HE Island World 
 
 OH" riu^; 
 
 [Pacific Ocean
 
 The group of islands in the South iggtorate by the United States. In 
 Pacific known as Samoa, formerly caUed ^g-^ Colouel Steinberger was again sent 
 the Navigator Islands, seems a long way ^ut with presents from President Grant, 
 
 " •^- ^- '■- -'*■ - " *' *• - •" Binong them a new national flag, com- 
 
 ^,. ^. . posed of seven alternate red and white 
 re '.inder treaty obligations to '^^.^^i ^th one white star on a blue 
 
 ff to have its affairs the subject of dis 
 :ussion in President Cleveland's Cabinet, 
 L)ut we ar 
 
 :.he Samoans and may be called upon to 
 preserve the autonomy of Samoa if it 
 ihould be threatened by foreign powers, 
 
 Jield. A.,constitution, mode lUia after our 
 own, was also submitted, and vftS adopted, 
 with an amendment that the King, in- 
 
 Both the islands and the islanders are ^^^^^ ^^ j^^j^^ ^j^^t^^ ^^r lif», should be 
 interesting ncighboi-s, apart irom a^y ^^lected for four years, the families of Ma- 
 state questions to which they may give ,. . ^ ^, T^t^^v* «U,Prnatftlv ruling-. 
 
 The islands belong to the Polyne- 
 
 lietoa and Topura alternately ruling. 
 
 ^ , . . ,, ,, , Colonel Steinberg<<r, luckier than the 
 •an group a great chain in the South : ^^ ^j^^^^^ p^^^^ Minister 
 
 'acihc. 'Ihey extend Irom 13 to 30 ^^^^^^^ A system of public education 
 
 lias been provided for, trial by jury has 
 been instituted, and altogether this primi- 
 tive race of brown people, far off on 
 Islands in the South Pacific, has been 
 T\'ell started in civilization. That they 
 ought to be allowed to govern themselves 
 without foreign interference is a cardinal 
 A.merican principle, appljang to Samoans 
 
 'ise 
 (Jan 
 
 hey 
 iegrees south of the Equator, and 
 n longitude from 173 to 1G8 degrees 
 vest of Greenwich, or near where 
 he da^-s begin. It is not quite a 
 mndrcd years since thev whole at" the 
 
 an group, or Navigaltor IslaaOS. Tt'as 
 
 isited by Europeans, though one of 
 iicm v.-as discovered as early as 1722. In 
 
 1830 missionary operations were begun ^ r ■ i. i n 4.u ^ i-„ 
 
 , ,11 r i-ii.ELSto irishmen and all other peoples. 
 
 -here, ami have been prosecuted with T ^ i m ^gi ' . n ^ii rr i mh h . j i jli ^^' — 
 
 luch success that pretty much all oi" the ** ~ . ^ 
 
 lativcs may now be classed as Christians. 
 Tiiere are four principal islands, four 
 imailer ones and a number ci islets, 
 rhcy are of volcanic origin, generally sur- 
 ■ounded by coral reefs. Some of them 
 ire very icrtile, and the scenery is de- 
 icribed by travelers as combining the 
 Ireamy softness of an Italian landscape 
 vith the sublime grandeur of the Alps. 
 rheVhmate is mild and agreeable, with 
 ine weather for eight months in the 
 fear. Destructive hurricanes are fre- 
 luent, however, and earthquakes that do 
 lo damage are common. The natives, 
 vho, until recent times, had little contact 
 vith other peoples, are handsome, well- 
 aade Malayo-Polynesians, brown in 
 •olor and generally of large sta- 
 urc. They are intelligent and readily 
 mbrace Christianity, The population 
 'f the islands seems to have been greatly 
 ivcr-estimated by the early missionaries, 
 vho placed it at 50,000 to 60,000. It is 
 low known to be about 36,000. These 
 »eople live on islands having an area not 
 nuch exceeding 1000 square miles, or 
 bout the size of Rhode Island. Their 
 rade, which is not of much importance, 
 B largely controlled by German.'. They 
 xpoit a small quantity of cotton and 
 iiany thousand ton.s of copra, or the dried 
 aeat or fruit of the white cocoanut, the 
 il of which is used in making 
 ine candles. But there are consid- 
 rable commercial pos.sibiIities in the 
 iamoan group and the good harbors 
 ound there make the islands valuable as 
 oaling stations. That is the reason why 
 he Samoans may need protection if they 
 re to preserve their independence. They 
 ake readily to American way.^, and have 
 , Government which is modeled after our 
 iwn. In 1872 Commodore Meade, of the 
 Jnited States Navy, was inrited to take 
 he harbor of Pango-Pango under the 
 )rotection of the United States, and the 
 
 leit Vftar f!nlnnp1 A R «f* 

 
 UAX-1'Al..M OF BORNEO.
 
 THE 
 
 ISLAND WORLD 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES MARION TYLER 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, CAL : 
 
 SAMUEL CARSON & CO 
 
 PUBLISH ERvS & BOOK-SEIvIvERS, 
 
 3 SANSOME STREET. 
 1887
 
 Copyrighted, 1885, 
 By CHARLES MARION TYLER. 
 Copyrighted, i8Sj, 
 By SAMUEL CARSON & CO.
 
 f7 
 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 so' Some years ago, it was the author's privilege 
 
 ^ to become interested, in a small way, in trade with 
 ^ the South Sea. Although not of great personal profit 
 CO or benefit at the time, so many and varied were the 
 a^ commercial interests presented, that a journal was 
 gkept, of the ups and downs of trade and adventures 
 among the Pacific Islands. These notes by the way- 
 side, are merged in the following pages. 
 
 From the movements taking place among the 
 great maritime powers of the world, England, Ger- 
 many, France and America, in regard to the islands 
 of the Pacific Ocean, with all of which the intelligent 
 reader is familiar, the author is strengthened in the 
 hope that a work relating to a region of such vast 
 prospective benefits to the United States, and the 
 world at large, may be read with some degree of 
 interest as well as profit. 
 
 The immense field encompassed within the bound- 
 aries of Oceanica, together with many island groups 
 
 3 
 
 286^80
 
 iv PREFACE. 
 
 lying beyond its limits, would make it almost impossi- 
 ble to visit and survey in the lifetime of any one 
 person. P>om this fact, I am sure the writer will be 
 dealt liy^htly with, for the necessary frequent reference 
 made to the valuable writings, notes and personal 
 experiences of others. 
 
 In the endeavor t(j brush away the cobwebs ot time, 
 or briorhten up or throw light on the dark shadows 
 cast over many portions of Oceanica by the veil ot 
 romance and tradition, I may perhaps be engaged in 
 a herculean task. 
 
 The truth, however, I am sure will prove "stranger 
 than fiction," and a good deal more profitable. In this 
 respect some pains have been taken to make the 
 following work in regard to history, discovery, eth- 
 nology, biography, chronology, geography, area, pop- 
 ulation and products, standard and reliable.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OCEAN LORE. 
 
 Pacific Ocean.— Early Navigators.— Commercial Possibil- 
 
 ities.—Japanese Black Stream.— South Sea Bubble 9 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Galapagos Group.— Marquesas Group.— Island of Juan Fer- 
 andez.— The Home of Crusoe.— Pitcairn Island— The 
 Bounty Mutineers.— Bread-fruit Tree.— Table of Island 
 Groups in North and South Pacific... 21 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Austral Isles.— Gambier Group.— Society Islands.— Tahiti. 
 —Tonga or Friendly Islands.— Hervey or Cook's 
 Islands.— Fiji Islands.— New Hebrides Group.— Loyalty 
 Islands. — New Caledonia 33 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Marshall Islands. — Gilbert Islands. — The Marshall Is- 
 landers as Mariners.— Languages of Micronesia.— Flora 
 and Fauna of the Marshall and Gilbert Groups.— Mic- 
 ronesia.— Religious Beliefs.— Phoenix, Ellis, Union and 
 Kermadec Groups. — Navigator (Samoa) Islands.— 
 Physical Features of Samoa. — Climate. — Products. — 
 Inhabitants. — Religion. — Meteorological. — Banks Is- 
 lands.— Santa Cruz Islands.— Solomon Islands 40 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 CaroUne Islands.— The Great Atoll of Hogoleu.— Inhabit- 
 ants of the Caroline Group.— Pelew Islands— Atolls.—
 
 17. coivr/'jjvrs. 
 
 PM.K. 
 
 Coral Reels.— Analogy of Coral Growth to Vegetation. 
 — Australia.— Physical Features. — Geological and Geo- 
 graphical. — New Zealand. — Tasmania 67 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Java.— General Features.— Michelet on Java.— Topography. 
 —Climate.— Little Java.— Coffee.— The Island of Bor- 
 neo.— Topography.— The Rivers of Borneo.— Vege- 
 table and Animal Kingdom.— Diamond Mining, His- 
 tory and Value of ^i 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Sumatra. — Topography. — Animal Life. — Flora. — Climate. 
 Inhabitants. — Singapore. — Island of Celebes. — The 
 Sangir Group. — Mollucca Islands. — History. — The Nut- 
 meg. — Island of Amboyna. — The Clove. — The Choco- 
 late Bean. — The Sago Palm 98 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 New Guinea. — Admiralty Islands. — New Ireland. — New 
 Britain. — Louisade Archipelago. — Phillippine Islands. 
 Topographical P^eatures. — Minerals. — Animals. — The 
 Inhabitants. — The Buccaneer Dampier. — His Account 
 of the Plantain. — Tobacco, and its History 116 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Islands of the Chinese Empire. — Hainan. — Formosa. — Is- 
 lands of Japan. — History. — The Japanese as Early Navi- 
 gators. — Topography. — Earthquakes. — Mineral and 
 F"loral Kingdoms of Japan. — The Inhabitants. — The Tea 
 Plant. — The Camphor Tree. — Government and Relig- 
 ion of Japan. — The Ladrone Islands. — The Bonin Is- 
 lands. — The Anson and Auckland Islands 132 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. — Islands of St. Paul and 
 St. George. — Seals, and Seal Fishing. — Their Habits. — 
 Method of Killing Seal. — Vancouver Island. — The Pu- 
 get Sound Region. — Queen Charlotte Islands. — Islands, 
 West Coast United States. — Pacific Islands of Mexico.. 147
 
 CONTENTS. ^'«- 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 The Sandwich Islands.— Geological and Volcanic Features. 
 —The Sugar Cane— Its History.— History of the Ha- 
 waiian Group.— The Cotton Plant— Its History.— Prin- 
 cipal Islands in the Group.— Volcanic Mountain of 
 Mauna Loa.— The Burning Lake of Kilauea.— Island 
 Formation.— Islands, Pacific Coast of South America.— 
 Guano Islands.— Easter Island 171 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ISLAND PRODUCTS AND RESOURCES. 
 
 Pearls and Pearl Fishing.— Habits of the Pearl Oyster. -- 
 Pearl Dredginf^.— Pearl Diving.— Noted Fisheries and 
 Gems.— Propogation of the Pearl Oyster.— Whale Fish- 
 eries.— The Turtle and its Habits.— The Tortoise.— 
 Sponge Fisheries ^73 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ISLAND PRODUCTS AND RESOURCES. 
 
 The Robber Crab.— The Crab as a Gourmand— As a Lover 
 of Cocoanuts.— Their Strength and Tenacity.— The 
 Plantain and Banana.— Beche-de-mer Fishing.— Method 
 of Fishing.— Contracts with the Natives.— The Cocoa- 
 nut.— Trade in, and Value of, the Nut.— Coral, and 
 Coral Fishing ^^^ 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 ISLAND PRODUCTS AND RESOURCES. 
 
 Paper—Its History.— Cinnamon.— Indigo.— Teak Wood.— 
 Rice.— Silk.— Pineapple.— Manila Hemp.— Pepper.— 
 Gutta Percha.— Screw Pine.— Resinous Gum Trees.— 
 General Remarks 201 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 OCEANIC ETHNOGRAPHY. 
 
 Oceanic Races.— Climate.— The Malays.— The Polynesians 
 — The Micronesians. — The Melanesians. — Genera 
 Characteristics.— The Australians.— Their Intellectual 
 Capacity.— Influence of Ocean Currents.— Asiatic Influ- 
 ences in Peopling America.— Island Races.— The Equa- 
 torial Currents.— Taboo.— A Small Tribute to Religious 
 Missions and Missionaries 213
 
 xriii. COXTHXTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE BIRTH, GROWTH AND DEATH OF ISLANDS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Volcanic and Earthquake Lore.— Volcanic Fire-belt of the 
 Western Hemisphere.— Its Flow through South Amer- 
 ica. — Through Central America and Mexico, and the 
 Pacific Coast.— Through the Islands.— Theory of Vol- 
 canoes and Earthquakes 243 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 COMMERCE, AND INTEROCEANIC CANALS. 
 
 The Panama Canal. — Memorandum Statement of Panama 
 Canal. — Nicaragua Canal. — The Eads Tehuantepec 
 Ship Railway. — Commercial Results Anticipated. — Po- 
 litical Considerations of the Canal Question 255 
 
 CHAPTER XVIIl. 
 
 CURRENTS, WINDS, RAINS AND STORMS OF THE PACIFIC. 
 
 Velocity and Force of Wind. — Monsoons. — Effect of Mon- 
 soons. — Typhoons — Their Explanation. — Rainfall of 
 the Pacific Islands. — List of (with Latitude and Longi- 
 tude) the Principal Harbors in the Island World 270 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 The Merchants of the Olden Time. — The Phoenicians. — 
 Their Commerce. — Their Inventions and Manufactures. 
 As Navigators. — The Compass. — Properties of the 
 Magnetic Needle. — By Whom Invented. — Homer's 
 Knowledge of Ship Building. — Early Navigators of 
 the Pacific — (Anson. — Balboa. — Beechey. — Banks. — 
 Bougainville. — Behring. — Byron. — Carteret. — Cook. — 
 Cavendish. — Dampier. — Dana. — Darwin. — Drake. — 
 Cortez. — P'ernandez. — Fitzroy. — Franklin. — Humboldt. 
 Kotzebue. — Krusenstern. — Magellan. — Perry. — Pizar- ' 
 ro. — La Perouse.— Polo. — Ouiros. — Rogers. — Saave- 
 dra. — Schouten, W. C. — Schouten, G. — Tasman. — 
 Vancouver. — Wilkes.) 290 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 , ISLAND MISCELLANY, AND DEPTHS OF THE SEA. 
 
 Norfolk Island. — The Chatam Group. — Ponape or Ascension 
 Island. — Strong Lsland. — Ocean Island. — The Depths 
 of the Ocean. — Bottom of the Sea 328
 
 - I )> JO — \ — ! ^'■''^•- \r
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OCE^AI«( I^ORB 
 
 Thou glorious mirror, where the Almighty's form 
 Glasses itself in tempests ; in all time, 
 
 Calm or convulsed — in breeze, or gale or storm, 
 Icing the pole, or in the torrid clime 
 
 Dark heaving — boundless, endless and sublime. — 
 
 Byron {Childe Harold). 
 
 PACIFIC OCEAN. 
 
 IN 1 5 13, three hundred and seventy-one years ago, 
 Balboa was dragging the timbers of his ship across 
 the Isthmus of Darien, from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific shore. Rebuilding his vessel there, he was the 
 first, in our modern day, to sail on the great ocean 
 waters. If gifted with supernatural vision, he would 
 have seen the Pacific Ocean, spread out over an area 
 of eighty million square miles, covering nearly all of 
 the western hemisphere. Its mighty Vv'aves, laving 
 the eastern shores of Asia on the one hand, and the 
 western coasts of the two g-reat American continents 
 on the other. Reaching almost to the birth-places 
 of the ice-bergs of either pole, embracing the heat of 
 the Torrid Zones, it includes all the climates of the 
 world in its vast limits. He would have seen, north 
 of the equator, the Kuro Shiwo, the Japanese Black
 
 TO THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Stream, sweeping- in immense circles from left to 
 ri^^ht. South of the line, the Humboldt, or Peruvian 
 Cold Current, circling- from right to left. Both form- 
 ino- the highways over which it is thought the Asiatics 
 voyaged to people our western world. In the depths 
 o{ the great ocean — nearly three miles — almost beyond 
 reach of the sounding-line, would be seen alike, the 
 cradle and tomb of the island world of the Pacific. 
 
 Thousands on thousands of islands would come 
 into view, like great emeralds dotting th-c mighty sea; 
 with the tempest, typhoon and hurricane pursuing 
 their furious course over the broad expanse of waters, 
 subdued long before the transit of the great sea is 
 performed — walled in and held back by the placid 
 seas surrounding them. 
 
 So large, indeed, is the Pacific, greater in area 
 than all other oceans combined, that the habitable 
 portions of our globe, the land, would be lost in its 
 limits, and yet a sea larger in extent than the Atlantic 
 be left. 
 
 EARLY NAVIGATORS. 
 
 The discovery, location and conquest of many 
 islands of the Pacific Ocean comes to us, out of the 
 dim past, surrounded by a halo of romance. The 
 names of famous navigators rise up in the mind, 
 recalled by history, as pioneers in the mighty progress 
 of the new world. 
 
 The quaint accounts of Captains Cook and Wallis 
 were taken up and confirmed by the old salts of Nan- 
 tucket and New Bedford. Their stories of the wealth, 
 beauty and fertility of the myriads of islands met with 
 in their whaling voyages, has long excited the curiosity 
 of the world. The singular fatality, too, that seems
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ii 
 
 to have followed nearly all the fathers of navi^^^ation 
 in the Pacific has but added interest in their voyages 
 and discoveries. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who took 
 possession of the entire South Sea in the name of 
 the Pope, fell under the headsman's axe. jMagcllan, 
 the first to reach the Indies, by a western route, 
 through the Straits that bear his name, died by the 
 sword, in a petty religious quarrel with some island 
 king. Alonzo de Saavedra, he who attempted the 
 passage of the North Pacific, from Manilla to Mexico, 
 the reputed discoverer of New Guinea, which he named 
 Tierra de Oro, met a lowly fate on the equator. 
 
 This same Saavedia, was probably the first to 
 propose cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Darien, 
 at Panama. In his proposition to the King of Spain 
 on this subject, and in his memoirs, he goes into the 
 enterprise in detail, and recommends the forcible 
 employment of the inhabitants of that region, to 
 accomplish his object. He states that "Providence 
 had evidently placed them there, in order that they 
 by their labors, might assist in the extension of the 
 commerce of Christendom." Captain Cook fell among 
 the savages of the Sandwich Islands. Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert was lost in a storm at sea. The chains and 
 anchors of the vessel of M. de la Pe rouse were found, 
 but his ultimate fate has never been ascertained. Oth- 
 ers, like William Dampier, Roggewein and Fernando 
 Quiros, were destined to what many would consider 
 a more melancholy ending. Dying in poverty, for- 
 gotten, unhonored and unsung, in their native land. 
 Of Quiros, Cardinal Valenza says: 'T have seen in a 
 wine-shop of Seville, one Fernando Quiros, who had 
 been an adventurer in the Indies and beyond, and 
 who told me he had seen there people who did eat
 
 /_. THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 their wives and other relatives, in place of consigning 
 them to the tombs, which did not so much surprise 
 mc, seeing that the same thing has been related by 
 the ancients." 
 
 COMMKRCIAL I'CXSSlIilLITIKS. 
 
 It is only of very late years that we — I speak more 
 ])articularly of the inhabitants of the Pacific Coast — 
 have begun to reap commercial benefits, in a large 
 way. from traffic with the islands of the South Sea. 
 Growing rapidly as we are in wealth and population, 
 the time has come when every effort should be made 
 to encompass a large share of the trade. The won- 
 derful impetus which is now being given to commercial 
 enterprise on the western coast of North America, by 
 the completion of three continental railways across our 
 country, with still another under way, will go far to 
 make San Francisco one of the greatest commercial 
 cities on the globe. 
 
 Fift\' years ago the multitudinous islands of the 
 Pacific were but little known. Their vast number, 
 nearly 8,000 — their area fully 4,600,000 square miles 
 — populated by over 77,000,000 inhabitants, are yet 
 almost as an unknown land to our people. 
 
 If we compare the area, exports and imports of 
 the Sandwich Islands (with the port of San Francisco 
 alone) with the area of the Pacific Islands, whose 
 exports and imports, are now about $700,000,000 per 
 annum, the values would reach the vast sum of $7,790,- 
 000,000. Something over five times the average 
 annual exports and imports of the United States for 
 the last four years. 
 
 Truly "there is a wonderful land: a land of 
 fertility, of spices, of valuable fibres, of sago and
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN /;- 
 
 cinnamon, of sandal wood and gold," and without a 
 doubt the islands of the South Sea, are of this de- 
 scription. The climate is unsurpassed in any part of 
 the world, and is both conducive to health and lon- 
 gevity. With the thermometer rarely below 65 de- 
 grees, and hardly ever reaching above 86 degrees, 
 we have a perpetual summer of so delightful a tem- 
 perature that working men of Europe or America may 
 devote themselves to a life of pleasant and profitable 
 labor all the year 'round. If we add to this, lands of 
 inexhaustible fertility, we have within easy distance of 
 our port millions on millions of acres of soil, far sur- 
 passing that of the famed West Indies. 
 
 When it is considered that the area of the latter 
 islands is only about one-fiftieth of the islands of the 
 South Sea, that, the population exceeds that of the 
 West Indies nearly eighteen times, that the exports 
 and imports of the latter are over seventy-five millions 
 per annum, some idea may be formed of the vast com- 
 mercial interests that will arise from the occupation, 
 development and trade with the islands of the Pacific. 
 
 With the exception of the more prominent islands 
 put down on the list, already well known to the com- 
 mercial world, the great majority remain as a sealed 
 book, so far as their agricultural, mineral and other 
 qualifications are concerned. In fact, if any trade has 
 ever existed among them, it has been carried on by 
 men without means, who have become tired of the sea, 
 castaways, pirates and refugees, A class as much 
 to be feared as the traditional man-eater. It is not 
 strange, therefore, that the many valuable interests 
 that could could be developed in these garden-spots 
 of the world suffer and languish when under the 
 control of such spirits.
 
 14 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 THE JAPANESE BLACK STREAM. 
 
 San Francisco lies directly in the track of the 
 great ocean current, that, like the Gulf Stream of the 
 Atlantic, flows in the Pacific. This current is known 
 as the Kuro Shiwo, or Japanese Black Stream. If we 
 assume its point of commencement to be off the coast 
 of Japan, it would trend northerly from that country, 
 one portion flowing to and around the Aleutian Isles 
 in Behring Sea, while the other, or main current, flows 
 more to the east, towards our northern coast, which 
 it reaches just south of Queen Charlotte Islands, off 
 the coast of British Columbia. Running thence 
 southerly along the shores of Washington Territory 
 and Oregon, and alono- the coast of California, it turns 
 south by west just off the harbor of San Francisco. 
 Dividing again at this point, one stream flows by the 
 Hawaiian Isles, and westerly among the islands of the 
 North Pacific, and again northerly to the coast of 
 Japan. The other division flows in a more southerly 
 direction until the equator is reached, where it turns 
 to the west, running among the myriads of islands 
 in that region, turning to the north, and flowing by 
 and to the east of the Philippines, reaching an as- 
 sumed starting point off the coast of Japan. The 
 Kuro Shiwo flows at the rate of ten to fifteen miles 
 per day, and must in its great silent way render invalu- 
 able service in helping preserve the temperate climate 
 along the coast as well as in the interior of the States 
 bordering the Pacific. Its great value in favoring 
 commerce to and from our port with the lands of the 
 South Sea, can hardly be over estimated. 
 
 With the completion of the Panama and Nica- 
 ragua canals, great commercial gateways will be
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 15 
 
 opened between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and 
 a trade with the whole world offered to the islands of 
 the Pacific that will in time become gioantic in its 
 proportions. To encompass this, it is safe to predict 
 that the great maratime powers will contend. 
 
 Commercial cities like New York, Boston, New 
 Orleans and San Francisco will grasp at the facilities 
 offered by the short routes created by the canals, and 
 the sails of all nations will dot the southern seas. 
 
 A personal experience among the islands of the 
 Pacific in commercial and other ventures, leads me to 
 write on this subject, with a little knowledge and a 
 great deal of interest. While it would take volumes 
 to do justice to this subject, in a detailed account, it 
 shall be my endeavor to present such features and 
 facts in a condensed form as may interest and prove 
 of value to many readers. Among the myriads of 
 islands, which I have placed in groups, as will be seen 
 in the tables, I have given but a short description of 
 one or more in a group. It being understood that 
 the description may be accepted as generally applica- 
 ble to all the islands of a particular cluster, excepting 
 perhaps, the number of inhabitants, size and locality. 
 
 SOUTH SEA BUBBLE. 
 
 One of the obstacles to be surmounted in favora- 
 bly presenting the vast interests to be found in those 
 garden-spots of the world, the Pacific Islands, is the 
 ban put upon all concerted ventures that have been 
 attempted in these regions by the great financial 
 crash of the South Sea company in years long passed 
 away. In fact, the term "South Sea Bubble" is gen- 
 erally used as a synonym for all enterprises not
 
 j6 the island world 
 
 based upon solid foundations, die popular impression 
 prevailing that the great failure of this company came 
 from commercial and other ventures made in the 
 South Sea. 
 
 The truth is, the company had no ventures or 
 interests in that region resulting in failure, for if we 
 except 071C vessel only, that made a trading voyage in 
 I 71 7, and that, too, to Spanish South America, in the 
 interests of the corporation, there are no accounts of 
 practical commercial operations entered into in the 
 Pacific by this company. True, they had some valua- 
 ble privileges from the English Government, as well 
 as from Spain, that theory and misrepresentation 
 easily built into a supposed practical trading -mo- 
 nopoly, although their operations were principally 
 financial and stock jobbing, and confined altogether 
 to London. 
 
 The fabulous stories and traditions of the Spanish 
 South American countries, among which were Chile 
 and Peru, the vast wealth in gold, silver and jewels, to 
 gether with well concocted stories of the wonderful pro 
 ductions of the soil, and the supposed exclusive rights 
 obtained from the king of Spain, formed the corner- 
 stone of the South Sea Company. After the treaty 
 of Utrecht, Spain withdrew all grants and privileges 
 made to the corporation, yet the wealth and power of 
 its directors, with the prestige of a long list of rich 
 stockholders, enabled the company to retain a footing 
 in great financial circles. As a valuable support to 
 the schemes of the corporation, the wonderful pro- 
 ducts of the Pacific Islands, then making their wa}^ 
 into all parts of Asia and Europe, were used as a 
 lever in its advancement. The shells, pearls, fruits 
 and spices, the whalebone and oil, the rich results
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 r? 
 
 of land and sea, were cunningl}'- interwoven into a 
 project that at one time set all Europe wild with greedy- 
 anticipation. 
 
 In 171 1, the Earl of Oxford, who was Lord Treas- 
 urer of the Kingdom, finding the credit of the Govern- 
 ment somewhat impaired, conceived the scheme of 
 funding a portion of the national debt of Great Britain, 
 then amounting, in round numbers, to ^155,000,000. 
 Of this sum, he proposed to fund ^50,000,000 by issu- 
 ing bonds of the Government, which were to be paid, 
 interest and principal, by special regular duties upon 
 silks, wines, tobacco, and some of the other most val- 
 uable importations. Purchasers of the bonds were to 
 receive a certain amount of South Sea stock with each 
 Government bond, that stock beino- then considered of 
 sufficient value to offer a tempting bait in attempting 
 to float the amount required. The credit of the Gov- 
 ernment, with the six per cent, interest, together with 
 the shares of the South Sea Company, and certain trad- 
 ing privileges allowed to the corporation in trade with 
 South America, made it an easy matter to fund the 
 $50,000,000. 
 
 Meantime, the company was using every influence 
 to establish and enlarge its credit, and though partially 
 opposed in its schemes by many of the great statesmen 
 and financiers of Europe, the Bank of England and 
 the East India Company, the advancement of the 
 "bubble" interests met with a curious success on 
 every hand. But it was not until 1720 that the com- 
 pany reached the zenith of its influence and power, 
 which culminated in offering to take the whole national 
 debt of Great Britain on its shoulders at a reduced 
 interest, but otherwise on similar terms to the first 
 loan. In 17 19, so many aacl great had become the
 
 J 8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 schemes of the company, that it was found necessary 
 to increase its capital stock to nearly $60,000,000, with 
 shares set at a par value of $500. 
 
 The Bank of England, fearful of the rapidly-growing 
 power of the South Sea Company, made a similar 
 proposition to the Government, offering as a premium 
 $15,000,000. This offer was more than doubled 
 by the South Sea Company. Under the wing of even 
 royalty itself, and with emissaries and agents in every 
 quarter promulgating the most fabulous stories, backed 
 up by the free use of money and presents of stock, the 
 corporation had their offer accepted in both Houses of 
 Parliament, by a vote of 83 to 1 7 in the House of Lords 
 and 172 to 55 in the Commons. So well were the plans 
 laid, and so general was the desire for speculation, that 
 the shares of the company were eagerly sought after 
 at $1,500 per share. On the 14th day of April, 1720, 
 subscription books were opened to the public, of $10,- 
 000,000 of stock at $1,500 per share, and was almost 
 immediately taken, with $1,000,000 more before the 
 books were closed. On the 30th of April of the same 
 month and year, a further amount of $5,000,000 was 
 offered at $2,000 per share, and the amount taken in a 
 few days, and $2,500,000 in addition. As an illustra- 
 tion of greed and infatuation of a speculative people, 
 hoodwinked by stories only found in sober moments in 
 the "Arabian Nights" and tales of like ilk, history fur- 
 nishes but few equals. Rich and poor alike parted 
 with the most substantial securities, many leaving them 
 in the hands of the company to secure a preference of 
 shares, without limit as to price. The stock rose rap- 
 idly to $2,500, $3,000, $3,500, with many fluctuations, 
 and reached the top figure of $5,000 per share, equal to 
 $300,000,000 — when the bubble burst. It gradually
 
 'OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ig 
 
 leaked out that the chairman of the company, Sir John 
 Blunt, a man of low origin but extraordinary financial 
 ability, and one of the chief projectors of the scheme, 
 together with the favored few havincf the manao-ement 
 of its affairs, were selling out. The ruin and desola- 
 tion that followed — the disappointment, rage and desire 
 for revenue of the deluded ones — turned all Enofland 
 into a chaos of financial distress. 
 
 Parliament was convened, and measures immedi- 
 ately taken for the punishment of the schemers, who, 
 but a little while back, were lauded as the kings of 
 finance. Many of the leaders were arrested and im- 
 prisoned, and a fine of $10,000,000 imposed and col- 
 lected, to be distributed among the deluded stockhold- 
 ers. The Bank of England and the East India Com- 
 pany were induced to come to the rescue, they taking 
 and sustaining millions, and easing down one of the 
 greatest financial crashes in the history of any country. 
 Enough of the stock and bonds of the company were 
 secured, together with the fines imposed, to enable 
 the Government to ^declare a dividend among the 
 stockholders of nearly forty per cent, still leaving an 
 immense sum to be carried and taken care of by the 
 Government. 
 
 One hundred and twenty-five years after the incipi- 
 ency of this scheme, I find the following in a financial 
 statement of the funds of Great Britain : 
 
 South Sea Debt and Annuities. — This portion of 
 the debt, amounting, on the 5th of January, 1836, to 
 10,144,584 pounds sterling, or $50,722,920 of our 
 money, is all that now remains of the capital of the 
 once famous, or rather infamous, South Sea Company. 
 The company has, for a considerable time past, ceased 
 to have anything to do with trade, so that the functions
 
 20 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 'of the directors are wholly restricted to the transfer of 
 the company's stock and the payment of the dividends 
 on it, both of which operations are performed at the 
 South Sea House, and not at the bank. The dividends 
 of the old South Sea annuities are payable on the 5th 
 of April and loth of October; the dividends on the rest 
 of the company's stock are payable on the 5th of Jan- 
 uary and 5th of July. 
 
 In 1727, three-fifths of the public debt of England 
 was held by the South Sea Company — or about two 
 hundred and seventeen millions, five hundred thousand 
 dollars.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 21 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ISI<A]MI>$« 
 
 Call us not weeds, we are the flowers of the sea. 
 
 E. L. AVELINE, 
 
 GALAPAGOS GROUT. 
 
 IN making a journey throug-h these garden spots of 
 the Pacific, for geographical reasons, it is assumed 
 that our voyage commences at the Galapagos Is- 
 lands ; and that all longitudes are taken from Green- 
 wich, east or west, as the case may be. 
 
 The Galapagos, some fifteen in number, lie on 
 both sides of the equator, being about 600 miles west- 
 erly from the coast of Ecuador, to which republic they 
 belong. Their area is 3,000 square miles, with a popu- 
 lation of 4,000. The principal islands in the group are 
 Albemarle, James, Chatam, Indefatigable, Hood, 
 Charles and Narboro. Their curious geological for- 
 mation, and evident volcanic origin, has given rise to 
 much speculation on the part of scientists. There are 
 to be seen in the group nearly 2,000 craters of extinct 
 volcanoes, leaving one with the impression, that a per- 
 manent residence here, with the fear of an eruption 
 continually before the mind, would not be pleasant. 
 There is probably no place in the world, where turtles
 
 22 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 are so abundant, as at these islands. In their laying- 
 season they literally swarm along the shores, and are 
 hunted and slaughtered by thousands. An establish- 
 ment or several of them, might be located here for 
 catching and canning turtle, that would no doubt prove 
 a great success, and is well worth the thought and en- 
 terprise of the commercial world. 
 
 THE MARQUESAS GROUP. 
 
 Leaving" the Galapagos, we sail away west by 
 south for the Marquesas Archipelago, discovered by 
 Mendana in 1595. The islands in this group stand 
 high above the level of the sea, some of the mountain 
 peaks towering up in the clouds, while their steep and 
 rugged sides, sweep down in many places to the waters 
 edge. 
 
 They are thirty-five in number, situated between 
 latitudes 7 deg. 53 min. and lodeg. 30 min. south, and 
 longitudes 138 deg. 43 min. and 140 deg. 44 min. 
 west. The area of the whole group is something like 
 1200 square miles, with a population of 20,000 people. 
 
 We found the landings here very difficult, and 
 were forced to lay off and on, quite a distance from 
 shore. Nuka-Hiva, the principal island, is about 
 eighteen miles long from east to west, and ten miles 
 wide. After several attempts we finally made a land- 
 ing, and were very agreeably surprised at the great 
 beauty and fertility of the lands back from the coast. 
 Many of the valleys in the interior were one mass of 
 tropical foliage, with the huts of the natives peeping^ 
 here and there, from among the groves of cocoanut, 
 bread fruit and orange trees. The natives, although 
 kind and hospitable to our party to the last degree,
 
 or -nil': pacific ocean 23 
 
 were in appearance anything but attractive. The men 
 particularly, being tatooed in all the different fantastic 
 styles of that art. At a short distance they had the 
 appearance of being clad in chain armor, painted blue. 
 The women are much fairer than the men, and onl)- 
 tatoo the face, with a few disfiguring spots on the lips. 
 We saw several Polynesian Bibles in the huts of the 
 natives, nearly all of whom claim to be Christians. Yet 
 from all accounts we were among the decendants of 
 veritable man eaters ; people who practice all the 
 heathenish and superstitious rites of their ancestors ; 
 and roast and eat their prisoners of war. Many of the 
 islands of this group have well watered, beautiful val- 
 leys, well suited to the cultivation of coffee, sugar, 
 cotton and other tropical products. 
 
 From the Marquesas we sail nearly due south, to 
 that vast collection of coral islands known on maps 
 and charts as the Low Archipelago or Paumotu 
 Group. There are in all about seventy-eight islands 
 and like the Marquesas and Society groups, are under 
 a French protectorate. All except twenty of them are 
 inhabited. The natives are a lawless and savaofe set, 
 their grreatest merit beino; the smallness of their num- 
 bers. However, some improvement has been notice- 
 able among them lately, especially in their houses, 
 clothing, and mode of living; the trade in pearls, pearl 
 .shell, and cocoanut oil, the principal products of this 
 group, affording them the means for this desirable ad- 
 vancement. 
 
 ISLAND OF JUAN FERNANDEZ. 
 
 Still further south and to the east, in latitude 34 
 deg. about 400 miles, west from Valparaiso, lies Juan 
 Fernandez, in size some thirteen miles long by four
 
 24 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 miles wide, discovered in 1563 by die famous pilot 
 and navigator, whose name it bears. It will always 
 retain a marked prominence in island histories, being 
 at one time the home of that celebrated, castaway 
 Alexander Selkirk, whose life and adventures have 
 been made so intensely interesting to youthful minds, 
 and older ones too, for that matter,* by Defoe in his 
 wonderful book, " Robinson Crusoe." Selkirk was 
 sailing master of the war galley Cinque Porte, and 
 through a quarrel with Captain Straddling, asked to 
 be put ashore on the island, which request was 
 granted, and such supplies furnished him, as might be 
 most needed in his lonely hermitage. 
 
 THE HOME OF CRUSOE. 
 
 In 1868 the officers of H. M. S. Topaze erected 
 a tablet at the mouth of a small valley that trav- 
 ersed the land, and which gave the only clear out- 
 look to the ocean from the island. At the north- 
 ern end of this gap may be seen the tablet, with 
 inscription reading: "In memory of Alexander Sel- 
 kirk, mariner, a native of Laigo, in the county of 
 Fife, Scotland, who was on this island in complete 
 solitude for four years and four months. He was 
 landed from the Cinque Porte, galley, 96 tons, 16 
 guns, in 1704, a. d., and was taken ofif by the Duke, 
 privateer (Captain Wood Rogers), 12th of February, 
 1709. He died lieutenant of the Weymouth, in 1723, 
 A. D., aged forty-seven years. This tablet was erected 
 near 'Selkirk's Lookout,' by Commodore Powell and 
 officers of H. ]\I. S. Topaze, 1868, a. d." 
 
 In justice to the author of Crusoe, I quote sdll 
 further, from the journal of the officers of H. M. S.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 23 
 
 Zealo'ds : "We left Torne on December 21st, and 
 arrived at the island of Juan Fernandez early in the 
 morning of the 24th. It is difficult to imagine a more 
 impressive bit of scenery than that which greets the 
 eye on coming on deck, and seeing it for the first 
 tim.e after anchoring. We lay close to the shore, 
 which went up almost perpendicular to a height, in 
 some places, of 3,000 feet, towering above us like a 
 huge giant. These heights faced us in the sliape of 
 a semi-circle, and to all appearances we lay in the 
 middle of an extinct crater, of which the other half 
 of the circle had been thrown into the sea, and now 
 formed our anchorage. Every appearance justified 
 this idea. No doubt a vast eruption took place many 
 years ago, which produced this wonderful formation. 
 At night particularly it looks very grand, and from its 
 closeness and height, appears to be right over your 
 head, standing out clear and distinct against the sky. 
 "The island belongs to Chili, and there are now 
 resident on it five families, possessing nineteen chil- 
 dren, three cows, four sheep, several horses, and goats 
 innumerable, which latter abound on the other side 
 of the island. The principal personage in this little 
 community spoke English remarkably well. He told 
 us they were perfectly happy, never were ill, and had 
 no desire to leave the island. A state of bliss 
 comprised in these three statements difficult to be 
 understood ; but though only attributable to the 
 lowered state of the intellectual faculties, a state 
 which it would be good to meet with more frequently 
 amongst cultivated nations. Juan Fernandez was dis- 
 covered in 1567, but from that time, I should imagine, 
 no advantage was taken of its discovery — except occa- 
 sional visits of buccaneers — till the year 1 705, when
 
 26 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Alexander Selkirk was placed on shore for mutiny 
 towards his captain. For more than four years he 
 lived alone on this island, when at last he was dis- 
 covered and taken off by Captain Rodgers, amongst 
 whose crew was a man who had been on board Sel- 
 kirk's ship when he was put ashore. From Selkirk's 
 narrative Defoe is said to have derived and written 
 his wonderful book, 'Robinson Crusoe.' Whether 
 he did so or not, has been the subject of much con- 
 troversy. I will not attempt to lay a dictum, for I do 
 not think it matters now in the slightest either way. 
 But in the memory of Defoe, who, as a writer, has 
 had few equals before or since, and for the benefit of 
 any one interested in the question, I must say that, 
 having been led in the imagination to picture this 
 island somewhat according to the book, there is 
 nothing in Juan Fernandez to give rise to the belief 
 that Defoe could have received from Selkirk anything 
 but the idea from which he constructed his famous 
 romance. Moreover, it was not published till the 
 year 17 19, ten years after the return of Selkirk. 
 
 "That Defoe took the greater part — as he has been 
 accused — of his story from Selkirk's journal, it is im- 
 possible for anyone who has seen the Island of Juan 
 Fernandez to believe. His cave can be seen now, cut 
 in a sand-cliff, with the shelves in it used for cooking- 
 utensils, etc.; so that, unless we concede the almost 
 impossible theory that when it was visited by a fearful 
 earthquake, in 1,760, the whole island changed its nature 
 and appearance, we must acquit Defoe of plagiarism. 
 If he did read Selkirk's journal, it had the effect 
 simply of making him strive in every way to show- 
 there was no connection or similitude, the one with 
 the other."
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 PITCAIRN ISLAND. 
 
 This little dot on the great ocean's surface, lying in 
 latitude 25 deg. 3 min. south, and longitude 130 ^^'g. 
 6 min. west, is about 2)^ miles long by i y^ wide, made 
 famous as the home of the mutineers of the ship 
 Bounty. It has, in addition, been of great service to 
 the maritime world, being one of the fresh-water sta- 
 tions resorted to by whalers and others sailino- in the 
 Pacific. 
 
 Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by Philip 
 Carteret, navigator, who first sailed under Captain 
 Wallis in 1766. 
 
 Although the history of the Bounty mutineers has 
 already formed the theme of numerous writers, a very 
 brief statement of the facts may not be out of place 
 here, and might prove interesting to the general reader. 
 Captain Cook, in his first voyage to Tahiti, one of the 
 Society group, was much pleased with the bread-fruit 
 tree, found in great abundance there, and on his return 
 suggested to the British Government its many valuable 
 qualities, not only for the nutritive uses, as food, of the 
 fruit, but for the value of its timber and bark in a com- 
 mercial way. He suggested transplanting the young 
 shoots of the tree to the West India Islands, and the 
 vessel Bounty was dispatched to Tahiti for this pur- 
 pose, under command of Lieut. Bligh. It was during 
 the voyage from Tahiti, loaded with the plants, that the 
 mutiny occurred, Bligh being set adrift in an open boat. 
 The mutineers returned to Tahiti, where they remained 
 some time, recruiting their forces with natives — also 
 persuading some of the gentler sex to accompany them 
 — when they sailed away, reaching Pitcairn Island 
 in 1789. There they established a colony, and after
 
 28 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 using everythinL,^ of value belonging to the ship for- 
 building and other purposes, the Bounty was burned. 
 Many years elapsed before they were discovered, and 
 then only by accident, through an American ship cap- 
 tain who landed there for water. This being commu- 
 nicated to the British Government, a vessel was sent, 
 not only for their relief, but to punish the ringleaders 
 of the mutiny. 
 
 Lieut. BliMi, after many adventures and hair- 
 breadth escapes as a castaway, finally succeeded in 
 o-ettino- back to EnMand. He was placed in command 
 of another vessel, and successfully accomplished the 
 object of his first voyage, transplanting the bread-fruit 
 tree of the South Seas to the West India Islands in 
 
 1792-3- 
 
 BRJEAD-FRUIT TREE. 
 
 The bread-fruit tree [Artocarpus incisa) alluded to 
 above, is indigenous to nearly all the islands of the 
 South Sea. forming, with the cocoanut and banana, 
 the principal sources of food for the indolent natives. 
 The tree grows from twenty to forty feet high, with a 
 diameter of one to two feet. The bark and inner por- 
 tions furnish a valuable fibre, while the pith supplies 
 the material for much of the paper cloth worn by the 
 natives. 
 
 The fruit ripens at different periods of the year. 
 It is about the size of a melon, and is found singly and 
 in clusters attached J;o the branches of the tree. There 
 are two or three periods in its growth when it can be 
 used ; at one time supplying a milky nutritious fluid as 
 a drink, and at another a delicious custard, but the 
 period when it is most used is just before ripening, at 
 which time the fruit is picked and baked in rude ovens,
 
 OF THE PACIJ-JC OCliAX 2</ 
 
 the whole interior, assuming- the spongy form of 
 freshly-baked l>read, with a pleasant taste — much su- 
 perior to the doughy preparations, called bread, so 
 common in Europe and America. When baked in 
 this way, the bread-fruit can be kept for several 
 months. 
 
 The timber of the tree is used to make many ar- 
 ticles of furniture, and the trunk often formed into 
 canoes, etc.
 
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 CHAPTER III 
 
 ISI<A?«DS 
 
 Behold the threaden sails, 
 Borne with the invisible and creeping wind, 
 Draw the huge bottoms through the furrow'd sea, 
 Breasting the lofty surge. 
 
 {Hetiry V. Act III.) 
 
 AUSTRAL ISLES. 
 
 WEST by north from Pitcairn, and almost due 
 south from the Paumotus, He the Austral Isles. 
 The group, fifteen or twenty in number, are 
 between latitudes 22 deg. and 28 deg. south, and 143 
 deg. to 153 deg. west longitude. The islands are 
 small, and of but little commercial value at present. 
 Rumbia, Tubuaia, Vantaia, Rumbaia, Bapai, Nelson 
 and Oparo are the largest and best known of the 
 group. 
 
 GAMBIER GROUP. 
 
 Another island cluster, the Gambier, clue south from 
 the Paumotus, are rapidly growing in commercial impor- 
 tance. The products, similar to those of the Austral Isles. 
 are altogether of the tropical kind ; the soil rich ;ui(l 
 3*
 
 j^ THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 productive, well suited for the cultivation of coffee, cot- 
 ton, sugar and spices. It is not my purpose to describe 
 island groups located like the Austral and Gambler, in 
 more than a general way. Lying, as they do, on the 
 outside of the present valuable portion of the island 
 Avorld, their value is in the future. 
 
 SOCIETY ISLANDS. 
 
 Prof. Dana in speaking of this group says "that 
 they consist of ten islands, ranging in a line 2 50 -miles 
 long trending N. 62 deg. W. Coinmencing from the 
 north west they are as follows : Tubuai, Maurua, 
 Borabora, Tahaa, Raitea, Hauhine, Tapuaemanu, 
 Eimeo, Tetuaroa, Tahiti. To this number Osna- 
 burgh or Metia, may properly be added, as it lies in 
 the same ranee, about one hundred miles to the west- 
 ward of Tahiti. With the exception of Tubuai and 
 Tetuaroa, they are all basaltic or high islands. The 
 area of the whole does not exceed twenty-five miles 
 square, or 600 miles, and of these about one-half, or 
 three hundred square miles, belong to the single 
 island of Tahiti. 
 
 " These basaltic islands are characterized by high 
 mountains, deep precipitous gorges, and that rich 
 livery of green with which the mild airs of a perpetual 
 summer clothe the tropical islands of the Pacific. Coral 
 reefs in some instances border their shores, forming a 
 circle around, dotted with verdant islets. 
 
 "The broken character of the surface is most strik- 
 ing on Eimeo, yet all the islands afford scenes of 
 grandeur unsurpassed in the Pacific. In the distant 
 view, Eimeo seems to be a mass of mountain towers, 
 crags and peaks, rising abruptly to great elevations,
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 33 
 
 and in one lofty summit, resembling a rudely shaped 
 cone, there is a hole opening through, a few hundred 
 feet from the top. On Tahiti, still loftier summits, 
 with crowns and crests and jagged ridges constitute 
 the surface. The eye follows up one precipitious slope 
 to plunge at once one or two thousand feet to the 
 bottom of another. 
 
 "The islands to the north-westward are described 
 as exceeding Tahiti in their bold features, and in the 
 indentations of their shores, which form deep bays, 
 penetrating far among the mountains ; they are for 
 their size, the most remarkable in the Pacific. There 
 is great luxuriance of verdure over the Society Islands, 
 and good soil. But owing to the mountainous char- 
 acter of the lands, and especially the remarkably steep 
 declivities, but little of the surface, comparatively, can 
 be brought under cultivation. Yet there are many 
 fine valleys, besides the level areas along the shores 
 which might be tilled to great advantage. The sugar 
 cane and many tropical fruits are already grown in 
 abundance, and to these the coffee plant and other 
 productions of the East Indies might be added." 
 
 TAHITI. 
 
 Having cargo for Tahiti, it was our good fortune 
 to remain several days, and of course time for a par- 
 tial inspection of what has been so much written about. 
 The entrance to the main harbor of Tahiti is rather 
 difficult to navigate, and requires the assistance of 
 some ancient weather-beaten mariner who knows every 
 foot of the channel from boyhood. They are to be 
 found among the natives, who, for a proper considera- 
 tion, will place your vessel at safe anchorage in the
 
 j6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 inner harbor. The trade of these islands with the out- 
 side world is considerable, the exports reaching a value 
 of nearly one million of dollars annually, with imports 
 of as much more. Coffee, cotton and sugar-cane, as 
 well as all other tropical plants, do well in the group, 
 giving not only employment to the natives, but many 
 who are broutrht from other islands and China. The 
 people are intelligent and kindly disposed, and the 
 stranger may revel in all the delights of a tropical cli- 
 mate without let or hindrance. Missionary schools are 
 to be met with on nearly all of the isles, and the strict 
 observance of laws, as customary In our own country, 
 is enforced by the Government. Tahiti, although of 
 wonderful fertility, and better known to the world, has , 
 many rivals in extent and rich soil ; notably the islands 
 of Raitea and Huahine — both of the Society group — 
 where can be found beautiful valleys, with an abun- 
 dance of water and a luxuriant vegetation of nearly all 
 the tropical fruits, which clothe the valleys, hills and 
 mountain sides to their very tops. Much could be 
 written of Tahiti that would prove interesting to the 
 lovers of curious traditions, ^nd a great deal might be 
 said of Captain Cook and his voyage to this island — 
 sent by the English Government to take observations 
 of the transit of Venus. The shade of the tamarind 
 tree planted by Cook may be enjoyed, and relics from 
 the observatory built by himself and companions can 
 be carried away in quantities to suit. But space will 
 not permit many details in a subject so vast as the 
 Islands of the Pacific. 
 
 TONGA, OR FRIENDLY ISLANDS. 
 
 To the south and west of the Society group lie 
 the Tonga or Friendly islands, nearly one hundred in
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN jy 
 
 number, and, like nearly all isles in this reorion, are 
 formed on the coral reefs. The archipela^-o is divided 
 into several groups — Tongatabu, Namuka, Hapai and 
 Katoo being the largest and best known. The islands 
 are very k)w, the highest ground seldom rising above 
 an altitude of loo feet. The products are similar to 
 those already described ; the natives are peaceable and 
 friendly, nearly all of them professing Christianity, 
 
 The number in the group 1 have placed at one 
 hundred ; some authorities state as hieh as one hun- 
 dred and fifty; with a total landed area of but looo 
 square miles. They were discovered by Tasman in 
 1643, ^^"'^ visited by Captain Cook many years after- 
 ward, who gave them the name they bear to-day. 
 
 Of the inhabitants, it is said that they "are intel- 
 lectually, perhaps, the most advanced of the Polynesian 
 race, and exercise an influence over distant neighbors, 
 especially in Fiji, quite out of proportion to their 
 numbers, which do not exceed twenty or twenty-five 
 thousand. Their conquests have extended as far as 
 Nine, or Savage Island, 200 miles to the east, and to 
 various other islands to the north. In Cook's time, 
 Ponlaho, the principal chief, considered Samoa to be 
 within his dominions. This pre-eminence may, per- 
 haps, be due to an early infusion of Fijian blood. 
 Pritchard [Polynesian Reminiscences) observed such 
 crosses to be always more vigorous than the pure 
 races in these islands, and this influence seems also 
 traceable in the Tongan dialect, and appears to have 
 been partially transmitted thence to the Samoan. Va- 
 rious customs, traditions and names of places point to 
 a former relation with ¥\]\, but Fijian influence in 
 Tonga is insignificant, compared with that of Tonga in 
 Fiji. Their prior conversion to Christianity gave the
 
 j8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 people material as well as moral advantages over their 
 neighbors, and King George, a ver>' remarkable man, 
 and far in advance of his people, has, during a long 
 reign, made the most of these. 
 
 "Agriculture, which is well understood, is the 
 chief industry. They are bold and skillful sailors and 
 fishermen ; other trades, as boat and house building, 
 carving, cooking, net and mat making, are usually 
 hereditary. Their houses are slightly built, but the 
 surrounding "-round and roads are laid out with great 
 care and taste. 
 
 "There are some ancient stone remains here, as 
 in the Caroline Islands, burial places {/eitoka) built 
 with great blocks, and a remarkable monument consist- 
 ing of two large blocks with a transverse one, contain- 
 in"- a circular basin in the centre. 
 
 "The chief articles of export are cocoanut-oil and 
 copra, a little sugar, cotton and coffee, the cultivation 
 of which is encouraged by the king, and fresh provis- 
 ions for ships, as yams, pigs and poultry. The chief 
 imports are cloth, cotton prints, hardware, mirrors, 
 etc." 
 
 HERVEY OR COOK's ISLANDS- 
 
 A little to the north and east of the Tongfas are 
 the Hervey or Cook's Islands ; Mangaia, Raratonga, 
 Autaluke and Hervey being the largest. They are 
 all of considerable commercial value, not only on ac- 
 count of their agricultural products, but for the great 
 number of turtles and quantity of beche de mer taken 
 in this group. Their products are coffee, cotton, 
 sugar, tobacco, cocoanuts, oil, fungus, tomano wood 
 and bananas. Nearly all the natives of this group 
 can read and write, and profess the Protestant religion.
 
 OF Till': PACIFIC OCFAN 
 
 39 
 
 A great deal of time and money has been spent in 
 this region, educating and reclaiming the heathen. 
 It is lamentable though that in adopting our more 
 civilized manners and habits, that the good and bad 
 of our civilization could not have been separated. 
 Many of the natives here, as well as among other 
 groups of the Pacific, seem to take to the bad nat- 
 urally, and in this particular locality it resulted in 
 almost decimating the population. 
 
 Raratonga stands high above the sea level, nearly 
 3,000 feet, and the rich tropical vegetation covers the 
 mountain sides clear to their summits. Streams of 
 pure water flow through its valleys of rich alluvial 
 soil, and highly cultivated plantations are to be met with 
 on every hand. The inhabitants offer a pleasing con- 
 trast to some already cited, being a happy, peaceful 
 and industrious race, in a comparatively advanced 
 state of civilization. 
 
 FIJI ISLANDS. 
 
 Nearly due west from Cook's Islands we come to 
 the great group of Viti, popularly known as the Fijis. 
 They are 250 in number, with an area of some 7,400 
 square miles, and population of about 120,000. It is 
 said that ''a few islands in the northeast of the group 
 were first seen by Tasman in 1643. The southern- 
 most of the group, Turtle Island, was discovered by 
 Cook in 1773. Bligh visited them in 1789, and Cap- 
 tain Wilson, o{ t\\(t Dicff, in 1797. In 1827 D'Urville, 
 in t\\& Astrolabe, surveyed them much more accurately, 
 but the first thorough survey was that of the United 
 States Exploring Expedition in 1840." The group 
 was annexed by Great Britain in 1874, and if not 
 justly territory of that country, is practically under
 
 ^o " THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 tlie protectorate of England to-day. Situated In both 
 longitudes, tliat is lying either side of the meridian of 
 Greenwich, and between latitudes 1 5 deg. 42 min. and 
 19 dec. 48 min. south, in the track of much of our com- 
 mercial trade with Australia and islands further west, the 
 Fijis are rapidly growing in commercial importance. 
 They offer a curious study of the past and present. 
 At one time, and that, too, within the memory of the 
 livinc. the Fijis were inhabited by a race of fierce and 
 warlike man-eaters, whose victims were roasted and 
 eaten, after undergoing all the hideous rites and 
 tortures that their savage natures could suggest 
 Now the abode of peace and plenty, with churches, 
 schools and manufactures throughout the land. If I 
 mistake not. there are at present 1,400 schools and 
 200 churches among these islands. 
 
 The rapid advance made by the natives in civ- 
 ilization, in the arts and agriculture has made of these 
 once inhospitable shores a pleasant home and resort 
 for people of all nations. 
 
 The main islands are known as Viti Lavu, Van- 
 nua Lavu, Moala, Kiro, Lotia, Vunie, Kandavau, 
 Vatata, Valava Ovalau, Lakeruba, Vanua and Yasawa. 
 Mr. Consul March, in his report speaking of the 
 capabilities of Fiji, says: "The productions and re- 
 sources of Fiji have been described in previous re- 
 ports; it is sufficient, therefore, to state that these 
 islands, rich and fertile, yield an almost endless variety 
 of vegetable treasures. They abound in edible roots, 
 medical plants, scents and perfumes, and timber of 
 various descriptions ; whilst sugar, coffee and to- 
 bacco grow most luxuriantly, and if cultivated, would, 
 I think, prove as remunerative as cotton." 
 
 The group, generally speaking, may be of vol-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 4/ 
 
 canic origin, many evidences of igneous creation pre- 
 vailing through most of the islands, with traces of 
 extinct craters, whose ancient fires were probably 
 quenched b)- the waters of the surrounding seas. 
 On some, traces of the sedimentary formations are 
 met with, while on others coral is found, a thousand 
 feet above the ocean level, forced up from the dej)ths 
 of the sea. Taken in all, the physical configuration 
 is hilly and mountainous, some of the crests rising 
 to a height of four or five thousand feet. Blessed 
 with an even temperature and an abundant rainfall, 
 the valleys and slopes covered with verdure and 
 forests in all stages of bloom and crrowth, a view of 
 the group from the sea is extremely pleasing to the 
 eye. Small streams flow through the valle^^s, some 
 of them reaching the dignity of navigable rivers, with 
 valuable agricultural lands to be found on the low- 
 lands along their banks, that a little skill and energy, 
 surely arriving with the strangers making their homes 
 in the group, will develop into agricultural wealth. 
 Then rice, sugar, coffee and cotton will vie with the. 
 natural products, the cocoanut, bread-fruit, banana, 
 lemon and orange. 
 
 NEW HEBRIDES GROUP. 
 
 Lying farther west and a little to the south of the 
 Fijis, are the New Hebrides Islands, twelve in number, 
 the largrest and best known beinof named Aneteum, 
 Tana, Vate, Api, Aurora, Whitsun and Espiritu Santo. 
 The last named, the' largest of the group, is about 65 
 miles long by 35 wide. Inhabiting most of the islands 
 may be found a people the most treacherous and quar- 
 relsome in the whole Pacific. Lieut. Meade, R. N..
 
 ^2 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Avho visited there in 1865, in describing Tana, and 
 which may be accepted as about their present condi- 
 tion, says : "Tana is about 25 miles long by 12 broad, 
 the population being between fifteen and twenty thou- 
 sajid. But since the introduction of European diseases 
 and weapons, there has been a steady decrease. In 
 1 86 1 a third of the people died of the measles. The 
 state of morals is extremely low ; the natives assert 
 that the present excessive licentiousness was introduced 
 by the whites, who formerly resided on the island. 
 The chiefs endeavor to get drunk every night on kava. 
 The women do all the work ; the men all the fighting, 
 which is their constant employment. Cannibalism is 
 the custom all over the island." In 1842 the bark 
 Rose, from Nantucket, engaged in whaling in these 
 latitudes, took as passengers twelve native mission- 
 aries, who had been educated and raised in Christianity 
 on some of the more civilized groups. These mission- 
 aries were sent to Tana as an experiment, and in the 
 hope of retrieving a fallen race. Arriving off the island, 
 a whale-boat was lowered and manned with a well- 
 armed crew, in addition to the twelve Christian work- 
 ers. The crew were cautioned as to the treachery and 
 brutality of the natives, and on no account to make a 
 landing longer than just necessary to place the mission- 
 aries ashore. On arriving at the beach, the natives 
 swarmed to the boat and assisted the landlno- of the 
 religious workers with every show of kindness and 
 affection. Acting under strict orders, the crew of the 
 whale-boat immediately put back for the ship, and were 
 not three hundred yards from the beach when the na- 
 tives fell upon the missionaries, killing them all in the 
 most barbarous manner, and in full view of the occu- 
 pants of the boat.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 43 
 
 LOYALTY ISLANDS. 
 
 South and westerly from the New Hebrides wc 
 come to the Loyalty Islands, said to have been dis- 
 covered by Captain Cook in 1774. The group is 
 "about 60 miles east of New Caledonia, consisting- of 
 Uvea or Uea (the northernmost), Lifu, Toka, and sev- 
 eral small islands, and Mare or Neugone. ' They are 
 coral islands, of comparatively recent elevation, and in 
 no place rise more than 250 feet above the sea. Lifu, 
 the largest, is about 50 miles in length by 25 in breadth. 
 Enough of its rocky surface is covered with a thin 
 coating of soil to enable the natives to grow yams, 
 taro, bananas, etc., for their support ; cotton thrives 
 well, and has even been exported in small quantities, 
 but there is no space available for its cultivation on 
 any considerable scale. Fresh water, rising and falling 
 with the tide, is found in certain large caverns, and, in 
 fact, by sinking to the sea-level, a supply may be ob- 
 tained in any part of the island. The population, about 
 seven thousand, is on the decrease. The island called 
 Neugone by the natives, and Mare by the inhabitants 
 of the Isle of Pines, is about eighty miles in circumfer- 
 ence, and contains about six thousand souls. Uvea, 
 the most recent part of the group, consists of a circle 
 of about twenty islets, inclosing a lagoon twenty miles 
 in width ; the largest is about thirty miles in length. 
 and in some places three miles wide, and the next lar- 
 gest is about twelve miles in length. The inhabitants, 
 numbering about twenty-five hundred, export consid- 
 erable quantities of cocoanut-oil. The Loyalty Island- 
 ers are classed as Melanesian ; the several islands have 
 each its separate language, and in Uvea the one tribe 
 uses a Samoan, and the other a New Hebridean form
 
 u 
 
 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 of speech. Captain Cook passed to the east of New 
 Caledonia without observing- the Loyalty ofroup, but it 
 was discovered soon afterwards, and Dumont D'Ur- 
 ville laid down the several islands in his chart. For 
 inany years after their discovery the natives had a bad 
 repute as dangerous cannibals. Christianity was in- 
 troduced into Mare by native teachers from Rarotonga 
 and Samoa ; missionaries were settled by the London 
 Missionary Society at Mare in 1854, at Lifu in 1859, 
 and at Uvea in 1865. Roman Catholic missionaries 
 also arrived from New Caledonia, and in 1864 the 
 PVench. considering the islands a dependency of that 
 colony, formally instituted a commandant." 
 
 (Encyclo. Brit., vol. 15; Gill: Gems from the Coral Islands, 1871; 
 Macfarlane : Stor>' of the Lifu Mission, 1873.) 
 
 NEW CALEDONIA. 
 
 New Caledonia with an area of 6,000 square miles 
 and a population of nearly 60,000, was discovered in 
 1774 by Captain Cook. One of the most beautiful 
 and valuable islands in the South Pacific, has been 
 rendered almost valueless, by its appropriation in 1853 
 by the French, and since used by that government as 
 a convict settlement. It differs materially from the 
 coral formations underlying many of the Pacific isles, 
 springing evidently from the older geological periods. 
 It is one confused mass of rocks, hills and mountains, 
 corrugated with beautiful valleys and running streams. 
 The hills and mountains are covered with forests of 
 fine timber, while an abundant natural growth of 
 nearly all of the tropical fruits, afford easy sustenance 
 to the not over industrious natives. Noumea the
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 45 
 
 capital is in the southern portion, and has a fine 
 harbor, that should be used for anything, but the wants 
 of the scapegraces of France. Copper, nicklc and 
 cobalt are found in paying quantities, and ver)- latel)- 
 some important discoveries of gold have been made.
 
 ^6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ISL,AI«{DS 
 
 The turf looks green where the breakers rolled ; 
 O'er the whirlpool ripens the rind of gold ; 
 The sea-snatched isle is the home of men, 
 And mountains exult where the wave hath been. 
 
