SIR CHAHLHS A. KING-HARMAN, K.CW.rj. HIGH COMMlSSIONEk A HANDBOOK OF CYPEUS COMPILED BY SIR J. T. HUTCHINSON, MA. Christ's College, Cambridge CHIEF JUSTICE OF CEYLON AND CLAUDE DELAVAL COBHAM, C.M.G. B.C.L., M.A., University College, Oxford COMMISSIONER OF LARNACA WITH FRONTISPIECE AND TWO MAPS 1907 LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD 12, 13, & 14, LONG ACRE, W.C. 1907 IKOL/XaV TTOTL K-Virpov vaaov tS? 'A^poStVa^, iv' 01 6€\^L(})pove? vifiov- Tai 6vaToi(TLv Epwres, Tla<^ov 6\ ai' eKarocTTOfJiOL ^apfidpov TTOTafiov poai Kapir'it,ovcTLV avo/xfipoi. Ottov /cuAXto"T€uo/Aei'a Ilicpta [x.ovn.i5Uid« Ea. HANDBOOK OP CYPEUS GEOGRAPHY Ctpbtjs is an island in the ^Mediterranean, situated in tlie eastern- most basin of that sea, nearly equally distant from the coast ol Asia Minor to the north and of Syria to the east. The headland of Cape Kormakiti (Krommyon Pr.) in Cyprus is distant about 40 miles from Cape Anamur in Cilicia ; and its north-east point, Cape St. Andrea (Cleides or Dinaretum Pr.), is about 60 miles from Latakiah in Syi'ia. The port of Larnaca, on the south coast, is 262-^- milesfrom Port Said, and 1,117 from Valetta in Malta. It lies between 34° 3.3' and 35° 41' north latitude, and between 32° 20' and 34° 35' east longitude. Its greatest length, from west-south-west to east-north-east, is about 140 miles, and its greatest breadth from north to south is about 60 miles. A narrow tongue of land, some 10 miles in breadth and 45 in length, runs east-north-east from Trikomo to Cape Andrea. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean, being inferior in size to Sicily and Sardinia, and larger than Corsica or Crete. Its area is 3,584 square miles (9,282 km.). A trigonometrical survey and map were executed in 1885 under the direction of II. H. Kitchener, Captain R.E. (1 : 63,360). Two mountain ranges cross the island, running generally from west to east. The southern range, which is the more extensive and lofty, culminates in Mount Troodos, 6,406 feet above the sea level. Further eastward are Mount Adelphi, 5,305 feet ; Papoutsa, 5,124 feet; and Chionia or Machaira, 4,674 feet; and the chain ends in the isolated peak St. Croce or Stavrovouni (the Olympus of Strabo), 2,260 feet, 12 miles west of Larnaca. The northern range, called on the east the Carpas mountains, and towards their western extremity the Kyrenia mountains, extends in an unbroken chain from Cape St. Andrea to Cape Kormakiti, a distance of more than 100 miles ; its highest point is Buffavento, 3,135 feet. ' Cyprus HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Las no good natural harbour?, since its coasts lie parallel to tlie mountain spines, and rise out of a shallow, shoaling sea. . . . The deeper soundings of the Levant lie a long way to the south, but the gulf (whose existence they reveal) bends north again to the eastward of Cyprus, dividing the isle effectually from the mainland, and marking the fact that its ridges are geographically connected, not with the Syrian coast ranges, but with the Anato- lian Taurus.' ' The Messaria, or Mesaoria, is the name given to the broad tract of plain which extends quite across the island from the Bay of Famagusta in the east to that of Morphou in the west, through a length of 60 miles, with a breadth varying from 10 to 20 miles. The streams which traverse it are mere winter torrents, which descend from the southern chain but scarcely reach the sea. The Pedias (Pediseus) and lalias (Idalias) lose most of their flood waters in the marshes about Salamis; the Pedias rises near Machaira and passes close to Nicosia ; the lalias rises very near the source of the Pedias, passes through Nesou, Dali (the ancient Idalion) and I'yroi, and traverses the Mesaoria in a direction more or less parallel with the Pedias. Smaller but more constant streams are the Cares (Clarios), which flows from the slopes of Troodos into the Bay of Morphou, and the Kouris (Lycus) and the Diarizos (Barbaros, Bocaros), which have their exits the one near Episcopi, the other near Kouklia. The coast-line (486 miles, 782 km.) is broken by many bays and capes, whence the island got the name of Cerastis, or the horned. Nowhere do the cliffs rise very high above the water. The most picturesque parts of the island are the west slopes of Troiidos, tlie north coast between K yrenia and Acanthou, and in spring the Carpas with its wealth of wild flowers. Mr. Jlogarth gives this graphic sk((tcli of Cyprus: ' A broad island about equally divided between mountain and plain, the last very ill-watered, and some parts of the first, especially the lower south-eastern hills, very ill-clad. Long slopes to the west and south coasts, well suited to the vine, olive, and caroub, but not of deep enough soil for other cultures except in the narrow ^■alley bottoms; tracts of stony pasture on the spines of the spurs; a l)elt of carefully tended forest, mostly pine, on the main ridge, climbing almost over the rounded summits; a steeper fall of green buttresses to east and north; a huge undulating plain declining eastward from the mountain roots, deep and rich when watered; a spiky wall carried out far into the sea to north-east, which rises abruptly out of the ])lain and falls as abruptly north- ward, stony and scarred, to tlie ("aramanian strait. Such is the view that the eagle sees sailing high over Mount Troodos.' - ' D. G. Hoffflrtli. TheNearfr East 8to, Loudon, 1902, p. 37. ' Ihid. i.p. 12!i, 130. GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE ISLAND OF CYPRUS Stanford's Geo^' Estab^London EXPLANATION. Quarternary and Tertiary Rocks, Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene Oligocene Eocene Secondary (Mesozoic) Rocks Cretaceous Igneous Rocks GEOLOGY GEOLOGY Cyprus has attracted the attention of a number of geologists whose observations have been published under the auspices of various learned societies on the C'ontinent. Of these authorities Gaudry/ Unger,- and Bergeat ^ are the principal, while the only English contribution to the geological literature of the Island was, until latterly, that from the pen of Mr. II. Eussell,"* whose visit was chiefly the result of an attempt on the part of the British Government to impro\ e or increase the sources of water- supply in the country. Recent publications on this subject include a geological map' and a memoir,'' which latter, besides enumerating the results of recent observations in the Island, also comprehends a digest of the conclusions arrived at by previous authorities. The following is an excerpt of this latter work : — I. The succession of rocks in descending order represented in Cyprus is as follows : — Pleistocene, alluvial deposits, sandy limestones, sands, con- glomerates, cave-earths, &c. Pliocene, shelly limestones, with calcareous sands and sand- stones. Break and intrusion of igneous rocks. Idalian, newer (Miocene), white, shelly limestones, white chalky limestones, and marly chalks with layers of flints ; older (Oligocene), grey and yellowish marls, with beds of gypsum. Kythrcean (Upper Eocene or Oligocene), grey, felspathic sandstones and sandy shales. Trypanian (Eocene, ■'), greenish shales with hornstone bands. Cretaceous, (?), grey limestones and dolomites, white and pink marbles, both massive and laminated. II. The Trypanian Series. — The oldest rocks in Cyprus occur principally among the Kyrenia Mountains. The formation extends from the neighbourhood of Kormakiti on the west to that of Komi Kebir, at the commencement of the Carpas, on the east. Small outliers are met with in the Acamas district of Paphos. The absence of fossils of a definite age has precluded the possibility of assigning these rocks to any precise geological period, and as they constitute a distinct series in themselves as compared with any other formation in Cyprus, they have been ' Mem. Soc. Geol. de France,siT. 2, torn. vii. pp. 149-314, 1859. - Die Insel Cypern. F. Unger and T. Kotschy, 8vo., Vienna, 1865. " Tscherm. Siin. und Petr. Milth., vol. xii. p. 263. Vienna. * Report on the Existing Water Supply of Cyprus (Foreign Office, 1881). " A Geological Map of Cyprus, with Key, by 0. V. Bellamy. London : B. Stanford, 1904. * The Geology of Cyprus, by C. V. Bellamy and A. J. Jukes-Browne. Plymouth : William Brendou & Son, Ltd., 1905. rublished by Autliority. B 2 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS called the ' Trypanlan,' a name derived from the Trypa Vounos, which rises about the centre of the northern mountain range a little to the eastward of St. Catherine's Pass; they are probably in part Eocene and in part cretaceous. The Trj-panian series is principally composed of compact limestones. The beds have suffered much disturbance and are generally found to be in an almost vertical position, their character having been changed by compression and by the intrusion of igneous masses. In appearance they are either grey, bluish or brownish, and occasionally a black variety is found which is said to owe its colouring to the presence of bitumen. Dark friable indigo-blue limestones ai"e also met with, some of which are dolomitic. Other kinds associated with the foregoing are yellow, red, pink and white or yellow veined with white, of which the majority are completely crystalline and are productive of several kinds of marble of delicate and beautiful tints. They are now considered to be the source whence the ancients derived the decorative stones so largely found in the ruined temples and other buildings abounding in Cyprus. Igneous rocks intrude themselves at many points along the length of the Kyrenia Mountains, and are represented by syenite, quartz-felsite, liparite and dolerite, and in their neighbourhood the sedimentary rocks have become completely marmorised. A band of shaly marls with layers of a flinty substance called hornstone has been observed in close association with the compact limestones, and as these are found largely in the western portion of the Kyrenia range they have been termed 'the Lapithos Beds.' Dr. Bergeat, who first drew attention to these as representing, possibly, a separate order of rocks, records the discovery of certain forms of Nummulites, a genus of fossils which is specially characteristic of the Eocene, though not abso- lutely confined to that period ; while, therefore, the compact limestones are probably cretaceous, the shaly marls are probably of Eocene age. III. The Kythrland, extending continuously from Tillyria to within a few miles of Larnaca. Patches of similar rocks crop out both to the east and west of this central mass, and small tracts and bosses occur along the whole length of the Kyrenia Mountains. But as there is reason to believe that the lower part of the Kythraean Series is almost wholly made of volcanic material, which was eitlier the product of contemporaneous eruptions or was derived from ])re-existing rocks of volcanic origin, it is possible that some of tlie intrusive masses in the Try- panian area may be of ICocene age. The mineral characters of tliese igneous rocks have been described by Dr. Bergeat, who GEOLOGY classifies them as follows : — Diabase, Gabbro, Wehrlite, Serpentine, Andesite, Liparite, and Trachyte, while Dr. J. J. H. Teall recognised the following out of a small number of specimens recently submitted to him : Augite-syenite, Quartz-felsite, Olivine-dolerite, Basalt, Augitite, Liparite, Serpentine. Diabase occurs in three large tracts in the central part of the Troodos range — namely, around Kykkou, Prodromes, and Mandria, again in the Adelphi range, from Adelphi through Papoutsa to Machaira, and thirdly at Stavro Youni to the west of Larnaca. Gabbro, Wehrlite, &c., occur on the summit of Troodos, and to the southward and eastward of this mountain a complex group. A specimen taken from the summit of Troudos has been recognised as serpentine after olivine-enstatite rock. Serpentiiie also occurs around Phinicaria, near Limasol, and in all the exposures in the Acamas, and in the Carpas serpentine seems to be present. Quartz-andesite appears to be confined to the isolated A'olcanic tract of Strullos, near Larnaca ; but Andesites are found all along the outer part of the Tillyria District from Yalia to near Levka ; they are green in colour from the pi'esence of chlortic and delessitic minerals. Another tract of the same kind of rock occui's round Lithrodonda. They also occur in the volcanic region about Lymbia, Alambra, Hagia Anna, and the eastern slopes of Stavro vouni, where they are represented by a reddish-brown amygdaloidal rock, while a similar rock is found near Platanisso in the Carpas and in certain parts of the Kyrenia Mountains. Basalts are found chiefty in the Tillyria district ; they are much decomposed and veined "with calcite, and are frequently vesicular with geodes of calcite in the cavities. Syenite has only been found in the intrusive masses traversed by the Panagra valley. Dr. Teall finds this to be an augite-biotite-syenite. Quartz-felsite or Rhyolite has only been found in the neighbourhood of Pente- dactylos, where it is of a white variety. Trachyte has been found between Eptakomi and I'latanisso in the Carpas. Liparite occurs at several places in the Kyrenia Range, as Panagra Gorge, in the neighbourhood of Kythraia, as Avell as in blocks on the surface south of Buffavento. Zeolites of several kinds are abundant in the andesites and basalts, analcime and mesotype being the commonest. The decomposition of the serpentines and other rocks has given rise to some other peculiar products, such as ferruginous earths, as well as in a material known as Terre verte. These products have given to the soil a variety of brilliant colours, the landscape presenting pictures of truly Oriental colouring in many parts. The remarkable erosion and weathering which has taken place among the decomposed igneous masses has also given to some parts of the landscape the appearance of ruined walls, bastions, and battlements, 8 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS adding greatly to tlie picturesqueness of the scene. The igneous rocks haAe also produced some remarkable meta- morphic changes in the neighbouring sedimentary rocks, and a special accompaniment of this metamorphism is the formation of jasper and jaspideous masses, both in the igneous as well as in the sedimentary rocks. The jaspers are generally heavy opaque rocks of bright red or yellow, or in some cases black or g^een, Vr. Pliocene and Pleistocene. — Tliese deposits are confined cliiefly to the plains of the centre of the island and to the tracts bordering the coast-line. The Pliocene rocks consist of calcareous sandstones with subsidiary beds of conglomerates, sands, and calcareous tufa ; while the Pleistocene deposits are of a more varied character, as Avill be seen in the sequel. The products of these two periods are readily distinguishable from all the older strata on account of their unconformability to the latter, as well as by the fact that the newer beds almost always lie in a nearly horizontal position. Moreover, the deposits of these two periods yield abundant fossil remains. The Pliocene beds are divided into two classes, the Older and the Newer. The former are characterised by shelly limestones and soft calcareous sands, abounding principally in the Carpas, at Davlos, and near Akanthou. Of the Newer Pliocene the dominant member has been described by Gaudry as ' Calcaire grossier,' meaning probably a rough shelly limestone like that ot the Eocene age near Paris. Russell has employed the terms ' Kyrenia rock ' and 'Nicosia beds,' and it is principally in the neighbourhood of the towns indicated by these names that the more characteristic rocks of this age are met with — namely, in the Kyrenia (Quarries and at Hag. Paraskeve, near Nicosia. Similar shelly limestones are met with in many other parts of the island where the deposits are worked for building stone ; of these places the more important are Famagusta, Yeri, Cape Pyla, Kyra, Hag. Phyla, near Limasol, Ktima, &c. A sot'ter and finer quality is met with in the neighbourhood of Kouklia and Kalopsida, where it is also remarkable for being of a deeper sepia hue. In the areas occupied by these shelly limestones the hmd- surface is often bare of soil, the rock being covered by a thin veneering of carbonate of lime, the result of successive solution and precipitation of the calcareous matter contained in the rock itself. Such districts are generally known as ' Kafkalla.' In other parts this rock surface is overspread by a tliin layer of reddish soil, fine and loamy, the colour of which has resulted in these districts being known as the 'Red Villages.' Frequently the roclcy surface-crust is thin, and when traversed by vehicles or animals gives forth a hollow sound indicating the voids beneath ; sometimes this crust has been broken, GEOLOGY revealing large cavities, and at other times, when this covering is removed, deposits of a material known as ' Khavara ' are exposed ; this is a calcareous tufa containing small pebbles, and is employed as gravel. VII. The Pleistocene Beds include all the deposits of later date than the Pliocene, and may be briefly classified as (1) Littoral Limestones, (2) Soft shelly sands near Larnaca, (3) Inland surface conglomerates, (4) Cave-earths, (5) Alluvial plains and marshes, (6) Blown sand. The Littoral Limestones form a tract of varying width along the seashore, and are frequently only distinguishable from the I^liocene beds by a greater freshness of the fossils they contain. A good example of the character of these beds will be found near the Salt Lake of Larnaca.^ Conglomerates spread over large areas in many parts of the island, and are sometimes of considerable thickness. In all cases they are composed of waterworn fragments of older rocks, according to the locality in which they are found. They are a purely local development ; the cementing element is usually calcareous, but is sometimes replaced by or combined with oxide of iron. They are of variable texture and are frequently of great hardness, and this variable character has sometimes led to remarkable effects in land-sculpture. At Arona, at Leondari- vouno, near Athalassa, at Pyroi, and in the neighbourhood of Ilagia Kebir may be seen flat-topped eminences, whose sui'faces consist of these conglomerates overspreading fine friable matter which has been slowly eroded, so that the slopes have become steeply scai-ped like the kopjes of South Africa. Travertine and Calcareous Tufa abound along the northern slopes of the Kyrenia Mountains, at Karavas, Lapithos, Templestowe, and elsewhere. The deposits frequently contain impressions of lea'^es and foliage of the plane and alder trees, &c. The Alluvial Plains of the centre of the island are for the most part the product of successive rain-storms and floods which have brought down from the mountains immense quantities of light debris which has been spread over the lower lands, principally by human agency exerted in the system oicolmatacje, which has been practised from time immemorial. This has resulted in the general raising of the land surface and inci- dentally in the natural reclamation of many acres of land in the lower parts of the Messoria and elsewhere, which once were arms of the sea. Blown sand has accumulated in several parts of the island, where it is slowly but very surely absorbing extensive tracts of cultivable soil. The worst cases are at 'S'arosia, near Famagusta, and at Hag. Eirine, to the north of Morphou, both situated at opposite ends of the central plains ; other instances of ' See The Salt Lake of Larnaca, by C. V. Bellamj", Q. /. Ceol. Soc, vol. Ivi. p. 745. 10 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS a less important character are to be found at Eonnas and Nankomi, in the Carpas, and at several places on the Tillyria coast. Those in the neighbourhood of Limasol, which formerly blocked the main road to >s'icosia, were successfully dealt with by the Public Works Department, and further progress arrested by a judicious planting of a species of Acacia, better known as the ' Australian Wattle.' The Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits have yielded a large number of fossil shells, many of which have been identified by Gaudry and others. Besides these the minute tests of Foraminifera are vei\v abundant, and recently no fewer than 180 species of these organisms have been isolated and named by Mr. F. Vi,\ Millett from a sample of Pliocene marl collected near Myrtou. MINERALS Good building stone, chiefly sandstone, is quarried in all the Districts ; limestone is burnt for local use, and the resulting lime is valued on account of its containing a small quantity of soluble silica ; gypsum is quarried for flagstones and for grinding and export (to make plaster of Paris) ; and some terra umbra (in the year 190o, 2,761 tons, of the value of £'1,401) is exported from Stroullos, Mavrobouui, and Aradippou, in the Larnaca District. Terre verte, a pigment, is found in ])ockets in several parts of the island. A considerable deposit of sulphate of aluminium exists near Levkara. Asbestos occurs in the serpentine rocks of Troodos, and is now being worked. Soapstone and magnesite have also been found in the serpentine rocks. Agate and jasper exist in considerable quantities, also the so-called Paphos diamoud, an almost pure form of quartz. Copper, which took its name from the island (ae^ Ci/prium, cu])ru7n),yv&s extensively produced by tlie ancients, but it appears that they extracted all the surface metal. A syndicate has for several years been prospecting and opening out copper mines in the neighbourhood of the ancient workings at Limne, in the Paphos District. AVhether the older mines were aljandoned from exhaustion of the richer ore, want of fuel, or inability to deal with the question of water or of ventilation, cannot now be determined. IRRIGATION WORKS 1 Tlie total sum lent by tin- Imperial Treasury for Irrigation AVorks is i'00,000. This sum bears interest at 4 per cent., of whicli 1 per cent, will form a sinking fund to pay ofl" the loan. An important beginning was made in 1883 by the repair of ' Tliis was written bv 'Mr. Medlit-ott in 1901. See also the Higli Commissioner's Heports for years ended Murcli 31, 1H81 and 1«85. IRRIGATION WORKS 11 an ancient canal about 15 miles in length, originally constructed to carry off the surplus waters of the river Pedias, for the purpose of irrigating about 14,000 donums of the best lands of the Mesaoria. The weirs and banks were further improved in 1884. Investigations were commenced in November 1897. During Synkrasi November 1898 the Synkrasi reservoir works were commenced, Reservoir. and they were completed during 1899. A low earthen dam was thrown across a hill torrent, with channels branching off, from which lands are watered during floods. The surplus water from this dam finds its way into the Synkrasi reservoir, which is formed by an embankment 30 feet high and 1,500 feet long thrown across another hill torrent. The reservoir, when full, will have a water spread of 200 acres, and will hold about 70 million cubic feet of water. This quantity of water, if spread over the whole catchment basin, would submerge it to a depth of 1*1 inch. The catchment basin is 27 square miles, of which two-thirds are cultivated ground, and one- third steep bare mountain sides. There are no reliable statistics of the rainfall. The maximum, minimum, and mean, are probably about 24 inches, 10 inches, and 18 inches. In addition to the above works, a swamp 300 acres in extent has been drained, and plantations of olive, cypress, acacia, and mulben-y trees formed round the reservoir. The total cost of these works is close upon £6,000. The work, as far as this reser- voir (£4,400) is concerned, is a new departure from existing methods, and, if successful, will open up a large field for similar works. It will prove useful in determining the area irrigable by the