ia. Sandy bogs from Rhode Island' S. : differs from the last only in more slender stems, narrower leaves, those on the branches alternate, the spike stalked, and wings of the flower lance-ovate and nearly pointless. * * * Flowers (all summer] greenish-white or scarcely tinged with purple, very small, in slender spikes, none subterranean : leaves linear, the lower in whorls of four or five. (T) P. verticillata. Very common in dry sterile soil; stem 5' -10' high, much branched ; all the leaves of the main stem whorled. P. ambigua. In similar places and very like the last, chiefly S. & W., more slender; only the lowest leaves whorled; flowers more scattered and often purplish- tinged, in Ibng-pcduncled spikes. * * * * Flowers white, small (in late spring) in a close spike terminating simple tufted stems which rise from a perennial root, none subterranean : leaves numerous, all alternate. 2/ P. Senega, SENECA SNAKEROOT. A medicinal plant, commoner W., 5'- 12' high, with lanceolate or oblong, or even lance-ovate short leaves, cylin- drical spike, round-obovate wings, and small crest. P. alba. Common only far W. & S. W. ; more slender than the last, with narrow-linear leaves, more tapering long-peduncled spike, and oval wings. ***** Flowers rose-purple in a raceme, or single, largish : leaves alternate. P. grand.ifl.6ra. Dry soil S. ; pubescent, with branching stems 1 high, lanceolate leaves, crestless flowers scattered in a loose raceme (in late summer), bright purple turning greenish. 2/ P. polygama. Sandy barrens, with tufted and very leafy stems 5' -8' high, lineai'-oblong or oblanceolate leaves, and many-flowered racemes of hand- some rose-purple flowers, their crest conspicuous ; also on short underground runners are some whitish very fertile flowers with no evident corolla. Fl. all summer. P. paucif61ia, FRINGED POLYGALA, sometimes called FLOWERING WIN- TERGREEN. Light soil in woods, chiefly N. : a delicate little plant, with stems 3' -4' high, rising from long and slender runners or subterranean shoots, on which are concealed inconspicuous fertile flowers ; leaves few and crowded at the summit, ovate, petioled, some of them with a slendcr-pffduncled showy flower from the axil, of delicate rose-red color (rarely a white variety), almost an inch long, with a conspicuous fringed crest and only 6 stamens ; in spring. 1 2. Shrubby species of the conservatory, from the Cape of Good Hope. P. oppositifblia, with opposite sessile heart-shaped and mucronate leaves, of a pale hue, and large and showy purple flowers, with a tufted crest. P. myrtif61ia, has crowded alternate oblong or obovate leaves, on short petioles, and showy purple flowers 1 ' long, with a tufted crest. 94 PULSE FAMILY. 37. LEGUMINOS^S, PULSE FAMILY. Distinguished by the papilionaceous corolla (Lessons, p. 105, fig. 217, 218), usually accompanied by 10 monadelphous or diadelphous or rarely distinct stamens (Lessons, p. 112, fig. 227, 228), and the legume (Lessons, p. 131, fig. 303, 304). These characters are com- bined in the proper Pulse Family. In the two other great divisions the corolla becomes less papilionaceous or wholly regular. Alternate leaves, chiefly compound, entire leaflets, and stipules are almost uni- versal in this great order. I. PULSE FAMILY PROPER. Flower (always on the plan of 5, and stamens not exceeding 10) truly papilionaceous, i. e. the standard outside of and in the bud enwrapping the other petals, or only the standard present in Amorpha. (For the terms used to denote the parts of this sort of corolla see Lessons, p. 105.) Sepals united more or less into a tube or cup. Leaves never twice com- pound. A. Stamens monadelplious or diadelphous. 1. Herbs, shrubs, or one a small tree, never twining, trailing, nor tendril-bearing, witii leaves simple or of 8 or more digitate leajlets, moiuidclphous stamens, and the alternate Jive anthers differing in size and shape from the other Jive : pod usually several-seeded. 1. LUPINUS. Leaves of several leaflets, in one species simple : stipules adherent to the base of the petiole. Flowers in a long thick raceme. Calyx deeply 2-lipped. Corolla of peculiar shape, the sides of the rounded standard being rolled backwards, and the wings lightly cohering over and enclosing the nar- row and incurved scythe-shaped or sickle-shaped keel. Pod flat. Mostly herbs. 2. CKOTALARIA. Leaves in our species simple, and with foliaceous stipules free from the petiole but running down on the stem. Calyx 5-lobed. Keel scythe-shaped, pointed. Stamens with the tube of filaments split down on the upper side. Pod inflated. Ours herbs. 3. GENISTA. Leaves simple and entire: stipules very minute or none. Calyx 5-cleft. Keel oblong, nearly straight, blunt, turned down when the flower opens. Pod mostly Hat. Low shrubby plants. 