 Lydia H. Sigourney. 
 
 MARSHALL ISLANDS. 
 
 THE Marshall Archipelago, consists of two nearly 
 parallel chains of Atolls, from loo to 300 miles 
 apart, the west known as Ralik, the east as Radek 
 chains. They are between 4 deg. '^o min. and 1 2 deg. 
 N., and between 165 deg. 15 min. and 172 deg. 15 
 min. E., and run N. N. W. and S. S. E. They were 
 <liscovered by Alonzo de Saavedra, in 1529, who 
 observing the fine tatooing of the natives, (the first 
 allusion to that practice in the Pacific,) called them 
 Los Pintados. 
 
 Among modern voyagers, Wallis first visited them 
 in 1767. Captains Marshall and Gilbert reached them 
 in 1788, and Kotzebue in 1816, explored them more 
 thoroughly. The east group contains fifteen or six- 
 teen atolls, which range from two to fifty miles in cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 There is a curious tradition on the Liban island, of
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 77 
 
 the Darwinian fact, that the atoll, once formed the 
 barrier reef of an island now sunk beneath the lagoon. 
 
 GILBERT ISLANDS. 
 
 The Gilbert Archipelago, discovered by Com. 
 Byron in 1765, is geographically, a south continuation 
 of the Marshalls, the channel separating them being 
 about 150 miles wide. 
 
 Several of the islands have good anchorages 
 inside of the lagoons, with entrances on the lee side. 
 On some the lee or west reef is wanting owin<r to the 
 abrading force of the west storms. During these, 
 large trees, are washed ashore, their roots containing 
 pieces of fine basalt^ of which implements are made. 
 There is a larger proportion of land to submerged 
 reef and lagoon than in the Marshalls ; the land some- 
 times rising twenty feet above the sea, whereas in the 
 Marshalls the average level of the reef rocks above the 
 surface is less than one foot ; but, though the supply 
 of fresh water is great, in fact enough for the luxury of 
 a bath, the soil, especially in the south, is much less 
 productive ; yet the population is very dense. The 
 usually scattered houses are replaced by compact rows 
 of roofs, shaded by the cocoa palm, and, each with its 
 boat shed below, line the shore. 
 
 Their number may be set down at sixteen, lying on 
 both sides of the equator between 3 deg. 20 min. N., 
 and 2 deg. 40 min. S. latitude, and 172 deg. 30 min,, 
 and 177 deg. 15 min. E. longitudes, with a landed 
 area of 800 square miles and a population of 25,000. 
 
 These atolls may contain a greater number of 
 people than mentioned, as the population seems very 
 dense. This is accounted for by the small width of
 
 ^8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 the atolls, ranging- from a few hundred yards wide 
 only, in some places, to several miles in others, and 
 the habit of the natives of flocking or swarming from 
 one island to another, or to particular localities on one 
 island. This occurs sometimes twice in a year, and 
 arises from the fact that nature, in her products, is not 
 always equally prolific; and the natives migrate from 
 point to point, for the means of sustenance. 
 
 AS MARINERS. 
 
 The Marshall islanders are the best and most 
 skillful navigators in the Pacific. Their voyages, 
 sometimes of many months' duration, in great canoes, 
 sailing with outriggers to windward, well provisioned 
 and depending on the skies for fresh water, help to 
 show how the Pacific was colonized. They have a 
 sort of chart, incdc, of small sticks tied together, 
 representing the position of islands and the direction 
 of the winds and currents. They have also wonderful 
 weapons, the blades of which are edged with sharks' 
 teeth, and a defensive armor of braided sennit, also 
 peculiar to the islands. In hollowing out their canoes 
 they use a large adze, made from the Tradacue gigas, 
 formerly used in the Carolines, probably by the older 
 builder race. 
 
 LANGUAGES OF MICRONESIA. 
 
 The languages of Micronesia, though gramat- 
 ically alike, differ widely in their vocabularies. The 
 religious myths are identifiable with the Polynesian ; 
 but a belief in the gods proper is overshadowed 
 by a general deification of ancestors, who are sup- 
 l)osed from time to time to occupy certain blocks of
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 4g 
 
 coral, set up near the family dwelling-, and surrounded 
 by circles of smaller ones. These stones are an- 
 nointed with oil and worshiped with prayer and 
 offerings, and are also used for purposes of divininL,^ 
 in which, and in various omens, there is a general 
 belief. In the Marshall group, in place of these 
 stones, certain palm-trees are similarly enclosed. 
 The spirits, also, are believed to inhabit the forms of 
 certain birds or fishes, which are tabu, as food to the 
 family; but they w^ill help to catch these for others. 
 All this closely recalls the Kaiiwari, or the ancestral 
 images of New Guinea. 
 
 FJ.ORA AND FAUNA. 
 
 The llora of the Gilbert and jNIarshall groups is 
 of the usual oceanic character, with close Indo-Malay 
 affinities. It is much poorer than that of the Caro- 
 lines, with their Mollucca and Philippine elements, and 
 this again is surpassed by that of the Ladrones. In 
 the Gilberts, the scattered woods of the cocoanut and 
 pandanus have little undergrowth, while the South 
 Marshalls being within the belt of constant precipita- 
 tion, have a dense growth of low trees and shrubs, 
 with here and there a tropical luxuriance' unusual in 
 atolls. 
 
 The pandanus grows wild and profusely, and is 
 of exceptional importance, being the chief staple 
 food, so that the cocoanut, which however flourishes 
 chiefly in the Gilberts, is used mainly to produce oil 
 for exportation. The bread-fruit grows chiefly in the 
 South Marshalls. The t^ro anun coi'difoliuni and 
 others is cultivated laboriously, deep trenches being 
 cut in the solid rock for its cultivation. Various veg-
 
 50 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 etables grow on soil imported for the purpose. Ma- 
 rine plants arc rare. 
 '^- --'The fauna, like the flora, becomes poorer east- 
 ward, birds being more numerous on the high islands 
 than on the atolls, where the few are chiefly aquatic/' 
 On Bonabe, or Ponape, out of twenty-nine species 
 eleven are sea-birds, and of the remaining eighteen, 
 eleven are peculiar to the islands. From the Pelew 
 Islands fifty-six species are recorded (twelve peculiar), 
 and from the neighboring Makenzie group twenty (six 
 peculiar). Yet curiously no species is recorded to 
 those two groups, and peculiar to them. The com- 
 mon fowl is found everywhere, wild or tame, and in 
 some places is kept for its feathers only. The rat and 
 paimopes are the only indigenous land mammals. The 
 Indian crocodile is found as far west as the Pelews. 
 There are five or six species of lizards, including a 
 gecka and ablipJiereos. Insects are numerous, but of 
 few kinds. Scorpions and centipedes are common, 
 but are said to be harmless. 
 
 The houses of the Gilberts and Marshalls (much 
 less elaborate than those in the Carolines) consist 
 merely of a thatched roof, resting on posts, or blocks 
 of coral, about three feet high, with floors at that 
 level, which are reached from an opening in the 
 center. On these the principal people sleep, also 
 serving as a store-house, inaccessible to rats, which 
 infest all the islands. 
 
 (Findlay's N. Pacific ; Hale's Eth. and Phi. of Wilke's U. S. Ex. 
 Exped.; Menicke's Die Inseln des Stellen Oceans; Proc. Zool. Soc, 
 3S72, 1877, Ency. Brit., vol. 16.) 
 
 MICRONESIA. 
 
 The Islands of Micronesia lie along the Equator 
 and a little west of the meridian on which the world's
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 51 
 
 day begins. The Micronesian Christians have finished 
 the Sabbath worship, and fallen asleep under the shel- 
 ter of their thatched cottages beneath the cocoanut 
 trees, before Christians in America have begun the 
 services of the day. 
 
 Micronesia is a subdivision of Polynesia, the gen- 
 eric name for the myriad islands scattered over the 
 broad Pacific Ocean. It is composed of four groups — 
 the Gilbert or Kingsmill Islands, which lie on both 
 sides of the Equator and a little beyond the 180th me- 
 ridian ; the Marshall or Mulgrave Islands, subdivided 
 into the Radac or Ralack Chains ; and the Caroline 
 and Ladrone Islands. The three former groups only 
 are missionary ground, as the Ladrone Islands are a 
 Spanish penal colony, and the native race is extinct. 
 
 The Islands of Micronesia are in the great coral 
 belt ; the Gilbert and Marshall groups being exclu- 
 sively of coral formation, and lie in the Caroline archi- 
 pelago, which stretches over the sea a distance of two 
 thousand miles from east to west. Many of the atolls 
 or coral islands enclose lagoons from ten to fifteen 
 miles broad, and from twenty to thirty miles long. 
 
 The climate of Micronesia is a never-endine sum- 
 mer, never as hot as the hottest summer days of Amer- 
 ica, and never cold enough to cause chilliness. The 
 greatest range of the thermometer experienced during 
 a residence of several years on Ponape, one of the 
 Caroline group, was thirteen degrees — from 74 deg. 
 to 87 deg. in the shade. On some of the islands the 
 rainfall is excessive ; on others, but moderate. 
 
 The Islands of Polynesia are inhabited by two 
 races of people — brown and black. The brown are 
 found on the Sandwich Islands, the Marquesas, the 
 Society and the Samoan groups, the Hervey and New
 
 S2 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Zealand. To this race belong the inhabitants of Mic- 
 ronesia. The Melanesians — found on the Fiji Islands. 
 New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Loyalty and 
 Solomon groups, New Britain and New Guinea — are 
 akin to the African, having the woolly hair and physi- 
 ognomy of the negro races. They are lower down in 
 the scale of civilization than their brown neighbors, 
 being, as a rule, cannibals — fierce, warlike, treacherous 
 and intractable. It was among these people that John 
 Williams, Bishop Pattison, the Gordons and other mis- 
 sionaries lost their lives. But, degraded as they are, 
 the entire history of Christian missions can show no 
 greater transformation than has taken place in the Fiji 
 Islands, as the result of English Wesleyan missions. 
 
 The islands inhabited by the black Polynesians 
 enter like a wedge among those inhabited by the brown 
 race, the apex being the Fiji Islands. The accepted 
 theory, until recently, was that the brown Polynesians 
 belong to the Malay race. Later investigations by 
 Judge Fornander, of the Hawaiian Islands, and certain 
 German scholars, render it probable that they may be 
 a branch of the Caucasian race. It is thought that by 
 means of their languages, traditions and mythologies, 
 the Polynesians can be traced back from their present 
 abode, step by step, through the island groups of the 
 Pacific and Indian Oceans, to the Indian Peninsula, and 
 onward to the centre table-lands of Asia, Avhence the 
 Caucasian races, in the beginning of histor}^ emigrated 
 westward and southward. In those groups in which 
 the different islands are near enough to allow of com- 
 munication, even though comparatively infrequent, 
 there is usually a common language ; where widely 
 separated, different languages have been developed. 
 Most of the various dialects abound in vowel sounds.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 53 
 
 two consonants rarely coming together in the middle 
 of a word, and all words ending in vowels. 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 Religious beliefs and observances varied with 
 different groups, yet had certain characteristics in 
 common. The people were not idolaters ; they be- 
 lieved in the existence of spiritual beings, whose power 
 they feared, and whose anger they sought in many 
 ways to avert. But we never found any conception of 
 a supreme Deity, or a belief in one spirit surpassing all 
 others in power. They believed that the spirit of man 
 survived his death, and lived on in one of two places 
 or states, one more desirable than the other, but with 
 no difference based on clearly defined desert or moral 
 character. On some of the islands there was a reofu- 
 lar priesthood, with rites of w^orship ; on others, little 
 more* than certain superstitious observances. They 
 prayed to spirits, and offered gifts and oblations. 
 Their traditions and mythologies were usually only a 
 confused jumble, and their religious beliefs seemed to 
 have little influence on their character. 
 
 (Rev. Robert W. Logan, Congregational Missionary to Micronesia.) 
 PHCENIX, ELLIS, UNION AND KERMADEC GROUPS. 
 
 To the east of the Marshalls, between latitudes 
 2 deg. and 5 deg. S., and longitudes 170 deg. and 176 
 deg. W., are the Phoenix, Swallow, Gardner, Ender- 
 berg, Sidney, Hull, Birui, Arthur, Wilkes, and some 
 smaller islets and atolls, sometimes known as the 
 Phoenix Group. 
 
 Like many, they are now of no special import-
 
 j^ THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 ance, in size or products. They but await the occupa- 
 tion and development of the more civiHzed races, to 
 render them of great value. 
 
 These islands, atolls, and islets although some- 
 thing over a hundred in number, are so similar in 
 nearly every respect to the Marshall and Gilbert 
 groups, that a description would be but a repetition of 
 nearly all that has been written of the latter islands. 
 
 Another small group that might be placed under 
 this head, if we except climatic and geographic differ- 
 ences are the Kermadec islands. Lying to the north 
 and east of New Zealand, between latitudes 30 deg. 
 and '}y2> ^^Z- S-' ^""^ about 177 deg. and 179 degrees 
 W. longitude, might prove of great value, by occupa- 
 tion. Sunday, Macauley and Curtis islands are the 
 principal in this little cluster. 
 
 NAVIGATOR (sAMOa) ISLANDS. 
 
 Samoa, the native name of the Navigator group, 
 comprises ten islands that are inhabited, or of any 
 note, with some smaller islets, of no present interest. 
 
 Savaii, Opolu, Tutuila, Mauono, Apolima, Mauna, 
 Olosenga and Of'u are the principal, for a better idea 
 and description of which I have had to refer to Mr. Reed 
 of the Australian Customs, and the United States 
 Exploring Expedition, under Commodore Wilkes, who 
 surveyed them in 1839. 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 They are located between latitudes 12 deg. 53 
 min. and 15 deg. 57 min. south, and between longi- 
 tudes 168 deg. 6 min. and 178 deg. 21 min. west.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN SS 
 
 with an area I have set down at 1,650 square miles 
 (although some authorities do not allow over 1,100 
 to 1,200 square miles), with a total population of 
 35,000. The modern name of the group was given 
 to them by the French navigator, Bougainville, who 
 visited them in 1768. They were visited, also, in 
 after years by the ill-fated la Perouse, in 1787, who had 
 a battle with the natives, losing a good many men in 
 the conflict. 
 
 The islands are evidently of volcanic origin, but 
 no traces of active eruptions are found at present. 
 In 1867 a curious submarine convulsion took place in 
 the strait between the islands of Mauna and Olosenga. 
 The eruption lasted for about two weeks, ejecting 
 mud, sand and water in large volumes to a great 
 height. After the convulsion, which in no way dis- 
 turbed the adjoining islands, the sea flowed peacefully 
 over the volcanoes' watery tomb. Soundings taken 
 at the time showed no apparent variation from the 
 usual depth of water in the strait. 
 
 The people are among the straight-haired races 
 of the South Sea. With a fertile soil, blessed with 
 an abundant rainfall, and schools and churches in 
 every village, the group may safely be classed among 
 the garden-spots of the Pacific. 
 
 Savaii is the most western island of the Samoan 
 group, and is also the largest, being forty miles in 
 length and twenty in breadth. It is not, however, as 
 populous or as important as some of the others. It 
 differs from any of the others in appearance, for its 
 shore is low, and the ascent thence to the center is 
 gradual, except where the cones of a few extinct 
 craters are seen. In the middle of the island a peak 
 rises, which is almost continually enveloped in the
 
 5d THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 clouds, 'and is the highest land in the group. On 
 account of these clouds angles could not be taken 
 for determining its height accurately, but it certainly 
 exceeds 4,000 feet. 
 
 Another marked difference between Savaii and 
 the other larger islands is the want of any permanent 
 streams, a circumstance which may be explained, not- 
 Avithstanding the frequency of rains, by the porous 
 nature of the rock (vesicular lava), of which it is 
 chiefly composed. Water, however, gushes out near 
 the shore in copious springs, and when heavy and 
 continued rains have occurred, streams are formed in 
 the ravines, but these soon disappear after the rains 
 have ceased. 
 
 The coral reef attached to the island is inter- 
 rupted to the south and west, where the surf beats 
 full upon the rocky shore. There are in consequence 
 but few places where boats can land, and only one 
 harbor for ships, that of Mataatua; even this is 
 unsafe from November to February, when the north- 
 westerly gales prevail. The soil is fertile, and was 
 composed in every part of the island that was visited, 
 of decomposed volcanic rock and vegetable mold. 
 Upolu is ten miles to the eastward of Savaii, and is 
 next in size. It is about forty miles long and thirteen 
 broad. It has a main ridge extending east and west, 
 broken here and there into sharp peaks and hum- 
 mocks. From this main rido^e a number of smaller 
 ridges and broad gradual slopes run down to a low 
 shore encircled by a coral reef, interrupted here and 
 there by channels which form the entrances to safe and 
 convenient anchorages for small vessels. At Apia 
 the reef extends across a good-sized bay, and forms 
 a safe and commodious harbor for large ships, with
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ^y 
 
 an entrance through a deep and clear channel foi/ned 
 by a break in the reef. 
 
 Between Savaii and Opiilu are two small islands: 
 at the southeast end of Tutuila there is the small 
 island of Aunu'u, and sixty miles to the east of this 
 Maun'a. Of these islands the Rev. Mr. Powell, of 
 the London Missionary Society, says : 
 
 "The first island that come in sight of voyagers 
 arriving from the eastward is Ta'u, the largest of the 
 three islands that constitute the group, which the 
 natives call ]\Ianu'a. It is about six miles lonij four 
 and a half broad, and sixteen in circumference, and 
 contains one hundred square miles. [This is an 
 evident mathematical mistake of Mr. Powell, as 
 under his description, taking length, breadth or cir- 
 cumference, the island could not contain more than 
 twenty-five to twenty-seven square miles.] About 
 six miles west of Ta'u is the island of Olosenga. 
 This is a very rocky island, three miles long, 500 
 yards wide, and about 1,500 feet high." 
 
 Savaii and Opolu contain the largest extent of 
 flat land ; fully two-thirds of their area (about 500,000 
 acres) are fit for cultivation. The whole group is of 
 volcanic origin ; craters of extinct volcanoes are seen 
 at various points. Some of the small islands of the 
 group are composed of a single large crater rising 
 abruptly from the sea. The soil on all the islands is 
 exceedingly rich, and is everywhere covered with dense 
 vegetation from the water's edge up to the tops of the 
 mountains. The high mountain ridges extending 
 through the middle of the larger islands attract the 
 passing clouds, which furnish a copious and never-failing 
 supply of moisture, and feed the numerous streams of 
 beautiful, clear water that abound in every direction.
 
 S8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 The climate is mild and agreeable ; the tempera- 
 ture generally ranges between 70 deg. and 80 deg., 
 but the heat is greatly subdued by the breezes that are 
 constandy blowing. Mr. Williams, the British Consul, 
 kept a meteorological register for the Board of Trade 
 from i860 to 1865, from which I made an abstract of 
 the mean recorded temperature in every month in the 
 year 1864. The southeast trade-winds blow steadily 
 from April to October, being strongest in June and 
 July. From November to March westerly winds fre- 
 quently blow, but not for any length of time together. 
 A strong gale may generally be looked for some time 
 in January, but frequently an entire year will pass 
 without a severe storm. February, as a rule, is fine, 
 with variable winds. March is usually the worst and 
 most boisterous month of the year, the winds being 
 still variable, and gales occurring from north to north- 
 west. Copious rains fall from the beginning of De- 
 cember to March. June and July are the coolest, and 
 September and October the hottest months ; although 
 it will be seen, from the abstract above referred to, 
 that there is very little variation of the temperature 
 throughout the year. Hence the growth of vegeta- 
 tion goes on without check all the year around. Cot- 
 ton and Indian corn will yield three crops a year. I 
 saw some of the latter gathered in January, which had 
 been sown at the beginning of October. Thus it was 
 planted and the crop gathered within four months. 
 The taro also comes to maturity in four months, and 
 is planted continuously all the year round. When the 
 natives take up the taro, they cut off the top, make a 
 hole in the ground with a stick, into which the top is
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 59 
 
 thrust, without the ground being dug over or in any- 
 way prepared. A short time after it is planted, they 
 clean the ground and mulch between the plants with 
 grass and leaves to keep down the seeds. Bananas 
 yield ripe fruit in nine jnonths after planting, some of 
 the introduced varieties coming to maturity in six 
 months. This fruit attains a great size, especially the 
 indigenous varieties, some of which I measured and 
 found to be elofht inches lono; and nine inches In cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 PRODUCTS. 
 
 The following are the principal productions of the 
 group : Cocoanuts, cotton, native chestnuts, candle- 
 nuts, bananas, plantains, oranges, lemons, limes, cit- 
 rons, pineapples, mangoes, guavas, Malay apples, 
 rose apples, custard apples, pawpaws, tamarinds, 
 bread-fruit, sweet casava, indigo, coffee, Indian corn, 
 tobacco, chile and medicinal plants, several trees 
 with very fragrant blossoms that might be used in the 
 preparation of scents, some that exude aromatic gum, 
 and others that furnish very handsome and durable 
 wood, suitable for cabinet ware and furniture. 
 
 INHABITANTS. 
 
 The Samoan natives are a fine, tall, handsome 
 race, of a light brown color. They are docile, truth- 
 ful and hospitable, and are very lively and vivacious. 
 In conversation among themselves, and in their inter- 
 course with foreigners, they are exceedingly courteous 
 and polite. They have different styles of salutation, 
 corresponding with the social rank of the persons ad- 
 dressed ; for instance, In addressing the chiefs or dis-
 
 6o THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 tinguished strangers, they use the expression Lau-Ajio, 
 or "Your Majesty;" in speaking to chiefs of lower 
 rank, they address them, Lau-SiLsu, as we would use 
 the words "Your lordship ; " to chiefs of lower degree 
 than those who are thus addressed, the term Ala-Ala 
 is used, and to the common people the salutation is 
 Omai, San, simply meaning "You have arrived," or 
 "You are here." 
 
 The men only, tattoo, and not on their faces, as 
 the New Zealanders do, but on their bodies from the 
 waist to the knee, entirely black for the most part, 
 except where relieved here and there by graceful 
 stripes and patterns. At a short distance this tattoo- 
 ing gives them the appearance of having on black knee 
 breeches. The clothing of both sexes is a piece of 
 calico or native cloth wound around the waist and 
 reaching to the knees. Some of the women wear a 
 couple of colored cotton handkerchiefs, in the shape of 
 a narrow poncho, over their breasts and shoulders, 
 and hanging loosely clown to below the waist. When 
 in the bush, or working on their taro plantations, or 
 when fishing, they wear a kilt of the long, handsome 
 leaves of the Ti {^Draccsna terminalis). They have a 
 kind of fine mat plaited from thin strips of the leaves 
 of a plant called LaiL-ic. These mats are only used on 
 important occasions, and they esteem them more highly 
 than any European commodity. Some of these mats 
 are quite celebrated, having names that are known all 
 over the group ; the older they are the more they are 
 valued. The oldest one known is called Moe cfui-fui, 
 meaning "the mat that slept among the creepers." 
 This name was given to it from the circumstance of its 
 having been hidden away among the creeping kind of 
 convolvolus that grows along the shores ; it is known
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 6t 
 
 to be over two hundred years old, as the names of its 
 different owners during that time can be traced down. 
 The best mats are made at Manu'a. They arc the 
 most coveted property a native can possess, no labor 
 or enterprise being considered too great to secure 
 them. Both men and women spend a great deal of 
 of time in dressing their hair, and frequently apply 
 lime to it, which is laid on in a liquid state about the 
 consistency of cream, and has the effect of turning the 
 hair to a reddish hue. Both men and women fre- 
 quently wear flowers in their hair — generally a single 
 blossom of the beautiful scarlet Hybiscus, which is al- 
 ways found growing near their houses. Nature has 
 supplied them so bountifully with food, in the shape of 
 the cocoanut, bread-fruit, banana, native chestnuts, and 
 other wild fruits, and the taro yields so abundant a 
 crop with so little cultivation, that they have no neces- 
 sity to exert themselves much, and they are, therefore, 
 little inclined to industry, and probably will never be 
 induced to undertake steady labor of any kind. Their 
 houses are neat, substantial structures, generally cir- 
 cular in shape, with high, pitched, conical roofs, sup- 
 ported in the centre by two or three stout posts, and 
 open all around, but fitted with narrow mats made of 
 cocoanut leaves, which are strunor together like Vene- 
 tian blinds, and can be let down in stormy weather. 
 
 The Samoans are very expert in the management 
 of their canoes, of which they have five different kinds 
 — the Alia, or large double canoe, some of which are 
 capable of carrying two hundred men ; the Tmi-umn- 
 hia, from thirty to fifty feet long — these were first made 
 about thirty years ago, and are fashioned after the 
 model of our whale-boats ; the Va-lao, or fishing ca- 
 noes, with out-riggers — a beautiful craft, and ver)- fast ;
 
 02 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 then there is the Loatau, out-rigger, dug-out canoe, 
 capable of carrying five or six people ; and, lastly, the 
 Paopao, a small dug-out canoe for one person. 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 The natives are all professed Christians. Christi- 
 anity was first introduced into Samoa in August, 1830, 
 by the Rev. J. Williams, who landed a number of na- 
 tive teachers from Tahiti. A few years afterwards 
 (about 1835) five English missionaries, belonging to 
 the London Missionary Society, landed on the islands, 
 and from that time to the present several Congrega- 
 tional missionaries have been constantly resident on 
 the group. In addition to these, there is a Roman 
 Catholic Bishop resident at Apia, and a number of 
 Catholic priests in various parts of the islands. The 
 natives, for many years past, have annually contributed 
 considerable sums towards the support of the mission 
 establishments. 
 
 These islands, in their varied productiveness and 
 their great capabilities for immense agricultural re- 
 turns, if put under a proper system of cultivation, with 
 the habits and manners of the inhabitants, are a fair 
 type of the most of the groups of the Pacific. At the 
 present day they are living proofs of the incalculable 
 benefits that may arise from the gradual American 
 protectorate, with its modern methods and appliances, 
 spreading over these regions. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL. 
 
 Extract from the Meteorological Register kept at 
 the British Consulate at Apia, in the Navigator
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 63 
 
 Islands, which may be accepted as about the tempera- 
 ture of all of the tropical islands of the Pacific. 
 
 MONTH. 
 
 January.... 
 F'ebruary .. 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 October.... 
 November 
 December. 
 
 LOWEST AND HIGHEST TEM- 
 PERATURE DURING THE 
 MONTH. 
 
 6 A. M. 
 
 Lowest Hiirhest 
 
 71 
 70 
 70 
 65 
 65 
 61 
 
 59 
 67 
 61 
 73 
 71 
 
 75 
 79 
 81 
 76 
 82 
 74 
 74 
 77 
 78 
 79 
 76 
 
 78 
 
 4 r. M. 
 
 Lowe-.t!Hiirhest 
 
 76 
 77 
 74 
 74 
 
 78 
 
 78 
 79 
 78 
 81 
 82 
 
 78 
 82 
 
 82 
 84 
 85 
 88 
 
 85 
 83 
 82 
 
 84 
 83 
 84 
 79 
 86 
 
 HIGHEST RE- 
 CORDED TEM- 
 PERATURE 
 DURING THE 
 MONTH. 
 
 85 — at 8 A. M. 
 85 "10 " 
 
 00 O 
 
 85 
 83 
 82 
 
 84 
 86 
 86 
 
 84 
 86 
 
 " 4 P. M. 
 
 " 4 " 
 
 " 4 " 
 
 " 4 " 
 
 " 4 " 
 
 " 8 A. M. 
 
 " 8 '■ 
 
 " 8 " 
 
 " 4 p. M. 
 
 BANKS ISLANDS. 
 
 North of the New Hebrides we come to the 
 Banks group, named after Sir Joseph Banks, scientist 
 and naturalist, who accompanied Captain Cook in his 
 voyage to the Society Islands in 1768. 
 
 " Vanua Lava, the largest of the group, is fifteen 
 miles in length north and south, and is a remarkable 
 looking island, with several high, rounded mountains, 
 the highest, to the northwest, being some 2,800 feet 
 above the sea. In the Suutamiti Mountain are several 
 hot springs, always steaming, whilst a stream impreg- 
 nated with sulphur runs down to the sea on the north- 
 west coast, and a similar one falls into Port Patterson
 
 64 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 on the Eastern side. There are two waterfalls on the 
 western side — one sincfle and the other double. The 
 population of Vanua Lava is about 1,500; the natives 
 were quiet and friendly." 
 
 This island, with Santa Maria, Mota, Valua, Arau 
 and Ureparapara, with some smaller islets dotting the 
 sea, make up the group. The inhabitants are quite 
 friendly with strangers, although very quarrelsome 
 among themselves. This may be attributed to their 
 desire to trade for the curiosities (to them) in the pos- 
 session of the whites. Anything, from a small piece 
 of hoop-iron to a chopping-axe, is eagerly bartered for. 
 
 The weapons of the natives are bows and poi- 
 soned arrows, war-clubs and spears, which they handle 
 with the greatest dexterity. The products are fruit, 
 sugar-cane, taro, potatoes and yams. 
 
 SANTA CRUZ ISLANDS. 
 
 Still pursuing our northerly course, we arrive at 
 Santa Cruz Islands, composed of seven larger ones. 
 Volcano, Vuerta, Santa Cruz, Edgecombe, Ouvry and 
 Lord Howe, with several smaller ones ; Vanikoro i.5 
 made interesting in a historical way, from having been 
 the scene of the wreck of the two vessels under com- 
 mand of Admiral de la Perouse, the great French 
 voyager. This occurred in 1788, and remained an 
 uncertainty for many years, causing much uneasiness 
 in his native land, and, in fact, all over the civilized 
 world. In 1826 the chains, anchors, cannon and some 
 of the heavier imperishable portions of his vessels 
 were discovered at this island and taken to France, in 
 memory of Perouse. 
 
 Of Santa Cruz, Captain Tilly says: " It is about
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 6s 
 
 fifteen or sixteen miles in length, with fringe reefs along 
 the shore, but apparently no off-lying dangers. The 
 north point near the center of the island was found 
 to be in latitude lo deg. 40 min. south, and Igngitude 
 166 deLi'. \ niin. The hicfh land extends close out on 
 its northeast side, but towards the northwest the hills 
 slope at some distance from .the extremes, leaving 
 a considerable extent of low land near the coast. The 
 island is well wooded and watered, the streams in some 
 places running through the villages into the sea. 
 
 "The natives are a fine athletic race, and came off" 
 readily to the ship, bringing pigs, bread-fruit and yams. 
 Mats, in the manufacture of which great skill is dis- 
 played, are also offered for sale. The appearance of 
 the canoes, houses, etc., evinces great ingenuit)'. 
 Canoes with outriggers, and mostly lime-washed, 
 have a neat appearance ; they have also large sea- 
 o-oinsf double canoes. The villasfes are laro-e, and 
 houses surrounded by stone fences. On the north 
 side, the villages are close to the sea, with from 300 
 to 400 inhabitants each. The natives are apparently 
 merry and good-natured, but are not to be trusted, 
 for without any known reason they attacked the boat 
 of the Bishop, on leaving the village of the northwest 
 extremity of the island, and nearly succeeded in cut- 
 ting it oft'. Three of the crew were wounded with 
 arrows, and of these two died from the effects of their 
 wounds. Their bows are formidable looking weapons, 
 being seven feet in length, with arrows in proportion." 
 
 SOLOMON ISLANDS. 
 
 North by west from Santa Cruz is the Solomon 
 Archipelago, so named by Mendana, the discoverer,
 
 66 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 in 1 568, supposing the islands to contain all the wealth 
 and riches like unto that of the ancient king. They 
 were re-discovered by Phillip Carteret, in 1767. The 
 group is very extensive, ranging many hundreds of 
 miles northwest and southeast, although but eight or 
 ten are well enough known to afford data for a de- 
 scription. The principal are Malayta, Ysabel, Guadal- 
 canar, Bougainville, San Christoval and Choiseul. 
 They are of large size, some being fully 100 miles 
 long by twenty or thirty miles wide, with lofty ranges 
 of mountains sloping gradually to the sea, well 
 watered and covered with trees and ferns, with here 
 and there beautiful valleys, and streams of water 
 meandering through them to the sea. 
 
 The inhabitants are active and enerofetic, and are 
 great mariners, their canoes being well built, and 
 handled with consummate skill. Some of their war- 
 canoes are fully eighty feet long, with beam of five 
 feet, and carry sixty men. They are very skillful in 
 carving, while many of their weapons and industrial 
 implements are inlaid with the mother-of-pearl shell.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 67 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 ISI^AISDS 
 
 Deep in the wave is a coral grove, 
 
 Where the purple mullet and gold fish rove. 
 
 James Gates Percival. 
 CAROLINE ISLANDS. 
 
 THE Caroline group, extending almost from the 
 equator to 12 deg. north latitude, and ranging 
 from 135 deg. to 177 deg. east longitude, com-- 
 prises over 500 islands. Dotting the great Pacific Sea 
 with lands of indescribable fertility and fabulous com- 
 mercial possibilities, they are almost beyond the de- 
 scription of tongue or pen. If anything were needed 
 to substantiate the grandeur and extent of some of the 
 islands and atolls of the Pacific, the following descrip- 
 tion would alone suffice. 
 
 THE GREAT ATOLL OF HOGOLEU. 
 
 Lying at the eastern end of the great Caroline 
 group, it surrounds and contains within its limits a 
 principality. If one could imagine a strip of land
 
 63 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 five to eight miles wide, varied in its topography by 
 mountain, hill and valley, traversing the ocean for 
 nearly 300 miles, in almost the form of a circle, and 
 this strip covered with the most beautiful tropical 
 foliage, of fruit and other valuable trees, some idea 
 of the outward form of Hogoleu might be obtained. 
 Enclosed in this oreat circle of land lies the lao-oon. 
 with four greater and twenty smaller islands dotting 
 the surface, on whose broad expanse of waters the 
 combined navies of the world might ride at safe 
 and roomy anchorage. With three main outlets to 
 the ocean, whose width and depth render them per- 
 fectly safe for the passage of the greatest ships, 
 the lagoon forms an inland harbor unequalled in any 
 other part of the world. The islands in the lake, 
 some of which are thirty to forty miles in circum- 
 ference, are covered with valuable timber, and abound 
 in all the tropical fruits, of the cocoanut, citron, 
 bread-fruit, oranges, bananas and mangoes, with trees 
 of the sago and date palm, and timber of the toa, 
 tomano, prima vera, and great quantities of sandal- 
 wood. Fine streams of fresh water flow through the 
 valleys, while to add to the gorgeous beauty of the 
 scene, birds with the most beautiful and valuable 
 plumage give life and animation to the forests and 
 glades. Here, too, the beche-de-mer, the tortoise 
 and turtle find their favorite breeding-grounds, in the 
 water and along the shores. The great lake teems 
 with fish of nearly all the species found in the South 
 Sea. many of w^hose brilliant hues and colors are 
 only equalled by the pearl shell that line the bed 
 of the lagoon. The latter is found here in great 
 abundance, of the largest size and finest quality, 
 covering the bottom of the lake w^herever it can be
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 69 
 
 seen, and of course in just as great if not greater 
 abundance in the depths not reached by the eye. 
 
 Our hmited stay at Hogoleu hardly gave me time 
 to form a just opinion of the character and manners of 
 the natives, for which I have been forced to rely upon 
 the valuable experiences and writings of others. 
 
 INHABITANTS. 
 
 "In judging of the character of the Caroline Island- 
 ers, one must remember that there are always two sides 
 to a question ; and in connection with this matter, I 
 may refer to a fact which I regard as very significant. 
 All Englishmen are familiar with the story of the 
 wreck of the Antelope at the Pelew Islands in 1793, 
 and of the Prince Lee Boo, who accompanied Captain 
 Wilson to England. These same Pelew Islanders, 
 who at that time treated the shipwrecked Englishmen 
 with such generous hospitality for a period of four 
 montbs, seeking no return for the same, are now re- 
 garded as piratical miscreants of the most atrocious 
 type — and not without reason, for they have got into 
 a bad habit of going out to sea in their fast-sailing" 
 proas, and attacking, off the coa'sts of their islands, 
 such vessels as may be becalmed or entangled among- 
 the shoals ; in which nefarious practice they have, on 
 several occasions, so far succeeded as to have plun- 
 dered the vessels and massacred their crews. This 
 change of behavior is easily accounted for. In some 
 cases it has arisen from ill treatment which they have 
 experienced at the hands of strangers, but in most 
 cases it has been the result of evil example by a set of 
 scoundrels who disgrace humanity, and are to be found 
 strolling about these seas, making themselves at home
 
 yo THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 among the simple-minded barbarians, and instructing- 
 them in every vice and villainy. 
 
 " No one knows with any certainty how many in- 
 habitants are on Hogoleu ; some say 15,000, some 
 20,000 ; but there are very many. They are armed 
 with good swords with hilts of brass, daggers, spears 
 pointed with iron, bows of great strength, arrows 
 headed with iron, and slings out of which they fling 
 round stones with great certainty and with the force 
 of a shot. The iron weapons they have purchased 
 from traders of Manilla and elsewhere. They have 
 many combats with crews of ships, and display great 
 courage. No white men have ever lived among them, 
 to anyone's knowledge, though I have heard there is 
 one living there now, established by one Captain 
 Hayes. Many men have been on shore and have 
 been treated with hospitality. From what I have seen 
 of them, they are a people I would have no fear of, 
 although they have an ugly habit of attacking ships 
 upon small grounds of offense. In 1870 they tried to 
 board the Vesta, but the German captain, although he 
 lost his anchor and chain by having to slip it, was more 
 than a match for them. He fired upon them with 
 scrap-iron and killed a great many. Of course, he was 
 not to blame ; but these unfortunate misunderstandinofs 
 tend very much to perpetuate ill feeling. 
 
 "That the first Europeans who can succeed in 
 establishing a permanent agency upon Hogoleu will 
 make their fortunes in a very short period, is an un- 
 questionable fact. This island presents to the com- 
 mercial adventurer such an opportunity as is scarcely 
 to be found elsewhere in the world — not alone from 
 the valuable products of the land itself, but from the 
 possession of so magnificent a harbor for shipping,
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 71 
 
 whence could be extended the ramifications of a trade 
 on a large scale throughout the whole great Caroline 
 Archipelago. That there is any risk in the attempt, I 
 do not for a moment believe. All that is required is 
 for one determined man, acquainted with the Caroline 
 tongue, to secure, by acceptable presents, the protec- 
 tion of a chief, to marry into his family (as he would be 
 required to do), and after a few months' diplomacy he 
 might have it all his own way, so far as driving a trade 
 for his owners was concerned." 
 
 PELEW ISLANDS ATOLLS. 
 
 The Pelew Islands referred to form the extreme 
 western end of the Caroline group, and were discov- 
 ered by Drake in 1579; the main Carolines having 
 been visited by Alonzo de Saavedra, as early as 1528, 
 although the discovery of the group has been ascribed 
 by some writers to Lopez Villa Lobas, in 1 543, which 
 is an evident mistake. 
 
 These Atolls, or horse-shoe islands (such as I 
 have described Hogoleu), are an important feature in 
 the geological formation of the Pacific Isles, and are to 
 be found in nearly every group, as well as scattered 
 over the orreat waste of waters of the South Sea, 
 sometimes isolated and alone, at others in groups and 
 chains, having the appearance of the last outposts of a 
 sunken continent. Darwin, Humboldt and others ac- 
 count for their singular shape and formation by assum- 
 ing that at one time they were portions of the main- 
 land or continents, or islands, and that their centers, 
 which at former periods were hilly and mountainous, 
 gradually sank and disappeared ; the coral insect 
 building the fringe or edge on the sunken lands in the
 
 72 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 form we now see them. They vary somewhat in size 
 and form, and may be found from but a mile or so in 
 diameter to hundreds of miles in circumference. 
 
 The inland lakes are nearly always safe harboring 
 for vessels sailing and trading in these seas. Gener- 
 ally speaking, there are from one to four openings or 
 passage-ways from the sea to the lagoons, through 
 which the tide ebbs and flows. These channels vary 
 from fifty to several hundred yards in width, and carry 
 deep navigable water. In the storms and gales that 
 sometimes prevail in these regions, an atoll might 
 be truly termed the sailors' snug harbor. 
 
 CORAL REEFS. 
 
 A wide platform of rock, covered with the sea, 
 except at low tide, borders most of the high islands 
 of the Pacific. It is a vast accumulation of coral, 
 based upon the bottom in the shallow waters of the 
 shores. This bank or table of coral rock is of vary- 
 ing width, from a few hundred feet to a mile or more ; 
 and although the surface is usually nearly flat, it is often 
 intersected by irregular boat channels, or occasionally 
 incloses large bays, affording harbor protection to 
 scores of ships. In very many instances it stands at a 
 distance from the shores, like an artificial mole, leav- 
 ing a wide and deep channel between it and the land, 
 and within this channel are other coral reefs, some 
 in scattered patches and others attached close to the 
 shore. The inner reef in these cases is distinguished 
 as the fringed reef, and the outer as the barrier reef. 
 The sea rolls in heavy surges against the outer margin 
 of the barrier ; but the still waters of a lake prevail 
 within, affording safe navigation for the tottling canoe,
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 73 
 
 sometimes throur^h tlic whole circuit of an island ; 
 and not uniVequently ships may pass, as by an internal 
 canal, from harbor to harbor around the island. 
 
 The reef is covered by the sea at high tide, yet 
 the smoother waters indicate its extent and a line of 
 breakers its outline. Occasionally a green islet rises 
 from the reef, and in some instances a grove of 
 palms stretches along the barrier for miles, where the 
 action of the sea has raised the coral structure above 
 the waves. 
 
 Coral islands resemble the reefs just described, 
 except that a lake or la^-oon is encircleci instead of a 
 mountainous island. A narrow rim of coral reef, een- 
 erally but a few hundred yards wide, stretches around 
 the inclosed waters. In some parts it is so low that 
 the waves are still dashinof over it into the lagoon, 
 and in others it is verdant with the rich foliage of the 
 tropics. The coral-made land when highest is seldom 
 over eight or ten feet in height. 
 
 When first seen from the deck of a vessel, only 
 a series of dark points are descried just above the 
 horizon. Shortly after, the points enlarge into the 
 plumed tops of the cocoanut trees, and a line of 
 green, interrupted at intervals, is traced along the 
 water's surface. Approaching still nearer, the lake 
 and its belt of verdure are spread out before the eye, 
 and a scene of more interest can scarcely be imagined. 
 The surf beating loud and heavy along the margin of 
 the reef, presents a strange contrast to the prospect 
 beyond — the white coral beach, the massy foliage of 
 the grove, and the embosomed lake with its tiny islets. 
 ^:: :;: :i: Very erroneous ideas prevail respecting the 
 appearance of a bed or area of growing corals. The 
 submerged reef is often thought of as an extended
 
 7^ THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 mass of coral, alive iinifoi-mly over its upper surface, 
 and by this living growth gradually enlarging upward ; 
 and such preconceived views when ascertained to be 
 erroneous by observation, have sometimes led to 
 skepticism with regard to the zoophyte origin of the 
 reef rock. Nothing is wider from the truth, and this 
 must have been inferred from the description already 
 given. Another glance at the coral plantation should 
 be taken by the reader, before proceeding with the ex- 
 planations which follow. 
 
 Coral plantation and coral field are more appro- 
 priate appellations than coral garden, and convey a 
 juster impression of the surface of a growing reef. 
 Like a spot of wild land, covered in some parts with 
 varied shrubbery, in other parts bearing only occa- 
 sional tufts of vegetation over barren plains of sand, 
 here a clump of saplings, and there a carpet of vari- 
 ously colored flowers — such is the coral plantation. 
 
 Numerous kinds of zoophytes grow scattered 
 over the surface, like the vegetation of the land. 
 There are large areas that bear nothing, and others 
 that arc thickly overgrown. There is no green 
 sward to the landscape, and here the comparison 
 fails. Sand and fragments fill up the bare intervals 
 between the flowering tufts, or where the zoophytes 
 are crowded ; there are deep holes among the stony 
 stems and folia, that seem as if formed among the 
 aggregated roots of the living corals. '••= ='= === 
 
 These fields of growing coral spread over sub- 
 marine lands, such as the shores of islands and conti- 
 nents, where the depth is not greater than their habits 
 require — ^just as vegetation extends itself through re- 
 gions that are congenial. The germ or ovule, which, 
 when first produced, swims free, finds afterwards a
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 75 
 
 point of rock or dead coral to plant itself upon, and 
 thence springs the tree or some other form of coral 
 growth. 
 
 ANALOGY TO VEGETATION. 
 
 The analogy to vegetation does not stop here. It 
 is well known that the debris of the forest, decaying 
 leaves and stems, and animal remains, add to the soil, 
 and that accumulations of this kind arc ceaselessly in 
 progress ; that by this means, in the luxuriant swamj). 
 deep beds of peaty earth are formed. So it is in the 
 coral mead. Accumulations of frasfments and saiitl 
 from the coral zoophytes, and of shells and other relics 
 of organic life, are in constant progress, and thus a bed 
 of coral debris is formed and compacted. 
 
 There is this difference — that a large part of the 
 vegetable material consists of elements which escape 
 as gases on decomposition ; whereas, coral is itself an 
 enduringf rock material, underofoincr no essential 
 change except the mechanical one of comminution, the 
 animal portion is but a mere fraction of the whole zo- 
 ophyte. 
 
 In these few hints we have the whole theor}' of 
 reef making ; not a speculative opinion, but a legiti- 
 mate deduction from a few simple facts, and bearing 
 close analogy on land. The coral debris and shells 
 fill up the intervals between the coral patches and the 
 cavities among the living tufts, and in this manner pro- 
 duce the reef deposit, which is consolidated by the 
 filtratinof sea-water, havino- more or less lime in so- 
 lution. 
 
 (Notes from U. S. Ex. Expedition in- 1838, '39, '40, '41 and '42 ; 
 James D. Dana, A. M., Geol. of Ex.)
 
 7<5 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 The leviathan of the island groups of the world, 
 Australia (literally South Asia), lies between latitude 
 lo dcg. 43 min. and 39 deg. 9 min. south, and longi- 
 tude 113 deg. 15 min. and 153 deg. east, comprising 
 withm its vast limits three million square miles. It 
 has a sea-coast of over eight thousand miles, along 
 the line of which eighty-two small islands are located. 
 Australia was discovered about 1606 by the Dutch, 
 who were the first to locate it and chronicle its exist- 
 ence in modern times. It was first named by them 
 New Holland, a name retained for many years. 
 
 From the sea this great island-continent presents 
 an uninviting appearance, giving one the impression 
 that the craofs and mountains frino;ino^ the shores en- 
 close a sterile waste within. Probably no country in 
 the world has received more attention from men of 
 science and explorers than Australia, and that, too, 
 with less beneficial results, as the great mountain ran- 
 ges and barren wastes of the interior are to-day as an 
 unknown land. 
 
 One of the greatest detriments to its rapid pro- 
 gress in peopling and civilization, was its establish- 
 ment as a penal colony by Great Britain. This, to- 
 gether with the low order of the native races, some 
 two hundred thousand in number, who are little above 
 the animal in the scale of humanity, proved for many 
 years a great barrier to the peopling of the island with 
 the better classes. Until 1851 the progress of Aus- 
 tralia was under a ban; when Mr. Hargreaves, return- 
 ing from the gold fields of California, discovered the 
 precious metal on the island. From this time may be 
 dated the advancement of that country. The gold
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN jj 
 
 fever drew people from all parts of the world to settle 
 on her shores. Cities and towns rapidly sprang into 
 existence, while the consequent dev^elopment of great 
 agricultural resources, fed with the thousand millions 
 in gold taken from her mines, placed her at once 
 among" the (jreat countries of the world. With the 
 single exception of California, nothing like Australia's 
 progress has occurred in ancient or modern times. 
 The discovery of many valuable mines of copper, coal, 
 tin, lead and silver followed that of gold, and being 
 found in large and paying quantities, add largely to 
 the income of the inhabitants. 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 The mountain ranges on the island are but few in 
 number. The greatest altitude of those already dis- 
 covered does not exceed seven thousand feet. 
 
 There are many ponds and swamps in the inte- 
 rior, with few navigable streams — only in the rainy 
 season. Even then navigation is very uncertain, as 
 the waters of most of the rivers frequently disappear 
 — lost in the sands of the surroundinof wastes. 
 
 The flora of the island is not varied or extensive, 
 but two species forming the principal forest growth — 
 the eucalyptii and acacia — although more than one 
 hundred varieties of each of these interesting species 
 are found, and in great abundance. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 The geological formation is quite an interesting 
 study, partaking of the eruptic, metamorphic, trappean, 
 with the sedimentary sandstones of the tertiary period.
 
 y8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 From careful scientific observations, it is found that 
 Australia is slowly rising from the deep — gradually but 
 surely taking its place among the continents of the 
 world. Unlike some of its short-lived neighbors lying 
 to the westward in the Straits of Sudan, whose appear- 
 ance and disappearance mark but a period in the 
 birth, growth and death of islands, Australia is appa- 
 rendy on a foundation that may last for all time. The 
 population is about two millions, who, when not min- 
 ing, are principally in the agricultural and grazing in- 
 terests. The value of exports and imports may be 
 stated at $500,000,000 per annum. 
 
 The island, from its immense area, is marked off 
 in several colonial divisions. The principal of these 
 are Northern Australia, or Alexandra's Land, colonized 
 in 1838 ; Western Australia, colonized in 1829 ; south 
 from which is Tasman's Land, surveyed in 1818; Sou- 
 thern Australia, colonized in 1834; Queensland on 
 the northeast, and New South Wales on the southeast, 
 colonized in 1778. 
 
 Captain Cook is credited with the discovery of 
 Australia in 1770. Tasman, who discovered New Zea- 
 land and Tasmania as early as 1642, could not have 
 failed to notice and locate it in his voyages. Dirk 
 Hartog, a Dutch navigator, is credited also with its 
 discovery, by some authorities, in 1606. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 This group of three principal and thirteen smaller 
 islands, to the southeast of Australia, between lati- 
 tudes 34 deg. and 48 deg. south and 161 deg. and 179 
 deg. east longitudes, comprise in their area 122,582 
 square miles, a litde larger than Great Britain and 
 Ireland. The population is 476,000.
 
 OF 7VIE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 79 
 
 The geological formation is volcanic eriiptic, witli 
 the sedimentary formations and fossils of the tertiary 
 period. Like Australia, the lands are slowly rising 
 from the sea. 
 
 Of minerals, the islands have an abundant sup- 
 ply — coal, copper, iron, lead and manganese being 
 found. 
 
 The natural vegetation of New Zealand is won- 
 derful in its luxuriance, many hundreds of species 
 crowding the forests. Nearly all of these are of the 
 evergreen type, and give to the islands an aj'ipear- 
 ance of perpetual spring. 
 
 Of the animal kingdom there is but little to be 
 said, as when discovered in 1642, by Tasman, a species 
 of rat and the dog were about the only animals to be 
 found. Those of a more recent date are altogether 
 domestic, the results of importations from other coun- 
 tries by the settlers. 
 
 From the loner narrow confio-uration of the 
 islands, the streams, though many in number, are of 
 no great length, breadth or depth. 
 
 Mountain ranges cross the islands in many places, 
 but generally speaking are not of great prominence, 
 if we except Mt. Cook, which is supposed to be 
 14,000 feet high. There are many evidences of vol- 
 canic action throughout the group. Tongariro is the 
 only -active volcano at the present time. 
 
 Of the natives, Mr. Taylor says: "The New 
 Zealanders are decidedly a mixed race — some have 
 wooly hair, others brown or flaxen ; some are many 
 shades darker than others. The peculiar features of 
 the Mongol are also very common ; the oblique eye, 
 the yellow countenance, the remarkable depression of 
 the space between the eyes so that there is no rise in
 
 8o THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 the nose, seem clearly to indicate that some portion 
 of the race is of Chinese or Japanese descent, 
 
 TASMANIA. 
 
 Tasmania, or Van Dieman's Land, just south of 
 Australia, between 40 deg-. 40 min. and 43 deg. 38 
 min. south latitude, and longitude 144 deg. 'i^^i ^i^- 
 and 148 deg. 28 min. east, a group of some seven- 
 teen islands occur ; but one of them is of any size or 
 importance at present. 
 
 Tasmania was discovered and located by Tasman 
 in 1642, but was re-located and taken possession of 
 by the English in 1803. The island has an area of 
 22,629 square miles, with a population of 110,000. 
 
 The island is of a similar formation to Australia, 
 althoucrh the soil is much more fertile, and without 
 any of the desert wastes of the larger island. The 
 mountain ranges are extensive, but not of very great 
 height. The forests are immense, the eucalyptus and 
 acacia, in all their many varieties, growing- in the 
 greatest luxuriance. 
 
 Of minerals, Tasmania has an abundance — gold, 
 copper, iron and coal mines are worked at a consid- 
 erable profit. 
 
 The climate is temperate; all the fruits, vegeta- 
 bles and cereals are cultivated, forming one of the 
 principal exports of the group. 
 
 The natives are of the same type as the abo- 
 rigines of New Zealand and Australia, and are now 
 nearly extinct.
 
 COFFEE PLANT — JAVA.
 
 ( )!■' IllJi I \ 1 Cn-lC ( ) C EAA' Hi 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ISLAXnK 
 
 The place is all awave witii trees, 
 
 Limes, myrtles, purple-beaded ; 
 
 Acacias having drunk the lees 
 
 Of the night-dew, faint-headed ; 
 
 And wan, grej- olive-woods, which seem 
 
 The fittest foliage for a dream. 
 
 E. B. Bkowmng {An Island). 
 JAVA. 
 
 THE Island of Java, with its 52,000 square miles, 
 peopled by nearly eighteen millions of inhabi- 
 tants — the "land of fire," the home of the enip- 
 tic volcano and earthquake — has long been 'the subject 
 of interesting study for the historian and scientist. 
 
 Here we find, besides innumerable smaller ones, 
 one of the largest volcanic craters in the world, having 
 a circumference around its edge of about twelve miles. 
 In 1772 this crater was in active force, casting its ashes 
 and scoria over a great tract of country. Thousands 
 of inhabitants lost their lives — either cauoht in their 
 homes by the burning lava, or suffocated by the smoke, 
 ashes and sulphur. The heavens were lit up for hun- 
 dreds of miles around with a glare only ec[ualled by 
 that of the aurora borea/is, the surrounding seas liter-
 
 S2 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 ally covered with ihc finer particles of pumice and 
 ashes, while the dust and smoke hung in and darkened 
 the heavens for days afterwards. 
 
 Another eruption took place in 1832, with the loss 
 of nearly thirty thousand lives, and again in 1883, when 
 it is supposed one hundred thousand people were de- 
 stroyed, with a vast waste created over a beautiful and 
 thriving agricultural country. 
 
 GENERAL FEATURES. 
 
 The topographical features of the island, its chains 
 of mountains and plateaus, with the valleys lying be- 
 tween, the latter well watered by meandering rivers, 
 are nearly all taken advantage of by a skillful, agricul- 
 tural people. The waters from abundant rainfalls 
 are treasured in reservoirs on the higher plateaus, and 
 held in reserve for the drier periods. They are thus 
 enabled to reap two crops per annum, and place their 
 plantations in almost continuous bloom. On the cul- 
 tivated lands, immense quantities of coffee, sugar, rice 
 and cotton are grown, with all the fruits of the tropics, 
 as well as the clove, nutmeg and cinnamon, and other 
 spices. 
 
 Included in the Hora of the native forests are the 
 gutta percha, toa tomano, camphor, sandal, satin-wood 
 and mahogany trees. 
 
 The agricultural methods adopted by the natives, 
 with the use of irrigation, was imparted to them by the 
 Hindoos and others of the East India countries, who 
 visited this island in great numbers many years pre- 
 vious to the ninth century. 
 
 The inhabitants at present are hospitable and in- 
 telligent — partaking of the higher class of Arabs in
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 83 
 
 character and rcliofion. The Mohammedan belief is 
 general, having been forced on the Javanese by the 
 Arabs in the 15th century. 
 
 MICIIELET ON JAVA. 
 
 Of Java, Michelet, the great French writer, says : 
 It is dowered with fires. Notwithstanding- its limited 
 area, it possesses as many as the entire continent of 
 America, and all of them more terrible than burning 
 Etna. And to these we must add its liquid volcano, 
 its vein of somber azure which the Japanese call the 
 "Black River." This the great Equatorial Current, 
 which in its northerly course warms the Asiatic seas, 
 is remarkable for its muddiness, and tastes salter than 
 human blood. 
 
 A hot sea — a torrid sun — volcanic fire — volcanic 
 life! Not a day passes but a tempest breaks out 
 amonof the Blue Mountains, with liofhtninof so vivid 
 that the eye cannot endure to gaze at it. Torrents of 
 electric rain intoxicate earth and madden vegetation. 
 The very forests smoking with wreathed vapors in the 
 burning sun, seem so many additional volcanoes sit- 
 uated midway on the mountain slopes. 
 
 In the loftier regions, they are frequently inac- 
 cessible, and sometimes so thickly intertangled, so 
 dense, so gloomy, that the traveler who penetrates 
 them must carry torches even at noonday. Nature 
 without an eye to watch her, celebrates there her 
 ^'orgies of vegetation," and creates, as Blum informs 
 us, her river monsters and colossi. 
 
 Stemless rhizanthae seize on the roots of a tree 
 and gorge themselves with its pith and vitality. Trav- 
 elers speak of a species which measures si.\ feet in
 
 84 
 
 THJi ISLAXD WORLD 
 
 circumference. Their splendor, shining in the deep 
 ni^dit of the forest, astonishes, nay, ahnost terrifies 
 the spectator. These children of the darkness owe 
 nothing of their resplendent coloring- to the light. 
 Mourishing low down in the warm vapors, and fat- 
 tened by the breath of earth, they seem to be its lux- 
 urious dreams, its strange airy phantasies of desire. 
 
 Java has two faces. The southern, wears already 
 the aspect of Oceania, enjoys a pure air, and is 
 surrounded b)' rocks all alive with polypes and 
 madepores. To the north, however, it is still in 
 India — India, with all it inherits of unhealthiness ; a 
 black alluvial soil, fermenting with the deadly travail 
 of Nature reacting on herself, with the work of com- 
 bination and decomposition. Its inhabitants have 
 been compelled to abandon the once opulent town of 
 Bantam, which is now a mass of ruins. Superb Ba- 
 tavia is one triumphant cemeter). In less than thirty 
 years — from 1730 to 1752 — it swallowed up a million 
 of human lives; sixty thousand in a single twelve-month 
 (1750)! And though it is not so terrible now, its 
 atmosphere has not been purified to any considerable 
 extent. 
 
 The animals of the primeval world which live 
 forgotten in its bosom are remarkable, it seems, for 
 their funeral aspect. In the evening enormous hairy 
 bats, such as are found nowhere else, flutter to and 
 fro. By day, and even at noon, the strange flying 
 dragon, that memorial of a remote epoch, w^hen the 
 serpent was endowed with wings, does not hesitate to 
 make its appearance. Numerous ])lack animals exist 
 which agree in color with the black l)asalt of the moun- 
 tains. And black, too, is the tiger, that terrible destroyer, 
 which as late as 1830, devoured annually 300 lives.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 83 
 
 TOrOGRAi'IIV. 
 
 The double mountain chain, which forms the back- 
 bone of Java, is intersected by numerous internal val- 
 leys, running- in opposite directions, varying the specta- 
 cle. This diversity of surface insures a corresponding 
 diversity of vegetation. The soil in the valleys is 
 madreporic, and was once alive. At a higher level it 
 has its foundation of granite, loaded with fertile ruins 
 and hot debris of tlie volcanoes. The whole is a vast 
 ascending scale, which from .sea to mountain presents 
 six different climates, rising from the marine flora and 
 the flora of the marshes to the Alpine flora. A superb 
 amphitheater, rich and abundant at each gradation, 
 bearing the dominant plants and those transitional 
 forms which lead up from one to the other, and lead 
 so ingeniously that without any lacuna or abrupt leap, 
 we are carried onwards, and \ainlv endeavor to trace 
 betw^een the six climates any rigorous lines of de- 
 marcation. 
 
 In the lowlands facin^: India and the boilino" 
 caldron of the ocean, the mangrove absorbs the 
 vapors. But towards Oceania and the region of the 
 thousand isles, the cocoanut tree rises, wnth its foot in 
 the emerald wave and its crest lightly rocking in the 
 full fresh breeze. 
 
 The palm is here of little value. Above its bam- 
 boos and resinous trees, Java wears a magnificent 
 girdle, or zone, of forest — a forest wholly composed 
 of teak, the oak of oaks, the finest wood in the world 
 — indestruQtible teak. •" '=' * 
 
 Here every kind of food, and all the provisions 
 of the five worlds superabound. The rice, maize, 
 figs and bananas of Hindostan; the pears of China;
 
 S6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 the apples of Japan, llourish in company with the 
 peach, pineapple and orange of Europe — aye, and 
 even with the strawberry, which extends its growth 
 alonor the banks of the streams. 
 
 All this is the innocence of nature. But side by 
 side with it prevails another and more formidable 
 world — that of the higher vegetable energies, the 
 plants of temptation, seductive, yet fatal, which double 
 the pleasures, while shortening the duration of life. 
 
 At present they reign throughout the earth, from 
 pole to pole. They make and unmake nations. The 
 least of these terrible spirits has wrought a greater 
 change in the globe than any war. They have im- 
 planted in man the volcanic fires ; and a soul, a 
 violent spirit which is indefinable, which seems less a 
 human thing than a creature of the planet. They have 
 effected a revolution, which, above all, has changed 
 our idea of time. Tobacco kills the hours and ren- 
 ders them insensible. Coffee shortens them by the 
 stimulus it affords the brain ; it converts them into 
 minutes. 
 
 Foremost among the sources of intoxication to 
 which care unhappily resorts, we must name alcohol. 
 Eight species of the sugar-cane which thrive in Java 
 abundantly supply this agent of delirium and forcible 
 feebleness. No less abundantly flourishes tobacco, 
 the herb of dreams, which has enshrouded the world 
 in its misty vapors. Fortunately Java also produces 
 immense supplies of its antidote, coffee. It is this 
 which contends against tobacco, and supplies the 
 place of alcohol. The island of Java alone furnishes 
 a fourth of all the coffee drank by man, and a coffee, 
 too, of fine quality, which has been dried sufficiently, 
 without any fear of reducing its weight.
 
 OF THE r.lCiriC OCEAN 87 
 
 Formerly Java and its neighboring lands were 
 known as spice islands onh-, and as producing freely 
 violent drugs and medicinal poisons. Frightful stories 
 were circulated of its deadly plants, the juice of which 
 was a mortal venom — of \.\\q Gueva-Upas, which but to 
 touch was death ! 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 He who would see the East in all the fullness of 
 its magical, voluptuous and sinister forces, should ex- 
 plore the great bazaars of Java. There the curious 
 jewels wrought by the cunning Indian hand are ex- 
 posed to the desires of woman, temptation and the 
 cost of pleasure. There, too, may be seen another 
 seductive agency — the vegetable fury of the burning 
 and scorching plains which is so eagerly sought after ; 
 the perfumes of terrible herbs and flowers, as yet un- 
 named. Marvelous and profound the night, in its 
 sweet repose, after the violent heats of the day! But 
 be cautious in your enjoyment of it; as it grows old it 
 breathes death ! 
 
 Take note of this : The peculiarity that gives to 
 these bazaars so curious an effect is, that all the throng- 
 ing crowds are dusky, with dark complexions, and all 
 the animals are black. The contrast is singular in 
 this land of glowing light. The heat seems to have 
 burned up everything, and tinted each object with 
 shadow. The little horses, as they gallop past you, 
 seem but so many flashes of darkness ; the buffaloes, 
 slowly arriving, loaded with fruit and flowers — with 
 the most radiant gifts of life — all wear a livery of blu- 
 ish black. 
 