supply from a given area of catchment from which the potential productive yield per square mile of a catchment can be calculated by dividing the enhanced yield due to irrigation by the area of the catchment basin. Having thus obtained an accurate measure of the possible returns, reliable forecasts can then be made for future schemes of this kind. It was with this object in view principally that this work was carried out. In September 1899 the Mesaoria project was commenced. Mesaoria This scheme was estimated to cost £50,000, and it was completed Pi"'Ji«^c*' and in full operation in the early part of 1 901 . Before it can be fully exploited some years must elapse. As developments take place additional expenditure on extensions and improvements to the extent of another £5,000 will probably be required. The project is partly one of the reclamation of lands, and partly an irrigation scheme. The area affected by it lies between the meridians of Vatili and the sea-coast, and between the latitudes of Peristerona and Kalopsida in the Famagusta district. The following are the main features : — («) Eighteen miles of training banks, and reservoir embank- ments, by which the flood discharge of 700 square miles of 12 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS catchment is diverted and held up. The total area that will be submerged in the beds of the reservoirs will be nearly 5,000 acres, consisting chiefly of waste lands, which daring the summer are expected in course of time to yield valuable crops. These reser- voirs are suilicient to hold up the maximum flood discharge from the above catchment basin, so that no water will escape to sea. They will not only hold up and control the water for distribution to the lands below, but will keep the water out of swamp lands 5,000 acres in extent. The aggregate capacity of them is about 1,200 million cubic feet, which is equivalent to f inch in depth over the whole catchment basin. (b) From the above-mentioned banks and reservoirs, which are pierced by numerous sluices, a system of irrigation channels branches oft", having a total length of about 50 miles, and com- manding 50 square miles of rich alluvial lands, of which 5 square miles are reclaimed swamp. (c) In addition to the irrigation channels, some 30 miles of drains have been constructed to reclaim about 10 square miles of lands, of which half is a malarious swamp. On the other half the crops are liable to damage from excessive flooding in wet years. Irrigation under the above works will be of two kinds — (1) ' Flood irrigation ' from channels, while the rivers are in flood, in accordance with prevailing methods ; (2) 'Reservoir irrigation' from water that has been held up, and stored. In order to supply the former the sluices in the training {i.e. diversion) banks will be kept open sufficiently to fill the channels branching oft' from them, while the surplus will pass off to the reservoirs. The water passing through the sluices will be heavily laden with rich fertilizing silt, which is the chief advantage of this system of irrigation. The water in the reservoirs will be issued in accordance with the requirements of the crops. The works above described, and the cost of the preliminary investigations, will absorb the whole of the Imperial loan of £60,000. For the present it is not contemplated to carry out other works. The works constructed are all situated in the Fama- gusta District. Several other promising small schemes have been investigated, notably in the Larnaca and Limasol Districts; but for the present no I'unds are forthcoming. The success of the works constructed depends altogether on theamount of the flowfrom the catchment basins lying above them. The statistics of rainfall and flood discharges arr too meagre to enable an accurati.' forecast to be made of the financial results. liut that the works will, in the course of a few years, pay working expenses and interest charges hardly admits of a doubt. That they will enormously im])rove the health of the inhabitants of the villages aflected by them (situated as they are in the most unhealthy part of the Island), and their pro.sperity, is certain. IRRIGATION WORKS— AGRICULTURE 13 No traces of irrigation works worthy of note were discovered. Ancieut A few masonry dams were found, completely buried in alluvium : ^™''^''- they probably date from the time of the Venetians. The depth of recent alluvial deposits in the Mesaoria is very Soil of the great. They consist of a rich chocolate-coloured loam, formed by J^'^esaona. the denudation of the soft friable basic igneous rocks of the Troodos range. In the low-lying marshes along the southern margin of the plain, from Kouklia to Famagusta, the soil has become slightly impregnated with salts, but with drainage and cultivation these lands will soon become sweet and capable of bearing valuable crops. AGRICULTURE The great majority of the people are employed on the land. Farmers The farmer generally cultivates his own land ; but there is a con- and siderable proportion who are leaseholders, paying a fixed money ®^^i'''^*"'^''- rent to the owner ; and the metayer system, or something like it, is fairly common, one man supplying the seed, or the land, or the flock, while the other partner {Trofiia-idpTjs, from drro ^^lav), supplies the labour, and the produce is divided in the shares agreed upon. There are few large landowners. The arable farms are usually small. The principal economic products of the land are barley, wheat, Products, oats, vetches, caroubs, grapes, raisins, wine, silk, olives, cotton, sesame, aniseed, linseed, hemp, black cumin (mavrokoklcos), beans, lentils, fruit, and vegetables. Sheep, goats, cattle, ponies, mules, donkeys, swine, and poultry are bred. The sheep are a breed with very broad, heavy, twisted fat tails. The mules and donkeys are both of excellent quality. The ponies are very hardy ; they are generally about 13 hands, although some cross-bred ones, with Syrian blood in them, are as much as 14| hands. During the last few years the Committee for the Improvement of Cyprus Stock, a Committee appointed by the Government, has imported several English stallions, which are stationed in different districts ; and it also holds periodical shows of horses, mules, and donkeys. Camels were known in the island in 1340. The last mention of the bufialo is in 1668. Sugar, from about 1300 to the Turkish Conquest, was an important source of profit. We hear in 1490 of a gross yield of 2,000 quintals, worth 35 ducats each. Take the quintal at 225 kilogrammes, and the ducat at francs 7.20, we get 8,840 cwt., value £20,160. But the purchasing power of money was then from eight to ten times as great as in our own day. The once famous gum ladanum, or labdanum, is collected by shepherds in sticky lumps from the beards of goats browsing among the cist us, which grows wild in most parts of the island. 14 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Ploughmg, The plough almost universally in use is the ancient native-made sowiug, 4c. •wooden plough, very light, drawn chiefly by oxen, and making a very shallow furrow. But lately a number of light iron ploughs have been introduced by the Director of Agriculture. On most farms flourish vast quantities of Aveeds — thistles in immense variety and many thorny shrubs (j)alloun and others) — and little attempt is made to clean the soil of them. Harrows,^ rollers, and other mechanical appliances to assist in preparing the soil or dealing with the crop are rare ; but several reaping machines are now in use, and two or three Ransome threshing machines, with straw-chopping apparatus. The preparation of the land for cereals is as follows: — About the middle of January, when the land is soaked with rain, the fallow field {veda-^ia or vtaro^) is broken up, and in March or April it is cross-ploughed (8i'/3oAo). If the autumn rains are early, the field is ploughed for a third time (ilmKOfxfxa), after which it is sown ; but if the rains are late the sowing is done on fields which have been cross-ploughed only. As a rule, sowing begins soon after the autumn rains, and may go on until January. But if rain does not come before the end of October many sow before the rain ; and in many places farmers sow regularly before — i.e. without waiting for the autumn rains. This sowing is called $ep6l3oXa. Lands flooded by a river or other running water are called noTi^n. Barley and wheat are cut about April ; they are cut with a sickle, tied into sheaves, and carried on donkeys or small carts to the threshing floors. These are levelled and smooth circular places, seldom paved or flagged, on which the crop is laid down and the grain threshed out by oxen, ponies, mules, and donkeys drawing sledges,- which have sharp flints or stones fixed into the bottom. Then the straw is gradually cleared away, and the grain winnowed by being thrown up in the wind with wooden shovels ; and the winnowed grain, Avith a goodly proportion of dirt and even small stones necessarily left in it, remains in heaps on tlie floor until the taxing oflicer has viewed it and estimated the amount of it. The old people, and women and children, ride on the sledges, and get many weeks of enjoyment out of the tlireshing and winnowing, and the animals harnessed to the sledges also have a good time; for the injunction, ' Thou slialt not muzzle the ox that treadeth out tlie corn,' is generally obeyed, and the benefit thereof extended to the horse, the mule, and the donkey. The straw, very brittle in the dry heat of Cyprus, becomes much broken up in the process of threshing; and mixed with chafr and many stray grains, is the ' chopped straw ' {axvpov). ' The crapaxKo, u«eil all over the islanil, is a kind of clod-cnislier, consisting oC a wooiien bciim about 10 ft. by 10 in. by 10 in. ' Jou/tacait, trebbiatrici.tribiila. AGRICULTURE l£ which forms a large part of the food of horses, oxen, mules, and donkeys, hay being unknown in Cyprus, and green food only obtainable for them during a few weeks in the spring. Lucerne, however, is now beginning to be grown. Farmyard manure and town refuse and sweepings are used on the fields, but no artificial manure of any kind. For the purpose of rotation, crops are divided into spring, notation of summer, and winter crops. crops. Spring Crops. — Vetches, louvana {Lathyrus ochrus), lentils, chick peas, aniseed, black cumin (Xit/ella sativa, jxavpoKOKKos). These are mostly sown from the middle of January to February ; but vetches and louvana often earlier : and in Tillyria and some other mountain villages vetches are sown in October. (Vetches cannot be sown as a winter crop in the plains because of the vast numbers of a lark called locally rpaxiXa, which uproots the young plants as soon as the A^etches germinate.) Summer Crops. — Cotton, sesame, maize, beans (XovlBio, Dolichos melanophthahnos, a variety of the American cow-pea), millet {vTapi, Sorghum cernuum). These are sown in April and May, rarely up to the middle of June. Winter Crops. — "\^"heat, oats, barley, flax, horse beans. Wheat and oats are sown from October to December ; the others a little earlier. Barley, for gi-een fodder, is sown in September. As a rule the rotation is biennial: — First year, winter crop, + fallow + grazing ; Second year, spring or summer crop. A field which has had a winter crop is pastured after the harvest until January ; in January and February it is broken up and cross-ploughed, and sown immediately after with a spring or summer crop. Very poor land, however, is left fallow for a whole year after a crop of cereals. A crop of aniseed is usually followed by wheat. Where cotton is grown on non-irrigated land the crop is picked in September and October, and the field is then sown with a winter crop. But cotton on irrigated land is not all picked until November or even December; and the land is then sown next year with a spring or winter crop : or (as in Nicosia District) the plants are left and the land lies fallow and is grazed until March, when the plants are pruned and the field is ploughed with the native plough, which does not do much harm to the plants, and a second crop of cotton is picked in September. This second crop is, as a rule, larger than the first. Sometimes the cotton plants are left for a third year, and a third crop is obtained. In Lapithos, in irrigated land, cotton plants live and produce remunerative crops up to six or eight years; and until lately there were cotton plants there ten years old. Ratio of seed sown to grain liar vested. 16 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS 1 to 1 1 Ifiles of barley sown on 1 donum of land gives 10 to 15 kiles. Ik. „ Avlieat „ „ „ 6 to 10 „ ^k. „ vetches „ „ „ 2 to 4 „ 2 to 2^ „ oats „ „ „ 20 to 30 „ 10 to 15 okes of cotton ,, „ „ 30 to 50 okas net. Irrigation The rainfall over most of the arable land is very small, and during the long and dry summer almost all vegetation is burnt up. Artificial irrigation therefore greatly increases the pro- ductiveness of the soil. In the comparatively small area in which the streams are available the water from them is used for irrigation as long as it lasts, and is sometimes conducted to considerable distances in conduits for that purpose. In other parts of the island wells have been used from time immemorial, not only for watering stock but also for irrigation. The Cypriots are very clever in finding underground water ; they dig chains of wells, connecting them by tunnels, and draw up the water into a tank by means of an oKaKan, a wheel encircled with buckets round its circumference and worked by a horse or mule or donkey, or by a modern air-motor, and from the tank the water is distributed by pipes and conduits. Laws 6 of 1896 and 4 of 1897 place certain restrictions on the sinking of wells within 300 pics from an existing chain of wells or from a spring, or within 40 pics from a well used for irrigation purposes. For an account of the recent experiments made by the GoAernment in irrigation on a large scale, see page 10. Caroubs. The caroub,' or locust tree, grows Avild in Cyprus ; but the fruit of the wild tree is valueless. The cultivated trees have all been grafted. This tree is the sole species of the genus Ceratonia, order Lecjuminosce, sub-order Caemlpineae. It flowers in August and September, and the fruit developed from the flowers of one autumn is gathered in the following August, so that in that month the same tree is bearing both flowers and ripe fruit. The fruit is a pod containing from 10 to 18 hard beans. It is mostly exported to lOngland, France, and Fgypt, rather more than half of the whole export going to Fngland. .Some is used, in Fgypt and the Levant especially, as food for the poorer classes and for making sweets and sherbets; but by far the larger part is ground and used for feeding cattle and horses, either in the form of meal or when made up into different kinds of 'cattle food.' Very little is used in Cyprus. The pods are known in England as ' yapovn-ta or Keparea. 'Caroub' or 'Carob,' is an Aral)ic word. Keparea is so caUciica), which has the reputation of being deadly, although it is not always so. Scoi-pions and centipedes abound in .some districts; also a kind of ant (mu(i/la), called tlit; .sp/irilan'/i, jn&{\y dreaded by the natives, as the sting of t he female, especially in summer, conveys WILD ANIMALS AND SPORT— BIRDS 31 the anthrax bacillus sometimes with fatal results. The rat-tailed worm {Helophilus pendulus) is sometimes troublesome ; and a kind of fly called loicri is a curse to sheep, in the noses, eyes, and ears of which it deposits a worm. The tarantula (p6l3a, jjaya, poi^, pd^, Lycosa t.) is common, but harmless. Mosquitoes and sandflies are troublesome in some parts of the Island in spring and summer ; also (in the Paphos district) leeches. One of the worst pests is the 'silver fish ' {lepisma saccharina) which attacks clothes, pictures, the bindings of books, &c. Oil paint keeps it at bay. LIST OF BIRDS The following list of birds met with in Cyprus by the late Lord Lilford, Dr. F. H. H. Guillemard, and the late Mr. W. Pearse, taken from the ' Ibis ' of July, 1889, appears now re-arranged and enlarged. The additions, shot by Herr C. Glaszner, and described by Dr. Julius von Madarasz (' Uber die Vogel Cyperns,' Ann. Musei Nat. Hung., Buda-Pest, 1904), are marked with an asterisk. The numbers are still those of Lord Lilford's paper. Where the nomenclature differs, the terms used by v. Madarasz are enclosed in brackets. Ordo Passeeifoemes. Fam. Troglodytidce. 69. Troglodytes parvulus {AnortJiura Cypriotes), Common Wren. Fam. Pycnonotid<^. 27. Pycnonotus xanthopygius, Palestine Bulbul. Fam. Cinclidce. 25. Ctnclus olympicus, Dipper. Fam. TurdidcB. 31. Tiirdus merula {Merula merula), Blackbird. SO. Turdus pilaris, Fieldfare. 28. Turdus viscivoriis, Mistletoe Thrush. 29. Turdus musicus. Song Thrush. 36 37 * Monticola scuatilis, Rock Thrush. 32. Monticola cyanus {Petro- phila cyames), Blue Rock Thrush. Ruticilla phoenicurus (Phcenicurus ph. ) Redstart. Ruticilla mesoleuca (^Phoe- nicurus jnesoleucus), Ehrenberg's Redstart. 38. Ruticilla titys {Phoenicu- rus titys). Black Redstart. 35. Cyanecula wolf, ( C. cyane- cuki). White-spotted Blue- throat. 34. Philomela luscinia {^Edon I.) Nightingale. * Atdon philomela. 32 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS 33. EritJiacus rubecula, Redbreast. 40. Saxicola nibetra (^Pratin- cola r.), Whinchat. 39. ScLiicola nibicola {Pratin- cola r.), Stonechat. 41. Saxicola ocnanthe, Wheatear. * Saxicola amj>hileuca. 42. Saxicola isabellina, Isabelline Chat. * Saxicola cypriaca. 43. Saxicola stapazina {S. eurymelcena^, Russet Chat. 44. Saxicola finschi, Arabian Chat. 46. Saxicola monacha, Hooded Chat. Fam. Si/lviidcs. ' Agrobates familiaris. 48. Acrocej)halus turdoides, Great Reed A\'arbler. * Acrocephaliis streperus, Reed Warbler. oO. Acrocephalus phragmitis {C'alamodus p.) Sedge A\'arbler. 51. Acrocephalus luscinioides {Potamodus I.), Savi's Warbler. ■')2. Sylvia cettii {Cettia cetti), Cetti's Warbler. 53. Cisticola cursitans (C. cisticola), Fantail Warbler. 47. Hypolais eleica (H. pal- lida), Olivaceous "Warbler. * Sylvia nisoria, Barred Warbler. 54. Sylvia cincrea (S. sylcia), Whitethroat. (hi. Sylvia hortensis {S. sim- plex), Garden Warbler. 58. Sylvia ruepelli, Riipell's Warbler. 61. Sylvia orphea {S. orpheus), Orphean Warbler. 55. Sylvia curruca, Lesser Whitethroat. 56. Sylvia subalpina, Subalpine Warbler. 57. Sylvia conspicillata, Spectacled Warbler. 62. Sylvia atricapilla, Blackcap. 59. Sylvia melanothorax, Palestine Warbler. 60. Sylvia vielanocephala, Black-headed Warbler. 64. Phylloscopus sibilatrix {Ph. sibilator), Wood Wren. 60. Phylloscojms trochilus, "SVillow Wren. 67. Phylloscopus bonellii, Bonelli's Warbler. 06. Phylloscopus ?mnor, Chiftchaff. Fam. Laniidurpurascens, Purple-winged Star- ling. * Stia-nus porpTiyronotus. 107. Pastor roseus, Kose-coloured Starling. Fam. Oriolidee. 26. Orioliis galbula, Golden Oriole. Fam. Corvidcc. 108. 110. 111. C'orvus corax, Haven. Corone pallescens. C'orvus frugilegus ( Try- panocorax f.), Hook. Corvus vionedula ( Colocus collaris), Jackdaw. 1 1 '2. Pica caudafa (P. pica), Magpie. 113. Clarrulus ylandariut {G. ylasz7ten), Jay. Ordo COEACI-EFOEMES. Fam. Cypselidce, 121. Ci/pselus melba, "White-beUied Swift. Cypselus apus (('. jif/.vVi- ensis), Swift. Cypselus pallidas ( C. murinus), Pallid Swift. 119. 120. Fam. CaprimulyidcB. 122. Caprimulgus europceus (C. meridionalis), Nightjar. Fam. Coraciid(P. 126. Coracias garrulus, Roller. Fam. Meropidce. 127. Merops apiaster, Bee-eater. Fam. Upupidce 125. Upupa epops, Hoopoe. Fam. Alce.dinida; 128. Alcedo ispida, Kingfisher. 129. Ceryle rudis, Pied Kingfisher. 1.30. Halcyon smyrnensis. Smyrna Kingfisher. Ordo PiCIFORMES. P^am. Picidce, 132. Iy7}x torquilla, NN^ryneck. Ordo CUCULIFOKMES. Fam. Cuculidte. 124. Oxylophus glandarius (Coccysus y.), Great Spotted Cuckoo. 123. Cuculus canorus, Cuckoo. LIST OF BIRDS 36 Ordo Strigifoemes. Fam. Striyida;. 15. Strixjlammea, Barn Owl. Fam. Bubonidce. 17. Asio brachyotiis {A. accipi- tn'nus), Short-eared Owl. IG. Asio otus, Long-eared Owl. 18. Athene noctiLa (^A. glaux), Little Owl. 19. Scops (J iu {S. cyprici), Scops Owl. '•- Scops scops. Ordo AcciPiTEiroEMES. Fam. Falconidm. I'J. Circus ceriiyinosus, Marsh Harrier. ^ Circus cycmiis, Hen Harrier, lo. Circus Sivainsoni (^C.mac- i-urus), Pallid Harrier. * Circus p)yya rgus. " Buteo buteo, Buzzard. 14. Accipiter nisus, Sparrow Hawk. 7. Falco cesalon (F. merillus'), Merlin. * Falco subbuteo, Hobby. 8. Falco Eleonorce, La Marmora's Falcon. 5, Falco sacer (F. chcrruy), Saker. 6. Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon. 6. Falco jnmicus. 9. Falco vespertitius (Fry- thropus v.), lled-legged Falcon. 10. Falco tinnunculus {Cerch- neis tinnuncula), Common Kestrel. ! 11. Falco cenchris [Cerchneis Naumanni), Lesser Kestrel. ■'■ Pernis apivorus, j Honey Buzzard. j * Milvus milvus, Kite. 3. Aquila Tieliaca, Imperial Eagle. 4. Niscetus fasciatus, Bonelli's Eagle. 3. Halicetus albicilla, White-tailed Eagle. Fam. Vulturidce. 1. Vultur monachuSf Black Vulture. 2. Gypsfulints, Griffon Vulture. 2. Neophron peraioptcrus. Ordo Aedeifoemes. Fam. Ardeidce. 184. Ardea purpurea (Pyr- rherodias p.'), Purple Heron. 183. Ardea cinerea, Common Heron. 185. Ardea alba (^Herodias «.) Great White Heron. 186. Ardea garzetta {Gar- zetta g.^ Egret. 187. Ardea bubulcus (Bubulcus lucidus^, Bull-backed Egret. 188. Ardea comata (^Ardeola ralloides), Squacco Heron. 189. Nycticorax griseus, {N. nycticorax), Night Heron. 190. Botaurus minutus (Ardetta mimita), Little Bittern. 191. Botaurus stellaris, Common Bittern. d2 36 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Fam. Ciconudce. 192. Ciconia alba (C ciconia), White Stork. Fam. Ibibidcs. 193. Ibis falcineU/(s {Pleya- disf.), Glossy Ibis. Fam. Plataleklce. 194. Platalea leucorodia, Spoonbill. Ordo Getjifoemes. Fam. Gruidce. 149. Grus cinerea (G. ffi'us), Common Crane. 150. Grus riryo (^Anthro- poides i\), Demoiselle Crane. Ordo Chaeadeiifoemes. Fam. Otididce. 151. Otis tarda, Great Bustard. 152. Otis tetrax (T. tctra.v), Little Bustard. Fam. (Edicnemidcc. 153. CEdicnemus crepitans, (Q?. mdicnemus), Stone Curlew. Fam. Glareolidce. 154. Glareola tonpiata, {G. pratiitcola), Collared Pratincole. Fam. Charadriidce. 100. Vanellus crisfat/cs ( V. vanellus), Lapwing. 159. lloplopterus spinosus, Spur-winged J'lover. 161 . C'haradriii.s pluvialis, Golden J 'lover. 155. ^gialitis hiaticola. Ringed Plover. 156. ^(jialitis minor (.'7i. dubia'), Little Ringed Plover. 157. ^gialitis cantiana {Ai. alexandrina), Kentish Plover. 158. ALgialitis geoffroyi (Octhodromus y.), Greater Sand Plover. Fam. Hcematopodidce. 162. Hcematopus ostralegus, Oyster-catcher. 163. Himantopus inelanopterus, Black-winged Stilt. Fam. Scolopacidce. 164. Scolopax rnsticola, Woodcock. 167. Scolopax gallinula {Gallinago g.), Jack Snipe. 166. Scolopax gallinago {Gallinayo y.), Common Snipe. 165. Scolopax major {Galli- nayo major), Great Snipe. 168. Trinya variabilis ( /'. alpina). Dunlin. 170. Trinya subarfjaata, Curlew Sandpiper. 169. Trinya minuta (Limo- nites m.). Little Stint. 171. Calidris arenaria, Sanderling. 172. Macheter puynax {Pavon- cella p.), Ruff. 173. Totaiius hypoleucos (Triii- yoides h.), Common Sandpiper. 1 75. Totanus ylareola (^Rhyaeo- 2)hilus y.) Wood Sandpiper. LIST OF BIRDS 37 179. Totaniis glottis {Glottis nebularius). Greenshank. 178. Totamis fuscus, Spotted Redshank. 177. Totanus calidris Common Redshank. 176. Totanus stagnatilis, March Sandpiper. 174. Totanus ochropus {Helo- dromas o.) Green Sandpiper. 180. Limosa melanura (L. limosa), Black-tailed Godwit. 181. Numenius arquatus, Curlew. 182. Numenius tenuirostris, Slender-billed Curlew, Ordo Phcenicopteeifoemes. Fam. Phcenicopteridce. 195. Phcenicopterus roseus, Flamingo. Ordo AXSEEIFOKMES. Fam. Cygnides. 197. Cygnus olor, Mute Swan. Fam. Anatidce. 