4. CY TISUS. Leaves of one or three leaflets, or the green branches sometimes leafless: stipules minute or wanting. Calyx 2-lipped or 5-toothed. Keel straight or somewhat curved, blunt, soon turned down. Style incurved or even coiled up after the flower opens. Pod flat. Seeds with a fleshy or scale-like appendage (strophiole) at the scar. Low shrubby plants. 5. LABURNUM. Leaves of three leaflets: stipules inconspicuous or wanting. Calyx with 2 short lips, the upper lip notched. Keel incurved, not pointed. Ovary and flat pod somewhat stalked in the calyx. Seeds naked at the scar. Trees or shrubs, with golden yellow flowers in long hanging racemes. $ 2. Herbs, never twining nor tendril-bearing, with leaves of 3 leaflets (rarely more but then digitate), their margins commonly more or less tootlied (winch is remarkable in this family): stipules conspicuous and united with the base of the petiole (Lessons, p. 69, flg. 136): stamens diadelphous: pod 1 -few-seeded, never divided across into joints. # Leaves pinnately 3-foliolate, as is seen by the end leaflet being jointed with the com- mon petiole above the side leaflets. 6. TRIGONELLA. Herbage odorous. Flowers (in the common cult, species) single and nearly sessile in the axil of the leaves. Pod elongated, oblong or linear, tapering into a long-pointed apex. 7. MEDICAGO. Flowers small, in spikes, heads, &c. Corolla short, not united with the tube of stamens. Pod curved or coiled up, at least kidney-shaped. 8. MEL1LOTUS. Herbage sweet-scented. Flowers small, in slender racemes. Corolla as in Medicago. Pod small, but exceeding the calyx, globular, wrinkled, closed, 1-2-seeded. PULSE FAMILY. 95 * Leaves mostly digitate or palmatclg 3-foliolate, all, (with one exception) borne on the, apex vj'tlie common petiole. 9. TRIFOLIUM. Flowers in heads, spikes, or head-like umbels. Calyx with slender or bristle-form teeth or lobes. Corolla slowly withering or becoming dry and permanent after flowering; the claws of all the petals (except some- times the standard) more or less united below with the tube of stamens or also with each other. Pod small and thin single - few-seeded, generally in- cluded in the calyx or the persistent corolla, 3. Herbs or woody plants, sometimes twining, never tendril bearing, with the leaves not digitate, or even diyitately 3-foliolate (except in Psoralea), and the leajlets not toothed. (For Cicer see the next section.) Stipules except in No. 15, 20, and 27, not united with the petiole. # Flowers (small, in spikes or heads) indistinctly or imperfectly papilionaceous. Pod very small and usually remaining closed, only 1 - 2-seeded. Calyx 5-toothed, persistent. Leaves odd-pinnate, mostly dotted with dark spots or ylands. *- Petals 5, on very slender claws : stamens monadelphous in a split tube. 10. PETALOSTEMON. Herbs, with crowded leaves. Four petals similar, spread- ing, borne on the top of the tube of the stamens; the fifth (answering to the standard ) rising from the bottom of the calyx, and heart-shaped or oblong. Stamens only 5. 11. DALEA. Herbs, as to our species. Flowers as in the last, but rather more papilionaceous, four of the petals borne on the middle of the tube of 10 stamens. (- - Petal only one ! Stamens monadelphous only at the very base. 12. AMORPHA. Shrubs, with leaves of many leaflets. Standard (the other pet- als wholly wanting) wrapped around the 10 filaments and style. Flowers violet or purple, in single or clustered terminal spikes. # # Flowers (large anc^showy, in racemes) incompletely papilionaceous from the wings or the keel also being small and inconspicuous. Pod several-seeded. 30. ERYTHRINA. See p. 108. # * # Flowers obviously papilionaceous, all the parts conspicuously present. Stamens mostly diadelphous. *- Ovary l-ovuled, becoming a, l-seeded indehiscent akene-like fruit. Herbs. 13. PSORALEA. Leaves of 3 or 5 leaflets, often glandular-dotted. Flowers (never yellow) in spikes or racemes, often 2 or 3 under each bract. Pod ovate, thick, included or partly so in the 5-cleft persistent calyx, often wrinkled. 14. ONOBRYCHIS. Leaves odd-pinnate, of numerous leaflets. Flowers racemed, rose-purple. Pod flattish, wrinkled and spiny-ixmghened or crested. 15. STYLOS ANTHES. Leaves pinnately 3-foliolate. Flowers yellow, in 'heads or short spikes, leafy -bracted. Calyx with a slender stalk-like tube, and 4 lobes in the upper lip, one for the lower. Stamens monadelphous: 5 longer anthers fixed by their base, 5 alternate ones by their middle. Pod flat, retic- ulated, sometimes raised on a stalk-like empty lower joint. Stipules united with the petiole. 