 Beware, at this time of night, not to wander too 
 far, or ramble in the higher grounds, lest you should
 
 8S THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 cncouiUcr the black panther, whose green eyes ilhi- 
 mine the obscurity with a terrific glare ! And — who 
 l^nows ^ — the splendid tyrant of the forest, the black 
 tiger. ma\- have begun his midnight prowl — that for- 
 midable phantom which the Malays of Java believe to 
 b(> the spirit of Death ! 
 
 I have quoted thus, at some length, from the writ- 
 inti-s of Michelet. as the ideas advanced will serve alike 
 for Sumatra and sonie of the Mollucca Islands. 
 
 Borneo, singularly, is altogether free from the 
 eruptic. \olcanic and earthquake forces. Situated al- 
 most directly in the course of the "tire belt," there are 
 yet no authentic records in the history of Borneo, for 
 ages past, of any of those fearful outbursts so frequent 
 in lava and Sumatra. 
 
 LITTLE JAVA. 
 
 Much more could be written of Java and the is- 
 lands surrounding it. As almost a part of the greater 
 island, we might cite Little Java, with nearly four thou- 
 sand scpiare miles of area, and a population of about 
 eight hundred thousand people. Separated from 
 Great Java by a strait hardly two miles in width, its 
 configuration, climate, inhabitants and products are so 
 similar that a description would but dre the reader. 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 Before leaving Java, it might be well to notice 
 coffee, the principal and most valuable product of that 
 island. Coffca Aribica, no doubt, derives its name 
 Irom Kaffa, a district of Southern Abyssinia, on the 
 east coast of Africa. The coffee plant is an evergreen,
 
 OJ' TJIK J'ACIFIC OCJ-.IX 89 
 
 and was first found growing wild in Arabia. Africa and 
 some portions of South America. It is sometimes 
 cultivated at a height of six thousand feet ahoxe the 
 sea-level, but this only in warm countries, as \\\v. tree 
 does not thri\e in climates whert: the thermometer fills 
 below 55 deg. 
 
 In its wild state the tree grows from ten to thirty 
 feet high, but when cultivated it is pruned down to five 
 or six feet — the yield being greater, while the l)erry is 
 much easier to harvest. The young plants are usually 
 grown from the seed in nurseries, and when a year old 
 are transplanted to such localities as desired. The 
 tree, in favorable climates, begins to bear fruit at three 
 years, but hardly in paying quantities until the fifth 
 year. P>om this age the plant bears from two to three 
 crops per annum for twenty years, after which the yield 
 is hardly profitable, when the older trees are replaced 
 with younger plants. 
 
 The fruit of the coffee tree greatly resembles the 
 cherry, in size and color, when ripe ; the coffee, as we 
 see it in commerce, being the seeds, of which there are 
 two to each berr) . The kernels are extracted, after 
 the fruit is thoroughly dried, by being passed through 
 wooden rollers, which crush and separate the hull from 
 the orrains. 
 
 The best coffee is Mocha, grown in the province 
 of Yemen, in Arabia ; that from Java taking second 
 place. Brazil is credited with producing something 
 over half of all the coffee consumed in the world, al- 
 though the quality is not equal to Mocha or Java. It 
 is a little difficult to judge of the brands of coffee of- 
 fered in the markets nowadays, as much that is grown 
 in outside districts, and of an inferior quality, is shipped 
 to Mocha and other leading districts, and re-shipped
 
 po THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 under the brands -of the best products from those 
 places. 
 
 Little is known of the early history of coffee, al- 
 though we read of its being- used as a beverage in 
 Ethiopia as early as A. D. 875. At a more modern 
 period, we note its introduction into Arabia from Af- 
 rica — in the fifteenth century — and in Venice in 161 5, 
 and in England in about 1640. It was first introduced 
 into Java by the Dutch between 1680 and 1690. 
 
 BORNEO. 
 
 This great island, whose area exceeds 284,00x3 
 square miles, lying on either side of the equator, be- 
 tween latitude 7 deg. 10 min. north and 3 deg. 40 min. 
 south, and between longitudes 109 deg. 30 min. and 
 118 deg. 30 min. east, is the third in size among the 
 islands of the Pacific. 
 
 The population is about three millions. There 
 are many beautiful bays and inlets along its two thou- 
 sand miles of coast line, although navigation is made 
 exceedingly dangerous by the many islets and rocks 
 that dot the sea along its shores. Beautiful rivers 
 traverse Borneo, winding through its valley and plains, 
 and are in most cases broad, navigable streams. Forty 
 of this character are already known. 
 
 Great ranges of mountains rib the island here and 
 there, some of them towering nearly 14,000 feet above 
 the level of the sea. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 Physically speaking, Borneo may be described 
 as one immense forest, generally of moderate elevation
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN gr 
 
 — that is, 300 to 700 feet — traversed by great rivers, 
 which descend from a central group of mountains, and 
 surrounded by wide alluvial plains, edged with man- 
 grove swamps, or broken up into low deltas, constant- 
 ly subject to inundation. It has, therefore, a physical 
 character distinct from that of Java or Sumatra. Its 
 plains are of much greater extent, and its mountains, 
 on an average, do not attain the same elevation. 
 
 From northeast to southwest extends a chain of 
 mountains, nearly parallel to, but at a great distance 
 from, the west coast, which, in or near latitude 3 deg. 
 north, curves around, to terminate at Cape Sipang. 
 From this chain a short spur projects, and links it to 
 a double range of lesser height, one of which runs 
 southwest to a point near Cape Sambas, while the 
 other pursues an irregular southeastern direction and 
 reaches Cape Salatan, The culminating point of tht^ 
 first-named chain is Kinibulu, 13,680 feet in height. 
 This is the loftiest summit on the island, and on the 
 east side of it lies a great lake, the source of numer- 
 ous rivers. 
 
 The other important peaks are Kamangting, in 
 the southwest chain — 6, 500 feet; Lunangi, in the south- 
 east, 6,300 feet; Meratoo, also in the southeast, 4,000; 
 Batang-Loopar, east of Sarawak, 4,000 ; Krimbang and 
 Saramboo, both south of Sarawak, 3.250 and 3,000. 
 respectively; and Santibong, at the mouth of the river 
 Sarawak, 2,050 feet. Thus it is evident that the gen- 
 eral elevation of the island is not considerable. If it 
 were sunk five hundred feet, at least four-fifths of its 
 area would disappear, leaving several long peninsulas, 
 of tolerable breadth, divided by broad ocean channels, 
 and relieved by solitary mountain peaks rising here 
 and there above the waters. If sunk one thousand
 
 92 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 feet, nothing would remain but a few of these penin- 
 sulas ; the ocean w^ays would be broader, and the 
 mountain peaks wider apart. 
 
 RIVERS. 
 
 We come now to the rivers of Borneo. In most 
 countries the confiofuration of the surface is determined 
 by the course of one principal river, or it is defined by 
 the basins of two or three main streams. Thus, Ger- 
 many is marked out by the basin of the Rhone and 
 Loire ; Egypt, by the valley of the Nile. So far as our 
 knowledge of Borneo at present extends, it offers us 
 no such assistance in surveying and laying down its 
 superficial area. Its rivers are mostly tidal, but their 
 basins seem to be very narrow, and they descend lan- 
 guidly and slowly through vast level deltas, which 
 merge into inundated plains. 
 
 The littoral or shore country on the north and 
 northwest, a comparatively level tract about six hun- 
 dred miles in length, is watered by a perfect network 
 of rivers, though probably not one of them exceeds a 
 hundred and fifty miles in its full career. They rise 
 from the ranofe of mountains of which Kinibulu is the 
 culminating summit, and their course being short, are 
 more rapid than those in any other part of the island. 
 Some of them preserv^e their fresh water character 
 down to the very coast. 
 
 Tracing them from the north, we may notice, first, 
 the River Brunai (Borneo), a broad sheet of water, 
 navigable for some distance by large ships. Next, the 
 Binbula and the Judal, both of which are considerable 
 streams. Passing Cape Sinik, we observe the mouths 
 of the Rejang, which, at eighty miles from its mouth, 
 is one mile wide. Still larger than these is the noble
 
 or 77 FE PACIFIC OCICAX 
 
 93 
 
 Butong-Lupai, which measures ncarl)' fivc^ miles across, 
 and can float a large frigate. The Sarawak, famous iii 
 the annals of English enterprise, is not so remarkable 
 for its len<rth or breadth as for its numerous branches, 
 which ramify in such a manner as to afford to an exten- 
 sive district all the advantages of water communication. 
 
 South of the equator we find the Mejak, the Sam- 
 bas and the Kapooas. The first named was ascended 
 by a Dutch steamer, as far as Malu, in March, 1855. 
 The last named is one of the chief rivers on the island 
 — perhaps the chief — measuring not less than seven 
 hundred miles in its sinuous course. 
 
 On the south coast w^e notice the Djel^, the; Pern- 
 buan, the Medawi, the Great Dayak, the Littk; Dayak, 
 the Kahajau, the Murong, and the Bangermassin, or 
 Burdo. This last is connected by several arms with 
 the Murong on the west, and thence again with the 
 Kahajau ; so that a water-way penetrates into the very 
 heart of the interior. In the lower part of its course 
 it is continually overflowing the countr)-, as its name 
 indicates — Bangermassin ("frequent Hoods"). In the 
 upper part it is called the Dooson, or village river, be- 
 cause its banks are occupied by several agricultural 
 communities. It is fed on the east by the Nagara, a 
 river which in itself is of considerable importance. 
 
 On the east coast the rivers are not so large nor 
 so numerous, but w^e notice the Kooti, with its wide 
 delta, extending over one hundred miles of coast. It 
 was ascended by Major Muller, a Dutch officer, in 
 1825, and he had succeeded in crossing the mountains 
 and descending into the valley of the Kapooas, when 
 he was murdered by the Dyaks. Further to tlie north 
 lies the Pautai, or river of Beron. 
 
 (Adams's Eastern Arcliipelajjo.)
 
 gyf. THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 The soil of Borneo is very fertile, producing all 
 that has made Sumatra and Java so famous. The 
 flora is extensive and varied, the forests aboundino- in 
 all the valuable woods and plants of the tropics, while 
 the cultivation of the rattan, bamboo, banana, betel 
 nut, cocoanut, bread-fruit, sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, 
 lemon, orange, clove, rice, nutmeg, ginger and opium 
 poppy are but a portion of the valuable products. The 
 sago and date-palm, the ebony, gutta percha, toa, to- 
 mano, prima vera, sandal, camphor and cinnamon trees 
 adorn the forests. 
 
 The Animal and mineral kingdoms are well repre- 
 sented ; the former embracing the elephant and hippo- 
 potami, the rhinoceros, tiger and panther, the ourang- 
 utan and the different species of the monkey tribe, 
 roam through the vast forests or prowl among the 
 jungles. In the latter kingdom we find gold, silver, 
 lead, antimony, tin, iron and coal. The beds of many 
 of the streams teem with that valuable ofem, the dia- 
 mond, mining for which has formed one of the indus- 
 tries on this island for ages. 
 
 Nor are the reptilian, finny or feathered species 
 without an extensive representation. The swamps, 
 morasses and forests are the homes of the great py- 
 thon, descending the scale through numerous species 
 to the little coralilla, whose bite is certain death. The 
 seas, rivers and bays teem with fish of all the species 
 known in the tropics. Birds of the most beautiful and 
 valuable plumage abound in the forest, while an end- 
 less variety of the aquatic kind frequent the pools, 
 lakes and rivers.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 95 
 
 DIAMOND MINING 
 
 One of the most valuable industries on the 
 island of Borneo is diamond minincr — a business fol- 
 lowed in some countries for ages past. Borneo is not 
 alone in her diamond-fields, as Sumatra, Australia and 
 Tasmania have furnished some valuable o^ems. One 
 found in the southwestern portion of Borneo, in the 
 district of Mattan, and now in possession of the rajah 
 of that region, weighs 367 carats, and is valued at 
 something over ^1,000,000. 
 
 Golconda, a district between Cape Cormorin and 
 the Bay of Bengal, has been a celebrated diamond- 
 field for ages past. Tavenier described a gem found 
 in this region and taken possession of by the Great 
 Mogul, as weighing 900 carats. 
 
 The diamond-fields of Brazil, located in the Sierra 
 de Frio, in the province of Minas Geraes, were dis- 
 covered in 1728. A gem found here, and now be- 
 longing to the king of Portugal, weighs 1,680 carats, 
 valued by some experts at the modest sum of ^28,- 
 000,000. As a carat in diamond weight is equal to 
 the 150th part of an ounce Troy, and nearly the 137th 
 part of an averdupois ounce, we have in this diamond 
 a gem weighing nearly a pound Troy, and about four- 
 fifths of a pound averdupois. 
 
 Brazil was for many years the principal diamond 
 mining country, furnishing stones of great beauty and 
 in great numbers to the world. In 1868 they were dis- 
 covered in South Africa, where the district as far as 
 known contains an area of 17,000 square miles. 
 Many of the diamonds from this locality are of a 
 yellowish cast, and not near so valuable as those 
 found in other countries. The laro-est stone found 
 
 o
 
 g6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 here was the Stewart, weighing- 288^^ carats, and of 
 tine quahty. 
 
 They are tbund in man)- other countric^s — in the Ural 
 Mountains ; in Hindostan ; and in the United States, in 
 North Carohna. Georgia, Virginia and Cahfornia. 
 
 In addition to those already mentioned, the fame 
 of the Kohinoor, of England, weighing 279 carats; 
 the Orloff, of Russia, 195 carats; the Regent, or Pitt, 
 136^ ; and the Sanci, 106 carats, is world wide. 
 
 Previous to the 15th century the gems were worn 
 in the rough, just as they came from the mines, and 
 of course lacked the brilliancy given to them by cut- 
 ting and polishing. This art was discovered by 
 Louis von I)ergnen. in the above century, and gave 
 to the diamond a value unequalled by any other gem. 
 
 Its uses in irlass-cuttinof and in the manufacture 
 of diamond-drills, for mining purposes, are so well 
 known as to require no description here. 
 
 In mining for diamonds similar processes to those 
 in use in placer mining for gold are resorted to. They 
 are found just below the later alluvial deposits, inter- 
 mixed in the stratum of gravel, cla)' and rolled quartz 
 lying over the bed-rock, once forming the beds of 
 streams and gravel deposits. I'Vom this deposit the 
 stratum is washed through sluices with an abundance of 
 water, the diamonds beinof found amon<jf the heavier 
 particles remaining in the sluices after the washing. 
 
 The standard for valuing diamonds, presuming 
 that they are of fair quality, is to multiply the square 
 of the weight in carats by the value per carat. Tak- 
 ing the Kohinoor, for example: weight 279 carats, 
 squared, would equal 77,844, which multiplied by the 
 value, assuming it to be |^2o per carat, would give 
 $1,556,820.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 97 
 
 This amount would be its presumable value in 
 the weight given, although that was reduced by cut- 
 ting and polishing to i86, and by still another cutting 
 and polishing, which brought the weight down to io6 
 carats.
 
 gS THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 ISI^A^MDS. 
 
 A fleet descry'd 
 Hangs in the clouds, by equinoctial winds 
 Close sailing from Bengala, or the isles 
 Of Ternate and Tidore, where merchants bring 
 Their spicy drugs. 
 
 Milton {Paradise Lost.) 
 
 SUMATRA. 
 
 1 \XTENDING in an oblique direction, to thenorth- 
 f]J west, lying almost immediately under the equator, 
 running from latitude 6 deg. lo min., south to 
 5 deg. 40 min. north, and between longitudes 95 deg. 
 10 min. and 107 deg. 10 min. east, is located the 
 island of Sumatra. Twenty to thirty islands along 
 the greater ones shores could be enumerated, but 
 are of no special importance at present. Next to 
 Borneo in size, having an area of about 160,000 
 square miles, with 4,500,000 people, Sumatra is a 
 garden-spot, unsurpassed in valuable productions, ex- 
 cept perhaps by Java. 
 
 Its position is easily remembered. Its northern 
 portion is separated from the Malayan peninsula on 
 the east by the Strait of Mallaca ; on the west it is 
 bounded by the Indian Ocean ; on the south it is
 
 • -V (ST, 
 
 ? • 
 
 to e 
 to to 
 
 
 '^
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN pp 
 
 divided from Java by the narrow arm of the sea called 
 the Strait of Sunda. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 The eastern portion of the island is remarkable 
 for its continuous levels, which are freely watered by 
 several large but sluggish rivers — the Rawas, the 
 Jambi, the Indgari — that forn> extensive deltas at 
 their mouths, and have for ages been contributing to 
 fill up the shallow sea, into which they fall. Very dif- 
 ferent in character the western portion. Here, from 
 northwest to southwest, stretch range upon range of 
 mountains, all running parallel to the coast, and in- 
 creasing in elevation from 2,000 to 5,000 feet. These 
 are broken up by short latteral valleys, and again by 
 extensive longitudinal valleys, clothed with the fig and 
 the myrtle, the arica and nibon palms. The littoral 
 belt, or shore-land, varies greatly in breadth. On the 
 southwest side of the island the mountains seem to 
 start up directly from the ocean, and for nearly 400 
 miles the distance between the beach and the wooded 
 base of the hills is two miles, though towards the 
 north it widens on the average to six miles, and at a 
 few points to twelve miles. 
 
 ANIMAL LIFE. 
 
 The reader will easily understand that the scenery 
 in the western division of the island presents many 
 romantic features. The mountain peaks rising so 
 abruptly from the shore, and clothed with hanging 
 woods, are necessarily objects of much grandeur; and 
 intersecting valleys, enriched with a tropical vegeta- 
 tion, the forms and colors of which have a rare at-
 
 joo THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 traction for the eye of the traveler, are characterized 
 by numerous landscapes of great splendor. The in- 
 terior of die island is but imperfectly known ; but one 
 of these valleys, stretching up to the foot of Mount 
 Merapi, is fully loo miles in length, and is regarded 
 by some authorities as the original home of the 
 Malayan race. Birds of bright tinted plumage dart 
 in and out of the thick boughs of the wide-spreading 
 woodland, and blend their voices, often harsh and 
 shrill, with the murmur of falling streams. Here in 
 the virgin forest the agile monkey leaps from branch 
 to branch ; or the siawang, with his immense long 
 arms, five feet six inches across in an adult about 
 three-feet high, swings himself with wonderful rapidity 
 from tree to tree. Here, in the remote recesses, 
 the ourang-utan live its melancholy life ; the rhinoc- 
 eros wades in the shallow streams, and the elephant 
 crashes through the jungle with colossal bulk. '^' '=' ''" 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 Turninsf to the vesfetable wealth of this (jreat 
 island, we meet with the most valuable productions of 
 the tropical world. In the forest the huge trees, co- 
 lossal in girth and of noble height, are linked to- 
 gether and surrounded by innumerable parasites and 
 creeping plants, often of great beauty, which inter- 
 lace with one another so as to form an almost im- 
 pervious labyrinth. On the shore we meet with the 
 spreading mangrove, its pendulous roots closely 
 matted and intertwined, forming an incomparable 
 breakwater, and stemming the aggressive tide. Re- 
 taining the particles of earth that sink to the bottom 
 between them, they gradually, but surely elevate the
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN loi 
 
 level of the soil, and as the new formation rises and 
 broadens, a thousand seeds are sown upon it, a thou- 
 sand fresh roots descend to streno-then and consoli- 
 date it; and in this way the mangrove repels the 
 wave and asserts the supremacy of the land over the 
 baffled sea. ''' '=' ''' 
 
 On the mountain slopes, from an altitude of five 
 hundred to that of six thousand feet, the forest is 
 largely composed of oaks of several species. They 
 are noble trees, and of much value ; but in a commer- 
 cial sense a higher value attaches to the Dryajiobalops, 
 which yields the all-important camphor. About one 
 degree below the equator, its place is occupied by the 
 Diptuocarpus, a tree of gigantic proportions, which 
 produces the resin called "dammar." 
 
 On the rough bark of many of the forest trees 
 grows that extraordinary parasite, the Rafflesia, the 
 largest known flower, measuring fully three feet in 
 diameter, and expanding a calyx which is capable of 
 holding six quarts of water. 
 
 The principal exports of Sumatra are capsicums, 
 ginger, betel, tobacco, indigo, cotton, camphor, benzoin, 
 cassia or common cinnamon, rattans, ebony, sandal- 
 wood, teak and aloes, ivory, rice, wax, and edible birds' 
 nests. To the list of the island products must be added 
 rice, maize, sweet potatoes, taro, banana, mango, du- 
 rian, pawpaw and citron. But even this enumeration 
 gives but a faint idea of the variety and extent of 'ts 
 natural treasures. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 Its climate is well adapted to the growth of so 
 luxuriant a vegetation. Lying direcdy under the equa- 
 tor, the island enjoys great equability of temperature,
 
 fo3 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 the thermometer seldom falling below 76 deg. or rising 
 above 93 deg. The constant rains brought up by the 
 southeast monsoons counteract or mitigate the prevail- 
 ino- heat. In the hiorhlands and mountain districts the 
 climate is healthy, and the natives attain a considerable 
 longevity ; but in the low ground along the coast, and 
 in the neighborhood of the mangrove swamps, Euro- 
 peans, at least, drag on a sickly existence, and malaria 
 exercises its deadly ravages. 
 
 The principal cities are Padang (the capital), Ben- 
 coolen and Palambang. 
 
 INHABITANTS. 
 
 The inhabitants of Sumatra are mostly of the 
 great Malayan family, but in the north they seem to 
 have intercrossed with the Hindus, and are distin- 
 guished by their strength, their stature and their fierce 
 couragfe. The Chinese are numerous on the east 
 coast. North of Menangkabu, where the pure Malays 
 reside, live the Battahs or Batakhs, whose exact relation 
 to the Malay it seems impossible to determine. They 
 approximate, in many respects, to the Caucasian type, 
 with fair complexion, brown or auburn hair, well-shaped 
 lips and an ample forehead. All the natives of Sumat- 
 ra, with the exception of some inland tribes, profe.ss a 
 modified Mohammedanism, 
 
 In Sumatra we find about fifteen volcanoes, four 
 of which — Dempo (10,440 feet), Indrapura (12,140), 
 Talang (8,480), and Merapi (9,700 feet) — are of con- 
 siderable importance ; the others do not exceed six or 
 seven thousand feet in elevation. 
 
 (Notes from Adams's Eastern Archipelago.)
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 103 
 
 SINGAPORE. 
 
 This little island, located between latitude i deg. 
 and I deg. 32 min. north, and longitude 103 deg. 30 
 min. and 104 deg. 10 min. east, has long been cele- 
 brated for its many valuable products, being more 
 widely known than almost any other island in the East. 
 Situated at the eastern extremity of the Straits of Mal- 
 lacca. It has long formed the distributing point for the 
 products of these regions. 
 
 The town of Singapore has about 100,000 inhab- 
 itants — Malays, Hindoos and Chinese — and is located 
 a mile or so back from the straits, in the mouth of a 
 river ; the freight to and from the town being handled 
 by lighters. 
 
 The island itself has an area of about 220 square 
 miles, and is surrounded by about fifty small islets, of 
 no great commercial importance in the past or present 
 as distributing points, yet the fisheries, the turtle, tor- 
 toise and bcche de mer, found on some of these little des- 
 ert spots, are considerable. The whole area, including 
 the islets, may be estimated at 400 square miles. The 
 British hoisted their flag over Singapore in 18 19, but it 
 was not till 1 824, when the main island, with the adjoining 
 isles located within ten miles of the shores of Sin^a- 
 pore, were ceded to the East India Company by the 
 Malayan princes, that Singapore sprang into commer- 
 cial importance. 
 
 The Straits of Mallacca narrow down at one point 
 to a quarter of a mile in width between the island and 
 the Malayan Peninsula. In some respects this is un- 
 fortunate for the inhabitants of Singapore, as one of 
 the favorite methods of the tieer, the crreat man-eater 
 of the East Indies, is to swim this channel from the
 
 J04 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 mainland and make a meal off of a native. It has been 
 estimated that Singapore loses one inhabitant a day in 
 supplying- this demand. 
 
 CELEBES. 
 
 Between the parallels of latitude i deg. 45 min. 
 north and 5 deg. 52 min. south, and the meridians of 
 longitude 118 deg. 45 min. and 125 deg. 17 min. east, 
 lies an island of the most extraordinary configuration, 
 which some writers compare to a tarantula spider, oth- 
 ers to a couple of horse-shoes joined at the fore parts. 
 Neither comparison is very accurate. It consists of 
 four long peninsulas — the largest being the northern- 
 most — of which two are directed eastward, with a deep 
 gulf between them (the Tomini Gulf), and two others 
 southward, with the Boni Gulf separating them from 
 each other, while the first of the two is separated from 
 the second of the other two by the Tolo Gulf. These 
 four peninsulas project from a narrow neck of land 
 which runs due north and south. 
 
 The peninsula of Menado, the first of the four 
 peninsulas, sweeps north, then east, and lastly north- 
 east, with a length of 400 miles and a breadth of 1 2 to 
 60 miles. That of Bulante. east, is 160 miles lonor and 
 irom 30 to 95 miles broad ; the southeast peninsula is 
 about 1 50 miles by 30 to 90 miles ; and the southwest 
 (that of Macassar) forms a tolerably regular parallelo- 
 gram, 200 miles long and 65 miles broad. They are 
 all formed of mountain masses, and describe a kind of 
 backbone, 150 miles long and 105 miles broad. 
 
 The Gulf Tomini or Gorontala, on the northeast, 
 is 240 miles long, and from 55 miles at its mouth it 
 broadens, as it strikes inland, to fully 100 miles ; that
 
 OF TJIK PACIFIC OCFAN los 
 
 of Toniaiki, or Tolo, on the east, is of ample dimensions 
 at its mouth, but narrows towards its upper extremity ; 
 and that of Macassar or Boni, on the south, is proba- 
 bly upwards of 200 miles in length, with a witkh \ary- 
 ino- from 35 to 80 miles. 
 
 Apart from these conspicuous indentations, the 
 coast line is broken up by numerous bays, such as 
 those of Meuado, Amoorang, Kwandan^ and Tontoli. 
 on the north ; Palos and Panepane on the west, and 
 Bulante, Tolowa, Nipa-Nipa and Staring on the east. 
 
 To sum up, we have an island of Celebes, 150 
 miles long and 105 miles broad, throwing off four pe- 
 ninsulas of varying magnitude ; the superficial area of 
 the whole island being estimated at 71,791 square 
 miles. 
 
 We might conjecture that an island so exposed 
 to the sea breezes would be visited by abundant mois- 
 ture, and being included in the tropic zone, and imme- 
 diately under the equator, would necessarily present a 
 vegetation of remarkable richness and variety. Such, 
 indeed, is the case, and Celebes has fair claims to be 
 reofarded as the loveliest and most bounteous of all 
 the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its scenery 
 combines every charm that can gratify an artist or in- 
 spire a poet; it has the immense forests of Corneoand 
 the meadows and vales of En^fland ; the exuberant 
 wealth of the tropics, and the gentleness and grace 
 that distinguish the regions of the temperate zone. 
 
 Broad rivers, lofty heights, far-spreading woods, 
 deep, bowery hollows, immense breadths of fragrant 
 greensward — It has all these, mingled with rare and 
 beautiful forms of vegetation, and enlivened by glori- 
 ous displays of color, w^hich give to each bright, strange 
 landscape an individuality of its own. To all this add
 
 io6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 a fresh and liealthy climate, which neither enfeebles the 
 mind nor undermines the physical health, and it may 
 be conceded that Celebes is an enchanted land. 
 
 (Adams's Eastern Archipelago.) 
 
 SANGIR GROUP. 
 
 North of .Celebes, between latitude 2 deg. and 4 
 deg., is the Sangir group, about fifty in number, with 
 an area of 1,500 square miles, and a population of 
 30,000. Like many of the islands and groups in these 
 seas, they are afilicted with the eruptic volcano, whose 
 destructive ravages are to be seen on every hand. At 
 Great Sangir, the largest island of the group, having 
 an area of some 300 square miles, we find, in the 
 northwest portion, the active volcano of Abu. In 
 March, 1856, a fearful outburst took place here; the 
 burnin<jf lava, boilinoj- water, scoria and ashes laid 
 waste the surrounding country, destroying towns and 
 villages, sweeping over the fine plantations, leaving 
 all within reach a vast, burninof, smoking- waste. 
 
 If this were all to relate of this eruption, it could 
 be passed over with barely a glance ; but when the sad 
 fate of three thousand people, who lost their lives, 
 caught in the burning lava or in floods of boiling water, 
 or smothered in clouds of sulphurous smoke and ashes, 
 is added, it darkens the history of these island regions 
 like a funeral pall. 
 
 This island group produces nearly all of the trop- 
 ical products in the greatest abundance. With a fer- 
 tile soil, made beautiful by an industrious people, they 
 appear like gems dotting the southern seas. But, like 
 the neighboring isles, they lie over the track of the 
 great eruptic fire-belt, whose terrible outbursts too fre-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN joy 
 
 quently devastate the lands and convulse the founda- 
 tions of the deep. 
 
 MOLLUCCA ISLANDS. 
 
 The name Molluccas is employed in a restricted, 
 and also in a comprehensive or general sense. It is 
 applied, in the first place, to the Royal Islands, lying 
 off the western coast of Gilolo, and washed by the 
 Molluccas Passage, which separates Gilolo from Cele- 
 bes. In a wider sense, the name Molluccas is applied 
 to all the islands or groups of islands lying between 
 Celebes and New Guinea. They are commonly divi- 
 ded, according to the three residencies, into the Ter- 
 nate, xA.mboyna and Banda groups, which contain, re- 
 spectively, the following principal islands : 
 
 1 . The Ter?iate Islands, including the Molluccas 
 proper — comprehending Ternate, Gilolo, Batchian, 
 Obi, Mortui, and the Kaiva Islands ; 
 
 2. The Amboyna Islands, including Amboyna, 
 Ceram, Bouru, Goram, Amblau, and some smaller 
 isles ; and 
 
 3. The Banda Islands, including Great Banda or 
 Luthoir, Banda Neira, Pulo Run, Pulo Ai, Goenong 
 Api, Rosengyn, Kapal, Pisang, Spethau and Vronwen. 
 
 These numerous islands are all mountainous and 
 mostly volcanic, and their forms of animal and vege- 
 table life exhibit but few and unimportant differences. 
 They may, therefore, be properly comprehended un- 
 der the one general title of the Molluccas. 
 
 We shall visit them in the followinof order: Banda 
 and adjacent islands; Amboyna, Ceram, Bouru, Go- 
 ram ; and Ternate, Gilolo, Batchian and adjacent 
 islands. The inhabitants are Molluccan-Malays, and
 
 To8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 their religion is principally Mohammedan. * * * 
 So much for the position of these charming islands, 
 which escaping the dry winds that blow over the 
 Australian deserts, are remarkable for their fresh 
 greenery and the plentifulness of their vegetation. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 They were first made known to Europeans by the 
 Portuguese navigator, D'Abreu, but the Chinese 
 and Arabs, and probably the Hindoos, had long pre- 
 viously included them in the range of their commer- 
 cial enterprise. D'Abreu, according to the chron- 
 icler, DeBarros, had the assistance of Javanese and 
 Malay pilots who had made the voyage ; and DeBarros 
 adds, that every year Javanese and Malays repaired 
 to Lulotain (that is, Great Banda) to load cloves, nut- 
 megs and mace, for it lay in the latitudes most easily 
 navigated, and where ships were most secure, and as 
 the cloves of the Molluccas are brought thither by 
 vessels belonging to those islands, it was unnecessary 
 to go to the latter for the much prized spices. In the 
 five islands, says DeBarros, namely, Louthoir, Re- 
 sengyn, Pulo Ai, Pulo Run and Banda Neira, grow- 
 all the nutmegs consumed in ever)' part of the world. 
 He gives the then population as 15,000 — a very much 
 larger number than at present, and further says of 
 them : The people of these islands are robust, with 
 lank hair and a tawny complexion, and are of the 
 worst repute in these regions. They follow the 
 sect of Mohammed, and are much addicted to trade, 
 their women performing the labors of the field. 
 They have neither king nor lord, and all their 
 government depends on the advice of their elders,
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCFAN toq 
 
 and as these are often at variance, they quarrel 
 amonor themselves. 
 
 NUTMEG. 
 
 The land has no other export than the nutmey. 
 This tree is in such abundance that the land is full 
 of it, without being- planted by any one, for the earth 
 yields without culture. The forests which produce it 
 belong to no one by inheritance, but to the people in 
 common. 
 
 For about a century the Portuguese monopolized 
 the commerce of these islands, and throughout this 
 period maintained a friendly intercourse with the na- 
 tives. In 1609 the Dutch, however, resolved to an- 
 nex them to their Eastern possessions, and invaded 
 Great Banda with a force of 700 soldiers, but falling 
 into ambuscade, were compelled to retreat w^ith con- 
 siderable loss. They then began a war of extermina- 
 tion, which was prolonged for eighteen years, and 
 brought to a successful issue only through the efforts 
 of a large expedition from Java, commanded by the 
 Governor-General in person. In this prolonged strug- 
 gle, the natives, who fought with great courage and 
 resolution, lost 3,000 killed and 1,000 prisoners. The 
 survivors fled to the neio;hborinQ- islands, where they 
 were merged in the general mass, so that scarcel)' 
 a vestige of their language or customs is now known 
 to exist, 
 
 LOUTHOIK. 
 
 Of the little island group of Louthoir, it is said 
 that beneath the shade of the lofty kanary trees, de- 
 riving their nourishment from the thin but warm vol- 
 canic soil, and fed by the constant moisture, the hand-
 
 no THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 some glossy-leaved nutmeg trees, twenty to thirty feet 
 high, line the roads and bloom in the gardens and 
 spread over all the open places. They are very fair 
 to look upon, with their thick-spreading branches, the 
 tallest sprays of which are fifty feet high. The 
 flowers are small and yellowish. The fruit, before 
 it is fully ripe, resembles a peach that has not yet 
 been tinted with red ; but this is only the epicarp, or 
 outer rind, which is of a tough fleshy consistence, 
 and on maturing splits open into two equal parts, 
 revealing a spherical, polished, dark-brown nut, en- 
 veloped in crimson 7nace. In this stage it may be 
 fairly described as the most beautiful fruit in the cornu- 
 copia of Pomona. 
 
 It is now picked by means of a small basket fas- 
 tened to the end a long bamboo. The epicarp being 
 removed, the mace is carefully taken off and dried in 
 the sun, which changes its bright crimson to an ob- 
 scure yellow. It is then ready to be packed in cakes 
 and shipped to market. Next the nuts are spread on 
 a shallow tray of open basket-work, and exposed for 
 a period of three months to the action of a slow fire. 
 By the end of that time the actual genuine nutmeg 
 has so shrunken that it rattles in its dark-brown shell. 
 The shell is broken, and the nutmegs after being 
 sorted, are packed in large casks of teak-wood, 
 which are duly branded with the year in which the 
 fruit was gathered and the name of the plantation 
 where it was grown. 
 
 AMBOYNA. 
 
 Mountains, hills, rocks, forests, noisy burns and 
 rippling brooks, with well wooded valleys nmning in 
 among the highlands and low fertile country stretch-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN iji 
 
 Ing along the shore. Such is the general character 
 of Amboyna. It is not one of the fairest or richest 
 islands of the Archipelago ; much of its surface is 
 bare and barren, and it presents but little of that ex- 
 uberant vegetation which we are accustomed to asso- 
 ciate with the tropics. In fact, it owes its celebrity 
 and its wealth to one special vegetable product — the 
 clove-tree — {caryopJiyllus Arojuaticus). Such being 
 the case, and groves of clove-trees, with their bright 
 green verdure, being the pleasantest objects in the 
 island, before we go further it will be well for us to 
 devote some attention to so remarkable a source of 
 wealth. 
 
 CLOVE. 
 
 We first hear of cloves in Europe about a. d. 
 175-180, in the reign of the Emperor Aurelian, when 
 they are mentioned as imported into Alexandria from 
 India — the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea formingf 
 then as now the great highway along which flowed 
 the traffic of the East. They were carried by the 
 Javanese and Malays from the Molluccas" to the 
 peninsula of Mallacca ; thence the Telingas, or 
 Klings, transported them to Calicut, the once famous 
 capital of Malibar. Erom Calicut they passed to the 
 western shores of India, and crossing the Arabian Sea, 
 found their way up the Red Sea to the Egyptian port. 
 
 The native name for this fruit is chenki, which 
 may be a corruption of the Chinese theng-ki, or 
 " sweet smelling nails." The resemblance to a nail 
 has also suggested the Dutch name, krind-nagel, or 
 '"hub-nail" (the trees are nagelen-boomen, or "nail- 
 trees"), and the Spanish clavos (Latin claims, a nail), 
 whence comes our Enelish "clove."
 
 JI2 Tin-: ISLAND WORLD 
 
 The clove tree belongs to the order of Myrtles, 
 which includes the guava, pomegranate and the rose- 
 apple. Its topmost branches are usually forty or fifty 
 feet from the ground, and the full-grown trunk meas- 
 ures eight to ten inches in diameter. It was originally 
 confined, says Bickmore, to the five islands off the 
 west coast of Gilolo, which then comprised the whole 
 crroup known as the Molluccas — a name that has 
 since been extended to Bouru, Amboyna and the 
 other islands off the south coast of Ceram, where the 
 clove has been introduced and cultivated within a 
 comparatively late period. On these five islands it 
 begins to bear in its seventh or eighth year, and 
 sometimes continues to yield until it has reached an 
 age of nearlg one hundred and fitty years ; the trees, 
 therefore, are of very different sizes. Here at Am- 
 boyna it is not expected to bear fruit before its twelfth 
 or fifteenth year, and to cease yielding when it is 
 seventy-five years old. 
 
 A quaint description of this celebrated tree is 
 given by Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan in his 
 voyage around the world : It attains a pretty con- 
 siderable height, and its trunk is about as large as a 
 man's body, varying more or less according to its 
 age. Its branches extend very wide about the middle 
 of the trunk, but at the summit terminate in a pyra- 
 niid. Its leaf resembles that of the laurel, and the 
 bark is of an olive color. The cloves grow at the 
 end of small branches, in clusters of from ten to 
 twenty, and the tree, according to the season, sends 
 forth more on one side than the other. The cloves 
 at first are white, as they ripen they become more 
 reddish, and blacken as they dry. -^ '•= === 
 
 To this we may add that the buds when young
 
 NATIVE LUXURY IN THE MOLUCCAS.
 
 ()/•' TJ/J-: PACIFIC OCIiAN rij 
 
 arc white, altcrwards they chany^e to a hi^-ht j^recn. 
 and hnall\- to a brii^ht red, when they nuist at once 
 be leathered, which is done b)- pick.in<r them by 
 hand, or l)eating- them off with bamboos, so that they 
 drop in showers on cloths spread Ijeneath the trees. 
 When they have been dried in the sun — a process 
 which chans^es them from red to black — they are 
 read)- for market. The gathering seasons are from 
 June to December. The soil best adapted to the tree 
 seems a warm, loose, sandy loam. 
 
 CHOCOLATE BEAN. 
 
 Another of the valuable products of this group, 
 as others of the liastern Archipelago, is the cacao 
 theobronia, the chocolate bean of commerce. It is not 
 native here, but is one of the few things which the 
 Orient has borrowed from the West. The Span- 
 iards discovered it in Mexico, and transplanted it to 
 their settlements in South America and the West 
 Indies. Thence it traveled to the Molluccas. It is 
 also cultivated in Guinea and Brazil. 
 
 Ihe cacao tree seldom exceecis twenty feet in 
 height. Its leaves are large, oblong and pointed ; its 
 liowers hang in pale red clusters, not only from its 
 branches, but also from its trunk and roots. Hence 
 a cacao plantation has a singular and striking appear- 
 ance, as Humboldt did not fail to notice. Never, he 
 says, shall I forget the profound impression made 
 on ni)- mind by the luxuriance of tropical vegetation 
 when I first saw a cacao garden. After a damp night, 
 largo blossoms of the theobroma ("drink for gods!") 
 issue from the root a considerable distance from the 
 trunk, emerging from the deep black mold. A more
 
 JI4 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 striking example of the expansive powers of life could 
 hardly be met with in organic nature. 
 
 The fruits are large, oval-pointed pods, about five 
 or six inches long, and divided into five lobes or com- 
 partments, containing from twenty to forty seeds, the 
 cacao of commerce, enveloped in a white pithy sub- 
 stance. 
 
 In localities well sheltered from the wind the 
 grower sows his seeds. In two years the plant at- 
 tains a height of three feet, and throws off numerous 
 branches, all of which are removed, with the excep- 
 tion of four or five. In the third year the fruits ap- 
 pear, but the tree does not yield fully until six or 
 seven years old, after which it produces abundant 
 crops for upwards of two decades. 
 
 When the pods are first picked they are remarka- 
 ble for a peculiar pungency, which can be converted 
 into the highly valued aromatic principle only by a 
 process of fermentation. Therefore they are thrown 
 into pits, covered with a thin layer of sand, stirred at 
 intervals, and allowed to remain for three or four 
 days. After which they are taken out, cleaned, dried 
 in the sun, packed in cases or sacks, and dispatched 
 to the market. They are best known in Europe in the 
 form of chocolate, being- roasted, ground into a smooth 
 paste and flavored with vanilla or other spices. 
 
 The pineapple, too, is found in this, as well as on 
 the islands of adjacent groups. 
 
 SAGO PALM. 
 
 At Ceram Island, the largest of the Moliuccas, 
 one of the chief natural productions is the sago palm, 
 known in botany as the Sagns LcBvis and Sagns Rttm-
 
 OF Tin- PACIFIC OCFAN 113 
 
 pJiii. It is not only more plentiful here than in any of 
 the adjoining islands, but attains to greater perfection. 
 It (jrows to the heiijht of one hundred feet, and a sin- 
 gle tree will sometimes yield twelve hundred pounds 
 of starch, instead of four hundred pounds, as at Am- 
 boyna. The tree, in its early stage, is very slow of 
 erowth, but when it has once formed its stem it shoots 
 up rapidly, and assumes its crown of far-spreading fo- 
 liagfe and colossal efflorescence. Before the flower 
 ripens into fruit the tree must be felled, as otherwise 
 the farina which man uses for his food would be ex- 
 hausted. 
 
 The sago, which forms so important an article of 
 commerce, is prepared from the soft inner portion of 
 the trunk, the latter being cut into pieces about two 
 feet long, which are then split in half, and the soft sub- 
 stance scooped out and pounded in water till the 
 starchy matter separates, when it is drained off with 
 the water, allowed to settle, and afterwards purified by 
 washinof. The substance thus obtained is sagfo meal ; 
 but before being exported to the European markets, it 
 is made into pearl sago by a Chinese process carried 
 on at .Singapore. The rough meal is subjected to 
 repeated washings and strainings, then spread out to 
 dry, and broken into small pieces, which, when suffi- 
 ciently hard, are pounded and sifted until they are 
 tolerably uniform in size. Small quantities, finally, are 
 placed in a large bag, which is suspended from the 
 ceiling, and shaken backwards and forwards for about 
 ten minutes, until the sago becomes pearled or granu- 
 lated, after which it is. thoroughly dried and packed for 
 exportation. 
 
 (Adams's Eastern Archipelago ; Bickmore's Travels in ; Wallace : 
 Malay Archipelago.)
 
 ii6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 ISI^AJKKIi^ 
 
 The winds are aw'd, nor dare to breathe aloud, 
 The air seems never to have borne a cloud, 
 
 Save where volcanoes send to heaven their curl'd 
 And solemn smokes, like altars of the world. 
 
 Edward C. Pincknev. 
 
 NEW GUINEA. 
 
 NEXT to Australia in size, probably — lying just to 
 the north, and separated from it at one point by 
 the narrow Straits of Torres — is New Guinea. It 
 was discovered in 151 1 by Antonia d'Albreu and 
 Francisco Serram. The population is altogether na- 
 tive, and numliers fully 500,000. The area is about 
 300.000 square miles. 
 
 The interior is wholly unknown to Europeans, 
 and our acquaintance even with the coast line cannot 
 be described as complete. The island is. however, 
 most irregular in form. On the west a deep basin, 
 called Geelvink Bay, sweeping inland from the north, 
 almost meets the Gulf of McClure, entering from the 
 west, and so forms a bold and extensive peninsula 
 connected with the mainland by a very narrow isthmus. 
 
 There is reason to believe that the island is \erv
 
 or Tin- PACIFIC OCILIN Try 
 
 mountainous, with (Icej), wcll-woocUxl vaHeys breakinj^ 
 up the various chains, and witli meadow lands extend- 
 ing from tlie base of the mountains to the sea. The 
 summits of the southern peninsula attain a far loftier 
 elevation than those of Australia. Mount Owen Stan- 
 ley, for instance. Is 13,205 feet high, and Mount Obru 
 is 10,200 feet. A magnificent chain follows the line 
 of the north coast with much faithfulness, forming the 
 ranges of the Cyclops, w^hich terminate in the Island 
 of Jobi; and further west, of the Arfak and Amberba- 
 kin, with a maximum height of about 9,000 to 9,500 
 feet. On the southwest the limestone formation crops 
 up in terraced heights, which rise one above another 
 like the stages of an amphitheatre, until they mount 
 above the snow line ; the warm and humid forests of 
 the tropics lying at their base, their crests uprearing 
 the icy, snowy pinnacles of an Arctic world. The 
 Snow Mountains are 15,400 feet above the sea-level. 
 
 Valley and plain and hill, ravine and mountain 
 steep, all are clothed with a vegetation that almost de- 
 fies description by its luxuriance and variet) . When 
 the island has been thoroughly explored, we ma\- ex- 
 pect to hear that it is not inferior to Java or Borneo in 
 fertility of soil. It is certain that it produces all the 
 richest of fruits and the most valuable growths of trop- 
 ical nature. In the lowlands, bread-fruit, cocoanut. 
 banana, sago, betel, orano-e and lemon, and a multitude- 
 of Other luxuries ; in the higher grounds, magnificent 
 forest trees, the kanary, the masool, the wild nutmeg, 
 ebony and iron wood. Sugar cane, tobacco and rice 
 yield abundant crops ; maize and yams are also culti- 
 vated, and among the glories of the forest is the cam- 
 phor tree. 
 
 Nor is the usual parasitical exuberance wanting ;
 
 iiS THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 epiphytous plants overarch the wooded glades, and 
 creepers of every description hang in festoons from 
 bouo-h to bouorh. Amone the wealth of leaf and bloom 
 the paradise birds build their sequestered nests, and 
 the echoes ring with the shrill cries of parrots and lo- 
 ries, and the murmurs of carpophagous pigeons. 
 
 Animal life is not so abundant as vegetable. The 
 mammals are few in number, and most of them are 
 marsupials of the Australian type ; though New Guinea 
 possesses some indigenous species of kangaroos, and 
 more particularly two species which are strictly arborial 
 in their habits. Wild swine are plentiful, as also the 
 wood-cat. Of birds, about sixty species have been 
 particularized. Insects astonish by their numbers, and 
 dazzle by their brilliancy of coloring. The rivers swarm 
 with fish, and so do the surrounding seas. 
 
 The great island is not alone in her grandeur, for 
 alonor her shores, and no oreat distance from the main 
 land, there are at least one hundred islands. The area 
 of these would probably reach 10,000 square miles, 
 with a population of over 20,000 people. The phys- 
 ical features, as well as products, are similar to those 
 of New Guinea. 
 
 Curiously, the main island,, with those lying close 
 to it, if we except a very few of the Molluccas, are the 
 homes of that most beautiful of birds, the Bird of Par- 
 adise {Par adi said ce). They are not to be found on 
 any of the other islands. Of the Paradisse, twenty 
 species are already known ; their beautiful plumage 
 being much sought after to supply the fashionable 
 markets of the world. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 
 
 About two hundred miles to the northeast of
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN iig 
 
 Papua are the Admiralty group, about thirty in num- 
 ber, with something over i,ooo square miles of area, 
 and a population of 25,000. 
 
 They are not a prominent group in a topograph- 
 ical sense, lying but a hundred feet or so above the 
 sea level ; although for fertility and indigenous tropi- 
 cal products, they rival some of the more famed 
 islands. The inhabitants are very similar to those of 
 New Guinea. 
 
 Basko, or Admiralty Island, is the principal in the 
 group, having an area of about 450 square miles. 
 
 They were first discovered by the Dutch navi- 
 gator Cornelius Schooten, in 161 6, and were afterwards 
 re-discovered by Phillip Carteret, in 1 767, who located 
 them definitely on the charts, and gave them the name 
 they bear to-day. 
 
 NEW IRELAND. 
 
 South by east from the Admiralty group, and 
 northeast from Papua, we have New Ireland and New 
 Britain. 
 
 There are some six islands in the former group. 
 New Ireland being the only one requiring any descrip- 
 tion here. It is about two hundred miles long by fif- 
 teen wide, with some hilly ranges rising to a height of 
 2,000 feet. The island is well wooded and watered, 
 and said to be healthy in the extreme. Tropical fruits 
 are to be found in great abundance ; while the forests 
 that cover the sloping hills from valley to summit, 
 abound in fancy woods of great commercial value. 
 There are great numbers of tortoise taken here, whose 
 shell is of the most beautiful and valued kind. The 
 inhabitants, like all the islands around New Guinea, 
 excepting always Great Australia, are of the woolly-
 
 j,n THK ISLAM) WORLD 
 
 lieaded negro type, and ma)- be set down at 16,000 in 
 number, the whole group givhig an area of 4,300 
 
 square miles. 
 
 \i:w I'.RrrAi.N. 
 
 Southwest from New Ireland, not many miles 
 awa\-, lies the New Britain group, inhabited by 20,000 
 people, and having an area of 10,500 scjuare miles, 
 within the limits of the eight islands. They have the 
 same physical features as New Ireland, with a richness 
 of tropical vegetation unsurpassed in these latitudes. 
 The natives are of the Papuan type, uncivilized and 
 treacherous in the extreme. The products are like 
 those of the islands in the surrounding seas. This 
 group, like many others, needs but to be touched by 
 the magic wand of enterprise and civilization to place 
 them among the important islands of the w^orld. 
 
 LOUISADE ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 Southeast from Papua, stretched over 350 miles 
 of the sea. the Louisade Archipelago lies, a long, low- 
 group, with scarcely any prominence in the way of hills 
 and mountains. Little is known of the value of the 
 products of these islands, the fierce and treacherous 
 disposition of the natives preventing close commercial 
 relations. As far as known, the area of the group 
 does not exceed 1,500 square miles; while it is safe to 
 estimate the population at 5,000. The islands have 
 every^ appearance of being very fertile, tropical verdure 
 spreading over the cluster on every hand. The na- 
 tives are negritos of the worst type. 
 
 PlilLLlPPINE ISLANDS. 
 
 This remarkable group of islands, numbering over 
 1.200, with an area of about 150,000 square miles, and
 
 OF Till-: PACIFIC OCFAN 121 
 
 a population of 5,000,000, is said to ha\c' l)ecn discov- 
 ered by Magellan in 1521. This, like many of the 
 modern discoveries, and credited to particular discov- 
 erers, will not bear the test of research ; as Marco 
 Polo sailed throuoh the group as earl)- as the ihirtcenih 
 century. 
 
 For a description of this great island clustc-r, widi 
 somt^ of their products, I am indebted to "Adams' 
 Eastern Archiofelaofo," and the writiuLrs of that '^reat 
 navigator and bold buccaneer, W^illiam Dampier. 
 
 These islands present so many interesting and 
 attractive features, that we shall cittempt a somewhat 
 detailed account, beginning with a general view of 
 their prominent characteristics, glancing at tlie histor\- 
 of their discovery by Europeans, and concluding with 
 some sketches of their scenery, and leading forms of 
 animal and vegetable life. 
 
 The principal islands are Luzon, Mindanao, Min. 
 doro, Samar, Pana)-, Leyte, Zebu, Negros. Bohol and 
 Alawan. The whole cluster is divided into groups ; 
 the Sooloos, Bissayas, Pasay, Bashu and Babw)'an be- 
 ing the most important. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 The larger islands of the group appear to produce 
 a powerful impression on the imagination of tlie \'oya- 
 ger, to judge from the many glowing pictures contained 
 in various narratives. Their coast line is bold and ir- 
 regular, broken up by numerous romantic hc^adlands. 
 the declivities of which are green with abundant foli- 
 age ; by long, narrow tongues of land, with forest 
 growth extending to the very margin of the sea : b)' 
 broad bays, each capable of accommodating an imperial
 
 122 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 fleet ; and narrow inlets and creeks, so embowered in 
 shade that large ships might harbor in them and not 
 be discovered by a passing enemy. Then, from the 
 bright and picturesque shore, the ground rises inland 
 with a continual ascent, until the undulating plains are 
 succeeded by low ranges of wooded hills, and these 
 by lofty ranges, which here and there culminate in 
 magnificent mountain peaks. In and among these 
 ranees, which are irregfular in their direction, and 
 throw off numerous short chains and spurs, lie slopes 
 of perennial verdure, and valleys so gifted with the 
 bounties of nature that they surpass the dreams of the 
 Arcadian poets. Here, too, are broad, deep lakes, in 
 their o-eneral features reminding the traveler of the 
 charming basins of the Scottish Highlands ; while many 
 streams flow through the verdurous glens to unite in 
 ample rivers, which, with full channels, descend to the 
 sea. 
 
 The vegetation of the Phillippines is among the 
 richest of tropical cHmes. A fertile soil is assisted by 
 a genial climate. Droughts are unknown ; the tropical 
 heats are tempered by abundant moisture and by the 
 constant alternation of the land and sea breezes. In 
 the western portions of the group, the rainy season 
 begins in June and ends in September ; in the east it 
 begins in October and ends in January ; and the rains 
 are then so heavy and so continuous that the low 
 grounds are converted into extensive lakes. 
 
 This inundation, however, increases the fertility 
 of the soil and favors the growth of exuberant crops. 
 It may almost be said that the only misfortune to which 
 the islands are liable — the only shade on a picture 
 which astonishes us by its splendor — is the frequency 
 and severity of their earthquakes. They form a part
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 12 j 
 
 of the great volcanic chain to which, in describing the 
 Eastern Archipelago, we have so often found it nt^ces- 
 sary to allude ; and they possess several volcanoes, 
 both active and extinct — among the most important of 
 which is that of Taal. Manilla, the capital of Luzon, 
 and the chief town of the group, was ruined by a con- 
 vulsion which broke out on the evening of the T^d of 
 June, 1863. The cathedral, with its noble dome, was 
 shattered into ruins by a shock which occurred .while 
 the priests were chanting vespers. The Viceroy's pal- 
 ace was destroyed, and the British consulate. Not 
 one of the churches escaped, and the only one left 
 standing (that of Binondo) was rent from roof to base- 
 ment. Nearly two thousand persons perished. 
 
 MINERALS. 
 
 The Phillippines are not only rich in vegetation, 
 but abound in subterranean treasures. The sands of 
 their rivers yield no inconsiderable quantities of gold- 
 dust. All the palaces of earth might be rebuilt from 
 their extensive quarries of marble and limestone. The 
 coal fields cover a wide area and produce an excellent 
 fuel. Iron — the wealth of strong and powerful nations 
 — and copper of the best quality, are found in all the 
 mountain ranges. Sulphur, magnesia, quicksilver, 
 Vermillion, saltpetre and alum are also plentiful. So 
 vast, indeed, are the resources of the Phillippines, that 
 only an able government is needed to give them the 
 position of a wealthy, influential and prosperous com- 
 mercial state. But the colonial administration of Spain 
 has never been marked by either vigor or sagacity ; 
 and though the recent development of commerce has 
 been considerable, it is by no means proportionate lo 
 the capabilities of these beautiful islands.
 
 /24 TH1-: ISLAND WORLD 
 
 '\\\v forest trees which cover the valley slopes and 
 ascend the mountain sides are very valuable. Among 
 ihc- i)lants cultivated for use, we find the gornuti or 
 cabonegro palm, the abuca. the cocoa and other palms, 
 llie pineapple, the cacao tree, cotton and coffee, the 
 tamarind, indigo and sugar-cane. Tobacco is largely 
 grown, and tlie .Manilla cigars are: scarcely less cele- 
 brated than those of Havana. Rice is raised in im- 
 mense quantitic;s, and forms a principal article of trade ; 
 and the vegetable wealth of the group also includes 
 cassia, cloves, red and black pepper, vanilla, cinnamon, 
 nutmegs, maize, wheat, )ams, the sweet potato, and a 
 \ariet)' of the most delicious fruits on which the ripen- 
 ing sunshine of the tropics falls. 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 Animal life is neither less various nor less exube- 
 rant. The horses of the Phillippines are small, but 
 strong and lively; the deer supply a capital veni.son ; 
 hogs, goats, sheep, buffaloes and oxen are bred by the 
 agriculturist ; foxes and gazelles frequent the valleys ; 
 monke)s, scjuirrels, wildcats, and the bagua, a kind of 
 llying cat, the woods. The jungles are enlivened by 
 th.e bright i)kunage of humming bircis, parrots, and the 
 rliinoceros bird. The sea swallow builds her edible 
 nest in the hollows and caves of the rocky coasts. The 
 forests swarm with eagles, falcons, herons, pigeons, 
 game cocks, quails, and the lakes with aquatic birds. 
 Pools and rivers teem with fish ; but here an unplea- 
 sant fact obtrudes itself upon u.s — crocodiles are nu- 
 merous. Serpents lurk in the dense growth of the 
 forests ; leeches .swarm in the swampy lowlands ; rep- 
 tiles abound, and insect life displays itself with a luxu-
 
 OJ' THE PACIJ'IC OCEAN 123 
 
 riance wliich both native and strano;er find o-ood cause 
 to lament. ■•' '^' ''' 
 
 We have spoken of the forest trees. They at- 
 tract attention b)' their enormous bulk and by their 
 hug"e canopies of spreading toliage. They are boimd 
 tborether b)- the remarkable bush-rope or palaseru, 
 which <rrows in festoons several hundred feet in length; 
 while a whole world of epiphytous plants, parasites, 
 creepers, climbers and liaries fmd nourishment in their 
 bark, or support on their stalwart arms, and spread 
 everywhere such a tangle of leal and stem and blossom, 
 that the traveler can only force his way into the forest 
 depths, axe in hand. 
 
 INH.MUrANTS. 
 
 The industrial occupations of the natives include a 
 very ingenious method of working in horn ; the manu- 
 facture of gold and silver chains ; ot cigar cases, and 
 tine hats in various vegetable fibres ; of l)eautifully 
 colored mats, embroidered with gold and silver ; the 
 dressing and varnishing of leather; ship-building and 
 coach-buildinj/. The manutacture ot cii^ars !)"ivcs em- 
 ployment to a large number of people. The cordage 
 of the Phillippines is held in good repute. fhe textile 
 fabrics are said to be fifty-two in number, from the 
 delicate and costly shawls and handkerchiefs, made 
 from the fibre of j)ine-apple leaves, called pinas, and 
 sold at the rate of one or two ounces of gold a piece. 
 down to a coarse cotton and stout sackinor, wrought 
 from the fibres of the abaca and gornuti palms. 
 
 We have nearly completed our general \ie\v ot 
 islands, but a few details seem wanting for the lull in- 
 formation of the reader. The two principal races arc^ 
 the Tagals and Bisayers, who inhabit the towns, vil-
 
 J 26 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 lag-es, and cultivated lowlands, and arc mosdy Roman 
 Catholics, diough a considerable number remain faith- 
 ful to tlie creed of Mohammed. In the mountainous 
 interior we fmd wdiat is probably the original race, the 
 Oceanic Negroes, a black -complexioned, negroish 
 people, closely resembling in their persons and cus- 
 toms the Papuan Alfoories. They are chiefly heathens, 
 practicing a wild and crude idolatry, or otherwise ob- 
 servincr no relieious form at all, thouo^h not free from 
 degrading superstitions. Among the industrial popu- 
 lation a foremost place must be given to the Chinese 
 immigrants, who, however, do not settle permanently 
 in the islands ; while the Mestizos, or half-breeds, who 
 are mostly of Chinese fathers and native mothers, ex- 
 hibit a remarkable degree of activity, enterprise and 
 industry. Spaniards are few In this Spanish colony, 
 except in the military and naval service. 
 
 DAMPIER. 
 
 Dampler visited these islands in 1686, as pilot on 
 board the Cygnet, a privateer, or buccaneering vessel, 
 commanded by Captain Swan. They were kindly re- 
 ceived by the natives, though their piratical character 
 seems to have been suspected. They obtained a sup- 
 ply of fresh provisions ; and Dampler for the first time 
 saw^ the bread-fruit tree, the staff of life to so many of 
 the Polynesian tribes. At the flying proas, or sailing 
 canoes of the natives, the visitors were greatly aston- 
 ished. They were admirably built, and so swift that 
 Dampier was persuaded that one of them would sail 
 twenty-four miles an hour; and another had accom- 
 plished the distance between Guahan and Manilla, or 
 400 leagues, in four days.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 127 
 
 Dampier describes the trees of Mindanao with 
 some degree of particularity. In his time tliey were 
 curiosities, and scarcely known to Europeans, even by 
 repute ; but now we are all familiar with the properties 
 of the bread-fruit and the cocoa-nut, the nutmesf and 
 the banana, the durian and the plantain. 
 
 HIS ACCOUNT OF THE PLANTAIN. 
 
 The plantain he boldly terms the king of all fruit. 
 He will brook no rivals near its throne, not even the 
 cocoanut palm, gracefulest of all vegetable wonders, 
 which wins the admiration of every cultivated eye 
 with its slender, shapely column and lifted crown of 
 plumes. The tree that bears the plantain is, he says, 
 about three feet or three and a half feet around and 
 ten or twelve feet high. It is not raised from seed, 
 but from the roots of old trees of the same kind. If 
 these young suckers are taken out of the ground and 
 planted in another place they will not fructify for 
 fifteen months, but if allowed to remain in their own 
 soil they will fructify in twelve. As soon as the fruit 
 is ripe the tree decays, but several young ones are 
 ready to take its place. On first emerging from the 
 ground it springs up with two leaves, and by the time 
 it is a foot in height two more spring up inside the 
 first couple, and shortly afterwards two more within 
 them; and so the brave work goes on. By the time 
 it is a month old a small stem about the size of a 
 man's arm is discernible, as well as eight or ten leaves, 
 some of which are four or five feet hijirh. The first 
 leaves, however, are not more than twelve inches long 
 and six broad ; the stem that bears them is no bigger 
 than a man's finger, but the leaves increase in size as
 
 J2S THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 the tree; increases in heig-ht. The old leaves spread 
 off as the )ouno- springr on the inside, and their tops 
 droop downwards, being of a greater length and 
 breadth in proportion as they are nearer to the roots. 
 At last they decay and drop off, but the young leaves 
 alwa) s blooming at the top preserve the green and 
 Nourishing aspect of the tree. '•' '•' '" 
 
 Thus the body of the tree seems to be made up 
 of man) thick skins, growing one over another, and 
 when it is full grown, out of the top springs a strong 
 stem, harder in substance than any other part of the 
 trunk. 
 
 This stem shoots forth at the heart of the tree, 
 is as big, says Dampier, and as long as a man's arm, 
 and, all clustering around, grows the fruit — and such 
 fruit! The Spaniards give it the first place among the 
 productions of Pomona as most conducive to life. It 
 grows in a pod about six or seven inches long, and is 
 ot the size ot a man's arm — a favorite comparison, 
 we may observe, with Dampier. The pod, shell or 
 rind is soft, and when ripe is as yellow as gold. The 
 Iruit widiin is no harder than butter in winter, and 
 resembles good yellow butter in color. It is of a 
 delicate taste, and melts in one's mouth like marma- 
 lade. It is all pure pulp, without any seed, stone or 
 kernel. Europeans when they settle in America 
 learn to esteem it so highly that when they make a 
 new plantation they usually begin with a good "plan- 
 tain walk." as they call it, or a "field of plantains," 
 and as their family increases, so do they enlarge 
 their j>lantain walk, keeping one man purposely to 
 prune the trees and gather the fruit as it reaches 
 maturit)'. Vo\- some, or f)ther of the trees, are 
 always bearing throughout the year, and frequently
 
 TEA PLANT OF JAPAN.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCFAN 12^ 
 
 this is the only food on which a whole family exists. 
 Such, at least, is Dampier's statement; but accurate 
 as he g-enerally is, some exaf^ge ration is surely mani- 
 fest here. 
 
