<•■ L. Southern Branch of the University of California Los Angeles Form L 1 \\\s This book is DUE on the last date stamped belo. ^'AV 16 1930 Form L-9-15;?i-8,'24 STUDIES IX DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING COXTKIBUTIOXS FK03I THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOL- OGY AND CHILD STUDY IN THE FITCHBUKG NORMAL SCHOOL, 3I\DE BY THE ADVANCED CLASS OF 1907, AND EDITED BY EDWIN A. KIRKPATRICK, Pn.M. HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT. ARCHIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY BDITBD BT B. S. WOODWORTH No. 12, MABcn, 1909 NEW YOKK THE SCIENCE PKESS 1909 Press of The New era printing CoMPANr Lancaster. Pa. CONTENTS Page THESIS I Physical Tests and Measueements. Lillian G. Myers 1 Comments 2 THESIS II Development of Auditoey and Visual IMemoby. Mary J. Conway 4 Comments 8 THESIS III Development of Childeen in Quickness of Peeception and Movements. Sadie E. Lamprey 9 Comments 14 THESIS IV Development of the Aetistic Sense. Grace L. Seaver 1& Comments 24 THESIS V Development of Penmanship. Grace E. Stockwell 25 Comments 31 THESIS VI The Development of Language. Elizabeth S. Smith 32 Title only. THESIS VII Chaeacteeistics of Childeen as Viewed by Teachees. Mabel Josephine Spalter 33 Comments 35 THESIS VIII The Cubve of Learning. Abbie F. Munn 36 Comments 52 THESIS IX Fatigue in Habit Foemation. Marian F. Lane 53 Title only. THESIS X Ways of Learning Visual Foems. May N. Hills 54 Comments 59 THESIS XI Methods of Leaening Visual Foems. Edna L. Battles 60 iii j^ C0NTENT8 Page THESIS XII IIow CniLDREN Study. Martha Josephine Baldwin 65 THESIS XIII An Expebimentai- Study of Musical Lkakning. Mary G. Gilles 71 THESIS XIV Incidental Memory. Isabel Wallace 79 THESIS XV Children's Ideas of Right and Wrong. Fannie G. Stearns 89 THESIS XVI An Individual Child. Frances D. Smitli 100 Title only. THESIS XVII Notes on a Child's Development. Grace I. Davis 100 PREFACE The students of the advanced or four years course in the Fitch- burg Normal School are required to write a thesis during the last year on some subject connected with psychology or child study. They usually collect data and treat them statistically. This year the data, consisting largely of a series of measurements and tests made upon the six hundred children in the training school during the last five years, were of more value than usual, and it was thought best to print parts of a number of the theses, with an introduction and supplementary comments by the head of the department. Only those parts of the theses that are of general psychological and peda- gogical interest are included. Complete theses would doubtless be of interest to some who are interested in knowing the value of thesis writing as a method of training elementary teachers, but to have published in full would have made the monograph too large and detracted from its interest to psychologists. All unnecessary details therefore, together with some suggestions of practical applications, are omitted. With very few minor exceptions the language of the students is unchanged. All the theses were accompanied by refer- ences, but as most of them were incomplete, including only material well known to psychologists, they are omitted. The editor when necessary has prefaced each thesis with an explanation of the tests on which it is based, and followed each with brief comments. It may be of interest to remark that the past year nearly all of the advanced class, instead of taking a general topic for study, took a concrete case of a child backward in one or many lines and tried to improve him, accompanying the teaching by reading and by carefully kept records of what was done and the results. This studying of individual children in order to teach them more effec- tively proved to be of much more value and interest than the mere studying of individuals without expecting to do anything for them. E. A. KiRKPATRICK. FiTCHBURG, Mass., November, 1908. STUDIES IN DEVELOr^MENT AND LEARNING THESIS I / 93-a S Physical Tests and - IVIeasurements By Lillian G. Myers Editor's Explanation.— The data regarding physical develop- ment summarized in the tables that follow were taken about the first of October of each year by the Normal students under the direc- tion of the head of the Department of Child Study. One or two students usually took charge of each instrument and made the tests and measurements of all the children as they passed along the line. The ordinary clothing at that season of the year was worn by the children except that the boys were asked to remove their coats while being weighed and measured. At first shoes were also removed, but later this was given up. The head of the department tried to secure accuracy in measurement but of course there were slight errors due to the personal equation of those taking the measurements at dif- ferent times. Larger errors, due to the mishandling of an instru- ment, sometimes occurred but were usually discovered and corrected before many measurements were made. Although