196. Anser ferus {A. Anser) Grey-lag Goose. 198. Tadorna casarca {Casarca c), Ruddy Sheld Duck. 199. Tadorna cornuta {T. tadorna). Common Sheld Duck. I'OO. Alias Boschas, Mallard. 202. Anas strepera {Chaulelas- mus st}-eperus), Gadwall. 207. Mareca Penelope, Widgeon. 208. Nyrocafenna, Pochard. 205. Anas crecca (Nettion c), Teal. 206. Anas circia {Querquedula querquedula) Garganey. 204. Anas acuta {Dafila a.) Pintail. 203. Anas clypeata {Spatula c.) Shoveller. 201. Anas angustirostris {Mar- maronetta a.) Marbled Duck. 210. Fuligula nyroca {Aythia n.), White-eyed Duck. 209. Fuligula cristata {F. fulif/ula), Tufted Duck. 211. (Edemia nigra, Scoter. Ordo Pelecanifoemes. Fam. Pelecanidce. 214. Pelecanus citspus. Pelican. 215. Pelecanus onocrotalus, Roseate Pelican. Fam. Phalacroeoracidce. 212. Phalacroeorax carbo, Cormorant. 213. Phalacroeorax graculus (P. desmaresti) Shag. Ordo Laeipoemes. Fam. Laridce. 218. Sternacaspia {Hydro- progne c), Caspian Tern. 219. HydrocTielidon leucoptera, White-winged Black Tern. 220. Hydrochelidon nigra, Black Tern. 216. Sterna Jluviatilis, Common Tern. 38 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS L>17. Sterna minuta, Little Tern. 221, Larus ridibundus, Peewit Gull. 222. Larus vielanocephahis, Black-headed Gull. 223. Larus minutus, Little (lull. 224. Larus gelastes, Slender-billed Gull. 225. Larus ca7ius, Common Gull. 226. Larus leucophceus {L. cachimians), Yellow-legged Herring Gull. 227. Larus fuscus, Lesser Black-backed Gull. 228. Larus maririus, Greater Black-backed Gull. Ordo Pkocellarijefoemes. Fam. Puffinid(^. 229. Pujjfinus kuhli, Greater Mediterranean Shearwater. 230. Puffinus (yelkonanuf), Lesser JMediterranean Shearwater. * Procellaria pelagica. Stormy I'etrel. Ordo PODICIPEDIFORMES. Fam. Podicipedidce. 231 . Podicipes jiu vtatilis, Little Grebe. Ordo Rallifokmes. Fam. Jiallidcs. 148. Fidica atra, Coot. 147. Gallinula chloropiiSy AVater-hen. 142. Crex pratensis (C. cre.v), Landrail. 143. Cre.v porzana (Porzanap.) Spotted Crake. 145. Crex bailloni {Porzana pusilla) Baillon's Crake. 144. Cre.v pusilla {Zapornia parva), Little Crake. 14G. Pallus ar/uaticus, Water-rail. Ordo ColtjMbifoemes. Fam. Columbidce. 134. Columba (xnas, Stock Dove. 135. Columba livia, Rock Dove. 133. Columba pahanbus, Ring Dove. Fam. Turtui'idce. 136. Columba turtur (Turtur t.), Turtle Dove. 137. Columba risoria (Turtur decaocto) Collared Turtle Dove. Ordo Pteeoclidifoemes, Fam. Pteroclidcs. 138. Pterodes alchata (Pt. arenarius), Pin-tailed Sand Grouse. Ordo Gallifoemes. Fam. Phasiaiiidce. 139. Caccabis chukar, Chukar Partridge. 140. Francolinus vulgaris {F, francolimts), Fraucolin. 141. Coturniv vulgaris (C coturnia'), Common Quail. The number of birds re- corded in 1889 was 231 ; in 1904, 249. MYTHOLOGY— HISTORY 39 MYTHOLOGY Cyprus was rich in poetic myths and heroic legends. The gods of Phoenicia, with their counterparts from Achaia and Egypt, had many shrines and many images. Baal or Zeus, Astarte or Aphrodite, Tammuz or Adonis, Melkarth or Hercules, Apollo Amyclaios or Kesef-Mikal, Avith Isis and Serapis, had their votaries. The Cyprian /(ifao-o-a or Aphrodite is a peculiarly interesting form of the yEgean nature-goddess with Syrian features. Its bards would sing of Cinyras, son of Apollo, the kingly priest and sweet singer of the Paphian temple ; of his daughter Myrrha, changed to a myrtle, from whose bark sprang * rose-cheek'd ' Adonis ; how Aphrodite loved the beautiful lad, how she mourned his untimely death, and from his blood called forth the anemone ; of Aphrodite herself, foam-born goddess, with her hundred altars, and Pygmalion, whose kiss gave life to the ivory he Avas carving. HISTORY The origin of the name Cyprus is still uncertain. Modern scholars condemn the common derivation from the Hebrew word Ao/>^e?- (Solomon's Song, i. 14; iv. 13; Lxx. Kvnpos, Vulg. Cypnin) meaning the Henna {Kvahic Hinna), or Zrtii>6Giwm«/6a, but supply nothing better. The early history of Cyprus is entirely obscure. Exposed to the influences of Cilicia on the north, Phoenicia on the east, Egypt on the south, and Mycense on the west, its culture probably received the impress of all these countries. Of the race affinities of its earliest population we know nothing. Such portions of it as were Hellenized used a dialect for Avhich affinities have been found in the Arcadian group, and a syllabic character bearing no little resemblance to that of Lycia. Both these were retained on their coinage until the era of Alexander. Mr. George Smith, about 1872, first gave a key to the Cj^priot syllabary ; Doctore Birch and Brandis a little later achieved its complete decipher- ment. Thothmes III., of the eighteenth dynasty, conquered the island about B.C. 1450. To Egyptians succeeded Phcenicians, to Phoenicians Assyrians. The stele of Sargon (at Berlin) and the (Jouciuest cylinder of Esarhaddon (in the British Museum) bring Cypriot by Egypt history down to B.C. 670. Early Ionian immigrants colonized, "■^* *^"' no doubt, the coast towns neglected by the l^hoeniciaus, and made Phoenicians, free with the legends of Teucer, son of Telamon, of Theseus and Assyrians. Ariadne, the Arcadian Agapenor, and the Athenian Acamas. ci-ccks. These last Avere in the end to prove the most pliable and most enduring element : the land took the imprint of successive con- quests, but when once the conquered liad assimilated the Chris- tianity so early brought to their homes, their orthodoxy and their 40 HANDBOOK OF CYPIiUS language were tenaciously cherished and transmitted together through the many crises in their history. But the positive history of the island begins in B.C. 569, when the Egyptian king Amasis (Herodotus, ii. 18:2) conquered Cyprus, laps in the same year Solon visited Philocypros at Aipeia, and I'erhap persuaded him to migrate with his people to a new town, Soloi, to which he gave laws and his name. From this date until 525 (when both Egypt and Cyprus fell under Cambyses), a King of Salamis, Euelthon, reigned over the whole island. In 50'^ the lonians revolted against Persia. Onesilos, a younger brother of Gorges, King of Salamis, joined the rebels, and helped them with a fleet ; but the attempt failed, and a PiKenician dynasty replaced the line of Euelthon. In B.C. 480 one hundred and fifty ships from Cyprus joined the fleet which Xerxes assembled against Greece. The races represented in their crews (' as the Cypriots themselves say ') were from Salamis and Athens, from Arcadia and Cythnos (Pelasgi and Dryopes), Phoenicians and .Ethiopians. During the subsequent wars between the Greeks and Persians, Cyprus was often the scene of hostilities, and Cimon, son of Miltiades, died before Citium in 44:9 from disease or, as some say, of a wound. The peace of Antalcidas (387) confirmed Persia in her possession of Cyprus ; but already one of its kings, Evagoras, was plotting a rising. He conquered Tyre, and, during a reign which extended between 411 and 374, showed a courage and a wisdom which deserved the encomium of Isoci-ates. Persia, how- ever, was too strong: his conquests were wrested from him, and his son Nicocles and grandson Evagoras II. were mere vassals of the Great King. After the battle of Issus, when Alexander advanced into Ph(enicia, all the cities of Cyprus declared in his favour, and sent their powerful fleet of 120 ships of war to assist him in the siege of Tyre (Grote, viii. 302). During this period, though the island was subject, with brief intervals, to Persia, the several cities enjoyed the privilege of local self-government. The roll of famous Cypriots begins and ends with Zeno of Citium (B.C. 390), the founder of the Stoic school. In the confusion which followed the death of Alexander, Cyprus fell, in b.c. 306, to Ptolemy, already master of Egypt. A desperate sea-figlit ort" Cape Leucolla, in which Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, was victor, failed to dislodge Ptolemy; the little kinglets disappeared, and Cyprus was ruled, with short intervals of self-government, until B.C. 57, as a de- pendency of Egypt. But as soon as Rome turned her conquering arms eastwards, the annexation of Cyprus became inevitable. It was carried out wantonly and brutally, and treasure reckoned at 7,000 talents (1,70(J,006/. sterling) was poured by :M. Cato into the treasury of the Republic. The island became a district of the proconsular province of Cilicia, and numbered M. T. Cicero among its go\ernors. In B.C. 47 it was given by Caesar to HISTORY 41 A.rsinoe and Ptolemy XII., then by Antony to Cleopatra's children. After the fight at Actium, and the partition of the provinces between the emperor and the senate, the island fell to the former. From B.C. 22 onwards it was administered as a senatorial province by di pro-jji-cetor, with the title oi proconsul, assisted by a legatus and a qucestor. After Constantine its governors were consulares. The fifteen largest towns figured together under the Romans as the koivov Kvrrpicov, with Paphos (styled Augusta Claudia Flavia) and later Constantia (circ. A.D. 350) as their metropolis. We get a ciu-ious glimpse of the Roman administration of Cyprus in a letter from Cicero himself (Ad Atticum, v. 21 : vi. 1) : * When he arrived in Cilicia he found that a certain Scaptius, a prsefectus under his predecessor Claudius, had been at Salamis with a squadron of cavalry, which he had employed to coerce the town . councillors to pay a large sum of money which they had borrowed with interest at 48 per cent. He had shut them up in their council chamber so long that some had actually died of starvation. Cicero recalled Scaptius, refused to reappoint him as a prtefectus, and when the case came before him refused to decree any payment beyond 12 per cent. But he found to his surprise that the real creditor was M. Brutus. Very strong pressure was put upon Cicero himself to secure the payment of the money, which he appears to have resisted as far as the heavy interest was concerned ; but as he expected to be succeeded by a man connected with Brutus, he expressed .-^ome doubt as to what would happen under a new regime.' (' Greece,' E. S. Shuckburgjh, 1905, p. 323.) Up to the partition of the Empire in A.D. 395, when it fell naturally to the Eastern sovereigns, and for two centuries after, the prosperity of the country was remarkable and un- checked ; Paganism was supplanted by Christianity ; the export of wood, cereals, wine, and copper enriched the inhabitants. Then followed, between a.d. 644 and 975, the period of Arab Arab luva- invasions. The island was pillaged, its inhabitants exiled or sio'i^' enslaved, its monuments and churches destroyed. Again united, under Nicephoros Phocas, to the Byzantine Empire, it fell a prey to dukes or catapans, who profited by the weakness of their sovereigns to rule and ravage the country as independent princes. The last of these, Isaac Comnenus, the worst perhaps of the class, Isaac Com- dared, in 1191, to offer insults and ill-treatment to the fleet of "si'"^- Richard Coeur de Lion, in one of whose ships was Berengaria of Xavarre, his affianced bride. Richard landed his troops, defeated Richard r. Isaac at Colossi, followed him to Tremethousia, and there routed his army and captured his person. Nicosia was taken, and Kyrenia surrendered. But the King had other work for his soldiers, and wanted money to pay them, so that when he had been a little while in the Holy Land he sold the island for 42 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS 100,000 gold besauts (304,000/.) to the Knights Templars. They found the administration of the unruly Greek population beyond their powers. They suppressed an insurrection, and regretted their purchase. At this juncture Guy de Lusignan, a noble of Poitou, by right of his wife King of Jerusalem, oll'ered to I'epay to the Order the sum which liichard had received for Cyprus, and to assume their rights. The bargain was struck, Guy crossed to Cyprus in May, and on October 9, 1192, llichard embarked for Europe. The Templars went to Syria, and in 1291, on the capture of Acre by the Saracens, they went back to Cyprus : and it was from Limasol that in 1306 the Grand Master, Jacques de Molay, was summoned to Paris by Pope Clement V. ; the Order was dissolved in 1312. Guy de Lusignan brought with him a number of Latin immigrants, few of them either noble, wealthy, or learned ; yet these soon formed an aristocracy Avhich absorbed the lands of the Orthodox farmers, turned the peasants into serfs, depressed the native Church, and kept back the commerce and well-being of the island. Gu}', who died in 1194, had ruled Cyprus without the title of king. Ilis brother and successor, Amaury, obtained from the Emperor Henry VI. a royal crown, to which, on becoming the fourth husband of Isabella, daughter of Amalric I., he added that of Jerusalem. Eighteen sovereigns of the House filled the period between 1192 and 1489. Guy de Lusignan, reigned . . 1192-1194 Amaurv, brother .... 1194-1205 Hugues 1., son .... 1205-1218 Henri 1., son 1218-1253 Hugues II., son .... 1253-1267 Hugues HI., cousin . . . 1267-1284 Jean I., son 1284-1285 Henri II., brother .... 1285-1324 Hugues IV., nephew . . . 1321^1359 Pierre I., son 1359-1369 Pierre II., son 1369-1382 Jacques I., uncle .... 1382-1398 Janus, son 1398-1432 Jean II., son 1432-1458 Charlotta, daughter, m. Louis of Savoy 1458-1460 Jacques II., bastard son of Jean II. " 1460-1473 Jacques III., son .... 1473-1474 Caterina Cornaro, wife of Jacques II. 1474-1489 Henri I. had to meet and overthrow the invading troops of the Emperor Frederick TI. iJetween April 1306 and August 1310, Henri II. was banished to Armenia, the prisoner of his brother Amaury. Pierre II. was unsuccessful against the Genoese, who seized Famagusta and held it from 1376 to 14C4. HISTORY 43 He visited Edward HI. in London, and the Black Prince at Angouleme. With a rabble rout he raided and bm*ned Alexandria (October 1365), which city he was glad three days later to abandon, and to return to Limasol. He was murdered by his nobles. Janus, born in Genoa during his father's captivity, was defeated and taken prisoner at Choirokoitia in 1426 by the Sultan of Egypt. Charlotte had to retire before Jacques II., her father's illegitimate son ; she died at Eome 1487, and left her rights to her husband, Louis of Savoy, through whom they may be supposed to rest with the Royal House of Italy, This Jacques, who probably died by poison, accepted a wife, the beautiful Caterina C'ornaro, from the Signory of Venice ; Venice, she siu'vived her husband and son, and in 1489 was compelled to abdicate in favour of the Republic. For just a hundred years the first seven Lusignan kings were absorbed in the assertion of their claims to the shadowy crown of Jerusalem, and in an unworthy crusade against the prelates and properties of the Orthodox Island-Church. In 1291 the fall of Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Syria, drove a very large number of Franks to take refuge in Cyprus. They were favoured and enriched by the next ten sovereigns, Avhose reigns were filled with Court intrigues, and futile attempts to gain a footing in Cilicia and Egypt. The historians of the dynasty, generally of Latin race and faith, give but a passing glance at the condition of the Orthodox natives, who received a bare toleration, as serfs ordained to minister to the luxuries and wants of their Frankish masters. The government of Venice, which lasted 82 years, was even less intelligent and progressive than that of the Lusignans. It was confided to a Lieutenant and two Councillors, called collectively the Bettori, who held ofiice for two years. The ' Captain of Cyprus,' who resided at Famagusta, had large civil powers, besides the command of all the troops in the island, and the duty of in- specting yearly all its fortresses. In great crises a Proveditore specially despatched from "N'enice superseded the Captain, and took rank next after the Lieutenant. The excess of revenue over expenditure remitted annually to the Signory was reckoned at 350,000 ducats. The Turks threatened the island. The defeat and capture of Janus in 1426 had made Cyprus tributary to Egypt. In 1517 Selim I. conquered that country, and ex- tinguished the dynasty of its Mamluk Sultans. Hence the claim of his grandson, to whom Venice still paid some 6,000 ducats a year. Nicosia and Famagusta were hastily put into a state of defence, but their garrisons were not reinforced, and no capable commander came to organise a general defence. In the summer of 1570 Sultan Selim II. sent a vast army, which landed without hindrance, and Turld.«li marched at once to the siege of the capital. The defence was <^'ouevant, the older town, a mile from the shore, was the residence of the foreign consuls and principal merchants, who liad offices along the sea front. Now thi'ir houses, some of which were quite stately, are mostly aban- doned, and Scala, or the Marina, the new town, is the favourite quarter. Old Larnaca has a mosque, three Orthodox churches, and a large Latin church and convent. In Scala is the cliurch of 8. Lazarus, a strange medley of fragments of pagan buildings. It contains a cenotaph, shown as the tomb of the saint whose remains were translated to Constantinople, and then to Marseille. PRINCIPAL TOWNS 51 There is a square fort, built by the Turks in 1625, now used as a police barrack and prison. The Government offices, Court House, Custom House, tithe grain stores, quay, three piers, three schools, and an excellent hospital, have been built since the British occupation. Water is brought a distance of six miles by an aque- duct, a creditable work carried out by Abu Bekr Pasha in 174o. A little more than a mile S.W. of Scala is the great Salt Lake, of two square miles in area and ten miles in circuit. A depression in the soil, ten feet below the level of the sea, receives during the Avinter just as much rain water as the sun will exhaust in summer, the surplus being carried into the sea by a side channel. Into this the sea water filters, and by the end of August a compact coat of salt about eight inches thick is formed all over the lake, which is roughly skimmed off, and piled in heaps on the edge. It is sold by retail at 38 jmras the oke (2| lbs.). Beyond the lake lies the picturesque tomb of I'mm Haram (p. 65). Salamis, in a sheltered bay on the east coast, had kings and pamagusta coins as early as B.C. 569. The princes held their own, till in 307 Menelaus was dethroned by Demetrius Poliorcetes. In a.d. 45 the Apostles Paul and Barnabas landed there, the latter being a native of the city, and thence crossed the island to Paphos. Under Trajan, a.d. 117, the Jews attacked their Gentile neighbours, and massacred, it is said, 240,000. Earthquakes in 332 and 342 destroyed the city, which was rebuilt by Constantius II., and called Constantia. This, in its turn, was destroyed by the Arabs in 648, when the surviving inhabitants removed to Arsinoe, a town some seven miles south, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus (b.c. 285- 247) in honour of his sister. This became to the Greeks Ammochostos, to the Franks FAHiAorsTA. In 1291 the new city received the fugitives from Acre ; about 1300 it was fortified by Henri II. ; in 1376 it was seized by the Genoese, not to be restored until 1464. On February 28, 1489, F. de Prioli hoisted on its walls the banner of S. Mark, and between 1498 and 1544 the fortifications were completed A^erv much as we see them to-day. To return for a moment to Salamis. Its site was explored in 1890 (' Journal of Hellenic Studies,' vol. xii.). Various large buildings of doubtful attribution — a reservoir, agora, temenos of Zeus — were uncovered, and a fine bull's-head capital and a statue of Serapis and Cerberus enriched the British Museum. Earthquakes and the Turks have reduced the interior of Famagusta to a desert dotted with the ruins of grand buildings, civil, military, and ecclesiastical. We can recognise the palace (the scene of ' Othello,' and of Ford's ' The Lover's Melancholy '), the castle, the archbishop's palace, and the land and water gates. Towering above all is the Latin cathedral of S. Nicolas (now a mosque), begun in 1300, and finished some twelve years later. Here the kings of Cyprus were crowned kings of Jerusalem. Other churches well worthy of examination are those of SS. Peter e2 52 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS and Paul, tlae Greek cathedral of S. George, and a Latin church \vith the same ascription. In one the Curator of Ancient Monu- ments has installed a little museum, which already contains about a hundred examples of the most interesting stone carvings of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, coats of arms, an acoustic- vase, fragments of glass showing a method of glazing in plaster work, sling-shot, kc. The fate of the city may be read at large ill " The Sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta," by Graziani and Foglietta (tr. C. D. Cobham, 1899 and 1903). The Christian population with their industries, as well as the Government offices, are collected in a village called Varosia (Turkish, T^arosh, a suburb), about a mile from the fort. Famagusta has a fine natural harbour. Were ' a breakwater made for about a mile along the shoals, fourteen ironclads might moor under its shelter outside the five-fathom line, with a good bottom, and at a distance of one cable apart. ... If the inner harbour were dredged out, which it appears it may be, to a depth of 24 feet, a basin of 80 acres would be obtained for mercantile purposes.' — Jlce-Admiral Sir O. P. Hornby, .January 20, 1879. For the works recently executed, 1903-0, see p. 23. ANTIQUITIES Until about 1865 the soil of Cyprus had pretty successfully concealed the treasures, artistic and antiquarian, which her older inhabitants had buried with their dead. Tombs, no doubt, had been laid bare and robbed, especially during the Arab invasions ; but when in friendly rivalry MM. T. B. Sandwith, It. H. Lang, C. Colonna Ceecaldi, and L. P. di Cesnola excavated between 1865-75 on the well-known temple or town sites of Idalium, Colgoi, Paphos, Curium, Citium, Amathos and Paphos, the finds were many and precious. The Metropolitan Museum of New York secured for ii?138,8()6 the magnificent collection of the U.S. Consul Cesnola. But the uncertain provenance and haphazard grouping of many of the objects detract not a little from its scientific value. With the British occupation began a series of orderly and minute explorations of well-selected spots, the results of which are carefully summarized in the admirable Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum, compiled by Mr. J. L. Myres and Dr. M. O. Uichterin 1899. The objects brought to liglit are there classed under their several epochs, thus : — Stone Age. — Pahoollthic implements, nil. Neolitliic implements, very rare. Pottery, nil. Bronze Age (n.c. 1700-900, Burial universal, burning un- known). — Hand-made pottery, axe heads and dagger blades of bronze containing very little tin, cylinders, rude clay figurines. ANTIQUITIES 08 Grseco-Phcenician Age (from the first introduction of iron to the Ptolemaic conquest of Cyprus, B.C. 295). — "Wheel-made pottery with geometrical decoration, bronze and iron weapons, ■figurines made in moulds, jewellery of gold and silver, and (later) Attic vases, both black figured (600-450 B.C.) and red figured <500-200 B.C.). Hellenistic Age (from B.C. 295 to the Eoman conquest). — Amphorae, glass vessels, stelfe and cippi from surface graves, lamps and statuettes. The visitor will find to-day little to interest him in the ruins of the ancient temples which made Cyprus famous. Their proves have perished, their statues have been burnt for lime, or furnish museums in Europe and America: their columns and stones have been used in the erection of modern churches and houses. Idalium and Tamassos, Golgoi, Amathus, Paphos, and Salamis are mere sites, which have yielded, and may still yield, objects of value to antiquaries, but in themselves have no beauty. The objects of native make which the soil of Cyprus has yielded to the explorers are curious and historically valuable. But if we except some dainty bits of gold work, a few coins, and some exquisitely iridised glass, they are not beautiful. The vases are clumsy and monotonous in form, and the principle of decoration generally wrong. The statues are faulty in propor- tion, and the expression of the face is either dull or frankly comic. The influence of Egypt, Assyria, and Phoenicia is every- where present ; but for a single spark of originality, or of inspiration caught from the living model, or from Greek art, we may look in vain. The products of Greek art, imported into the island, have not been found in abundance. A certain number of fine examples, mostly consisting of vases and other small objects, have been discovered, especially at Poli-tes-Chrysochou, but of larger sculpture almost nothing. The search for antiquities is subject to Law IV,, 1905, under which has been constituted a ' Museum Committee,' composed of four official and five elective members, by whom will be administered {inter alia) the fund raised by public subscription, in memory of her late Majesty Queen Victoria, for the erection of a Museum ; and who will control the collec- tion now stored in a house in Nicosia, consisting of over 6,000 objects which have fallen to the share of the Island Government since 1878. Antiquities (the term does not include coins of Byzantine, Lusignan, and Venetian times) are declared the absolute property of Government. Of movable antiquities accidentally discovered one-third is assigned to Government, one-third to the owner of the soil, and one-third to the finder. Exportation is restricted : antiquities now in the Cyprus Museum, or which may be hereafter acquired, are to be held in trust for the public. HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Art reniauis. Three buildings of prehistoric date deserve separate notice- We can hardly guess at their use — temples, tombs, or treasuries ; but their Cyclopean construction and the enormous size and weight of the stones employed, make them well worthy of examination. The largest, not far west from the ruins of Salamis, is known as the prison of S. Catharine ; the second, a little west of Larnaca, is called the Hagia Phaneromene ; and the third, on the edge of the Larnaca Salt Lake, forms the tomb of Umm Ilaram, a lady of the kin of Mohammed, who died near this spot. Arcliitec- Of Byzantine buildings there are few, and these generally tureauci^ remodelled. They have been little studied. Mosaics of the A,.