 I have c[uoted thus far from the memoirs of Dam- 
 pier, to show the style of writing-, as well as the 
 observing powers of the great buccaneer. Narrating- 
 in a period about two hundred years past, he writes 
 on many subjects with a detail and accuracy truly 
 astonishing. 
 
 In those days, as well at the present time, the 
 plantain and banana are often confounded as one 
 and the same fruit. In reality the distinction is 
 nearly as great as that between a pumpkin and a 
 melon. And although belonging to the same botan- 
 ical species, one is a delicious natural fruit while the 
 other requires the culinary art to make it acceptable as 
 a food. 
 
 Manilla, on the island of Luzon, the capital cit)- 
 of the Phillippines, is in north latitude 14 deg. 36 
 min., and east longitude 120 deg. 52 min. Inhabited 
 by about 300,000 people, it has long been the princi- 
 pal commercial port of the Spanish possessions in 
 the Pacific. The exports of sugar are about 150,- 
 000 tons per annum, with 50,000 tons of Manilla 
 hemp and 100,000,000 cigars. In the manufacture 
 of the latter, 10,000 women are employed, the factory 
 covering a space of over six acres. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 Nature, climate and locality have combined to 
 make the islands of the Pacific favored lands for the 
 extensive cultivation, preparation and export of to- 
 bacco.
 
 jjo THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Of the plant itself, it may be claimed as the Nico- 
 tiana Tabacwn, indigenous to America, but cultivated 
 now in nearly all parts of the world. Seeds of the 
 plant were sent by Jean Nicot, in 1560, from Portugal, 
 to Catherine de Medici. Nicot was the French am- 
 bassador in that country, from whom the plant receives 
 its botanical name. Its first introduction into Europe 
 from the new world may be dated from the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century. Its first introduction into 
 England by Sir Walter Raleigh, from Virginia, oc- 
 curred about 1586. Hayden ascribes it to Sir John 
 Hawkins in 1565, while many others grant it to Raleigh 
 and Sir Francis Drake. 
 
 Baird, Humboldt, and many of the encyclopaedias, 
 state its name to be derived from the Indian word 
 tabacos, a name given by the Carribees to the pipe, in 
 which they smoked the leaves of the plant. Baird 
 says it is the common name of the species of herba- 
 ceous, rarely-shrubby plants, of the genus Nicotiana, 
 generally clothed with clammy hairs or down, and na- 
 tives for the most part of the warmer portions of Amer- 
 ica, a few growing also in the East. The species which 
 yields most of the tobacco of commerce, is the com- 
 mon Virginian or sweet-scented tobacco, extensively 
 cultivated in the warmer portions of the United States. 
 
 The claim for its first uses among the Chinese, 
 Mongols, and the East Indians, says Mr. McCulloch, 
 is. however, a very doubtful proposition. It seems 
 sufficiently established that the tobacco plant was first 
 brought from Brazil to India about the year 161 7, and 
 it is most probable that it was thence carried to* Siam, 
 China, and other Eastern countries. The names given 
 to it in all the languages of the East are obviously of 
 European, or rather of American origin, a fact which
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ijj 
 
 seems completely to negative the idea of its being- in- 
 digenous to the East. 
 
 Where properly cultivated, picked and cured, the 
 best qualities of "Old Virginia" tobacco, for chewing 
 or smoking, has no superior. That of Havana, for 
 the manufacture of ciijars alone, takes first place, but 
 does not seem to have the requisite qualities that go 
 to make either a palatable "fine cut" or "plug" chew- 
 ing tobacco.
 
 JJ2 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ISI.AKDS 
 
 And yonder by Nankin, behold ! 
 
 The tower of porcelain, strange and old, 
 Uplifting to the astonished skies 
 
 Its nine-fold painted balconies, 
 "With balustrades of twining leaves, 
 
 And roofs of tile, beneath whose eaves 
 Hang porcelain bells that all the time 
 
 Ring with a soft melodious chime ; 
 
 Longfellow [Keramos.) 
 
 ISLANDS OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 li BRIEF glance at some of the islands belonging 
 *r-V^ to China may not prove uninteresting. They 
 may be set down at about forty in number, with 
 an area of 35,000 square miles and a population of 
 4,500,000. Hainan, Formosa, and the islands of the 
 Chusan Archipelago, are the most important. 
 
 HAINAN. 
 
 Hainan, in the China Sea, between 18 degf. and 
 20 deg. north latitude, and between 108 deg. and 1 1 1 
 deg. east longitude, has an area of 12,000 square miles 
 and a population of 1,500,000. It is but fifteen miles 
 from the mainland of China, the inhabitants being prin- 
 cipally people of that country. The interior is ver)'
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ijj 
 
 mountainous, and is said to be a desolate, barren re- 
 gion. The shore countr}^ however, is very fertile, and 
 is cultivated with all the skill of the Chinese asfricultu- 
 rist. Unlike Formosa, there are many good harbors 
 indenting its shores. The products of the land are 
 similar to those already mentioned, ranging from the 
 tropical to those of the more temperate climes. 
 
 FORMOSA. 
 
 Formosa, somewhat larger than Hainan, having 
 an area of 15,000 square miles, lies between 21 deg. 
 58 min. and 25 deg. 15 min. north latitude, and east 
 longitude 120 deg. and 122 deg.; is separated from the 
 mainland by a channel nearly ninety miles in width. 
 The inhabitants, some 2,500,000 in number, are of the 
 Chinese and Malay types. 
 
 The island is of evident volcanic origin, many traces 
 of former eruptions being found, but wholly inactive at 
 present. Mountain ranges traverse the land, many of 
 whose peaks are covered with perpetual snow. There 
 are no good harbors, making commerce and navigation 
 to and from Formosa, exceedingly dangerous. The 
 lands, where cultivated, are very productive. Nearly 
 all the fruits of the tropics are grown, with rice, coffee, 
 sugar and tobacco as staples. The forests abound in 
 camphor, cinnamon, ebony and other valuable trees. 
 
 Formosa was first made known to Europeans by 
 some returning Spanish seamen who had lost their 
 vessel on the island's rocky shores in 1582. 
 
 The fisheries of these two islands are of great 
 value, as also those of the Chusan Archipelago. Im- 
 mense quantities are taken, cleaned, dried and sold in 
 the markets of China. This valuable interest is not
 
 /j^ THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 confined alone to these islands, but is of great commer- 
 cial importance in nearly all of the island groups de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Like Australia, in the surrounding seas, as m^ny 
 as thirteen hundred species of fish are known. 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 Dai Niphon, the Japanese Empire, we know of, 
 through history and tradition, as far back as 680 b. c. 
 The island empire is embraced between latitude 23 
 deg. and 50 deg. north, and longitude 122 deg. and 
 153 deg. east. Thousands of islands (the official num- 
 ber is stated to be 4,000), stretched over the Asiatic 
 seas, make a landed area of about 250,000 square 
 miles, inhabited by 34,000,000 people. 
 
 The island chains and clusters are divided into 
 groups, the more important being named Kurile, Kiu- 
 shiu, Niphon, Riukiu, Sado, Shikokiu, Yezo, Goto, 
 Oki, Iki, Oshima, Awaji, Hirado, etc.; the most noted 
 cities on which are Tokio (formerly Yedo), Kioto, 
 Ozaka, Nagoya, Hiroshuma, Sagii, Kagoshuma. Ka- 
 nagawa, Samoda, etc. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Our first knowledge of Japan was through the 
 celebrated Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, who visited 
 the empire in the thirteenth century. At a more mod- 
 ern period we hear of them through the efforts of the 
 Catholic missionaries, and again from the Dutch ex- 
 plorer, Ksempfer. It remained, however, almost a 
 ten-a incognita until 1854, when the United States, 
 through the efforts of Commodore Perry, succeeded
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN /jj 
 
 in making a commercial treaty that opened up the 
 isolated empire to the trade of the world. 
 
 The islands of Japan were probably peopled by 
 the Chinese in looo b. c. — many traces of whom are 
 to be found in the language, manners, religion, cus- 
 toms and agriculture of the Japanese to-day. The art 
 of navigation, also, was well understood by them for 
 many centuries. 
 
 NAVIGATION. 
 
 / 
 
 As early as the sixteenth year of the reign of the 
 Emperor Suizin, 8i b. c, merchant ships and ships 
 of war are spoken of as being built in Japan. 
 
 In the early periods their vessels must have been 
 greatly superior in form and build to those of the 
 present day. In fact, they were and are mariners of 
 no mean order, and through this circumstance alone, 
 if we add the storms, favoring winds and the ocean 
 currents of the Kuro Shiwo in the north, and the 
 Peruvian currents in the south, the peopling of North 
 and South America can be traced back to the Japanese 
 and Chinese. 
 
 The disappearance of Japanese vessels off of their 
 coast, with their crews, never to return, whether 
 through accident or design, have become so frequent 
 as to require an imperial decree to check it. Under 
 the reign of Shogoon Irzemitsu, about 1639, an 
 edict was issued commanding the destruction of all 
 boats built on any foreign model, and forbade the 
 building of vessels of any size or shape superior to 
 that of the present junk. By the imperial decree of 
 1637, Japanese who had left their country and been 
 abroad were not allowed to return, death being the 
 penalty for traveling abroad, studying foreign Ian-
 
 J36 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 guages, introducing foreign customs or believing in 
 Christianity. 
 
 About this time all junks were ordered to be 
 built with open sterns and large square rudders, unfit 
 for ocean navigation, as it was hoped thereby to keep 
 the people isolated within their own islands. Once 
 forced from the coast by stress of weather, these rud- 
 ders are soon washed away, when the vessels naturally 
 fall off into the trough of the sea and roll their masts 
 out. The number, of which no record exists which have 
 thus suffered during the last nineteen centuries, must 
 be very large, probably many thousand vessels. 
 
 (Brooks on Japanese Wrecks.) 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 The topograpical features of Japan must of a 
 necessity vary a great deal. Being a country wholly 
 composed of islands, large and small, the physical 
 features of mountains, valleys, lakes and streams, 
 have not that extent and grandeur of older and 
 larger countries. The rivers for this reason are not 
 long, broad or of very great depth, and therefore 
 inland navigation is not much in vogue. However 
 some of the mountain ranges are very prominent, 
 notably the volcanic peak of Fugisan, with an altitude 
 of 14,000 feet, in the regions of perpetual snow. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 Geologically, the position of most of the islands 
 is of so uneasy a foundation that a popular tradi- 
 tion of the Japanese, locates their empire on the 
 back of a huge catfish. To the uneasy and angry
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN T37 
 
 motions of this fish they attribute their numerous 
 earthquakes — as many as eit^hty of these tcvihlors 
 sometimes visiting them in one day. They are fre- 
 quent, and at times very disastrous, the danger from 
 fire in their wooden cities often adding to the horrors. 
 On this subject a recent writer says : Besides the 
 outbursts of frequent volcanic eruptions, no country 
 is more frequently visited by destructive earthquakes. 
 Kaempfer enumerates six active volcanic mountains. 
 Earthquakes, he says, are so frequent that the natives 
 regard them no more than Europeans do ordinary 
 storms. In 1855 a succession of earthquakes took 
 place and lasted forty days, causing the destruction 
 the besi portion of the city of Yeddo, and the death, 
 it is alleged, of 200,000 of its inhabitants. In 1783 
 the eruption of a volcano on the island of Kiusui, 
 accompanied by violent earthquakes, destroyed in a 
 single province twenty-seven villages. Another vol- 
 canic eruption took place in the same island in 1793, 
 accompanied by earthquakes, which continued from 
 March to June, and caused, according to official re- 
 turns, the death of 53,000 persons, with a propor- 
 tional destruction of property. On the 23d of De- 
 cember, 1854, an earthquake occurred which was felt 
 on the whole coast. Of the town of Simoda, only a 
 few temples and private edifices that stood on elevated 
 ground escaped d-estruction. The fine city of Osacka, 
 on the southeastern side of Niphon, was completely 
 destroyed, and the capital, Yeddo, did not escape 
 without injury. On the loth of November, 1855, an 
 earthquake at Yeddo is said to have caused the de- 
 struction of 100,000 dwellings and fifty- four temples 
 and the death of 30,000 persons. 
 
 (Homan's Cyclo. of Com. and Nav.)
 
 r^8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 The empire produces all the valuable minerals in 
 abundance, as also a good bituminous coal, which they 
 turn into coke and use extensively in working the 
 metals. 
 
 They are the masters of many secret processes 
 in mineralogy and metallurgy, and in the inlaying of 
 metals, one on the other, much used in the ornamenta- 
 tion of their bronzes, mingling gold, copper and silver 
 in the most delicate and intricate designs, have never 
 been equalled in Europe or America. In modeling in 
 wax, to receive the clayey covering afterwards, pre- 
 paratory to casting the designs in bronze or other 
 metals, they show a knowledge and skill seldom 
 equalled. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 The vegetable productions of Japan are for the 
 most part common to temperate regions. Timber, 
 however, is so scarce that no one is permitted to cut 
 down a tree without permission from the magistrate, 
 and only on condition of planting a young one in its 
 stead. The most common forest trees are the fir and 
 cedar, the latter growing to an immense size, being 
 sometimes more than eighteen feet in diameter. In 
 the northern portion of the empire two species of oak 
 are found, which differ from those of Europe. The 
 acorns of one kind are boiled and eaten, and are said 
 to be both palatable and nutritious. The mulberry 
 tree grows wild, and in abundance ; the varnish tree 
 {rhus vernix) abounds in many districts. In the south 
 the bamboo cane, though a tropical plant, is found 
 either in the wild or cultivated state, and is much used
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN jj^ 
 
 in their manufactories. The camphor tree is of great 
 value here, and Hves to a great age. Siebokl visited 
 one which Kaempfor described as having been seen by 
 him 135 years before. It was healthy and covered 
 with foliage, and had a circumference of fifty feet. 
 The country people make the camphor from a decoc- 
 tion of the root and stems, cut into small pieces. 
 Chestnut and walnut trees are both found. Amongr 
 the fruit trees are the orange, lemon, fig, plum, apple, 
 cherry and apricot. 
 
 (Romans.) 
 
 As agriculturists the Japanese are fully equal to 
 the Chinese ; in fact, using all the methods of irriga- 
 tion, rotation of crops, the use of manures, so much in 
 vogue in the older country. They are experts in the 
 handling of the silk-worm, turning its cocoon into all 
 the forms of valuable silk; while in the growth and 
 cultivation of the tea-plant they are unsurpassed. 
 
 INHABITANTS. 
 
 They are far advanced in horticulture as well, and 
 far ahead of other nations in their methods of urging 
 on or retarding the growth of plants. Thus the Cam- 
 ellia Japonica may be seen from a very diminutive 
 growth to a tree forty feet in height, while the pine, 
 cedar, and fruit, are represented in trees of mature 
 growth, from two inches in height up to the natural 
 growth common in other countries. 
 
 The Japanese are bold and daring mariners, and 
 the only race in these regions who pursue the whale. 
 They make many voyages to Kamptchatka and the 
 Aleutian isles, making light of heat and cold, or hard- 
 ships of any kind. It has only been through the re-
 
 I40 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 straint placed upon them by the severest of laws, that 
 has prevented these people from being known to the 
 maritime world centuries ago, and taking their place 
 amongst the most enterprising and boldest of navi- 
 gators. 
 
 The many bays and inlets indenting the island 
 shores, swarm with shoals of fish, and they, with the 
 lakes and rivers, are covered by aquatic birds, afford- 
 ing an easy living to the poorer classes. Pearls of 
 great value abound along the shores ; while the shell, 
 much valued here, is worked up in a thousand ways 
 as ornaments and inlaid work. 
 
 The people are an active, vigorous race, and very 
 intelligent; and although shut up for so many centu- 
 ries, isolated from the outer world, they are kind and 
 hospitable to strangers, carrying their courtesy and po- 
 liteness to the greatest extreme. Since the American 
 treaty in 1854 they have steadily improved in shipping. 
 and manufactures, freely admitting all our arts of peace 
 and war to be introduced among them. At the pres- 
 ent time, young Japanese of the better classes are to 
 be found traveling in all parts of the world or attend- 
 ing the colleges and academies of the most advanced 
 nations, diligently and intelligently seeking all that 
 may advance or benefit their native land. 
 
 TEA PLANT. 
 
 A brief description of the tea plant, so assiduously 
 and profitably cultivated by the Asiatic races, may 
 interest the general reader. 
 
 The tea plant {TJiea Sinensis), in a wild state, is 
 a bushy shrub, often reaching to the dignity of a tree 
 in size and foliage. In the cultivated state, in China
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ^41 
 
 and Japan, the plants are held back, beins^- pruned 
 down and not allowed to grow higher than three to five 
 feet. Botanists of to-day rank it as Cammcllia T/ica 
 genus, same as the Cammellia yaponica; also bearing 
 a close resemblance to the Cammellia Sasanqiux, intro- 
 duced in Europe and America from China in 181 1. 
 
 The plant resembles the japonica somewhat in its 
 buds and flowers, the leaves differing in being longer, 
 narrower and less shiny. It is an evergreen, and af- 
 fords from three to four crops a year, the second pick- 
 ing being considered the best. The leaves are picked 
 altogether by hand, when they are conveyed to drying 
 floors, the green varieties being dried on copperplates 
 over slow fires, which results (not, however, without 
 the assistance of beinij rolled between the hands of the 
 laborers) in the closely-curled form found in nearly all 
 teas. It has been stated that the green variety owes 
 its color to the chemical action of the copper -on the 
 leaves. ihis is erroneous, as the black varieties are 
 picked from the same plant, and receive their color 
 from being allowed to go through a slow fermenting 
 process, which changes the leaves of the same plant 
 from green to black. From the dry-houses the tea is 
 packed in lead-lined cases, or put up in paper pack- 
 ages, as we see it in the markets of the world. 
 
 Tea was first discovered in China, iJfrowino- in a 
 wild state, in the eighth century^ In the fourteenth 
 year of the reign of the Emperor Te-Tsong, correspon- 
 ding to the year 'jZ'i) of our era, we find an impost 
 levied on tea. Japanese writers state that the plant 
 was first brought to their country from China in the 
 ninth century. 
 
 Of Europeans, the Portuguese were probably the 
 first to discover its uses — in 151 7. An Englishman —
 
 142 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 one of the officers of the East India Company — speaks 
 of it in a letter to his company in 1615. 
 
 In the years 1870, '71, '72 and '']i, the imports of 
 tea into Great Britain were about sixty tJiousand tons 
 per annum, valued at about 5^55,000,000. 
 
 Into the United States, in 1871, '72, 'jt, and '74, 
 the imports of tea were about 27,500 tons per annum, 
 of an annual value of about ^20,000,000. 
 
 CAMPHOR TREE. 
 
 A valuable indigenous growth of Japan is the 
 camphor tree, one of the laurel family {^Lauracea Cam- 
 phora). It is native to the soil of nearly all the is- 
 lands of the Eastern Archipelago and the Asiatic coast. 
 The tree grows to a large size, with beautiful, wide- 
 spreading foliage, and bears a small fruit, not unlike 
 in size and appearance to a black currant. The ordi- 
 nary camphor of commerce is produced by steeping 
 the twigs, roots, and other portions of the tree in water, 
 and then, by heat, distilling the liquid over into con- 
 densors, where it deposits in small white crystals, when 
 it is carefully dried and packed for shipment. 
 
 That of Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and some of the 
 MoUuccas, is taken from the tree in the form of a gum, 
 which exudes from the limbs, body and roots, drying 
 and crystallizing in masses, sometimes weighing ten or 
 fifteen pounds. This quality is considered to be of 
 great value by the Chinese and Japanese, who readily 
 pay a hundred times more for it than for that pro- 
 duced by distillation. 
 
 The wood of the tree is of considerable impor- 
 tance, being worked up in many ways into glove boxes, 
 trunks, chests, and as a veneer for all receptacles re-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 143 
 
 quiring protection from the inroads of the insect 
 world. 
 
 GOVERNMENT RELIGION. 
 
 The system of government of the Japanese Em- 
 pire is that of an absolute monarchy. The power of 
 the Mikado is absolute and unlimited in legislative, ex- 
 ecutive and judicial matters. The Great Council 
 (Daijo-Kwan), in which the Emperor himself presides, 
 is the supreme executive, as well as the highest legis- 
 lative body. It is composed of a Prime Minister, two 
 Junior or Vice Prime Ministers, and a number of Privy 
 Councillors. The latter, as a rule, are either heads of 
 the several executive departments or other important 
 bodies. At present there exists no complete severance 
 between the legislative and executive sections of the 
 Government. The most important body in the Gov- 
 ernment is the Gen-Roin, or Senate, established in 
 1875. It deliberates on legislative matters, but its de- 
 cisions are subject to confirmation by the Great or 
 Cabinet Council, and sanction by the sovereign. The 
 number of Senators is unlimited (thirty-seven in 1883); 
 they are chosen from those who have rendered signal 
 service to the state. Another body, the Sanji-in 
 (Council of State), created in 1881, has the function of 
 initiating and framing bills, and discussing matters 
 transmitted by the executive -departments, subject to 
 deliberations in the Senate. It also hears and decides 
 cases relating to administration. 
 
 The religion of nearly the whole of the lower 
 classes is Buddhism, which had 76,275 priests in 1881; 
 Shintoism had 17,851 priests. Christianity is stated 
 to be spreading among the people. School attendance 
 has been made compulsory.
 
 i^ THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 LADRONK ISLi\NDS. 
 
 Due east from the island of Luzon, between lati- 
 tude 13 deg. 50 min. and 20 deg. 50 min. north, and 
 longitude 145 deg. 50 min. and 147 deg. east, are the 
 Ladrone or Marian group. 
 
 There are in all about twenty islands, of which 
 Guajan is the largest, being about 90 miles in circum- 
 ference. The area of the group is 1,300 square miles, 
 with a population of 8,000. 
 
 Discovered by Magellan in 152 i, they form a part 
 of the Spanish possessions in the Pacific. 
 
 The products are similar to the many islands al- 
 ready described, with an abundance of water, and soil 
 of great fertility. 
 
 North by east from the Ladrones are the Jardines 
 group, and north of these, again, Anson's Archipel- 
 ago. Still further east and south we come to the 
 Nameless group, Volcano, La Mira, Halcyon, Wakes. 
 Cornwallis, and many other islands dotting the great 
 Pacific Sea. In longitude 162 deg. 60 min. west, and 
 2 deg. north latitude, there is Christmas Island ; and 
 north by west from that, and in the same group, we 
 find America, Fanning, Palmyra, Prospect and .Sama- 
 rang Islands. 
 
 To the north, again, in latitude 15 deg. 45 min. 
 north, and longitude 169 deg. west, are the Johnston 
 Islands, two in number, and of considerable commer- 
 cial importance, from the guano found there. 
 
 BON IN ISLANDS. 
 
 The Bonin group, between 26 deg. 30 min. and 
 27 deg. 44 min. north latitude, and 142 deg. and 145
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 145 
 
 deg-. east lont^itude, may be set down as containing- 
 seventy islands, with twenty or thirty rocks lying be- 
 tween. There is no definite data at hand giving the 
 area and population of this group, though it would be 
 safe to set the former at 500 square miles, and the lat- 
 ter at 1,000. 
 
 The formation is volcanic, the topography rocky 
 and precipitous, with deep water close to shore. They 
 have long been a resort for whalers in these regions, 
 for wood and water supplies. 
 
 The islands, at one time, in the latter part of the 
 seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 turies, were used by the Japanese as penal colonies. 
 Pell, Buckland and Stapleton are the largest and best- 
 known islands. 
 
 Their products are unimportant at present. The 
 group is claimed by Great Britain, being taken posses- 
 sion of by that power in 1826. 
 
 ANSON AND AUCKLAND ISLANDS. 
 
 There are many island groups, atolls and barren 
 isles, hardly as yet of enough commercial importance 
 to require special or particular description. Under 
 this head is the Anson archipelago, lying west of the 
 Hawaiian group ; and although but a chain of small 
 islets, with but few products, it would be hard, in this 
 age of discovery and requirements, to predict their 
 future. 
 
 The Auckland Islands, between latitude 50 deg. 
 24 min. and 51 deg. 4 min. south, and longitude 163 
 deg. 46 min. and 164 deg. 3 min. east^ are of consider- 
 able importance. They are about twenty in number. 
 several of them, like the island of Auckland, being
 
 146 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 fully 30 miles long by 15 miles wide. They are of 
 volcanic origin, with an abundance of water and tim- 
 ber and fertile soil. Guano of a fine quality is said to 
 be in quantity on some of the islets. Discovered in 
 1806, they remained for many years almost unknown 
 and unoccupied, up to 1 849, when they were granted 
 by Great Britain to a corporation, who used them prin- 
 cipally as a whaling station, but were finally abandoned 
 in 1852. The northern portion of the group is some- 
 times known as the Enderby Islands. The whole group 
 may contain an area of 1,000 square miles, with a pop- 
 ulation of 500. 
 
 I
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 147 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ISLrAKDS 
 
 An island salt and bare, 
 The haunt of seals, and ores, and seamews 
 clang. 
 
 Milton {Paradise Lost). 
 
 ALASKA AND THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 THIS chain of islands, stretching from Alaska in a 
 southeasterly direction to the shores of Kampt- 
 chatka, lying between 51 deg. and 56 deg. north 
 latitude, and 163 deg. and 188 deg. west longitude, 
 form almost a connecting link between North America 
 and Asia. 
 
 They are about fifty in number, and comprise 
 within their limits nearly 8,000 square miles. They at 
 one time formed a portion of the possessions of Rus- 
 sia in America, and were, with Alaska, deeded to the 
 United States by purchase in 1867. 
 
 Unimak and Ounalaska are the principal and 
 largest of the four different groups. From climatic 
 reasons, as well as their long distance from the civ- 
 ilized world, they are very thinly populated and with 
 little or no agricultural cultivation. Water is very 
 scarce, while there is hardly any growth of timber, 
 they present a picture not at all inviting to future pop-
 
 /.;A" THE ISI.ANn WORl.D 
 
 ulation. Somc" of the valleys are well fitted for graz- 
 ing purposes, abounding with nutritious grasses, while 
 the surrounding waters of the sea teem with fish. 
 The whale and the seal make these latitudes at one 
 time of the year a favorite resort, and are taken in 
 great numbers. There are about 3,000 inhabitants 
 in the Aleutian group, whose existence must JDe any- 
 thing but cheerful. 
 
 iM'om tlieir geographical situation, some writers 
 and ethnologists have supposed the Aleutian chain to 
 have formed the bridge between America and Asia, 
 over which the; Asiatics crossed, gradually peopling 
 America. 
 
 I'he purchase price paid by the United States to 
 Russia for Alaska and the adjoining islands was $7,- 
 200,000. The late important developments being 
 made in that territory in minerals alone, gold, silver, 
 copper and coal, not to mention the immense forests 
 of valuable timber, leaves one with the impression 
 that our Government did a wise thing in its purchase. 
 Its area, something over three and one-half times that 
 of the State of California, for which we paid Mexico 
 5(^15,000,000, may yet prove it a veritable bonanza. 
 Probably not in an agricultural wa)-, but in fisheries, 
 minerals and timber it may exceed all our past for- 
 tunate experiences in territorial acquisitions, like Cali- 
 fornia, Arizona and New Mexico, etc. 
 
 ISLANDS OF ST. PAUL AND ST. GEORGE. 
 
 Two of the islands, .St. Paul and St. George, have 
 been found to be the favorite resorts of the fur seal. 
 This was taken advantage of by a San Francisco cor- 
 poration, who leased the Islands from the Govern-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 149 
 
 ment at a yearly rental of ;^5 5,000, for the purpose 
 of a seal fishery alone. They are restricted to 
 taking but 100,000 a year, on which the United States 
 receives a tax of ^2.62y^ each, producinjj;- in all a 
 revenue to the Government from rental and tax of 
 
 $3^7»500 P^^ annum. 
 
 The island of St. Paul is located in north latitude 
 57 deg. 8 min., and west longitude 170 deg. 13 min. 
 St. George lies about forty miles to the south. From 
 the former, 80,000 seals are taken each year; from the 
 latter, 20,000. 
 
 SEALS AND SEAL FISHING. 
 
 From "Dall's Alaska and its Resources," pub- 
 lished in 1870, we learn that the fur seal fishery, 
 formerly less important than that of the sea otter, has 
 of late years far exceeded it in value. A short review 
 of the history of this fishery may not be out of place. 
 At present the fur seal are almost exclusively ob- 
 tained on the islands of St. Paul and St. George in 
 Behring Sea. A few stragglers only are obtained on 
 the Falkland Islands and the extreme southwest coast 
 of South America. The case was formerly very dif- 
 ferent. Many thousands were obtained from the 
 South Pacific Islands and the coasts of Chili and 
 South Africa. 
 
 The Falkland Island seal {yArtophoca Falklandica) 
 was. at one time common in that group and the ad- 
 jacent seas. The skins, worth fifteen Spanish dollars, 
 according to Sir John Richardson, were from four to 
 five feet long, covered with reddish down, over which 
 stiff gray hair projected. They were hunted especially 
 on the Falkland Islands, Terra del Fuego, New Geor- 
 gia, South Shetland and the coast of Chili.
 
 yjo THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Three and a half milhons of skins were taken 
 from Mas a Fuera to Canton between 1793 and 1807. 
 Another species {Artocephahis Delandi) formerly 
 abounded on the coast of Africa, near the Cape of 
 Good Hope. Their fur was the least valuable of the 
 different kinds of fur seal, and the species seems to 
 have become extinct. * * * 
 
 Of the Arctic or Behring Sea species [Callorpijius 
 U7'si7tus) not less than 6,000^00 skins have been ob- 
 tained since 1741. 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 The Alaskan fur seal formerly extended from the 
 ice line of Behring Sea to the coast of Lower Cali- 
 fornia. At present a few stragglers reach the Straits 
 of Fuca, where 5,000 were said to have been killed in 
 1868, but the great majority are confined to the 
 Pribyloff Islands. They have never been found in 
 Behring Strait, or within 300 miles of it. They arrive 
 at the islands about the middle of June, a few strag- 
 glers coming as early as the end of May. They leave 
 on the approach of winter, usually about the end of 
 October. They are supposed to spend the winter in 
 the open sea, south of the Aleutian Islands. 
 
 When returning from their winter quarters (the 
 location of which is yet unknown), they come up in 
 droves of many thousands on the hillsides near the 
 shore, and literally blacken the islands with their num- 
 bers. * * * 
 
 METHOD OF KILLING SEAL. 
 
 The manner of conducting the fishery is as fol- 
 lows : A number of Aleuts go along the water's edge, 
 and getting between the animals and water, shout and
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN i^i 
 
 wave their sticks. The seals are very timid, and always 
 follow each other like sheep ; yet, if brought to bay, 
 they will fight bravely. A man who should venture 
 into the midst of a herd would doubtless be torn to 
 pieces, for their teeth, though small, are exceedingly 
 sharp. 
 
 A body of four or five hundred having been sepa- 
 rated, as above, from the main assembly, they can be 
 driven very slowly by two men into the interior of the 
 island, exactly as a shepherd would drive his sheep. 
 Their docility depends upon circumstances. If the 
 sun is out and the grass dry, they cannot be driven 
 at all. If the day is wet and the grass sufficiently 
 moi t, they may be driven several miles. Every two. 
 or three minutes they must be allowed to rest. Those 
 who become tired are killed and skinned on the spot 
 by the drivers, as it is of no use to attempt to drive 
 them. They would at once attack the driver. '^ * * 
 When the seals have been brought to a suitable place, 
 they are left with some one to watch them until it is 
 desired to kill them. The skins of old males are so 
 thick as to be useless. The Russians restricted the 
 killing solely to young males less than five years, and 
 more than one year, old. 
 
 No females, pups or old bulls were ever killed. 
 This was a necessary provision to prevent their ex- 
 termination. The seals are killed by a blow on the 
 back of the head with a heavy sharp-edged club. 
 This fractures the skull, which is very thin, and lays 
 them out stiff instandy. The Aleut then plunges 
 his sharp knife into the heart, and with wonderful 
 dexterity, by a few sweeps of his long weapon, sepa- 
 rates the skin from the blubber to which it is attached. 
 The nose and wrists are cut around, and the ears and
 
 J52 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 tail left attached to the skin. When the operation is 
 over the skin is of an oval shape, with four holes, 
 where the extremities protruded. They are then 
 taken out and laid in a large pile, with layers of salt 
 between them. After becoming thoroughly salted, 
 they are done up, two together in square bundles, 
 and tied up with twine. They are then packed for 
 transportation to London. No guns are used in kill- 
 ing the seal. Indeed, guns are not only unnecessary, 
 but injurious, for a hole in the skin diminishes its 
 value one-half All the fur seals are dressed in 
 London. They were worth in the raw state, in 1868, 
 about ^7 each in gold. (Now. 1884, said to be worth 
 $10 each.) A machine has been invented by which 
 the skin is shaved very thin, the roots of the stiff hairs 
 are cut off and they may then be brushed away. 
 The down, which does not penetrate the skin to any 
 distance, remains, and is dyed black or a rich brown. 
 This is the state in which we see the skins at the 
 furriers. 
 
 VANCOUVER ISLAND. 
 
 Vancouver Island, in and between latitude 48 
 deg. 18 min. and 50 deg. 55 min. north, and longitude 
 123 deg. 15 min. and 128 deg. 30 min. west, has an 
 area of about 14,000 square miles, with a population of 
 1 5,000. 
 
 The principal products are coal and timber of a 
 fine quality. Of the former, immense quantities are 
 produced. 
 
 Although my purpose throughout has been to re- 
 frain altogether from allusion or description of lands 
 not located strictly as ocean islands, yet so grand and 
 interesting is Puget Sound, that the following short 
 description may be of interest to the general reader.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ' j^j 
 
 THE PUGET SOUND REGION. 
 
 Puget Sound abundantly deserves its reputation 
 for remarkable beauty. Commodore Wilkes is quite 
 within the bounds of truth in his statement: "NothinL"" 
 can exceed the beauty of these waters. I venture no- 
 thing in saying there is no country in the world that 
 possesses waters equal to these." Widi a length of 
 probably not more than two hundred miles, the sound 
 has a coast line of more than fifteen hundred 
 miles. It covers an area of about two thousand 
 square miles, or a little more than twice the ex- 
 tent of Cook County, in which Chicago is. Its waters 
 are very deep, and at almost any point vessels of the 
 largest size may approach to land until their sides 
 touch the shore, before their keels touch the bottom. 
 It has hundreds of beautiful islands and bays. It lies 
 as a deep basin between two lofty ranges of mountains 
 — the Cascade Range on the east, and the Coast or 
 Olympian Range on the west. The gateway opening 
 into it from the Pacific Ocean is the Straits of Juan de 
 Fuca (the name of their discoverer), which are ninety- 
 five miles long and an average of eight miles in width. 
 The sound itself was named for Peter Pu^fet, one of 
 Vancouver's lieutenants, who explored it. This great 
 navigator eave to another of his lieutenants. Rainier, 
 the honor of calling the grandest mountain peak in the 
 country by his name, though it is now more generally 
 called by the Indian nameTacoma (nourishing breast), 
 while it is claimed that its true Indian name is Tanoma 
 (almost to heaven). It is the highest peak but one in 
 the United States, Mount Blanca in Colorado being 
 just twenty feet higher. The latter, however, is not 
 so massive, so grand, so overwhelming to the view,
 
 1^4 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 since no beholder looks upon it except from an eleva- 
 tion of as much as seven thousand feet, while the for- 
 mer, at the town of New Tacoma, is seen from the sea 
 level, rising grandly 14,444 feet, and covered perpetu- 
 ally with snow and ice, its glaciers surpassing, in ex- 
 tent and grandeur, anything to be seen in the Alps. 
 Senator Edmunds, who visited the mountain last year, 
 says of it: "I have been through the Swiss mountains, 
 and I am compelled to own that — incredible as the 
 assertion may appear — there is absolutely no compari- 
 son between the finest effects that are exhibited there, 
 and what is seen in approaching this grand isolated 
 mountain. I would be willing to go five hun- 
 dred miles aofain to see that scene. This conti- 
 nent is yet in ignorance of the existence of what 
 will be one of the grandest show places, as well as a 
 sanitarium." 
 
 QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS 
 
 Northwest of Vancouver, one hundred and thirty 
 miles, and eighty miles from the coast, are the Queen 
 Charlotte Islands. Like Vancouver, they belong to 
 British Columbia. 
 
 There are, in all, about twenty islands in the 
 group, the principal being Prevost, Graham, North 
 and Moresby. 
 
 Area of the group, 5,000 square miles; popula- 
 tion, 6,000. The climate is good, with an abundance 
 of water, and pine and cedar timber. Copper, iron and 
 coal are found. 
 
 Many good harbors are to be met with in the 
 group, while the bays and inlets around the islands 
 teem with fish.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ijs 
 
 ISLANDS WEST COAST UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Farralones consist of two clusters, comprising 
 seven islands, the nearest of which is about twenty 
 miles from the Golden Gate. They are all destitute of 
 soil and vegetation, consisting of bare, rugged rocks, 
 which are the resort of immense numbers of sea lions 
 and myriads of birds, the eggs of which were a source 
 of great profit to those who collected them. 
 
 The southernmost of the group is the largest, 
 containing about two acres, and is also nearest to the 
 the coast. On this there is a first-class lighthouse to 
 warn the mariner of the dangers of the locality. 
 
 No water fit for drinking, except such as was col- 
 lected from rains and fogs, was obtainable on any of 
 of these islands until 1867, when some of the egg gath- 
 erers discovered a spring on the main island, near the 
 lighthouse. 
 
 There are no other islands on the coast of Califor- 
 nia north of Point Concepcion. South of that headland 
 there are two groups, the most northerly consisting of 
 the islands of San Miguel on the west, Santa Rosa in 
 the center, and Santa Cruz on the east, 
 
 Santa Cruz, the largest of this group, is twenty- 
 one miles in length and four miles wide, and has a 
 rugged surface. 
 
 Santa Rosa is fifteen miles in length and nearly 
 ten miles wide. Its surface is tolerably level, and 
 produces a thick crop of coarse grass and low luishes, 
 but its steep, rugged sides, which rise nearly two hun- 
 dred feet, almost perpendicularly, afford no good land- 
 ing place. 
 
 San Miguel is nearly eight miles long and from 
 two to three miles wide. It is almost a barren rock.
 
 1^6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 but several thousand sheep manage to subsist upon 
 the hmited pasturage growing on the island. About 
 forty miles southeast from the above cluster, and off 
 the coast opposite Los Angeles County, are the islands 
 of San Nicolas and Santa Barbara, and still farther in 
 the same direction are Santa Catalina and San Clemente. 
 
 San Nicolas, the most western, is nearly sixty 
 miles from the main land. It is eight miles in length 
 by about four wide. Its surface is a flat ridge, nearly 
 600 feet high, tapering down in rocky ledges to the sea. 
 
 Santa Barbara Island is nearly circular in outline, 
 and about two miles in diameter at the base, its sur- 
 face on the top containing about thirty acres. 
 
 Santa Catalina, the largest island of this group, is 
 about 400 miles south from San Francisco and twenty- 
 five miles from San Pedro, its nearest point to the 
 main land. It is nearly twenty-eight miles in length, 
 about seven miles wide on its southern and two miles 
 on its northern end. Its surface is rough and uneven, 
 some points being 3,000 feet above the sea level ; but 
 it contains several small valleys which are under culti- 
 vation. * '^■' There is a small stream of water 
 running through its entire length ; it also has a num- 
 ber of springs of fresh water. » * 
 
 San Clemente, the most southern, lies about fifty 
 miles from the main land of San Diego county. It 
 is twenty-two miles in length by about two miles wide. 
 '■'■ '•' It contains neither soil, vegetation or water. * * 
 
 (Cronise, Natural Wealth of California.) 
 
 PACIFIC ISLANDS OF MEXICO. 
 
 Of the islands off the coast of Lower California, 
 and in the Gulf of California, beloneine to Mexico, 
 there is little to be said.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN i^j 
 
 In the Gulf, Carmen and Tibiiron arc the largest 
 and most important. The former has long been cele- 
 brated for the immese quantities of salt exported, 
 while of the latter but little is known, a hostile tribe 
 of Indians being in possession. 
 
 On Carmen, several hundred yards back from the 
 seashore, nature has placed a salt lake, probably one- 
 half a mile in diameter, a great natural evaporating 
 pan, which furnishes a continuous supply of salt, that 
 covers its surface like a crust of oflistenine snow. 
 This is raked together in snowy heaps and takcMi 
 away on hand-cars, running on several tramways built 
 out into the lake. So rapid is the evaporation and 
 accumulation of the salt that hardly the length of a 
 day transpires before another supply is ready for re- 
 moval. This salt marsh has been in operation for 
 over twenty years, and the supply is undiminished. 
 
 Off the coast of Lower California the islands of 
 Guadalupe, Cerros, San Benito, Lobos and .Santa 
 Margarita are of some size and importance. Now 
 but the homes of innumerable wild goats, the day 
 may come when the finer breeds of the Angora will 
 be introduced, and make these barren spots the source 
 of valuable industries. 
 
 Further south, the island groups of Tres Ma- 
 rias, Revilliagigedo, etc., are to be met with, and 
 althougrh not of irreat extent, are of considerable 
 value from the pearl and other fishing grounds found 
 there. The fine timber of the tomano and prima 
 vera, much used in the manufacture of furniture and 
 cabinet ware on the Pacific coast, is exported in large; 
 quantities. 
 
 The pearl fisheries of the Gulf of California and 
 the Bay of Panama form quite an industry, the pearls
 
 J58 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 and shell found often being of the best quality. 
 Pearl, the slicll, and fisheries, have been noticed at 
 some length in another portion of this work, although 
 some of the suggestions made in the chapters on that 
 subject might be applied in these localities with great 
 profit.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 1^9 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 ISI^AIVDS 
 
 A wilderness of sweets. 
 
 Milton {Paradise- Lost), 
 
 THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 
 
 THE Hawaiian group, 10 in number, although some 
 writers say there are thirteen, is between lati- 
 tude 18 deg. 54 min. and 23 deg. 34 min. north, 
 and 154 deg. 50 min. and 164 deg. 32 min. west longi- 
 tudes. The total area is near 6,000 square miles and 
 the population some 65,000. 
 
 The rapid growth of this little island kingdom, 
 and that within a very few years, into commercial im- 
 portance, is but a sample of what will be done in tht: 
 island world in the near future. The topographical 
 features of the group, the few and small streams, 
 with valleys of no very great extent, with a wasteful 
 destruction of nearly all the valuable indigenous 
 products in the past, with the low order of inhab- 
 itants, has barred their progress, yet the magic wand 
 of American enterprise has but touched them, and 
 the islands are now in practical, successful commercial 
 existence. 
 
 The principal export is sugar. Of this valuable
 
 i6o THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 product it is safe to say that 1 50,000,000 pounds, or 
 75,000 tons will be produced this year. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 The geological formation of the group is alto- 
 gether volcanic. Two celebrated volcanoes, Kilauea 
 and Mauna Loa, are noted for their eruptions, and 
 in some of their convulsions the world-famed out- 
 bursts of /Etna and Vesuvius "pale their ineffectual 
 fires." Thus, in the island of Hawaii, according 
 to the Journal, Geological Society, 1856, in 1840 a 
 delup^e of lava broke out ten miles below the 
 crater of Kilauea. It spread from one to four miles 
 wide, and reached the sea at a distance of thirty miles 
 in three days, and for fourteen days plunged in a vast 
 fiery cataract a mile wide over a precipice of 500 feet. 
 In 1843 a similar stream flowed from the summit of 
 Mauna Loa, and in 1855 the lava broke out at a spot 
 2,000 feet below the summit, on the opposite side to 
 Kilauea, and continued for ten months, overflowing an 
 area of 200,000 acres. The main stream was sixty-five 
 miles lono- from one to ten miles wide and from ten 
 to 300 feet in depth. The records do not show any 
 eruptions of Mauna Loa previous to 1832. There 
 were outbursts in 1851, '52, '55 and '59. In 1868 
 one occurred accompanied by a severe earthquake. 
 The last was in 1877. 
 
 SUGAR CANE. 
 
 The wonderful sugar-producing qualities of this 
 little island group, now something like 70,000 tons per 
 annum, is gradually calling the attention of the world 
 to what might be done on other islands of the Pacific.
 
 THE KING OF ST. GEORGE — ALASKA.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCFAN lA/ 
 
 Many of these garden spots are peculiarly adaptcxl to 
 the growth of cane ; the soil, climate and moisture 
 necessary to its successful cultivation being found on 
 every hand. 
 
 The sugar cane, saccJiarnm officiuantiii, is a i)e- 
 rennial plant, of the famil)' of grasses, cultivated sor- 
 ghum and broom-corn being familiar examples of the 
 species. The cane is not found native in any countr) . 
 never producing seeds, and is only reproduced from 
 cuttings. There are many varieties, but the best is 
 the Otaheite, or Bourbon, grown successfully in the 
 Society group. 
 
 Sugar is mentioned at a very early period, being 
 used then only as a medicine. It was introduced into 
 Persia about the ninth century. In the tenth century 
 it was cultivated and formed an article of trade in 
 Spain. 
 
 It was first culti\^ted in Madeira in 1420. and 
 shortly afterwards in the Canary Islands. After the 
 discover)' of America it was introduced into Mexico. 
 San Domingo, Brazil, etc., and about the same time 
 into Africa and the Indian Archipelago. In our own 
 country it was first cultivated by the Jesuits, near New 
 Orleans, in 1751. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 In regard to the discovery of these islands l/y 
 Captain Cook, I am led to believe that he was by no 
 means the original discoverer, but that like many other 
 navigators on the oreat oceans of the world, it was 
 a discovery for him, while in truth it may have been 
 known to others many ages previous. 
 
 It is believed that the Hawaiian Islands were first 
 discovered by the Spaniards, and were often seen by
 
 j62 the island world 
 
 the Spanish galleons on their yearly passages, between 
 Acapulco and Manilla in the sixteenth century. Accord- 
 ino- to tradition, two Spanish vessels from Mexico were 
 wrecked on the island of Hawaii about the year 1525. 
 Their crews mixed with the native race, whose de- 
 scendants, it is said, can even now be distinguished by 
 their complexion. 
 
 The Spanish charts of the Pacific Ocean, dated in 
 the sixteenth century, give the position of the islands 
 with some accuracy, and call them by names, describ- 
 ing the appearance which each island presented to the 
 Spanish navigators when seen from their vessels. 
 These charts were known in England when Captain 
 Cook sailed on his voyages of discovery; and as the 
 London charts of 1777, the year before Cook first vis- 
 ited the islands, record their existence, this English 
 navigator cannot be considered as their discoverer. 
 
 About the year 1 740, according to tradition, a 
 ship landed a crew of white men on the island of Oahu. 
 The natives knew the value and uses of iron before 
 Cook arrived. They stole his boat and broke it up to 
 get the iron from it. in Kealeakua Bay, where his ships 
 anchored in Januar}^ 1779, and where he was killed in 
 a combat with the natives on the 14th of February, 
 while negotiating, on the shore, for the return of his 
 boat 
 
 The French navigator, La Perouse, who also was 
 killed by Pacific savages, visited the islands in 1786. 
 In 1 790 the first trading ship arrived — the American 
 ship Eleanor. The English explorer, Vancouver, ar- 
 rived in 1792, and brought from California the first 
 cattle that the islands had seen. In 1793 the harbor 
 of Honolulu was discovered and entered by a trading 
 vessel from the west coast of America. In 1820 the
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 163 
 
 first whaler arrived — the ship Mary, from Nantucket. 
 The Hghthouse of Honolulu was first lighted in 1869. 
 
 The first Protestant missionaries arrived at the 
 islands in 1820, by the brig Thaddcics, which sailed 
 from Boston in 18 19. * '^ * 
 
 They were well received by the islanders, who 
 '^ were superstitious idolaters, living under the tyranny 
 of their chiefs and priests. Since 1820 the American 
 churches (up to 1873) have sent nearly one hundred 
 and fifty men and women as missionaries to these is- 
 lands, and have spent a million "^f dollars for their 
 evanofelical civilization. 
 
 One result of the investment is the controlling in- 
 fluence of Americans, etc. 
 
 (Bliss's " Paradise in the Pacific") 
 COTTON. 
 
 The cotton plant (genus gossypiuni) is an indige- 
 nous growth of nearly all the intertropical countries, 
 there being as many as eight varieties of the plant — 
 one (the gossypiuni sandwichsense) being native in the 
 Sandwich Islands. 
 
 In India, cotton, its cultivation and uses, have been 
 known since prehistoric times, and was introduced 
 from there into Japan in the seventh century, and into 
 Europe by the Mohammedans in the tenth centur)\ 
 In the United States it was known as far back as 1536 
 — the product from the latter country being now about 
 one and one-half million tons per annum. The finer 
 qualities — that with the longest fibre — grown in the 
 United States, on the isles along the coast of Georgia 
 and some of the other seaboard States, known as sea- 
 island cotton, would naturally suggest it as one of the 
 staples to be cultivated in the South Sea.
 
 i64 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 PRINCIPAL ISLANDS. 
 
 Hawaii, although the largest island in the group 
 (having an area of nearly four thousand square miles), 
 has but one harbor of any note — that of Hilo. There 
 are many indentations along the shores that might 
 serve as good anchoring for vessels, but the sterility 
 of the back country has so far prevented their occupa- 
 tion and settlement. 
 
 Next in size is Mau, with about 603 square miles 
 of area. There is little to be said, except that the 
 lands are extremely productive where placed under 
 cultivation. 
 
 On Oahu, third in size, whose area is 522 square 
 miles, is located the principal port of entry and harbor, 
 as well as the capital city of the kingdom, Honolulu. 
 There is good anchorage here, with a barrier reef of 
 coral and lava protecting it on every side. 
 
 Deep-water soundings are found on every hand 
 before entering, while inside the average depth may- 
 be set down at about twenty feet. 
 
 MAUNA LOA. 
 
 The volcanoes of Mauna Loa and Kilauea. located 
 on the island ot Hawaii, have already received some 
 attention in this work. 
 
 Kilauea is sometimes claimed to have the larofest 
 active volcanic crater in the world, havine a circumfer- 
 ence of over eight miles, and a depth, from the rim of 
 the basin to the burning lava, of one thousand feet. 
 The elevation of the crater is 4,000 feet, while its fiery 
 neighbor, Mauna Loa (both being located on the 
 mountain of that name) towers into the skies 13,760
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 165 
 
 feet above the sea. In regard to the size of volcanic 
 craters, it might be said that in the eastern part of the 
 island of Java a crater is to be found twelve to fifteen 
 miles in circumference ; that of Kilauea does not ex- 
 ceed nine miles. On the eastern peninsula of the is- 
 land of Maui, one of the Sandwich group, is located 
 the summit crater of Mauna Haleakala, 10,200 feet 
 above the sea level. Following the rim of the once 
 fiery cauldron, the circumference is all of twenty-seven 
 miles, while the depth from the edge to the bottom of 
 the great pit is two thousand feet. As far as known, 
 this is the largest volcanic crater in the world. Of 
 Kilauea, Dana says : 
 
 BURNING LAKE OF KILAUEA. 
 
 Kilauea is a deep pit in the sides of Mount Loa. 
 The gentle slopes of the dome in this part scarcely 
 vary from a plain, and the crater appears like a vast 
 gulf excavated out of the rock-built structure. Al- 
 though there is no cone, the country around is slightly 
 raised above the general level, as if by former erup- 
 tions over the surface ; but this is hardly apparent 
 without extended and careful examination. 
 
 The traveler perceives his approach to the crater 
 in a few small clouds of steam rising from fissures not 
 far from his path. While gazing for a second indica- 
 tion, he stands unexpectedly upon the brink of the pit. 
 A vast amphitheatre, seven miles and a half in circuit, 
 has opened to view. Beneath a gray, rocky precipice 
 of 650 feet, forming the bold contour, a narrow plain 
 of hardened lava (the "black ledge") extends like a 
 vast gallery around the whole interior. Within this 
 gallery, below another similar precipice of 340 feet,
 
 i66 THE ISLAND WORLD ■ 
 
 lies the bottom, a wide plain of bare rock more than 
 two miles in length. 
 
 The eye naturally ranged over the whole area for 
 something like volcanic action, as it is usually de- 
 scribed. But all was singularly quiet. In the dark plain 
 that forms the bottom there was little to attract atten- 
 tion beside the utter dreariness of the place, excepting 
 certain spots of a blood-red color, which appeared to 
 be in constant yet gentle agitation. Instead of behold- 
 ing a sea of molten lava "rolling to and fro its fiery 
 surge and flaming billows," we were surprised at the 
 stillness of the scene. The incessant motion in the 
 blood-red pools was like that of a cauldron in constant 
 ebullition. The lava in each boiled with such activity 
 as to cause a rapid play. of jets over its surface. One 
 pool, the largest of the three then in action, was after- 
 wards ascertained by survey to measure 1,500 feet in 
 one diameter, and 1,000 in the other; and this whole 
 area — into which the capitol grounds at Washington 
 miorht be sunk entire — was boilintj as seemed from 
 above, with nearly the mobility of water. Still all went 
 on quietly. Not a whisper was heard from the fires 
 below. While vapors rose in fleecy wreaths from the 
 pools and numerous fissures, and above the large lake 
 they collected into a broad canopy of clouds, not unlike 
 the snowy heaps or cumuli that lie near the horizon on 
 a clear day, though changing more rapidly their fanci- 
 ful shapes. On descending afterwards to the black 
 ledge at the verge of the lower pit, a half-smothered, 
 gurgling sound was all that could be heard from the 
 pools of lava. Occasionally there was a report like 
 that of musketry, which died away and left the same 
 murmuring sound — the stifled mutterings of a boiling 
 fluid. Such was the appearance of Pele's pit in a day
 
 .OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 167 
 
 view, at the time it was visited by the author (in No- 
 vember, 1840). 
 
 At night, though less quiet, the scene was one of 
 indescribable sublimity. We were encamped on the 
 edofe of the crater, with the fires in full view. The 
 large cauldron, in place of its bloody glare, now glowed 
 with intense brilliancy, and the surface sparkled with 
 shifting points of dazzling light occasioned by the jets 
 in constant display. A row of small basins on the south- 
 east side of the lake were also jetting out their glowing 
 lavas. Two other pools in another part of the pit 
 tossed up their molten rock much like the larger caul- 
 dron, and occasionally burst out with jets forty or fifty 
 feet in height. The broad canopy of clouds above the 
 pit, which seemed to rest on a column of wreaths and 
 curling heaps of lighted vapor, and the amphitheatre 
 of rocks around the lower depths, were brightly illumi- 
 nated from the boiling lavas, while a lurid red tinged 
 the distant parts of the inclosing walls, and threw into- 
 shades of darkness the many cavernous recesses. And 
 over this scene of restless fires and fiery vapors, the 
 heavens, by contrast, seemed unnaturally black, with 
 only here and there a star like a dim point of light. 
 The next nigrht streams of lava boiled over from the 
 lake, and formed several glowing lines diverging over 
 the bottom of the crater. Towards morning there was 
 a dense mist, and the whole atmosphere seemed on 
 fire. Through the haze the lakes were barely distin- 
 guished by the spangles on the surface that were 
 brightening and disappearing with incessant change. 
 
 ISLAND FORMATION. 
 
 Among the groups of Polynesia the Hawaiian ex- 
 ceeds all others in geological interest. The agency
 
 ^68 THE ISLAND WORLD ■ 
 
 of both fire and water in the formation of rocks is 
 exemphfied not only by results, but also by processes 
 now in action, and the student of nature may watch the 
 steps through the successive changes. He may de- 
 scend to the boiling pit and witness the operations in 
 the vast laboratory with the same deliberation as he 
 would examine the crucible in a chemist's furnace. Thus 
 the manner in which mountains are made and islands 
 built up becomes a matter of observation. The vol- 
 canic dome may be seen in process of accumulation 
 from overflowing lavas, and may be traced as it in- 
 creases in size. Again, disruptions of the accumu- 
 lated rock may be observed, followed by their disap- 
 pearance in the lavas below. 
 
 While these volcanic mountains are still extending 
 their limits in ohe part of the group, in others those 
 changes are finely illustrated, which they undergo 
 through the action of water, gradual decomposition 
 and other allied causes, and these effects are in every 
 stage of progress. In some instances the slopes retain 
 the even surface of the lava stream ; in others, they are 
 altered in every feature — the heights are worn down, 
 the whole surface gorged out with valleys, and the 
 depth of these furrowings of time, indicate that the 
 several islands differ widely in the length of the period 
 since they were finished by the fires and left to the 
 action of the elements. 
 
 Moreover, the coral formations of the shores pre- 
 sent us with reefs now in progress from the growing 
 zoophytes, and there are also reefs elevated many 
 feet above the sea, having a close resemblance to beds 
 of limestone. Besides these, there are hills of drift sand- 
 rock, of coral origin. The various facts illustrate, there- 
 fore, all the results of coral growth and accumulation.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCFAN i6<^ 
 
 The group is consequently the key to Polynesian 
 geology. It combines all the features which are else- 
 where widely scattered, and they are so exhibited in 
 progressive stages as to afford mutual illustration. 
 An island like Tahiti, so broken into peaks and 
 ridges, may excite wonder and doubt. The Hawaiian 
 group suggests the same difficult problem as Tahiti, 
 but an intelligent solution is at the same time pre- 
 sented for our contemplation and study, 
 
 (Dana, Geol., Wilkes' E.xp. Expeditif)n.) 
 ISLANDS rACIFIC COAST OF .SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Off the west coast of South America there are at 
 
 least 300 islands, becoming more numerous and in 
 larger groups as we go towards Cape Horn. 
 
 Those off the coast of Ecuador, the Albemarle, 
 James. Chatham, Indefatigable, Hood, Charles. Nar- 
 boro. etc., have already been alluded to in this work, 
 under the head of Galapagos. 
 
 GUANO. 
 
 Lying near the coast of Peru, and only about 
 twelve miles* from the main land, between 13 deg. and 
 14 deg. south latitude, and containing but a few square 
 miles of area, are the celebrated guano grouji, the 
 Chincha Islands. It may not be unininteresting 
 to state here, that nearly 20,000,000 tons gauno 
 have been exported to Europe and America from this 
 little group alone. The shipments were commenced 
 in 1841, and continued on a scale of great magnitude 
 up to 1872, when the guano deposits were j)racti- 
 cally exhausted. Between the years 1853 and 1872,
 
 ijo THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 8,000,000 tons were shipped. It is said that the govern- 
 ment of Peru was enriched from this source alone. 
 If we admit Peru as having received ^5 per ton for 
 these deposits, it will be seen that bonanzas do not 
 always lie in mineral veins. 
 
 As a fertilizer for the agriculturist, guano has no 
 superior — one ton of it being equal to fifteen to thirty- 
 four tons of the ordinary manures now in use. 
 
 There is no doubt but many islands of this char- 
 acter will ultimately be found scattered over the 
 broad expanse of the South Seas. As guano is worth 
 from ^30 to ^40 per ton in Europe and America, it 
 does not require a great deal of figuring to show that 
 any country or company making a discovery and loca- 
 tion of this kind, will not only enrich themselves, but 
 benefit the world at large. The islands of Ferrol, 
 Guanape, Lobos, Tierra, Mengon, Pachacama, San 
 Lorenzo and Zorati, also belonging to Peru, are of 
 some importance. 
 
 The larger islands off the west coast of Chili are 
 of great value, not only as important fishing grounds, 
 but for the many agricultural products, and fine tim- 
 ber they produce. 
 
 The principal are Byron, Cambridge, Campana, 
 Chiloe, Clarence, Desolation, Duke of York, Guay- 
 tecas, Hanover, Huafo. Landfall, Madre de Dios, 
 Mocha, Narborough, Noir, Queen Adelaide, Santa 
 Inez, Skyring and Wellington. 
 
 Chiloe is probably the most important, as well as 
 one of the largest of the group, having an area of 
 5,200 square miles, and inhabited by some 10,000 
 people. It was first discovered by Mendoza, in 1588. 
 Great attention is paid to agriculture; wheat, corn and 
 potatoes being the favorite crops. With an abundant
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ijt 
 
 rainfall, and lands not too mountainous or hilly, Chiloe 
 has long proved a source of wealth to her people. 
 Many vessels, whalers and others, resort to these 
 islands for their supplies, while from many of the 
 islets lying between, considerable quantities of guano 
 are shipped. 
 
 Some of the isles were at a former period favorite 
 resorts for the fur seal, but like the islands of Juan 
 Fernandez and Mas a Fuera, which were also great 
 sealing grounds in their day, they have been driven 
 away, and now make their breeding resorts on other 
 groups. 
 
 EASTER ISLAND. 
 
 Due west from the northern coast of Chili, some- 
 thing like 2,300 miles, lies this little dot in the South- 
 ern Sea. It is located in south latitude 27 dee. 6 min., 
 and west longitude 109 deg. 17 min., contains an area 
 of about seventy square miles, and a population of 
 1,000 people, of the Polynesian type. Its discovery 
 is sometimes credited to Captain Cook, in 1774, who 
 visited it in that year; by others, to Roggewein, the 
 Dutch navigator, who located and mentions it as early 
 as 1722. 
 
 The island is of evident volcanic oricrin, three 
 prominent craters of past eruptions being already dis- 
 covered. The soil in the valleys, and some portions 
 fringing the sea shore, is very fertile where placed un- 
 der cultivation. There is but little forest growth, and 
 water is scarce. 
 
 Of late years the island has assumed quite a 
 prominence, from the remarkable features and evi- 
 dences of a prehistoric race found there, to the great 
 delight of scientists and the sunken continent theorists.
 
 iy2 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Hundreds of statues and broken columns are said to 
 be scattered over the land, some of the former being 
 of the human figure, fully forty feet in height, and 
 eight to ten feet broad across the shoulders. Many 
 have fallen down, and others are rapidly succumbing 
 to the abrading influences of the elements, while others 
 agrain are found located in the volcanic craters them- 
 selves, and thought to indicate the ancient race, as fire 
 worshippers. The rude sculpturing is from the com- 
 mon rock found on the island, many unfinished tablets 
 and statues being discovered in the quarries, as if the 
 inhabitants had been rudely interrupted in their work 
 by some awful volcanic outburst, or earthquake con- 
 vulsion.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCFAN 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ISl,AI«D PRODITCXS AND RESOURCES. 
 
 A pearl may in a toad's head dwell, 
 And may be found too in an oyster shell. 
 
 Bun VAN {Apolofry for his Book.) 
 
 PEARLS AND PEARL ETSITINC. 
 
 PEARL fishing has 1)een a curious and vahiable 
 industry for ages, reaching away back into dim 
 antiquity. The great demand of the present 
 day, not only for the pearls, but for the mother-of-pearl 
 shell, has made the industry a more valuable one than 
 diamond mining. The innumerable uses dmt the shell 
 is put to for ornament and for useful purposes, has 
 created a continually increasing demand for it in all 
 parts of the world. Among the islands of the Pacific, 
 fisheries are found of vast extent, producmg pearls 
 and shell of the finest quality. In fact, some of these 
 beds have furnished already bushels of the gem, rang- 
 inu- in value from one to thirty thousand dollars apiece; 
 while shell, when properly cured and cared for, meets 
 with ready sale in the principal markets ot tht- world 
 at about five hundred dollars per ton.
 