not quite as ac- curate as measurements made by experts the sources of error are not large enough to vitiate the general results. In the grip test an adjustable dynamometer of the Smedley type was used, which gives a higher record especially for small children than the ordinary non-adjustable instrument. The tests of chest expansion and of lung capacity are not always correct indications of the strength of individual children, especially of the lower grades because they do not know how to empty and fill the lungs to the extent that they are capable of if they only knew just how to do it. Sometimes a de- termined effort to contract the chest results only in rigidity or actual expansion. Better results are usually obtained by letting the chil- dren imitate other children or the experimenter than by telling them what to do and urging them to do their best. Thesis.— (As the facts discussed in this thesis are of a familiar character only the table is here reproduced.) STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING TABLE I Physical Measubements and Tests Ages Girls Boys 1 1 1 1 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Number 40 40 40 40 40 40. 30 10 40 40 40 40 40 40 30 10 Weight 20- 99 25.1 125.9 26.8 9.Q 32.5 142 37.6 147.9 41.3 154 21.4 115.4 23.5 121.8 25.1 126.2 27.5 30.3 32.4 34.H 38,5 Height standing.. fl 3.5 120.8 130.3 136.3 130.4135.6 139.7144 148.4 Height sitting.... 61.4 165.3 67.5 69.2 72.4 73.4 75.5 80 62.7 65.2 67 68.7 ,70.7 72.4 73.5175.7 Breadth of head.. 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.7 14.2 14.3 14.5 14.6 14.5 14.6 14.8ll4.8 Breadth of chest.. 18.3 18.8 19.4 20.1 20.4 21.1 122 22.4 18.9 19.5 20 20.9 21.3 21.6 21.7|21.8 Breadth of waist.. 16.5 17.6 18.8 18.7 18.9 19.3 19.5 19.2 16.6 17.5 18.7 !19.7 20.2 20.3 20.2 19.3 Girth of head 50.6 51.7 52 52.4 52.7 52.7 53 52.6 51.3 51.7 52.6 53.2 53.3 53.4 53.4 53.9 Depth of chest.... 14.6 14.9 15 15.7 15.8 16.2 16.9 17.2i 15 15.4 15.5 16.2 !16.4 16.7 17.2 17.8 Chest expansion.. 5.0 5.6 7.2 6.4 7.4 7.9 8.4 8.3 5.2 6.0 7.2 7.4 j 7.6 8.6 i 8.1 8.5 Lung capacity.... .67 .92 .95 1.11 1.201.41 1.50 1.34 .80 1.07 1.18 1.43! 1.54 1.721.87' 1.86 Grip, right 99 121 134 i?j » 14 9 18 3 9n 22 5 12 2 14 5 15 8 18 8 lis 9 20 9 22 2 216 Grip, left 101 124 133 14.« 15 2 17 9 1QQ 20X! 12 3 14 1 14 9 17.^ llR.'i 190 217:20 7 ' "^ ^' - Editor's Comment. — These tables may best be compared with those of Professor Hastings in his " Manual of Physical Measure- ments " since the instruments and methods used were similar. With very few exceptions these tables are higher for both boys and girls at all ages than those of Professor Hastings though in most cases where there is no difference in the instruments and the mode of taking the measurements, the difference is very slight. His tables are based on more children but these have the advantage of being based in a large measure upon the same children at different ages. The differences in height and weight which, according to the tables, place eastern children about one year in advance of western in those respects is partly, but perhaps not wholly, accounted for by the fact that our children retained their shoes, while those measured under the direction of Professor Hastings did not. In height sitting the differences are slight, also in breadth of head and girth of head, but in breadth of chest and of waist they are somewhat greater, while in depth of chest the difference is very marked amounting at nearly every age to two or more cm. This can not be accounted for by any difference in clothing or mode of measurement so far as we know. It seems to indicate a marked physiological difference between eastern and western children. Chest expansion and lung capacity correspond pretty well, con- sidering the difficulty of making accurate tests of children who have had little or no practice in controlling the muscles of chest and lungs. The difference of from two to six kilograms in the strength of forearm, as indicated by grip, can not be wholly accounted for by the adjustable dynamometer used by us, for our records are some- PHYSICAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 3 what higher than those of the Chicago Child Study Department where the same instrument was used. The fact that many of our children had taken the test one or more times may have given them some advantage. In one other respect our results are peculiar, i. e., in the relative strength of right and left hands. In our tables the figures for the left hand are relatively high at all ages, and up to nine years of age are absolutely higher than for the right hand. Others have found the right hand slightly superior at six and markedly so after twelve. It was hoped that these tests, carefully chosen for their close relation to development and health, would be a valuable means of diagnosing the condition and progressive development of individual children, but this hope has been realized only in part. In averages of the measurements of a number of children, errors due to slight