* ,„..,o,„^ twelfth century are still preserved in the churches of Kanakaria^ near Leonarisso, in the Carpas, and at Kiti, near Larnaca. A silver treasure, found near the monastery of Acheiropoietos (Kyrenia) in 1897, and now in the British Museum, comprises a paten and basin, a lamp or censer, and '2i spoons, ascribed to the second half of the sixth or the beginning of the seventh century. The Gothic remains have been amply described and illustrated and their French affinities traced by 3Ions. C. Enlart in his admirable work, ' L'Art Gothique et la Renaissance en Chypre,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1899. The more important are : — Of the thirteenth century — The Castles of Kj^renia, Ililarion, Buti'avento, and Kantara. The Eastern part of S. Sophia, the Cathedral of Nicosia. The Church of Lapais, Of the fourteenth century — ■ The Porch of S. Sophia. The Cathedral of Famagusta. The Castle of Famagusta. S. Catharine and the Yeni Jami, >sicosia. S. Nicolas, Nicosia. Of the fifteenth century — The Towers of Colossi, Kiti, and Pyla. Of the sixteenth century — The Fortifications of Famagusta and Nicosia. Some coarse but interesting native pottery, the best specimens of which are ascribed by M. Jiliilart to the fourteenth century, a little peasant jewellery, and some embroidered linen, known locally as Levkara work, are probably the only minor objects still attractive to collectors. COINS The autonomous coins of Cyprus (often forged) extend from tlie sixth century until the conquest of Ptolemy Soter, B.C. 312. The design and execution of some are quite excellent. Six J'hffinician Kings of Citium, one of Lapethos, two Greek Kings (if Curium, one of Marium, five of Paphos, six of Salamis, four of COINS— BIBLIOGRAPHY 65 Soli — some of the types bearing Cypriot characters-are thought to be represented (B. V. Head, 'Historia Numorum,' pp. 620-6:^8, and Ct. F. Hill, ' The Greek Coins of Cyprus,' 1904). A few gold, and many silver and bronze, were struck by the Ptolemies. (J. N. Svoronos, Tct vofiia-fiaTa rov Kparovs raiv nroXf/iaicoj/, 3 vols. 4to, Athens, 1904). From Augustus to Caracalla we have Iloman bronze coins. An interesting type struck under several emperors shows 'the temple of Aphrodite at Paphos, in the midst of which is a conical stone, the symbol of the Goddess.' Gold Byzantine coins are occasionally found, and Scyphati of Isaac Comnenus. The Lusignan coinage, from Guy to Catharine Cornaro, is poor in design and execution. Those of the earlier reigns are common enough ; the later ones, from Jacques I. onward, are rare. Venetian coins (except the deniers carzie or x^^'^^'^) of three or four doges, are scarce. The series closes with the interesting siege piece struck in copper in Famagusta to pass as a silver besant, with the legends ' Pro regni Cypri prsesidio ' and ' Vene- torum fides inviolabilis.' (G. Schlumberger, ' Numismatique de I'Orient Latin,' Paris, 1878, with supplement, 1882.) Valuable hoards have laeen occasionally found, such as the silver coins representing six or seven different kingdoms, six different types with Cypriot characters, three with Phrenician legends, and seven specimens of the early Athenian tetradrachms, unearthed at Dali in 1868 by Mr. R. H. Lang; the 800 gold staters of Philip and Alexander, some of them fresh as from the mint, found by a youth at the Salt Lake in 1870, and the 2,680 Lusignan coins found near Morphou in 1904. BIBLIOGRAPHY Since 1887 a list of the books printed in the island appears yearly in the Government Gazette, in pursuance of Law II. of 1887. ' An Attempt at a Bibliography of Cyprus,' by C. D. Cobham (4th edition, Nicosia, 1900) registers 728 works treating of the island, its people, history, numismatics, epigraphy and language, as well as local newspapers, maps. Consular Reports, and Parliamentary Papers. ' Die Insel Cypern, eine Landeskunde auf historischen Grund- lage,' by Dr. E. Oberhummer (vol. i. royal 8vo, pp. xvi. and 488, and map ; Th. Ackermann, Munich, 1903), promises to complete and supersede all former works on the island. The present instalment deals with the material used, the geography, geology, climate, flora and fauna, and the cartography of Cyprus. The first book printed in Cyprus professed to be a reissue of the 'Icrropla xpovoXoyiKT] ttjs vi]aov Kvirpov, 4to, Venice, 1788. It appeared at Larnaca in 4to in 1880. The first English work was the ' Cyprus Guide and Directory,' 12mo. Limasol, 1886. 56 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS POPULATION Places Census of Census of Census of 1881 1891 1901 Total Population of Cyprus ' 186,173 209,286 ' 237,022 Population (within Municipal limits) of towns with up- wards of 1,000 inhabitants : Akanthou . . . . 1,162 1,178 1,403 Aradippo .... 1,225 1,338 1,534 Asha ..... 989 1,009 1,173 Athienou .... 1,192 1,367 1,569 Dali — 955 1,109 Famagusta and "N'arosia ^ . 2,564 3,367 3,825 Kaimakli (Buyuk) 957 1,093 1,392 Karava .... 1,474 1,580 1,593 Kilani .... 995 1,119 1,096 Kyrenia .... 1,192 1,322 1,336 Kythrsea .... 1,630 1,653 1,856 Larnaca^ . . . . 7,833 7,593 7,964 Lapithos .... 2,370 2,602 2,741 Levka .... 1 907 1,143 Levkara (Pano) . 1,257 1,801 1,976 Levkoniko .... 1,448 1,618 1,831 Limasol ^ . . . . 6,006 7,388 8,298 Lysi ..... — 941 1,138 Morphou .... 2,267 2,548 2,762 Nicosia ■' . 11,536 12,515 14,752 Palaiochorio — 914 1,051 Paralimne .... — 887 1,053 Paphos and Ktema '' . 2,204 2,801 3,134 Ifizokarpas .... 1,858 1,734 2,299 Trikomo .... 869 1,051 1,262 Vatili ! 866 1,009 1,255 Yialousa .... 1 1,302 1,438 2,034 ' Exclusive of the military population, which in 1901 was returned at 130. » In 1901 : Varosia, Pano, 2,599 ; Fam.agusta, 877. • Orthodox, 5,311 ; Moslem, 2,004 ; other religions, 649. • Orthodox, (i, 120 ; Moslem, 1,937 ; other religions, 241. ' Orthodox, 7,991 : Moslem, 6,013 : other religions, 748. • In 1901 : Ktema, 2,845 ; Paphos, 289. POPULATION 67 Religions Census of 1881 Census of 1891 Census of 1901 Orthodox Greek Church . 137,631 158,585 182,739 Moslems . 45,458 47,926 51,309 Roman Catholics 1,928 915 824 Church of England . 554 201 215 Maronites . 177 1,131 1,130 Gregorians (Armenian) 174 269 491 Jews .... 68 127 118 Other religions . 183 132 196 Languages Census of Census of 1891 1901 Greek Turkish Arabic ....... Armenian ...... English Others 160,541 46,449 1,313 216 273 494 185,796 48,864 1,131 505 292 434 Languages (mother tongues) of the Population. The census of 1901 shows : — Increase since 1891, 27,736 (Moslems 3,383 ; non-Moslems, 24,353). Percentage of inhabitants per square mile, 66-13, as against 58-39 in 1891. Males, 121,066; females, 115,956. Moslems, 51,309 (males, 26,616; females, 24,693). Non-Moslems, 185,713 (males, 94,450; females, 91,263). Blind persons, 1,732. Lunatics, 490 (303 males, 187 females), of whom 35 were in the lunatic asylum at Nicosia. Deaf-mutes, 323. Lepers, 135 (85 males, 50 females), of whom 117 are segregated (under Law 4 of 1891) in a farm or asylum about a mile and a half S.E. of Nicosia. They have com- fortable dwellings, a church, a mosque, and a recreation- room. The disease, as known in Cyprus, does not yield to treatment. (Number in the leper farm, January 1, 1907, 96 — viz., 57 men and 39 women). Of those who give Greek as their mother tongue, 2,278 are Moslems; of those who give Turkish as their mother tongue, 29 are Orthodox Greek-Christians. The largest 58 HANDBOOK OF CYPEUS proportion of Moslems, 39"6 per cent., is found in Evdimou Nahieh; tLe largest proportion of Christians, 94'38 per cent., is in Kilani Nahieh. AREA AND POPULATION OF THE SIX DISTRICTS District Area in Square MUes Population Famagusta ..... Kyrenia Larnaca ..... Limasol ..... Xicosia Paphos Total . 817 246 365 542 1,040 574 48,508 16,808 26,073 39,139 71,289 35,205 3,684 237,022 Population in ancient times. The estimates of the population before the census of 1881 are for the most part only wild guesses. In 1563 Elias of Pesaro A\T:ites of 15,000 villages, which llicaut reduces in 1678 to 700. In 1596 Dandiui makes the popidation of Nicosia 30,000 ; Heyman and Drummond fix that of the island in 1700 at 200,000. Cypriaiios, however, a native of Cyprus and archimandrite of the Church, writing in 1788, gives the population, ' according to the census of 1777,' as 84,000— viz. 47,000 Turks and 37,000 Greeks, adding that some think the estimate too high. De Vezin, English Consul for Aleppo and Cyprus, who died at Larnaca in 1793, puts the population in his time at about 80,000 — viz. (50,000 Turks and -^0,000 Greeks. The Abbe Mariti, who lived in Cyprus from 1760 to 1767, says that 'when the Turks took the island, there were reckoned 80,000 subjects chargeable with the poll-tax, not counting women, children, and old men ; ' while the population in his time hardly amounted to 40,000 in all; yet an old inhabitant, writing to him in 1771, made it 120,000. LANGUAGE The language spoken by the largest number of inhabitants is Modern Greek. The local newspapers, the higher clergy, and schoolmasters afl'ect the Kadapivuva-a yXioaa-a prescribed by the XoyiuiTuroi of Greece, but the ordinary Cypriot clings to his own dialect of the Ka0op.i\ov^(VTj, in which is found a large admixture of French, Italian, and Turkish words. Italian and French are spoken in a few families of Latin origin, Arabic by LANGUAGE-JEWS— CHRISTIANITY 69 the Maronites. The Osmanli Turkish spoken by the Moslem inhabitants is considered pure. English teaching has received little encouragement, and made little progress. Officially, English, Turkish, and Modern Greek are recognised in the Administration and Courts. REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS AND DEATHS Registers of Births and Deaths are kept by the Mukhtars in the case of Ottoman subjects, and by the Commissioners of Dis- tricts in the case of non-Ottoman subjects. (Law 16 of 1895.) The celebi'ation and registration of marriages of British sub- jects in Cyprus are regulated by Law 2 of 1889, the Commissioner being the Marriage Officer within his District. There is no official register of native marriages. JEWS IN CYPRUS The Jews had early and numerous settlements in Cyprus. Under Trajan, in a.d. 115, they rose against their Gentile neighbours, massacred great numbers of them, and ruined Salamis. The rebellion was suppressed, and the survivors banished ; it is even said that thereafter a Jew who landed on the Island, or was cast by shipwreck on its shores, was put to death. But by 1 160 they were again established in the Island. Two hundred years later, 100,000 ducats were extracted from them by the Genoese. In 1560 only twenty-five families were left, all in Famagusta, The services of such as were physicians wei-e much sought after ; the rest were compelled, as in Venice, to wear yellow headgear. In 1901 the whole number was 118, owning about 3,500 acres of land. CHRISTIANITY IN CYPRUS Christianity was first known in Cyprus through them ' that were scattered abroad upon the tribulation that arose about Stephen.' They travelled as far as Cyprus, ' speaking the word to none save only to Jews ' (Acts xi. 19). But in a.d. 45 Paul and Barnabas, bringing with them John Mark, landed at Salamis and crossed the island to Paphos, where they converted the Roman pro-consul Sergius Paulus. Barnabas returned later to Salamis, his native town, and there suffered martyrdom. The growth of the Orthodox Church, especially after the expulsion of the JeAvs, was rapid. Bishops of Salamis, Paphos, and Tremi- thus were present at the Council of Nicrea ; twelve Cypriots subscribed the canons of the Council of Sardica (a.d. 343). The visit of St. Helena, mother of the first Christian Em- peror, not only enriched the island with relics, but secured 60 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS the immigration of Syrians and others to repeople whole dis- tricts which had been wasted by a long and disastrous drought. The peace and independence of the native Church was threatened for a while by the pretensions of the Patriarchs of Antioch to appoint its metropolitans. But these claims were stoutly with- stood; the Council of Ephesus (a.d. 431) pronounced against them, and (about A.D. 478) the lucky discovery of the remains of S. Barnabas, and of a copy of S. Matthew's Gospel in Barnabas' own handwriting which lay on his breast, supplied a bribe which bought from the Emperor Zeno a rescript excluding the inter- ference of the See of Antioch, and conferring on the Archbisho]) of Cyprus the right of signing his name in red ink, of wearing a cope of imperial purple, and carrying a sceptre in place of a pastoral stall", privileges which have been jealously retained. Templars. The Templars (see p. 42 and Hackett, 617-G29) could have helped veiy little the cause of Christianity in Cyprus. They defied Pope and King, amassed property, and gave an unedifying example Hospitallers, of greed, worldliness, and pride. The Hospitallers obtained lands and privileges in Cyprus early in the thirteenth century, and at the end of it removed their headquarters from Acre to Limasol. In 1310 they left Cyprus for Rhodes, whence they administered three rich ' comanderie.' On one of these were grown the grapes which yield the sweet white wine, somewhat like Madeira, still known as Comanderia — and exercised no small influence on the affairs of the island. Their property, much of it confiscated from the Templars, Avas assigned by A'enice, with their sanc- tion, about 1500, to the family of Queen Cornaro. Ortboclox Under the Lusignan King Henri I. began in 1220 the first Churches" fittempt of the Latin clergy to tyrannise over the Orthodox com- munities. The contest reflects little credit on the Papacy or its representatives in Cyprus. At the date of the (Jttoman conquest the servitude of the native Church was complete. The new masters of the island despised its ministers and occasionally per- secuted them, but they never threatened its ecclesiastical inde- pendence. Cypriots have much cause of gratitude to the long roll of Orthodox ])relates and priests, who, from the days of the first Prankish king to those of the last Turkish pasha, preserved so tenaciously the heritage of S. I?arnabus. The subject has been exhaustively treated in the 'History of the Church of Cyprus,' by the Rev. J. Ilackett, D.D., Chaplain to the Forces (Methuen, 1901). See also 'The Church of Cyprus,' by the Rev. n. T. F. Duckworth (S.P.C.K. li)00). Archbishop Sophronios died in May 1900. As arranged, in the four dioceses Orthodox residents of over 21 years of agn elected as their representatives 386, 169, 240, and 198 persons, all over 2^5 years; these, in turn, elected 10 and 20, 4 and ;">, 3 and 9, 3 and 6, clerics and laymen respectively, all over 30 years. These 60, with the Holy Synod, were to elect the Arch- CHRISTIANITY IN CYPRUS 61 bishop. The Encyclical (July 25, 1900) signed by four meml)er.s of the Synod, the Bishop of Kition only abstaining, stated that the number of electors apportioned to the several dioceses was based on the census of 1901, and conformed to the practice hitherto observed in the choice of Metropolitans. Objections, however, were raised to the validity of the election of some of the sixty, and the right of the Synod to adjudicate on the objections was disputed on the ground that the Synod, without either an Archbishop or a Bishop of Paphos, was not canonically constituted. After many attempts to settle the difficulty, the parties (one of which claimed a majority among the electors, the other in the Synod) agreed on a reference to the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, but the referees have given no final decision. Meanwhile, the property of the See is managed by the Archimandrite, and its ecclesiastical affairs by the Synod. The See of Paphos has been vacant since February 5, 1899. Representatives from the diocese assembled in JMay 1899 and adjourned. In January 1901 they met again and elected a stranger to the Island, who declined the See. The conquering Turks rigidly expelled the Latin clergy from Latin. Cyprus ; yet already in 1593 monks of the Order of S. Francis, detailed from the convent of Terra Santa in Jerusalem, had built a church (rebuilt in 1641 and 1900) in Nicosia. The Superior (^Presidente) of this is always a Spaniard. In 159.3 they had a convent, and in 1596 a church, in Larnaca. The present building was completed in 1848. Their church at Limasol dates from 1879. The Capucins built a chapel in old Larnaca in 1702, the very site of which was forgotten in 1878. The sisters of S. Joseph, whose parent house is at Marseille, first came to the Island in 1844. They have establishments (school, orphanage, and pharmacy) at Larnaca, Limasol, and Nicosia. The Roman Catholics, who number 824, are under the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, represented at Larnaca by a Vicar-General. The Maronites are 1,130, chiefly in the diocese of Kyrenia ; Armenians, 517, mostly in Nicosia, with a church in Nicosia and a monastery in the Kyrenia District. There has been an Armenian community in Cyprus for over seven centuries; most of its members belong to the Gregorian Church. The Copts, Abyssinians, Nestorians, and Jacobites, mentioned by E. de Lusignan, have disappeared. The Linobambaki ('flax cotton') are outwardly Moslem, but foUow in secret the Orthodox rite. They are probably descended from Latin Christians, who were offered their choice between Islam and the sword. Their number is decreasing. The principal monastery is that of Kykko, on a mountain in Monasteries. the district called Marathasa, 4,603 feet above the sea. It was founded about 1100, in the reign of Alexios Comnenos, who gave it a picture of the Virgin Mary, ascribed to the Ijrusli of S. Luke, 62 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS and a grant of land. Four fires have destroyed its archives and library, with all that was interesting in the buildings except the sacred eicon. It draws from properties situate in Cyprus, liussia, Const antino])le, and Asia Minor a yearly revenue estimated at i?2,500 ; and in the monastery and its three dependencies (/ifro^ta) are maintained over 200 persons, of whom 33 are regular clergy. The monastery of Machaira is south-west of Lithrodonda, on a height of 2,250 feet. Its founder was Neilos, who obtained from Isaac Angelos, about 1190, a charter and an endowment. The Enkleistra, in the district of Paphos, was founded by Xeophytos about 1200, His * Ivitual Ordinance,' printed at Venice in 1779, and Westminster, 1881, gives an interesting view of early Greek monasticism. The monasteries of Stavrovouni, Chrysorroiatissa, Trooditissa, Hagios Panteleemon, Ilagios Mamas, and S. John Chrysostom are each happy in the possession of some wonder-working eicon or relic. Many others are mere farms. Local saints-. The Orthodox Church delights to honour in particular villages a number of local saints, Ileracleidios, Mnason, John Lampadistes, Therapon, Kendeas, Auxentios, and others. They are interesting because the ofHces used on their feasts embody a life of each {syyiaxarion), which preserves no doubt a tradition extending back to a very early date. Of wider fame are S. Spj'ridon, a.d. 325, the patron of Corfu ; S. Epiphanios, in a.u. 368 Bishop of Constantia ; and S. John the Almoner, in a.d. 609 Patriarch of Alexandria, The feasts of obligation are many, perhaps thirtj^ in the year. Prelate's, Archbishopric. — Vacant. (The last Archbishop, Sophronios, elected I860, died May 22, 1900, aged 75.) Archimandrite. — Philotheos. Exarch, — Vacant. JBishopncs. — Paphos — Vacant. (The last Bishop, Epiphanios, died February 5, 1899.) Kition — Kjrrillos Papadopoulos, elected April 15, 1893. Kyrenia — Kyrillos Basiliou, elected May 9, 1895, JSynoa. The Archbishop, with the three Metropolitans above named, the Ilegoumenoi of Kylvko (Oerasimos) and Machaira (Metro- phanes), and the Archimandrite and Exarch of the Arch-diocese, form the Holy Synod of Cyprus. The late Archbishop of Cy])rus held his high office under a Berat or Commission granted in February 1866 by the Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz. The ^Metropolitans of Kition and Kyrenia have been elected since the British occupation. The Archbishop's jurisdiction extends over the civil district of Famagusta, and parts of those of Nicosia and Larnaca ; that of the Bishop of Paphos over Paphos; that of Kition over l^arnaca and Limasol ; that of Kyrenia over Kyrenia and i)art of Nicosia. The style of the Archbishop is Md^H/ncoTHroj ' Xpx^ifn'uTKonoi 'Stns ^lovcrTiviavr^i CHRISTIANITY— CIIUECH OF ENGLAND KOI Trdarjs Kvjrpov : the BIsLops are addressed as HafieparaToi, and Archimandrites and Abbots as HavocriaraToi. The income of a Bishop is made up of — 1. KavoviKii, fixed payments from the churches of his diocese. 2. "KetTovpyiKci, offerings made by the villagers at the annual services held by the diocesan. 3. cf>i\6Tifj.a, fees paid by his clergy. 