16. LESPEDEZA. Leaves pinnately 3-foliolate. Stipules small and free, or fall- ing early. Flowers purple, rose-color, or white, in spikes, clusters, or pani- cles, or scattered. Stamens diadelphous: anthers uniform. Pod flat and thin, ovate or orbicular, reticulated, sometimes raised on a stalk-like empty lower joint. 4- -4 Ovary wdh at least 2 ovules. w- Pod separating into 2 or more small and closed l-seeded joints in a row. 17. DESMODIUM. Leaflets 3 (rarely only 1), stipellate. Pod of very flat joints (Lessons, p. 131, fig. 304), usually roughish and adhesive by minute hooked pubescence. Herbs, with small purple, whitish, or purplish flowers, in racemes, which are often panicled. 18. ^ESCHYNOMENE. Leaflets several, odd-pinnate, small. Pod of very flat joints. Herbs, with small yellow flowers (sometimes purplish externally), few or several on axillary peduncles. 19. CORONILLA. Leaflets several, odd-pinnate, small. Pod of thickish oblong or linear joints. Herbs or shrubs, with flowers in head-like umbels raised on slender axillary pedunclei. 96 PULSE FAMILY. ++ .M. Pod indehiscent, very thick, 1 - ^-seeded. Calyx rvith a long, thread-shaped or stalk-like tube. Leaves abruptly pinnate : stipules united with the petiole at base. 20. ARACHIS. Annual. Leaflets 4, straight-veined. Flowers small, yellow, in axillary heads or spikes. Calyx with one narrow lobe making a lower lip, the upper lip broad and 4-toothed. Keel incurved and pointed. Stamens monadelphous, 5 anthers longer and fixed by near their base, the alternate ones short and fixed by their middle. Ovary at the bottom of the very long and stalk-like tube of the calyx, containing 2 or 3 ovules: when the long style and the calyx with the rest of the flower falls away, the forming pod is pro- truded on a rigid deflexed stalk which then appears, and is pushed into the soil where it ripens into the oblong, reticulated, thick, coriaceous fruit, which contains the 1-3 large and edible seeds; the embryo composed of a pair of very thick and fleshy cotyledons and an extremely short nearly straight radicle. ^-m-,. -M. Pod continuous, i. e. not in joints, at length opening, 2 - several-seeded. a. Leaves abruptly pinnate, : plants not tioining. (Flowers in ours yellow.) 21. SESB ANIA. Herbs, with many pairs of leaflets, and minute or early deciduous stipules. Flowers in axillary racemes, or sometimes solitary. Calyx short, 5-toothed. Standard rounded, spreading: keel and style incurved. 'Pod usu- ally intercepted internally with cellular matter or membrane between the seeds. 92. CARAGANA. Shrubs, with mostly fascicled leaves of several pairs of leaflets, and a little spiny tip in place of an end leaflet: stipules minute or spiny. Flowers solitary or 2 - 3 together on short peduncles. Calyx bell-shaped or short-tubular, 5-toothed. Standard nearly erect with the sides turned back: the blunt keel and the style nearly straight. Pod linear, several-seeded. "b. Leaves odd-pinnate : stems not twining. 1. Anthers tipped with a little gland or blunt point. 23. INDIGOFERA. Herbs, or sometimes shrubby, when pubescent the close- pressed hairs are fixed by the middle. Flowers rose-color, purple, or white, in axillary racemes or spikes, mostly small. Calyx 5-cleft. Standard round- ish, often persistent after the rest of the petals have fallen: keel with a pro- jection or spur on each side. Pod oblong, linear, or of various shapes, com- monly with membranous partitions between the seeds. 2. Anthers blunt and pointless. 24. TEPHROSIA. Herbs, with obliquely parallel-veined leaflets often silky be- neath, and white or purple flowers (2 or more in a cluster) in racemes; the peduncles terminal or opposite the leaves. Calyx 5-cleft or 5-toothed. Stand- ard rounded, silky outside. Style incurved, rigid: stigma with a tuft of hairs. Pod linear, flat, several-seeded. 25. ROBINIA. Trees or shrubs, with netted-veined leaflets furnished with stipels, and often with sharp spines or prickles for stipules. Flowers large and showy, white or rose-color, in axillary racemes. Base of the leafstalk hollow and covering the axillary bud of the next year. Calyx 5-toothed, the two upper teeth partly united. Standard large, turned back: keel incurved, blunt. Ovary stalked in the calyx. Pod broadly linear, flat, several-seeded, margined on the seed-bearing edge, the valves thin. 26. COLUTEA. Shrubs, not prickly, and no stipels to the leaflets: the flowers rather large, yellow or reddish, 'in short axillary racemes. Calyx 5-toothed. Standard rounded, spreading: keel strongly incurved, blunt, on long united claws. Style incurved, bearded down one 'side. Pod raised out of the calyx on a stalk of its own, thin and bladdery-inflated, flattish on the seed-bearing side, several-seeded. 