 JJ4. THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 The pearl oyster has habits pecuhar to itself; and 
 as far as the writer has observed, all effort to change 
 them or make any improvement in their condition or 
 locality, has never been effected by man. All attempts 
 to propagate or transplant the oyster from the locali- 
 ties where first found, have proved a signal failure. 
 They are born and live and die, at or near their homes, 
 and are not found hunting for fields or pastures new, 
 or very far from the place of their nativity. It is a 
 mistake, however, to suppose that the oyster does not 
 or cannot move. The fallacy that they attach them- 
 selves in strings and clusters to the coral caves, in, 
 under and beyond the surf in favorite localities, and 
 never move from them, has been proven to the con- 
 trary. Places that have been cleared of the oyster 
 altogether, by fishing, have been known, particularly 
 after a great storm, to become thickly settled with new 
 shell, and that, too, of a large size and apparent full 
 growth ; proving that they can swim, float, and move 
 around as their needs and habits dictate. Their fa- 
 vorite breeding ground in the South Sea, and this only 
 in particular localities, seems to be in and beyond the 
 surf of some of the atolls, or horse-shoe shaped islands, 
 that have a great lagoon in the center, and to and 
 from which, the tide ebbs and flows without hindrance. 
 In such places the small shell, from the size of a pea 
 to that of a shilling, may be seen in great numbers, 
 tossed about in the surf and on the waves ; and again 
 making their way with the inflowing tide to the lagoons 
 of the atolls ; there to sink to the bottom and form beds 
 similar to those of the oyster of our own country. On 
 the outside reefs and in deep water, say about twenty
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN /^j 
 
 fathoms, that being the greatest depth reached by the 
 native div^ers, the shell is of large size, sometime;- 
 twelve to eighteen inches in diameter, and when 
 opened out measure from two to three feet across. 
 Generally speaking they are of no value except as 
 curiosities, never containing pearls, and have not that 
 beautiful prismatic coloring found in the regular shell. 
 
 PEARL DREDGING. . 
 
 Pearl fishing, as practiced in different parts of the 
 world now-a-days, is rather a precarious business, be- 
 ing accompanied by great danger and many hard- 
 ships. The poor divers soon wear out, and the slow 
 accumulation of shell, with here and there a pearl of 
 great value, makes the product worth all it will bring 
 in the market. It is not probable that much impetus 
 or safety could be given to the business by the general 
 use of submarine armor either, as it has yet to be man- 
 aged by hand, and therefore slow progress is made. 
 The many thousands of square miles of pearl grounds 
 to be found among the islands of the Pacific, a great 
 deal of it as yet untouched, should suggest a more 
 rapid and effective mode of fishing. With this idea in 
 view IJiave consulted many of our practical mechanics 
 and engineers, who are engaged in building dredging 
 machines, as also those who manage them in their 
 practical workings in our rivers and bays, as well as 
 on the line of the canal now beino- cut throuofh the 
 isthmus at Panama. From authorities like these I have 
 confirmed the idea that it is perfectly practicable to 
 handle nearly all the pearl fisheries of the Pacific 
 islands by means of steam dredgers. By such a 
 method Vast quantities of shell could be brought to
 
 i-jO THH ISLAND WORLD 
 
 the surface from depths not yet reached by the divers, 
 and be opened, cleaned and assorted with a celerity 
 that would no doubt astonish the natives. 
 
 In the interior lagoons, fishing- in this manner 
 would seem an easy matter, as the water is always 
 smooth, not being affected even by the great storms 
 sometimes experienced In these latitudes. 
 
 After reaching the age of seven or eight years, 
 the pearl oyster appears to sicken and die, when it 
 opens and spills whatever is contained in the shells. 
 This being the case, it is a natural cjuery as to what 
 becomes of the pearls. They are never brought up 
 by the divers, who are only seeking for perfect shell, 
 M\(\. with the limited time they are under water — sel- 
 dom exceeding two minutes — they break off and ga- 
 ther such as can be easily reached, and are glad to 
 come to the surface for a breathing spell. If the di- 
 vers, with or without armor, were employed only as 
 prospectors, to locate the oyster banks, and steam 
 dredgers brought into play for the effective work, there 
 is no doubt that the business could be made immensely 
 profitable. 
 
 PEARL DIVINC;, 
 
 Pearl fishing has not as yet been brought to a 
 system, among the Pacific isles, commensurate with its 
 value. True, the business has been prosecuted to a 
 great extent at the Paumatou group, but hundreds ol 
 other lavorable localities in these seas have hardly been 
 prospected, and man) are unknown. 
 
 At the island of Ceylon, under the encouragement 
 of the English Government, the Cingalese have be- 
 come experts in the business, although using nothing 
 in the way of machinery to assist in its prosecution.
 
 MARQUESAS ISLANDERS.
 
 (V- THE PACIFIC OCEAN rjj 
 
 When tliving- In deep water, the Cingalese use a spHt 
 stick or piece of bamboo clasped over the nose, and 
 stuff their ears with wax or cotton, which leaves both 
 hands free to y^ather and break off the shell, when 
 found hani^inof to the coral and attached to the rock. 
 (In the South Seas the business is conducted in an 
 informal way.) In their fishing canoes there are genc- 
 i-ally four persons — two to manage and guide the boat 
 ind to assist the divers. Of the latter, two form the 
 balance of the crew and dive alternateU'. thus giving 
 each an opportunity to rest. When descending into 
 deep water, a heavy stone is generally used, attachetl 
 to one foot by a loose strap, and with .sack and stone; 
 attached to a small line, which is paid out or hauled 
 in, as may be required, by the assistants in the boat. 
 Where shell are at all plentiful, the sack is soon filled, 
 the foot slipped from the strap around the stone, a jerk 
 given as a signal to the line, and tlie tliver comes to 
 the surface like a cork, while the wei^rht and sack ot 
 shell are hauled up at their leisure. During the 
 breathing spell, requiring at least thirt)- minutes, the 
 other diver is making his preparations, and goes 
 through the same process. When one or two hundred 
 of the pearl oysters have been collected, they artt care- 
 lully opened by means of a blunt, pointed knife, great 
 care being exercised to preser\'e the edges of the 
 shell, as well as a careful inspection of the oyster and 
 its covering for any inlying pearls. These are some- 
 times found imbedded in the oyster itself, but. gene- 
 rally spt;aking, lie loose in the shell. ( )uv huntlretl 
 pearls are often lound in a shell, but are mostly small 
 and of little value. They are pi(.!rc(.'d and j:>ut on 
 strings, like beads, and used in nearl) all countries as 
 ornaments, known to the trade as seed pearls. The
 
 jjS . THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 divers do not go down in deep water, or to a depth of 
 forty to eighty feet, over ten or twelve times a day, 
 the strain upon the brain and lungs fatiguing them to 
 the last degree. When through, the boats are pulled 
 for the shore, the empty shell piled carefully away in 
 the shade, so as to dry slowly — it being found that this 
 method preserves all the beautiful coloring of the 
 mother-of-pearl, and brings a much higher price in the 
 market. These slow accumulations of pearl and shell 
 are kept up during fme weather, and at times when 
 the temperature of air and water are nearly alike. 
 When not already contracted for, as is the case in 
 nearly all pearl fisheries, the products are kept to 
 await the advent of some trading vessel, or (as has 
 unfortunately been the case among many of the groups 
 of islands) await the descent of some bold and ruthless 
 buccaneer. 
 
 NOTED FISHERIES AND GEMS. 
 
 Pearl fishing is conducted on a much more formal 
 scale at Ceylon, and opposite on the Cordatchy shore, 
 at the Sooloos and Bahrein Islands, and in the Persian 
 Gulf Boats are regularly employed at these places, 
 of ten or fifteen tons burden, with greater numbers in 
 the crews than I have mentioned. On the Condatchy 
 shore, pearl fishing has been regularly followed as a 
 business for over two thousand years. 
 
 The price of pearls has changed very much in 
 modern times, probably from changes in manners and 
 fashions, and the admirable imitations that can be ob- 
 tained at a low price. One of the most famous pearls 
 was bought at Catifa in Arabia, by Tavernier, for the 
 fabulous sum of $550,000. The one said to have been 
 dissolved and drank by Cleopatra was valued at
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN /jc, 
 
 ^403,645. Another of similar size and value was cut 
 in two parts and used as ear-rings on the statue of 
 Venus in the Pantheon at Rome. 
 
 Probably the largest pearl ever found belonged to 
 the late Mr. Hope. It measured two inches in length, 
 and had a circumference of four inches, weighing 1,800 
 grains. 
 
 One found in the Paumotous, South Sea, was sold 
 to Queen Victoria for ^30,000. 
 
 That of Sir Thomas Gresham, ground up and 
 eaten at a banquet given to the Spanish ambassador, 
 added a value to the dinner of some 5>^45,ooo. 
 
 It is estimated that the Paumotou group of the 
 South Sea has already furnished over thirty thousand 
 tons of merchantable shell, and some millions of dol- 
 lars worth of pearls, to the world. 
 
 PROPOGATION. 
 
 The subject of propogating and cultivating the 
 pearl oyster has received a good deal of scientific in- 
 vestigation for many years, but up to the present has 
 met with but little success. The followinsf, taken from 
 a recent publication, would indicate that a problem that 
 has puzzled the world for ages is about to be solved: 
 
 Some time back the French Government sent 
 the Secretary of the College of France to Tahiti to 
 study the best means of preventing the exhausting of 
 the pearl oyster beds at Papeet. The results of his 
 experiment tend to show that this jewel bearing 
 bivalve may be cultivated in a way similar to that 
 practiced in the case of its edible relative. Like the 
 European and American oyster, the pearl oyster is 
 pronounced by Mr. Bouchon Brandely to be uni
 
 j8o the island world 
 
 sexual and to be phy.siolo_L,ncally constructed in the 
 same manner. The Mollusk Polynesia has also the 
 power of re-attaching itself to the coral reef when 
 cast back into the sea by the coral fishers in the event 
 of the smallness of its size proving it to be worth- 
 less. The experiments also tend to show that the 
 pearl oyster found around the coasts of the French 
 islands of Oceanica will thrive just as well in parks 
 and beds only six or eight feet beneath the surface, as 
 in the deepest water. As the oyster is unisexual it is 
 easy to produce artificial fecundation. All that is neces- 
 sary is to bring the male spawn (the milk-like fluid found 
 in an oyster at certain seasons of the year) in contact 
 with the female spawn ; a glass of sea-water will 
 suffice for this operat on. It is easy to distinguish 
 the one from the other, as the spawn, when mixed 
 with a little water, shows a granular formation per- 
 fectly visible to the naked eye, while the male spawn 
 retains its milk-like appearance. A few days after 
 the fecundation, appreciable results show them-selves in 
 the form of microscopic oysters ; the water must be 
 frequently removed, and as soon as the bivalves have 
 attained to a visible size the)^ can be placed in parks, 
 where they are to remain until fully developed. The 
 results, considering the smallness of the expense in- 
 volved, of establishing artificial beds of the pearl- 
 bearing oyster in French Polynesia, would be of in- 
 estimable value, for not only does this bivalve yield 
 the gem so highly prized by the ladies, but also the 
 mother-of-pearl, which the industrial art has a thous- 
 and and one ways to utilize. The pearl is in reality 
 mother-of-pearl, produced under special circumstances. 
 If the shell of th(' mollusk shall be pierced, or should 
 a grain of sand or other foreign substance find its
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN rSr 
 
 way into it, a growth of motlier-of-pcarl is formed 
 either to stop the hole in the shell or to protect the 
 delicate flesh of the mollusk from contact with the 
 foreign substance. There is almost always a speck 
 of sand or somethinij of that sort in the center of a 
 pearl, and the shells Which contain large excrescences 
 of mother-of-pearl usually show outward marks of 
 damage. The oyster may even be forced to produce 
 plants and mother-of-pearl by introducing some foreign 
 substance into it. or by piercing the shell in such a 
 way as to lay bare the flesh, but great care must be taken 
 to do this without in any way injuring the bivalve. A 
 great regularity of form, a brilliant white color with 
 reflections similar to those of the opal, and size, are 
 qualities that give the pearl its value. They are apt, 
 however, to suddenly lose their brilliancy, but this 
 evil is not without a cure, for if a pigeon is made to 
 swallow such a damaged pearl, and killed within a few 
 hours afterward, it will be found in its stomach, re- 
 stored to all its original luster, a result due to the 
 action of the gastric juice of the fowl and the in- 
 testines. Care must be taken not to leave the pearl 
 too long ; in the space of twenty-four hours it will lose 
 one-third of its weight. 
 
 WHALE FISHERIES. 
 
 For a long period, many years before the revolu- 
 tionar}^ war, our people were noted for their push and 
 enterprise in whale fisheries. No nation has been 
 able to compete with them in a prosecution of a busi- 
 ness that has simply become stupendous. As early as 
 1774, Burke, in his great speech on American affairs, 
 paid a high compliment to the energy and enterprise
 
 i82 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 of the American people. He said: "As to the wealth 
 which the colonists have drawn from the sea, by their 
 fisheries, you had all that matter fully explained at 
 your bar. You surely thought these acquisitions of 
 value, for they seemed to excite your envy ; and yet 
 the spirit by which that enterprising- employment has 
 been exercised ought rather, in my opinion, to have 
 raised esteem and admiration. And pray, sir, what in 
 the world is equal to it ? Pass by the other parts, and 
 look into the manner in which the New England peo- 
 ple carry on the whale fishery. While we follow them 
 among the trembling mountains of ice, and behold 
 them penetrating into the deepest frozen regions of 
 Hudson's Bay and Davis' Straits, while we are looking 
 for them beneath the arctic circle, we hear that they 
 have pierced into the opposite region of polar cold ; 
 that they are at the antipodes, and engaged under the 
 frozen serpent of the South. Falkland Island, which 
 seemed too remote and too romantic an object for the 
 grasp of national ambition, is but a stage and resting- 
 place for their victorious industry. Nor is the equi- 
 noctial heat more discouragfine to them than the accu- 
 mulated winter of both poles. We learn that while 
 some of them draw the line or strike the harpoon on 
 the coast of Africa, others run the longitudes and pur- 
 sue their gigantic game along the coast of Brazil. No 
 sea but what is vexed by their fisheries. No climate . 
 that is not witness of their toils. Neither the perse- 
 verence of Holland, nor the activity of France, nor the 
 dexterous and firm sagacity of English enterprise, ever 
 carried this most perilous mode of hardy industry to 
 the extent to which it has been pursued by this recent 
 people ; a people who are still in the grisde, and not 
 hardened into manhood."
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 183 
 
 This great interest was checked for a time during- 
 the revolutionary war, but was prosecuted with re- 
 newed ardor as soon as peace was declared. The 
 waters of the southern seas have long been famous for 
 the abundance of the black-headed sperm whale ; not 
 away towards the frozen pole, but within the tropical 
 circle and in the waters surrounding: the islands of the 
 South Sea. The fisheries in nearly every portion of 
 these regions are followed with great success and 
 profit, the black whale being taken as well as the 
 sperm, in great numbers. These localities are favorite 
 feeding and breeding grounds, the prolific animal life, 
 the immense growth of the squid, the favorite food of 
 the sperm, the immense number of marine animalculac, 
 the principal sustenance of the black whale, make a 
 resort where mammals delight to make their homes. 
 
 Whale fishino- has been so often and so well des- 
 cribed, the minutest particulars being gone into, that 
 the subject has become hackneyed, and is only alluded 
 to here as one of the many prolific sources of industry 
 and wealth offered to enterprise in the southern seas. 
 
 THE TURTLE AND ITS HABITS. 
 
 Many of the island groups of the South Sea are 
 noted for the great number of turtle that frequent their 
 shores. They are wonderful navigators, with very re- 
 tentive memories, and, like the seal and sperm whale. 
 do not make any new locations, but return year after 
 year to the places of their birth, and make almost the 
 same spots their feeding and breeding grounds. These 
 exact habits have made the business of turtle fishing 
 certain and profitable, not only as an article of food, 
 but for the valuable oil they contain, and for the shell.
 
 i84 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 which modern processes have rendered of great value. 
 The tortoise, too, with its valuable covering-, is much 
 sought after, and the shell worked into beautiful orna-* 
 ments all over the world. 
 
 The food of the turtle is the sea-moss growing on 
 the coral reefs, and the young beche-de-mer, forming 
 their principal repast. The female, when about to 
 lay, which occurs once a year, chooses the time when 
 the moon is full, and is watched and guarded, during 
 this interesting process, by her mate, who lays "off 
 and on" just outside of the surf-line. Selecting a por- 
 tion of the beach with a sunny exposure, she waddles 
 ungracefully to a point about ten yards beyond the line 
 of high tide, proceeds to excavate a place in the warm 
 sand something larger than her own body in diameter, 
 and in the center about two feet deep. Having ar- 
 ranged her nest in a satisfactory manner, she deposits 
 the eggs, about one hundred in number, and in size a 
 little smaller than a billiard ball. The nest is then 
 filled in with sand and levelled over, and great care 
 and attention exercised in obliterating all traces of the 
 sand having been disturbed. After taking all these 
 precautions, she hies herself to her mate, and they 
 swim contentedly away. 
 
 If she is disturbed during her preparation for 
 hatching, a retreat is made, and she will not be seen 
 again for nine days ; if again interfered with, she will 
 remain away for a like period ; and if still again dis- 
 turbed, will seek some other favorite spot or island, 
 and will not return to this particular breeding place 
 until the coming year. 
 
 If these places of incubation are watched, in about 
 a month the young turde will be found digging their 
 way out of the nest and making for the sea. At this
 
 ()/■■ 'nil-: r.icii'fc ocf-.ix /Ss 
 
 time they are about the size of one of our silver dol- 
 lars, and are quite lively and quick in their movements 
 — which seems only a wise provision of nature, as they 
 have many enemies to contend with. 
 
 THE TORTOISE. 
 
 The Galapagos are also celebrated for the great 
 number of land tortoise that make their homes on those 
 islands. They are of the genus Tcstudo, and are alto- 
 gether inhabitants of the land ; of little value, except as 
 food. 
 
 The tortoise [lestudo inbricata), whose shell is so 
 beautiful and valuable, is a species of sea turtle, and 
 with similar habits. The shell of the tortoise covers 
 the back in plates overlapping each other like tiling, 
 and in its natural state is about one-eitrhth of an incli 
 in thickness. It has the property of being molded in 
 any form at a heat of 212 degrees, and retaining the 
 given shape on cooling. Many tons of the shell are 
 exported to Europe and America, where it is worked 
 into the many ornamental and useful forms we meet 
 with in the stores. This species is seldom found in 
 the west longitudes of the Pacific. 
 
 SPONGE FISHERIES. 
 
 Sponges, classed by some writers as belonging 
 to the marine species of vegetation, and by others to 
 the marine animal kingdom, a species of the zoophytes, 
 have long formed an important article of trade in all 
 parts of the world. The Bahamas, in the West Indies, 
 the Gulf of Mexico, the Mediterranean and Ret! .Seas, 
 the Levant, Green Turtle Bay, the Orient, with some
 
 jg6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 other localities, have for many years had almost a 
 monopoly of the sponge trade. I again refer to Mr. 
 Sterndale, whose personal experiences and writings 
 are of considerable interest. Among the profitable 
 industries of the coral seas, the collection of sponges 
 is not the least important. To fish for sponges with 
 success requires a certain degree of practice, as they 
 are very difficult to recognize in the water when in a 
 live state. They grow on the coral, and very much 
 in the crevices of it, and are not by any means con- 
 spicuous, as they look like a part of the stone. 
 When removed they are heavy, slimy, hard, and black 
 as tar. The best of them are of the form of a mush- 
 room, and are found from the size of a man's fist up 
 to two feet in diameter. In these latitudes they 
 usually lie within the lagoons, in water of a depth from 
 one to ten fathoms. They are inhabited by animal- 
 culse, which in the process of cleaning are decom- 
 posed and washed away. In order to effect this ob- 
 ject upon a sandy beach where the tide ebbs and flows, 
 a number of forked sticks are driven into the sand, 
 and upon them are fastened slender poles, as a sort 
 of frame-work; from these, sponges are suspended 
 by strings in such a manner that when the tide is in, 
 the sponges are floating in it ; when the tide is out, 
 they- are exposed to the wind and sun. In the latter 
 case, the animalculse die and decay, and by alternate 
 sorchings and washings, the sponge becomes cleaned 
 and bleached, as well as softened, in consequence of 
 the removal of the glutinous creatures which had in- 
 habited it. When prepared in this manner, the usual 
 rate of barter among the islands where they are 
 chiefly obtained, is four large sponges for one yard 
 of calico. I have found that they were greatly im-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 1&.7 
 
 proved both in color and softness by being washed in 
 hot fresh water, which had been previously strongly 
 impregnated with the alkali of wood ashes. 
 
 The better way has been found, as practiced on 
 the Mediterranean and at the Bahamas, to use a 
 weak solution of muriatic acid, which not only effec- 
 tually frees it of animalculse, but removes the last 
 traces of lime adhering to the sponge.
 
 j88 the island WORLD 
 
 CHAPTER Xri. 
 
 ISLAND PRODICXS AND RKSOIJXtCBS. 
 
 Rocks are rough, but smiling there 
 Th' acacia waves her yellow hair, 
 Lonely and sweet, nor loved the less 
 For flow'ring in a wilderness. 
 
 Moore, (Lalla Rookk.) 
 
 THE ROBBER CRAB. 
 
 I WAS a good deal interested during our voyage, 
 in the many tales, legends and experiences so 
 ready to the sailor tongue, some of which must be 
 listened to and taken with a grain of salt. Yet at 
 times I was able to verify what at first seemed to be 
 some very hard tales. Thus, at Vanikoro, one of the 
 Santa Cruz group, where v/e remained for nearly ten 
 days, the great land-crab of the South Sea was met 
 with, known here by the name of "Koviu." It was 
 ascertained to be the Birgus latro, the Anamoura of 
 the Crustacae family, or, in plainer terms, and univer- 
 sally used in the Pacific, the Land or Robber Crab. 
 Some of the species met with were over two feet 
 long and about eighteen inches across. They live 
 altogether on the land, seldom taking to the water, 
 although perfectly at home in that element. Their 
 nests are made among the roots of the cocoanut tree,
 
 OF THIi PA CIFIC ( ) C "A. / .V^ rSp 
 
 and in the little caves and openings ainong the rocks 
 and coral, and are nicely arranged for ease and com- 
 fort, being lined with the fibrous covering of the 
 cocoanut. During the day they are seldom seen, se- 
 lecting night for their peregrinations. 
 
 AS A GOURMAND. 
 
 Shrewd and cunning to a high degree, they seldom 
 miss the hatching out of the young turtle, whose nests 
 they watch with almost maternal solicitude. Bui for 
 a somewhat different purpose — that of making a re- 
 past of the tender young turtles, as they are scudding 
 for the water, and which they devour with the greatest 
 gusto. I am told that one of the reasons of the ex- 
 treme caution of the female turtle, when selecting 
 places to deposit her eggs, is an instinctive fear of this 
 highwayman. IVue, the crab does not care for the 
 eggs, but, as the sailors .say, when the )oung Uirtle 
 are coming out, the "pirate never misses a trick." 
 
 AS A LOVKR OF COCOANUTS, 
 
 Of course the "robber" does not depend upon 
 this mode of getting a living at all seasons. Such op- 
 portunities occur only during the hatching season of 
 the turtle, which is but once a year. Another of the 
 favorite methods the crab resorts to for obtaining food, 
 is the continuous growth of the cocoanut. Climbing 
 the trees with great skill and a surprising (piickness. 
 he shears off the fruit from the stem, sctlcctiiig such 
 nuts as are nearly ripe, .\fter obtaining about one 
 dozen in this manner, and which are allowed to fall to 
 the ground, he descends die trei;. and, w ith his gri'at
 
 J90 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 strong claws, strips the covering from the fruit, and 
 selects the end where there are several eyes or 
 openings in the shell, provided by nature for the easy 
 rooting or sprouting of the young tree ; then, forcing 
 some of the fingers of its great claws through these 
 into the nut, he deliberately hammers it on the rock 
 or coral until the shell bursts open, when the expected 
 feast becomes an easy matter. Two or three gener- 
 ally serve for the morning's meal, the balance being 
 transported to the nest as a reserve. When breaking 
 the shells they must exert great force and power, as 
 the reverberation of the blows, along the shore, may be 
 heard for a half mile. All that I have related is per- 
 formed with a method, foresight and skill, almost hu- 
 man. 
 
 A late writer says (now speaking of a larger 
 marine crab) : "I had heard of these giants, but I had 
 no idea that they attained this enormous size. Though 
 this crab is the largest, it is not as powerful as the 
 famous palm-tree crab, of the islands south of Japan, 
 and in the Indian Archipelago. The crab is called the 
 Birgus, and is a relative of the hermit crab, only it has 
 no shell, the plates on the abdomen being extremely 
 hard, and effectively taking the place of the shell that 
 is worn by otfiers of the kind. The Birgus is not a 
 water crab, living entirely upon the land, and going 
 down to the sea once a day, it is said, for the purpose 
 of moistening its gills. They are generally found in 
 the near proximity of palm trees, upon the fruit of 
 which they live, and their burrows are generally placed 
 at the foot of the trees. To give you an idea of the 
 number of cocoanuts the creatures eat, the Malays 
 come about twice a year and dig up their holes to get 
 the cocoanut husks that the crabs took in to make
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN igi 
 
 their nests. Hundreds of pounds arc thus obtained 
 and made into mats, beds, and many other articles of 
 household use. 
 
 STRENGTH AND TENACITY. 
 
 The most remarkable feature about these crabs 
 was their enormous strength. One was placed in an 
 ordinary tin cracker-box, where there was no oppor- 
 tunity of taking hold ; but the next morning the box 
 was found completely punctured with holes, actually 
 bitten through by the sharp, biting claws of the crab ; 
 and in another confmed in the same Avay, the top of 
 the box was fairly twisted off. Having so much mus- 
 cular power, natives naturally approach them with 
 some caution, when attempting their capture. I was 
 informed that on one occasion a party went out to a 
 place somewhat famous for them, and arriving at 
 night, with the expectation of trying for the crabs the 
 next day. But during the night the party was awak- 
 ened by the most terrific screams, and, rushing into 
 the wood near at hand with rush lights, they found one 
 of the natives swinging partly from the huge leaf of a 
 cocoanut tree, and screaming as if he was being hung. 
 For some moments they could not make out what the 
 trouble was, but finally was sure the man was in the 
 grasp of an enormous Birgus. The native had at- 
 tempted to climb a palm tree, but had been seized 
 almost immediately by a crab which happened to 
 be clinging to the branch. Naturally the crab held on, 
 and had almost pulled the hair out of the man's head 
 before he was rescued. 
 
 The intelligence shown by these crabs is remark- 
 able. They climb the palms, bite off a nut and allow 
 it to drop, and thus break it open ; and if they find a
 
 ig2 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 nut on the eround, thev have been known to take it to 
 the top of a tree and hurl it to the ground. Others, 
 and generally the large ones, have been observed to 
 beat it against a rock, and so break the shell. They 
 invariably commence to tear away the husk at the end 
 upon which is situated the two holes. When this is 
 done, with the great claw, they hammer the holes until 
 an opening is made, and then the body is twisted 
 around, and one of the small hind legs that will just 
 fit is introduced, the mesrt taken out bit by bit, and 
 then the shell is broken. 
 
 The crab is certainly a lowly creature, but it is 
 remarkably intelligent in some ways, and also cunning. 
 If you have ever tried to catch a wild lobster, you are 
 aware how many wiles they have to effect their escape 
 or delude their pursuers. 
 
 Some years ago the question was raised in Lon- 
 don, whether crabs remained in the same locality year 
 after year, and finally it was resolved to test the ques- 
 tion. So about a thousand crabs were cauofht and 
 marked in various ways, and taken a distance of twenty 
 miles, and put overboard, and in less than a week 
 hundreds of these marked crabs were caught on their 
 own grounds, 
 
 PLANTAIN OR BANANA. • 
 
 Of this fruit Humboldt says: I doubt whether 
 there be any other plant that produces so great a 
 (juantity of nutritive substance in so small a space. 
 Eight or nine months after the sucker is planted, it 
 begins to develop its cluster. The fruit ma)- be gath- 
 ered in the tenth or elevendi month. When the stock 
 is cut there is always found, among the numerous 
 shoots that have taken root, a sprout, being two-thirds 
 
 s
 
 TEA PLANT OF CHINA — IN FULL liLOOM.
 
 OF THE J'AC/FIC OCEAN 
 
 ^93 
 
 tlie height o{ its parent j)lant, and l)carinL,'" fruit three 
 months huer. Thus a plantation of bananas ])<M'i)etii- 
 ates itselt without requiring- any care on the part of 
 man, further than to cut the stalks when the fruit has 
 ripened, and to stir the earth gently once or twice a 
 year about the roots. A piece of ground of ont^ hun- 
 dred square metres of surface will contain from thirty 
 to forty plants. During the course of the year, the 
 same piece of ground (reckoning the weight of the 
 cluster at from fifteen to twenty kilogrammes only) 
 will yield 2,000 kilogrammes, or more than 4,000 
 pounds, of nutritive substance. What a difference be- 
 tween this product and that of the cereal grasses in 
 most parts of Europe ! The same extent of land plan- 
 ted with wheat would not produce above thirt\ pounds, 
 and not more than ninety pounds of potatoes. Hence 
 the product of the banana is to that of wheat as 133 to 
 I, and to that of potatoes as 44 to i. The banana 
 forms the principal food of these, as well as man\' other 
 tropical countries, and the apathy and indolence of the 
 natives in the tierras calientes, or hot regions, has been 
 ascribed — and probably with good reason — to the fa- 
 cility with which it supplies them with a means of 
 subsistence. 
 
 Again, the fruit is dried and pressed, after which 
 it can be kept for a long time, forming a food not in- 
 ferior to the dried figs of commerce. 
 
 BECHE-DE-MER FISHING. 
 
 In regard to the traffic in Beche-de-mer, for which 
 there is such a demand in China and Japan, I have 
 thought best to quote from Mr. H. B. Sterndale, who 
 some years ago wrote many interesting papers on the 
 islands of the Pacific:
 
 194 ^HE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Beche-de-mer, called by the Chinese Tripaiig, 
 and by the Polynesian, Rodi, and in the South Sea and 
 Caroline group, Mcnika, is of that species of mol- 
 lusc classed as the HolotJmrides. It has the appear- 
 ance of a ereat slugf or leech, and like most other 
 marine animals of the same type, lives by process of 
 suction upon microscopic animalculaes. It has the 
 form of an elongated sac of a gristly consistence, tra- 
 versed internally by strong muscles. It grows usually 
 to about eighteen inches long and somewhat less in 
 circumference. The labor of collecting and drying 
 the fish is performed partly by the crews of the ves- 
 sels engaged in this business, who are commonly Poly- 
 nesian natives, with the exception of the mate or 
 trading master or interpreter, and such islanders as 
 they bring along with them, if it be a desert or unin- 
 habited place, or otherwise the aborigines whom they 
 find in possession. There is one advantage in beche- 
 de-mer fishing that upon the great desert reefs where 
 it most abounds the fishers never need be idle. In 
 calm weather they gather the red kind off the top 
 of the reef just inside the foam of the breakers. 
 In stormy times they dive for the black kind inside 
 the lagoons. 
 
 METHOD OF FISHING. 
 
 From its size and color, it is plainly visible to a 
 depth of at least ten fathoms, even when the water is 
 much ruffled by the winds — the more so as it lives on 
 the smooth white sandy bottom. The material re- 
 quired for the prosecudon of this business is of the 
 most limited character, merely a boat, a few axes to 
 cut building material and fire-wood, a supply of long 
 knives for all hands, and in some cases two or three
 
 . OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 195 
 
 try-pots, such as are used on board of whale -ships, with 
 buckets and shiice-forks. The first preliminary ope- 
 ration is to build two houses — one for the curing- of 
 the fish, which is done by smoking, as bacon is cured 
 in our own country; the other, for the purpose of 
 storing it after being sufficiently cured. 
 
 When in proper condition it brings readily in 
 China or Japan five to six hundred dollars per ton, 
 with hardly a limit to supply or demand. 
 
 CONTRACTS WITH THE NATIVES. 
 
 The terms upon which the laborers are engaged 
 for beche-de-mer fishing depends upon the circum- 
 stances of the case. "Beach-combers," who have na- 
 tive wives and families, commonly make up a party 
 of their wives' relations and near neighbors, and re- 
 munerate them for their work by sharing a part of 
 the proceeds. Adventurers who sail small vessels, 
 and have no settled home on the islands to which the 
 laborers belong, hire them for a specified time at a fixed 
 rate of wao-es, under a written aofreement, which is 
 witnessed by their chief or king. Although in the 
 majorit}^ of cases no one understands the document 
 but the white men concerned in its concoction, yet 
 the most ignorant of these natives are pleased to see 
 a promise written down, there being to their untutored 
 minds something sacred and binding connected with 
 the operation. Here follows a verbatim translation of 
 a memorandum of this kind between one "Uroroa" 
 (that is Longbeard, a white man known to the na- 
 tives by that name, as Polynesians generally invent a 
 name from some physical peculiarity for any Euro- 
 pean whom they have dealings with) and certain peo- 
 ple of Nukinivano:
 
 jg6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 "We, men and women of Nukinivano, whose 
 marks are put at the bottom of this paper, agree to 
 go with the captain Longbeard to the island of Gan- 
 net Cay, and to fish for beche-de-mer for six moons, 
 and to be paid each man or woman fourteen fathoms 
 of cahco, or twenty-one pkigs of tobacco per moon, 
 or other things as we Hke, such as knives or needles, 
 at a value as we have before agreed ; and at the end 
 of six moons, to be returned to our home, if the wind 
 should be fair for us to come back at that time. 
 The chief, whose name is Dogfish, shall superintend 
 the work. The captain Longbeard, shall tell the 
 chief Dogfish, what the people are to do, and Dog- 
 fish shall tell the people. The captain Longbeard, 
 shall not beat any of the people. The people shall 
 not fight among themselves, but if there be any quar- 
 rel among them, they shall refer it to the captain 
 Longbeard and the chief Dogfish. If any one of the 
 people die, that which is due him or her shall be en- 
 trusted to the chief Dogfish, to be given to his or her 
 family. The captain Longbeard shall supply to all 
 the people, for nothing, lines and fish-hooks, that they 
 may catch themselves food. All food and fresh water 
 shall be taken charge of and fairly divided by the chief 
 Dogfish. Twenty-eight days shall count for each 
 moon ; out of each moon, shall be four days' rest, 
 that is to say, the people shall work six days, and on 
 the seventh day they shall do no work. They shall 
 not lie to the chief Dogfish, or be lazy, sulky or dis- 
 satisfied. There is no more to say." 
 
 Here follow the names of the people, with their 
 marks. The contract they will keep to tlie letter, not 
 only performing the duties imposed upon them, but 
 adding deeds of bravery, kindness, and an obedience to
 
 OF Tin-: PACIFIC OCl'.AX igj 
 
 the orders of their employers, that mig^ht be copied 
 with great benefit in more civilized lands. • 
 
 coco AN UT. 
 
 One of the great sustaining products of nearly all the 
 groups of the Pacific is theiruit of th('cocoanut tree {coc2ts 
 rniciferd), a species of the palm. The cocoanut is so 
 well known that but a passing allusion seems all that 
 is necessary. Yet its manifold uses, with that of the 
 tree on which it grows, if described at any length, 
 would fill a volume. In these latitudes it has a very 
 luxuriant growth, and gives to the lazy natives a never 
 ending supply, and at all times of the year something 
 to eat, drink and wear, with abundant material for 
 clothing and shelter. It may be found growing in the 
 valleys, on the hill and mountain sides and toj)s, and 
 on reefs and sandy shores, with its roots laved by the 
 Avaters of the sea. It grows to a height of sixt)- or one 
 hundred feet, from one foot to two feet in diameter, 
 bearing fruit seven years after it is planted, and lives 
 about eight)' years. Each tree furnishes a hundred or 
 more nuts a year, while a wise provision of nature so 
 arranges it that the natives may find the nut in all oi 
 its many stages of progress before ripening, and all on 
 the same tree. The nut, when full)' ri|)c and read\" to 
 fall, is covered with a thick fibre, that pr<\ c-nts it from 
 breaking or bursting when it strikes tlie ground. 
 From the upper end grows a Bag or tuft that guides it 
 in its descent, and causes it to rest with its propcn- aw^X 
 down, ready to take root and reproduce its species. 
 Again, this fibrous covering is impervious to water, 
 and should the nut fall in or be carried by the waves 
 or surf out to sea, it drifts and floats with the currents,
 
 jgS THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 winds or tides, until cast upon some distant island, reef 
 or beach, lo take root and grow, very often furnishing 
 subsistence and shelter to unfortunate castaways upon 
 otherwise barren islands. 
 
 TRADE IN, AND VALUE OF, THE NUT. 
 
 An immense trade has been carried on for years 
 with China, Japan and Europe, in the preparation, 
 shipment and manufacture of cocoanut oil. For this 
 purpose the nuts are gathered, the covering taken off, 
 when they are piled in great heaps on rude platforms 
 about a foot above the ground. This is to prevent the 
 absorption of moisture from the earth, and consequent 
 germination. The nuts are allowed to remain in this 
 condition for several months, with frequent turnings 
 and handling. After drying sufficiently (ascertained 
 by average samples taken from the heaps), they are 
 broken open, and the "copra," or dried cocoanut ker- 
 nel, is ready for shipment. In Europe it is consumed 
 in great quantities, the copra being pressed by ma- 
 chinery much like that used in extracting oil from tlax- 
 seed, the residuum being in the form of flaxseed cake, 
 and sold all through Europe as a valuable food for cattle. 
 For this latter reason, it has been found more profita- 
 ble to ship in the form described, in preference to ex- 
 tracting the oil at the islands. 
 
 Tt is not an over-estimate to suppose that in a co- 
 coanut plantation the trees will number sixty-four to 
 the acre, within a fraction of twenty feet apart, and 
 that each tree will produce one hundred nuts per an- 
 num. These will produce copra equal to five 
 hundred pounds per thousand, and from this, again, 
 twenty-five gallons of cocoanut oil can be pressed,
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN rgg 
 
 worth about sixty cents per gallon. At this rate, a 
 cocoanut plantation would produce, of oil. alone, very 
 near ^loo per acre per annum. 
 
 Some idea may be formed of the varied uses to 
 which the cocoanut tree and fruit are put, when it is 
 known that as many as thirty^ articles manufactured 
 from them may be found in one ordinary English 
 home. Where fabrics are not altosfether made from 
 the fibre, it yet enters in with other material. The oil 
 is used in many ways, forming one of the principal in- 
 gredients in fine soaps and other similar manufactures. 
 The fruit, while by itself considered by many a great 
 delicacy, in combination forms an important ingredient 
 in our pastries and candies. 
 
 The tree, when tapped, furnishes a pleasant, 
 healthful drink, known as cocoanut toddy. Modern 
 processes, though, have made this fluid into a rum. 
 called arrack, and said to be very satisfactory to old 
 drinkers in the way of strength and brain-entangling 
 qualities. 
 
 CORAL (cORALLUM). 
 
 Up to 1751, the theory that coral was a vegetable 
 growth (disputed by Feranto Imperato, the Neapolitan 
 naturalist, as early as 1599) had been generally ac- 
 cepted. Even its scientific name, as applied to-day 
 (zoophyte), given by Linnieus, indicates the struggle 
 that sometimes takes place to throw light even into 
 scientific minds. The name would place it in both the 
 animal and vejretable kinfjdom, formino- a rather curi- 
 ous combination for the industrious little insect to work 
 under. In truth, coral is the stony frame which be- 
 longs to these animals, as a skeleton belongs to an 
 individual of the hio-her orders of the animal kingdom.
 
 200 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 The coral which has obtained world-wide celeb- 
 rity, is that used as jewelry, known as corallum rttbmim, 
 found in the Mediterranean, the Barbary coast, the 
 coast of Italy, and in some parts of Europe and America. 
 
 In general, the coral of the Pacific cannot be con- 
 sidered as valuable for jewelry, the order being of the 
 coarser kind — curious and beautiful in its varied color- 
 ings and forms, but of no pfreat intrinsic value — if we 
 except a kind found along the shores of the island of 
 Sumatra, and as we approach the Indian Ocean. 
 
 In the olden time, the manner of fishing for coral 
 was nearly the same everywhere. That which is most 
 commonly practiced in the Mediterranean Sea is as fol- 
 lows: Seven or eio-ht.men gfo in a boat, commanded 
 by the proprietor ; the caster throws his net (if we may 
 so call the machine which he uses to tear up the coral 
 from the bottom of the sea), and the rest work the 
 boat and help draw in the net. Ihis is composed of 
 two l^eams of wood tied crosswise, with leads fixed to 
 them to sink them ; to these beams is fastened a quan- 
 tity ot hemp, twisted loosely round and intermingled 
 with some loose nettin^-. In this condition the machine 
 is let down into the sea, and when the coral is pretty 
 strongly entwined in the hemp and nets, they draw it 
 up with a rope, which they unwind according to the 
 depth, and which it sometimes requires half-a-dozen 
 boats to draw. \{ this rope happens to break, the 
 fishermen run the hazard of beinri^ lost. Before the 
 fishers go to sea. they agree for the price of the coral, 
 and the produce of the fishery is divided, at the end of 
 the season, into thirteen parts, of which the proprietor 
 has four, the caster two, and the other six men one 
 each ; the thirteenth belongs to the company for the 
 paymer.t of boat hire, etc.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 201 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 ISL,AT^» mOOlTCXS AT«(D RHSOURCBS. 
 
 Cedar, and pine, and lir, and Ijranchiny; palm, 
 A sylvan scene, and as the ranks ascend 
 Shade above shade, a woody theatre 
 Of stateliest view. 
 
 Milton, {Paradise Lost). 
 
 PAPER (papyrus). 
 
 IaT has often been a subject of wonder with those 
 learned and ingenious persons who have written con- 
 cerning- the arts of the ancient world, that the Greeks 
 and Romans, although they possessed a prodigious 
 number of books, and approached very near to print- 
 ing in the stamping words and letters and similar de- 
 vices, should not have fallen upon the art; the first 
 rude attempts at typography being sufficiently obvious, 
 though much time and contrivance hav(! been required 
 to bring the })rocess to the joerfection in wliicli it now 
 prevails. 
 
 We owe the introduction of paper into Kurope to 
 the Arabians or Moors. There is some uncertainty as 
 to the precise era of its first appearance, and we arr 
 unable to trace the origin of the precious inxc-ntion. or 
 even to imagine by wdiat steps men were led to it. \\ v. 
 cannot conceive how anyone could be tempted to
 
 202 THE ISLAXD WORLD 
 
 pound wet rags in a mortar, to stir the paste into a 
 large body of water, to receive the deposit on a sieve, 
 and to press and dr^- it. The labor of beating rags 
 into a pulp by hand would be as hopeless as it would 
 be tedious and severe. It is true that paper was orig- 
 inally made of cotton, a'substance less obstinate than 
 linen and other rags, which are now commonly used. At 
 present the fresh rags are torn into pieces by a powerful 
 mill ; formerly it was the practice to suffer them to rot, to 
 place them in large heaps in a warm and damp situa- 
 tion, and to allow them to heat and ferment, and to 
 remain undisturbed until mushrooms began to grow on 
 them — so that, being partially decayed, it might be less 
 difficult to triturate them. Nevertheless, the invention 
 of paper is a mystery. The Chinese possessed the 
 art of making paper and of printing, but we know not 
 how long they have had them, nor whether the Moham- 
 medans learned the former from them. The illiterate 
 inhabitants of some of the islands of the South Seas 
 were able to compose a species of paper, which they 
 used in fine weather for raiment, of the bark of trees. 
 The basis of paper being the vegetable fibre, it has 
 been made of various substances, as straw, as well as 
 rags. 
 
 (Notes from an old History of Paper-making.) 
 
 To describe the methods now in use for the man- 
 ufacture of paper, with an account of the perfect ma- 
 chinery, taking place of human hands, in the various 
 manipulations to turn out the beautiful paper now 
 met with in nearly all parts of the world, would take 
 up a volume. On the other hand, witli all our per- 
 fect manufacturing appliances, we lack the natural 
 vegetable growths of just those piths, pulps and 
 barks, that nature so abundantly scatters broadcast
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAX 207 
 
 throughout the islands of the Pacific. Paper ex- 
 hibited at the last Exposition in Paris, manufactured 
 in Japan, it is said from the bark of the mulberry, 
 being- in truth the Broussonctia, the Paper Mulberry 
 of Japan, the East Indies and the South Sea Islands, 
 excited general admiration. Paper from that country 
 that I have inspected ver}- lately in San Francisco, is 
 far superior in texture, beauty and durability, to any 
 of the brands made from English linen. Samples 
 from the Phillippine Islands, made from the abaca, and 
 others of the 7ni(sa (banana) plants, show fully as fine 
 and strong a texture, but lacking the satiny gloss of 
 surface, like watered silk, seen in the samples from 
 Japan. The vegetable growth furnishing the textile 
 fabrics in all its many varieties, is to be found in wild 
 abundance on nearly all of the Pacific islands. The 
 gathering of the raw material, and its export to Eu- 
 rope and America for its more perfect manufacture 
 into the manifold forms of paper, would naturally 
 lead to a vast business in the textile fabrics alone, thit 
 would result in many profitable industries. 
 
 CINNAMON (CINNAMOMUM ZEVLANICUM). 
 
 Cinnamon is of the same species as the laurel. 
 The tree is of small o;rowth, and evercrreen. In 
 the island of Ceylon, where the finest qualities are 
 produced, it is cultivated in a large way, and forms no 
 inconsiderable portion of the princely revenues received 
 from the products of that island. It is claimed by many 
 authorities to be indigenous to the soil of Ceylon. In 
 any event, the product is far superior to that of any other 
 part of the world, although many of the island groujis 
 cultivate and produce it in abundance, but of much
 
 204 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 inferior quality. Tlie gardens where the best cinna- 
 mon is grown arc managed on the coppice system, 
 the tree being cut down almost to the roots, and the 
 young shoots, some six or eight only, allowed to grow. 
 At the age of two years the shoots have reached a 
 heio^ht of about six feet, with a diameter from one 
 to two inches. These are cut, and the bark peeled 
 off, being afterwards cleaned and scraped, when it is 
 rolled and dried, tied in bundles, and is then ready for 
 the market. 
 
 The ordinary cinnamon as we find it in the marts 
 of America, is cassia bark, a species of the cinnamo- 
 mum, grown extensively in China, Japan and all the 
 islands of the Eastern Archipelago. It is sold in im- 
 mense quantities, particularly after it has been ground, 
 when it is hard to distinguish it from the true spice. 
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 Another of the valuable plants having indigenous 
 growth in the island groups of the Pacific, particularly 
 in Japan, the Phillippines and Java, is indigo. De- 
 rived from the maceration in water of the leaves and 
 twigs of the plant, hidigofcra tinctoria, and the In- 
 di gofer a Ami, with its after precipitation from the 
 liquid form into that met with in commerce, it may 
 be justly termed one of the valuable island products. 
 The indigo from the island of Java, the result of 
 the rude methods of manufacture resorted to by the 
 natives, is the finest in the world, the plant seeming 
 to thrive best when of island growth. Its manifold 
 uses as a druor, as well as in the arts, toeether with 
 the rather complicated processes necessary for its ex- 
 traction from the plant, would require at least a sepa-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 2oj 
 
 rate chapter. As a product of the island world, it is 
 of considerable importance. 
 
 TEAK WOOD. 
 
 Among the many valuable trees, growing so 
 profusely on the Islands of the Pacific, may be cited 
 Teak, or Indian Oak, the product of the Tcctoiia 
 grandis, a large forest tree, growing in the dry and 
 elevated districts in the south of India, the Burman 
 empire, Ava, Siam, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, New 
 Guinea, etc. Teak is by far the best timber in the 
 East; it works easily, and though porous, is strong 
 and durable. It is easily seasoned, and shrinks ver)- 
 little. It is of an oily nature, and therefore does not 
 injure iron. Mr. Crawford says that in comparing 
 teak and oak together, the; useful (jualities ot the 
 former will be found to preponderate. It is equalK' 
 strong, and somewhat more buoyant. Its dural)ilit\' 
 is more uniform and decided; and to insure that 
 durability, it demands less care and preparation, lor 
 it may be put into use a.lmost green from tlic Jorcsi, 
 w^ithout danger of dry or wet rot. It is ht to endure 
 all climates and all alternations of climate. The teak 
 of Malabar, produced on the high table land of tlic 
 south of India, is deemed the best of any. It is the 
 closest in its fiber, and contains the largest quantity of 
 oil, being at once the heaviest and most durable. This 
 species of teak is used for the keel, timbers, and such 
 parts of the ship as are under water ; owing to its great 
 weight, it is less suitable for the upper works, and is 
 not at all fit for spars. The teak of Java ranks next 
 to that of Malabar, and is especially suitable tor 
 planking. That of Sumatra, Pjorneo, New Ciuinea,
 
 2o6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 etc., are of equal value, and their great forests teem 
 with such an abundance as to be able to supply 
 the ship-buildingr material for the navies of the world. 
 The Rangoon or Burman teak, and that of Siam is 
 not so close grained and durable as the others. It is, 
 however, more buoyant, and therefore, best suited 
 for masts and spars. Malabar teak is extensively 
 used in the building-yards of Bombay. Ships built 
 wholly of it are almost indestructible by ordinar}- 
 wear and tear, and instances are not rare of their 
 having lasted from eighty to a hundred years ; although 
 they are said to sail indifferently, but this is probably 
 owing to some defect in their construction, and not to 
 the weight of the timber. Calcutta ships are never 
 wholly built of teak ; the timbers and frame-work are 
 always of native wood, and the planking and deck 
 only of teak. With this timber, in combination with 
 the pine of Oregon and the redwood of California, 
 vessels could no doubt be constructed superior to 
 anything being built in our ship-yards at the present 
 time. 
 
 RICE. 
 
 One of the great food staples of India, China, 
 Japan, and the westerly islands of the Pacific, is rice. 
 It is amonof the most valuable of cereal srrasses — the 
 07yza sativa of botanists. It forms the principal part 
 of the food of the most civilized and populous Eastern 
 nations, being more extensively consumed for that 
 purpose by the people of those countries, than any 
 other species of grain. It is too well known to require 
 more than a place here as a product. The quality of 
 the grain grown is not equal to that produced on the 
 low, marshy grounds in the Carolinas of America — it 
 having no equal.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 2oy 
 
 SILK (SERICUM). 
 
 The art of rearing silk-worms, a species of cater- 
 pillar or larvae of the genus plialcena, and of unravel- 
 ing the threads spun by them informing their cocoons, 
 dates away back in the dim pages of Chinese history. 
 Its first introduction from China into Rome was about 
 the time of Pompey and Julius Cai^sar. The great dis- 
 tance of China from Rome, the journeys of the cara- 
 vans overland through the Persian Empire, caused a 
 high price to be placed on silk, bringing in the earlier 
 periods its weight in gold. The art of rearing th(; 
 worms gradually extended over the countries of Eu- 
 rope, being introduced in France under the reign of 
 Louis XI in 1480, and into England at about the same 
 period. The manufacture of silk was begun in Lyons 
 in 1520, under Francis I. The art gradually extended 
 itself over France, and in such esteem were its promo- 
 ters held, that silk manufacturers who had pursued the 
 trade for a period of twelve years were rewarded with 
 a patent of nobilty by Henry IV. 
 
 Rearing the silk-worm, with the cultivation of the 
 mulberry- {inoj'acecc) tree in its many varieties — the 
 leaves of which serve as food for the worm — has been 
 reduced to a fine art in India. China, Japan, the Phil- 
 lippines, and some of the islands of the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago, and other islands of the South Sea, forming 
 one of the most valuable productions of those places, 
 and forms no inconsiderable portion of our commerce 
 with the localities named. 
 
 PINEAPPLE (aNANASSA SATIVa), 
 
 This delicious fruit is native to most of the tropi- 
 cal islands of the South Sea, and like that grown in
 
 2o8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 the hot-houses of England and America, its quality as 
 a fruit is altogether dependent upon the care exercised 
 in its cultivation. In its wild state, about the only con- 
 dition in which it produces a reproductive seed, it is 
 hardly ever sought after as a food, but rather for the 
 long, fine fiber contained in the leaves. There are as 
 many as fifty varieties, not all of them bearing a pala- 
 table tVuit, even when cultivated. That thought the 
 most of, in the Phillippine Islands — not as a fruit, but 
 for its fiber-producing qualities — grows in the wild 
 state, and is known to botanists as the Bromelia pin- 
 guin. This particular plant throws out leaves from 
 three to sometimes eight feet long, w4iich abound in 
 fiber of great strength and durability in the older 
 plants, while in the leaves of the younger growth a 
 fiber is found that the natives work into all the delicate 
 forms, gossamer and cobweb like, and in such delicate 
 and beautiful designs as not only to always astonish 
 the traveler, but to invariably bring, when in the form 
 of veils, handkerchiefs, etc., many times their weight 
 in gold. 
 
 MANILLA HEMP. 
 
 The textile fiber of the abaca palm, of the family 
 of inusas, to which the banana and plantain belong, is 
 found native in a great many of the island groups of 
 the South Sea, but probably is better known and grows 
 in greater luxuriance in the Phillippines, where the 
 manitbld uses the fiber is put to, in the manufacture ot 
 the most delicate laces, veils, handkerchiefs, to the 
 coarsest cables used by ships, has made the name of 
 the hemp world-wide. The thousands of tons of the 
 raw material shipped from the Phillippines every year, 
 and to nearly every part of the world, bear evidence
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 209 
 
 as to its value and the continually increasing demand 
 ■for the fiber. The luxuriance of plant growth through- 
 out the islands of the Pacific, may yet be taxed to sup- 
 ply the growing demands of the world, for products 
 lavished by nature on these sunny lands. From this 
 .same and kindred plants, a great quantity of paper is 
 made, and the fiber is spun and woven alike by the 
 natives into a superior cloth for clothing, or into a 
 heavier material for sails, mats, bagging, etc. 
 
 PEPPER (piper). 
 
 The fruit of the climbing shrub or vine [piper 
 nigru7n) is native and cultivated in many of the tropical 
 countries. Although a spice, apparently used in small 
 quantities, yet in the aggregate, thousands of tons of 
 it are produced and exported from the Pacific islands 
 each year. 
 
 Java. Borneo, Sumatra, the Phillippines and the 
 Molluccas furnish the little pungent berry in abun- 
 dance. Where not native in the grand old forests of 
 the islands, or when not supported by trees, the plant 
 is cultivated.in a manner very similar to our hop fields. 
 The black and white varieties are the product ot the 
 same plant, the latter simply being put through a 
 bleaching process, in water or by chemicals, and re- 
 sults in the white pepper of commerce. Pepper is 
 not at all a product of the South American pepper 
 tree, much used in our country for shade and orna- 
 ment; the berry produced being similar in appearance 
 to that of the pepper plant, together with the name, 
 the erroneous impression sometimes prevails that the 
 pungent product is from this tree. The effect of the 
 pepper tree berry on the system is somewhat different
 
 2IO THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 from that of the true pepper. Red pepper, also a 
 great island product, is from the plant — genus solaim- 
 cece, or nightshade family, and is grown in all parts of 
 the world. It is native to tropical countries, and in the 
 islands Df the Pacific grows in the greatest luxuriance. 
 After ripening on the plant, it is picked, dried and 
 ground, furnishing the Cayenne pepper of commerce. 
 
 GUTTA PERCHA. 
 
 Gutta Percha is the name given by the Malays to 
 the tree belonging to the natural order sapotacece, and 
 to the newer genus isonandra, is found in the greatest 
 abundance in the forests of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, 
 and, in fact, throughout nearly all of the island groups 
 where the forestry is abundant. The tree ranges from 
 two to eight feet in diameter, and reaches a height of 
 sixty to eighty feet. The timber is of great value, 
 and is used by the Malays in many of their manufac- 
 tures. The sap from the tree, after being reduced to 
 the form of a gum, with its valuable property of be- 
 coming plastic in hot water, so that it can be molded 
 up into any form, retaining the shape vvhen cooled, 
 was known to the Malays probably for ages. This 
 property, from which so many useful advantages have 
 been derived, seems to have remained unknown to 
 our people until about 1842 and '43, when specimens 
 of the gum were forwarded to England, and some 
 time transpired before it was brought into practical 
 use.' Gutta percha differs very materially from india 
 rubber (also one of the bounteous products of 
 the islands), in being elastic only in a very slight 
 degree. The plants are very different. The india 
 rubber, although growing a foot or so in diame-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 211 
 
 ter, grows like a vine, and Is often found twined 
 around or clinofinof to the trees of the oreat island 
 forests. Again, there is the important difference In 
 the two gums, that rubber requires a chemical prep- 
 aration with some of the earths, or to be mixed with 
 certain proportions of metallic oxides, to make it 
 harder after heating and molding, before it will retain 
 the shape desired, becoming then vulca7iized rubber. 
 
 SCREW PINE (PANDANUS). 
 
 This tree, much valued in the Pacific, is native to 
 most of the islands, where It grows in the greatest 
 abundance. It Is among the first of the plants to ap- 
 pear on newly formed or forming islands, and with its 
 spreading roots, often raised above the ground and 
 supporting the main trunk on their stems, it acts as 
 a dam and barrier to encroaching waves, and per- 
 forms an Important part in collecting and retaining 
 the drift and debris, that assists so materially in the 
 first plant growth of islands. Its leaves, growing 
 generally from the ends of the main branches, spread- 
 ing from the trunk, grow similar to those of the pine- 
 apple, whence Its name ; but unlike the latter, it Is a 
 tree growing from twelve to forty feet high. The 
 many ways that the bark, timber and the strong fiber 
 of its leaves can be used, makes it highly prized by the 
 natives. 
 
 RESINOUS GUM TREES. 
 
 The great forests of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Cele- 
 bes, New Guinea, etc., teem with an almost endless va- 
 riety of trees that furnish the liquid resins so valuable 
 as a base for our varnishes, while the ground itself
 
 212 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 supplies many forms of the oxidized fossil kinds, 
 such as copal, amber and others. From the Fiji 
 Islands, where the natives use a liquid resin as a 
 coating or glaze for their pottery, to the more ad- 
 vanced usages of the Japanese, in their beautiful 
 lacquer ware, also the results of resinous products, a 
 vast field in this line alone is spread out, offering 
 ample room for the employment of the capital, en- 
 terprise and skill of thousands of our unemployed 
 people. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 In glancing with me in this general way at some 
 of the valuable island products, the intelligent reader 
 will no doubt agree with me in the assertion that it is 
 but a glance. That a volume could be written on 
 valuable products alone, and still another on their 
 manifold uses, and again another on the mechanical 
 appliances necessary for their more perfect manipula- 
 tion in manufactories.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 213 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 OCBATSIC E^THI^OORAPHY. 
 
 See him from nature rising slow to Art ! 
 To copy instinct then was reason's part : 
 Thus then to man the voice of nature spake — 
 Go, from the creatures thy instructions take ; 
 Learn from the birds what food the thickets yield, 
 Learn from tlie beasts the physics of the field, 
 Thy arts of building from the bee receive ; 
 Learn of the mole to plough, the worm fo weave, 
 Learn from the little Nautilus to sail, 
 Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale. 
 
 Pope {Essay on Man). 
 
 OCEANIC RACES. 
 
 WE shall use the term Oceanica in the sense in 
 which it is applied by many writers on Eth- 
 nography, as describing all the land comprised 
 between the coasts of Asia and America, including the 
 East Indian Archipelago, the many smaller clusters of 
 the Pacific, and the continent of New Holland. 
 
 The whole subject of the distinctions in race 
 amonor the wild inhabitants who have settled on these 
 countless islands — the "nomads of the sea," as Profes- 
 sor Muller calls them — is even more intricate and in- 
 volved than the differences among the nomads of the 
 land. The languages of many of the tribes have never 
 even been compared, and some of them are scarcely
 
 214 T^H^ ISLAND WORLD 
 
 known at all ; so that all conclusions must necessarily, 
 as yet, be very doubtful, and liable to much change 
 hereafter. 
 
 There are at least two very different schools on 
 this subject, each represented by high authority. One 
 led by the celebrated William von Humboldt, assigns 
 but two, or at most three, races of men to this immense 
 range of inhabitable land — namely, the Malay, the Po- 
 lynesian, and a race of Oriental negroes. 
 
 The other, represented by a scholar of great abil- 
 ity, Mr. J. Crawford, divides the inhabitants of Ocean- 
 ica into five brown races, with lank hair, distinguished 
 by varieties of language, and eight races of Oriental 
 negroes. The tendency, however, of all late investi- 
 gation, is toward the unity of these varieties, and mod- 
 ern conclusions approach those of Humboldt much 
 more than those of Crawford. 
 
 Oceanica may be divided into five great divisions : 
 Malaisia, or the East Indian Islands, together with the 
 peninsula of Mallacca, inhabited by the Malay race. 
 Of these islands, the most prominent are Sumatra, 
 Java, Borneo, Celebes, Mollucca, Sooloo, and the Phil- 
 lippines. 
 
 Melanasia are the islands inhabited by a dark race 
 with woolly or frizzled ■ hair, comprising New 
 Guinea, Aroo, Mysol and others, together with New 
 Britain, New Ireland, the Solomon Isles, and New 
 Hebrides. 
 
 Australia, or New Holland, a vast island, sparsely 
 peopled by a black race with straight, smooth hair. 
 
 Micronesia, a long range of little groups of islands 
 and strips of coral rock in the North Pacific, east of the 
 Phillippines, including the Pelew, Caroline, Ladrone, 
 Bonabe, and numerous other islands, from 132 deg.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 215 
 
 east longitude to 1 78 deg. west, and from 2 1 deg. north 
 latitude to 5 deg. south. 
 
 Poly?icsia, or the islands in the East Pacific, occu- 
 pied by a race kindred to the Malay, of which the best 
 known are the Navigators, the Friendly, Society and 
 Sandwich Islands, together with New Zealand. 
 
 The great natural peculiarities of this quarter of 
 the globe, which have determined the divisions of race 
 and family, have been its insular character, the perio- 
 dicity of its winds, and the malarious climate of some 
 of the islands ; while the existence of a people on its 
 western border, with a highly flexible and euphonious 
 language, and gifted with much enterprise (the Malay 
 race), has affected the ruling stock through all this 
 wide region. These nomads of the sea, whenever 
 desiring adventure or seeking commerce or plunder, or 
 driven forth by defeat or hunger, had only to put 
 themselves and wives, with their few utensils, into their 
 light canoes, and trust themselves to the prevailing 
 trade winds, and they were certain finally to land on 
 some new island, where they could either intermingle 
 with the old inhabitants or form a new community. It 
 is thus that the almost countless islands, from the Phil- 
 lippines to Easter Island, through eight thousand miles 
 of ocean, were peopled by a similar race. 
 
 There were certain of the islands which only ad- 
 mitted of the habitation of the black tribes, owing to 
 the highly malarious character of the climate, and upon 
 them especially these tribes are found. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 The climate has probably protected them against 
 the assaults of the more organized nations. Whether
 
 2i6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 they were the original settlers is impossible to deter- 
 mine. Their usual position, on the mountains in the 
 interior of an island, would indicate an earlier habita- 
 tion. Possibly, as some ethnologists have supposed, 
 their appearance here may date back to an immense 
 antiquity — before all the islands were separated one 
 from another or from the Asiatic continent;* while 
 their color and power of resisting malarious influences 
 may be due to the gradual accumulation and trans- 
 mission of advantageous changes, adapting them to 
 their circumstances through vastly extended periods 
 of time. 
 
 Judging from the gradual change in language and 
 customs, as well as from other indications, the great 
 movement of the Oceanican people must have been 
 from the west to the east — against the prevailing trade 
 wind ; and no investigations show that even now, at 
 peculiar seasons of the year, there are regular winds 
 blowing from the west which drift the natives hundreds 
 and thousands of miles. 
 
 One great link has perhaps been discovered by 
 Professor Muller and others, showing the connection 
 between the nomads of the sea and the nomads of the 
 land, in their investigations into the Tai and Malay 
 languages. * ''' * These generic expo- 
 
 nents or numerical affixes are entirely peculiar to those 
 languages. Many other evidences are adduced of the 
 relation between the langruaQ^es of the islands and the 
 Asiatic continent; so that, if this vast connection be 
 fairly established, the language of a vast portion of 
 Oceanica may be included in the great Turanian family. 
 
 *Both Dana and Hale notice evidence of a gradual subsidence of 
 the land, even in the historic period; the ruins of temples on Bonab^, 
 for instance, being found partly submerged by the sea.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCFAN 217 
 
 THE MALAYS. 
 