4. ^rjTe'iai, contributions in kind, grain, oil, &c. 5. Revenues of the monasteries administered directly by him. 6. Fees for mari'iage licences, dispensations, &c. The revenues of the Archbishopric are reckoned roughly at £2,000; oftheSeeofPaphosat£500; Kition,£600; andKyrenia, £500. The Orthodox clergy in the Island number about 900. THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND IN CYPRUS Early in the fourteenth century the English had their church in Nicosia, known as S. Nicolas of the English, which was the headquarters of the English Order of the Knights of S. Thomas of Acre. This beautiful building, which stands only a few paces S.W. of the Cathedral of S. Sophia, though it has long been used as a grain store, has lost few of its essential features. The English church of S. Paul at Nicosia, originally built on a knoll near the Government offices, was consecrated on April 27, 1886, in the presence of the Archbishop Sophronios of Cyprus, by the Right Rev. C. W. Sandford, Bishop of Gibraltar. Some years later the structure showed cracks and signs of subsidence, and it was eventually taken down and rebuilt in 1894 on surer foundations on a site nearer the city walls. There are English cemeteries episcopally consecrated at Nicosia, Larnaca, Fama- gusta, and Polemidia. At Famagusta one of the old churches has been given to the British residents to be restored and used for Anglican worship. At Larnaca a church in the Byzantine «tyle, designed by Mr. G. Jeflery, F.R.I.B.A., to seat sixty persons, approaches completion. Adjoining the church of S. Lazarus at Larnaca is a small graveyard containing monuments to Englishmen who died in the town between 1685 and 1849. Clergymen of the Church of England now resident in Cyprus are the Ven. Archdeacon Beresford Potter, the Rev. F. D. New- ham, and the Rev. S. Cooke Collis Smith at Nicosia ; and the (vacant^, Chaplain at Limasol and to His Majesty's troops at Limasol and Polemidia. The Island is in the jurisdiction ot the Right Rev. G. Popham Blyth, Bishop in Jerusalem and the East. 64 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS THE AMERICAN REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN MISSION In 1834 missionaries from Beirut began evangelistic and educational work in Cyprus, with their headquarters in Larnaca, but were forced in 1841 to retreat before the unhealthinessof the climate. In 1888 delegates from Latakia resumed the work ; an iron chapel was built in 1892 and a missionary dwelling-house in 1897. The former was destroyed by tii-e in 1901, but a stone chapel has been erected on the same site. Two missionary families reside in Larnaca, and there are about 70 persons in connection with the mission. BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY This Society, whose headquarters are in Queen Victoria Street, London, has for many years maintained in the Island a branch of its agency at Alexandria, and since 1896 the Bible Depot at Larnaca has been under the care of the American Re- formed Presbyterian Mission. Entire Bibles, Testaments, or single books of the Holy Scriptures in many tongues, are sold at the Depot, and at Nicosia and Kyrenia by two colporteurs, who carry out the Society's work in the Island. ISLAM IN CYPRUS Though Moslem hosts had more than once invaded the Island, notably in a.d. 649 and 1425, there was probably no Moslem community established there until the Ottoman Conquest in 1571. Drummond gives the number of Turks in 1750 as 150,000; Cyprianos in 1777 reduces this to 47,000. In 1901 there were 51,309 Moslems. They are all traditionists ( Sunni) of the Ilanifite rite. They have a Miifti, a chief (^azi and tliree Qazis of Districts, who preside in the courts called Mehkeme i Sheri', whicli were retained under the Convention of June 4, 1878, to ' take exclusive cognizance of religious matters, and of no others, concerning the Mussulman population of the Island.' The Evqaf (plural of Waqf), or property appropriated or dedicated to charitable uses and the service of God, is adminis- tered under the same Convention by one delegate ap])ointed by the Ottoman Minister of Evqaf and one appointed by the British authorities. This property is of two kinds: Mazl»d((,&Ci\n\r\h- tered for the general benefit of tlie jNIoslem community by the delegates ; and MulhcKfa, ])roptTty charged with certain definite religious or charitable duties, administered by the heirs of the donor, who retain the surjjhis of its income after those duties are satisfied. All Jrwy/iiroperty is inalienable Mulhaqa AVaqfs, ISLAM IN CYPRUS 66 on the extinction of the donor's heirs, would revert to the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina. The larger places of Mohammadan religious worship are called mosques ( j«ww'') ; the smaller Mesjids. Where a convent, as of dervishes, is attached, a large establishment would be called a Tekye, a smaller one a Zai'ieli. The tomb of a Veli or Saint is known as a Turbeh. There is one famous shrine in Cyprus, the Khalati-i-Sultan Tekye, about four miles from Larnaca on the western shore of the great salt lake from which the town (Tuzla) takes its Turkish name. There a monolithic structure of prehistoric date covers the remains of Umm Haram, daughter of Milhan the Ansari, who followed her husband Ubada in the train of Moawiya, governor of Syria, in the first expedition which the Khalifa Othman allowed to cross the sea. The lady, who was of the kin of the Prophet of Mecca, fell from her mule and broke her neck ; and where she died she was buried, in the spring of a.d. 649. The mosque and its surroundings are not without dignity and grace, and the shrine is a favourite place of pilgrimage. Another notable spot is the Bairaqdar Mosque on the Costanza bastion of Nicosia, erected over the grave of the hero who first planted the Ottoman standard on the walls, August 1570. The Turahi Tekye (S. Therapon) and the Kirklar Tekye (Hagioi Saranta) are visited alike by Moslem and Christian devotees. There is in Nicosia a Tekye of the Mevlevi dancing der- vishes. At Famagusta disciples, few but faithful, gather round Mirza Yahya, Subh-i-Ezel (Morning of Eternity), tlie successor of Mirza Ali Mohammad, the Bab^ or Gate of Truth. The latter, who was born at Shiraz on October 9, 1820, died a martyr's death at Tabriz, Jvily 9, 1850. His adherents were slain, tortui'ed, imprisoned and banished, and Mirza Y'ahya (born in 1830) was found at the British occupation a State prisoner at Famagusta, which he has never left. The Babi faith dwells on the endless progressiveness of Revelation, and aims primarily at ' a universal reign of peace, love, freedom, and unity of belief and efibrt.' The general collection of their sacred writings is called Beyan (Utterance or Revelation). GOVERNMENT By order of the Queen in Council of September 14, 1878, Hj^i; Oom- it is ordered that there shall be a High Commissioner and °"'^^'°°^''' Commander-in-Chief in and over the island, who shall administer the Government in the name and on behalf of Her Majesty according to the powers granted to him by the Order or by his Commission, and according to the Instructions given to him from P HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS other officers. Secretary of State for the Colonies. I-cgislative Council. Executive Council. Chief Secretary. King's A'lvooate. Ileceivf-r- f-Jencral. Commi.s- bioners. time to time by Iler Majesty, and according to the laws of the island. Under Law 4, 1878, he ' exercises all the authority and functions heretofore exercised in Cyprus by the Vali of the Vilayet of Ehodes,' as well as those of the Mutessarif of the Sanjaq of Cyprus. There is to be a Legislative Council and an Executive Council. The High Commissioner may appoint all such necessary officers in the island as may be lawfully appointed by Her Majesty, all of whom .shall hold their offices during Her Majesty's pleasure. In practice, all officers above a certain rank are nominated by the Secretary of State for the Colonies and hold office on the same tenure as officers of like rank in the Crown Colonies. General * Instructions ' have been given by the Queen in Council for the guidance of High Commissioners on certain matters ; subject to the.se, the Secretary of State for the Colonies in the King's name gives instructions on important questions and exercises the same general control over the Government as he does over the Crown Colonies. By orders of the Queen in Council of November 30, 1882, February 14, 1883, and February 26, 1897, the Legislative Council consists of the High Commissioner and 18 members (12 elective and 6 non-elective). The non-elective members are office-holders named by instructions from the Sovereign or the Secretary of State. Of the elective members, 3 are elected by the Mahometan and 9 by the non-Mahometan voters. Every male person being either an Ottoman or a British subject, or having resided in the island not less than five years, who has attained the age of 21 years, and who is a payer of the taxes called vergi, and has paid the same, is entitled to be registered as a voter, and is eligible as a member of the Council ; but Judges, public contractors, uncertificated bankrupts, and certain convicts are di.squalified from being members. The Executive Council is summoned by the High Com- mi.ssioner to advise him on important questions. But, as in the Colonies, it merely advises ; lie alone decides. The Chief Secretary has the general supervision of the execu- tive, subject to the High Commi.ssioner's instructions. All corre- spondence with the High Commissioner as a rule passes tlirouglx the Chief Secretary. The King's Advocate is the legal advi.ser of the Government, and drafts Government Bills, and prosecutes in all criminal cases tried on information. The Receiver-General lias charge of the collection and expendi- ture of the revenue. The island Treasurer and the Commi.s8ioners and other officers act under his directions so far as regards revenue matters. For administrative purposes the island is divided into six GOVERNMENT— PRINCIPAL OFFICERS 67 Districts, cori'esponding very nearly to the Qazas under Turkish rule — viz. Nicosia (T. Lefqosha), Famagusta (Maghusa), Larnaca (Tuzla), Limasol (Limesun), Paphos (Baf), Kyrenia (Kirne). Four Districts are further divided into Nahiehs: of which Nicosia has four (Dagh, Deghirmenliq, Morphon, and Levlca) ; Famagusta three (Famagusta, Mesaoria, and Carpas) ; Limasol three (Limasol, Kilani, Evdimou) ; and Paphos three (Paphos, Chrysochou, and Kelokedara). In each District there is a Commissioner, who is for most purposes the head of all executive departments in his District. In him are vested, under Law 4, 1878, ' all the functions, powers, and jurisdiction of every kind ' of a Qaim- maqam of a Qaza. The special officer of the Nahieh used to be the Mudir, now chiefly employed as a Sheriff's officer. The Mejlis Idare of the island (as a Sanjaq, ' Leg. Ott.' ii. Central and 279) consists of the High Commissioner, Qazi, Mufti, Archbishop, District Chief Secretary, Receiver-General, Muhassebeji of Evqaf, and i^a^'re* two Moslem and two Christian members elected to sit for two years. The Mejlis Idare of a District (as a Qaza, ^ Ldg. Ott.' ii. 281) consists of the Commissioner, Qazi, Bishop, Treasury Clerk, and two Moslem and two Christian members elected to sit for two years. The powers and duties of these Administrative Councils are laid down in ' Leg. Ott.' ii. 25-31, but under British rule they are chiefly concerned with the choice of village headmen, the issue of certificates for licensed premises and of warrants for the compulsory collection of taxes. The powers and duties of village headmen are defined by the Mukhtars. Village Authorities Law 10 of 1906. They are elected in every alternate year, and assisted by four (^A^zas) village elders elected at the same time. Mukhtar {Ar.) means ' chosen,' a'za (ar. pi.) * members.' PRINCIPAL OFFICERS High Commissioner, Sir Charles A. King-Harman, K.C.M.G. -{sworn in, October 17, 1904.) Private Secretary, E. H. Heiden- stam. Executive Council The High Commissioner, the Chief Secretary, the King's Advocate and the Receiver-General ; also the following * addi- tional members,' appointed under H.M. Instructions of June 2, 1897 — viz. the Qazi of Cyprus, the Bi.shop of Kition, and Theo- phanes Theodotou. Legislative Council President, the High Commissioner. Non-Elective Members — The Chief Secretary, the King's Advocate, the Receiver- p2 68 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS General, Dr. F. C. Heidenstam, C.M.G. (Chief Medical Officer), George Smith (Registrar-General), A, K. Bovill (Principal Forest Officer). Elected Members For Nicosia and Kyrenia. — Mehmed Shef ket (Kyrillos, Bishop' of Kition, Theophanes Theodotou, ant. Theodotou — petitioned ayainsf). For Larnaca and Famagusta. — Mustafa Hami, L. E. Loiso, M. G. Nicolaides, E. Haji loannou. For Limasol and Paphos. — Mehmed Ziai, Kyrillos, Bishop of Kition, J. Kyriakides, S. Araonsos. Clerk of Council, Arthur G. Page. Secretariat Chief Secretary, Major J. E. Clauson, R.E., C.M.G. (October 27, 1906) ; Assistant Secretary, Thomas II. Hatton Richards ; Chief Clerk, Ernest E. McDonald ; Clerks, Arthur G. Page, E. F. Lucie Smith, G. F. Wilson, Mehmed Dervish : Translators (Turkish), H. A. S. Utijian and C. H. Tounjian : (Greek), D. Karageorgiades and A. Christophides. Printing Establishment Superintendent, William James Archer (1902). TEEASTJRr Receiver-General, Lieut.-Col. James C. Gore (1901) ; Clerks, A. K. Koumides, G. Wilson, S. W. Caruana ; Financial Assistant, A. S. Mavrogordato. Island Treasurer, H. A. Smallwood (March 10, 1000); Clerks to Island Treasurer, Sydney II. Page, ICuripidesMichaelides, G. L. Mantovani, and Hassan Shefket ; Examiner of Field Accounts, M. G. Zarifi. Audit Department Auditor, Edward A. Grannum (October 1902); Clerks, P. G. Karageorgiades, Antonio Giovanni, Soph. Stavrinides, G. Cababe. Public Works Director of Public Works, E. H. D. Nicolls (January 1904) ; Divisional Engineers, W. Williams, P. Noble; Assistant Engineer, E. C. Lane; Irrigation Superintendent, C. Turner; Head Clerk, J. Ziricovich. PRINCIPAL OFFICERS 69 Land Registration Registrar-General, George Smith (June 7, 1895) ; Assistant Registrar-General, F. 0. J. Ongley (April 1, 1893); Inter- preter, G. H. Gregory ; Chief Clerks, E. M. Jelajian (Limasol), Mebmed Subhi (Famagusta), C. B. Karajas (Paphos), H. Kevor- kian (Larnaca), C. Stavrides (Kyrenia), Ahmed Remzi (Morphou and Levka) ; Surveyor, Mehmed Salim. Forests Principal Forest Officer, A. K. Bovill (June 7, 1895); Clerk, C. M. Constantinides. Agriculture Director of Agriculture, D. Saracomenos (Aug. 12, 1905) ; First Assistant, W. Bevan ; Clerk, N, Callonas ; Superintendent of Athalassa Farm, G. Barrett. Antiquities Curator of Ancient Monuments, G. E. Jeffery, F.R.I. B. A. Curator of Antiquities, E. Constantinides. District Establishments Commissioners : Famagusta, Benjamin Travers (Aug. 31, 1892) ; Kyrenia, Tankerville James Chamberlayne (May 20, 1898); Larnaca, Claude Delaval Cobham, C.M.G. (March 18, 1879); Limasol, Roland Lyons N. Michell (Aug. 5, 1879); Nicosia, Charles Sherwood Cade (Oct. 17, 1905) ; Paphos, Clarence B. Wodehouse (June 7, 1895). Customs and Excise Chief Collector of Customs, Lieut.-Col. James C. Gore ; Col- lector, Larnaca, W. J. D. Ansell ; Assistant Collector, H. S. Brain ; Collector and Deputy Harbour Master, Limasol, W. J. Mackay ; Harbour Master and Assistant Collector, Famagusta, Captain J. Berry ; Chief Clerk and Interpreter, M. G. Dervishian. Post Office Island Postmaster, Ernest Harry Hore (April 1, 1893) ; Clerks, W. F. Smith (Limasol), B. J. Kypiades (Larnaca), T. C. Pantelides (Nicosia). HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Judicial Depaetment Supre7ne Court Chief Justice, Charles Robert Tyser (Oct. 4, 1906) ; Puisne- Judge, A. Bertram ; Chief Interpreter and Registrar, Nicholas Vitalis (1905) ; Assistant ditto, Mehmed Izzet (1899). District Courts. Xicosia. — President, Frederick Hardyman Parker (April 1902) ; Judges, Ahmed Izzet (1883), and Tlieochares Mitzes (1897) ; Registrar, Naum Cababe ; Assistant Registrar, Constant! lannaki ; Turkish Clerk, Moussa Nami. Larnaca. — President, Thomas Wagstaffe Haycraft (Jan. 31, 1899) ; Judges, Hassan Hilmi (1883) and A K. Palaiologos (1904) ; Registrar, B. Carletti ; Assistant Registrar, C. A. Dandolo ; Turkish Clerk, Mustafa Bedevi. Zz'maso^.— President, John Richard Holmes (April 1902) ; Judges, Mehmed Atta (1895) and J. Economides (I'^Ol) ; Registrar, J. S. Markides ; Assistant Registrar, G. A. Vondiziano : Turkish Clerk, Mehmed Kiamil. Famagusta. — President, John Cochrane Macaskio (March 25, 1899) ; Judges, S. M. Macridi (1890) and Ahmed Vassif Barout- jizade (1893) : Registrar, M. V. Evthymiades ; Greek Clerk, S. Papadopoulos ; Turkish Clerk, Osman Izzi Muftizade. Paphos. — President, Alan Lenox Conyngham Stuart (Oct. 1902); Judges, Mehmed Sami (1892) and D. G. Demetriades ; Registrar, N. J. Papadopoulos: Turkish Clerk, Mustafa Raouf; Greek Clerk, G. Eliades. Kyrenia. — President, Stanley Fisher (June 1902) ; Judges, Abdullah Nadiri (1898) and P. Christopoulos (1904) ; Registrar, M. J. Kassilian ; Turkish Clerk, Ismael Hakki. Village Judges. Chrysochou, Mehmed Feizi Muftizade ; Kelokedara, Ali Nehad ; Kilani, C. Boeros ; Leonarisso, M. Karageorgiades ; Levka, Ahmed Aziz ; Levkara, P. Monkaster ; Levkoniko, A. Murat ; Morphou, T. K. Pierides ; Palaiochorio, Loiz(i8 Jerides. Moslem JReligious Tribunals. Qazi of Cyprus, Osman Nouri (Nov. 1900) ; Qazi of Nicosia and Kyrenia, Uajji llafiz Ziai ; Qazi of Famagusta and Larnaca, Ahmed Khulussi ; Qazi of liimasol and Paphos, Esseid Niazi Abdurrahman; The Mufti, llaji Ali Rifki. PRINCIPAL OFFICERS 71 Kinff^s Advocate. Assistant King's Advocate, G. G. Amirayan (1905). Edttcational Department Inspector of Schools, Rev. F. D. Newliam (1901) ; Assistant Inspector, Ahmed Jemal ; Chief Clerk, C. Argyrides ; Second Assistant Inspector, A. Joannides ; Turkish Clerk, Ibrahim Hakki. Medtcal Department Chief Medical Officer, Frederick Charles Heidenstam, C.M.G. (July ]0, 1882); District Medical Officers, Robert A. Cleveland (Nicosia), George Alexander Williamson (Larnaca), E. S. Corsellis (Limasol), O. Pavlides (Famagusta), M. Fuleihan TKyrenia), S. Basiliades (Paphos) ; Analyst, W. Francis ; Veterinary Surgeon, G. J. Harvey, M.R.C.V.S. ; Health Officers, E. Malliotis (Larnaca), P. M. Stavrinides (Limasol), E. Moghabghab (Famagusta) ; Rural Medical Officers : Gialousa, S. Basiliades ; Levkara, N. latrides ; Levka, C. Teresopoulos ; Polls, D. 11. Bairamian ; Yatili, J. Petrides ; Kilani, N. lannoulopoulos ; Acanthou, K. Haji Michael ; Chief Clerk to C.M.O., J. E. Sanby. Military Police Chief Commandant, Captain J. H. Learmonth ; Local Com- mandants, T. J. Greenwood (Larnaca) ; Major G. C. Bayly (Nicosia); Captain W. Durham Hall (Famagusta) ; Captain W. E. Long (Limasol) ; Sub-Local Commandant, E. R. Casolani ; Inspectors, F. Braggiotti, S. G Televantou, W. J. Greenwood, Mustafa Shefki, J. Wodehouse, Oscar Heidenstam, E. H. Heidenstam, A. Mavrogordato, R. McLaughlan, Mehmed Ibrahim, Mustafa Fuad Ziai, lanni Tilliri (acting); Native officers, A. Josephin (Band Master), Hassan Ali, lanco Stephani, Molla Hassan Mestan, Ali Ali, lanco Christodoulou, Mustafa Shukri, Ahmed Osman (acting). Prisons Inspector of Prisons, Captain J. H. Learmonth ; Resident Superintendent, Walter Giles ; Chief Warders, Herbert Clodd and Hafuz Ali Ahmed. Delegates of Evqaf British Delegate, George Smith ; Turkish Delegate, Musa Irfan ; Muhassebeji, Mehmed Fakhri. 72 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS TROOPS A company of one of II. M. Line regiments is stationed at Polemidia Camp, near Limasol, in winter, and moves up to Troodos Camp in summer. POLICE The legal title of the police or constabulary is ' The Military Police.' The force consists of a Chief Commandant and such Local Commandants and other officers as the High Commissioner may appoint, and a certain number of mounted police and foot pobce.^ At present there are four Local Commandants — 1 for each District, except Paphos and Kyrenia ; 1 sub-L.C; 11 Inspectors ; 7 Native Officers ; 248 mounted men, and 487 foot police ; 63 Rural Stations ; a brass and reed band of 30 performers. The term of engagement of non-commissioned officers and privates is five years. Pay. — Sergeants, Is. 4^c.jt>. a day ; corporals, Is. 2lc.p. a day ; privates, Is. a day (besides quarters, uniform, medical attend- ance, good-conduct pay, and, for mounted men, an allowance for forage, saddlery, &c.). The number of Moslems in the force on Januarv 1, 1907, was 408, and of Christians 308. PRISONS Male convicts undergoing sentences of three mouths or more are imprisoned in the Central Prison at Nicosia ; the others in the District Prisons other than Nicosia. Those whose sentence is two years or more are in the Long-sentence Block (opened in June 1896) ; the others in the Short-sentence Block (opened in June 1899). The Central Prison is on the separate system. Long-seiitence prisoners are employed in the prison on stone- breaking, weaving, tailoring, shoe-making, and other suitable work. The short-sentence prisoners do stone-breaking in the prison, and are also employed to a small extent on road-repairing and other work outside. Number of long-sentence prisoners on January 1, 1907, 155 ; number in Short-sentence Block 61. Board of Visitors of Central Prison. — Cliief Justice, Puisne Judge, President of District Court of Nicosia, Inspector of Prisons, Commissioner of Nicosia. Lady Visitor of Female I'risou, Mrs. Cleveland. ' •Sowari, mouuted policeman, trooper : zaplu'li, policeinan ; luulazim, native oflicer; chaousli, sergeant: unbas/ii, corporal, 'head of ten': yuzbaihi, inspector, ' head of a hundred ' ; binbashi, commandant, ' head of a thousand,' ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 73 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE At the time of the British occupation the Nizam (i.e. Law) Turkish Courts in existence were — a Daavi (' Pleas ') Court in each of the six Qazas (Districts), and a Temyiz (Appeal) Court in Nicosia, and a Tijaret (Commercial) Court at Larnaca ; and there were also tribunals called the Mahkemeh-i-sheri, which had jurisdiction in religious and domestic matters between Moslems. By Ordinance No. 1 of 1878 a High Court of Justice was Temporary established, the members of which were the High Commissioner, ^' jugtice!^* a Judicial Commissioner, and Deputy Commissioners; and in this Court was vested all jurisdiction, criminal and civil, over all persons and in all cases, other than such as would have been under the sole jurisdiction and authority of the Ottoman Courts if the Convention of June 4, 1878, had not been made. But all the above Courts, except the Mahkemeh-i-sheri, have Cyprus been superseded by the Courts constituted by the 'Cyprus Courts justice*' of Justice Order, 1882/ by which are established : — Order, 1882. 1. ' The Supreme Court,' of two or more judges (at supreme present two), which has no original jurisdiction, except as Court. hereinafter stated, but is a Court of Criminal and Civil Appeal. 2. An Assize Court for each of the six districts, with Assize unlimited criminal jurisdiction, constituted of one or more *-'°^"'^^- judges of the Supreme Court, and either two or more judges or the President only of the District Court. 3. A District Court for each district with limited criminal District and unlimited civil jurisdiction, constituted of a President ""'^ ^' and two ordinary judges, one a Christian and the other a Moslem. 4. A Magisterial Court for each district, with limited Magisterial criminal jurisdiction only, constituted of the President of °"' ^" the District Court sitting alone, or the two Ordinary Judges sitting together without the President. (The High Com- missioner in Council is empowered to establish additional Magisterial Courts.) 5. Village Judges with limited civil jurisdiction only, at Village present up to £5. '^"'^^^^• The High Commissioner fixes the number of the Village Judges and the area of the 'judicial division ' of each of them ; and the District Court Judges have the jurisdiction of Village Judges — the President throughout his district, and the Ordinary Judges throughout the division in which the town where the District Court usually sits is situate.