27. ASTRAGALUS. Herbs, without stipels, and with white, purple, or yellowish rather small flowers in spikes, heads, or racemes : peduncles axillary. Co- rolla narrow: standard erect, mostly oblong. Style and stigma smooth and beardless. Pod commonly turgid or inflated and within more or less divided lengthwise by intrusion of the back or a false partition from it. (SwAiNSONA, SUTHEKLANDIA, and CuANTiius, plants from Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, with showy flowers and bladdery-inflated pods (like Colutea), are sometimes cult, in conservatories, but are not com- mon enough to find a place here.) PULSE FAMILY. 97 c. Leaves odd-pinnate : stems tunning : stipels obscure : stipules small. 28. WISTARIA. Woody, high-climbing, with numerous leaflets, and large showy bluish flowers, in hanging terminal dense racemes. Calyx with 2 short teeth on the upper and longer ones on the lower side. Standard large, roundish, turned back: keel merely incurved, blunt. Pod knobby, several-seeded. 29. APIOS. Herbs, twining over bushes, with 5-7 leaflets, and sweet-scented chocolate-purple flowers, in dense and short racemes: peduncles axillary. Calyx with 2 upper very short teeth, and one longer lower one, the side teeth nearly wanting. Standard very broad, turned back : keel long and scythe- shaped, strongly incurved, or at length coiled. Pod linear, flat, almost straight, several-seeded. d. Leaves of 3 leaflets (pinnately 3-foliolate) or rarely one, commonly stipellate. 1 . Shrubby, or from a woody base : icings and sometimes keel small and inconspicuous. 30. ERYTHRINA. Stem, branches, and even the leafstalks usually prickly. Flowers large and showy, usually red, in racemes. Calyx without teeth\ Standard elongated: wings often wanting or so small as to be concealed m the calyx; keel much shorter than the standard, sometimes very small. Pod stalked in the calyx, linear, knobby, usually opening only down the seed-bearing suture. Seeds scarlet. 2. Herbs, mostly twiners, with wings and keel in ordinary proportion. = Flowers not yellow: seeds or at least the ovules several: leaflets stipellate. 31. PHASEOLUS. Keel of the corolla coiling into a ring or spiral, usually with a tapering blunt apex: standard rounded, turned back or spreading. Style coiled with the keel, bearded down the inner side: stigma oblique or lateral. Pod linear or scimetar-shaped. Flowers usually clustered on the knotty joints of the raceme. Stipules striate, persistent. 32. DOLICHOS. Keel of the corolla narrow and bent inwards at a right angle, but not coiling. Style bearded under the terminal stigma. Stipules small. Otherwise nearly as Phaseolus. 33. GALACTIA. Keel straightish, blunt, as long as the wings: standard turned back. Style naked. Calyx of 4 pointed lobes, upper one broadest. Pod flat- tened, mostly linear. Flowers clustered on the knotty joints of the raceme: flower-buds taper-pointed. Stipules and bracts small or deciduous. 34. AMPHICABPJEA, Keel and very similar wings nearly straight, blunt: the erect standard partly folded around them. Style na'ked. Calyx tubular, 4-toothed. Flowers small; those in loose racemes above often sterile, their pods when formed scimetar-shaped and few-seeded ; those at or near the ground or on creeping branches very small and without manifest corolla, but very fertile, making small and fleshy, obovate or pear-shaped, mostly sub- terranean pods, ripening one or two large seeds. Bracts rounded and per- sistent, striate, as are the stipules. 35. CENTROSEMA. Keel broad, incurved, nearly equalling the wings: standard large and rounded, spreading, and with a spur-like projection behind. Calyx short, 5- cleft. Style bearded only at the tip around the stigma. Pod long, linear, with thickened edges bordered by a raised line on each side. Flowers showy. Stipules, bracts, and bractlets striate, persistent. 36. CIJTORIA. Keel small, shorter than the wings, incurved, acute: standard much larger than the rest of the flower, notched at the end, erect. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed. Style bearded down the inner side. Pod oblong-linear, flattish, not bordered. Flowers large and showy, 1 -3 on a peduncle. Stip- ules, bracts, and bractlets persistent, striate. 37. HARDENBERGIA. Keel small, much shorter than the wings, incurved, blunt : standard large in proportion, rounded, spreading. Calyx short, 5-toothed, the 2 upper teeth united. Style short, naked. Pod linear, not bordered. Flowers rather small, in racemes. Stipules and bracts small, striate, mostly deciduous. Leaflets mostly single. 