 Besides the large islands, which have already been 
 spoken of as occupied by this family, they hold also 
 the small islands south of the Phillippines, up to the 
 west coast of New Guinea, and those on the east 
 point of Java and Sumatra, up to the Straits of Mal- 
 lacca. Their language, which is found purest on the 
 Phillippines, is one of the most widely extended of 
 Asia, traces of it beinor discovered from JMadajrascar 
 to Easter Island, and from Formosa to New Zealand, 
 over 70 deg. of latitude and 200 deg. of longitude. 
 This race has for ages possessed the knowledge of 
 letters, worked metals and domesticated useful ani- 
 mals, and has led the commerce and enterprise of 
 the Pacific Ocean. The flexibility of its tongue has 
 made it everywhere the medium of communication, 
 and even in Madagascar, at 3,000 miles distance, 
 Malay words form one-fifty-seventh of the vocabulary' 
 of the islanders. The Malay conquest and settle- 
 ments after the remote emigration from the continent, 
 are supposed by Crawford to have begun from the 
 center of Sumatra, and to have extended from the 
 Malay peninsula and the coasts of Borneo. Their 
 influence was only excluded from two quarters by 
 different causes — from the Asiatic shores, by the su- 
 perior Chinese civilization already prevailing there, 
 and from Australia, by the great degradation of its 
 inhabitants. Physical objects alone prevented their 
 reaching the coasts of America. The Malay language 
 shows that it has been acted upon by both Indian and 
 Chinese influences. 
 
 The Malay bodily type is described by Prichard 
 as Indo-Chinese. The nose is short, but not tlat. the
 
 2i8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 mouth large and lips thin, cheek bones high, and face 
 broadest at that point, the complexion yellowish. 
 The form is squat, and height only about five feet 
 three or four inches. 
 
 THE POLYNESIANS. 
 
 The second great race, of similar physical struc- 
 ture and language with the Malays, and undoubtedly 
 of the same origin, are the Polynesians. The islands 
 especially occupied by this people are those lying be- 
 tween New Zealand and Easter Isle, north, up to the 
 Sandwich Islands, and west, as far as the Fiji and New 
 Hebrides. Mixtures of this with other races are 
 found all over the islands of the Pacific. They were 
 for centuries a half civilized people, and have pos- 
 sessed a well established government, together with 
 religious doctrines and usages, and a sacred language 
 unintelligible to the people, as well as a system of 
 ecclesiastical authority^ They exhibited skill in vari- 
 ous arts, and were bold and experienced sailors. 
 They had no writing, but possessed " many legends 
 and traditional poetry. Yet they and their kindred, 
 the Malay race, have the infamy of being the prin- 
 cipal and almost the only race indulging habitually in 
 canibalism. 
 
 Physically, -the Polynesians are placed among the 
 class of light-brown complexion verging to white. 
 They are described by Hale as above the middle 
 height, well formed, with thick, strong, black hair, 
 slightly curled, and scanty beard; the head short 
 and broad, and higher than most races in their staee 
 of development, with a remarkably flat posterior 
 head, like that of the American Indians. In disposi-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 219 
 
 tion they are represented as good-humored and fickle, 
 and very ready to adopt new usages. 
 
 The Polynesian language, Hale supposes to spread 
 especially from Bouru, the easternmost of the Malay 
 islands. 
 
 The whole number of the Polynesians proper is 
 less than 500,000. 
 
 From the evidence of language, Mr. Crawford 
 concluded that there was, in the ante-historic times, 
 a great Polynesian nation, whose speech lies at the 
 basis of all the various Malay and Polynesian lan- 
 guages at the present day. This people — judging 
 from the records preserved in the words they have 
 transmitted — had made some progress in agriculture, 
 and understood the use of gold and iron ; were 
 clothed with a fabric made of the fibrous bark of 
 plants, which they wove in the loom, while knowing 
 nothing of the manufacture of cotton, which they ac- 
 quired afterward from India. They had tamed the 
 cow and buffalo, and possessed and fed upon the hog, 
 the domestic fowl and the duck. 
 
 The massive ruins and remains of pyraniidal 
 structures and terraced buildings on the Pacific Islands, 
 are probably from this primeval race. 
 
 THE MICRONESIANS. 
 
 Micronesia, as was before stated, embraces a long 
 ranofe of small islands in the North Pacific, east of 
 the Phillippines, including the Pelew, Ladrone, Bo- 
 nabe and others, from 132 deg. east longitude to 178 
 deg. west, and from 2 i deg. north latitude to 5 'Xq'^. 
 south. 
 
 Owing to the peculiar position of these islands.
 
 220 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 they are exposed to winds blowing from various 
 quarters, so that the emigration which settled them 
 Avould naturally be from many different sources. In 
 physical type, the people are of reddish brown com- 
 plexion, rough skin, and high, bold features; the 
 head is high compared with its breadth, hair black 
 and curled. They show skill in various arts, and, in 
 Hale's view, give indications of having descended 
 from a higher to a lower civilization. In advance of 
 the Polynesians, they possess the art of varnishing and 
 weaving ; they also understand steering by the stars. 
 The practice of tattooing is observed, not only for 
 decency or ornament, as with other tribes, but for 
 the purpose of distinguishing clans and memorizing 
 events. Their government is more intricate than that 
 of the Polynesians, and their religion is different, re- 
 sembling more that of Eastern Asia, and recognizing 
 the worship of parents. Taboo is not in use. On 
 some of the islands, as Bonabe and others, architec- 
 tural ruins of a remarkable appearance are found. 
 The language of Tarawa contains a mixture of Poly- 
 nesian and Melanesian, or Papuan, but on the whole, 
 it is uncertain if there is a distinct Micronesian race. 
 
 THE MELANESIANS. 
 
 The black tribes of Oceanica present a difficult 
 subject to the student of races. Not enough is known 
 of their languages, to affirm either as to their origin 
 or their division. 
 
 They are found first in the west, on the Andaman 
 Islands, between lo deg. and 14 deg. north latitude. 
 These Melanesians, or Negrillos, are considered by 
 Prof Owen as the lowest of mankind. They have no
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 221 
 
 tradition or history ; no inventions, except door-mats, 
 and bows and arrows ; no agriculture, and their hal)- 
 itations are the rudest and most primitive. Botli 
 sexes ofo naked without shame, and famiHes and 
 wives are in common. According to the same au- 
 thority, the Andamans have no notion of Deity, or 
 spiritual beings, or a future state ; an assertion which 
 does not seem easily proved. They are not cannibals, 
 but show a great hostility to strangers. Neither skull 
 nor teeth present the characteristics of the lowest 
 African tribes. Prognathism is no more common 
 than in the most of the South Asiatic peoples. The 
 hair resembles that of the Papuans and Australians, as 
 well as of the lower African negroes. They approach 
 the orangs and chimpanzees in their diminutive 
 stature, but show the well balanced human proportion 
 of trunk and limbs. Latham states that there is a 
 very evident link of connection between the language 
 of the Andamans and the monosyllabic Burmese. 
 
 The black tribes next appear in the Nicobar 
 Islands, then upon the mountains of Mallacca, where 
 they are called Semangs, and in the Phillipines, where, 
 under the name of Negritos,* they number about 25,- 
 000. 
 
 On Luzon there are 3,000 of them under the 
 Spanish rule. On Ceram a tribe of them is found so 
 
 *The Negritos are said by Bowring to possess a remarkable 
 facility in the use of their toes, and their feet are marked by a greater 
 separation of the toes than usual. They can descend the rigging of a 
 ship head downward, clinging with their feet. They are slight in form, 
 agile, small and thin, with handsome face, and dark copper coniple.xion. 
 The hair is black and curly, head small and round, forehead narrow, 
 eyes large and penetrating, and veiled by very long eyelids, the nose <>( 
 medium size, slightly depressed, mouth and lips medium, teetii long. — 
 {Sir J. liowring's Visii io Phil. Islands.)
 
 222 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 low as to live in trees instead of huts. A wild race 
 of blacks is supposed also to occupy the interior of 
 Borneo, though there is not full evidence of it. 
 
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Crawford supposes that there is but one race of 
 Oriental neeroes, as these blacks are called, north of 
 the equator, and two races south in the Malay Archi- 
 pelago, and in New Guinea. Of these latter, one has • 
 the negro features, but not in the extreme. The hair 
 is frizzled, long and bushy, skin of lighter color, fore- 
 head higher, and the posterior head not "cut off," as 
 it were. The nose projects, the upper lip is larger, 
 and prominent, and the lower very projecting. The 
 other race he distinguishes by its lank hair. 
 
 The more oreneral conclusion now is, that there is 
 but one race of Oriental negroes, even including the 
 black Australians, and the inhabitants of Van Die- 
 man's Land. Latham doubts even the existence of 
 the nesrro tribes in the smaller islands of Melanesia. 
 
 The Australian languages are more like the Malay 
 and Polynesian than they are like anything else. There 
 are often, he allows, greater approaches of the black to 
 the brown tribes in language, than the received physical 
 divisions would justify. 
 
 The black tribes are not considered by travelers 
 as inferior in capacity to the brown, but they are pe- 
 culiarly wild and impatient of control, and thus not 
 easily organized, so that they readily fall under the 
 power of the Malays. It is not found to be true that 
 they disappear before the advance of civilization in the 
 Eastern Ocean. On the contrary, in some islands, 
 even the most civilized, they have increased ; but the
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 223 
 
 great cause of their decrease is to be found in the bitter 
 hostility and superior organization of the Malays and 
 Polynesians. 
 
 Without the knowledge of their languages, these 
 physical divisions are not sufficient to determine the 
 origin or the divisions of the race. The probability is 
 that these black tribes are offshoots from the ancient 
 black races of India and Asia, scattered widely, by the 
 conquest of others, or their own pursuit of plunder, 
 over the Pacific islands. A black tribe is known to 
 exist on the mountains between Cochin China and 
 Cambodia, called the Moys, which may be a portion of 
 their ancestral people. On some of the islands which 
 the black nations settled, they were extirpated, or were 
 driven to the mountains, where they are still found ; on 
 others the malarious climate defended them from for- 
 eign encroachment, and on others they became min- 
 gled with a different race. Many of the Melanesian 
 tribes present great mixtures of blood. 
 
 The Papuans, who are distinguished by spirally 
 twisted hair, frizzled and dressed by them in a huge 
 mass above the head, are a cross of the dark races 
 with the Malays. The eastern islands, as Tanna and 
 others, show Polynesian blood. Timor contains with- 
 in its limits every variety of color and hair. The Fijis* 
 are probably a mixture of Papuans and Polynesians. 
 In their mould, they are said by Mr. Williams to be 
 decidedly European, with very large and powerful 
 frames. The face is oval, profile vertical, nose well 
 shaped, but the hair frizzled and bushy. The com- 
 
 *The Fiji Islands, Mr. Williams supposes to be the point where 
 the Asiatic and African elements, among the Polynesians, unite. 
 
 H. C. von der Gabelentz finds evidence of the mixture of 
 Polynesian and Melanesian in the Fiji language.
 
 224 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 plexlon is between the black and brown — sometimes 
 almost purple. The nearest approach to the negro is 
 on the island of Kandavu. The Fijis resemble the 
 blacks in their use of the bow and the manufacture ot 
 their pottery, and the Polynesians, in the making- ot 
 their paper cloth, the preparation of kava, and the 
 practice of tattooing. The language contains one-fifth 
 of Polynesian words, and four-fifths unlike any other 
 tongue. The aborigines of Van Dieman's Land are 
 classed by some among the Papuans. The Melan- 
 esians are notoriously sullen in disposition and deficient 
 in enterprise, and manifest a different temperament 
 from either that of the Polynesians or Africans. 
 
 The prominent distinction between the languages 
 of the negro and brown races, Crawford states to be 
 that the first contain more consonants in proportion to 
 vowels, and more harsh combinations of consonants, 
 than the latter. 
 
 Gabelentz has made a careful investigation of the 
 dialects of many of the Melanesian tribes. Those, for 
 instance, of the inhabitants of the Fiji Islands, of Anna- 
 torn, Eromengo, Tanna, Mallikolo, Mare, Lifu, Bala- 
 dea, Bauro and Guadalcanal 
 
 His deliberate and carefully formed conclusion is, 
 that all the Melanesian laneuaofes, thougfh disintegfra- 
 ted and apparently separated from one another, owing 
 to the barbarism and isolation of each of the tribes, do 
 yet belong to one stock. He is also of the opinion 
 that, both in roots and in many grammatical peculiari- 
 ties, there are numerous remarkable resemblances 
 between the Polynesian and Melanesian ; so that the 
 hypothesis of their common origin is a highly probable 
 one. 
 
 If this be hereafter more fully demonstrated, the
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 22s 
 
 •whole vast population of brown and black peoples — 
 the Malays, Polynesians and INIelanesians — may be 
 referred to one source, and in all probability be joined 
 with the Turanian races of Asia. 
 
 THE AUSTRALIANS. 
 
 The inhabitants of Australia and Van Dieman's 
 Land, belonging to the black races, are pronounced to 
 be almost the lowest of mankind. They have no gov- 
 ernment, and their religion consists only of the most 
 childish or debased superstitions. Their physical type 
 seems a cross of the Malay and the African, the most 
 distinguishing feature being the long, fine, wavy hair, 
 like the hair of a European. The evidence with 
 reference to their physique is quite conilicting. Many 
 of them are said to show a deficiency of bone in their 
 structure, and some tribes are represented as so 
 degenerated physically as to resemble cretins, and to 
 be in process of extinction. On the other hand, Pick- 
 ering states that one of the finest types of muscular 
 frame, and the most classic mould of head he has ever 
 beheld, he saw among the Australian natives. He 
 speaks of them as active, strongly formed and stately. 
 Various physical types probably exist among them. 
 In general, the features are as follows : The forehead 
 is narrow; mouth large, with thick lijis; the nose, 
 depressed and widened at the base, but often aquiline ; 
 the beard thick, the form slight, though well propor- 
 tioned, and color black. The number of these blacks 
 in Australia is said to be about 200,000. The)- are 
 supposed to be all of the same stock, though this con- 
 clusion is derived more from a resemblance discovered 
 in a few words, than a close comparison of grainirar. 
 
 •is
 
 226 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Not a Malay word is found in their language. Of 
 their character, a competent witness (Rev. Wm. Rid- 
 ley) says, that they are deficient in forethought and 
 concentrativeness, but that in mental acumen, and in 
 quickness of sight and hearing, they are superior to 
 the whites. They are generous, honest to one another, 
 and often attentive to the weak and the aged, though 
 cruel to women. Notwithstanding their barbarous 
 condition, there exists among them a very strict divi- 
 sion of castes, and a certain kind of priesthood. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY. 
 
 It is interesting to know what capacities the low- 
 est tribe or race of the human family may show. We 
 learn, from quotations of a recent report to the English 
 Government on this subject, that the Australian negroes 
 show minds quick and keen — "rather like a treasure 
 sealed up, than a vacuum." Their perceptive faculties 
 are remarkable — far superior to those of Europeans — 
 while, as might be expected, they are deficient in the' 
 reflective powers. As a consequence, the children are 
 found to learn an external study, as geogra[>hy, with 
 great readiness, though showing much inaptitude for 
 an abstract study like arithmetic. Mr. Parker, a vis- 
 iting magistrate of the school in Mt. Franklin, says, that 
 the native children manifest just as great capacities 
 for improvement as do English children, and that the 
 main obstacle to their elevation is from moral rather 
 than physical causes. 
 
 The numerals of the Australian languages rarely 
 reach five, and generally stop at three. Some affini- 
 ties have been discovered between them and the 
 Tamul.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 227 
 
 We have classed the Tasmanian tribes (of Van 
 Diemen's Land) with them, but the basis for classifica- 
 tion is as yet extremely uncertain. 
 
 The great difficulty in determining- the races of 
 Oceanica is, that the tendency of a nomadic people to 
 continually form new words and new languages, as 
 they found new colonies, is here intensified by the 
 separation which the sea naturally causes. There is 
 something, too, in the disposition of the black races 
 which has doubtless increased this tendency to disinte- 
 gration. Crawford, who may have exaggerated in 
 this particular, states that there are forty languages on 
 the little island of Timor, and many hundreds in 
 Borneo. 
 
 Nearly all writers allow that climate and circum- 
 stances have produced the most marked effects here 
 on persons of the same race. Among the Tahitians 
 and Maorians, for instance, the lowest castes are found 
 nearly as black as negroes, and with crisp, woolly hair, 
 while the higher (the chiefs and others), less exposed 
 to the sun and the influences of the weather, resemble 
 Europeans both in features and complexion ; though 
 both, there is every reason to believe, belong to the 
 Polynesian race. Similar differences are observed on 
 New Zealand among the blacks. 
 
 The Semangs, the blacks of Mallacca, arc brown 
 where not exposed to the sun, and in language and 
 character have so strong a resemblance to the Malays, 
 as to be considered by many, a tribe of that race. 
 
 The points of resemblance between the Polyne- 
 sians and the Central American hidians are so striking, 
 as to induce many writers to assign the same origin 
 to both peoples. 
 
 The Asiatic origin of the Malay-Polynesian races
 
 228 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 seems to us clearly indicated, so that all these resem- 
 blances cannot be considered in this connection. 
 
 (Brace: The Races of the Old World.) 
 
 INFLUENCE -OF OCEAN CURRENTS. 
 
 I have quoted thus freely from the works of Mr. 
 Brace, with the object, not only of proving the origin 
 of the island races, but with the view of tracing the 
 source (only in a general way, however) of a portion 
 of the inhabitants of North and South America, as well 
 as the islands of Oceanica. In another portion of this 
 work, the ocean currents of the Pacific have been allu- 
 ded to as the great highways over which the Asiatics 
 voyaged, to people the New World. Mr. Brooks, in 
 his work on Japanese Wrecks, accompanied by a map 
 of the Northern Pacific, showing the location of wrecks 
 discovered within a few hundred years, clearly shows 
 the influence of the northern current. They are trace- 
 able from a short distance from Japan to Kampt- 
 chatka, the Aleutian Isles, Alaska, British America, 
 Oregon, California, Mexico, the Equator, and westerly 
 into the islands of the South Sea ; always being found 
 in the line of the Japanese Black Stream. It is 
 doubtful if any of these wrecks were found following 
 the other course — that is, south from Japan, and eas- 
 terly through the islands of the Pacific, against winds 
 and currents, to the American shores. 
 
 In the equatorial regions of the Pacific, the pre- 
 vailing winds and the currents, always flow from east 
 to west, or (in a plainer way) from the shores of the 
 tw'O Americas towards Asia ; the northern and southern 
 currents meeting at the equator ofT the Mexican coast, 
 and flowing together to the Indian Ocean, to part
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 229 
 
 again, and sweep around the Nordi and South Pacific, 
 as already described. 
 
 Between the Philhppines. the Japanese Islands, 
 and the eastern coast of Asia, another current Hows to 
 the south, and into the Indian Ocean ; a portion some- 
 times reacliing the Peruvian current south of Australia, 
 and runninof with it in its southern course. 
 
 This inner Asiatic current, if it may be so called, 
 explains the total absence of Chinese wrecks in our 
 northern regions, and at the same time accounts for 
 the Chinese wrecks found in the Indian Ocean, and 
 even at the Straits of Maorcllan, on the west coast of 
 South America. 
 
 If we readily accept the views of many writers, 
 the peopling of the Americas by the Asiatics was but 
 natural and easy of accomplishment. If we examine 
 history, facts and dates, we do not find the easy views 
 advanced, sustained by them. 
 
 ASIATIC INFLUENCES IN PEOPLING AMERICA. 
 
 Grotius says : The Peruvians were a Chinese col- 
 ony, and the Spaniards found, at the entry of the Paci- 
 fic Ocean, on coming through the Straits of Magellan, 
 the wrecks of Chinese vessels. 
 
 There are proofs, clear and certain, that Mango 
 Capac, founder of the Peruvian race, was the son of 
 Kublai Khan, the commander of this expedition, and 
 that the ancestors of Montezuma, who were from As- 
 sam, arrived about the same time. Every custom des- 
 cribed by their Spanish conquerors proves their Asiatic 
 origin. 
 
 Again: The Hindoo, Chinese and Japanese annals 
 all correspond in recording«the fact that, about the year
 
 2JO THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 1280, Genghis Khan, a great Mongol chief, whose 
 name was a terror in Europe, at the same time invaded 
 China with hordes of barbarians from Tartary, whom 
 his descendants hold in subjection at the present time. 
 Having accomplished this object, he fitted out an expe- 
 dition consisting of 240,000 men in 400 ships, under 
 command of Kublai Khan, one of his sons, for the 
 purpose of conquering Japan. While this expedition 
 was on the passage between the two countries, a vio- 
 lent storm arose, which destroyed a great part of the 
 fleet, and drove many of the vessels on the coast of 
 America. 
 
 (Cronise: Wealth of California.) 
 
 Some of these statements are hardly clear. The 
 races from which the Montezumas sprung, were natives 
 of Atzlan, a country forming at that time a small por- 
 tion of northern South America, and extending into 
 South Central America. In about 11 80 a. d., a 
 portion of this race emigrated to the valley of Mex- 
 ico, forming the foundations from which the Aztecs 
 sprung. If this statement be true, Kublai Kahn did 
 not arrive in America until many years after. If the 
 dates are correct, neither he or the people who are 
 said to have reached America from Assam, about the 
 same time, can be claimed as the founders of the Aztec 
 race. 
 
 Probably if a thousand years or so were taken 
 from the above dates, and time given for the great 
 oceanic laws governing the currents of the Pacific, as 
 well as the gradually extending ventures of a natural 
 maritime people, like the Chinese and Japanese, we 
 might account for a partial peopling, at least, of the 
 Americas by the Asiatics. 
 
 Nor is it well, in this connection, to isolate ideas
 
 OF 711 IL PACIFIC OCFAN 231 
 
 and facts, and view the peopling- of the Americas from 
 the Pacific standpoint alone, or to ignore the inlluence 
 of the great ocean currents of the Atlantic, or the 
 early maritime ventures of countries not on our side 
 of the world, and the bearing they have had on the 
 ethnology of America. 
 
 ISLAND RACES. 
 
 Among the islands of the Pacific, the lines sepa- 
 rating races are very closely defined, and through what 
 would seem perfectly natural causes. In nearly every 
 case the peopling of the islands can be accounted for, 
 by supposing that their migratory habits were in ac- 
 cordance with the natural laws controllinof the winds 
 and currents in these recrions. 
 
 Closely following the migratory movements of the 
 human race, as an example, we may take the animal 
 kingdom. A north and south line can be drawn through 
 the Eastern Archipelago, where animals of the larger 
 growth cease" to exist. Borneo, Sumatra, Java and 
 some of the other islands have the animal kingdom 
 of India and Asia well represented in the elephant, 
 lion, tiger, panther, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ourang- 
 utang and monkey, with the reptilian and feathered 
 .species of the larger kind, all partaking of the species 
 found on the main land of Asia. Of this latter coun- 
 try, it is believed that the islands named, at one time 
 formed a part. 
 
 Still another parallel, running north and south 
 and further to the east, may be drawn, where the 
 larger of the species named above, have never been 
 known to exist. Thus, the islands of New Zealand, Tas- 
 mania, Australia, New Guinea and others in the same
 
 232 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 range, are entirely free from the animals enumerated, 
 excepting the monkey tribes, and in Australia the 
 kanofaroo. 
 
 Another parallel can be traced, running north 
 and south and still further east, through the island 
 groups of the Society, Tongas, Fijis, Samoas, Mar- 
 shall, New Hebrides and the Carolines, where hardly 
 any animal larger than the dog or rat, can be found 
 native to the soil. These parallels are followed just 
 as closely by the reptilian and feathered tribes. 
 
 The latter, whose migratory powers are well 
 known all over the world, seem curiously to draw the 
 species line of locality or habitation, as closely as those 
 of the animal kingdom. In the Bird of Paradise we find 
 a marked instance. Their native home is New Guinea, 
 where as many as twenty of this species of birds may 
 be found, and are hardly ever to be met with in any of 
 the other island groups. 
 
 This follows, also, in nearly as strictly defined 
 lines, with the inhabitants of Oceanica. The people 
 of Borneo, Java, Sumatra and the Moliuccas partake 
 of the Malay, Hindoo and Chinese, being all, in a com- 
 parative sense, a maritime people. 
 
 At Australia this race element ceases altogether. 
 The natives are bushmen, and root-diggers, with no 
 knowledge of navigation ; not canoe-builders, or fisher- 
 men, nor in any way resembling a people who "go down 
 to the sea in ships." The same is true of the New 
 Zealander and the Tasmanian. Yet, but a little to the 
 north, on New Guinea, and in the Carolines, the na- 
 tives have some knowledge of canoe-building, sailing 
 and maritime ventures. So on through the Mol- 
 iuccas and Phillippines, into Japan, where the art of 
 ship-building and navigation, as among the islanders
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 233 
 
 of the Pacific, may be said to have been brouL^lit to 
 comparative perfection. 
 
 East from AustraHa, in the Solomon Archipelai^o, 
 and amonfi;- the Marshall islanders, the Samoans, in 
 fact, as far cast as the island groups extend, north 
 and south of the line, the Asiatic features are prom- 
 inent. The inhabitants are expert canoe and boat 
 builders, with considerable knowledge of na\ iL^ation. 
 making long voyages in their little crafts with lateen 
 sails and outriggers to windward, and altogether per- 
 fectly at home on the water. These people, with the 
 exception of the Fijis, and others of the wooly-headed 
 type, have the features and many of the characteris- 
 tics of the Chinese and Japanese — probably coming 
 from those countries, making the grand circles of the 
 ocean currents, with favoring winds, at very early 
 periods. 
 
 The many wrecks of Japanese vessels found in 
 the Northern Pacific, following the line of the ocean 
 currents clear into the island groups, seems important 
 evidence in favor of the above statement. 
 
 A like statement may be made of the maritime 
 ventures of the Chinese, south of the equator, many 
 traces of whose early settlements, habits and archi- 
 tecture are to be found in South America. 
 
 This would account for the absence of animal lite 
 of the larger kind on the easterly islands, as the 
 length of the voyages, together with the small size 
 of the shipping of the earlier periods, would make 
 the carrying of animals almost an impossibility. 
 
 The prevailing winds follow the course of the 
 currents through the equatorial regions of the Pacific 
 from east to west. Assuming the movements of the 
 ocean streams to be twenty-one miles per day, and
 
 2^4 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 that favoring winds would add to the floating powers 
 of a boat or canoe fifteen miles a day additional, we 
 would have a favoring drift from east to west of 
 thirty-six miles per day. Thus we might assume, that 
 a journey of i,ooo miles per month could be made 
 without the aid of sails or oars. Against such favor- 
 ing circumstances it does not seem possible for a peo- 
 ple without the modern appliances of steam and sail, 
 to migrate. 
 
 Many traces of ruins of architecture, similar in 
 form to the pyramidal structures of the ancient Peru- 
 vians' and Chilians, are to be found in some of the 
 islands, on Ascension particularly. Great blocks of 
 hewn granite are to be found, with other forms of 
 building stOne, scattered over the ground in many 
 places, and lying under water in some of the harbors. 
 It was thouorht at one time that these had been trans- 
 ported from great distances, and that the geological 
 formations of the material were foreign to anything to 
 be found on the islands. Closer research, however, 
 revealed the quarries from which the stones had been 
 taken, located in the interior of the islands where such 
 ruins were discovered.* 
 
 This fact has spoiled many curious, mysterious 
 theories that were advanced in regard to the buildinsf 
 material, and leaves us but to account for the people 
 whose intelligence and skill, indicates their source to 
 be from countries foreiofn to these islands. From the 
 data (a review of which would but tire the reader) ob- 
 tained on this subject, the race origin of many of the 
 islanders of Oceanica is clearly indicated to be Chinese 
 and Japanese. 
 
 *The stone implements, with the hieroglyphical writing and draw- 
 ings on the rocks, found on Pitcairn by the Bounty mutineers, may 
 help, some day, to trace the history of the ancient islanders
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 2^ 
 
 THE EQUATORIAL CURRENTS. 
 
 As my purpose has been throughout this work to 
 present facts, untrammeled by personal opinion, for 
 the consideration of the reader, I add a few notes be- 
 low, taken from experiences and researches of others, 
 that may modify or change altogether some of the 
 ideas already advanced : 
 
 The famous volcanic eruption on the island of 
 Krakatoa, just west of Java, a year since, startled the 
 civilized portion of the world with the "blue" and 
 "red" and other "strang-e sunsets and sunrisinors" it 
 caused. Just now, a year after date, Ponape is gath- 
 ering up some of the products of that eruption ; large 
 beds of pumice-stone, in places, are covering the sea 
 with its gray hue, as if an immense blanket were 
 spread out. Months since, I saw an account of one of 
 the harbors, near that eruption, filled with this material 
 ten feet deep, and almost as compact as an ice-tloe. 
 The winds, and especially the currents, have taken 
 some of that disgforo-ed mass and floated it to our 
 Ponape reefs. A remarkable fact about this is the 
 continuity of an easterly or northeasterly set of the 
 ocean's current near the line. No doubt masses of the 
 ejected pumice will float along on the same current to 
 the shores of South America, more than half way belt- 
 ing the earth. Our natives call it "sea-fruit," for they 
 have no idea where or how it was gendered, but sup- 
 pose the sea is the mother. 
 
 To some of the sandy coral islands lying in the 
 track, it will be a very god-send. The material is 
 gathered, crushed, and put on beds of taro as a fer- 
 tilizer. Mere sand-beaches, or banks, furnish but 
 little to fertilize vegetation.
 
 236 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 But Krakatoa, or Krakatao, has other interests to 
 Ponape. The word is of two syllables — the first, the 
 specific name, and tao or tau, meaning "strait;" hence 
 the term means "Kraka of the strait." But tao or tatc 
 is pure Ponapian, and here also means a strait — a pas- 
 sage of water. Java, then, and Ponape are blood- 
 related. Indeed, centuries and centuries since, at 
 least as far back as when Solomon was king, Java had 
 another kind of eruption, sending off here ever so 
 many of her vocables. But recently I counted more 
 than fifty of these, some of them names of places on 
 this island. These vocables, of course, took passage 
 with the Malay tongue. And now Java is sending 
 fields of pumice-stone. Some day those who are on 
 the east of her must send back or set afloat to her, 
 truths from God's Word. 
 
 (Rev. Edw. T. Doane, Ponape, Micronesia). 
 
 This would indicate an equatorial current flowing 
 from west to east, in an opposite direction to, and 
 between, the two great ocean currents of the Pacific. 
 The speed of the current would be about eight miles 
 per day, if we estimate the distance from the island of 
 Java to that of Ponape to, be 3,000 miles. 
 
 Again — from Wallace, Muller, Dr. A. B. Meyer, 
 Schouw-Santvoort, Proc, Roy. Geo. Soc, 1881, and 
 Ency. Brit, vol.' 15, I quote the following: 
 
 Long considered as an independent division of 
 mankind, the Malays are now more generally affiliated 
 to the Mongol stock — of which A. R. Wallace, De 
 Quatrefages and other eminent naturalists regard 
 them as a simple variety, more or less modified by 
 mixture with other elements. These considerations 
 also enable us to fix the true centre of dispersion of
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 237 
 
 the Malay race, rather in Mallacca than in Sumatra, 
 contrary to the generally received opinion. If they are 
 to be physically allied to the Mongol stock, it is obvi- 
 ous that the earliest miL^ration must have been from 
 High Asia, southward to the peninsula, and thence to 
 Sumatra, possibly at a time when the island still formed 
 a part of the mainland. The national traditions of a 
 dispersion from Menangkabo or Palembang, in South 
 Sumatra, must accordingly be understood to refer 
 to later movements, and more especially to the 
 diffusion of the civilized Malay peoples, who first ac- 
 quired a really national development in Sumatra, in 
 comparatively recent times. From this point they 
 spread to the peninsula, to Borneo, Sooloo, and other 
 parts of Malaysia, apparently since their conversion to 
 Islam, although there is reason to believe that other 
 waves of misfration must have reached Further India, 
 and especially Camboja, if not from the same region, 
 at all events from Java, at much earlier dates. The 
 impulse to these earlier movements must be attributed 
 to the introduction of Indian culture throufjh the Hindu 
 and Buddhist missionaries, perhaps two or three cen- 
 turies before the Christian era. Duriner still more 
 prehistoric times, various sections of the Malay and 
 Indonesian stocks were diffused westward to Madaoas- 
 car, where the Hovas, of undoubted Malay descent, 
 still hold the political supremacy, and* eastward to the 
 ^Phillippines, Formosa, Micronesia and Polynesia. This 
 astonishing expansion of the Malaysian peoples 
 throughout the Oceanic area, is sufficiently attested 
 hy the diffusion of a common Malayo-Polynesian 
 speech from Madagascar to Easter Island, and from 
 Hawaii to New Zealand.
 
 2j8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 "TABOO." 
 
 One of the curious customs among the islanders 
 of the South Sea, is the -pracitice of that rite, so little 
 understood by the traveler, who is not "native and to 
 the manor born" — "taboo." 
 
 Tabu, Tapu, or Tambu, a Polynesian term, deno- 
 ting an institution found everywhere, and always essen- 
 tially the same, in the Polynesian Islands and in New 
 Zealand. Its primary meanings seem to be exactly 
 the same as those of the Hebrew toebah. This word, 
 like the Greek anathema, the Latin sacer and the 
 French saa-e, and the corresponding and similar terms 
 in most languages, has a double meaning— a good 
 sense and a bad ; it signifies, on the one hand, sacred, 
 consecrated ; on the other hand, accursed, abominable, 
 unholy. It results, from a thing, being held sacred, 
 that certain acts are forbidden with reference to it, 
 and from any act deemed abominable ; that it is for- 
 bidden. A notion of prohibition thus attaches to the 
 word tabu, and this is in many cases the most promi- 
 nent notion connected with it. The term is often used 
 substantially in the sense of a prohibition — a prohibi- 
 tory commandment. If a burial ground has been con- 
 secrated, // is tabic; to fight in it, then, is sacrilegious and 
 prohibited, and this also is tabu ; moreover, those per- 
 sons are tabu who have violated its sanctity by fighting 
 in it, and they are loosely and popularly said to have 
 broken the tabu. This example illustrates all the uses 
 of the word. It has furnished to the English language 
 the now familiar phrase of being "tabooed" — that is, 
 forbidden. 
 
 (Chambers's Ency.) 
 
 The observance of the custom among the natives 
 of many of the island groups is universal at all times
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 239 
 
 and places, and lortunately has been the means, not onl)' 
 of protecting strangers from insult and injury, but the 
 preserving of life as well. In Micronesia, the ordinary 
 native can select a favorite cocoanut tree, banana plant, 
 or the hut in which he lives, and protect them from 
 the inroads of all comers, either by erecting a monu- 
 ment of loose stones, or laying them in a peculiar 
 manner in front of his dwelling, or by tying a banana, 
 palm or plantain leaf around the tree or plant, which 
 indicates that it is tabu. Thus we see that the exer- 
 cise of the right is not confined to the chiefs or people 
 of hiofh deofree, but is in Q^eneral use amoncf the lower 
 orders. The women, unless wives or daughters of 
 chiefs, are not allowed to exercise the right ; yet a man 
 may protect any of the sex from insult or injury, by 
 the observance of the forms required. 
 
 A SMALL TRIBUTE TO RELIGIOUS MISSIONS AND MIS- 
 SIONARIES. 
 
 The inception of religious missions dates far back 
 in die biblical ages. Their history, or the life and 
 works of a people who practice what they preach, and 
 convey the good they have acquired from religion, civi- 
 lization and enlightenment, to those of the world less 
 fortunate in this respect, would fill volumes. 
 
 It is but little to praise the efforts of patient and 
 daring workers, pioneers of light, in distant, dangerous, 
 inhospitable lands, or speak of the man)-, rich and poor, 
 who contribute a portion of their effects to the good 
 cause — even to the widow's mite — and furnish the 
 sinews of war to a noble army of Christian workers, 
 the benefits of whose enlightening course through the 
 pagan world can hardly be overestimated.
 
 240 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 With this in view, I take pleasure in citing a few 
 of the great benefits resulting from the works of Chris- 
 tian missions in modern times. 
 
 In China, Japan, India — in fact, in all parts of Asia, 
 Africa, the two Americas, and in Oceanica, we find 
 their churches and schools. Following closely in the 
 footsteps of adventurous missionaries, we see that boon 
 to mankind, the printing press. Used not alone in 
 the translation of the Bible and religious works, but, 
 as in Shanghai, where ten presses are in almost con- 
 stant use, we find them printing works on science, 
 medicine, law, history, agriculture, school books, etc., 
 and scattering them broadcast throughout the land. 
 Thousands of volumes, on one hundred and fifty dif- 
 ferent subjects, are printed and circulated among the 
 people. And all this but a tithe of the work accom- 
 plished among the pagans of other countries.* Chris- 
 tian missionaries have translated the Bible, school books, 
 and hundreds of other instructive, useful works, into 
 over two hundred languages and dialects. 
 
 Many of them, in addition to their sacredotal 
 acquirements, are educated physicians as well. At the 
 principal stations of the mission world, medical dispen- 
 saries are to be found, whose drugs, skillfully used, 
 present an effective barrier to the spread of epidemical 
 diseases. Of late days it has become customary to 
 educate the women of the societies in medicine, 
 to whose ministering cares thousands of pagans owe a 
 healthful existence. 
 
 In one district in r\frica, between Sierra Leone 
 and Gaboon, a distance of nearly 2,000 miles, twelve 
 Protestant societies have established missions. They 
 have something over 20,000 children being educated in 
 their schools, and many more adults, as members of
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN j^i 
 
 Christian churches. Under this influence the slave 
 trade has altogether disappeared, where in former 
 times it counted its victims at the rate of 20,000 a 
 year, 
 
 xA-mong the 5,000,000 inhabiting the island of Mad- 
 agascar, 500,000 are m^^mbers of Christian churches. 
 
 Among the islands of the Pacific, particularly 
 those of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia, the ad- 
 vancement and benefits are fully as marked. Some- 
 sixty or seventy years ago, sunk in the degrading 
 depths of paganism, a great many of them cannibals, 
 now number over 500 islands under the care of the 
 missions. 
 
 Over twenty of their languages have been re- 
 duced to writing. Churches and schools adorn the 
 land; the sound of the axe, saw and hammer, with 
 the busy hum of manufactures, replace grim war and 
 the hideous rites and yells of the man-eater. 
 
 In these islands it has been truly said that hun- 
 dreds of native teachers and missionaries, who have 
 themselves attended the feasts and joined in the re- 
 volting rites of the cannibals, may now be found suc- 
 cessfully pointing the way, among their heathen breth- 
 ren. The 200 churches and 1,400 schools in the Fiji 
 Islands, the traditional home of the man-eater, will 
 equally serve ''to point a moral or adorn a talc" of 
 missionary w^ork. 
 
 Catholic and Protestant alike, are establishing re- 
 ligious stations in all parts of the pagan world, and 
 with a friendly rivalry, that but adds strength :ini\ 
 effectiveness to their efforts. 
 
 Many of the obstacles to be overcome by the mis- 
 sionary, particularly among the islands of the .South 
 Sea, are not the fierce intractable disposition of the
 
 242 THE. ISLAND WORLD . 
 
 natives, but the barriers placed in the way by a low- 
 class of people, already referred to in this work. 
 Beach-combers, wreckers and buccaneers, castaways 
 from our civilization, have had more to do with the 
 modern introduction of disease and degradation 
 among the natives, than inherited paganism. The 
 man who first taught them how to turn a pleasant, 
 healthful drink, the sap of the cocoanut palm, into 
 arrack, a vile brain-entangling rum, has introduced a 
 degrading element more to be dreaded than pagan 
 superstition.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 243 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 BIRTHr OROWTH AIVD DCAXH OK ISLAIVD9. 
 
 Imprison'd fires in the close dungeons pent, 
 Roar to get loose, and struggle for a vent; 
 Eating their way, and undermining all, 
 'Till with a mighty burst, whole mountains fall. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 THAT great mystery of the Atlantic Ocean, sunken 
 Atlantis, has formed the theme of tongue and pen 
 for ao-es. Veiled in tradition and romance, little 
 has been ventured in the way of a truthful explana- 
 tion, of the fate of the great island and her people. 
 
 Yet in plain view, and without the garb of fiction, 
 we have the birth and death of islands in almost con- 
 stant operation in the Pacific, as well as in other parts 
 of the globe. In this connection, I quote from a recent 
 publication : 
 
 Geographers complain that soon there will be no 
 more worlds for them to conquer, and the Danes have 
 ever since the loss of the Duchies, looked forward 
 with doleful forebodings to the time when their coun- 
 try will be still further shorn of its fair proportions. 
 Nature is, however, bountiful, and now, by throwing 
 up a new island off the shores of Iceland, it has added
 
 Z^ THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 In an appreciable degree to the territories of Kinor 
 Christian, and to the regions which still await the ex- 
 ploration of the traveler. It is true, the new land is 
 only a volcanic cone, and as it was the result of sub- 
 terranean fire, may, like so many of its predecessors, 
 born of the throes of mother earth, sink again into 
 the ocean from which it sprang. 
 
 At various times, especially after some severe 
 disturbance of Hekla, similar islands have shown 
 themselves above the waves, but generally, with the 
 exception of Nyoe, which was thrown up last cen- 
 tury, have been worn away by the action of the surf, 
 before geologists could accurately examine the vol- 
 canic scoriae and ashes of which they were composed. 
 In 1811 Captain Tillard, of H. M. S. Sabrma, wit- 
 nessed such an islet arise during a volcanic outburst 
 in the Azores, and proudly named it after his ship. 
 But when he returned a few weeks later, to survey 
 and annex his acquisition, not a trace of Sabrina 
 Island was visible. The sea had reclaimed it. In the 
 volcanic region of the Mediterranean several similar 
 births of land have been recorded by ancient and 
 modern writers. But the most notorious of them 
 was Graham Island, which arose in the year 1831, 
 some thirty miles off the southwest coast of Sicily. 
 For a few weeks much ink was shed over it, and at 
 one time it was feared that gunpowder would be 
 burnt in the assertion of the angry claims which were 
 made for the wretched 2,300 yards of yEtnaic cinders. 
 The names of Sciacca, Julia, Hotham, Graham and 
 Corrao were suggestively given to it by the fiery 
 mariners who cruised around it, ready to land and 
 hoist their countries flao^s the moment the scoriae 
 cooled. But before Europe was embroiled in war
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 24s 
 
 about it, Graham Island vanished, and so setded the 
 dispute in its own simple way. 
 
 After the destruction of Krakatoa by the ^reat 
 Javan earthquake of 1883, twenty-one new islands ap- 
 peared in the Sunda Straits, and only last year, one 
 hitherto unknown, rose above the sea off the shores of 
 Alaska. 
 
 In all these cases, volcanic action has been the 
 ostensible cause of the formation of these specks in 
 the ocean, But in 1871 Captains Luzen and Mack 
 discovered to the north of Nova Zembla, a group of 
 islets just above the sea, on the very spot where, in 
 1854, William Barrant had found soundings. On the 
 two largest, which were named Brown and Hellwalld's 
 Islands, tropical fruits were picked up, tossed hither by 
 the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. Hence 
 the group was named the Gulf Stream Islands, and as 
 the land in this portion of the Polar basin is undergo- 
 ing a slow secular elevation, just as in other places it is 
 sinking, in the course of a century or two the Arctic 
 navigator may find in that direction something worthy 
 of a flag and an entry on his chart. 
 
 From the latest date at hand, the islands formed 
 in the Straits of Sunda, alluded to in the above article, 
 have disappeared in the sea, and smooth navigable 
 waters roll above their tombs. 
 
 VOLCANIC AND EARTHQUAKE LORE. 
 
 A small island lying off the northeast coast of 
 Sumbawa, named Gunong Api, must here be men- 
 tioned, because it contains a volcano, and forms a 
 part of that "belt of fire " to which we have adverted 
 as one of the most remarkable physical features of 
 the Indian Archipelago.
 
 24^ THE ISLAND WORLiy 
 
 It is recorded dmt die inhabitants of Java, when 
 the eruption began (on the above island), mistook 
 the explosion for discharges of artillery, and at Jay- 
 okarta, a distance of 480 miles, a force of soldiers 
 was hastily dispatched to the relief of a neighboring- 
 port that was supposed to have been attacked by an 
 enemy. At Surabaya, gun-boats were ordered off to 
 the relief of ships which we/e defending themselves, 
 it was thought, against pirates in the Madura Strait ; 
 while at two places on the coast, boats put off to 
 the assistance of supposed ships in distress. For 
 five days these reports continued, and on the fifth 
 the sky over the eastern part of Java grew dark with 
 ashy showers, so that the sea was invisible. Accord- 
 ing to Mr. Crawford, the sky at Surabaya did not be- 
 come as clear for several months, as it usually is in the 
 southeast monsoons. 
 
 Eastward, the din of the explosions reached the 
 island of Ternate, near Gilolo, a distance of 720 geo- 
 graphical miles, and so distinctly was it heard that 
 "the resident sent out a boat to look for the ship 
 which was supposed to have been firing signals." 
 Westward, it was heard at Moko-moko, near Ben- 
 coolen, or 970 geographical miles. 
 
 Dr. Junghuhn thinks that within a circle described 
 by a radius of 210 miles, the average depth of the 
 ashes was at least two fed, a circumstance which will 
 enable the reader to form some idea of the tremen- 
 dous character of the eruption. The mountain, in 
 fact, must have ejected several times its own mass, 
 and yet no subsidence has been observed in the ad- 
 joining area, and apparently the only change is, that 
 during the outbreak, Tamboro lost two-thirds of its 
 previous height.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 247 
 
 The Rajah of Sangir, a village about fourteen 
 miles southeast of the volcano, was an eye-witness of 
 the eruption, and thus describes it: 
 
 About 7 p. M., on the loth of April (18 15), three 
 distinct columns of flame burst forth near the summit 
 of the mountain, all of them apparently within the 
 verge of the crater: and after ascending, separately, 
 to a very great height, united their tops in the air in a 
 troubled, confused manner. In a short time the whole 
 mountain next to Sangir appeared like a mass of 
 liquid fire, extending itself in every direction. The 
 fire and columns of flame continued to rage with 
 unabated fury until the darkness, caused by the quan- 
 tity of falling matter, obscured it about 8 p. m. Stones 
 at this time fell very thick at Sangir, some of them 
 as large as a man's two fists, but generally not exceed- 
 ing the size of walnuts. 
 
 Between 9 and 10 p. m. showers of ashes began 
 to fall, and soon afterwards a violent whirlwind en- 
 sued, which overthrew nearly every house in the village 
 of Sangir, carrying along with it, their lighter portions 
 and thatched roofs. In that part of the district of San- 
 gir, adjoining the volcano, its effects were much more 
 severe ; it tore up by the roots the largest trees, and 
 whirling them in the air, dashed them around in the 
 wildest confusion, along with men, houses, cattle, and 
 whatever else came within the range of its fury. The 
 sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than it had ever been 
 known before, and completely destroyed the only 
 small spots of rice lands in Sangir, sweeping away 
 houses and everything within its reach. 
 
 The captain of a ship dispatched from Macassar, 
 to the scene of this awful phenomenon, stated, that as 
 he approached the coast, he passed through great
 
 248 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 quantities of pumice stone floating on the sea, which 
 had at first the appearance of shoals, so that he was 
 <leceived into sending a boat to examine one, which at 
 the distance of a mile, he supposed to be a dry sand- 
 bank, upwards of three miles in length, with black rocks 
 projecting above it here and there. 
 
 Mr. Bickmore speaks of seeing the same kind of 
 stones floating over the sea, when approaching (in 
 April, 1865) the Strait of Sunda. He adds: Besides 
 the quantities of this porous, foam-like lava that are 
 thrown directly into the sea by such eruptions, great 
 quantities remain on the declivities of the volcano and 
 in the surrounding mountains, much of which is con- 
 veyed by the rivers, during the rainy season, to the 
 ocean. 
 
 (Bickmore: Travels in the Eastern Archipelago.) 
 VOLCANIC FIRE-BELT OF THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 Humboldt gives a list of the volcanoes of the 
 world, calculated many years ago. It therefore may 
 be accepted as under-estimated, as there are some 900 
 volcanoes, extinct and active, to be found in the 
 Eastern Archipelago alone. 
 
 Europe 7, with 4 active. 
 
 Atlantic Islands 14, " 8 " 
 
 I Africa 3, " i " 
 
 Continental Asia. 25, " 15 " 
 
 Asiatic Islands 189, " no " 
 
 Indian Ocean 9, " 5 " 
 
 South Sea 40, "26 " 
 
 North and South America 120, " 56 " 
 
 407. " 225 
 
 As will be seen by the map accompanying this 
 work, the volcanic fire-belt very nearly surrounds and
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 *49 
 
 outlines the western hemisphere. At Mount lirebus, 
 but a few hundred miles from the South Pole, wc see 
 one of Nature's grandest outbursts — one of the world's 
 greatest volcanoes in ceaseless eruption. W itii its 
 lurid glare reflected back in a hundred ways by the icy 
 mirrors of frozen seas, and the prismatic colorings of 
 towering icebergs, it forms a spectacle too grand for 
 description. Based and capped in the regions of per- 
 petual ice and snow, its fiery peak, 1 3,000 feet, reach- 
 ing up in the clouds, is a beacon light in an unknown, 
 untrodden land. 
 
 THROUGH SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 From this source we shall trace the volcanic, erup- 
 tic fire-belt. Making its way north, the great subter- 
 ranean fire-stream — one bra,nch of which i)asses 
 under the South Shetland Islands, and on under the 
 restless Atlantic ; the other passes through Terra del 
 Fuego, and across the Straits of Magellan into South 
 America. Here the fiery current forces its resistless 
 way under the towering peaks of the Chilean Andes, 
 breaking out at the volcanic peaks of Acacagua. Hul- 
 liaciaca, Villarica, San Jose, Peteroa, Antuco, Hama- 
 tua, Chilian, Calbuco, Corcovado, Osomo and Zandeles. 
 Through Bolivia, appearing in the volcanoes of Isluya, 
 and Sajama, whose peaks tower 22,350 feet above the 
 sea, and on into Peru, breaking out in angry flames in 
 Arequipa, from the towering peaks of Mesta, Chacarni, 
 Pan de Azucar, burying the cities of Arequipa and 
 Orite, Tultapace and Ubinos, in burning lava and 
 ashes, in the sixteenth century. And again, at Coto- 
 paxi, 19,500 feet above the sea, boiling over and for- 
 cing its fiery way out of a height of i 7,000 leet at
 
 2^o THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Sangaii, still in Peru, pouring out sulphurous smoke, 
 ashes, cinders and lava, the flames lighting up the 
 country around for one hundred and fifty years past. 
 HuQ-einof the Pacific shores, alonor into Ecuador, where 
 the great extinct crater of Chimborazo lies, while a 
 branch of the stream, now extinct, makes off to the west 
 some six hundred miles or more, and burst out in the 
 Galapagos Islands, whose numerous extinct craters, 
 nearly two thousand in number, give evidence of a 
 severe eruption in past ages. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA AND MEXICO. 
 
 From Ecuador, the current flows on through New 
 Granada, Guatemala, Central America and San Salva- 
 dor. The current through these latter countries seems 
 to be in a quiescent state, as, although abundant evi- 
 dences of its eruptic forces can be traced in the past, 
 there are no active volcanoes in existence in those 
 countries at the present time. 
 
 Still onward pursuing its northerly course, to 
 break out again in Mexico, in Anahuac and in Michio- 
 chan, in the volcanoes of Tuxtla, Orizaba, Popocata- 
 petl, Isztachuatl, Toluca, Jornillo, and in Colima, in 
 Zapotai, Tancitari and Soconusco. These are nearly 
 all in an inactive state at present, if we except a little 
 smoke and sulphurous vapors emitted from some of 
 the craters. 
 
 Tuxtla, though (in the State of Vera Cruz), emits 
 a flame day and night, lighting up the heavens with a 
 glare that may be seen far away at sea. 
 
 The current branches here again, one stream 
 making its way due west, under the sea, for over 2,500 
 miles, to appear again in those majestic volcanic out-
 
 OF THE P-iCIFIC OCEAN 251 
 
 bursts of Kilauea and Mauna Loa, in the Sandwich 
 Islands. 
 
 PACIFIC COAST. 
 
 The other stream pursues a peaceful course on 
 through North America, following the line of the Pacific 
 shore, on through California, Oregon, Washington 
 Territory and British America, into Alaska. Through 
 these countries, the flow of the fiery channel below 
 may be traced by the evidences, not only of extinct 
 volcanoes, but of the vast overflow of lava and volcanic 
 tufa, to be found all along the route named. 
 
 Of Mount Hood, Shasta, Mount St. Helena, and 
 some others of lesser note, there is little to be said. 
 Their peaks, rising from eleven to fourteen thousand 
 feet, have no doubt formed vents for the restless fluid 
 beneath. The geysers, hot springs and mud ebulli- 
 tions, found all along the Pacific coast, owe their exis- 
 tence and activity to the yet unsubdued fires of the 
 volcanic belt. 
 
 THROUGH THE ISLANDS. 
 
 Breakinof out a^ain at Mount St. Elias, in Alaska, 
 in fitful outbursts, and but lately on one of the islands 
 of the Aleutian chain, we see the mighty forces of the 
 fire-stream still at work. 
 
 Crossing from Alaska to Kamptchatka. through 
 the Aleutian Islands, and touching the southern portion 
 of the latter country, the eruptic current turns south- 
 by-west, and flows on through the Kurile Islands, and 
 through the main groups of the island empire of Japan, 
 whose uneasy foundations are truly said to be rocked 
 in the cradle of the deep.
 
 252 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Still onward, pursuing its southerly course, through 
 the Phillipine and Mollucca Islands, often shaking them 
 to their centers with its angry forces, the fire-stream 
 makes its way, touching the northwestern portion of 
 Celebes on the one hand, and missing its great island 
 neighbor, Borneo, on the other ; it bursts forth in ter- 
 rible and oft-recurring eruptions in ill-fated Java. Here 
 again the current divides, one sweeping to the 
 north and west, through Sumatra, and away into the 
 Bay of Bengal ; the other turns at a point further north, 
 from the Molluccas, and flows east-by-south, barely 
 touching New Guinea, through New Ireland and New 
 Britain, under the Solomon Archipelago ; then again 
 to the south it pursues its fier)^ way, through the New 
 Hebrides, into New Zealand ; while another, evidently 
 smaller stream, branches just north of the Hebrides, 
 flowing south-by-west, touching the southeastern coast 
 of Australia, and apparently terminating at the island 
 group of Tasmania or Van Diemen's Land. 
 
 As far as known, there are sixty-five volcanoes in 
 Alaska, ten of them being active, with one or two more 
 in the Aleutian Isles. In the New Hebrides, on the 
 island of Tanna, a volcanic peak still forms one of the 
 beacon lights of the South Sea, to be rivaled some- 
 times by its fiery neighbor, Tongariro, in New Zealand. 
 
 THEORY OF VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 Many theories have been advanced by scientists, 
 to explain earthquake and volcanic action ; though that 
 advanced by Darwin, from observations in nearly all 
 parts of the world, is generally accepted. It is believed 
 that the crust of the earth, slowly cooling from its once 
 liquid mass, has now formed a crust of from ten to
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCJiAX 233 
 
 twenty-five miles in thickness, and still holds within this 
 great covering- or shell, a molten mass of subterranean 
 fires, and that volcanic outbursts occur only within cer- 
 tain lines — probably those where the earth's shell is 
 thinnest. It has been noted that the eruptions are 
 more frequent — in fact, take place altogether — where 
 the earth's surface is raising, being pushed up by the 
 mighty forces within its shell. Eruptions never occur 
 in lines where the crust is sinkincr or undersroinir a 
 depression, on account, no doubt, of its immense 
 weight, thickness, and the additional strength it has 
 acquired from cooling. The theory, sometimes atl- 
 vanced, of the cracking and rending of the cooling- 
 shell, and allowing the waters of the seas to penetrate 
 to the subterranean fires, with the consequent eruptiv(^ 
 forces created by steam, would more flian explain the 
 earthquake phenomena. That the earth's shell would 
 close again, after admitting just enough water to give 
 an exhibition, such as we see in volcanic outbursts, is 
 very doubtful. It is more than likely that the two 
 elements, fire and water, coming- togfether in thi- 
 manner described, would rend the world from pole to 
 pole, and leave us little but the theory to contemplate, 
 if that. 
 
 The cause of earthquakes has already received 
 considerable attention, particularly those continuall\- 
 occurring all over the world, unaccompanied by volca- 
 noes. Earthquakes with the wave motion, attended 
 by an indescribable rumbling roar, are judged to be 
 the offspring of restless subterranean fires ; while oth- 
 ers, with the quick-recurring, nervous shocks, and of 
 which California furnishes many e.xamples, are acc(-)un- 
 ted for by electrical movements taking place between 
 the great elements, earth, air and water. Again, these
 
 254 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 apparent electric shocks are explained, by assuming 
 the crust of the earth to be opening in cracks and fis- 
 sures, and that the formations are slipping, one by the 
 other, giving such a motion to the surface, as one may 
 experience by forcing the moistened finger over a sur- 
 face of glass.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 235 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 COmiUBRCB, AND IKXEROCEANIC CAJ«AI^. 
 
 A storm-cloud, lurid with lightning, 
 
 And a cry of lamentation, 
 
 Repeated and again repeated, 
 
 Deep and loud 
 
 As the reverberation 
 
 Of cloud answering unto cloud, 
 
 Swells and rolls away in the distance. 
 
 As if the sheeted 
 
 Lightning retreated, 
 
 Baffled and thwarted by the winds' resistance. 
 
 Longfellow {Oirisius). 
 
 S EVERTING again to the commercial interests 
 locked up in a great portion of the island world, 
 and which but awaits the key of American energ)' 
 and enterprise to open and develop, the reader may 
 find the following chapter entertaining, by taking a 
 general glance with me at some of the interests likely 
 to affect the commerce and industries of America. 
 
 Professor Hanks says : As the domestic, and 
 the other material interests of California, have pros- 
 pered and expanded, so also has the commerce 
 of the country grown into large proportions. With 
 an import trade second only to that of New York, 
 San Francisco has such virgin fields to occupy, as open 
 not to her great eastern rival. To her the trade of
 
 256 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Australia and the Orient, including Eastern Siberia 
 and the islands of the Pacific, geographically as well 
 as commercially, belongs; time, freights, interest and 
 insurance all being in her favor, as against every other 
 port in the world. 
 
 Although the trade of^ San Francisco, which may 
 be said to represent largely that of the State, has suf- 
 fered in some of its departments, through the construc- 
 tion of two additional transcontinental railroads — the 
 one to the north, and the other to the south, of the 
 more central route — it still continues large, and has 
 even increased in the aggregate, since the completion 
 of these lateral lines, indicating that this trade is not 
 likely to be seriously crippled by this or other inter- 
 ferino- causes. 
 
 The value of the merchandise and treasure shipped 
 from San Francisco in 1883, amounted to $105,000,000, 
 of which $4^000,000 were consigned to foreign coun- 
 tries. Of these exports, $60,000,000 went by sea, and 
 $45,000,000 by rail. The imports from foreign countries 
 amounted, meantime, to $40,000,000 ; the following 
 staples, among other leading articles, having been 
 imported in the amounts here mentioned : Sugar. 
 133,914,154 pounds; rice, 58,315,750 pounds; tea, 
 20,960,248 pounds; and coffee, 17,444,777 pounds. 
 The receipts of lumber at this port amounted, for the 
 year, to 276,772,469 feet, valued at $5,000,000; re- 
 ceipts of Federal revenue, $12,558,305. 
 
 The innumerable plants and trees in the Pacific, 
 whose bark, pith and fiber, now worked in a crude 
 way among the natives, into paper, cloth and fibrous 
 manufactures, could be built up into a large pro'fita- 
 ble trade under more civilized rule. The pulp could 
 be pressed, dried, and shipped, .say to San Fran-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 257 
 
 cisco, where a paper, rivaling the celebrated linen 
 products of that article, manufactured in Europe, could 
 easily be produced. 
 
 The black walnut, Spanish cedar, toa, tomano and 
 prima vera, the rosewood, dye-woods and mahogany, 
 growing so profusely in the island world, the satin, sandal 
 and camphor trees, back up the assertion that im- 
 mense commercial transactions with the Pacific Islands 
 are in the near future. 
 
 The cordage interests might be developed in 
 much the same way, by importing the many forms of 
 the raw material, which nature produces in the Pa- 
 cific Islands, and manufacturinof them into the various 
 articles required in our advanced civilization. As the 
 reader is already familiar with many of the natural 
 and cultivated products of the island world, a repeti- 
 tion here would prove uninteresting. The return 
 trade of America with the islands is growing rapidly 
 from year to year. Our breadstuffs, dry goods, canned 
 goods, clothing, hardware, machinery, lumber, etc.. 
 now forming a considerable part of the shipping lists 
 of commodities being forwarded to the Pacific Islands, 
 are growing in quantity and value from year to year. 
 
 So vast and valuable are the commercial interests 
 of the islands of the Pacific, that estimated on the 
 actual product of the Hawaiian group alone, and this 
 on their exports only, and that to one port, San Fran- 
 cisco, that any estimate on the commercial possibilities 
 of the future, would but excite the doubt and ridicule 
 of the skeptical reader, 
 
 In round numbers, the export of the above islands 
 to the port named, is say, 100,000 tons per annum. 
 In comparison with the area of the available lands lo- 
 cated in the Pacific, the above group would constitute
 
 2^8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 but the 760th part; or the whole, would export some 
 76,000,000 tons per year to San Francisco alone. To 
 transport this tonnage, 15,200 1,000-ton steam or 
 sailing vessels would be required, making five round 
 trips per year. Assuming that San Francisco is but 
 a distributing point, and' that, too, by rail, it would 
 require 13,800 freight trains, carrying net 300 tons 
 per train, or 690 trains per day, or a train would have 
 to leave our city about every two minutes, day and 
 night. Allowing that the trains would require twenty 
 days to make the round trip, the above number, 13,800, 
 would be required. 
 
 If we take but twenty per cent, of the above, we 
 would yet have a practical trade so vast that a city of 
 a million or more inhabitants would naturally be re- 
 quired to take care of it. 
 
 Assuming again that the value of the exports of 
 San Francisco to the Hawaiian group would compare 
 as favorably with all other portions of the island world 
 of the Pacific, the value would be something like 
 $2,432,000,000 per annum, over three times the value 
 of the annual exports of the United States. 
 
 PANAMA CANAL. 
 
 The proposition to connect the Atlantic and Pa- 
 cific Oceans by means of a canal, the work on which 
 is now under, it is to be hoped, successful progress at 
 Panama, will add greatly to the world's interest in the 
 Pacific Islands. Of the many projects to connect the 
 two oceans, if we add Captain Ead's ship railway, and 
 similar schemes, the canal at Panama is about the 
 fifiy-fourth. The subjoined memorandum statement 
 of the three most prominent undertakings, and for
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 259 
 
 which I am indebted to the valuable writing's of Cap- 
 tain W. L. Merr)^ gives a comparative idea, not only 
 of their magnitude, but of the practical results, that 
 will be derived after the completion of either of the 
 proposed routes, 
 
 MEMORANDUM OF PANAMA CANAL. 
 
 Length of Panama railroad, 47.5 miles; length 
 of United States Panama lock canal, 41.7 miles; en- 
 gineer's estimate of cost of United States lock canal, 
 including 20 per cent, contingency, $94,511,360; en- 
 gineer's estimate of French sea level canal, including 
 16 per cent, contingency, $168,000,000. 
 
 Mercantile estimate of pi^obablc cost of French 
 low tide level canal, San Francisco Board of Trade, 
 $300,000,000. 
 
 Summit level of Panama canal survey, 295.7 
 feet; engineer's estimate of time for construction, 8 
 years. 
 