^ By the same Order the jurisdiction of the Mahkemeh-i- Maiikemeh- sheri is limited to the cognizance of religious matters con- ' Village Judge Divisions settled by Orders in Council of March 13, 1885, May 23, 1885, April 21, 1897. See List at p. 70. 74 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS cerning Moslems.' It is presided over by Qazis — the Qazi of Cyprus - and the Qazis of Nicosia with Kyrenia, Larnaca with Famagusta, and Limasol with Paphos. The Supreme Court has an original jurisdiction under the Cyprus Neutrality Order in Council, 1881, and under the Cyprus Extradition Order in Council, 1881 ; and there is also vested in it all the bankruptcy, probate, matrimonial, and other jurisdic- tion formerly Aested in the High Court of Justice. It is also a Colonial Court of Admiralty under the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act, 1890. Appeals lie to the Privy Council for final judgments of the Supreme Court in certain cases. Under the Order in Council of Nov. 30, 1882, a Judge of the Supreme Court deals with election petitions. In civil and criminal proceedings where the defendant is an Ottoman subject the law applicable is the Ottoman law, as from time to time altered by Cyprus Statute Law. When the de- fendant is not an Ottoman subject it is English Law, as altered by Cyprus Statute Law. To this there are the following excep- tions : — 1. In a civil action v.-here the parties have agreed, or the Court thinks that they intended, that their rights should be regulated by Ottoman or by English Law, they are so regulated accordingly. 2. Where an Ottoman Law in force in Cyprus at the date of the occupation, and still in force, enacts that every person, whether of Ottoman nationality or not, shall be subject to its provisions, all persons are so subject accordingly. 3. In actions relating to land the rights of the parties are regulated by Ottoman Law, as altered by Statute Law. The ' Ottoman Law ' here referred to is the law which was in force in Cyprus at the date of the occupation. The Ottoman Criminal Law is mainly contained in the Otto- man Penal Code of 1857. The Ottoman Civil Law is mainly contained in what is commonly called the Mejelle (the * glorious,' i.e. Sacred, Law), published in 1869 to 187('>, and in the I^and Code (1857), the Commercial Code (1869), dealing with Partnerships, Companies, Bills of Exchange and Bankruptcy, and a mass of other laws. All these, together witli tlie Criminal Law, are collected in the Destour (' authorised collection '). There are translations into Oreek and French of most of the laws, and translations into English of the Penal Code (by Walpole, 1888) ; the Mejelle (by ' 'Religious uiattcrs' include matters rel.itliij.' to marriage, divorce, alimony, inheritance, and cure of the persouH and estates of infant orphans. '■' The Qazi of Cyprus has jurisdiction in Nicosia town only, with no- appellate jurisdiction : the Qazi of Nicosia has jurisdiction iu the districts of Nicosia and Kyrenia, except the town of Nicosia. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE— EDUCATION 75 Grigsby, 1895, and by Tyser, 1901) ; the Land Code (by Ongley, 189:2) ; the law affecting Evqaf or Moslem charitable trusts (by Tyser and Demetriades, 1899, and Cobham, 1899), and the Commercial Code (by G. G. Amirayan, 1905). Cyprus Statute Law is contained in 422 Ordinances and Laws passed between 1878 and 1906. EDUCATION I The Education Laws at present in force are Nos. 5 and 10, Boards of 1905, and 9 of 1906. Education There is a ' Board of Education for Moslem Schools,' com- posed of the Chief Secretary, the Chief Qazi, the Mufti, one person appointed by the Delegates of Evqaf, and six Moslems elected by the District Committees. This Board deals only with matters connected with Moslem schools. There is a ' Board of Education for Christian Schools,' com- posed of the Chief Secretary, the Archbishop, three persons chosen by the Greek Orthodox members of the Legislative Council from among their own body, and six elected members of the Greek Orthodox community elected by the District Committees. This Board deals only with matters connected with Greek Christian schools. The Inspector of Schools has the right to be present at all meetings of the Boards, but takes no part in the decision of questions. These Boards lay down the course of instruction to be followed in the schools, recommend the Government grants to be allowed, decide complaints which the District Committees have not been able to settle, hear appeals against decisions of District Com- mittees, make regulations as to the duties of teachers and the circumstances under which they may be dismissed by the District Committees, and determine the villages in which elementary schools shall be established and the number of teachers for each school. In each of the six districts there is a ' District Committee District for Moslem Schools ' and a ' District Committee for Christian Committees Schools ; ' and in every village in which an elementary school oom^''^^"*^ is established under the Education Laws the inhabitants elect a mittees. ' Village Committee of Education.' The Tillage Committee ap- points and dismisses the teachers of elementary schools and fixes their salaries ; apportions the amount of the village contribution among the churches or mosques and the inhabitants of the village ; and brings to the notice of the District Committee matters connected with education in the village. The District Committee reports to the Board of Education on matters ' See Board of Education, Special Reports, cd. 2377, 1905, pp. 407-444. 76 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Govern- ment Secondary Education. connected with education in the district ; hears complaints as to the management of schools ; hears appeals from the Village Com- mittees on the apportionment of the village contribution ; and (if the ^'illage Committee does not do so) appoints and dismisses teachers and fixes their salaries and the sum to be conti'ibuted by the village. The teacher's salary is made up of (1) a fixed salary, and (2) the Government grant-in-aid; the grant-in-aid is fixed according to the condition and progress of the scliool as ascertained by inspections, and on consideration of the recommendations of the District Committees and of the Boards of Education. Total Government grants to elementary schools for the school year 1905-6, £;5,907. Besides the elementary schools aided by Government, there are a few Moslem and Greek-Christian village schools which are admitted to some of the advantages of the education laws, but do not as yet receive any grant. Elejientakx Schools I'rivatc SchuolH. The secondary schools, which had previously no definite basis, now fall under the Secondary Education Law, Xo. 10 of I'JOo, wliicli provides a method of election for their governing bodies, and assigns to such their several powers and duties. Xo method, however, is provided of raising money ^)y taxation, and the funds of these schools are derived from voluntary .■>ubscrip- tions, donations from ecclesiastical bodies, and school fees; except the Moslem secondary schools, wliich continue to be supported by Government, viz. the Idadi Boys" School {120 pupils) and tlie Victoria Girls' School (100), botli at Xicosia. The Greek-Christian schools now under the law are the Gymnasium (300), tiie City Boys' Schools (300), and Plianeromene Girls' Scliool (400) at Xicosia: the High Scliools of Larnaca (100), Limasol (80), Famagusta (30), and J'aplios (40). There are two private schools in Xicosia conducted on English methods, and in which English is the language of instruction, EDUCATION— LAND REGISTRATION 77 though pupils are received of all nationalities, viz. the ' English School ' for boys, 65 pupils under the direction of the Rev. F. D. Newham ; Head Master, F. S. Ney ; and S. Paul's school for girls and young boys (30 pupils), conducted by the Misses Spencer. Both boarders and day scholars are received at these schools, and, in addition to the usual English Subjects, French and the languages current in the Levant are taught. LAND REGISTRATION The tenure of immovable property in Cyprus is governed, in Tenure of the main, by the Ottoman Laws in force at the time of the British ^^"*^- occupation of the island. Excluding Mevqotife, or properties dedicated to pious purposes connected with the Moslem faith, which are regulated by special laws, land in Cyprus may be divided into two groups — (1) Arazi Mine, or State lands, of which the registered holder has the possession on certain con- ditions, while the ownership is in the State ; and (2) Mulk. The title to the enjoyment of Arazi Mirie consists in a grant Arazi Mirie. recognised by the State and registered in the books of the Land Registry Office. It may be acquired in one or other of the fol- lowing ways : — (1) by an original grant from the State, either free or on payment ; (2) by purchase or gift from a registered holder ; (3) by inheritance ; (4) by ten years' occupation. The registered holder has the right to use the surface for pur- poses of cultivation. All minerals belong to the State. Buildings may not be erected on the land without permission of the State. Failure to cultivate for ten years, except for certain causes (such as inundation), entails confiscation. The registered owner can alienate. He cannot dispose of his interest in the land by will ; but it is transmissible by inheritance to (1) descendants in the direct line, (2) father and mother, (3) brothers and sisters, (4) surviving spouse. On failure of heirs within these degrees it escheats to the State. In a mortgage there is no transfer, with right of redemption, as in an English mortgage ; the land remains in the possession of the mortgagor charged with the mortgage debt. Arazi Mirie may be attached as security for the payment of a judgment debt. Trees growing naturally on it pass with it to the purchaser or heir, without being specially mentioned, but not trees grafted or planted by man, which are held by a Mulk title independently of the land. Mulk includes land which has been, with the express or implied Mulk. consent of the State, built on or planted, together with the build- ings, trees, vineyards, or gardens ; and includes wild trees which have been grafted. The owner must be registered in the Land 78 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Tithe. Vergi Qimal. No general survey ever made ; want of boundary marks. Procedure. Eegistry Office. The powers of alienation and mortgage and liability to attachment for debt are the same as with Arazi Mirie, but the range of heirs who may inherit is wider, and extensive powers of testamentary disposition are allowed. All Arazi Mirie was formerly subject to tithe^ but since the British occupation most products (fifty-two articles in all) have been freed ; and now only wheat, barley, oats, and vetches pay to the State a tithe, which is one-tenth of the crop in kind. (See page 95). All immovable property is liable to the Ven/i Qimat tax at the rate of four per thousand per annum of its capital value as assessed by the Land Kegistry Department. No complete survey or registration of immovable property has ever been made. Before the promulgation of the Arazi Code in A.D. 1858, titles w"ere granted by Sipahis and others holding fiefs of the Crown ; but since that time all titles to Arazi Mirie have been granted by the Crown through the Land Registry Depart- ment. The earliest State records extant of dealings in land officially recognised date back to 1264 (a.d. 1848) ; and at different Yoqlamas ('verifications') made in 1276 (a.d. 1859), 1288, (a.d. 1871), and 1290 (a.d. 1873), a more general registration w^as attempted, but it was neither complete nor as accurately per- formed as it should have been. Very few of the properties in Cyprus are delimited by well- defined boundary marks, and the want of a detailed survey, with plotting of holdings, is much felt in dealings w^itli land. KegLs- tration does not confer an indefeasible title. The area of the island is 3,584 square miles, and it is computed that of this — About 700 square miles is delimited State forest. „ 700 „ is rocky uncultivable land. ,, 400 ,, is uncultivated, but capable of culti- vation. „ 1,700 „ is under cultivation and held in about 1,000,000 separate holdings. Very few large estates exist, and tlie bulk of the land is held by peasant proprietors. Some of the larger estates are worked on the metayer .system. The adjacent table affords some idea of the extent of the transactions affecting real property carried out in the Land Registry Department during the last three years. The procedure in dealings with real estate is simj)ie and in- expensive. The fees are properly State dues, leviable, in respect of the tenure of the property, on alienation, devolution by inherit- ance, &c. (a) On .mle and viortfjaf/e, the seller and the buyer or mort- gagor and mortgagee ap])ear before the Land L'egistry officer and sign a declaration, the one that he sells or mortgages, the other that he buys or accepts the mortgage for a stated consideration ; LAND REGISTRATION 79 Registration of title eft'ected Mortgages registered . Afiecting properties (lots) Debt secured .... Attachments registered Affecting properties (lots) Forced sales of property for recovery of judgment and mort- gage debts .... Lots sold .... Donums of land sold . Buildings sold Trees sold .... Price realised Searches : certificates issued 1901 1904 1905 51,178 59,460 54,755 995 1,050 1,117 4.541 6,255 5,982 £34,015 £42,565 £45,250 2,425 3,743 2,595 16,595 29,954 21,992 1,690 2,035 1,562 9,365 12,056 9,627 24,829 28,814 19,652 256 226 179 35,876 44,315 38,555 £26,689 £34,287 £27,205 2,104 1,779 1,592 and, if there is no attachment of the property and all taxes due thereon have been paid (evidenced by the tax collector's receipt), the transfer is made forthwith in the books of the Land Registry Office, and a new title is issued in the buyer's name, or the certi- ficate of mortgage, with titles attached, is delivered to the mort- Fees. — On alienation of Mulk — one per cent, of the sale price (or of the registered value, if gratis) ; on alienation of Arazi Mirie — 5 per cent, of the sale price (or of the registered value, if gratis); on mortgaging Mulk— one per thousand of the amount secured ; on mortgaging Ai-azi Mirie one per cent, of the amount seci'red ; on cancellation of a mortgage of Mulk, the same fee as on registration ; of Arazi Mirie, free. There is also a registration fee of 6c. piastres for each title or certificate issued. (b) On foreclosure of a mortgage the property may be sold on fore- under the direction of the Land Registry Department on pro- closure. duction of an affidavit sworn before the registrar of a district court to the effect that notice to pay has been given to the mortgagor, that he has failed to pay, and that the debt or a portion of it, to be stated, is due and unpaid. Fees. — For affidavit, nil; for issuing and posting notices for sale, 4.s. (c) A trarirfer by inheritance or icill is effected on production On transfer of the certificate of the Mukhtar and commission of the village '° ^^}^ <"^ or quarter in which the deceased resided, testifying to his death ' ''^'~®®" and the heirs left by him, or on production of the will with grant of probate. Transfer may be made to the heirs of their undivided legal shares in the estate, or of their separate shares 80 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS under a partition assented to by all the heirs, or made, at their joint request, by an officer of the Land Registry Department. Fees. — On transfer of Mulk— i per cent, of the registered value of the property ; on transfer of Arazi Mirie — 2|^ per cent, of the registered value of the property ; together with a registration fee of 6c. piastres for each title issued. (d) Attachment of Property as a security for the debt is effected, free of charge, by the creditor leaving at the Land Registry Office a copy of his judgment, with a memorandum specifying the properties he desires to attach. The effect of an attachment is to charge the property with the payment of tlie debt due in priority to all debts and obligations not already specifically charged thereon, and the property remains so charged notwithstanding any transfer or devolution by inheritance. Such an attachment remains in force ordinarily for two years, but may be prolonged by order of tlie Coiirt. A judgment creditor may further procure registration of his debtor's unregistered property for the purpose of selling it in satisfaction of his debt, all expenses being recoverable as costs in the action. Intending purchasers or mortgagees, heirs (present or prospec- tive), judgment creditors, and other persons specially authorised by the P.L.R. officer may obtain Search Certificates giving particulars of properties registered, on payment of an initial charge of I.S., and 2>c.p. for each parcel of property. MUNICIPALITIES There are Municipal Councils or Commissions in the principal towns and villages. The members of the Councils are elected; the municipal areas, the number of members, the proportion of Christian and Moslem members, the mode of election, and the powers of the Councils, are defined by Ordinance 6 of 1882 and Laws 8 of 1885 and 15 of 1886. They have general superintendence and control, except police supervision, of their town or village, and their powers and duties include the construction and maintenance of streets, drains, lighting, water supply, petroleum stores, slaughter houses, pre- vention of nuisances, and the like. In certain cases where there is no duly qualified Council the High Commissioner has power to appoint a Commi.¥sion to exercise and perform the powers and duties of a Council ; and this power has been exercised in several cases. The revenues of the Councils or Commissions are mainly derived from fees on slauglitering of animals, for weighing and measuring, for storage of infiammable and explosive substances, and for building permits, from market tolls, and from rents of MUNICIPALITIES— OFFICE HOURS 81 municipal properties. There is power to levy rates on property within the municipal limits ; but the power has not been exercised. The total revenue and expenditure and debt of the principal municipalities in 1905 were: — Famagusta Kyrenia . Lamaca . Limasol . Nicosia . Paphos (Ktema) Kcveniie £ 557 417 1,524 2,845 , 2,203 . 1,240 . Expenditure £ 566 . 408 . 1,435 . 3,027 . 2,216 . 1,198 . Debt £ 15 Nil 609 4,176 429 1,132 OFFICE HOURS The office hours in most of the Government offices in Nicosia are : 9 a.m. to 1 r.M., and 2 p.m. to 4 p.m. Post Office — 9 to 1, and 2 to 4 ; on Sundays 9 to 9.30 a.m. only. The offices of the Eastern Telegraph Company are open as follows :— _ Eastern On week days — at Larnaca, Limasol and Nicosia, 8 a.m. to 10 Telegraph P.M. ; and at other stations, 9 a.m. to noon, and 2 to 6 p.m. On Compauy. Sundays — at Larnaca, Limasol, and Nicosia, 8 a.m. to 8 P.M., and at other stations, 10 a.m. to noon, and 3 to 6 p.m. From June to October the Troodos station is open during the same hours as that at Nicosia ; and from July to October the Platres station is open during the same hours. The offices of the Imperial Ottoman Bank are open : — From Oct. 1 to March 31, 9.30 a.m. to 12, and 2 to 4 p.m. (jttoman (At Nicosia, 9 a.m. to 12, and 2.30 to 4 p.m.) Bank. From April 1 to May 31, 9 a.m. to 12, and 2.30 to 4.30 p.m. From June 1 to September 30, 8.30 a.m. to 1.30 p.m., and 4 to 5 P.M. The Bank is closed on Saturdays after 12, and also on the following days : — Sundays. New Year's Day, Old and New Style. Epiphany, do. Good Friday, Western and Orthodox. Easter Monday, do. Whit Monday, do. Christmas Day, Old and New Style. Boxing Day, do. First Monday in August, N.S. His Majesty's Birthday. £i 2 1 5 1 3 82 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS PUBLIC HOLIDAYS IN 1907 General : Christinas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Victoria Day, and King's Birthday. For Moslems : Sheker Bairam and Qurban Bairam. CYPRUS UNDER BRITISH RULE The population has increased from 180,000 to 237,000. Taxa- tion is certain and evenly adjusted; there are no forced contribu- tions. The Island has been freed of any liability for any portion of the debt of the Ottoman Government, and the people are not bound to military service. Accounts are audited and published. A net reduction on the rates of taxation has been efiected to the amount of £22,480 yearly. The net taxation per head is now 16s. 6c.p. Compare with this : — Great Britain £3 13 France Germany ..200 Spain Italy . \ . . 2 4 Egypt Greece . . . 1 17 Servia and out of the 16s. 6c.2). raised, 11*. Bc.j). are spent in the Island, as against 2s. 