88. KENNEDYA. Keel incurved, blunt or acute, mostly equalling or exceeding the wings: standard broad, spreading. Calyx 5-lobed: 2 upper lobes partly united. Style naked. Pod linear, not bordered. Flowers showy, red, single or few on the peduncle. Bracts and stipules striate. = = Flowers yellow (somet imes purple-ting ed outside): ovules only 2: podI-2-seeded. 39. RHYNCHOSIA. Keel of the corolla incurved at the apex: standard spreading. Calyx 4-5-parted or lobed. Pod short and flat. Flowers small. Leaves mostly soft-downy and resinous-dotted, sometimes of a single leaflet. 08 PULSE FAMILY. 4. Herbs, with abruptly pinnate leaves, the common petiole terminated by a tendril, by which the plant climbs or supports itself, or in many low species the tendril reduced to a mere bristle or tip, or in Ctcer, ichicli has toothed leaflets, an odd leajiet commonly takes its place : peduncles axillary : stamens almost always diadtlphous. Cotyledons very tldck, so that they remain underground in yermi- nation, as in the Pea. * Leaflets entire or sometimes toothed at the apex : radicle bent on the cotyledons : style inflexed: pod flat or flatfish. 40. PISITM. Lobes of the calyx leafy. Style rigid, dilated above and the margins rerlexed and joined together so that 'it become? flattened laterally, bearded down the inner edge. Pod several-seeded: seeds globose. Flowers large. Leaflets only 1-3 pairs. 41. LATHYRUS. Lobes of the calyx not leafy. Style flattened above on the back and front, bearded down one face. Pod several-seeded. Seeds some- times flatfish. Leaflets few or several pairs. 42. VICIA. Style slender, bearded or hairy only at the apex or all round the upper part. Pod 2 - several-seeded. Seeds globular or flattish. Leaflets few or many pairs. 43. LENS. Lobes of the calyx slender. Style flattish on the back, and minutely bearded down the inner face. Pod 1-2-seeded. Seeds flattened, lenticular. Flowers small. * * Leaflets toothed, all round, and usually an odd one at the end in place of a ten- dril : style incurved, naked : radicle of the embryo almost Straight. 44. CICKB. Calyx 5-parted. Pod turgid oblong, not flattened, 2-seeded. Seeds large, irregularly rounded-obovate, pointed. Peduncle mostly 1-flowered. B. Stamens separate to the base. (Plants not twining nor climbing.) 1. Leaves simple or of 3 digitate leaflets. 45. CHORtZKMA. Somewhat shrubby, with simple and spiny-toothed leaves, scarcely any stipule^ and orange or copper-red flowers. Standard rounded kidney-shaped: keel straight, much shorter than the wings. Pod ovoid, turgid, several-seeded. 46. BAPTISI A. Herbs, with simple entire sessile leaves and no stipules, or mostly of 3 leaflets with deciduous or persistent stipules. Flowers yellow, blue, or white. Standard erect, with the sides turned back, about equalled by the oblong and straiphtish wings and keel. Pod inflated, coriaceous, stalked in the calyx, many-seeded. 47. THERMOPSIS. " Pod scarcely stalked, linear, flat. Otherwise as Baptisia. 2. Leaves odd-pinnate. 48. CLADRASTIS. Trees, with large leaflets.no obvious stipules, and hanging terminal panicles of white flowers. Standard turned back: the nearlv sep- arate straightish keel-petals and wings oblong, obtuse. Pod short-stalked in the calyx, linear, very flat, thin, marginless, 4 - 6-seeded. Base of the petioles hollow'and covering the axillary leaf-buds of the next year. 49. SOPHORA. Tree 1 *, shrubs, or herbs, with numerous' leaflets, and mostly white or yellow flowers in terminal racemes or panicles. Keel-petals and wings oblong, obtuse, usually longer than the broad standard. Pod com- monly stalked in the calyx, terete, several-seeded, fleshy or almost woody, hardly ever opening, but constricted across into mostly 1-seeded portions. II. BRASILETTO FAMILY. Flowers more or less irregu- lar, but not papilionaceous : when they seem to be so the petal answering to the standard will be found to be within instead of out- side of the other petals. Stamens 10 or fewer, separate. The leaves are sometimes twice pinnate, which is not the case in the true Pulse Family. Embryo of the seed straight, the radicle not turned against the edge of the cotyledons. $ 1. Leaves simple and entire. Corolla appearing as if j)apilionaceous. 60. CERCIS. Trees, with rounded heart-shaped leaves, minute early deciduous stipules, and small but handsome red-purple flowers in umbel-like clusters on old wood, earlier than the leaves, rather ucid to the taste. Calyx short, PULSE FAMILY. 99 5-toothed. Petals 5, the one answering to the standard smaller than the wing-petals and covered by them; the keel-petals larger, conniving but dis- tinct. Stamens 10, declining with the style. Pod linear-oblong, flat, thin, several-seeded, one edge wing-margined. 2. Leaves simply abruptly pinnate. Calyx and corolla almost regular. 