 To judee of the character of this work, the fol- 
 lowing estimate from the French survey is given here- 
 with: 
 
 Length of dam, 5,000 feet; height above bed of 
 the Chagres, 130 feet; height above canal level, 172 
 feet; height above canal bottom, 199 feet; estimated 
 cost, 10 per cent, contingency, $20,000,000. 
 
 It will be noted that the bottom of the canal passes 
 in front of the dam, seventy feet below the river bed, 
 and that the Chagres River is wiped out of existence 
 between the canal and the Atlantic. When the enor- 
 mous rainfall, the violent freshets, and the large amount 
 of sediment and floatage, brought down by lloods, are 
 considered, one bei^ins to realize the enormous diffi-
 
 26o THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 culties of the project, the doubtful results of the at- 
 tempt, and the Impossibility of estimating additional 
 cost, which may be caused by contingencies liable to 
 occur. Presuming its completion, will this dam not be 
 a standing menace to the canal, passing in modest 
 silence two hundred feet below its top? What will be 
 the result of a moderate earthquake shock, or of seep- 
 age during the rainy season ? Thus obliterating the 
 Chagres, the canal passes on into the Culebra division, 
 cuttingf throuo-h an elevation a few inches less than 
 three hundred feet — of course, with an immensely 
 increased excavation, as compared with the United 
 States survey, but encountering otherwise no formida- 
 ble engineering obstacles — and finally reaching the 
 Pacific through the valley of the little Rio Grande, 
 about six miles west of the city of Panama, and there 
 meeting deep water about four miles outside the high- 
 water mark. The mean sea-level of both oceans is 
 now known to be the same ; but, while at Aspinwall 
 the tide ebbs and flows from one and a half to two feet, 
 at Panama the tidal movement is eighteen to twenty- 
 six feet. 
 
 The American, as well as the French survey, over- 
 come the difficulty by placing a tidal lock at the Pacific 
 end of the canal, which completely controls the ques- 
 tion. Such is the French survey for a sea-level Pan- 
 ama canal. 
 
 NICARAGUA CANAL 
 
 Of the route of the Nicaragua canal, the following 
 memorandum will serve for a brief explanation : 
 
 Total length of interoceanic navigation, 173.57 
 miles; canal from San Juan del Norte to San Car- 
 los dam, 35.90 miles; slack water navigation from
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 261 
 
 San Carlos dam to lake junction, 63.90 miles; lake 
 navigation from lake junction to lake end of Pacific 
 division of canal, 56.50 miles: extreme summit level 
 between Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, 1 50 feet ; total 
 length of canal to be constructed, 53.15 miles; en- 
 gineer's estimate of cost, $52,577,718; engineer's 
 estimate of time for construction, five years. 
 
 Mercantile estimate of posdble cost by San P>an- 
 cisco Board of Trade, $100,000,000. 
 
 Surface of Lake Nicaragua is 107 feet 10 inches 
 above sea level. The Lake is no miles long and 
 about 35 miles wide, with average depth of water of 
 9 to 15 fathoms. 
 
 The Pacific division of the canal is 171^ miles 
 long, from Lajas on the lake to the Pacific seaport of 
 Brito. 
 
 THE EADS TEHUANTEPEC SHIP KAU.WAY. 
 
 The survey for this interoceanic project has not 
 been made, and it is accordingly impossible to give an 
 accurate description of the line, or its exact length. 
 The Tehuan tepee Isthmus United States canal survey 
 is 144 miles long, to which is to' be added about 28 
 miles of river navigation, making a total of 172 miles; 
 and former surveys for railway and canal service, have 
 found the lowest practicable summit at 754 feet. Tiie 
 canal project for this route was abandoned, because of 
 the hicfh summit, necessitating- a larcfe number of locks, 
 with a scant water supply, while a tide-level canal is 
 impossible at any admissible cost. For a ship railway, 
 it offers advantages over any American isthmus, and 
 an ordinary railway is now being constructed there by 
 an American company. The Coatzacoalcos River is a 
 stream of respectable magnitude, running northerly
 
 262 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 across the northern slope of the isthmus, with twelve 
 to thirteen feet of water on its bar, which it is' proposed 
 to deepen sufficiently to admit the largest ships, which 
 can ascend the river about twenty-five miles — how far, 
 before arriving at the Atlantic end. of the proposed 
 railway, I presume Mr. Eads himself has not decided. 
 There are no formidable obstacles in the way of build- 
 ing an ordinary railroad across the isthmus, beyond the 
 heavy cuts and tills usually found in a country of that 
 character ; and the railroad finds its Pacific terminus at 
 Salina Cruz, near Ventosa, at the head of the Gulf of 
 Tehuantepec, where a port must be constructed. 
 Probably Captain Eads can improve the Coatzacoalcos 
 River for heavy navigation, 25 to 28 miles, and his 
 railroad will be about 123 miles long. He estimates 
 the cost at <^75, 000,000. It has been my purpose to 
 avoid a discussion of the merits of the three routes 
 here described, but it will be impossible to do so in the 
 case of this project, if the reader is to acquire an intel- 
 ligent idea of it. My high respect for the ability of 
 Captain Eads, my esteem for him, founded on a slight 
 personal acquaintance, and the fact that I can lay claim 
 to no technical knowledge of civil engineering, are 
 good reasons for approaching this subject with 
 deference, and I must regard myself as merely a stu- 
 dent of the project. 
 
 Captain Eads takes the ship out of water by a 
 submerged inclined track, on which the cradle is run 
 deep enough to allow the ship to be placed upon it, 
 properly lined and blocked, after which a stationary 
 engine hauls cradle and ship out of water to the rail- 
 road proper, where four "Mogul" locomotives are 
 placed ahead of it, on a twelve-rail track, which haul 
 ship and cradle to the other end of the trcick, where.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 263 
 
 by a reverse process, the shij) is again placed in the 
 water. Of course, there must be a cradle in use for 
 each ship being- transported simultaneously. The 
 grades are overcome by tipping-tables, and the curves 
 by turn-tables — as can readily be imagined, of gigantic 
 size. How many of these he will need, cannot be 
 known until surveys are completed; but I fear the 
 Tehuantepec Isthmus will give him many grades and 
 curves. He at first estimated the cost of such a railway 
 at half the cost of a ship canal, but his present idea is, 
 that it will cost ^75,000,000, which at once detracts 
 from his scheme the principal merit heretofore claimed 
 for it, which was comparatively small cost ; for there is 
 every prospect that the Nicaragua Canal can be con- 
 structed for a like amount ; and, while the depreciation 
 and wear and tear of his railway, subjected to the 
 action of a tropical climate, will necessarily be great, 
 a ship canal improves with age — considerations of no 
 little importance. 
 
 That Captain Eads can construct a ship railway 
 across Tehuantepec, there is little doubt ; that he can 
 so construct it, as to meet all the requirements of the 
 case, is another consideration. His mechanical appli- 
 ances for overcoming the objections I was able to point 
 out to him, appeared complicated, while the engineer- 
 ing obstacles of curves, grades, etc., his intimate know- 
 ledge of his profession had already indicated methods 
 placing them under his control. He was willing to 
 handle a loaded ship as carefully as I demanded, while 
 it was my object, not to allow previous prejudices to 
 affect my judgment of the merits of the scheme. In 
 one respect, however, I fear, he has underrated th( 
 difficulty of his project. I doubt if. at Tehuantepec, or 
 on any tropical American isthmus, he can find .1
 
 264 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 foundation for such a road as he wishes to build. The 
 "cuts" may support it, but the "fills" may fail to do so. 
 The success of the scheme depends on extreme rigid- 
 ity of road and cradle, and if, jn tropical countries, 
 foundations are always troubling railroad engineers 
 under ordinary tracks, what are we to expect, under a 
 weight of fifteen or twenty thousand tons, concentra- 
 ted within the limits of the cradle carrying the loaded 
 ship? Captain Eads is one of the greatest living engi- 
 neers, and if capitalists will furnish funds, he may build 
 his railway; but, unless it is cheaper than a canal, 
 what advantage does it offer? Why try an experiment, 
 when a certainty offers the same results ? However, 
 in the absence of a survey with instruments of preci- 
 sion, it is probably unfair to discuss the project at all. 
 and I dismiss it, with great respect for the ability and 
 resources of the illustrious projector. 
 
 COMMERCIAL RESULTS ANTICIPATED. 
 
 That an American interoceanic canal will effect 
 great changes in the world's commerce, none can 
 doubt ; but what little I shall have to say on this 
 branch of the subject, will refer to the effect it will 
 have upon American commercial interests generally, 
 and especially upon the interests of the Pacific coast 
 of our country — commercial, agricultural and social. 
 A project which brings this coast nearly nine thousand 
 miles nearer our Atlantic sea-board, and the grreat 
 marts of Europe, cannot fail to work great changes in 
 our commercial position. The inhabitants of the Pacific 
 coast must, for a long period, continue rather a pror 
 ducing, than a manufacturing people ; and what manu- 
 facturing we are able to accomplish, will be from our
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 265 
 
 own products. The saving in time, insurance, depre- 
 ciation and freights, apphcable to Oregon and CaHfor- 
 nia, alone, will -amount in ten years to the cost of the 
 Nicaragua Canal. The saving above named, apj/iied 
 to this )ear's Oregon and California wheat crop, can 
 be placed, with sober truth, at fully eight million dol- 
 lars ! When our wool, wine, and other growin"- indu.s- 
 tries are considered, it will easily be seen, that the 
 producers of our coast should strain every nerve to 
 insure the success of an interoceanic canal. 
 
 Nor, as might at first sight appear, will the canal 
 injure our local railroads. While it would undoubt- 
 edly at first deprive them of the through freights, or 
 force upon them a reduction which would be a great 
 benefit to our State, in a short time after its comple- 
 tion their local traffic would surpass all the through traffic 
 they can hope to control, and, with our other inter- 
 ests, they can reap the benefit of our rapidly increasing 
 development, carrying all the products of our soil to 
 tide-water, and securing a greatly increased passen- 
 ger traffic. Meanwhile they have probably six years 
 during the period of construction to accommodate 
 themselves to the change. 
 
 The completion of the canal will make San Fran- 
 cisco the distributing point for the products of China, 
 Japan and Central America, as far east as the Mis- 
 souri, for it will then be to the interest of our railroads 
 to secure this distribution rather than allow i't to be 
 made westward from Atlantic seaboard cities after 
 reaching them through the canal. A rapid develop- 
 ment of the Central American States and west Mexi- 
 can coast would ensue, and those markets would in- 
 crease their demand upon us for the commodities we 
 are already sending there in limited quantity. Our
 
 266 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 merchant steam marine would rapidly increase, for 
 the commerce between our eastern seaboard and our 
 west coast being coastwise, and shut out from Euro- 
 pean competition, we should need a large steam ton- 
 nage under American colors to carry our freights 
 eastward, while they would also compete with foreign 
 steamers for European freights. It will be a glorious 
 day for our State when San Francisco wharves will be 
 crowded with four and five thousand ton screw steam- 
 ers flying our flag and loading with our products, and 
 with the completion of the canal this day will surely 
 come. Cheap communication with Europe will bring 
 to us desirable European immigration to settle up our 
 lands and displace the unassimulative Chinese who 
 are trying to crowd in upon us. Shall we not tend 
 to keep them out by filling the places they would 
 occupy with a class of immigrants that can be Ameri- 
 canized? An intelligent mind investigating this sub- 
 ject finds the grand results unfolding themselves until 
 an interoceanic canal appears the greatest boon our 
 coast can ask for, and to the names that are associated 
 therewith, their country and the world will accord un- 
 dying luster. 
 
 POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF THE CANAL QUESTION. 
 
 I Primarily, it would appear that it matters little 
 
 ' who constructs a canal if our country is accorded the- 
 
 unrestricted use of it, in common with other nations. 
 A further inquiry, however, must satisfy us that if we 
 do not build this work we must acquire a controlling 
 interest therein. We cannot afford so important a 
 link in our coastwise communication to remain in the 
 hands of any European organization, which would
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 267 
 
 naturally consult foreig-n interests rather than our 
 own. The Central American republics are now friendly 
 to us, although sparsely inhabited and without devel- 
 opment. The company constructing and managing 
 an interoceanic canal would soon wield an influence 
 paramount to the local government, and the policy of 
 the latter mio-ht become subservient thereto and in- 
 imical to us. 
 
 During the existence of the Panama railroad it 
 has been deemed a necessity for our government to 
 keep armed forces almost constantly at both ends of 
 the transit, and these forces have often been landed 
 and kept ashore indefinitely for the protection of life 
 and property. If this has been the case with a rail- 
 road managed by permanent employees and with a 
 small native population, what may we expect when 
 five to ten thousand laborers of various nationalities 
 are congregated there, subject to a lax police control, 
 suffering from malarial fevers, discontented, mutinous, 
 and with a free supply of aguardiente? Add thereto 
 a greatly increased native population, and we have 
 all the elements needing military power to control 
 them in emergencies. 
 
 When Count de Lessep's company have pur- 
 chased the Panama railroad, which they have agreed 
 to do as a preliminary step, we no longer have large 
 American i>nterests to protect there. It will be nat- 
 ural, and indeed necessary, for him to call upon the 
 French Government to protect the enterprise, as we 
 have protected the railroad company on many occa- 
 sions. The French Government, both durino;- and 
 after construction, will find it necessary to station 
 armed forces at both ends and on the line of the 
 canal. After landing these forces a few times, what
 
 268 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 more natural than that they should see the advan- 
 tage and economy of having these troops in barracks 
 on shore — always within call? If it is claimed that 
 the French Government accepts no responsibility in 
 this connection, why has it already appointed an 
 official a^ent to oversee the initiation of the work? 
 If, at the end of our late internal war, our Govern- 
 ment deemed it necessary to request the French to 
 promptly leave Mexico — merely contiguous terri- 
 tory — how much more important that they should 
 not be placed in a position completely controlling our 
 coastwise commerce, and establishing, first, their influ- 
 ence, then their power, and lastly, if we are quiescent, 
 their flag on the American Isthmus ! Are the Ameri- 
 can people prepared for this? The late William H. 
 Seward, than whom no brighter intellect ever graced 
 American history, was wont to say that the Pacific 
 Ocean is to be the scene of man's greatest achieve- 
 ments. Are we prepared to have the key thereto in 
 foreign hands ? Every American heart will say nay, 
 and honor the patriotism of President Hayes and 
 General Grant when they foresee these results and 
 point them out to their countrymen. 
 
 Nor is a large army and navy a necessity in the 
 maintenance of the Monroe doctrine ; on the con- 
 *trary, both would become a necessity were it to be dis- 
 regarded. The United States have a moral prestige 
 sufficient to create a respect for our rights and in- 
 terests, and it is far better to meet attempted Euro- 
 pean domination on this continent, with a decisive 
 negative now, than to object thereto after it has passed 
 the initiative. It matters little where the capital comes 
 from to construct an interoceanic canal, but a due 
 respect for our national and traditional policy, as well
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 269 
 
 as for our national pride, should indicate the j^ropricty 
 of its accompHshment through an American organiza- 
 tion ; and it is a poor compliment to our discernment 
 that we are to be kept quiescent by an ''American 
 Branch,'' which can any day be voted out of exist- 
 ence at the headquarters of the Panama Canal Com- 
 pany in Paris ! Americans will not fail to appreciate the 
 words of one who has proved himself worthy of their 
 patriotic regard: "I commend an American canal, on 
 American soil, to the American people ! "
 
 270 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 CURRENTS, 'W^IBIDS, RAII«S AJSO STORMS 
 OF THE PACIFIC. 
 
 Bursts as a wave that from the clouds impends, 
 And swell'd with tempests on the ship descends; 
 White are the decks with foam ; the winds aloud 
 Howl o'er the masts, and sing through every shroud : 
 Pale, trembling, tired, the sailors freeze with fears 
 And instant death on every wave appears. 
 
 Pope's {Homer's Iliad.) 
 
 I DO not design, in this chapter, to more than 
 glance, with the reader, at the broad expanse of 
 waters, the majestic Pacific Ocean, and, in a general 
 way, view its rains, storms and currents. Many men, 
 wise in experience and intellectual acquirements, have 
 already given these interesting subjects their careful 
 attention ; our hydrographic offices, and the shelves of 
 our more advanced libraries, teem with the rich results 
 of intellect and experience. The general flow of the 
 great currents, with the rise and fall of the tides, and 
 the natural laws controlling the winds and storms, on 
 the great waste of waters of the mighty sea, are clearly 
 depicted on charts, while elaborate data fill our nauti-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 271 
 
 cal almanacs, sailing directions, and kindred works. 
 Yet so vast is the Pacific, that local iniluences are 
 occurring in many forms, and in many places, and all 
 actino;" without one influencino- the other. Thus, if we 
 could be transported, as fast as the mind can travel, 
 from the Arctic to the Antarctic Oceans, or from the 
 Bay of Panama to the Bay of Bengal, or circle among 
 the intermediate latitudes or lonofitudes, all the cli- 
 mates of the world would be experienced, with their 
 varied physical influences, taking place at hundreds of 
 different localities, at about the same period of time. 
 So that none but the grander movements, like the 
 "Black Stream" in the North, and the Peruvian cur- 
 rent in the South Pacific, and the main movements of 
 the equatorial currents, flowing both east and west, 
 with the ceaseless ebb and flow of the tides, are all 
 that can be contemplated with anything like certainty. 
 Maury, in his "Physical Geography of the Sea," gives 
 many examples of the variability of ocean currents. 
 He says, speaking of the Pacific : 
 
 There are also, about the equator, in this ocean, 
 some curious currents, which I have called the " Dol- 
 drum currents " of the Pacific, but which I do not under- 
 stand, and as to which, observations are not sufficient 
 yet, to afford the proper explanation or description. 
 There are many of them, some of which, at times, run 
 with great force. On a voyage from the Society to 
 the Sandwich Islands, I encountered one running at the 
 rate of ninety-six miles a day. These currents are 
 generally found setting to the west. They are often, 
 but not always, encountered in the equatorial doldrums 
 on the voyage between the Society and the Sandwich 
 Islands. 
 
 In Captain Pichou's abstract log of the French
 
 2^2 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 corvette L' Eicrydice, from Honolulu to Tahiti, in Au- 
 y;-ust, 1857, a doldrum current is recorded at seventy- 
 nine miles a day, west-by-north. He encountered it 
 between i deg. north and 4 deg. south, where it was 
 three hundred miles broad. On the voyage to Hono- 
 lulu, in July of the same year, he experienced no such 
 current, but in 6 deg. north, he encountered one of 
 thirty-six miles, setting southeast, or nearly in the 
 opposite direction. This current does not appear to 
 have been more than sixty miles broad. Many instan- 
 ces of this kind might be cited, of local currents, of the 
 southern flow of a stream along the coasts of China, 
 and on into the Indian Ocean, while outside of the 
 myriads of islands, the Japanese Black Stream is 
 moving in majestic circles, and in a contrary direction. 
 
 In another part of this work, I have cited a case 
 of the drift of pumice and ashes, easterly from Java to 
 Ponape, flowing just between, and in a contrary direc- 
 tion to, the sweep of the two great ocean currents, the 
 Black Stream of the North, and the Peruvian current 
 of the South Pacific. 
 
 In regard to this floating pumice, a late authority, 
 speaking of a certain formation found on the bed of the 
 ocean, states, that everything seems to show that the 
 formation of the clay is due to the decomposition of 
 fragmentaiy volcanic products, whose presence can be 
 detected over the whole floor of the ocean. '*' * * 
 The universal distribution of pumice, over the floor of 
 the ocean, is very remarkable, and would at first appear 
 unaccountable ; but when the fact, that pieces of pum- 
 ice have been known to float in sea water for a pejiod 
 oi over three years, before becoming sufficiently water- 
 logged to sink, is taken into consideration, it will be 
 readily understood, how fragments of this material
 
 u
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 273 
 
 may be transported, by winds and currents, to an enor- 
 mous distance from their point of origin, before being 
 deposited upon the bottom. 
 
 Among the islands of the South Sea, the channels, 
 as between islands, are free and clear, and carry deep, 
 navigable waters, with probably few sunken rocks to 
 interfere with navicfation. The currents flow throueli 
 some of these channels, varying with the localities, at 
 the rates of ten, fifteen, twenty-one and thirty miles a 
 day. For this reason, it is deemed best to lay well off 
 from shore, when not in a good harbor, of atoll lagoon, 
 or bay. Many vessels have been lost in the sweep of 
 these island currents, dragging their anchors (where 
 anchorage can be had, as very often deep water makes 
 up to almost the reef-line), and drifting in on the 
 breakers, completely at the mercy of the waves. This 
 often happens, too, m perfectly clear weather, when 
 there is no wind to aid the luckless navigator in "claw- 
 ing off shore." The main currents, spoken of, have 
 considerable depth, while in others their movements 
 may be termed surface, and sometimes greatly influ- 
 enced by winds and storms. Others may be termed 
 deep sea currents, whose flow traverses the depths 
 belov/. These are just as variable as the surface move- 
 ments. Any bulky article, like a keg, weighted to 
 sink to the depth desired, and with sounding-line and 
 buoy attached, may sometimes be seen, carrying the 
 buoy against the wind and surface current, at the rate 
 of two miles an hour. 
 
 It will be readily seen that the course and speed 
 of surface currents can be traced with greater facility 
 than those flowing deep down in the sea. Although 
 the custom is not general, still in the cause of sci- 
 ence it should be so, that in all sea voyages, buoys or
 
 274 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 bottles, with complete data of time and place, should 
 be cast adrift at least once a week during the 
 voyage. 
 
 The data contained in bottle or buoy should, of 
 -course, contain the request to note time and place when 
 recovered from the ocean. If this were a general prac- 
 tice among our mariners, the little messengers would 
 be looked for with special interest. The valuable 
 practical data coming from this little source alone 
 would add greatly in helping to perfect current charts 
 of the different oceans. 
 
 In view of the varying ocean streams, more par- 
 ticularly among the islands of the South Sea, should 
 development and commerce go hand in hand, the idea 
 of using auxiliary steam-power on all vessels en- 
 gaged in this particular trade, should meet with some 
 encouragement from the mercantile world. A great 
 deal of time lost in the calms and currents of these 
 regions might be saved, as well as certain protection 
 from storms and adverse currents. In regions where 
 the atolls are, only those experienced in navigating 
 among them, can judge of the value steam-power 
 would have, if only applied for a few hours. The 
 lagoons of the atolls are always safe harboring, but 
 how to reach them with a sailing-vessel in a dead 
 calm, through narrow entrances, and with storms and 
 currents threatening, with the sea breaking over the 
 coral reefs on either hand, is still a problem for the 
 sailor. The same difficulty, if we leave out the sud- 
 den gale and currents, presents itself in getting out. 
 Even if the auxiliary were not made a part of the 
 vessel, still a steam-launch of considerable capacity 
 could be carried, to be used only when required. 
 This, I am sure, would obviate many of the difficul-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 275 
 
 ties sailing-vessels have to encounter, when trading 
 amone the Pacific Islands. 
 
 The influence of the tides, mainly caused by the 
 attractive force of the moon and the centrifucfal force 
 exercised by the earth's revolutions, no doubt affect 
 the ocean currents considerably. Their rise and 
 fall, ranging in some places from but a few inches 
 to seventy feet, raising and lowering the ocean level 
 alternately, create a variable system of currents too 
 well understood by navigators to require an elaborate 
 explanation here. If we admit, for example, that 
 while we have a high tide on the one side of the 
 earth, caused by the moon's attraction, and that 
 directly opposite on the other side of the globe there 
 is a high tide, the effect of the centrifugal force of the 
 earth's revolutions, with the consequent depression of 
 the water levels between these points, we have a sim- 
 ple explanation of high and low tides. These points 
 are continually shifting, moving around the earth's 
 watery surface, as the influences causing them move, 
 and explain in a general way, if we leave out local 
 influences, the world's tidal system. 
 
 The influence of the heat emitted from the great 
 fire-belt nearly outlining the western hemisphere may 
 have had considerable influence on the ocean currents 
 of the Pacific. At a much earlier period in the world's 
 slow geological processes, when its shell was many 
 miles thinner, it is obvious that the heat from subter- 
 ranean fires would be more readily imparted to the 
 water, causing a flow of the colder portions towards 
 the points where it had been expanded or driven 
 away by the heat (much as we see the movements of 
 the mobile element when heating it in a vessel over a 
 fire). The impetus given in this manner to the ocean's
 
 2j6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 flow, it would seem but natural for the heat of the 
 sun's rays together with the prevaiHng winds and 
 tides, to keep it in constant motion and agitation. 
 Many authorities attribute the movement of ocean 
 currents altoofether to the influence of the winds, 
 whose great force and power will be better under- 
 stood by consulting the following table, compiled from 
 the latest observations of meteorologists : 
 
 VELOCITY AND FORCE OF WIND. 
 
 Miles Feet Pressure on a . 
 
 per hour, per minute. sq. ft. in Itis. Description of wind. 
 
 1 88 005 Barely observable. 
 
 ^ '^'^ Must perceptible. 
 
 3 264 045 ) 
 
 4 352 08 Light breeze. 
 
 5 440 125 \ 
 
 6 528 18 |- Gentle, pleasant wind. 
 
 8 704 '••• -32 3 
 
 10 880 .5 Fresh breeze. 
 
 15 1,320 I-I25 Brisk blow. 
 
 20 1,760 2 Stiff breeze. 
 
 25 2,200 3,125 Very brisk. 
 
 3° 2,640 4-5 I High wind. 
 
 35 3.080 6.125 J 
 
 40 3,520 8. Very high wind. 
 
 45 3, 960 10. 1 25 Gale. 
 
 50 4,400 12.5 Storm. 
 
 60 5,280 18 Great storm. 
 
 80 7,040 32 Hurricane. 
 
 100 8,800 50. Tornado. 
 
 The cause of prevailing winds, blowing over the 
 surface of the Pacific and other oceans — the "trades" 
 — is given by the best authorities, as naturally following 
 from the differences occurringr between what is termed 
 the regions of high and low barometer. This, in plainer 
 terms, and those that may be understood by children, 
 (if my little work should be honored by their perusal).
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 277 
 
 would be the difference — in the pressure or weight 
 of the atmosphere. North and south of the equator 
 lie the regions of the greatest pressure of the air, and 
 in between these, there is a broad space, following the 
 equatorial line, belting the world. This is the region 
 of low barometer, or where generally the pressure of 
 the air is lightest. Towards this belt, the air from the 
 north and south flows, as naturally as a greater height 
 or level of water would run towards that of a lower 
 level. On the Pacific Ocean, these air currents come 
 from northeast and southeast, curving and blowing 
 west near the equator, forming the trade winds. Aris- 
 totle, who was probably the first to predict changes in 
 the weather, much in the form of the meteorological 
 predictions of the present day, must have had some 
 idea of atmospheric pressure, and the differences oc- 
 curring in its weight. A definite explanation, though, 
 of the pressure of the air, was not had until 1643, when 
 it was discovered and explained by Torricelli, a pupil 
 of Galileo. The theory of trade winds was explained 
 by George Hadley, about 1735. Humboldt's Treatise 
 on Isothermal Lines was not published until 181 7. 
 
 MONSOONS. 
 
 Maury says : Monsoons are, for the most part, 
 trade winds deflected. When, at stated seasons of the 
 year, a trade wind is turned out of its regular course, 
 as from one quadrant to another, it is regarded as a 
 monsoon. The African monsoons of the Atlantic, the 
 monsoons of the Gulf of Mexico, and the Central 
 American monsoons of the Pacific, are, for the most 
 part, formed of the trade winds, which are turned back 
 or deflected, to restore the equilibrium which the over-
 
 278 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 heated plains of Africa, Utah, Texas and New Mexico 
 have disturbed. Thus, with regard to the northeast 
 and southwest monsoons of the Indian Ocean, for ex- 
 ample — a force is exerted upon the northeast trade 
 winds of that area, by the disturbance which the heat 
 of summer creates in the atmosphere over the interior 
 plains of Asia, which is more than sufficient to neutra- 
 lize the forces which cause those winds to blow as trade 
 winds ; it arrests them, and turns them back ; but, were 
 it not for the peculiar condition of the lands about that 
 ocean, what are now called the northeast monsoons, 
 would blow the year round ; there would be no south- 
 west monsoons there, and the northeast winds, being 
 perpetual, would become all the year what, in reality, 
 for several months they are — viz., northeast trade 
 winds. 
 
 EFFECT OF MONSOONS. 
 
 Upon India and its seas, the monsoon phenomena 
 are developed on the grandest scale. They blow over 
 all that expanse of northern water, that lies between 
 Africa and the Phillippine Islands.' Throughout this 
 vast expanse, the winds that are known as the north- 
 east trades, are here called northeast monsoons, be- 
 cause, instead of blowing from that quarter for twelve 
 months, as in other seas, they blow only for six. During 
 the remaining six months, they are turned back, as it 
 were, for instead of blowing toward the equator, they 
 blow away from it. and instead of northeast trades, we 
 have southwest monsoons. 
 
 The monsoon is an innocent, peaceable breeze, 
 and in no way related to the typhoon, that terror of nav- 
 igators, in some parts of the Pacific. In fact, as Maury 
 says, in his Sailing Directions, it is a curious thing, this
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 279 
 
 influence of islands in the trade wind region, upon the 
 winds of the Pacific. Every navigator who has cruised 
 in those parts of that ocean, has often turned, with 
 wonder and dehght, to admire the gorgeous piles of 
 cumuli, heaped up in the most delicate and exquisitely 
 beautiful masses, that it is possible for fleecy matter to 
 assume. Not only are these cloud-piles found capping 
 the hills among the islands, but they are often seen to 
 overhang the lowest isle of the tropics, and to even 
 stand above coral patches and hidden reefs, "a cloud by 
 day," to serve as a beacon to the lonely mariner out 
 there at sea, and to warn him of shoals and dangers, 
 which no lead or seaman's eye has ever seen or soun- 
 ded out. These clouds, under favorable circumstan- 
 ces, may be seen gathering above the low coral island, 
 and performing their oftice, in preparing for vegetation 
 and fruitfulness, in a very striking manner. As they 
 are condensed into showers, one fancies that they are 
 a sponge of the most delicately elaborated material, 
 and that he can see, as they "dropdown their fatness,'^ 
 the invisible but bountiful hand aloft, that is pressing 
 it out. 
 
 TYPHOONS. 
 
 Under this head, for brevity's sake, all those ter- 
 rible phenomena; known as hurricanes, tornadoes and 
 cyclones, generally applied to storms taking place over 
 the land, might be included the disastrous gales of the 
 Pacific, known as typhoons. True, the ocean was well 
 named by Magellan, and no doubt exhibits less stormy 
 proclivities than any of the mighty wastes of water, 
 nearly covering the globe. 
 
 Maury admits the research and ability of Redfield 
 in America, Reid in Enq-land, Tom of Mauritius and
 
 28o THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Paddington of Calcutta, in explaining typhoons, stating 
 the theory of this school : That these are rotary 
 storms ; that they revolve against the hands of a 
 watch in the southern hemisphere ; that nearer the 
 center or vortex the more violent the storm, while 
 the center itself is a calm, which travels sometimes 
 a mile or two an hour, and sometimes forty or fifty; 
 that in the center the barometer is low, rising as you 
 approach the periphery of the whirl ; that the diame- 
 ter of these storms is sometimes a thousand miles, 
 and sometimes not more than a few leagues ; that 
 they have their origin somewhere between the par- 
 allels of lo deg. and 20 deg. north and south, travel- 
 ing to the westward in either hemisphere, but increas- 
 ing their distance from the equator until they reach 
 the parallels of 25 deg. or 30 deg., when they turn 
 toward the east, or "recurvate," but continue to in- 
 crease their distance from the equator — that is, they 
 first travel westwardly, inclining toward the nearest 
 pole ; they then recurve and travel eastwardly, still 
 inclining toward the pole ; that such is their path in 
 both hemispheres, etc. 
 
 THEIR EXPLANATION. 
 
 Maury doubts the correctness of the above state- 
 ments in many ways, yet does not prove anything to 
 the contrary. Their inception, with the destructive 
 forces they exercise when fully under way, seems to 
 be derived exactly from the same natural laws that 
 create the trade winds, the flow of the heavier air to 
 occupy the space opened up by the lighter. The 
 more rarified atmosphere may come from the influ- 
 ence of the sun's heat, the rapid evaporation of water
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 2S1 
 
 from the ocean's surface, or from the rapid condensa- 
 tion of aqueous vapor and consequent fall of rain, 
 which is always accompanied by rarification and lib- 
 eration of heat. These sudden gyrating storms, of 
 which the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans furnish 
 many examples every year, have yet to be fully ex- 
 plained, as some of them are accompanied by all the 
 phenomena of lightning, thunder and copious show- 
 ers of rain. This may add to the many theories 
 already advanced, the broad explanation that elec- 
 trical changes and influences will supply. The many 
 examples recorded of the destructive forces of these 
 storms, these myriads of whirlmiiids, traveling across 
 sea or land, are too well known to need repetition 
 here. 
 
 From Birt's Hand-Book of Storms, furnishing a 
 record of hurricanes for a year's time, I find the West 
 Indies credited with 113; South Indian Ocean, 53 ; 
 Mauritius, 53 ; Bay of Bengal, 30; and the China Sea 
 (Pacific), 46. 
 
 RAINFALL OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS. 
 
 With but very few exceptions, the island world is 
 bountifully supplied with rain. True, some are with- 
 out sufficient moisture apparently, although the pro- 
 fuse vegetation throughout the different groups testify 
 to an abundant supply. About the only exceptions 
 are some of the volcanic rocks and guano islands, 
 whose bare surfaces, have not the requisites for at- 
 tractingf moisture. 
 
 At the Aleutian Isles there is more than enough, 
 while Queen Charlotte and Vancouver Islands abound 
 in running streams from bounteous rains. The islands 
 alono- the coasts of California and Mexico are not so
 
 282 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 fortunate in this respect ; but unimportant as they are 
 in size and products, this want is only felt locally, and 
 is not of general importance. The Hawaiian group, 
 with a rainfall of thirty-six inches per annum, may be 
 said to have an abundance. The Galapagos, and islands 
 further south, have barely a sufficiency, until the islands 
 of Southern Chili are met, and clear on to Cape Horn, 
 where the rainfall often reaches 200 inches in a year. 
 The islands of Juan Fernandez, Mas-a-Fuera, Pit- 
 cairn, the Paumatous, Society, Fiji, Friendly, Samoa, 
 Marquesas, New Caledonia, the Marshall system, 
 etc., attest, by the profusion of natural vegetation, an 
 abundant rainfall. New Zealand, Tasmania and Aus- 
 tralia have copious showers, though the latter, with her 
 immense interior wastes, with their great evaporating 
 powers, leaves surface water scarce. The Solomon Arch- 
 ipelago, Santa Cruz, the New Guinea, Ireland, Britain, 
 Admiralty islands and groups, have abundant moisture. 
 Java, Celebes, Borneo, the Molluccas and Sumatra 
 are in some localities, too well supplied, the fall of 
 rain in parts of Sumatra and Borneo being from 
 100 to 200 inches per annum. Still further west, 
 and in the northeast part of the Bay of Bengal, 
 among the Khasi Hills, it is said that the mean record 
 of rainfall for twenty years is something like 493.19 
 inches per annum, claimed to be the greatest recorded 
 rainfall on the globe. The islands of the Chinese 
 Empire, as well as the Phillippines and Japan, are all 
 in the range of abundant precipitation. In fact, 
 throughout the islands of the Pacific, water has never 
 been a drawback. True, in some spots surface mois- 
 ture is scarce, yet in nearly every case, v/here sinking 
 has been resorted to, a plentiful supply of fresh water 
 has been met with.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 283 
 
 PORTS AND HARBORS. 
 
 The following exact geographical location of some 
 of the principal harbors and ports of the Pacific islands, 
 are taken from lists in the United States Hydrographic 
 Office : 
 
 Anger, Java. — Fourth Point Lighthouse (time ball). 
 
 6 deg. 4 min. 18 sec, S. lat; 105 deg. 53 min. o 
 
 sec, E. long. Netherlands Hydrographic Office. 
 Austral (Tubuai) Islands. — Rouroutou Island, North 
 
 Point. 22 deg. 29 min. o sec, S. lat.; 151 deg. 23 
 
 min. 41 sec, W. long. Kulczki. 
 Acapulco, Mexico. — Northwest angle of Fort. 16 
 
 deg. 50 min. 56 sec, N. lat.; 99 deg. 55 min. 28 
 
 sec, W. long. Commmander Philip, U. S. N. 
 Australia, Sydney. — Observatory. 2>2> <^eg. 51 min. 
 
 41 sec, S. lat.; 151 deg. 12 min. 39 sec, E. long. 
 
 Nautical Almanac. 
 Australia, Adelaide Port. — Snapper Point. 34 deg. 
 
 46 min. 50 sec, S. lat.; 138 deg. 31 min. o sec. E. 
 
 long. Australia Directory. 
 Australia, Melbourne. — Observatory. 2)7 <^eg. 49 
 
 min. 53 sec, S. lat.; 144 deg. 58 min. 42 sec, E. 
 
 long. Nautical Almanac. 
 Bandger Massin, Borneo. — Residency flag-staff. 3 
 
 deg. 18 min. 55 sec, S. lat; 114 deg. 35 min. 8 
 
 sec, E. long. Netherlands Hydrographic Office. 
 Batavia, Java. — Observatory (time ball). 6 dag. 7 
 
 min. 40 sec, S. lat.; 106 deg. 49 min. 7 sec, E. 
 
 long. Netherlands Hydrographic Office. 
 Barrow Point, Alaska. — Highest latitude of the 
 
 United States. 71 deg. 27 min. o sec, N. lat.; 
 
 156 deg. 15 min. o sec, W. long. Capt. Beechey, 
 
 R. N.
 
 284 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Bonin Islands, Peel Island. — Port Lloyd Observa- 
 • tory. 27 deg. 5 min. ^^ sec, N. lat; 142 deg. 11 
 
 min. 30 sec, E. long. Commodore Rodgers, 
 
 U. S. N. 
 Caroline Islands, Hogoleu. — Nordi end of Isis Islet 
 
 7 deg. 18 min. 30 sec, N. lat; 151 deg. 56 min. 
 
 30 sec, E. long. Captain Simpson, R. N. 
 Christmas Island. — North Point of Cook Islet i 
 
 deg. 57 min. 17 sec, N. lat,; 157 deg. 27 min. 46 
 
 sec, W. long. Captain Skerrett, U. S. N. 
 Fanning Island. — Flag-staff, entrance to English 
 
 Harbor. 3 deg. 51 min. 26 sec, N, lat; 159 deg, 
 
 23 min. 35 sec, W. long. English survey. 
 Farallone Islets, California. — Lighthouse, South 
 
 Islet. ■;i)^ deg. 41 min. 49 sec, N. lat; 123 deg. 
 
 o min. 4 sec, W. long. U. S. Coast and Geodetic 
 
 Survey. 
 Fiji Islands. — Vanua Lavu Island, M'bua Bay, Dimba, 
 
 Dimba Point. 16 deg. 48 min. 10 sec, S. lat; 
 
 178 deg. 26 min. 14 sec, E. long. Findlay South 
 
 Sea Directory. 
 Fiji Islands. — Viti Lavu Island, Summit of Malolo 
 
 Islet 17 deg. 44 min. 45 sec, S. lat; 177 deg. 
 
 9 min. o sec, E. long. English survey. 
 Friendly Islands. — Tonga-Tabu Island, Nukalofa; 
 
 King's Garden. 21 deg. 8 min. 20 sec, S. lat, 
 
 175 deg. 8 min. 7 sec, W. long. Lieut Heath, 
 
 R. N. 
 Formosa Island. — Kelung Harbor, south shore. 25 
 
 deg. 8 min. 25 sec, N. lat; 121 deg. 45 min. 30 
 
 sec, E. long. Captain Colllnson, R. N. 
 Galapagos Islands. — Charles Island, summit (1,780 
 
 feet). I deg. 19 min. o sec, S. lat; 90 deg. 28 
 
 min. o sec, W. long. Captain Fitzroy, R. N.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN zSs 
 
 Galapagos Islands. — Abingdon Island, suiiiniit 
 
 (1,950 feet), o deg-. 34 min. 25 sec, N. lat.;, 90 
 
 deg. 44 min. 10 sec, W. long. Captain Fitzroy. 
 
 R. N. 
 Gilbert or Kingsmill Islands. — Aurorai or llurd's 
 
 Island, South Point. 2 deg. 40 min. 54 sec, S. 
 
 lat; 177 deg. i min. 13 sec, E. long. Findlay, 
 
 South Pacific. 
 Hainan Island (China). — CapeBastian extreme. 18 
 
 deg. 9 min. 30 sec, N. lat.; 109 deg. t^t, min. 30 
 
 sec, E. long. China Sea Directory. 
 Juan Fernandez Island. — Fort S. Juan Baudsta. t,^ 
 
 deg. 37 min. 2)^ sec, S. lat.; 78 deg. 49 min. 45 
 
 sec, W. long. English survey. 
 Ladrone or Mariana Islands. — Ascension Island, 
 
 Crater (2,600 feet). '19 deg. 45 min. o sec, N. 
 
 lat; ,145 deg. 30 min. o sec, E. long. Captain 
 
 Sanchez, Spanish Navy. 
 Louisade Archipelago. — St Aignan Island, summit. 
 
 10 deg. 42 min. o sec, S. lat.; 152 deg. 43 min. o 
 
 sec., E. long. Australia Directory. 
 Loyalty Islands. — Mare or Britania Island, South 
 
 Point 21 deg, 42 min. o sec, S. lat; 168 deg. 
 
 o min. o sec, E. long. Admiral D'Urville, French 
 
 Navy. 
 Manila (Island of Luzon, Phillippine Group) Cathe- 
 dral. — 14 deg. 35 min. 31 sec, N. lat; 120 deg. 
 
 58 min. 3 sec, E. long. Lieut. Commanders 
 
 Green and Davis, U. S. N. 
 Marquesas Islands. — Nuka Hiva Island, Port Tai-o- 
 
 hae, French Hill. 8 deg. 54 min. 11 sec, S. lat; 
 
 140 deg. 5 min. 6 sec, W. long. Lieutenant J. 
 
 E. Craig, U. S. N.
 
 286 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Mas-a-fuera Island. — Summit (4,000 feet). 2)7) ^^g- 
 46 min. o sec, S. lat.; 80 cleg. 46 min. o sec. W. 
 long. H. M. S. Albatross. 
 
 Marshall Islands. — Arhuo Atoll, Northeast Point. 
 7 deg. 9 min, 17 sec, N. lat.; 176 deg. 56 min. 
 30 sec, E. long. Commander Meade, U. S. N. 
 
 Mulgrave Islands. — Port Rhiu, north side of en- 
 trance. 6 deg. 14 min. o sec, N. lat.; 171 deg. 
 46 min. o sec, E. long. Captain Berard, French 
 Navy, 
 
 Mazatlan, Mexico. — Signal station. 23 deg. 1 1 min. 
 17 sec, N.lat,; 106 deg. 26 min. 39 sec.,W. long. 
 Commander Dewey, U. S. N. 
 
 New Britain. — Blanche Bay, Matupi Island, North- 
 east Point. 4 deg. 13 min. 20 sec, S. lat.; 152 
 deg. 10 min. 18 sec, E. long. German survey. 
 
 New Caledonia. — Harbor of Noumea, Lighthouse at 
 office of Captain of the Port. 22 deg. 16 min. 20 
 sec, S. lat; 166 deg. 27 min. 8 sec, E. long. 
 Lighthouse List. 
 
 New Guinea. — Cape Cretin, Cretin Islets. 6 deg. 
 43 min. o sec, S. lat; 147 deg. 53 min. 20 sec, 
 E. long. Captain Moresby, R. N. 
 
 New Hebrides Islands. — Aniteum Island, Port Ani- 
 teum, Sand Islet 20 deg. 15 min. 17 sec, S. lat; 
 169 deg. 44 min. 44 sec, E. long. Captain Den- 
 ham, R. N. 
 
 New Hebrides Islands. — Tanna Island, Port Resolu- 
 tion, Mission. 19 deg. 31 min. 17 sec, S. lat; 
 169 deg. 27 min. 30 sec, E. long. Captain Den- 
 ham, R. N. 
 
 New Ireland. — Carteret Harbor, Cocoanut Islet 4 
 deg. 41 min. 26 sec, S. lat; 152 deg. 42 min. 25 
 sec, E. long. Captain Belcher, R. N.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 2S7 
 
 North Islands. — Queen Charlotte Island, NorthPoint. 
 
 — 54 dcg. 20 min. o sec, N. lat.; 133 deg. o niin. 
 
 o sec, W. lonsf. Ensflish. 
 New Zealand. — Oueenstown, U. S. Transit-of-Venus 
 
 Station. 45 deg. 2 min. 7 sec, S. lat.; 168 deg. 
 
 40 min. 6 sec, E. long. Captain Raymond, 
 
 U. S. A. 
 Nagasaki, Japan. — North angle of Custom-house 
 
 Sea-wall. 32 deg. 44 min. 35 sec, N. lat.; 129 
 
 deg. 52 min. 9 sec, E. long. Lieut. Commanders 
 
 Green and Davis, U. S. N. 
 Panama. — South Tower of Cathedral. 8 deg. 51 min. 
 
 12 sec, N. lat.; 79 deg. 32 min. 12 sec, W, long. 
 
 Lieut. Commander Green, U. S. N. 
 Paumatou Islands (Low Archipelago). — Arnanu or 
 
 Muller Island, Southwest Point. 17 deg. 53 min, 
 
 20 sec, S. lat.; 140 deg. 50 min. 26 sec, W. long. 
 
 Commaisance des Temps. 
 Phoenix Islands. — Gardner's Island, center. 4 deg. 
 
 47 min. 42 sec, S. lat.; 174 deg. 40 min. 18 sec, 
 
 W. long. Commander Wilkes, U. S. N. 
 Pitcairn Island. — Village. 25 deg. 3 min. t^j sec, S. 
 
 lat.; 130 deg. 8 min. ^j sec, W. long. Captain 
 
 Beechy, R. N. 
 Samoan Islands. — Savaii Island, Paluale Village. 13 
 
 deg. 45 min. o sec, S. lat.; 172 deg. 17 min. o sec. 
 
 W. long. Commander Wilkes, U. S. N. 
 Samoan Islands. — Upolu Island, Apia Harbor, Ru- 
 
 gis Wharf. 13 deg. 48 min. 56 sec, S. lat.; 171 
 
 deg. 47 min. 34 sec, W. long. Captain Richards, 
 
 R.^N. 
 Santa Cruz Islands. — Vanikoro, Ocili Village. 1 1 
 
 deg. 39 min. 30 sec, S. lat.; 166 deg. 55 min. 10 
 
 sec, E. long. Admiral D'Urville.
 
 288 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Society Islands. — Boru-boru Island, Otea Vanua 
 
 Village. 1 6 deg. 31 min. 35 sec, S. lat; 151 
 
 deg. 46 min. o sec, W. long. Findlay. 
 Society Islands. — Tahiti Island, Papiete Harbor, 
 
 Motu-uta Islet. 17 deg. 31 min. 39 sec, S. lat; 
 
 149 deg. 34 min. 16 sec, W. long. Connaisance 
 
 des Temps. 
 Solomon Islands. — Bougainville Island, Northeast 
 
 Point. 5 deg. 30 min. o sec, S. lat; 155 deg. 
 
 17 min. 14 sec, E. long. Admiral D'Urville. 
 Sumatra, Padang. — Apenberg flagstaff, o deg. 58 
 
 min. I sec, S. lat.; 100 deg. 20 min. 13 sec, E. 
 
 long. Netherlands Hydrographic Office. 
 Singapore. — FuUerton Batteiy. i deg. 17 min. 11 
 
 sec, N. lat.; 103 deg. 51 min. 15 sec,, E. long. 
 
 Lieut Commanders Green and Davis, U, S. N. 
 Sandwich Islands. — Hawaii, Hilo Bay Lighthouse, 
 
 19 deg. 45 min. o sec, N. lat.; 155 deg. 5 min. 
 
 o sec, W. long. Light House List. 
 Sandwich Islands. — Oahu, Honolulu, Reef Light- 
 house. 21 deg. 17 min. 55 sec, N. lat; 157 deg. 
 
 52 min. 13 sec, W. long. Hawaiian Government 
 
 Survey. 
 Sitka, Alaska. — Middle of parade ground. 57 deg. 
 
 2 min. 52 sec, N. lat; 135 deg. 19 min. 31 sec, 
 
 W. long. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
 San Francisco, Cal. — Presidio Station, t^j deg. 47 
 
 min. 30 sec, N, lat; 122 deg. 27 min. 49 sec, W. 
 
 long. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
 San Diego. — Coast Survey Astronomical Station. 
 
 32 deg. 43 min. 6 sec, N. lat; 117 deg. 9 min. 
 
 40 sec, W. long. U. S. Coast and Geodetic 
 
 Survey.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 28(^ 
 
 Tasmania. — Hobart Town, Transit of Venus Sta- 
 tion. 42 deg. 53 min. 25 sec, S. lat..; 147 deg. 
 20 niin. 7 sec, E. long. Professor Harkness, 
 U. S. N. 
 
 Union (Tokalau) Islands. — Nuku-Nono, or Duke 
 of Clarence Island, Southeast Point. 9 deg. 1 1 
 min. 15 sec, S. lat..; 171 deg. 2>7 rnin. 2 sec, W. 
 long. Commander Wilkes, U. S. N. 
 
 Valparaiso, Chili. — Site of San Antonio Fort. 2>2> 
 deg. I min. 53 sec, S. lat.; 71 deg. 38 min.. \V. 
 long. English Survey. 
 
 Vancouver Island. — Esquimalt, Lighthouse. 48 deg. 
 25 min. 40 sec, N. lat. 123 deg. 27 min. 20 sec. 
 W. long. Admiralty Light List. 
 
 Yokohama, Japan. — Flag-staff English naval store- 
 house. 35 deg. 26 min. 24 sec, N. lat; 139 deg. 
 39 min. 14 sec, E. long. Lieut. Commanders 
 Green and Davis, U. S. N.
 
 2go THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 mSiTORirCAI^ AKID BIOGStAPHIICAI,. 
 
 And now, rejoicing in the prosperous gales, 
 With beating heart, Ulysses spreads his sails ; 
 Placed at the helm he sate, and marked the skies, 
 Nor closed in sleep his ever-watchful eyes. 
 There viewed the Pleiads and the Northern Team, 
 And great Orion's more refulgent beam. 
 To which, around the axle of the sky, 
 The Bear, revolving, points his golden eye ; 
 Who shines exalted on the ethereal plain, 
 Nor bathes his blazing forehead in the main. 
 
 Pope's {Homer's Odyssey.) _ 
 
 THE first nation or people in the world, to make 
 any practical progress in navigation and com- 
 merce, or carry on any considerable traffic, mak- 
 ing the seas and oceans serve as a highway, were — 
 with the possible exception of the Chinese — the Phos- 
 nicians. Our accounts of them date as far back as 
 2800 years before the Christian era. Phoenicia was 
 one of the smallest countries of antiquity. It occupied 
 that part of the Syrian coast, which stretches from 
 Aradus (the modern Ronad) on the north, to a little 
 below Tyre on the south — a distance of about fifty 
 leagues. Its breadth was much less, being, for the 
 most part, bounded by Mount Libanus to the east, and 
 -Mount Carmel on the south. The surface of this 

 
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 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 29/ 
 
 narrow tract was generally rugged and mountainous, 
 and the soil in the valley, though moderately fertile, 
 did not afford sufficient supplies of food, to feed the 
 population. Libanus and its dependent ridges were, 
 however, covered with timber, suitable for ship build- 
 ing; and besides Tyre and Sidon, Phoenicia possessed 
 the ports of Tripoli, Byblos, Berytus, etc. In this situ- 
 ation, occupying a country unable to supply them with 
 sufficient quantities of corn — hemmed in by mountains 
 and powerful and warlike neighbors, on the one hand, 
 and having, on the other, the wide expanse of the 
 Mediterranean, studded with islands, and surrounded 
 by fertile countries, to invite the enterprise of her citi- 
 zens — they were naturally led to engage in maritime 
 and commercial adventures, and became the boldest 
 and most experienced mariners, and the greatest dis- 
 coverers, of ancient times. 
 
 MERCHANTS OF THE OLDEN TIME. 
 
 From the remotest antiquity, a considerable trade 
 seems to have been carried on, between the Eastern 
 and Western worlds. The spices, drugs, precious 
 stones, and other valuable products of Arabia and 
 India, have always been highly esteemed in Europe, 
 and have been exchanged for the gold and silver, the 
 tin, wines, etc., of the latter. At the first dawn of 
 authentic history, we find Phoenicia the principal centre 
 of this commerce. 
 
 THE PHCENICIANS. 
 
 Her inhabitants are designated, In the early sacred 
 writings, by the name of Canaanites — a term which, in 
 t^e language of the East, means merchants. The
 
 292 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 products of Arabia, India, Persia, etc., were originally 
 conveyed to her by companies of traveling merchants, 
 or caravans, which seem to have performed exactly 
 the same part, in the commerce of the East, in the days 
 of Jacob, that they do at present. (Genesis, xxxvii, 
 25, etc.) At a later period, however, in the reigns 
 of David and Solomon, the Phoenicians, having formed 
 an alliance with the Hebrews, acquired the ports of 
 Elath and Eziongeber, at the northeast extremity of 
 the Red Sea. Here they fitted out fleets, which traded 
 with the ports on that, and probably with those of 
 Southern Arabia," the west coast of India, and Ethiopia. 
 The distance of the Red Sea from Tyre being very 
 considerable, the conveyance of goods from one to the 
 other, by land, must have been tedious and expensive. 
 To lessen this inconvenience, the Tyrians, shortly after 
 they got possession of Elath and Eziongeber, seized 
 upon Rhinoculura, the port on the Mediterranean, 
 nearest the Red Sea. The products of Arabia, India, 
 and adjacent countries, being carried thither, were then 
 put on board ships, and conveyed, by a brief and easy 
 voyage, to Tyre. If we except the transit by Egypt 
 (overland), this was the shortest and most direct, and 
 for that reason, no doubt, the cheapest channel, by 
 which the commerce between Southern Asia and 
 Europe could then be conducted. But it is not be- 
 lieved, that the Phoenicians possessed any permanent 
 footing on the Red Sea, after the death of Solomon. 
 The want of it does not, however, seem to have sensi- 
 bly affected their trade, anc? Tyre continued, till the 
 foundation of Alexandria, to be the grand emporium 
 for Eastern products, with which it was abundantly 
 supplied, by caravans from Arabia, the bottom of the 
 Persian Gulf, and from Babylon, by way of Palmyra.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 293 
 
 The commerce of the Phoenicians with the coun- 
 tries bordering on the Mediterranean, was still more 
 extensive and valuable. At an early period, they 
 established settlements in Cyprus and Rhodes. The 
 former was a very valuable acquisition, from its prox- 
 imity, the number of its ports, its fertility, and the vari- 
 ety of its vegetable and mineral productions. Having 
 passed, successively, into Greece. Italy and Sardinia, 
 they proceeded to explore the southern shores of 
 France and Spain, and the northern shores of Africa. 
 They afterwards adventured upon the Atlantic, and 
 were the first people, whose flag was displayed beyond 
 the pillars of Hercules. 
 
 INVENTIONS AND MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Nor were the Phoenicians celebrated only for their 
 wealth, and the extent of their commerce and naviga- 
 tion. Their fame, and their right to be classed amongst 
 those who have conferred the greatest benefits on 
 mankind, rest on a still more unassailable foundation. 
 Antiquity is unanimous in ascribing to them the inven- 
 tion and practice of all those arts, sciences and contri- 
 vances, that facilitate the prosecution of commercial 
 undertakings. They are held to be the inventors of 
 arithmetic, weights and measures, of money, of the art 
 of keeping accounts, and, in short, of everything that 
 belongs to the business 'of a counting-house. They 
 were also famous for the invention of ship building 
 and navigation; for the discovery of glass; for their 
 manufacture of fine linen and tapestry; for their skill 
 in architecture, and in the art of working metals and
 
 294 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 ivory; and still more, for the incomparable -splendor 
 and beauty of their purple dye. 
 
 But the invention and dissemination of these highly 
 useful arts, form but a part of what the people of 
 Europe owe to the Phoenicians, 
 
 It is not possible to say in what degree the relig- 
 ion of the Greeks was borrowed from theirs, but that 
 it was to a pretty large extent, seems abundantly cer- 
 tain. Hercules, under the name of Melcarthus was 
 the tutelar deity of Tyre, and his expeditions along 
 the shores of the Mediterranean, and to the straits 
 connecting it with the ocean, seem to be merely 
 a poetical representation of the progress of the 
 Phoenician navigators, who introduced arts and civ- 
 ilization, and established the worship of Hercules 
 wherever they went. 
 
 The Greeks were, however, indebted to the Phoe- 
 nicians, not merely for the rudiments of civilization, but 
 for the great instrument of its future progress — the 
 gift of letters. No fact in ancient history is better 
 established than that a knowledge of alphabetic 
 writing was first carried to Greece by Phoenician ad- 
 venturers, and it may be safely affirmed that this was 
 the greatest boon any people ever received at the 
 hands of another. 
 
 Before quitting this subject, we may briefly advert 
 to the statement of Herodotus with respect to the cir- 
 cumnavigation of Africa by Phoenician sailors. The 
 venerable father of history spates that a fleet fitted 
 out by Necho, King of Egypt, but manned and com- 
 manded by Phoenicians, took its departure from a port 
 on the Red Sea, at an epoch which is believed to cor- 
 respond with the year 604, before the Christian era ; 
 and that keeping always to the right, they doubled
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 2gj 
 
 the southern promontory of Africa, and returned after 
 a voyage of three years to Egypt, by the Pillars of 
 Hercules. (Herod, lib, 4, p. 42.) Herodotus further 
 mentions that they related that in sailing around Af- 
 rica, they had the sun on the right hand, or to the 
 north — a circumstance which he frankly acknowledges 
 seemed incredible to him, but which, as every one is 
 now aware, must have been the case, if the voyage was 
 actually performed. 
 
 Many learned and able writers, and particularly 
 Gosselin (Reherches sur la Geographic Systematique 
 et Positive des Anciens, vol. i, p. 204-217), have 
 treated this account as fabulous. But the objections 
 of Gosselin have been successfully answered in an 
 elaborate note by Larcher (Herodote, vol. 3, pp. 458- 
 464, ed. 1802); and Major Rennel has sufficiently 
 demonstrated the practicability of the voyage. (Ge- 
 ography of Herodotus, p. 682.) 
 
 Without entering upon this discussion, we may 
 observe that not one of those who question the au- 
 thenticity of the account given by Herodotus, pre- 
 sume to doubt that the Phoenicians braved the bois- 
 terous seas on the coasts of Spain, Gaul and Britain, 
 and that they had partially, at least, explored the 
 Indian Ocean. But the ships and seamen that did 
 this much, might, undoubtedly, under favorable circum- 
 stances, double the Cape of Good Hope. The relation 
 of Herodotus has, besides, such an appearance of good 
 faith, and the circumstance which he doubts, of the 
 navieators havinof seen the sun on the rio^ht, affords 
 so strong a confirmation of its truth, that there reall) 
 seems no reasonable ground for doubting that the 
 Phoenicians preceded by 2,000 years Vasco de Gama 
 in his perilous enterprise. 
 
 (McCuUoch, Diet. Com. and Cominer. Nav., vol. 2.)
 
 2^6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 THE COMPASS. 
 
 It has not been my purpose to trace navigation 
 from its early dawn to the present time, in more than 
 a general way, as thorough research and investiga- 
 tion into this interesting subject would require a sep- 
 arate volume. History of both ancient and modern 
 times is so replete with the commercial ventures of 
 countries, with accounts of voyages, discoveries and 
 traffic, both by sea and land, that little doubt is left of 
 the early knowledge and use of the compass, the in- 
 vention and perfection of which is generally ascribed 
 to a more modern period. 
 
 The knowledge of the cardinal points, as well as 
 the use, f)robably in a rude way. of that important 
 little instrument, the compass, we can trace back 
 among die Chinese for nearly 3,000 years u. c. The 
 knowledge of the true north, with its curious attrac- 
 tion and influence on the magnetic needle, turning 
 and holding it at nearly right angles with the points 
 of tlu- rising and setting of the sun, was not only 
 famihar and commented upon, but was put in prac- 
 tical use by the ancients of the higher order of intel- 
 lig(,Mic(', like the Chinc'se. Phoenicians, Egyptians, 
 (irecians and Japanese. 
 
 The almost exact position retained in the heavens 
 by the Nordi Star, with tin; universe apparently 
 sweeping in vast circles around it, must at first have 
 been used as a guiding-j)oint, while it would have 
 been natural to take the opposite point for the other 
 course. The other two points, east and west, were 
 no doubt taken from the risinir and setting- of the 
 sun, thus giving in a perfectly natural way the car- 
 dinal points of the compass.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 2^ 
 
 PROPERTIES OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. 
 
 It has been supposed that many of the ventures 
 perlormed by the ancients at sea were only made 
 during the day. the mariners anchoring during the 
 night, never venturing far from land, or a tlepth 
 of water too great for anchorage. This theory, I do 
 not think, will bear very close inspection, as stormy 
 weather and a lee shore would have rendered any 
 great voyages impossible. The knowledge and prac- 
 tice of the ancients in mining and working the metals 
 must have been considerable, as many of the writings 
 of the fathers of literature will testify. The proper- 
 ties of magnetic iron ore, the load-stone of ancient 
 and modern times, its faculty of not only attracting 
 iron and steel, but of imparting its polar peculiarities 
 to these metals, must have formed a long and curit)us 
 study, and ages may have passed before some genius 
 hrst tried and tested, or discovered its unvarying ten- 
 dency, when so placed as to be litde retarded in its 
 movements, of turning and placing itself at right 
 angles with the rising and setting of the sun, and 
 pointing to the north. These first experiments must 
 have been made after the ore had been brought to a 
 metallic form and the metal shaped in the form of a 
 needle, much in use in the olden time for their knit- 
 ting, embroideries, tapestries and lace-work, for which 
 the ancients of the higher order were so justly cele- 
 brated. 
 
 BY WHOM INVENTED. 
 
 Yet it is the common opinion, in our modern day, 
 that the compass and its uses was the invention of 
 Flavio Gioja, a citizen of the once famous republic of
 
 298 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 AmalphI, very near the beginning of 1300 a. d. 
 Many who wrote long years previous to this period, 
 give abundant evidences of its knowledge and uses. 
 Thus the great Spanish antiquary, Antonio de Capo- 
 many, and the famous Raymond Lully, in writings 
 published as early as 1272 a. d., go to show the exact 
 uses made of the compass in navigation. In one 
 place Lully says: "as the needle when touched by the 
 magnet naturally turns to the north;" and again, in 
 another portion of his writings, he says: "As the nau- 
 tical needle direct mariners in their navigation;" leav- 
 ing us with the impression, as they were writing of 
 periods many years anterior to 1 200 a. d., that the 
 little compass was in common use among mariners 
 and "those who go down to the sea in ships." 
 
 In addition to the evident theoretical knowledge, 
 of a portion at least, of the world's geography had by 
 the Egyptian Ptolemies, they possessed maps and 
 charts of all the regions known at that time. 
 
 The voyages performed by Hanno, Hippeas and 
 Pythias, many years previous to the Christian era, 
 were not accomplished without considerable knowledge 
 of geography and navigation. 
 
 There is distinct mention made, in Chinese his- 
 tory, of the compass points, not only at the time men- 
 tioned above (2634 b. c), but on down to 121 a. d., and 
 again in 265 and 419 a. d. The best authorities state, 
 that the compass was introduced into Europe in 11 84 
 a. d., while some writers ascribe its discovery to Gioja, 
 at the commencement of 1300 a. d. Dr. Gilbert states, 
 that it was introduced into Italy, by Marco Polo, in 
 1295. There is also evidence of its use in France in 
 1 1 50, in Syria about the same time, and in Norway 
 previous to 1266.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 299 
 
 HOMER S KNOWLEDGE OF SIIIl' PUILDING. 
 