'ic.p. under the previous administration. On the other hand the financial history of Cyprus has been summed up as follows ;— Revenue to March 31, 1906 £5,141,883 Expenditure (exclusive of Tribute) 3,423,941 Paid on account of Tribute 2,564,145 The currency is fixed, and a sufficiency of silver and copper coin replaces the depreciated Turkish paper. The net surplus of imports over exports of gold coiu for 27 years may be reckoned at least at £300,000. The titles to land are less ambiguous, and more valued. ' A new law abrogates the old and cumbrous system, with its con- stant friction and irritating domiciliary supervision, under which the tax on wines and spirits was collected, and places the tax on exports. The tarifl' is exceedingly moderate, the charge being on wines at the rate of 8 paras, and on spirits 20 paras per liquid gallon. A'inegar also is liable to an export duty of 5 paras per gallon. There is no tax on wines or S])irits consumed in the island, and the moderate export duty levied offers no impediment to the natural development of the industry. ' Before the J>ritish occupation there was a sinking country, with increasing burdens, extra taxation and forced contributions, with no hope of improvement. Neither lives nor properties were CYPRUS UNDER BRITISH RULE 83 safe. Justice was a matter of influence or money. The generation which sufferfed these things is passing away, and the evils of that time are forgotten, while they are unknown to the rising generation, ' The vote in 1905-6 for public works was £20,944 ; that for education £4,500, and the medical vote for hospitals, medical assistance and dispensaries £6,930, making an annual total for these three objects of £34,011. Not a para was devoted to these services before 1878, while the amount spent in the Island for any useful purpose, except for the collection of taxes, the administra- tion of the law, and the local troops, was certainly under £1,000 in any year. The taxes, too, were collected on every transaction and article, and harassed every industry. ' There can be no comparison between such conditions and the condition where every man's rights are scrupulously guarded, where women are safe, where justice is incorruptible and adminis- tered without fear or favour. The Courts, composed of a Turkish Judge and a Greek Judge, with an English barrister as President, are now open to all, and administer an even justice which all acknowledge.' Before 1878 the local Courts refused to admit Christian evidence in cases in which Mussulmans were concerned : appeals lay to those of Rhodes and Constantinople. The delay and expense were intolerable, but, even were judgment obtained, its execution was often defeated by the venality of the local exe- cutive, or foreign interference. In 1881 (the earliest statistics available) there were for Moslems 41 State-aided and 30 private schools ; for Orthodox Christians 9 and 90, providing respectively for 1,869 and 4,907 children of both sexes ; the Government grant for both being £1,429, and the total expenditure £3,700, Compare with this sorry show the figures given on page 76 : 26,170 children in 50'^^ schools, a Government grant of £3,900, and a total expenditure of £18,640, with certificated masters, new or improved school- buildings, and systematic inspection. An excellent police force protects life and property throughout the Island, Prisons, which were meaner and fouler than an English dog- kennel, have been replaced by buildings which need not fear com- parison with the best of their kind in Europe. * The Island was being rendered unproductive by the whole- sale destruction of all forest growth. It was not only that the trees were cut down to supply the wants of the people, but there was ruthless waste. At the occupation steps were immediately taken to preserve what was left of the forests, and to encourage the natural re-afforestation of the highlands and mountain slopes.' The larger towns enjoy the new life of Municipal Govern- ment : their amenity has been enhanced by cleaner and better- g2 84 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS lighted streets, by public walks and gardens, by better bouses and more trees. In 1878 there was no Post Office in the island. In 1905, 46 offices delivered 1,078,000 letters, cards, newspapers, books, &c., and over 13,000 parcels, while 180 villages are served by rural mail messengers. A weekly steam service carries passengers and mails from and to Egypt. Every district centre is connected by telegraph, and the island with Egypt by cable. In 1878 there was not a single printing press : the Island now supports twelve newspapers, and registers the issue of 332 books and pamphlets. rjld insanitary graveyards have been closed, and new cemeteries provided at a suitable distance from human habitations. The plague of locusts has been combated so successfully that, though the insects may still be found in the rocky, barren, and uncultivated parts of the Island, the damage they can do is inappreciable. A model and experimental farm has been established near Nicosia, where Cypriots will see their familiar crops produced by the modern system of farming, and by the use of fertilisers and improved implements. The ' Cyprus Journal ' explains these improvements to the public. The villagers are no longer afraid to allow signs of their in- creasing prosperity to be seen. There remains hardly a village in the Island Avhich has not during the last twenty-five years repaired, enlarged, or rebuilt its church or mosque. A far larger number of posts, with regular pay and promotion by merit, many of them pensionable, has been found for aspirants to the public service. ' The standard of comfoi't has greatly increased, and the articles imported show that this standard is rising. The Island has been under the government of many of the great empires of ancient history, but it was not until it came under the IJritish administration that any system of roads was established.' In- deed, in 1878 there was not one metalled road. That between Larnaca and Nicosia had been traced, but was greatly neglected. The rest were bridle paths, some of which were also used by bullock carts. Over .1250,000 have been expended for this object, and (.Cyprus has now 700 mil(>s of main roads, witli bridges, and country roads throughout the Island. 'The public buildings and institutions have all either been rebuilt or are being rebuilt. A Central Hospital at Nicosia is maintained entirely from Government funds, and a grant is made to live other hospitals, besides providing the medical officers and drugs. The accommodation for lepers has been made one of the most satisfactory institutions to be found in any country.' Lunatics are pro])erly segregated and tended. ' Gardens have been established i"or tlie propagation of useful trees and seeds, which CYPRUS UNDER BRITISH RULE 85 are being largely taken advantage of. A Department of Agri- culture has been created under a scientific director, with an analytical chemist, who advises the agriculturists, and who has done much useful work in instructing the cultivators in improved methods of agriculture, and in coping with the various plant diseases. There is also a professional veterinary officer and assistant.' Attention is paid to the improvement of the breed of horses, cattle, and donkeys. £32,000 have been expended on piers, quays, and harbours. Owing to the initiative of Mr. Chamberlain, the Imperial Parliament has sanctioned a loan of £315,000 for irrigation, and a harbour and railway loan. The ancient harbour at Famagusta has been dredged and reconstructed. A Government Savings Bank has been opened. ' The time has now come when Cyprus, with its settled government and organised administration, its good climate and many advantages, could be greatly developed if it can obtain the capital it requires. Agri- culture, the vine industry, mining, various branches of trade, and especially a distributing trade, all require capital, which can be safely and remuneratively employed in the Island. An indepen- dent observer. Sir R. Hamilton Lang, lately the head of the Imperial Ottoman Bank at Constantinople, who resided in Cyprus, and knew it well before the occupation, thus writes in " Black- wood's Magazine " for August 1902 : — In Cyprus " honest ad- ministration has supplanted a corrupt reghne. Financial order has taken the place of oppressive exactions. Liberty of the subject has dispelled the miasma of fanatical suspicion. Civilly, financially, and morally, the position of the people has been raised." ' Much, then, has been done; and let the Cypriot people only second with single-heartedness and goodwill the efforts of their ruler's, the Island will become what its first High Commissioner promised it should be — the Garden of the East. POSTAL INFORMATION Rates of Postage — (1) Inland : Letters, per | oz. . Postcards ), reply Newspapers, printed matter and books, per 2 oz. Parcel not exceeding 3 lbs. .... „ over 3 lbs., but not over 7 lbs. 7 n c.p Rates of postage : o inlaud. \ 86 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Foreiga. (2) FOKEIGN : c.p. Letters to places which have adopted the Imperial penny postage {i.e. the United Kingdom, Egypt and the Soudan, and nearly all British Colonies and Possessions), per i oz. . . . . . \ Letters to other places, per i oz. . . . . 2 Printed papers, books and photographs, per 2 oz. . \ Commercial papers, per 2 oz. .... ^ (With minimum of 2c.jo.) Patterns or samples, per 2 oz. .... \ (With minimum of \c.p.) Postcard ........ 1 Reply postcard ....... 2 Postcards of private manufacture, authorised by Government, are allowed. Parcels : (a) To United Kingdom, Constantinople, Smyrna, and Beirut — 3 lbs Is. 7 „ 2.. 11 „ . 3s. {V) To Egypt— s. c.p. 3 lbs 11 7 „ 14 11 „ 18 (e) To other countries, may be sent up to 1 1 lbs., at varying rates. Size ana Maximum Weiyht and Size alloived : Sds,lc. Parcels, weight 11 lbs. „ length . 3^ ft. „ girth + length . ... . . 6 „ Packet of newspapers, or commercial or printed papers 5 lbs. Packet of patterns, weight 12 ozs., length 12 ins., width 8 ins., depth 4 ins. Express delivery of parcels for United Kingdom and Egypt, fee 2c.p. Money Money Orders are issued at the six principal post offices (and at *"■'•'''■'*• TroiJdos during the summer), at the following rates : — Inland, to any other of the said offices and Morphou — c.p. For not more than £2 ..... . 2 For above £2, but not more than £\ . . . 3 £4, „ „ £ij . . . 4 £6, „ „ .1'8 ... 5 £8, „ „ £10 ... 6 POSTAL INFORMATION 87 Foreign, to the United Kingdom and most other e.p. civilized countries — For not more than £2 4^ For above £2, and not more than £6 . . . \s. „ £6, „ „ £10 . . .15. H British Postal Orders are issued and paid in Cyprus at the Post Offices at Larnaca, Nicosia, Limasol, Troodos, Famagusta, Paphos, Platres and the principal villages. These orders are encashed by the tax-collectors in all villages. e.p. Registration of Letters ....... 2 Achnoxoled(jment of Delivery ..... 2 Insurance of Foreign Letters up to £12 ... 4 For each additional £12 or part thereof ... 2 (Limit of insurance, £120) Insurance of parcels (only between L^nited Kingdom and Cyprus) — For not more than £12 . For above £12, but not more than £24 „ £24, „ „ £36 „ £.36, ,, „ £48 £48, „ ,, £50 Compensation for parcels lost or damaged in transit (only between Cyprus, England, and Egypt) may be given up to £1. 4 6 8 Is. I Is. 2 Registra tiou of letters. Parcels : insurance. Compensa- tion. Free ilelivery iu U.K. Foreign maila. Free Delivery of a Parcel in the United Kingdom and Egypt may be arranged for by the sender on the payment of 4| c.p. The local post serves the six towns, the summer camp at Troodos, Local post. and 180 villages. According to present (1905) arrangements — English Mails for Cyprus leave London on Friday evening, and go from Brindisi to Port Said by P. and O. Indian mail ; from Port Said they come by steamer, arriving on Thursday. ■Cyprus Mails for England leave on Friday, and go by Port Said and Brindisi, arriving in London on the following Friday. Mails from and to Constantinople and the Syrian Coast go by various ships at irregular intervals. Mails from and to Athens go via Port Said. Postage-stamps issued by the Cyprus Post Office — c.p. \, h, 4, 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 45. Postcards — single and reply — \, \, 1,2. Postage- stamps. Wrappers- each. 1. Registered envelopes — three sizes — 2c. p. 88 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS POSTAGE-STAMPS OF CYPRUS : 18781905 1880. Stamps of Great Britain overprinted bv Messrs. De La Rue & Co. ^d. rose . . . M. (plate 16) pale green Id. red ... 6d. ( „ 16) grey 2^d. lilac-rose . . 1.?. ( „ 13) green 1881. The Id. surcharged in black. Halfpenny . . .18 mm. „ ' . . . 16 or Wk mm. „ ... 13 mm. 30 paras on Id. red. Errors : ^d. surcharged twice, 3 times, 4 times. ' 80' paras on Id. (plate 216). Double surcharge, one inverted, 30 paras on Id. Plate Numbers : hd. 12, 16, 10. Id. 174, 181,"184, 193, 196, 201, 205, 208,215,216, 217, 218, 220. 2^d. 14, 15. Halfpenny, 16 to 16^ mm., 201, 216, 218. 18 mm", long, 174", 181, 201, 205, 208, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220. 13 mm. long, 201, 205, 215, 217, 218. Errors : Double surcharge, 205, 215. Triple surcharge, 205, 215, 217, 218. 30 paras on Id., 201, 216, 217, 220. Errors, 216, 220. 1881. (Engraved and printed by Messrs. De La Rue & Co.) "Watermark, Crown CC. h piastre . . . emerald green 1 „ ... carmine 2 „ ... blue 4 ,, . . . pale olive green 6 „ ... grey-black Surcharges, ih on J piastre (3 kinds) : 30 paras oo 1 piastre. 1882-86. Watermark, Crown CA. Surcharged in black, ^ piastre dull green (3 kinds) DieL - - - (Unsurcharged), ^ emerald green i dull green i carmine 2 ultramarine 4 pale olive green 6 grey-black 12 brown-orange 30 paras pale lilac POSTAGE-STAMPS— TELEGRAPHS 89 ^ piastre dull green Die II. 30 paras mauve 1894-96. Same watermark. (The name and value in the second colour) : 1 2 >> >> carmine ultramarine 4 6 12 V olive-green grey-black brown-green ^ piastre i „ 9 4 „ 6 „ 1:^ „ 18 „ 45 „ 30 paras 1903. King's head, Watermark, CA. green and carmine carmine and ultramarine blue and chocolate sage-green and marone grey-black and green brown and carmine brown-orange and black slate and brown purple and ultramarine violet and green 30 paras ^ piastre 1 2 4 6 9 12 18 45 1904. Watermark, mult A'iolet and green green and carmine carmine and ultramarine blue and chocolate sage-green and marone grey-black and green brown and carmine brown-orange and black slate and brown purple and ultramarine pie Crown, CA, 18, and 45 piastres. 30 paras, i, 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, Colours as above. 1906. Watermark, multiple Crown, CA, 10 paras, yellow and green. TELEGRAPHS ' There are only two telegraph lines working in Cyprus — those of the Eastern Telegraph Company, Limited, and of the Ottoman Telegraph Administration. There are no public telephones. The Eastern Telegraph Company's Cable goes from Cyprus to Alex- andria ; and its land lines connect the six principal towns and also the Troodos Government quarters. ' Differences of Telegraphic Time bctweeu Greeuwicli Mean Time aud Laruaes, East Long, (to be added to Greenwich Time), 2 h. 14 m. 90 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Superintendent in Cyprus, Easteen Teleghaph Company M. A. Page. (rt) Inland. — IJeceiving and transmitting offices at Nicosia, Larnaca, Kyrenia, Famagusta, Limasol and Paphos, aud (during summer only) Platres and Troudos ; rate Is. 9(7. for first 20 words, and lOhd. for every additional 10 words. Government telegrams, half- rates. {b) Foreign. — Eate per word to — >'. d. Aden .... 1 7 Alexandria 9 Australia 3 5 Austria-Hungary . 1 Belgium 1 British Guiana 8 Canada .... 2 3 Cape Colony or Natal . Ceylon .... Crete .... o 2 6 9 Egypt .... France .... 1 9 Germany Gibraltar 1 1 Great Britain and Ireland 1 Greece .... 1 Hong Kong or Shanghai India .... 4 1 •5 11 Italy . . . ■ Malta .... 1 1 Natal .... 3 6 New York 2 New Zealand 9 Persia .... 1 11 Rhodes .... 1 Russia in Europe . 1 Spain .... SwitzGi'land . 1 1 Turkey in Asia 1 Turkey in Europe . United States . •2-^. Sd. tc 1 ■2 6 2. Ottoman Telegkaph — (a) Inland. — Receiving and transmitting stations at Nicosia, Larnaca, and Ilagios Theodores; rate, 8\c.p. for first 20 words, and 6d. for evei'y additional 10 words. (i) Foreign. — (Not working : cable broken.) SHIPPING LINES 91 SHIPPING LINES WHOSE STEAMERS CALL AT CYPRUS Austrian Lloyd. — Head office, Trieste. Agent in Cyprus, Steamers Spyro Araouzo, Limasol. A steamer comes once a fortnight oyprusf*^ from Trieste, via Brindisi, Alexandria, Port Said, Jaffa, Haifa, and Beirut, calling at Larnaca every other Wednesday (beginning January 23, 1907), and going on to Beirut, Alexandria, and Trieste. Another steamer comes fortnightly from Beirut, calling at Cyprus every other Friday (beginning January 11), and going on to Alexandria and Trieste. Fares from Cyprus to Port Said, £8 5s. and £o 15s. ; to Alexandria, £9 18s. and £6 18s. ; to Beirut, £4 18s. and £3 8s. ; to Constantinople, £11 4s. and £7 los. ; to Trieste, £19 and £13. Moss-Ellermcm Line (Head Office, Livei-pool. Agent in Cyprus, A. L. Mantovani, Larnaca), which has absorbed (among other companies) Bell's Asia Minor, runs a weekly steamer between Egypt and Cyprus direct. Fares to Port Said, £1 10s. : to Alexandria, £2 10s., no discount. The Limasol S.S. Co. (registered April 12, 1905, with a capital of £22,000 in £2 shares) has bought three vessels, the * Kypros,' of 900 tons ; the ' Salamis,' of 995 tons ; and the ' Levcosia,' of 680 tons, which run (under the Greek flag) between Cyprus and Egypt. The company is bound by a contract, under which it receives from the Island Government a yearly subsidy of £4,750, to convey for three years from October 15, 1906, the weekly mails from and to Egypt and Cyprus at a speed of not less than ten knots per hour. Compagnie des Messax/eries Maritimes. — Head office, Marseille. Agent in Cyprus, Celestin Beraud, Larnaca. A steamer from Marseille, Naples, Piraeus, Constantinople, Smyrna, and Beirut calls at Larnaca once a month on Wednesday at 6 a.m., and leaves the same evening for Messina, Alexandretta, Latakia, Tripoli, and Beirut, or Samos, Smyrna, Constantinople, Smyrna, Pirteus, Marseille. Another steamer from Marseille, Naples, Pirseus, Constantinople, Smyrna and Beirut {via Caramanian ports) calls at Larnaca once a week on Monday, and leaves the same day for Beirut, Caifa, Jaffa, Beirut, Rhodes, Smyrna, Constantinople, Smyrna, PiraBus, Marseille. ]^amgazione Generate Italiana (Florio-Rubattino). — Head office, Rome. Agents in Cyprus, G. and F. Cii'illi. A steamer from Genoa, Alexandria, and Beirut calls at Larnaca every alternate Saturday in each month. Khedivial Mail. — Head office, Alexandria. Agent in Cyprus, G. P. Mavroidi, Larnaca. A steamer of this line calls at Larnaca every alternate Friday, on its way to Beirut, Jaffa, and Port Said. 92 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Prince Line. — Head office, Newcastle-ou-Tyne. Agent in Cyprus, Z. D. Pierides, Larnaca. The largest shipments of caroubs and grain to the United Kingdom are carried by these steamers, which call occasionally at Cyprus. Deidsche Levante Linie. — Head office, Hamburg. Agent in Cyprus, A. Mantovani, Larnaca. A steamer of this line, coming from Alexandria, calls at Larnaca occasionally. DiscotrxTS Discounts. The following discounts are allowed to Cyprus officials and their families travelling to and from Cyprus. (See ' Gazette,' p. 5912) :-~ Austrian Lloyd, 15 per cent., plus 10 per cent, on return tickets. Messageries Maritimes and Navigazione Generale Italiana, 15 per cent, on certain lines (see notice). 20 per cent., plus 10 per cent, on return tickets. Khedivial, 30 per cent., to officials only. Ooast-lights. COAST-LlGHTS (WhITE) Paphos, fixed, 17 miles. Cape Gata, tixed and flashing, 2 min., 15 miles. Cape Kiti, fixed, 8 miles. Cape Greco, flashing, ^ min., 13 miles. Famagusta, fixed, 10 miles, showing red over the reef and white beyond. „ one, fixed, 8 miles, on S.E. bastion. Harbour- liorhts. Harbour-Lights (Red) Larnaca, fixed, 6 miles. Famagusta ,, 8 ,, Kyrenia ,, 8 „ Limasol „ 5 ,, Famagusta, two, 5 miles, on each of the spurs at the entrance to the inner harbour. Lloyd's agents. Lloyd's Agen^ts Z. D. Pierides, Larnaca. TRANSPORT 93 TRANSPORT Ordinary charges for carriages and for riding mules are : — or baggage Carriages, mules, &c. Nicosia to — Carriage Astromeriti .... 20s. Mule As. Evrykhou .... 25s Famagusta .... 20s. Galata 30s. 4s. 5s. 5s. Kyrenia 16s. 3s. Larnaca . . . . . 10s. 3s. Limasol 30s. 8s. Peristerona . . . . 15s. 3s. Troodos ..... 60s. 5s. Larnaca to — Famagusta .... 15s. Limasol ..... 20s. 4s. 7s. Limasol to — Paphos 28s. Platres 25s. 7s. 6s. The usual charge for mules when hired for a joumey of several days is 2s. per mule per day, the muleteer accompanying and taking care of and feeding the mules -without extra charge. A Cypriot mule's equipment^ — ■SicrdKwv (heybe), aoKKi {oi>), rayapi, aKciXts (stirrups), KcoXdvi (strap). The sakki has a quilt (paploma) inside it, and is laid on the back of the animal. Then the tagari, in whose bag is a pillow : then the disakion, which is bound round with the kolani. The charge for a carriage for several days is 8s. to 10s. a day, driver included. Camels are employed in many parts of the Island for transport of goods ; and, as the roads have improved, the use of carts drawn by bullocks, horses, or mules, is extending. Average load for camel, 160 to 180 okes; for mule, 100 to 120 ; for cart, 800. (5 okes = 1 stone.) The construction of a single line of railway of 2 ft. 6 in. gauge Railways from Famagusta through Nicosia (36 miles) towards Caravostasi, (34 miles further) at a cost of about £140,000, began in April 1904. The section to Nicosia was opened October 21, 1905. There are nine stations, and two trains run daily each way. Passenger fares per mile, first class, 60 paras (2(Z.); second, 30 paras; third, 20 paras. General Manager, Famagusta, G. A. Day. A survey was made in 1899 by Lieut. Pritchard, R.E., for a line from Nicosia to Larnaca, the cost of which he estimated at £47,000. A tramway, about 4 miles in length, connects the gypsum quarries near Aradippou with the three factories in Larnaca. 94 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS RULE OF THE ROAD Every person driving any vehicle (which term includes a bicyle or tricycle), or driving or riding or leading any animal, (a) when he meets or is being overtaken and passed by any other vehicle or animal must keep his own to the left ; and (6) when he overtakes and passes any other vehicle or animal must keep his own to the right — under a penalty of IO5. ; except in case of actual necessitv or for other sufficient reason. (Law 9 of 1899.) DISTANCES IN ENGLISH MILES Famagusta to II. Sergios, 6^ ; Enkomi, 4^ ; Kouklia, 14 by the public road ; Levkoniko, 23^^ or, by V. 11., 16i ; Salamis, 5 ; Trikomo, 13| ; Vatili, 20. Kyeenia to H. Ambrosios, 24; Agios Epiktetos, 4|; Akan- thou, 38 ; Bellapai?, Sh ; Cape Andreas, 100; Kazaphani, 2^ ; Kormakiti, 19; Lapifhos, 9 ; Yialousa, 78. Laenaca to Alethriko, IO5 ; Aradippou, 4 ; Choirokoitia, 21 ; Famagusta, 31 by main road ; Kalavaso, 25| ; Kophino, 16f ; Levkara, 24 ; Limasol, 43 ; Mari River Bridge {via Zygi), 241 ; Ora, 34 ; Zygi, 22. Limasol to II. Ambrosios, 18 ; Anoyira, 25 ; Colossi, 6^ ; Deme, 41 ; Episkopi, 8j ; Erimi Bridge, 7h ; Kilani, 27 ; Kouklia, 37: Ktema, 47: Lako Franco, 30i; Mandria, 28; Omodos,26; Pano Platres, 31 : Paphos,48"^; Parama, 19; Perapedi, 25 ; Pissouri, 25| ; Polemidia Camp, 3 ; Siliko Bridge, 19v ; Troiidos (Government Cottage), 34^. Nicosia to H. Dometios, 1^; Agirda, 10|^: Akanthou, 37; Akacha, 1-"U ; Alambra, 13|; Asha, 14; Askas, 34; Astromeriti,20; Athalassa, 3; Athienou, 13: Choirokoitia, 30i; Dali, IH; Devtera, 8^ ; Dikomo,7i; Evrykhou, 35; Famagusta, 37 ; Galata, 39 ; Goshi, 17 : Kakopetrea, 39.2 > Kokkino Trimithi, 9i ; Kophino, 26; Korno, 18; Kouklia (Famagusta District), 23f; Koutrapha, 26^; Kykkou Monastery, 53 ; Ktema, 101 ; Kyrenia, 16 ; Kythrsea, 8 ; Lachia, 5 ; Larnaca, 25^- ; Levka, 35 ; Levkara, 34 ; Le\koniko, 23i ; Limasol, 54; Livadia, 40; Machaira Monastery, 20"; Mari, 35; Mia Melia, 4; Moni, 44; Morphou, 25; Nesou, 11; Olympia (Lymbia), 15J-; Paphos, 102; Peristerona, 17: Py^^'? ''^5 I^'^<^ Carpas, 785 : Troiidos (Government Cottage), 54 : Varosia, 38 ; Yatili, 17i : Zodia, 22i. Paphos to H. Nicolas, 25 ; Kelokethara, 17^ ; Khrysokhou, 20; Kritou Terra, 10; Pano Platres, 30; Poli, via Stroumpe, 24. DISTANCES IN ENGLISH MILES— TAXES, ETC. 95 KOPHINO to Levkara, 6^ : Choirokoitia to Ora, 13 ; Erimi Bridge to H. Ambrosios, lOi ; H. Ambrosios to Kissoussa Bridge, 3^ ; Kissoussa Bridge to Omodos, 4^ ; Kythraea to Trikomo, 25 ; Peristerona to Levka, 10 ; Peristerona to Morphou, 8. Public roads open on March 31, 1904 (constructed since 1878): Nicosia to Larnaca, 25'55; Nicosia to Limasol, 54-li; Nicosia to Varosia, 38*14 ; Nicosia to Kyrenia, 16"25 ; Nicosia to Moi'phou, 23'75 ; Nicosia and Devtera and Klerou, 18; Nicosia to Rizo Carpas, 73"78; Leonarisso to Rizo Carpas, 18-31 : Marathovouno branch, 2-50 ; Patriki branch, •75; Larnaca to Kophino, 15*09; Larnaca to Levkoniko, 26'15 ; Famagusta to Tricomo, 13'25 ; Tricomo to Boghaz, 3-50 : Limasol to Troodos, 35-68 ; Limasol to Ktema, 46-77 ; Ktema to Paphos Port, 1-73 ; Ktema and Tsada and Stroumbi and Polls, 26 ; Polis and Pomos and Karavastasi, 37 ; Karavastasi to Morphou, 11-50; Morphou and Myrtou and Lapithos and Kyrenia, 32-25: Karavastasi and Levka and Katokoutrapha, 11-50 ; Astromeriti and Karbouna and Troodos, 35 ; Karbouna to Trimiklini, 13-22; Choirokoitia to Ora, 13; Erimi to H. Ambrosios, 10-50; II. Ambrosios to Kissoussa, 3-50; Kissoussa to Omodos, 4-50 ; Omodos to Mandria, 3-57 ; H. Ambrosios to Vouni, 4 ; other ' Wine roads ' (Arsos, Pakhna, Pano Kibides, Potamiou, Vasa), 925 ; Kophinou to Levkara, 6-50; Kato Levkara to Levkara, 1; Kato to Levkara Drys, 3-75; Mari to Zygi, 2-33: Larnaca to Salt Lake and Boulevard, 2-20: Dali (Military), 7-25 : Platres to Phini, 2*50 ; Kyrenia to North Coast, 5 ; Dicomo loop, 9-25 ; round Nicosia, 13-22 ; Aglanja to Athalassa Chiftlik, 2-90. The Roman roads are represented on the Tabula Peutingeriana by a line encircling the island from Paphos to old Paphos, Curion, Amathus, Cition, Salamis, Chytroi, Cerinia, Lapethos, Soloi, and Paphos : while a cross-road from Soloi leads through Tamassus and Tremithus to Cition. TAXES, DUTIES, ETC. One-tenth is taken of the produce of the land of wheat, barley, Titue. oats, and vetches, measured on the threshing-floors and delivered in kind at the Government granaries ; transport beyond 3 miles being paid by Government. Caroubs are weighed on export, and the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the Custom House, according to the rate fixed by Law 4 of 1900 — viz. 9c./>. per cantar on export from the districts of Nicosia, Larnaca, and 96 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Limasol, and 8c.p. per cantar on export from the other districts. There are no other tithes at present ; but dues in lieu of tithes are paid under Law 22 of 1899 on exportation of certain things, as follows — c.p. Aniseed, per 100 okes ... 