difference in clothing and to the personal equation of different per- sons who make the measurements, and to the variation in the intelli- gence and intensity of effort on the part of the children in the strength tests, are likely to cancel each other. In individual cases, however, the figures recorded for the same child in successive years may often be misleading. This is true of the vital strength tests and the measurements of breadth of chest and waist. In such measurements as those of girth of head and breadth of head, although the probable error of measurement is not great, yet the change from year to year is slight and may be less than the error of measurement. If the same person made all these measurements and tests year after year in the same way, the records would doubtless be very significant of the actual development of individual children, but where different persons have handled the instruments and directed the efforts of children w^ho have not practiced the tests, the records can not be implicitly relied upon as showing variations in the individual though any marked individual variations from the normal are clearly shown, and the averages are fairly reliable. In the case of measurements of height and weight the facts are somewhat different, for the changes from year to year are well above any probable error due to the personal equation of the measurers or to slight variation in clothing (if the measurements are made at the same time of the year). THESIS II Development of Auditory and Visual j\lEiiORY By Maby J. CoxwAY Editor's Explanation.— The data regarding memory discussed in this thesis were taken each year at about the same time by the head of the Department. Cards with from three to nine figures of good size were used for the visual test and similar series of spoken numbers for the auditory test. In both cases the time occupied was between one and two seconds for each digit. In the lower grades series of from three to six digits were given, while in the upper grades series with two or three more digits were also given. The same number of digits wa's given two or three times. In mark- ing, no credit was given excex>t for series that were correctly re- produced in the proper order. Averages were not made but each pupil was credited with the highest number of digits that he repro- duced correctly every time that many digits were given him. This was taken as his standard memory span while variations from this standard, due to fluctuating attention and other causes were indi- cated by i)lus or minus the excess or deficiency. For example a boy who reproduced six digits every time that number was shown, but failed once on five digits and succeeded on one of seven and one of eight digits was marked 6 -f 1 + 2 — 1. Such extreme variation as this was of course rare. Had four or five series of each number of digits been used the standard alone would probably have been a good indication of the individual mental span. The children were always very much interested in this test, and though pains was taken to prevent them from beginning to write before the series was complete or from looking on the paper of some other child, yet a few incorrect records due to these causes were doubtless included. Some errors were prol^al^ly also made by the student teachers who looked over the children's papers and recorded the results. Such sources of error however would not apply to one age or sex more than anoiluT and Injnce would not affect the comparative averages. Thesis.— Tha results of tlie tests taken, when tabulated, show what has been proved l)y other tests and what is learned by ordinary observation, that the memory span, or the power to reproduce im- pressiorjs just received, increases with age to a marked degree. These same tests had been taken on the students at the Fitch- 4 DETELOPMEyi OF AUDITORY ASD TISUAL MEMORY 5 burg Normal School and the average of 103 students was 6.3 for the auditory and 7.3 for the visual record in the first test, and the average of eight who took the test a second time is 7.2 for the audi- tory and 8.5 for the visual. These show a slight superiority over the record of the children in the grades. Older pupils have the advantage in a memory test, because no test that can be given is so new to them as to the child. In another test in this school where some adults who were unacquainted with Greek and some children were tested with the Greek letters, the adults' record did not show much gain over the children's. Even in this case, although the letters were unfamiliar to the adults, still they could see their resemblance to other symbols more readily than the children and they still had the advantage. Development of memory is really a training of the mind, in the power of concentrating the attention and of associating the new with the old. TABLE n INCREASE rx Memost Spa^ Auditory Ages. 6 7 s 9 10 11 12 IS 14 Boys, Xo., s 56 63 56 62 51 40 26 IS Averag^e, 3.S 3.9 4.2 4.6 4.9 5.5 5.1 5.6 6.0 Girls, Xo., 15 54 71 65 79 53 3S 30 5 Average, 3.6 4.1 4.3 