51. CASSIA. Flowers commonly yellow. Calyx of 5 nearly separata sepals. Petals 5, spreading, unequal (the lower larger) or almost equal. Stamens 10 or 5, some of the upper anthers often imperfect or smaller, their cells opening by a hole or chink at the apex. Pod many-seeded. 3. Leaves, or at least some of them, twice-pinnate. 62. C./ESALPINIA. Trees or shrubs, chiefly tropical, with mostly showy red or yellow perfect flowers. Calyx deeply 5-cleft. Petals 5, broad, spreading, more or less unequal. Stamens 10, declining, along with the thread-shaped style. Pod flat. 53. GYMNOCLADUS. Tall, thornless tree, with large compound leaves, no stip- ules, and dioecious or polygamous whitish regular flowers, in corymb-like clusters or short racemes terminating the branches of the season. Calyx tubular below, and with 5 spreading lobes, the throat bearing 5 oblong petals and 10 short stamens, those of the fertile flowers generally imperfect. Pod oblong, flat, very hard, tardily opening, with a little pulp or sweetish matter inside, containing few or several large and thick hard seeds (over % in diam- eter); the fleshy cotyledons remaining underground in germination. 54. GLED1TSCHIA. Thorny trees, with abruptly twice pinnate or some of them once pinnate leaves, the leaflets often crenate-toothed, inconspicuous stipules, and small greenish polygamous flowers in narrow racemes. Calyx 3 -5-cleft, the lobes and the 3-5 nearly similar petals narrow and spreading. Stamens 3 - 10. Pod flat, very tardily opening, often with some sweetish matter around the 1 - several flat seeds. Cotyledons thin. III. MIMOSA FAMILY. Flowers perfectly regular, small, crowded in heads or spikes ; both calyx and corolla valvate in the bud ; and the 4 or 5 sepals usually and petals frequently united more or less below into a tube or cup. Stamens 4, 5, or more, often very many, usually more conspicuous than the corolla and brightly colored, the long capillary filaments inserted on the recep- tacle or base of the corolla. Embryo of the seed straight. Leaves almost always twice pinnate and with small leaflets, or apparently simple and parallel-veined when they have phyllodia in place of true leaves. The foliage and the pods only show the leguminous character. $ 1. Stamens once or twice as many ns the petals, 4-10. Ours herbs or nearly so, with rose.-cotored or whitish Jiowers, and leaves of many small leaflets. 55. MIMOSA. Calyx commonly minute or inconspicuous. Corolla of 4 or 5 more or less united petals. Pod flat, oblong or linear: when ripe the valves fall out of a persistent slender margin or frame and also usually break up into one- seeded joints. 66. SCHRANKIA. Calyx minute. Corolla funnel-form, the 5 petals being united up to the middle. Stamens 10. Pod rough-prickly all over, long and nar- row, splitting lengthwise when ripe into 4 parts. 67. DESMANTHUS. Cnlyx 5-toothed. Corolla of 5 separate petals. Stamens 6 or 10. Pod flat, smooth, linear or oblong, 2-valved, no persistent margin. 2. Stamens numerous, or more tiian 10. Ours all shrubs or trees. 58. ALB1ZZIA. Flowers flesh-color, rose-color, or nearly white; the long stamens monadelphous at the base. Corolla funnel-form, the 5 petals united beyond the middle. Pod flat and thin, broadly linear, not opening elastically. Leaves twice pinnate. 69. ACACIA. Flowers yellow or straw-color: the stamens separate and very numerous. Corolla of 4 or 5 separate or partly uaited small petals. Pod various. , PfLSE' FAM/LY. 1. LUPINUS, LUPINE. (Old Latin name, from lupus, a wolf, because Lupines were thought to destroy the fertility of the soil.) * Wild species of Atlantic States, in sandy soil: fl. in spring. 1 L. perdnnis, WILD L. Somewhat hairy ; with erect stem l-l high, 7-11 spatulate oblong or oblanceolate green leaflets, and a long raceme of showy purplish-blue (rarely pale) flowers, in late spring. L." yillbsus, ONE-LEAVED L. Silky-downy, with short spreading or nxvnding stems, oblong or lance-oblong simple leaves, and a dense' raceme of blue, purple, or rose-colored flowers. Near the coast, from North Carolina S. * * Cultivated for ornament : fl. summer. L. polyph^llus, MANY- LEAVED L., is the principal hardy perennial species of the gardens, from Oregon and California, 3 - 4 high, rather hairy, with 13- 15 lanceolate or oblanceolate leaflets, and a very long dense raceme of blue, sometimes purple, variegated, or even white flowers, in June. 2/ L. mutabilis, cult, as an annual, from South America, is tall, very smooth throughout, with about 9 narrow-oblong blunt leaflets, and very large sweet- scented violet-purple flowers (or a white variety), with yellow and a little red on the standard. L. densifl6rus, of California (where there are many fine Lupines), l-2 high, is well marked by the numerous white flowers forming distinct and sep- arate whorls in the long raceme. L. albus, of Eu., which the ancients cultivated as pulse, has the several obovate-oblong leaflets smooth a1x>yc, but hairy beneath, white flowers alternate in the raceme, and large smooth pods. L. hirsutUS, cult, in old gardens, from Eu., is clothed with soft white hairs ; the leaflets spatulate-oblong ; flowers in loose whorls in the raceme, blue, with rose-color and white varieties ; pods- very hairy. L. luteUS, the old YELLOW L. of the gardens, from Eu., silky-hairy, rather low ; with yellow flowers in whorls crowded in a dense spike. 