33 Cotton „ ... 55 Linseed ,, . . . 18 Mavrokokko „ ... 7 Raisins „ ... 10 Silk cocoons, per oke ... 6| „ wound ,, ... 18 ,, manufactured by other than hand looms. . . . 18 Stone quarried on State lands, per cubic yard ..... 4| Gypsum per ton ... 3 Lime „ . . . 4^ Terra Umbra „ . . . 3.4^ Sheep tax. There is a tax of S^c.p. (5d.) yearly on every sheep, and 5c.p. Goattax. (6|J.) yearly on every goat, one year old and upwards; and •^ ^'^- 4^c.p. (6rf.) yearly on every pig over three months old. Vergi.' Verffi Qimat is a yearly tax of 4 per 1,000 on the capital value of immovable property ; Vergi Irad and Temettu (taxes on rent and income), as well as the military exemption tax {Bedel askeri), were abolished in May 1906. Locust tax. To provide money for the destruction of locusts there may be levied : — A. — On all titheable produce, 1 per cent, on the value (besides the ordinary tithe). B. — On all houses, shops and other buildings, the vergi of which is charged on their estimated value ( Vergi Qimat), 1 per 1,000 on the estimated value, yearly. C. — On every annuity, pension, or stipend payable out of the public revenue of the Island, yearly, 1 per cent, on all incomes amounting to X'200. D. — On every sheep and goat, yearly, 1.5 paras. Licences : — Licences. To kill and sell game and carry a gun, 10>'. a year. „ shoot moutllons, \Qs. a head. „ practise medicine, bQOc.p. (£4 -is. 4d.). „ sell tobacco by retail — Tumbeki, 30 per cent, of rental or value of premises. Other tobacco, £1 a year. For hawker, H T. liras. ' Vergi, literally 'pift,' applied ironirally to taxes. Q/»iaf = ' value' ; Malif is another word for vergi. TAXES, DUTIES, ETC. 97 To sell intoxicating liquor by retail — For every hotel, club, restaurant, or other place used for sale of intoxicating liquor by retail, an annual percentage on the rental or yearly value, at the rate of 50 per cent. ; but so that the licence for an hotel is not to exceed £10, for any club £5, and the licence for any other premises is not to exceed £20, and the lowest charge in Nicosia, Larnaca, Limasol, Varosia, and Famagusta is £4, and in any other place £1 10s. per annum. For persons selling by retail in a tent or booth or in the open air, 2.«. per day. Duty on every still, £5 to £10 per annum according to Stills. capacity. Excise duty on — Beer, 10 per cent, ad valorem (with deduc- Excise. tion of 20 per cent, from duty to cover waste). Wines and Spirits exported from Cyprus : — Upon all spirits, 8 paras per (liquid) gallon. Upon all wine, 20 paras ,, „ Upon all vinegar, 5 paras „ „ Tobacco leaf, iic.jJ. per oke, payable on transfer of leaf from grower to wholesale dealer. Tobacco manufactured in Cyprus (in addition to import or transport duty) 'Ss. 6|c.^j. per oke. Cigars (each ^ oke to consist of not less than 100 cigars), Is. 6c.]). per 100 cigars (discount of 10 per cent, allowed to manufacturer delivering cigars for consumption). The duty is not levied on tobacco manufactured for exporta- tion and exported within three months of date of manufacture. Fee on application to be examined by the Legal Board, £5 ; ^oii"a(imis- on enrolment of advocate, £10 ; on admission to practise sion,' auc.p. an oke {M. to Qd.) a lb.); eggs, 3 to 4 for Ic.p. ; fowl, 6 or 7c.]>. each; turkeys, 3s. to 5s. each. The average prices in January 1904 at Nicosia are given in the Blue Book as : — s. c.p. Wheat, per kilo (8 gallons, or about 1 bushel) 3 5 AVheat flour, per oke (2f lb.). ... 1|§ Wheat bread, „ ll§ Beef, „ 12^ Mutton, „ 12^ Wine (native), black, per oke (about a quart) If „ red, „ 25^^ hares, 12 to 14c.jo. each ; partridges and woodcock, 4i to bc.p, each ; cow's milk, 4 to -^hc.p. the oke. Rate of Domestic iServants. — ^In native houses tht; domestic servants,. '■^ages. chiefly women, are generally clothed, housed, and fed, receiving no wages; but where male ser\ants are employed they are generally paid. In foreign households the servants are usually fed, or get an allowance of about 3 or 4c.p. a day in lieu of food, and are paid from a few shillings per month up to £2 or £3 for a cook, or groom, or butler. Agricultural labourers get from .'k-.^^. to 1 2c.p. a day, or from £2 to £20 a year, the amount varying according as the labourer i* fed or not. HINTS FOR TOURISTS 121 HINTS FOR TOURISTS The best time to visit Cyprus is from October to the beginning Best time of May. During the rest of the year the heat is too great for 1° ^"'*'* comfort in the plains, and in the hills the accommodation is limited. Mr. N. Houri has a small hotel, and Miss T, Young a group of tents. TroiJdos is a charming place in the hottest weather, but the visitor there must either stay with friends who have a house, or else live in tents. The privilege of camping is sparingly granted owing to the danger of forest tires. Few visitors come to the Island, chiefly because of the difliculty of getting there and getting away comfortably. The means of communication are bad, because there is sojieausof often plague or cholera in Egypt, and sometimes at Smyrna and communica- Beirut also, which subjects arrivals from those ports to quaran- *''°"' tine. The shortest way to the island is via Egypt. All who care more for comfort than for speed will choose one of the vessels of the Messageries Maritimes from Marseille, of the Nav. Gen. Ital. from Genoa, or the Austrian Lloyd from Triest. (For steamers, see p. 91.) There is one good hotel at Larnaca (the ' Royal,' kept by Mrs. Hotels. Gauci), and hotels of a kind at the other principal towns. In the villages the traveller can always hire a room ; and it is the duty of the Mukhtar to provide on prepayment quarters, food, and forage for Government officers travelling on duty. But, as a rule, the traveller has to carry his own provisions and cooking appliances and cook ; he is lucky if he finds a room free from fleas and bugs ; and sanitary arrangements, where they exist at all, are generally primitive and filthy. The following are the places which visitors generally like Places of to see : — interest. From Larnaca. — The Tekye, half an hour's drive or ride past the Salt Lake. (See pp. 54 and 65.) The Hagia Phaneromene, p. 54. The Orthodox Church of S. Lazarus. The Monastery of Stavrovouni, on the hill of that name (height 2,260 ft.). By driving to Anglisides (11 miles), where mules should be ready for the ascent, one can just get there and back in a day. The night should be spent at the Monastery to see the sun rise over the Lebanon. From Limasol. — The Fort, where the chapel is shown in which Richard I. is said to have married Berengaria, p. 50. Amathus, 6^ miles along the Larnaca road, p. 50. Curium, 10 miles in the Paphos direction, a mile off the road, p. 50. Colossi, 6 miles along the Paphos road, p. 50. From Ktema. — Paphos, p. 49, and Kouklia, p. 49. The Enkleistra, see pp. 49 and 62. 122 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS From Nicosia. — The S. Sophia and Arab Ahmed Mosques, the old churches of S. Catherine and S. Mary (now used as mosques), S. Nicolas (now used as a grain store), the Orthodox Churches of S. John, Phaneromene and Tripiotissa, and the Armenian Church, p. 48. The Mosque of the Standard Bearer {Bairaqdar), p. 65. The Collection in the Museum, at present for the most part packed in boxes, of which the key is kept by the Chief Secretary or the Commissioner. Kythraia, a pretty village 8 miles from Nicosia. The ruins of the Castle of Buffavento, a Gothic fortress of the thirteenth century, built on the top and down the steep southern side of a hill, 3,135 feet high. This is a rideof two to three hours, or one can drive 4 miles to Mia Milia, and ride from there (one hour) past the Monastery of S. Chrysostomos to the foot of the clitf on ■which the castle stands. Animals must be left here, and the rest of the journey accomplished on foot. Mules should be hired in Nicosia, and, unless the muleteer knows the track, a guide taken from the Monastery. It is not difficult to climb to the highest point, from which there is a fine view of the Mesaoria on the south, and of the Taurus range across the strait on the north. The ruins of the Castle of S. Hilarion (p. 49), 11 miles along the Kyrenia carriage road, and thence by a bridle-path, about an hour and a half's walk or ride. From Kyrenia — The Fort, p. 48. Bellapais, p. 49. S. Hilarion, which is more easily visited from KjTenia than from Nicosia. From Famayusta — The ancient town, pp. 51 and 54. Salamis, p. 51. The ruins of the Castle of Kantara (Turkish, Yiizbir Fv = eKUTou (TniTia = Hundred /lOKses), a thirteenth-century fortress, similar in design to that of Bufiiavento. This is an expedition which requires two days, or one very long day. Troodos can only be visited after the snow has melted. There are many lovely rides through tlie forest for a traveller who takes his tent with him, and does not mind roughing it. Murray's ' Handbook to the Mediterranean ' (1890, out of print) has a good chapter on Cyprus. Macmillan's 'Eastern Mediter- ranean ' devotes less than two pages to it ; Ball's ' Winter Resorts' (1904), six. Sir Samuel Baker's ' Cyprus as I saw it in 1879,' written by a man who spent nine months in the island, traversed every part of it, and knew how to use his eyes, contains much first-hand information. Mrs. Lewis's 'A Lady's Impres- sions of Cyprus in 1893' is a useful guide for a visitor. For the Gothic architecture (see p. 54), Enlart is invaluable. Cobham's ' Excerpta Cypria' gives extracts from eighty writers, translated from eleven tongues. MOSLEM AND GREEK CALENDARS 123 MOSLEM AND GREEK CALENDARS The Ilijrah, or flight of Mohammad from Mecca to Mediua, is Moslem reckoned to have taken place on the night of June 20, A.D. 622. calendar The Mohammadan era, instituted seventeen years later by the Khalifa Omar, dates from the first day of the first lunar month, Muharram (Thursday, July 1.5, A.D. 622). The years are lunar, consisting of twelve lunar months, each commencing with the approximate new moon, without any intercalation to keej) them to the same season with respect to the sun, so that they retrograde through all the seasons in about 32^ years. They are partitioned also into cycles of 30 years, 19 of which are common years o f 354 days each, and the other 11 are intercalary years, having an additional day added to the last month. To find the year of the Christian era corresponding to any Mohammadan date, deduct 3 p.c. from the M. year, and add 621-54 to the result. Thus, take a.h. 1318 :— 1318 1318 1278-46 3 39-54 621-54 39-54 1278-46 190000 Lunar Months (Shuhur Qamertte):- - Muharram ..... . 30 days Safar . 29 >j Rabi' al Awwal 30 )) Rabi' al Akhir . 29 jy Jemazi'l Awwal 30 M Jemazi'l Akhir . 29 ?> Rejeb 30 >) Sha'ban 29 jj Ramazau . 30 jj Shawal 29 jj Zi'lQa'da . 30 >; Zi'l Hijje . 29 ^or, in inter- ( calary years, 30) Solar Months (Shuhur Shemsite):- - Mart March. Nisan April. Mais . . May. Hazirau . June. Temmuz . July. Aghostos . . August Eylul . September. Teshrin Evvel . October. Teshrin Sani . November. Kianun Evvel . December. Kianun Sani . January. Shubat . February. 124 PIANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Moslem prayers (Namaz). Moslem festivals 1907. Orthodox Calendar. Orthodox festivals in 1 !>07. 1. Sabali (Salatu'l Fajr), between dawn and sunrise. 2. Uylen (Salatu'z Zuhr), when the sun has begun to decline. 3. Ikindi (Salatu'l 'Asr), midway between Nos. 2 and 4. 4. Akhsham (Salatu'l Maghrib), a few minutes after sunset. 5. Yatsu (Salatu'l 'Isha), when the night has closed in. Qurban Bairam ('Idu'l Azha), Jan. 24. Barah-i-Wafat (Mohammad's death, .Tune 7, A.D. 632), April 25. Maulud, Mohammad's birthday (Aug. 29, A.D. 570), April 25. Laylatu'r Ivaghaib (Conception of Mohammad), Aug. 16. Miraj (Mohammad's miraculous journey), Sept. 5. Shab-i-Barat (Night of Record), Sept. 23. Sultan's birthday (Sept. 22, 1842), 16 Sha'ban, Sept. 24. Ramazan begins, Oct. 8. Leyletu'l Qadr (Night of Power), Nov. 3. Sheker Bairam ('Idu'l Fitr), 3 days, Nov. 7. The members of the Orthodox Eastern Church, in Cyprus and elsewhere, still keep to the Julian Calendar, and their reckoning is now thirteen days behind the rest of Europe. January 7 (N.S.) „ 14 . . „ 19 . . 15 . 7 . 3 . Feb. April May .Tune 5 . 6 . 13 . 23 . 24 . Julv 12 . Aug. 28 . September 21 27 October 31 Dec. 19 . Christmas Day, 1906. New Y^ear's Day, 1907. Epiphany or Theophania. Purification. Annunciation. Good Friday. Easter Day. S. George. Ascension. Whitsunday. Cataclysmos.^ S. Barnabas. S. Peter. Assumption. Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Exaltation of the Holy Cross. S. Luke. S. Nicolas. The principal services of the Orthodox Church are : — 1. Matins (opflpos), 6 a.m. to 7 a.m. 2. Eucharist (17 6fiu Xfirovpyia), 7 A.M. to 9 A.M. 3. JiVensong (eo-Tre/ni/ov), 4 P.M. to 4.30 P.M. (in summer 5 P.M. to 5.30 P.M.). ' The Cataclysmos CDelnpp) is a popular festival, held chiefly at Larnaca, said to be a survival of an ancient huliilay in coninienioration of the Paphian Aphrodite ai'a5uo/i€'nj (risinpffrom the foam), confused, possibly, with the baptismal celebra- tions of Whitsuntide. MOSLEM AND GEEEK CALENDARS-FAIRS 125 COMPAEATIVE TABLE, FROM 1900 TO 1915 Oliristiau Moslem Year, Easter, Easter, Year, A.H. Juliau Grregorian A.D. Muharram I. Year Year 1900 1318, May 1 . . . April 9 April 15 1901 1319, April 20 . . April 1 April 7 1902 1320, April 10 . . April 14 March 30 1903 1321, March 30 . . April 6 April 12 1904 1322, March 18 . . March 28 April 3 1905 1323, March 8 . . April 17 April 23 1906 1324, February 25 . April 2 April 15 1907 1325, February 14 . April 22 March 31 1908 1326, February 4 . April 13 April 19 1909 1327, January'28 . March 29 April 11 1910 1328, January 13 . April 18 March 27 1911 1 1329, January 2 . . 1330, December 22 . 1 April 10 April 16 1912 1331, December 11 . March 25 April 7 1913 1332, November 30 . April 14 March 23 1914 1333, November 19 . April 6 April 12 1 1915 1334, November 9 . March 22 April 4 FAIRS Jan. 17 . H. Antonios : — Limasol ; Chellia, Lea. ; Nicosia ; Kythraia, N. ; Carava, P. ; Glares, P. Feb. 5 . H. Neophytos :— H. Neophytos, P. „ 8 . H. Xenophon: — Mazoto, Lea. ,, 15 . Panagia {^Purification of B.J^.M.) : — Trachoni, N. „ 21 . H. Theodores :— H. Theodores, K. „ 23 . H. Charalambes : — Acanthou, F. ; Oontea, F. ; Agridi, K, ; Denia, N. ; Istinje, P. March 3 . Orthodoxia : — -Morphou, N. „ 21 . H. Anargyroi : — H. Anargyroi, P. ,, 25 . Panagia {Annunciation of B. V.M.) : — H. Napa, F. ; Calavasso, Lea. April 8 . Acheiropoietos : — Carava, K. May 6 . H. Georgios:— Ardana, K.; Davlos, F. ; Gastria, Fi Prastio, F. ; Phlamoudi, F. ; Komi Kebir, F. ; Rizo Carpasso, F. ; Voukolida, F. ; Larnaea, Lea. ; Maroni, Lea. ; Aradiou, N, ; Athalassa, N. ; Exo Metoche, N. ; Kato Lakatamia, N. ; Kythraia, N ; Phlassou, N. ; Varisha, N. ; Voni, N. ; Oenia, P ; Mesana, P. ; Kouklia, P. 126 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS May 11 . H. Anna: — Potamiou, LI. „ 16 . H. Mavra : — Kilani, Ll. „ 18 . H. Eirene: — Kliania, Ll. ; Clerou, N. ; Pharmaka, N. Elodiou, P. „ 20 . H. Epiphanios : — IL Epiphanios, N. „ 27 . H. Therapon : — Anglisides, Lea. June 2 . H. Helene :— Tsada, P. ,, 3 . H. Constantinos : — Derjnia, F. „ 5 . H. Svnesios : — Rizo Carpasso, F. „ 11 . H. Constantinos: — Vasilia, K. ,, 11 . H. Barnabas, Ap. : — Varosia, F. „ 29 . H. Apostoloi (>S'«S'. Peter and Paul) : — Phykardou, N. ; Kato Acoiirdalia, P. ; Ezousa (Kourdaka), P. July 8 . H. Onesiphoros: — Anarita, P. „ 14 . H. Anargyroi: — Syrianochori, N. ,, 19 . Chrvsopolitissa : — Ktema, P. „ 26 . H. Heliophotes :— H. Heliophotes, N. „ 30 . H. Marina : — Avgorou, F. ; Acanthou, F. ; Achna, F. Avgolida, F. ; l)erynia, F, ; Phrenaros, F. ; Xylo- tymbo, F. ; Lapethos,F. ; Kofinou, Lea. ; Mosphiloti, Lea. ; Psematismeno, Lea. ; Pyrga, Lea. ; Ora, Lea. ; Tersepbano, Lea. ; Carava, K. ; Carmi, K. ; Diorios, N. ; Lapetbos, K. ; Larnaea tes Lapetbou, K. Kytbraia, N. ; Pigenia, X. Aug. 2 . 11. Elias : — II. Elias, F. ; Gypsos, F.; Maratbovouno, F. ; Rizo Carpasso, F. ; Stylos, F.; Kofinou, Lea.; Voroklini, Lea. ; Papbos, P. „ 8 . 11. Paraskeve : — H. Paraskeve, K. ; Caminaria, Ll. ; Yermasoyia, Ll. ; Argates, N. ; Nisso, N. ; il. Paraskeve, N. ; Jlieroskepos, P. ; Livadia, Lea. ,, 9 . Il.Panteleeraon: — Carava, K.; Myrtou, K. ; Monagri, Ll. ; Cboletria, P. ,, 13 . H. Solomone (^Mother of the Maccabees) : — Papbos, P. „ 17 . H. Eudokia: — Lapetbos, K. „ 19 . Soteros {Tratisjiz/uration) : — Carmi, K.; Lapetbos, K. ; Vouni, Ll. ; Cbrysiliou, N. „ 20 . H. Dometios : — IL Dometios, N. „ 28 . Panagia (Assumption of the B.V.M.): — Catbari, K,; Melandrina, K. ; Calavasso, Lea. ; Avdellero, Lea. ; Kiti, Lea.; Kivisil, Lea. ; Pyla, Lea. ; Vavatsinia, Lea.; Troiiditissa, Ll. ; Kykko, N. ; Cbrysoroia- tissa, P. ; Zalaja, P. Sept. 1 1 . Prodroinos {Decollation of S. John Baptist) : — Asba, F. ; Calopsida, F. ; Gypsos, F. ; Gastria, F. ; Lapet- lios, K. ; Corno, Lea. ; l)romolaxia, Lea. ; Lar- naea, Lea. ; Katodry, Lea. ; Mesageitonia, Ll. ; Prodromo, Ll. ; Vouni, Ll ; H. loannes, N. ; Arka, N. LIST OF FAIRS 127 Sept. 13 . H. Zone {Girdle of the B.V.M. brought by the Emperor Arcadius from Jerusalem to Constanti- nople, A.D. 530) : — Moni, LI. ; Limasol, LI. „ 15 . H. Rheginos, M. ; Phasoula, LI. „ 15 . H. Mamas: — Gaidoura, F. ; Mandres, F. ; Sotira, F. ; Vitsada, F. ; Alamino, Lea. ; Stroullos, Lea. ; H. Mamas, LI. ; Episcopio, N. ; Morphou, N. „ 18 . H. Zacharias : — Pano Dieomo, K. „ 21 . Panagia {Nativity of the B. V.M.) : — Acanthou, F. ; Eleousa, F. ; Livasi, F. ; Lyssi, F. ; H. Napa, F. ; Araka, N. ; Kykko, N. ; Kythraia, N . ; Maehaira, N.; Chrysoroiatissa, P. „ 21 . Airkotissa : — Lapethos, K. ,, 21 . Glytsiotissa : — Kyrenia, K. ; Apati, K. „ 21 . Acheiropoietos {The poi'trait of Christ sent to Abgarus, King of Edessa) : — Acanthou, F. „ 27 . Stavros {He ly Cross Day): — Levconico, F. ; Yarosia, F. ; Carpasia, K. ; Levkara, Lea.; Stavrovouni, Lea. ; Omodos, LI. ; Zodia, N. ; Myrtis, P. ,, 29 . Archangelos Miehael : — Aeanthou, F. ; Levconieo, F. ; Phrenaros, F. ; Patriki, F. ; Pyrga, F. ; Asomatos, K. ; Lapethos, K. ; Kyrenia, K. : Platanistassa, N. ; AgTou, LI. ; Monagria, LI. ,, 30 . H. Anastasios : — Peristerona, F. „ 30 . H, Heracleidios: — Politico, N. Oct. 7 . H. Thecla: — Macrasyka, F. ; Rizo Caqjasso, F. : Mosphiloti, Lea. : Limasol, LI. „ 9 . H. loannes {Death of S. John the Divine) : — H Andreas, F. ; Psevda, Lea. ; Kalopanayoti, N. „ 10 . H. Neophytos : — H. Neophytes, P. „ 11 . H. Auxentios : — Komi Kebir, F. „ 18 . H. Hermogenes : — Episcopi, LI. „ 19 . H. Kendeas :— Xylotymbo, F. „ 20 . H. H. Sergios and Bacchos: — Tavros, F. ; Tei'sepha- nou. Lea. ; Xeri, N. „ 22 . H. Andronicos:^Arnadi, F.; Milia, F.; Carava, K.; Cazaphani, K. ; Lapethos, K. ; Meneou, Lea. „ 25 . H. Epiktetos:— H. Epiktetos, K. „ 27 . H. Therapon : — Angastina, F. „ 31 . H. Loucas {S. Lnke, Ap.) : — Heptacomi, F.; Mousou- lita, F. ; Varosia, F. ; Clepini, K.; Lapethos, K. ; Aradippou, Lea. ; Colossi, Ll. ; Korakou, N. ; Kythraia, N. ; Palaiochori, N. ; Kouklia, P. Nov. 2 . H. Artemios: — Aphania, F. ,, 8 . Demetrios : — Leonarisso, F. ; H. Demetrios (Marat- hassa), Ll. ; Phyti, P. „ 13 . H. Anargyroi : — Vavatsinia, Lea.: H. Anargyroi. P. ' 128 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Nov. 16 , II. Georg'ios {Translation of his re)nains to Lydda): — Paralimni, F. ; Cormakiti, K. ; Larnaca, Lea. „ 19 . H. Nicolas:— Vassa, LI. „ 20 . H. Ambrosios: — H. Ambrosios, K. „ 21 . Asomatoi ( The Synaxis, or Union of the Angels') : — Levconico, F. ; H. loannes, Agros, LI. „ 24 . H. Menas: — Lapetlios, K.; Vavla, Lea.; Neochorio, P. ; Steni, P. ; Simou, P. Dec. 8 . H. Catarina: — Yei'ami, F. „ 10 . H. Jacobos {The Persian) : — Choirokoitia, Lea. „ 13 . H. Andreas, Ap. — Carav a, V. ; Livadia, N. „ . Panagia {Presentation of B.V.M.): — H. Napa, F.; Antiphouiti, K. „ 17 . H. Barbara : — Acantbou, F. ; Lapetbos, K. ; H. Barbara, N. „ 19 . H. Nicolas : — Elsea, K. ; Limasol, LI. ; P. Laca- tamia, N. ; Orounda, N. ; Nata, P. ; Pbilousa, P. ,, 25 . H. Spyridon : — Tremetbusia, F. Tbere is a Market in Nicosia every Friday, largely frequented by tbe villag-ers of tbe Mesaoria. \^ INDEX Accommodation fok Teatelleks . 121 Administration of Justice .... 73 Advocates . 114 Agriculture 13 Amathus . 50 Animals, Society for Prevention of Orublt Y to . 116 Antiquities . 5-2 Area of Island and Districts 58 Armenians . 61 Assizes, Dates of . vii-xii Banking . 112 Bellapais 49 Bibliography . 55 Birds 31 Botany . 26 British Rule in Cyprus .... 82 Buffavento, Castle of ... . . 122 Calendar, Greek and Moslem . 123 Census . 56 Christianity in Cyprus .... 59 Church of Cyprus, Orthodox . . 59 Church of England in Cyprus . 63 CiTION . 50 Civil Establishments 67 Climate . 23 Clubs . 116 . Ill Coins 54 Colossi . 50 Consuls . 118 Cost of Living . 120 Courts of Justice . 73,83 Curium .... . . . 50 180 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Customs Duties . Deut, Public . Delapais Monastery . Distances District Commissioners District Courts Districts, Area and Population of Earthquakes . Education . EVQAF Excise . Executite Council Export Duties . Exports . Fairs . Farm, Model . Famagusta . Fasti Cyprii . Fauna . Festivals in 1907, Moslem and CtReek Fever . Fisheries Flax . Flora Forests Freemasonry Fruit . Game Gardens and Nurseries, Government Geography Geology Golf Club Government Government, Local Greenwich and Local Mean Time Guide Books . Harbours . High Commissioner HiLARioN, Castle of . Hints for Tourists History Holidays . Hospitallers, Knights Hospitals Hotels Import Duties Imports INDEX 131 Insueance Companies Ikrigation Islam in Cyprus Jews in Cyprus Justice, Administration of Kantara, Castle of Kyrenia .... Land Registration . Languages .... Larnaca .... Law Legislative Council Leprosy .... Libraries Licences .... Lights, Coast and Harbour LiMASOL .... Local Government Locust Tax Locusts .... Lunatics .... lusignans Magnetic Variation . Mahkemeh-i-sheri, or Mahkeme-i-Si Measures .... Medical Practitioners . Mejlis Idare Meteorological Observations Metrical Weights and Measures Minepals .... Monasteries Moslem Prayers and Festivals Mosquitoes .... Mukhtars Municipalities . Museum .... Mythology .... Newspapers Nicosia .... Nursing Association Office Hours Officers, List of . Orthodox Church Paphos .... Police Population Postal Information . . 112 10 . 64 59 . 73 122 . 48 77 . 58 50 . 73 66,67 . 57 116 . 96 92 . 50 80 . 96 19 . 57 42 . 23 45, 73 109, 1]0 113 67 24 110 10 61 124 24 67 80 53 39 117 47 115 81 67 60 49 72 56 85 132 HANDBOOK OF CYPRUS Prices of Provisions, &c. Prisons Produce of the Land . Public Debt .... Public Revenue and Expenditure Railway Rainfall Registration of JJirths and Deaths Registration of Land Religions . Revenue . Roads . Rule of the Road Salamis Schools . Secretariat Sheri Court . Shipping Snakes Sponges Sport Stamps Sunrise and Sunset Supreme Court . Synod of the Orthodox Church Taxes Telegraphs .... Templars, Knights, in Cyprus Tides, Rise and Fall of ^'iME, Greenwich and Local . Tithe Tourists, Hints for . Towns, Principal Transliteration of Greek and Turkish Transport Troodos Troops Turkish Conquest .... Village Judges Wages Weights and Measures Wild Animals and Sport Wine r .-. r<^1 ^ THE LIBRARY INIVKRSITYOFCAIFFORNIA SanJa Barbara THIS BOOK IS Dl K ON THK LAST DATF STAMPED BELOW. lOOM II/S6 Scries 9482 3 1205 00894 5097 ^ UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 000 868 582 8