Ti 4.S sual 5.0 5.3 5.5 5.8 5.0 BOTS, Xo., 10 4S 62 5S 66 52 19 26 7 Average, 3.1 3.S 4.0 5.0 5.6 5.9 5.4 5.0 5.8 Girls, Xo., 14 4S 63 74 71 53 40 25 3 Average, 3.4 3.6 4.5 4.9 5.5 6.0 6.1 6.3 6.0 Table II. shows the average memory span of cMldren of different ages, age sis meaning more than six and less than seven, and the same for other ages. Fig. 1 shows the same as the table, except that allowance has been made in the figure for the " variations " from the standard records (see above, p. 3). One third of each variation is added to or subtracted from the standard. With the boys from six to nine the auditory memory is better than the visual, with the girls from six to eight the same is true showing what has been proved by other tests that younger children remember better what they hear, probably because of the fact that before a child euters school he receives most of his ideas through the auditory sense, while the experience that the child gets in the school room teaches him visual language, and this learning of words and numbers visually gives him a tendency to represent things visuallv. STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING T 6 5 4 3 '.A^^%, (o Auditory (;> T 8 9 io li ^^ ^3 >^ ?5 O 1^ 3 Visual Fig. 1. Increase in Memory Span. From the ages of eight and nine to fourteen the visual memory is better than the auditory. In the tests taken upon Normal School students the same is true. The auditory memories of girls from six to eleven are better than those of boys, from eleven to twelve both records are the same, from twelve to thirteen the record of the girls is better than the boys again, but at fourteen the curve of the boys is above. In the visual curve the girls record is higher than the boys except from eight to nine where the boys' record is better. From ten to fourteen the record of the girls is very much better than of the boys. Generally speaking the curves seem to indicate that the memory span or immediate memory of girls is better than that of boys. The preceding table and curve show the average memory span of children, not all of whom were the same at the different ages. An attempt was also made to trace the gain of the same children DEVELOPMENT OF AUDITORY AND VISUAL MEMORY 7 from one year to the next — which could be done to some extent, as three or four successive tests had been made on a good number of them. The records for each individual for the three or four suc- cessive tests were examined, and if there was a gain from one year to the next it was marked plus and if there was a loss it was marked minus. The results are shown in Table III., which gives the aver- age gain both in the "standard" record (see above, p. — ), and in the record when allowance is made for the ' ' variations. ' ' The num- bers under each age give the gains in the year preceding that age. TABLE III Memory Span Auditory Age. Girls, No., Standard, 7>^ 8 3 .3 8>^ 6 .5 9 11 1.1 934 1" 6 31 .7 —.1 WX2 5 1.6 11 25 .5 4 12 15 .2 3 2.0 13 ] 15 .6 3>^ 14 Variation combined. .3 .3 1.4 1.7 .1 1.2 .3 .4 2.1 1.3 Boys, No., Standard, 5 .2 3 1.0 25 .8 25 .9 12 1.1 2 1.0 8 .9 4 .3 9 —.1 1 2.0 5 .8 Variation combined, .3 1.1 .9 .6 Visual .9 .3 .3 —.1 1.7 .3 Girls, No., Standard, 2 1.0 5 3.0 5 .4 15 .9 7 25 .1 1.0 8 1.0 18 1.0 3 1.3 12 —.3 16 —.3 3 —.7 2 .5 Variation combined. 1.0 2.7 — .1 1.0 .3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.4 —.5 — .1 .7 Boys, No., Standard, 3 1.3 3 —.3 20 1.1 5 17 1.4 1.5 7 1.3 10 1.3 3 1.3 13 .3 G —.2 11 —.6 3 —.7 2 1.0 Variation combined. 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.1 1.3 1.6 .4 —.4 —1.0 —.6 .7 In the auditory memory of the girls there is a marked gain to nine and a half, then at ten there is a loss with a gain from twelve to thirteen. In the visual memory of the boys there is a very marked loss at thirteen the same as with the auditory. In the visual memory of the girls there is a loss between eight and nine but a more marked loss at twelve. In the visual memory of the girls there is a loss between eight and nine but a more marked loss at twelve. In each case there seems to be a difference of from one to three years in the time when this retarded growth of memory comes to the boys and girls, the retarded growth coming earlier in the girls in each case. 8 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING This corresponds with the studies which have been made of the bodily -rowth of children, since there is a diminished rate of growth in girir about ten and in boys about twelve with a rapid growth afterward. .1,1 This matter of memory span is very important m the learning of spelling; the fact that some children fail repeatedly in their spelling may be because those children have a poor visual or audi- tory memory. If we remember that there is a limit to a child's mental grasp we shall be careful about the length of directions which we give him and will not think a child stupid because he does not take in very many directions at once. In giving a dictation lesson the number of words dictated at a time