 Now toils tlie hero ; trees on trees o'erthrown, 
 
 Fall crackling: around him, and the forests groaru 
 
 Sudden, full twenty on the plain are strow'd, 
 
 And lopp'd and lighten'd of their branchy load. 
 
 At equal angles these disposed to join, 
 
 He smoothed and squared them by rule and line. 
 
 (The wimbles for the work, Calypso found,) 
 
 With these he pierced them, and with clinchers bound. 
 
 Long and capacious, as a shipwright forms 
 
 Some bark's broad bottom, to outride the storms. 
 
 So large he built the raft ; then ribb'd it strong, 
 
 From space to space, and nail'd the planks along; 
 
 These formed the sides ; the deck he fashioned last ; 
 
 Then o'er the vessel raised the taper mast, 
 
 With crossing sail-yards dancing in the wind ; 
 
 And to' the helm, the guiding rudder joined; 
 
 With yielding osiers fenced, to break the force 
 
 Of surging waves, and steer the steady course. 
 
 Thy loom. Calypso, for the future sails 
 
 Supplied the cloth, capacious of the gales. 
 
 With stays and cordage, last he rigged the ship. 
 
 And, roll'd on levers, launch'd her in the deep. 
 
 Pope's {Homer's Odyssey.) 
 
 In the quotations presented, from the "Odyssey" 
 of Homer — who was writinof at a time somethinor over 
 eight hundred years previous to the Christian era, and 
 describing events that took place about 1 200 1;. (.:. — a 
 famiUarity, not only with ship building, but an astro- 
 nomical knowledge, and its uses in navigation, is dis- 
 played, that may justly excite wonder and admiration. 
 Of the 1,152 ships Homer describes in the Iliad, as 
 carrying troops, and participating in the Trojan war, 
 not one is mentioned as relying solely on oars as a 
 propelling power. All are described as sailing vessels, 
 and under the guidance of experienced sailors and 
 navigators, whose knowledge of navigation descended 
 from previous ages
 
 ^oo THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 EARLY NAVICiATORS OF THE PACIFIC. 
 
 Anson, Lord George. — Born in England 1697; 
 died 1762. Was in command and served on the east 
 coast of America; in 1739 was recalled on the out- 
 break of the Spanish war ; in 1 740, sailed from Eng- 
 land with eight men of war, to harrass the Spaniards 
 in the South Seas, by way of Cape Horn ; crossed 
 the Pacific with only one of his fleet, the Centurion, 
 having lost most of his men dirough scurvy; made 
 some valuable captures and discoveries among the 
 Pacific Islands, in addition to contributing through 
 his journals, surveys and charts, a great deal of in- 
 formation in regard to the Pacific ; served successfully 
 against the French in 1 747, and was promoted through 
 all the admiralty grades of the English Navy ; was the 
 author of a book very celebrated in its day, entitled 
 "Lord Anson's Voyage Round the World." 
 
 Balboa. Vasco Nunez de. — Spanish soldier and 
 navigator. Born in Lapan (by some authorities at 
 Xeres, de les Cavalleros, lEstramadura, Spain) in 1475, 
 and beheaded at Castilla de Oro Darien (or at Ada, 
 near there), in 15 17. He first sailed on the Atlantic 
 with Bastidas, and afterwards with Enciso, agent of 
 Ojeda, finally reaching Darien about 15 13. Jealousy 
 and dissension among the leaders resulted in leaving 
 Balboa in command, with the return of his rivals to 
 Spain, where misrepresentation caused an order to be 
 issued for his recall to that country. Meantime, Bal- 
 boa had made many friends, among whom were native 
 chiefs of the isthmus. His love of adventure, with a 
 desire to conciliate the Spanish king, urged him to 
 new exploits and adventures. This resulted from
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ^,/ 
 
 informaLion communicated by one of the native chiefs 
 in his overland journey across the isthmus, and the 
 discovery (to him) of the Pacific Ocean, Septem- 
 ber 26th, 1 5 13 (September 25th, 15 13 — Bancroft), 
 taking- possession in the name of Spain. This re- 
 sulted in his re-establishment in favor at court, and 
 his creation to the rank of admiral and deputy go\- 
 ernor. The viceroy Davila, of the new province, ar- 
 rived at Darien some time in 15 14. Jealousies and 
 dissension between the commanders continuing-, Balboa 
 (whose energy and restless daring ill-fitted him for a life 
 of political intrigue), with great enterprise and labor 
 transported the timbers and other materials of his ships 
 across the isthmus. Rebuilding his vessel on the Pacific 
 shore (in 15 15- 16- 17), sailing on the great sea and 
 making many valuable discoveries, among others the 
 Pearl Islands (and through tradition only), the wealth 
 and location of Peru. Through the wiles of Davila, 
 or Pedrarias, he was induced to return to Darien, and 
 was beheaded, as a dangerous political offender. As 
 Balboa is often credited with the discovery of the Pa- 
 cific Ocean, it would be well to note (and not, how^ 
 ever, with all due respect and admiration for the ad- 
 venturous Spaniard) the voyages of the celebrated 
 Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, in the 13th century, 
 and the voyages and discoveries of Post Commander 
 Antonio d'Albreu and Francisco Serram, who first 
 saw and noted the island of Papua, or New Guinea, 
 in 1 5 1 1 . The greatness of the man is too well estab- 
 lished by history to require any additional glory from 
 discoveries not justly belonging to him. The feat he 
 performed in transpordng the different parts of his 
 vessels across a country, that, even to-day, is a laby- 
 rinth of foliage and a net-work of almost impassable
 
 J02 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 mountains, ravines, and swamps, has never been sur- 
 passed. Speaking of him, Herrera, who in his writings 
 is anything but enthusiastic, says: "No Hving man in 
 all the Indies dared attempt such an enterprise, or 
 would have succeeded in it, save Vasco Nuiiez de 
 Balboa." 
 
 Beechy, Frederick William. — Born in London 
 in 1796; died in 1856. An English naval officer of 
 great ability. Served in English Navy during wars 
 with France and America. In 18 18 he was with 
 Franklin, in Bucham's Arctic Expedition, and after- 
 wards with Parry, in the voyage of the Hecla; served 
 several years in the Pacific Ocean, making many val- 
 uable surveys and discoveries ; passed through Beh- 
 ring's Straits, reaching nearly 72 deg. north latitude. 
 A man of great practical attainments, he made many 
 valuable additions to geography, navigation, meteor- 
 ology, hydrography, as well as some valuable con- 
 tributions to literature ; made rear-admiral in English 
 Navy in 1854, and President of the Geographical So- 
 ciety in 1855. 
 
 Banks, Sir Joseph. — Born in London in 1743, and 
 died in 1820. Was a man of vast scientific attain- 
 ments, explorer and voyager, from Labrador to New 
 Foundland, and from Iceland and the Hebrides, to the 
 Society Islands in the South Sea. He accompanied 
 Captain Cook in his first voyage to the Pacific, to ob- 
 serve the transit of Venus ; his valuable services in 
 this voyage, occupying three years, opened up much 
 that was new and useful to the scientific world. His 
 discoveries, in natural history and botany, together 
 with many valuable drawings and specimens and vast
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCFAN joj 
 
 collection of books, he bequeathed to the British Mii- 
 seum. He was made baronet in 1781, and received 
 the Order of the Bath in 1795. 
 
 Bougainville, Louis Antoine de. — Born in Pans 
 in 1729; died there in 1814. A celebrated author, 
 politician, soldier and sailor, and the first French cir- 
 cumnavigator of the globe. Was with Montcalm in 
 Canada, as aid-de-camp; set sail around the world in 
 1766, passing through the Straits of Magellan, and 
 through the Paumatou group, discovering new islands, 
 arriving at Tahiti April 6th, 1768; visited the Samoan 
 group, naming them the Navigators, called at the New 
 Hebrides, and made a partial survey of the east coast 
 of Australia; sailed through the Louisades and along 
 the Solomon Archipelago, and harbored at Port Pras- 
 lin. New Ireland. From there, after repairing his 
 ships, he skirted the northern coast of New Guinea, 
 discovered some new islands, and through the Mol- 
 luccas, the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good 
 Hope, reaching St. Malo in 1769, after an absence of 
 about two years and four months ; published a 2-vol- 
 ume account of his voyage in 177 1-2. In 1778, was i:i 
 command in the F'^rench navy, and served against 
 England, in the American War of Independence, with 
 distinguished courage and ability. Planned several 
 voyages to the Arctic Seas, but meeting with but 
 little encouragement, resigned from the navy in 1 790 ; 
 was afterwards ennobled by Napoleon I. 
 
 Behring, Vitus — Born in Denmark in 1680, and 
 died in 1 74 1. He entered the Russian naval service 
 in 1704, and was made captain by Peter the Great, for 
 distinguished services. He was placed in command
 
 304 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 in 1725, of a voyage of discovery to the Arctic Seas; 
 discovered the straits that bear his name, and the 
 separation between Asia and America (in second voyage 
 of 1728), outHning and surveying the coast of Siberia. 
 He made a third voyage in 1741, on a North Polar 
 expedition, reaching about 69 deg. north latitude, but 
 owing to stress of weather and sickness among his 
 crews, was compelled to return ; was wrecked on 
 Behring Island, in 55 deg. 22 min. north latitude, 166 
 deg. east longitude, where he died, after going through 
 all the hardships that could befall a castaway in the 
 desolate Polar Seas. 
 
 Byron, John. — Born November 8th, 1723, and 
 died April loth, 1786. Served with Anson as mid- 
 shipman ; was wrecked off the Patagonian coast, and 
 lived on a desolate island in that region for five 
 years (1740-46); publishing a narative of his suffer- 
 ings in 1768; was placed in command of an exploring 
 exj->edition in 1764, making some important dis- 
 coveries. As an accomplished sailor, he had few 
 superiors, and as an author, met with success. His 
 sons also were men of mark and ability, culminating 
 in his grandson, Lord Byron, the poet. 
 
 Carteret, Philip. — Was captain of the Swallow, 
 one of the vessels under Samuel Wallis, which sailed 
 from England on a voyage of discovery to the South 
 Seas, August 2 2d, 1766; his second voyage was on 
 private account, discovering and naming Gower and 
 Carteret Isles, Queen Charlotte Isles, Pitcairn, etc., 
 rediscovering and naming the Admiralty group, and 
 returning to England in 1769. 
 
 J
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN jn,- 
 
 CoOK, Captain James. — Born in Yorkshire, Mn-- 
 lancl, October 27th, 1728, and killed at Owyhee (now 
 Hawaii), one of the Sandwich Islands, February 141I1. 
 1799. First served at sea in merchant line, enterin<^ 
 the royal navy in 1755; was promoted rapidly throu<4-]i 
 all the lower grades, and placed in command of the 
 frigate Mej-airy, one of the squadron, co-operating 
 with General Wolfe at Quebec. His services there, 
 as navigator, pilot and soldier, were rewarded Ij)- a 
 command of the flag-ship Northumberland. His sur- 
 veys of the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador, with 
 frequent publications of maps and charts, together 
 with a minute account of his observations of an eclipse 
 of the sun, placed him in the front rank, as a man of 
 high attainments. In 1768, he sailed in command of 
 the Endeavor, to observe the transit of Venus, from a 
 position in the South Sea, selecting Tahiti, of the Soci- 
 ety group, w^here he arrived April 13th, 1769. After 
 successfully accomplishing the main object of the voy- 
 age, he set sail on a general voyage of discover)-, 
 re-locating New Zealand, taking possession of the Aus- 
 tralian coast, near Botany Bay, surve)ing and chart- 
 ing some thirteen hundred miles of coast line, and 
 establishing Australia as an -island, as well as its sepa- 
 ration from Papua. After many adventures and es- 
 capes, he returned to England in June 11, 1771, having 
 sailed around the globe. In July 13th, 1772, l)e again 
 sailed in command of the Resolution, 2iViA Adventure, 
 to "circumnavigate the whole globe, in high southern 
 latitudes, making- traverses, from time to time, into 
 every part of the Pacific Ocean, which had not und('r- 
 gone previous investigation, and to use his best endea- 
 vors to resolve the much agitated question of a sou- 
 thern continent." In this voyage, he reached 71 dvg.
 
 ^o6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 lo min. south latitude, in io6 deg. 54 min. west longi- 
 tude. After wintering at the Society Islands, Cook 
 made some valuable surveys of the Pacific, between 
 Easter Island and the New Hebrides, discovering and 
 naming New Caledonia, etc. He returned to England, 
 by the Cape of Good Hope, July 30th, 1775, being 
 absent something over three years. In 1776, he vol- 
 unteered to conduct an expedition to discover a north- 
 west passage to Asia, which he proposed to attempt, 
 by way of Behring Strait. Before sailing north, he 
 spent some time in voyaging among the islands of the 
 Pacific, discovering (it was supposed) the Sandwich 
 Islands, in 1778. Sailing north, along the coast of 
 North America, determining the most westerly portion 
 of that country, and its distance from Asia, he reached 
 Icy Cape, August 17th, 1778, where his further passage 
 was barred by the ice. Returning to Sandwich Islands 
 to winter, with the view of renewing the expedition 
 when the weather permitted, he discovered the islands 
 of Hawaii and Maui, of the Sandwich group. Having 
 lost one of his small boats in one of the inlets of Ha- 
 waii, stolen- by the natives, he landed, with a lieutenant 
 and nine men, to recapture it — or one of the chiefs, as 
 hostage for its return ; a fight ensued, and Cook, with 
 several of his men, were killed, their bones being 
 recovered a week afterwards. That Cook, and the 
 men killed with him, were devoured by the natives, is 
 uncertain. 
 
 Cavendish, Sir Thomas. — Born in Suffolk, Eng- 
 land, in 1560; died at sea in 1592. His first voyage 
 was to Virginia, in 1586; his second, was with three 
 vessels, passing the Straits of Magellan in 1587, 
 spending some time in surveys of the coast of South
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN joj 
 
 America; although the expedition was of piratical 
 and buccaneering- tendencies, in which Hnc the-)- made 
 quite a success, capturino- several valuable Spanish 
 vessels and burning and sacking the towns of Aca- 
 pulco, Payta, etc. Cavendish then sailed across the 
 Pacific to the Ladrone Islands, througli the Indian 
 Archipelago and Strait of Java, around the Cape of 
 Good Hope, reaching England September 9th, 1588, 
 being the third, to circumnavigate the globe ; was 
 knighted by Queen Elizabeth, and started on another 
 voyage in 1591, which he failed to carry out on ac- 
 count of sickness, mutinous crews, and finally his 
 death, on the homeward passage. 
 
 Dampier, William. — Born in England in 1652; 
 date of death uncertain. Sailor, soldier, author, pilot 
 and buccaneer. Crossed the Isthmus of Darien in 
 1679, with a party of pirates, capturing several towns, 
 pillaging and laying them in ruins ; captured several 
 Spanish vessels also, with which they sailed along the 
 South American coast, robbing and destroying many 
 seaport towns. In 1684 he accompanied Captain John 
 Cook on a piratical expedition, along the coast of 
 Chili, Peru and Mexico ; afterwards crossed the Pa- 
 cific Ocean, cruisinp- amoncr the islands of the In- 
 dian Archipelago, arriving in England in 1691 ; pub- 
 lished a book, his "Voyage Around the World." 
 In 1699, sailed from England in command of sloop of 
 war, on a voyage of discovery in the South Seas, ex- 
 ploring the western coast of Australia, the coast of 
 New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland and the IMol- 
 luccas. On returninir. was wrecked off the island of 
 Ascension, reaching England in 1701. Followed the 
 sea up to 1 711. He published also "A Treatise on
 
 So8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Winds and Tides," and a vindication of his voyage 
 to the South Sea, in the ship St. George, in 1707. 
 
 Dana, James Dwight. — Born in Utica, N. Y.. 
 February 1 2th, 1813. An American mineralogist and 
 geologist, and author, of great ability. In December, 
 1 836, was appointed mineralogist and geologist to the 
 American Exploring Expedition to the Southern At- 
 lantic and Pacific Oceans, under Commodore Wilkes, 
 sailing in 1838, and returning in 1842. His re- 
 searches into the island formations of the South 
 Sea, the shells, the coral, the volcanic formations, 
 etc., show erudition and patient research, with prac- 
 tical observing powers seldom surpassed. . His works 
 and contributions to science have been valuable and 
 voluminous, being accepted authority in all parts of 
 the civilized world. 
 
 Darwin, Charles Robert. — Born in Shrewsbury, 
 England, February 12 th, 1809; sailed with Captain 
 Fitzroy, in the Beagle, in his voyage around the world, 
 as naturalist, in 1831, returning in 1836. During this 
 voyage, Darwin examined the greater part of the 
 South American coast ; many of the Pacific islands ; 
 New Zealand and Australia beine visited and exam- 
 ined, as well as Mauritius, in the Indian Ocean. An 
 account of the voyage was published in 1839, Darwin 
 contributing materially to the scientific value of the 
 work. His works on coral reefs, volcanic islands, 
 geology, zoology, with many other contributions to the 
 cause of science, were followed by his " Descent of 
 Man," and "Selection in Relation to Sex," which 
 have probably given him his greatest celebrity, or 
 notoriety.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN jog 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis. — Born in England, in 1545; 
 (by some authorities, in 1539;) and died at sea, near 
 Puerto Bello, December 27th, 1595. His first expedi- 
 tion of any moment, was with Sir John Hawkins, in 
 naval engagements, along the Atlantic seaboard, and 
 in the Gulf of Mexico, with the Spaniards. While in 
 Central America, like the greater and better man, lial- 
 boa, he saw the waters of the majestic Pacific, from one 
 of the mountain peaks of the isthmus, resolving to 
 make the mighty sea the scene of his future exploits. 
 Receivinor a roving- commission from Elizabeth, in 
 1577, he sailed through the Magellan Straits, pillag- 
 ing a portion of the coasts of Chile and Peru ; sailing 
 for North America, arriving at California, at Drake's 
 Bay (now known to be a point, somewhat different 
 from the Bay of San Francisco), where he took pos- 
 session of California, in the name of Queen Elizabeth, 
 in 1577. Having made some valuable captures from 
 the Spaniards, and fearing to return as he came, he 
 attempted the northeast passage to the Atlantic, but 
 was driven back by the cold weather and impassable 
 helds of ice. Sailing south, by Japan, the Phillippines, 
 and through the Mollucca Islands, and across the 
 Indian Ocean, he rounded the African cape, reaching 
 England on the 3d of November, 1580 — the first Eng- 
 lishman to circumnavigate the globe. His success 
 met with speedy recognition by the Queen ; leading, 
 finally, after many naval adventures on the Atlantic, to 
 his appointment as Vice-Admiral, under Lord Howard. 
 It has been supposed, that Drake was the discoverer 
 of California, as well as the Bay of San Francisco. 
 Where he landed, was Point Reyes — latitude, 2>7 <^'g§^- 
 59 min. 5 sec. north. Cabrillo is also credited widi 
 the discovery, about 1542; he locating and naming
 
 3IO THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Cape Mendosa (now Mendocino). Cortez, in 1536, 
 discovered the peninsula and Gulf of California. 
 
 Cortez (or Cortes), Hernan (or Hernando). — 
 Born in Medellin, Estramadura, in 1485, and died 
 near Seville, December 2d, 1554. His first voyage of 
 any note, was to San Domingo, and from there, in 
 1 5 1 1, with Velasquez, to Cuba. He was appointed by 
 the Governor to command an expedition to Mexico, 
 to conquer and settle that country, which Grijalva, its 
 Spanish discoverer, had failed to do. Cortez sailed 
 from St. lago in 15 18, and landed on the coast in 15 19. 
 Founding the town of Vera Cruz, he burned his ships, 
 and marched for the interior ; after many hardships 
 and reverses, he completely subdued and conquered 
 Mexico, in the decisive battles, with the natives, of 
 1520-21, History and biography are so replete with 
 this conquest, as well as of the minutest details of the 
 life of the great Spanish adventurer, that but a short 
 notice seems all that is necessary here. His discov- 
 eries on the Pacific, the Gulf of California, and its 
 survey, the location of the Peninsula of California, to- 
 gether with several expeditions sailing under his pat- 
 ronage, entitle him to a place among the early navi- 
 gators of the South Sea. His varying fortunes left 
 him to die, as above, in solitude and despair. 
 
 Fernandez, Juan. — Navigator, pilot, and discov- 
 erer in the Pacific. In 1563, he first sighted the island 
 now bearing his name (celebrated in the annals of 
 "Crusoe"), and Mas-a-fuera, afterwards granted to 
 him by the Spanish government. In 1574, he discov- 
 ered the islands of San Felix and San Ambrose, mak- 
 and discoveries in the South Sea,
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 311 
 
 particularly the flow of the currents alonjj^ the coast of 
 South America. He is credited, sometimes, with bein*^ 
 one of the early discoverers of New Zealand and 
 Australia. 
 
 FiTZROY, Robert. — Born in England, July 5th. 
 1805 ; died there, April 30th, 1865. Entered the navy 
 in 1 8 19, serving in the Mediterranean, and at South 
 American stations; in 1831, was placed in command 
 of the Beagle, making a voyage around the world, 
 being accompanied by the celebrated Darwin, as natu- 
 ralist and geologist of the expedition ; in 1843, was 
 appointed governor and commander of the colony of 
 New Zealand, where he served for three years. He 
 was the author of several works, contributing largely 
 to meteorology, and establishing a system of storm 
 warnings in 1862. 
 
 Franklin, Sir John. — Born in Lincolnshire, Eng- 
 land, April 1 6th, 1786, dying in the Arctic regions, on 
 June 1 ith, 1847 (as per records discovered by McClin- 
 tock, in his expedition to the Arctic, in 1859). Frank- 
 lin served in the English navy, as a midshipman, in 
 1801, and in 1802 accompanied Captain Flinders in a 
 voyage to the South Sea, to survey the coasts of Aus- 
 tralia, occupying two years for its accomplishment. 
 On the return, they were wrecked off" the coast of Aus- 
 tralia, barely escaping with their lives, fifty days being 
 spent on a barren, sandy islet, before relief arrived. 
 On his return to Encjland, served with Nelson at 
 Trafalgar, as signal midshipman to the fleet, in 1805. 
 and afterwards on the American coast in 1812-15. 
 His first Arctic expedition was in 1818, in command 
 of the Ti'-eiit with Captain Buchan, of the DorotJica.
 
 312 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 They reached as high as 80 deg. north latitude, but, 
 on account of an accident to Buchan's ship, were forced 
 to return. In 18 19, was in command of an Arctic 
 expedition overland from Hudson Bay, and in 1825 
 was in command of a similar expedition, which was 
 carried through with marked ability. Was knighted 
 in 1829, receiving honors from many parts of the 
 world. Served in command on the Mediterranean, 
 and in 1836-43, was made Governor of Tasmania, or 
 Van Diemen's Land. In 1845, ^^^ placed in com- 
 mand of an Arctic expedition, to discover the north- 
 west passage, being his fourth visit to that region. He 
 was last seen by an American ship captain on July 
 26th, 1845, ^^^ ^"^is ^^^^ remained unknown up to 
 McClintock's discovery, as above (1859). 
 
 Humboldt, Frederick H. Alexander, Baron von. 
 — Born in Berlin September 14th, 1769 ; died May 6th, 
 1859. One of the most celebrated men of his day. 
 In the arts and sciences he was far advanced ; a great 
 leader in astronom3^ finance, chemistry, natural philos- 
 ophy, mineralogy, natural history and geography. He 
 was in addition, one of the world's greatest travelers, 
 making many journeys, overland and by sea. In Eu- 
 rope, including many thousands of miles of overland 
 journeyings in Russia, in North and and South Amer- 
 ica, on both coasts ; now in Brazil, again in Chili and 
 Peru, surveying and marking out the sources of the 
 Orinoco and Amazon rivers, or climbing the great peaks 
 of Chimborazo and Pichincha. Always energetic, in- 
 domitable and untiring, his many intellectual attain- 
 ments opened nature's secrets to him, which he read, 
 as from a great book. Again In Mexico, and then in 
 the United States, establishing the accepted theory of
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN jjj 
 
 the great volcanic fire-belt, marking- out the earth's 
 surface in isothermal lines, so as to compare the 
 world's varying climatic conditions, nothing escaped 
 his wonderful observing powers, or was misapplied or 
 mislaid in the vast storehouse of his wonderful mem- 
 ory. Crowning his life with that great work " Kos- 
 mos," he died full of days, honored and regretted all 
 over the world. 
 
 Magellan, Fernando. — Born at Oporto, Portu- 
 gal in 1470, and killed at Mactan, a small island in the 
 Phillippine group, April 27th, 1521. He made sev- 
 eral voyages from Portugal to India, and the islands 
 of the Eastern Archipelago. On August loth, 15 19, 
 an expedition from Spain sailed under command of 
 Magellan, to reach the Spice Islands by a western 
 route. It is supposed by many authorities that Ma- 
 gellan, in the course of his maritime career, had nu.-t 
 with an old map of South America, delineating a 
 route across its southern portion, of. which he availed 
 himself in his voyage. His first attempt was by way 
 of the Rio Plata. Failing in this, he skirted the shore 
 until the ocean cut-off was reached and passed, in the 
 latter part of 1520, naming Tierra del Fuego, and 
 from the smooth waters first met with on the great 
 ocean — the Pacific. Sailing north, he crossed the line 
 on February 13th, 1521, reaching the Ladrones and 
 Phillippines in March of that year. His great desire 
 for the religious advancement of the natives at Mac- 
 tan, where he insisted on baptising one of the chiefs 
 and his followers, terminaUng in a quarrel, resulted 
 in the death of Macjellan. The remainder of the ex- 
 pedition, under Caraballo, sailed for the Spice Islands, 
 touching at Borneo and other islands of the Archi-
 
 3H 
 
 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 pelago; finally, making a station at one of the Mol- 
 luccas. Here, one of the vessels, Victoria, was put 
 in repair, provisioned and placed under command of 
 Sebastian del Cano (Magellan's pilot), who continued 
 the voyage, reaching Spain in 1522, after an absence 
 of nearly three years. This is the first circumnaviga- 
 tion of the oflobe of which there is authentic record. 
 
 KoTZEBUE, Otto von. — Born in 1787, and died 
 in 1846. First sailed with the Russian Admiral Kru- 
 senstern around the world. He made his second voy- 
 age in command in 181 5, for explorations in the 
 Arctic and Pacific Oceans. Many islands were vis- 
 ited, and some discoveries made, returning in 181 8. 
 In 1823 he again sailed in command, visiting many 
 of the more important island groups in the Pacific 
 and i"he Russian settlements in Kamptchatka, and 
 returning to Cronstadt in 1826. This latter voyage 
 was one of vast importance, many corrections being 
 made in the latitudes and longitudes of places, as 
 well as additions to the botanical knowledge of the 
 world, with much that threw light on the history of 
 people of the countries visited. 
 
 Krusenstern, Adam J. — Russian navigator and 
 admiral. Born in Esthonia, November, 1770, and 
 died at Revel, August 24th, 1846. Served as mid- 
 shipman in the war with Sweden, and afterwards with 
 the Enorlish fleet, visitinQ- America, China and India ; 
 sailed in command for Russia in 1803, with a view to 
 extend and create commerce with the Asiatic coun- 
 tries, particularly China and Japan, returning in 1806; 
 he voyaged by way of Cape Horn, and returned by 
 the Cape of Good Hope, this being the first Russian 
 expedition to sail around the world.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN j/,- 
 
 Perry, Matthew Calbraith. — Born in Kini^^ston. 
 R. I., in 1795, and died in New York in 1S58. Served 
 in U. S. Navy as midshipman as early as 1809; was 
 under Commodores Rodgers and Decatur; was made 
 captain in 1837, and in command of the squadron on 
 the coast of Africa, and of the fleet in the Gulf of 
 Mexico, during- the Mexican war. In 1852 he sailed 
 in command of the expedition to Japan, where he 
 distinguished himself in accomplishing an important 
 treaty with that country in 1854. 
 
 PiZARRo, Francisco. — Born in Spain in 1471, and 
 was killed in a quarrel at Lima, Peru, June 26th. 
 1 541. Was conqueror of Peru and the founder of 
 Lima; served with Ojeda, Balboa, and afterwards 
 under Pedrarias, governor of Darien ; he made sev- 
 eral expeditions along the coast of South America, 
 but with no important results, except the knowledgt- 
 he gained of the wealth and fertility of Peru. It was 
 not until 1531. under commission from Charles V. of 
 Spain, when he sailed for Peru, that he finally succeeded 
 in the conquest of that country. He had considerable 
 ability as a soldier, and was skillful as a navigator, 
 although his voyages and discoveries were few and 
 unimportant. His first knowledge of Peru, with the 
 conquest of the land of the Incas, are elaborately de- 
 tailed, in history and biography. 
 
 La Perouse, Jean F. de Galaup. — A French na\ - 
 gator; born August 22d, 1741, in France; died (sup- 
 posed) at the island of Vanikoro, one of the Santa 
 Cruz group, South Pacific, in 1 788 or 1 789. Entered 
 the French navy at an early age, serving with var)ing 
 fortunes against the English, and subseciuciuly in the
 
 3i6 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 American War of Independence. Under Louis VI., 
 he fitted out the two frigates, Astrolabe and Boussole, 
 and sailed for the Pacific August ist, 1785, by way of 
 Cape Horn. He explored the North American coast, 
 from Mount St. Elias, Alaska, as far south as Mon- 
 terey, sailing thence for Asia. In 1787 he partially 
 surveyed the channels among the Phillippines, the 
 China Sea, Japan, to the Russian possessions in the 
 north, sending his charts, journals and observations 
 to France. In the latter part of the same year, he 
 sailed for the South Sea, touching at Maouna, one 
 of the Samoa Islands, losing the commander of the 
 Astrolabe and many men in a conflict with the na- 
 tives. From here he sailed for Botany Bay, Aus- 
 tralia, where he forwarded an account of his voyages 
 and discoveries to the French minister, also explain- 
 ing and mapping out his intentions for the future — 
 dated at Botany Bay, February 7th, 1788. This 
 was the last communication ever received from the 
 French admiral, his fate remaining a mystery to-day. 
 In 1 791 a French squadron, under Admiral D'Entre- 
 casteaux, sailed in search of the missing navigator, 
 but failed in making any discoveries. D'Urville, who 
 was at Hobart Town in 1828, learned through informa- 
 tion brought by an American ship captain, of the re- 
 mains of wrecks existincr at Vanikoro Island. His 
 researches brought to light the fact that Perouse's 
 vessels had been wrecked on the reefs, and those of 
 his crew who had not been drowned or murdered by 
 the inhabitants, succeeded in building a small vessel 
 from the wreck, and sailed for parts unknown. The 
 anchors and cannons found at Vanikoro, afterwards 
 taken to France, fully attest the unfortunate ending of 
 the noble admiral's voyage.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCFAN ?/7 
 
 Polo, Marco. — A Venetian, sailor, author and 
 traveler; born about 1254, and died in 1324. in 1271 
 Polo started with his father (Nicolo Polo, and MalTco 
 his uncle) on an overland tour of China and other 
 countries of Asia, where many years of his life was 
 spent in mercantile and other pursuits, as well as 
 frequent journeyings throughout the Asiatic worKl 
 located south of Russia. Before terminating' his 
 travels, one of the great desires of a busy life, was 
 to continue his explorations by sea, which was gratified 
 by his voyage to Japan, called in his day Zipangii, 
 His return to his native land was by way of the Phil- 
 lippine, Spice and the islands of Java, Sumatra. Bor- 
 neo, Ceylon, Madagascar, etc., and some points on 
 the east coast of Africa, thence back by way of the 
 Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, and landing in Persia. 
 The journey was continued overland to the Black Sea. 
 where a vessel was obtained to convey them to 
 Venice, arriving there in 1295. Polo's account of 
 his voyages and experiences were received with gen- 
 eral derision and doubt, although the full particulars 
 of his adventures were not finished and published 
 till 1298. His work was dictated to a fellow prisoner 
 in Genoa, where Marco was held in durance for sev- 
 eral years by the Genoese, as a prisoner of war, ha\- 
 ing served with the Venetians in an expedition against 
 that country. Polo's work was regarded as a well 
 concocted fable, and the slow processes of time, with 
 gradual discoveries being made by sea and land, were 
 necessary to prove the truth of his statements. His 
 accounts of Cathay, Zipangu, the islands, the spices, 
 silks and precious stones, met with in his wanderings, 
 were received with grave deprecation and doubt, 
 which the practical evidences of wealth brought back
 
 ji8 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 with him could not shake. True, many of the things 
 related by him were painted with collateral writing 
 that came from tradition, much as we see in many 
 publications of the present time. Probably a better 
 idea of the meaning I wish to convey would be had 
 by an example of his writings (one evidently colored, 
 the other as near the truth as limited knowlege would 
 permit), taken from Murray's edition of "The travels 
 of Marco Polo," published in 1858. He (Polo) says: 
 Having described so many inland provinces, I will 
 now enter upon India, with the wonderful objects in 
 that region. The ships in which the merchants navi- 
 gate thither are made of fir, with only one deck, but 
 many of them are divided beneath into sixty compart- 
 ments, in each of which a person can be conveniently 
 accommodated. They have one rudder and four masts, 
 while some have two additional, which can be put up 
 and taken down at pleasure. Many of the largest 
 have besides as many as thirteen divisions in the hold, 
 formed of thick planks mortised into each other. 
 The object is to guard against accidents, which may 
 cause the vessel to spring a leak, such as striking on 
 a rock or being attacked by a whale. This last cir- 
 cumstance is not unusual, for during the night the 
 motion of the ship through the waves raises a foam 
 that invites the hungry animal, which, hoping to find 
 food, rushes violently against the hull, and often forces 
 in part of the bottom. The water entering by the leak 
 runs on to the well, which is always kept clear, and 
 the crew, on perceiving the occurrence, remove the 
 goods from the inundated division, and the boards are 
 so tight that it cannot pass to any other. They then 
 repair the injury and replace the articles. Again 
 in describing Japan and the myriads of islands of that
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN j/q 
 
 country, together with the PhilHppine group and tlic 
 Archipelago of Chusan, he says: You must know- 
 that the gulf containing this island (one of the large 
 islands of Japan) is called that of Zin, meaning, in 
 their language, the sea opposite to Manji. Accord- 
 inof to skillful and intellio^ent mariners who have made 
 the voyage, it contains 7,448 isles, mostly inhabited. 
 In all these there Cfrows no tree which is not aj^reea- 
 bly fragrant and also useful, being equal or sujDcrior in 
 size to the lignum aloes. They produce also many and 
 various spices, including pepper, white like snow, as 
 well as the black. They yield also much gold, and 
 various other wonderful and costly productions, but 
 they are very distant and difficult to reach. '^- The 
 mariners of Zai-tun and Kin-sai, who visit them, gain 
 indeed great profits ; but they spend a year on the 
 voyage, going in winter and returning in summer, 
 for the wind in these seasons blows from onl)- two 
 different quarters, one of which carries them thither 
 and the other brings them back.f But diis country 
 is immensely distant from India. You may obstTve. 
 too that though they be called Zin. it is reall)- the 
 ocean, just as we say the sea of England, the sea 
 of Rochelle. The Great Khan has no power over 
 
 (*The number of islands stated is doubtless fanciful and t-.Kag- 
 gerated ; yet when we consider the various groups composing the Ori- 
 ental Archipelago, many consisting of numerous islets, the whole 
 amount must be very great. They are, as we have justly noticed, pro- 
 ductive be3(;ond any other part of the world in aromatic and odoriferous 
 plants, also very rich in \^o\d.— Murray, p. 243.) 
 
 (fThe distance would not be very formidable to a British mariner, 
 but is otherwise to the ruder Chinese navigator ; wiiile tiiis sea, too, is 
 tempestuous and dangerous. The junks still perform only one voyage 
 in the year, and as here correctly stated, sail in the winter, with the 
 northeast monsoon, and return in summer uilli the- soutlnvi.-st one.— 
 Marsdcn, p. 5S2.)
 
 S20 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 these islands. Now let us return to Zai-tun, and re- 
 sume our narrative. In truth, Polo so rounded up 
 his narrative of travels and voyages, with the varied 
 traditions and fireside tales of the countries he vis- 
 ited (as his story of the "Griffin," the "Old Man of 
 the Mountain," and "the birds carrying out the dia- 
 monds, adhering to pieces of flesh thrown in the 
 valley of Golconda"), that the many truths he re- 
 lated seemed but a part of the fiction. Yet in 
 geography, history, chronology, the manners and cus- 
 toms of the people met with, he is in the main, 
 correct. The grand results that may be said to have 
 sprung from the travels and voyages of the wander- 
 ing Venetian — the voyages of Columbus, Cabot, Ves- 
 pucci, da Gama, and many other noted navigators — ■- 
 grew out of the writings of Polo. Of Columbus it 
 is truly said, his aims were nothing less than the dis- 
 covery of the marvelous province of Cipango, and 
 the conversion to Christianity of the Grand Khan, to 
 whom he received a royal letter of introduction. 
 The main object of Columbus, his dreams and the- 
 ories alike urofine him on, was to reach the land of 
 gold, spices, silks and precious stones, by a west- 
 ern route, to find the land of Marco Polo — Cipangn. 
 If we glance back fully six hiLudred years, and mark 
 the course of the daring Venetian, or if we look 
 around at the majestic grandeur of the New World, 
 and credit him with but a portion of the results, the 
 voyages of later discoverers, we should accord him 
 the first page in the history of modern times. 
 
 OuiRos, Pedro Fernando de. — A celebrated Por- 
 tuguese navigator, born in Elvere, Atlentejo, in 1560. 
 and died in Panama, in 1 614. In 1595, joined the expe-
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN jf^r 
 
 dition of Alvaro Mendana, sailing from the New World. 
 as navigator. Mendana had under him four vessels 
 and four hundred men, it being his design to visit antl 
 colonize the Solomon Islands, discovered by him in a 
 previous voyage, in 1567. In their voyage across the 
 Pacific, he found, in addition to the discovery of some 
 smaller islands, the group named by him Marquesas, 
 in honor of the wife of Mendoza. Sailing from this 
 cluster, they were caught in a tempest," damaging the 
 fleet, and resulting in the loss of the admiral's vessel. 
 Discouraged and disheartened at this misfortune, the 
 crews mutinied, forcing Mendana 'to sacrifice many ot 
 the lives of his men and officers, and through remorse 
 and regret, dying himself. September 17th, 1595. 
 Quiros' now took command of the expedition, and. 
 after discovering many populous and fertile islands, 
 proceeded to Manila, reaching that port. February 
 iith, 1596, with the squadron in a dilapidated and 
 sinking condition. From Manila, Quiros returned to 
 Mexico, and then to Peru, with a view to raising an- 
 other expedition, to follow up the discoveries of Men- 
 dana and himself. Failing in this, he sailed for Spain, 
 where his representations to Philip III, with the desire 
 to discover the great Austral continent (Quiros prob- 
 ably being the first to represent its existence), resulted 
 in his return to Peru, authorized to equip two vessels 
 and a corvette. This being accomplished, he sailed 
 from Callao, in command, with Louis de Vaes de Torres 
 as second, December 21st, 1605. During the voyage, 
 many islands were discovered, the Society group being 
 among them, and getting a glimpse of what he sup 
 posed to be Australia, but afterwards proved to be tin- 
 New Hebrides Islands. Durino; a violent storm. ( )uir()s 
 and Torres became separated; the former returning to
 
 322 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Mexico In 1606, while the latter continued his voyage 
 of discovery, to the north and west. In his voyage 
 north, Torres discovered the straits that bear his name, 
 and skirted the coast of New Guinea for eight hundred 
 leagues. 
 
 Quiros still had a desire to discover and see the 
 unknown land (Australia), and made another trip to 
 Spain, to enlist royal favor in a new expedition. Fail- 
 ing in this, he returned to Panama, where his life passed 
 away in futile efforts to accomplish dreams of new dis- 
 coveries and conquests in the South Sea. The last of 
 that coterie of daring soldiers and navigators of the 
 sixteenth century, his life ebbed away within sight and 
 sound of the surf waves of the Pacific. The memoirs 
 of Quiros, addressed to Philip III, published in 
 Seville in 16 10, clearly depict the type of men, who 
 gave Spain her former wealth and glory in the New 
 World. 
 
 Rogers, Woods. — English navigator ; In the Royal 
 Navy in 1708, and sailed in command on a voyage 
 around the world, from Cork Harbor, September ist, 
 1708. After rounding Cape Horn, Rogers sighted, 
 and made a landing at, the island of Juan Fernandez, 
 January 31st 1709. Captain Rogers relates: Our 
 yawl, which we had sent ashore, did not return as soon 
 as we expected ; so we sent our pinnace (armed) to 
 see the occasion of her stay. The pinnace returned 
 immediately from the shore, and brought abundance 
 of craw-fish, with a man clothed in goat-skins, who 
 looked more wild than the first owners of them. He 
 had been on the island four years and four months ; 
 Ills name was Alexander Selkirk, a Scotchman, who 
 had been master of the Cijique Paris Galley, a ship
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN j2j 
 
 which came here with Captain Dampicr, who told me 
 that this was the best man in her ; so I immediately 
 agreed with him to be mate on board our ship. It was 
 he that made the fire last night, judging our ships to 
 be English. 
 
 Rogers continued his voyage from Juan hV*rnan- 
 dez, by way of Guayaquil, the Galapagos, and the 
 North American coast, making several valuable cap- 
 tures of Spanish galleons. From California, the expe- 
 dition sailed across the Pacific to the Phillippines, and 
 through the Molluccas, anchoring at Batavia. From 
 thence, across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of 
 Good Hope, reaching the Thames, October 14th, 171 1. 
 Captain Rogers wrote an account of his voyage around 
 the world, of which he says: This voyage being only 
 designed for cruising on the enemy, it is not reason- 
 able to expect such accounts in it, as are to be met 
 with In books of travels relating to history, geography, 
 and the like. Something of that, however, I have in- 
 serted, to oblige the booksellers, who persuaded me 
 that this would make it more grateful to some sort of 
 readers. He died in 1732. 
 
 Saavedra, Alvaro or Alonzo de. — Was born 
 about the beginning of the sixteenth century. A rela- 
 tive of Hernando Cortez, whom he accompanied to 
 Mexico, he was alike a daring soldier and experienced 
 naviorator. Was sent in command of a small squad- 
 ron, by Cortez, in 1526, for minor explorations in the 
 South Sea, and afterwards ordered by Spain lo cross 
 the Pacific to the Spice Islands, on a voyage of discov- 
 ery. Although the main object assigned, was the relief 
 of Garcia de Loaisa, who had sailed from Corunna. in 
 the track of Magellan, in 1525. He made some im[)or- 
 
 I
 
 324 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 tant discoveries and observations during die voyage, 
 adding much to the knowledge, slowly accumulating, 
 in reofard to the Pacific. Saavedra went down, with 
 his vessel, in a hurricane, on the equator. 
 
 As something has already been said of Saavedra, 
 in different parts of this work, briefly giving, an insight 
 into his daring character, it would be but a repetition 
 to recall it here. 
 
 In 1529, Saavedra, returning towards New Spam, 
 had sioht of land in two degfrees south, and ran alono- 
 it above five hundred leagues, when he saw people of 
 black, curled hair, called Papua; but, having .sailed 
 four or five degrees to the south, he returned toward 
 the north, and discovered an isle, which he called the 
 Isle of Painted People. And a little beyond it, in ten 
 or twelve degrees, he found many low, small isles, full 
 of palm trees and grass, which he called los jardi7ics. 
 The natives wear white cloth, made of grass ; never 
 saw fire ; eat cocoas and fish, and dig boats with shells. 
 Saavedra, perceiving the weather to be good, sailed 
 towards the firm land and city of Panama, there to 
 unload the cloves and merchandise he had, which might 
 be carried in carts four leagues, to the River Chagres, 
 which is said to be navigable into the North Sea, not 
 far from Nombre de Dios; by which all goods might be 
 brought a shorter way than round about the Cape of 
 Good Hope. 
 
 (John Harris: Collection of Voyages and Travels. London, 1705. 
 Page 272.) 
 
 ScHOUTEN, William Cornelius. — A celebrated 
 Dutch navigator, who died in 1625. He was the dis- 
 coverer of the Schouten Islands, rediscovered by Car- 
 teret, who named them Admiralty. His principal
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 325 
 
 voyage was in 161 5, in command of the Concordia. An 
 account of his expedition and adventures, in company 
 with the intrepid Lemaire.was pubUshed in Amster- 
 dam, in 1 61 7. 
 
 ScHOUTEN, Gautier. — A Dutch navigator, who 
 died in 1680, He was in the service of the Dutch 
 East India Company, cruising principally among thc^ 
 islands of the East Indian Archipelago. A rrian of rare 
 ability in his day. with a practical knowledge of tht- 
 waters and islands of Western Oceanica, that served 
 materially in establishing the foothold obtained by the 
 Dutch in the Pacific. He published an account of his 
 voyages, at Amsterdam, in 1676. 
 
 Tasman, Abel Jansen. — Was born about 1600; 
 time and manner of his death unknown. In the early 
 part of his career, he served with the Dutch East India 
 Company, in Japanese and Chinese waters, and later 
 on, as a cruiser among the islands. In 1642, he was 
 employed by the governor of the above company, to 
 command in a voyage of discovery to the south of the 
 line, and to ascertain the extent, if possible, of Aus- 
 tralia, then known as New Holland. On the 24th of 
 November, in the above year, he discovered the island 
 of Tasmania, naminof it Van Diemen's Land. The 
 voyage, which occupied ten months, was one of some 
 importance, as Tasman discovered New Zealand, the 
 Fiji and Friendly groups, besides obtaining much val- 
 uable data in regard to Australia and New Guinea. 
 He made a second voyage in 1644, with the intention 
 of circumnavigating New Guinea and New Holland, 
 of which there is no authentic data.
 
 326 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 Vancouver, George. — Born in England in 1758 ; 
 died there, May loth, 1798. First sailed with Captain 
 James Cook, in his second and third voyages ; was made 
 lieutenant, and served for some years in the West Indies. 
 His fourth voyage was made in command in 1 791, to the 
 British possessions in Western North America, which 
 he reached, after touching at the Sandwich Islands, in 
 1792, when he took possession of Vancouver Island, 
 and made many valuable charts from his surveys of 
 the northern coasts, as well as the settlement of some 
 complications that had sprung up, in regard to Van- 
 couver Island. During his surveys of the northern 
 coast, his winters were spent in the Sandwich Islands. 
 Returned to England in 1795, surveyed and made 
 many valuable notes of the west coast of South Ame- 
 rica, on his way back. 
 
 Wilkes, Charles. — Born in New York in 1801 ; 
 served as midshipman in the U. S. Navy, in the Medit- 
 erranean, in 1 81 6, and on the Pacific in 182 1-3. On 
 August 1 8th, 1838, sailed in command of a United ■ 
 States exploring expedition, to the South Atlantic and 
 Pacific Oceans, with five vessels and one store ship, 
 visiting, surveying and exploring many islands of the 
 Pacific, and with the many scientific men under him, 
 making a valuable record, and important discov- 
 eries in both oceans. In 1840, the squadron arrived 
 at the Fiji Islands and the Hawaiian group, where the 
 scientific observations, maps and charts made, have 
 contributed a o^reat deal to a correct knowledofe of the 
 Pacific. In 1841, sailed to the northwest coast of 
 America, partially exploring the Columbia and Sacra- 
 mento Rivers, and the Bay of San Francisco. In the 
 same year, sailed from the latter harbor, visiting the
 
 OF THE rALTFIC OCFAN ^27 
 
 Phillippincs, Borneo, the Molluccas, Sin^-apore. etc.. 
 crossing the Indian Ocean, rounding the Cape of Good 
 Hope, calling at the island of St. Helena, and other 
 points of interest in the Atlantic ; reaching New York. 
 January loth, 1842. Wilkes was the author of man)- 
 important works, while the voluminous records ke[)t 
 of the expedition, and published by our Government, 
 contain an immense amount of valuable information. 
 Wilkes took part in the United States Civil War, serv- 
 ing with marked ability, and was created rear-admiral 
 on the retired list, July 25th, 1866.
 
 ^28 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 }rsi,Ai«i> MiscEi-i^AKYs Ajan uepths ok the sea. 
 
 Skill'd in the globe and sphere, he gravely stands, 
 And, with his compass, measures seas and lands. 
 
 Drvden {Sixth Satire of Juvenal). 
 
 THERE are many points of interest to be glanced 
 at, still, on the Pacific Ocean, a few of which I 
 note below, before concluding with the depths 
 of the sea. 
 
 NORFOLK ISLAND. 
 
 This island, located in latitude 28 deg. 58 min. 
 south, and longitude 167 deg. 46 min. east, something 
 over one thousand miles northeast from Sydney, has a 
 population, at present, of not over five hundred peo- 
 ple, and an area of about fifteen square miles. It is 
 the principal of a group of small islets, known as the 
 Bird Islands. It is put down as one of Cook's discov- 
 eries, in 1774. The surface is extremely rugged, 
 standing high above the ocean level. In fact, so pre- 
 cipitous are its sides, that but two landing places are 
 to be found, indentinsf the shores, and these danofer- 
 ous, from the baffling currents and heavy surf A 
 portion of the lands, back from the coast, is ver^^ fer- 
 tile, nearly all the products of tropical and temperate
 
 1
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 329 
 
 regions growing luxuriantly. The island was not 
 made a point of interest till 1787, when it was settled 
 by convicts and ticket-of-leave men from Australia. 
 In 1825. it was made a penal colony by thai rouiurs. 
 but finally abandoned in 1855. It was granted to the 
 descendants of the Bounty mutineers, in 1857. A part 
 of their number (about one hundred) became tlissatis- 
 fied. and returned to Pitcairn. I am told that, on some 
 parts of the island, there is a perfect network of under- 
 ground workings, such as tunnels, shafts, etc., made 
 by the prisoners, more to occupy the time of a horrible 
 existence, than for any other purpose. 
 
 THE CHATAM GROUP. 
 
 Between latitudes 43 deg. 30 min., and 45 deg. 20 
 min. south, and longitudes 176 deg. 10 min., and 177 
 deo-. 20 min. west — about six hundred miles to the 
 east of New Zealand, and under the same rule, are the 
 Chatam Islands. There are fifteen in the group, if we 
 count the islets, with an area of about eight hundred 
 square miles, and a population not exceeding five hun 
 dred. Chatam, Southeast and Pitt, are of some impor- 
 tance, growing all the products of temperate climes, 
 when properly cultivated. 
 
 Through wars with the Maoris of New Zealand, 
 the inhabitants have almost disappeared, and agriculture 
 neglected, leaving litde to be found of interest, outside 
 of the bleak comforts of a South Sea whaling station. 
 
 The geological formation Is that of New Zealand ; 
 the soil very fertile, but without the extensive (loral 
 growth of the former. Some curious lakes and lagoons, 
 of brackish water, are found here — often man)- miles 
 in extent, and separated from the sea, at some points,
 
 330 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 by barriers of sand, but a few hundred yards in width. 
 Innumerable aquatic birds make of these a favorite 
 resort. Whaling, and other fisheries, form the princi- 
 pal interest of the group at present. The islands were 
 discovered in 1791, by Lieutenant Broughton, who 
 named them after the vessel he commanded. 
 
 PONAPE OR ASCENSION ISLAND. 
 
 This, the principal of a group of the eastern Car- 
 olines (already briefly alluded to), lies within latitude 
 6 deg. 43 min. north, and longitude 158, and 158 deg. 
 30 min. east. In addition to its being one of the prin- 
 cipal stations of the Congregational Missions in the 
 South Sea, considerable interest has been attached to 
 the island, from the remains of ancient ruins, and other 
 evidences of a former civilization, being found there. 
 Of these. Captain Cheyne says: 
 
 Near Metalanien Harbor are some interesting 
 ruins, which are, however, involved in obscurity ; the 
 oldest inhabitants being ignorant of their origin, and 
 having no tradition bearing any reference to their his- 
 tory. That a fortified town once stood upon this spot, 
 and not built by savages, cannot be doubted ; the style 
 of the ruins giving strong proofs of civilization. Some 
 of the stones measure eight to ten feet in length, are 
 squared on six sides, and have evidently been brought 
 thither from some civilized country, there being no 
 stones on the island, similar to them.* Streets are 
 formed in several places, and the whole town appears 
 
 * It has already been stated, in this work, that the material from 
 which former buildings, fortifications, monuments, statuary, etc., had 
 been constructed here, anU at Strong and Easter Islands, was found in 
 quarries in the interior.
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 331 
 
 to have been a succession of fortified houses. Several 
 artificial caves were also discovered within the fortifi- 
 cations. 
 
 This town was, doubtless, at one time, diestroni;- 
 hold of pirates ; and, as the natives can give no account 
 of it, it seems possible that it was built by Spanish 
 buccaneers, some two or three centuries ago. The 
 supposition Is confirmed by the fact, that, al)Out three 
 or four years ago, a small brass cannon was found on 
 one of the mountains, and taken away by H. M. S. 
 Lame. Several clear places are also to be seen, a little 
 Inland, at different parts of the Island, some of which 
 are many acres In extent, clear of timber, and perfectly 
 level. Upon one of these plains, called K-pau, near 
 Kit! (Roan Kiddi) Harbor — and which I have fre- 
 quently visited — Is a large mound, about twenty feet 
 wide, eight feet high, and a quarter of a mile in length. 
 This must evidently have been thrown up for defense, 
 or as a burial place for the dead, after some great 
 battle. Similar ruins are to be found at Strong Island, 
 of which the natives can give no account. 
 
 STRONG ISLAND. 
 
 Kusale (Ualan) or Strong Island, at the eastern 
 extremity of the Carolines, was discovered and named 
 by Captain Crozer, an American, in 1804. ^^ ^"^^^ '^^cn 
 regarded with some Interest, of late da)'s, in the hope, 
 that the ruins and monuments found there, might atfonl 
 an explanation or clue to the origin of the ancient 
 island races. In, speaking of Pane Bay, the principal 
 harbor, Captain Hammet describes some remains of 
 stone architecture (also alluded to by D'UrvIlle), which 
 was the subject of much specuhition ; but Dr. Gullick
 
 332 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 ascertained, that they were not ancient, but were built 
 for protection, and in some cases as monuments/ 
 
 OCEAN ISLAND. 
 
 Located in 28 deg. 22 min. north latitude, and 178 
 deg. 27 min. west longitude — with its surroundings of 
 dangerous barrier reefs, and comprised of barren sand 
 dunes, is unimportant, except for the dangers offered 
 to the naviorator. It is made historical, as the scene 
 of the wrecks of th'^ Gladstone, the American whale 
 ship Pa7'ke7% and the Saginaw, of the United States 
 Navy. Another island, about one degree below the 
 line, and south from the Marshall group, known as 
 Ocean Island, with stillanother of the same name (the 
 northernmost of the Enderby group), should suggest 
 a change of the name of two of the islands, with a like 
 change on maps and charts of the Pacific, to prevent 
 confusion. 
 
 THE DEPTHS OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 We dive, says Schleiden, into the liquid crystal of 
 the Indian Ocean (a description serving alike for the 
 tropical Atlantic and Pacific), and it opens to us the 
 most wondrous enchantments, reminding us of falr)^ 
 tales in childhood's dreams. The strangely branch- 
 ing living thickets bear living flowers. Dense masses 
 of Meandrinas and Astraeas, with the leafy, cup-shaped 
 expansions of the Explanarias, the variously ramified 
 Madrepores, .which are now spread out like fingers, 
 now rise in trunk-like branches, and now display the 
 most elegant array of interlacing branches. The col- 
 oring surpasses everything — vivid green alternates 
 with brown or yellow ; rich tints of purple, from pale 
 red-brown to the deepest blue ; brilliant rosy, yellow
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCF.IX jjj 
 
 or peach-colored Nulliporcs overcrow the elrcayin'^ 
 masses, and are themselves interwoven with the 
 pearl-colored plates of the Reptipores, rcsemblinjr 
 the most deUcate ivory carvings. Close h)-, wave the 
 yellow and lilac fans, perforated like irdlis-work of 
 the Gorgonias. The clear sand of the iiottoni is 
 covered with the thousand strange forms and tints 
 of the sea-urchins and star-fishes. The leaf-like llus- 
 tras and escharas adhere like mosses and lichens to 
 the branches of the corals ; the yellow, green and 
 purple striped limpets cling like monstrous cochineal 
 insects upon their trunks. Like gigantic cactus-blos- 
 soms, sparkling in the most ardent colors, the sea- 
 anemones, expand their crowns of tentacles upon the 
 broken rocks, or more modestly embellish the flat 
 bottom, lookinir like beds of variec^ated ranunculuses. 
 Around the blossoms of the coral shrubs j^lay the 
 humrning-birds of the ocean, little fishes sparkling 
 with red or blue metallic glitter, or gleaming in golden 
 green, or in the brightest silvery luster. Softly, like 
 spirits of the deep, the delicate milk-white or bluish 
 bells of the jelly-fishes float through this charmed 
 world. Here, the gleaming violet and gold-green 
 Isabelle, and the flaming yellow, black and vermillion 
 striped coquette chase their prey; there, the band- 
 fish shoots snake-like through the thicket, like a long 
 silk ribbon, glittering with rosy and azure hues. 
 Then comes the fabulous cuttle-fish, decked in all 
 colors of the rainbow, but marked by no definite out- 
 Hne, appearing and disappearing, intercrossing, join- 
 ing company and parting again, in most fantastic 
 ways; and all this in the most rapid change, and amid 
 the most wonderful play of light and shade, altered 
 by every breath of wind and every slight curling of
 
 334 THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 the surface of the ocean. When clay declines, and 
 the shades of night lay hold upon the deep, this 
 fantastic garden is lighted up in new splendor. Mil- 
 lions of glowing sparks, little microscopic medusas 
 and crustaceons, dance like glow-worms through the 
 gloom. The sea-feather, which by daylight is vermil- 
 1 ion-colored, waves in a greenish, phosphorescent light. 
 Every corner of it is lustrous. Parts which by day 
 were dull and brown, and retreated from sight, amid 
 the universal brilliancy of color, are now radiant in 
 the most wonderful play of green, yellow and red 
 light ; and, to complete the wonders of the enchanted 
 night, the silver disc, six feet across, of the moon-fish, 
 moves, slightly luminous, among the cloud of little 
 sparkling stars. 
 
 The most luxuriant vegetation of a tropical land- 
 scape cannot unfold as great wealth of form, while in 
 the variety and splendor of color it would stand far 
 behind this garden landscape, which is strangely com- 
 posed exclusively of animals, and not of plants ; for, 
 characteristic as the luxuriant development of vegeta- 
 tion of the temperate zones is of the sea-bottom, the 
 fullness and multiplicity of the marine Fauna is just 
 as prominent in the regions of the tropics. What- 
 ever is beautiful, wondrous or uncommon in the great 
 classes of fish and Echinoderms, Jelly-fishes and Po- 
 lypes, and the Mollusks of all kinds, is crowded into 
 the warm and crystal waters of the tropical ocean, 
 rests in the white sands, clothes the rough cliffs, clings 
 where the room is already occupied, like a parasite, 
 upon the first comers, or swims through the shallows 
 and depths of the elements — while the mass of the 
 vegetation is of a far inferior magnitude. It is pecu- 
 liar in relation to this that the law valid on land, ac-
 
 OF THE JWCIJ'JC OCr.AX jjj 
 
 cording to which the animal kingdom being betler 
 adapted to accommodate itself to outward circum- 
 stances, has a greater diffusion than the vegetable 
 kingdom — for the Polar Seas swarm widi whales, 
 seals, sea-birds, fishes and countless numbers of the 
 lower animals, even where every trace of vegetation 
 has long vanished in the eternally frozen ice, and 
 the cooled sea fosters no sea-weed — that this law, 1 
 say, holds good also for the sea, in die direction of 
 its depth ; for when we descend, vegetable life van- 
 ishes much sooner than the animal, and even from the 
 depths to which no ray of light is capable of pene- 
 trating, the sounding-lead brings up news at least of 
 living infusoria. 
 
 In concluding with Schleiden's description of the 
 shallower depths, it might be well to add something 
 on the characteristics of deeper soundings. 
 
 According to the records published of the voyage 
 of the CJiallcnger, in 1872-3, after leaving the Admi- 
 ralty Islands, on the loth of March, a course was 
 shaped for Yokohama, with the intention of reaching 
 Guam, one of the Ladrone Islands. They lost the 
 trades in latitude 1 7 deg. north, and after that, had a 
 succession of easterly, northeasterly, and ballling 
 winds from every point of the compass, except where 
 it was wanted ; thus preventing their visiting either the 
 Carolines or Ladrones, which were passed some one 
 hundred miles to leeward. On the 23d of March, in 
 latitude 11 deg. 24 min. north, and longitude 143 deg. 
 16 min. east, bottom was touched at 4,475 fathoms — 
 the deepest successful soundings made during the 
 whole cruise. Specimens from that depth showed a 
 dark, volcanic sand, mixed with manganese. In con- 
 sequence of the enormous pressure at that depth
 
 3-j^ THE ISLAND WORLD 
 
 (some five tons on the square inch), most of the ther- 
 mometers were crushed. However, one stood the 
 test, and showed a temperature of 33.9 cleg., the sur- 
 face temperature being 80 deg. Three other attempts 
 were made to determine the temperature of water at 
 these great depths, but in every instance the instru- 
 ments came to the surface in a damaged condition. In 
 the case of the Challenger soundings, already noted 
 above, the pressure would be fully six tons per square 
 inch, at a depth of 4,475 fathoms, or nearly five and 
 one-fifth miles. At other points of the Pacific — one, 
 in particular, 350 miles east from Yeddo, Japan — a 
 depth was obtained of 3,950 fathoms — not quite four 
 and one-half miles. In the Torres Straits (separating 
 Australia from New Guinea), 2,650 fathoms was shown, 
 being 160 fathoms over three miles. Between New 
 Zealand, the Tongas and Fiji Islands, i.ioo to 2,900 
 fathoms was found, or from one and a quarter to over 
 three and a quarter miles. Still deeper soundings 
 have been taken, recently, in tlie different oceans, but 
 in exceptional cases only. In the Atlantic, 90 miles 
 north of the island of vSt. Thomas, 3,875 fathoms, and 
 another, near St. Helena, 4,500 fathoms of line was 
 paid out, before the bottom was reached. At St. 
 Thomas, the bulbs of the thermometers, constructed 
 to sus'tain a pressure of three tons to the square inch, 
 were crushed like egg-shells. The temperature of 
 the water, generally, in deep soundings, is below the 
 freezing-point, and life is found only in its primal 
 forms. 
 
 The immense depths reached (but a few of which 
 I have recorded), are the results of practical tests, and 
 are not theoretical. In all tests of this character, it is 
 absolutely necessary to bring up samples from the
 
 OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 337 
 
 floor of the sea; otherwise, stronor under-currents. and 
 the pressure of the water, may ^ive a deptli. not alto- 
 <rether reHable. Off the west coast of Soutli America. 
 
 o 
 
 a very deep sounding^ was obtained, that was more 
 amusing than rehable. Such a length of cable was paid 
 out (about ten miles), being carried by the under-cur- 
 rent in one direction, and by the surface llow in an- 
 other, that the'force exerted in hauling in. broke the 
 line. 
 
 BOn^OM OF THE SEA. 
 
 Of the great ocean's floor — a deep \ale. majestic 
 and imrriense in area, lying miles below the level of 
 our present shore lines — it might be said, that, if the 
 water could be taken away from the great basin of the 
 Pacific, not many centuries would elapse, before its 
 floor would resemble other portions of ihe land. 
 Then, if it were possible for the human vision to en- 
 compass the scene, the valleys, plains, deserts, the 
 mountain chains and ravines, the hills and glades, 
 the stately course of rivers, or the meandering of 
 brooks, would, like a vast panorama, enchant the 
 view. The plumed tufts of the cocoanut tree, or its 
 northern neighbor, the pine, would wave in the breeze, 
 or bend in the storm. The present home, of the 
 leviathan of the deep, and the busy litde coral insect, 
 would give place to other forms of life, and the island 
 world would fade from view, like the slow awakening 
 from a summer's dream.
 
 . «jr. 
 
 1
 
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