2. GROT AL ART A, RATTLEBOX. (From Greek word for a rattle, the seeds rattling in the coriaceous inflated pod.) Native, in sandy soil : fl. yel- low, in summer. C. sagittalis. Low, 3' -6' high, branching, beset with rusty-colored spreading hairs, with nearly sessile oval or lance-oblong leaves, and 2 or 3 flowers on the peduncle. C. ovalis. Spreading, rough with appressed hairs ; leaves short-petioled, oval, oblong, or lanceolate ; peduncle with 3-6 scattered flowers. 2/ 3. GENISTA, WO AD-WAXEN, WHIN. (Celtic word: little bush.) G. tinctdria, DYER'S W. or GREEN-WEED. Nat. from Eu. in sterile soil E., especially in Mass. : low and undershrubby, not thorny, with lanceolate leaves, and bright yellow rather small flowers somewhat racemcd at the end of the striatc-angled green branches, in early summer. 4. CYTISUS. (Ancient Greek name, after an island where it grows.) The following are the only species generally cultivated. C. (or Sarothamnus) scoparius, SCOTCH BROOM. Shrub, from Europe, 3 - 5 high, smooth, with long and tough erect angled and green branches, bearing small leaves, the lower short-petioled and with 3 obovate leaflets, the upper of a single sessile leaflet, and in the axils large and showy golden yellow flowers on slender pedicels ; calyx with 2 short and broad lips ; style and stamens slender, held in the keel, but disengaged and suddenly start- ing upward when touched (as when bees alight on the deflexed keel), the style coiling spirally ; pod hairy on the edges. Hardy in gardens N. ; running wild in Virginia : fl. early summer. IRISH BROOM, so called, but is from Portugal, is another species, not hardy here. SPANISH BROOM is SPARTIUM JUNCEUM, of another genus. C. Canari6nsi8, from the Canary Islands, is cultivated in conservatories; a shrub with crowded slender branches, soft-hoary leaves of 3 very small obovate leaflets, and small ydlow sweet-scented flowers, produced all winter. PULSE FAMILY. 101 5. LABURNUM. (Ancient Latin name. Genus separated from Cytisus from the different appearance, and the seeds destitute of strophiole or append- age at the scar.) L. vulgare, COMMON LABURNUM, GOLDEN-CHAIN, or BEAN-TREFOIL- TRKK of Europe. Planted for ornament, a low tree, with smooth green bark, slender-petioled leaves of 3 oblong leaflets (2' -3' long), and pretty large showy golden-yellow flowers hanging in long racemes, in late spring ; pods with one thicker edge. 6. TRIGONELLA. (Old name, from Greek word for triangular, from the shape of the corolla or the seeds.) Low herbs. T. CJERULEA is the plant used in Switzerland for imparting the flavor like that of Melilot to certain kinds of cheese. ) T. Foenum-Graecum, FENUGREEK. Occasionally cult, in gardens, in Europe a forage and popular medicinal plant, strong-scented ; with wedge- oblong leaflets, one or two nearly sessile small flowers in the axils, yellowish or whitish corolla, and a linear long-pointed and somewhat curved pod 2' -4' long, with veiny sides. (T) 7. MEDIC AGO, MEDICK. (The old name of Lucerne, because it came to the Greeks from Media.) All natives of the Old World : a few have run wild here. Fl. all summer. * Flowers violet-purple or bluish. %. M. sativa, LUCERNE or SPANISH TREFOIL. Cultivated for green fodder, especially S. : stems erect, l-2 high, from a long deep root; leaflets obovate- oblong ; racemes oblong ; pod several-seeded, linear, coiled about 2 turns. * * Flowers yellow. (T) (f) M. lupulina, BLACK MEDICK, NONESUCH. A weed or pasture plant, in dry or sandy fields, &c. : low, spreading, downy, with wedge-obovate leaflets, roundish or at length oblong heads or spikes of small flowers, and little kidney- shaped 1-seeded pods turning black when ripe. M. maculata, SPOTTED M. Waste sandy places, S. & E. : spreading or trailing ; Avith broadly inversely heart-shaped leaflets marked with a dark spot, 3 - 5-flowered peduncles, and a flat pod compactly coiled three or more turns, its thickish edge beset with a double row of curved prickles. M. dentictllata, like the last, but