should be determined by the child's age and mental grasp. The primary teacher should remember the fact that the younger pupils are more ear minded than eye minded. Since an impression is more lasting if it is received through two senses at once, the teacher should see that the pupils receive both vis- ual and auditory impressions of facts as much as possible. In fact these principles are applicable to everything we teach. Editor's Comynent. —With, many, and probably most persons the number of things that can be held in mind at one time, or that can be grasped and immediately reproduced, is very definitely limited, at least for any particular kind of mental content. The determina- tion of such limit for an individual at a particular stage of develop- ment is therefore a practicable and important means of measuring certain forms of his individual mental ability. These tests indicate that such limits or standards may be determined by only a few tests, since a large number of children can remember just so many digits, and uniformly fail when more are given. It is probable that most tests of individual mental ability would better be directed toward determining the limit of power under usual conditions, in- stead of averages of a large number of experiments. Variations from these limits should not be fused with the ordinary limits by averages but kept separate and interpreted as signs of variation, which is such a marked feature of some lives and comparatively rare in others. THESIS III The Development of Children in Quickness of Perception AND Movement By Sadie E. Lamprey Editor's Explanation. — The Perception Motor test consisted of making with a pencil one hundred marks in fifty squares in each of which was the figure 1, 2 or 3 to indicate the number of marks to be made. Students supervised the tests of individual children, recording the time in seconds from an ordinary watch, the children being encouraged to work as rapidly as possible. Since this test was made at the same time as the other tests, about a month after school began, many of the first grade children were not familiar with figures. Those who were not were taught how many marks the figures told them to make and when they could tell correctly how many marks they were going to make in various indicated squares the test was begun. In general the errors were so few as not to be worth while keeping account of. Children who could not learn or were so slow that they could not complete the test in five minutes were excused, their cards being marked "x." There were only a few such children and in every case they were children who were not capable of doing successfully the regular school work. Children sometimes stopped to rub out an extra line they had made or to see what some one else was doing, but were always reminded by the student in charge to go on marking as fast as possible. The sources of error due to such cases as these were large in the case of the smaller children, but much less for the larger children. Thesis. — The data upon which this thesis is based consist of the complete records of ninety boys and ninety-five girls who were tested at least four times. Besides these there were records of about two hundred and fifty children, who had taken the tests a less number of times. As an aid in getting at the conclusions, this supplemen- tary list was sometimes used as will be explained later. In one set of tabulations the results of all the children taking the first test were tabulated according to age and sex ; here the com- parison is between different children at different ages. In the other tabulations the gain of each child over his own previous record is the basis of tabulation. The two tables agree fairly well as to the periods of greatest gain. 9 10 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING J» ■ho' il 1 — — — — \\ f 7 <1 L-iL ii'^ \ 1 1 Di \a A- Ao p . y Ift -H 1)4 1 3u 1 1 1 Xl^ .h&>r^ ■1"=)' /ifho \n kf pV »s)-. ia :» t^ 4 !l_ "^ i' h nVS 3i_ _ «B OH _ ioi .0- -^ i^ 1 i«ft^ I V L 15ft ! \ 1 Jl — 1 ^0l \ \ (\ ir^n \ _i f>0^ I lao 1 \ < K \ nn^ — 1 i ,0 N < \t\ts r ^ rn V ( >0 \ \ I ^ "^ «> V '0 \ ^ ry N w^ ^ V fo b s. ^ ^ —iiD- N ^ v^ Fc or^ hi e->i >-Q_ ^•M SS ' 1 ^ '-, c 1 1 ^ 1 1 1 3,1 n) ) ^D p. _illi_ V •> u P L iJ ZJi ^ ]i JQ ^ 1 \ 7 1 =» 5^^ 4 ?)' S ^, rV , 1 'h'r ^Tp st ? t» 7 ^ f ^' \) 1 1 n n 1 hop r h — SO,; nsn 50 V*. \\ 'oX a\ k 1 ^ iK ^ Wr i^M tl} '^ H ?> i \/ft lO 1 ^ > qn / ^« *s '^ < 1^ >s o > -'1 th T. St M> s 1 "» 1 \ ?, 1 "k ^ r>? £[) ^S -, r, ;?, i^ ^ 6 ^? su 1f> V') V ^ ir: ^ 1 1 \ 1*1 ?)n i/^ 3) ^ n -g 4r^ ^ <, 3^ s ^* ' ^ S!' .J: •^"•" Girls 3055 Fig. 2. Time Occupied in the Perception-motor Test at Different Ages, and at First to Fifth Tests. DEVELOPMENT IN QUICKNESS OF PERCEPTION H The progress in rapidity according to this test may be divided for each sex into three periods, the time of greatest growth, the time of next greatest, and the time of least. With the girls the first period extended from five to nine, the second from nine to eleven, the third from eleven to fourteen. With the boys the first period extended from five to nine, the second from nine to twelve, and the third from twelve to fourteen. The complete arrest of growth with the girls came from twelve to thirteen, a year younger than with the boys. The average of the 335 boys of all ages was 86 seconds, while of the 246 girls was 78 seconds, shewing that girls were better in this test than boys. The only ages in which the boys did not require more time than the girls were those of thirteen and fourteen. The results of the second test correspond in a general w^ay with those obtained in the first. The ages of the boys ranged from six to thirteen, and of the girls from six to fourteen, though the number taking the test at fourteen was only two. The most important thing to be noted is the fact that the girls failed to improve from eleven to thirteen and especially from twelve to thirteen. With the boys this failure in improvement began at the age of twelve, but the data do not cover the fourteenth year, so that this can not be traced any further. An interesting thing in comparing the averages of the first two tests for the corresponding years is the fact that with the practice gained in the first test came added ability which carried over the interval of a year so that children taking the test the second time were superior to those of the same age taking it the first time. The total average for the 194 girls taking this second test was 66 seconds ; for the 223 boys, 70 seconds. The third test which included children of the ages seven to thir- teen showed a curve something like those of the first and second tests. In the case of the girls the arrest came at the formerly found period — from eleven on. With the boys there is a loss from the age of twelve to thirteen. The average time required by the 129 girls was 58 seconds, by the boys 61 seconds. There was a slight gain in the ability of the children of different years in the third test over the ability of those in the corresponding years in the second test, though the difference was not as great as was that between the first and second tests. The curves for the fourth and fifth tests are given, though the number of pupils in comparison with those in the first are so few that the results are less reliable. 12 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Ai^ Ns ii«kj3^aJ»Li^^ ^LiiJiJiJiJaJi^^. [TtOjUi-lii- ^H DjiLAi Fig. 3. The Perception-motor Test. Gains of individuals from year to year. Broken line for girls, solid line for boys. In the second tabulation the result sought was the gain of the children over what they were themselves a year before. With both boys and girls the gain was much greater in the ear- lier years than in the later. From eleven on, the girls practically made no gain. This slackening of development in the boys came from twelve on. Both sexes suffered actual loss at one period: the fourteen-year-old girls over those of thirteen, and the fifteen-year- old boys over those of fourteen. The greatest gain in both sexes of one age over the preceding was of those of six over those of five, the gain of the girls being 35 seconds, and of the boys, 39 seconds. DEVELOPMENT IN QUICKNESS OF PERCEPTION 13 In order to find out if practice actually did influence the results of the successive tests, the gain in time of boys and girls in the second test over the first, in the third over the second, and the fourth over the third, was reckoned and divided by the number in each case taking the test. The average gains for the boys were respectively 21, 15 and 13 — for the girls 20, 14 and 11. Practice must therefore have aided. Other experiments show that with continuous special practice the improvement in this perception motor test is rapid. These experi- ments were made upon a group of normal school students and upon two children. As a result of the practice, the decrease in time after ten trials was 18 per cent, for the normal school students, 20 per cent, for the seven-year-old girl, and 25 per cent, for the five-year-old boy. TABLE IV Time for the Perception-motor Test, Repeated Annually Girls 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Age in years 18 20 20 20 28 42 32 37 24 5 Number taking test 1 194 140 118 95 62 57 50 47 48 47 Average time 20 20 25 23 24 32 23 25 2 Number taking test 2 132 91 79 61 52 47 45 44 37 Average time 20 20 20 20 16 20 13 Number taking test 3 85 74 62 51 43 42 40 Average time 11 17 13 18 14 13 3 Number taking test 4 68 64 56 46 41 39 34 Average time 6 6 12 4 Number taking test 5 54 42 35 37 Average time Boys 28 34 30 31 33 44 57 48 18 12 Number taking test 1 206 144 116 89 68 63 56 49 46 46 Average time 19 29 23 27 28 41 36 20 Number taking test 2 135 102 86 68 57 52 46 44 Average time 14 24 21 24 24 24 13 Number taking test 3 88 80 73 57 46 41 49 Average time 11 17 13 19 18 12 Number taking test 4 77 56 61 48 45 43 Average time 8 56 6 45 7 48 4 40 Number taking Average time test 5 The two children later took the tests four times a day with few omissions, for four