rarer, with pod of looser coils, sharp edge, and mostly shorter prickles. M. SCUtellata, SNAIL MEDICK, BEEHIVE. Cult, occasionally in gardens for its curious pods, which are pretty large, coiled up like a snail-shell, in many turns, smooth and even. 8. MELILOTUS, MELILOT, SWEET CLOVER. (From Greek words for honey and Lotus, i. e. Sweet Lotus : foliage sweet-scented, especially in drying. ) Natives of the Old World ; somewhat cult, in gardens, &c., and running wild in waste or cultivated ground : fl. all summer. @ M. lba, WHITE M., BOKHARA or TREE CLOYER. Tall, 3 - 6 high, branching, with obovate or oblong leaflets truncately notched at the end, and loose racemes of white flowers. Has been cult, for green fodder. M. officinalis, YELLOW M. Less tall, 2 -3 high, with merely blunt leaflets and yellow flowers. 9. TRIFOLIUM, CLOVER, TREFOIL. (Latin name : three leaflets.) * Low, insignificant weeds, not. from Europe in dry waste fields, frc. *- Flowers yellow, in round heads, produced through late summer and autumn, refiexed and turning chestnut-brown, dry and papery with age. T. agrarium, YELLOW Hop-C. Smoothish, 6' -12' high, with obovatc- oblong leaflets all nearly sessile on the end of the petiole ; heads rather large. T. prOCtlinbeilS, Low Hop-C. Smaller, spreading, rather downy, the Wedge-obovate leaflets notched at the end, the middle one at a littlo distance from the others. 102 PULSE FAMILY. - *- Flowers flesh-color or whitish with a purplish spot, in a very soft silky head. T. arv6nse, RABBIT-FOOT or STONE C. Erect, silky-downy, especially the oblong or at length cylindrical grayish heads or spikes, the corollas almost concealed by the plumose-silky calyx ; leaflets narrow. # * Larger, rose-red- -flowered Clovers, cult, from Europe for fodder, or running wild : heads thick and dense: corolla tubular, ivithering away after floucer- ing : flowers sweet-scented, in summer. ^ T. pratense, RED C. Stems ascending ; leaflets obovate or oval, often notched at the end and with a pale spot on the face ; head closely surrounded by the uppermost leaves. T. medium, ZIGZAG C., with a zigzag stem, more oblong entire and spotless leaves, and head usually stalked, is rare, but has run wild E., and passes into the last. # # # Low, wild Clovers, or one cult, from Europe, with spreading or miming stems, and mostly pale or ivhite flowers (remaining and turning brownish in fading) on pedicels, in round umbels or heads, on slender naked peduncles : fl. spring and summer. T. refl&XUm, BUFFALO C. Wild S. and especially W. : somewhat downy, with ascending steins 6' -12' high, obovate-oblong finely-toothed leaf- lets, heads and rose-red and whitish flowers fully as large as in Red Clover, calyx- teeth hairy, and pods 3 - 5-seeded. @ T. Stoloniferum, RUNNING BUFFALO C. Prairies and oak-openings W. : like the last, or a variety of it, but some of the stems forming runners, leaflets broadly obovate or inversely heart-shaped, flowers barely tinged with purple, and pods 2-seeded. ^ T. Carpliniaimm, CAROLINA C. Fields and pastures S. : a little downy, spreading in tufts 5'- 10' high, with small inversely heart-shaped leaflets, broad stipules, and small heads, the purplish corolla hardly longer man the lanceolate calyx-teeth. 11 T. repens, WHITE C. Fields, &c. everywhere, invaluable for pasturage : smooth, with creeping stems, inversely heart-shaped leaflets, long and slender petioles and peduncles, narrow stipules, loose umbel-like heads, and white corolla much longer than the slender calyx-teeth. ^ 10. PETALOSTEMON, PRAIRIE CLOVER, (Name composed of the Greek words for petal and stamen combined. ) In prairies, pine-barrens, &c. W. and S. : flowers never yellow. ^ * Heads crowded in a corymb, leaf graded : fl. late in autumn. P. COrymbbsus. In southern pine-barrens ; 2 high, with leaves of 3 - 7 filiform leaflets, arid white flowers, the slender teeth of calyx becoming plumose. * * Heads or mostly spikes single terminating stems : fl. summer. P. Violaceus. Prairies W. : smoothish or pubescent, l-2 high, with mostly 5 narrow-linear leaflets, a short spike even when old, rose-purple flowers, and hoary calyx. P. cameus. Dry barrens S. : smooth, with branching stems, 5-7 linear leaflets, long-peduncled short spikes, flesh-color or pale rose flowers, and gla- brous calyx. P. Candidas. Prairies W. & S. : smooth, 2 - 3 high, with 7-9 lan- ceolate or linear-oblong leaflets, long-peduncled spikes, with awn-pointed bracts, and white flowers. There are besides one or two rarer species W., and several more far W. & S. 11. DALE A. (Named for an English botanist, Thomas Dale.) There are many species S. W. beyond the Mississippi. D. alppecuroides. Alluvial river banks W. & S. ; with