months. The first seventeen days the girl made a great improvement, the time required changing from 43 to 30 seconds. During the fourth month the results of the tests varied little. This seems to point to the same fact that has been mentioned, u STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING namely, that at first practice brings rapid improvement in speed or rapidity of movement, but that progress decreases as the limit ot speed is approached. , ,, . ^ 4. + The tests with the boy were incomplete, but the thing of greatest note was the eflPect of interest in his work. When that lagged, the time required for the test was correspondingly increased. For in- stance the time record after a month's practice suddenly dropped from the lowest record— 106 seconds to 185 seconds, which was 15 seconds higher than the initial record. Editor's Comment.— This test seems to be a pretty good one for establishing a norm for children of each age and grade, considerable variations from which would indicate the possession of exceptional characteristics in general. This was particularly true for younger children, the backward ones always being slow in this exercise. As in all other tests, however, special practice quickly makes greater changes than years of development and general practice in perception and movement. This accounts also for the fact that the greatest improvement is from the first to second grade where the children are becoming familiar with numbers and with the manipu- lation of a pencil. It is interesting to note that we have here indications that the first repetitions have more effect than later ones even when they are a year apart. It is also interesting to note in this and several other studies of this series that figures based on changes in the same children from year to year are of the same general character at different periods as those that have been inferred from determining the difference between different children of all ages. The agreement is not, how- ever, complete and the figures based on the changes in the same children at different ages are undoubtedly the more significant when the data are reliable, a few cases being equal in significance to many upon the usual basis. THESIS IV The Development of the Artistic Sense By Grace L. Seaveb Editor's Explanation.— Data for the study of individual progress in this and the two following theses were secured by taking samples of the children's best work twice a year about a month after school began and a month before it closed. These specimens were deposited in a pasteboard box upon which was the individual child's name. The children knew of these boxes and tried to have as good a speci- men of their work as possible to put in them. The covers or port- folios were made by folding a piece of drawing paper to enclose the other work. The pupil placed on the outside of this portfolio his name, grade, the date and whatever decorations he chose. The ' ' designs ' ' on these portfolios constituted the data upon which this study of drawing and artistic development was made. Thesis.— There is, in the school where these drawings were done, a system by means of which a sample of each child's work in all the departments is placed semi-annually in portfolios which the chil- dren make for this purpose. Thus in many cases it is possible to study the cover designs drawn by an individual child at the age of six, six and a half, seven, seven and a half, and so on until he is thirteen or fourteen years of age. In many cases the series were, through various causes, incomplete, but after eliminating those not worth considering, there were left the portfolios of one hundred and thirteen children, fifty-three boys and sixty girls. From these draw- ings and designs it has been possible to extract some general and particular truths regarding the development of the artistic sense of the child. It must be understood that in this work the children had no help or suggestions from the teacher, and relied wholly upon their own ingenuity in decorating the covers of their portfolios. They also had perfect freedom in their choice of materials and models for their designs. A description of a few of these portfolios may help to give a better idea of the problem of development in drawing as it was presented to me. The first cover I examined had at the top a border of squares colored with red and blue crayons. The next had lines across the 15 16 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING corners, forming triangles wliich were filled in with the bright red crayon Still another had an inch border of bright orange on all four sides of the paper. This I found to be a typical form of decora- tion, especially with flat washes of paint. The colors were m many cases very crude and combined without any regard to harmony. Sometimes a portfolio would be completely covered with scrolls, flowers, etc., with no attempt at design. One had a fanciful border of stars. Many had the word ''Portfolio" at the top, the child's name at the bottom and some drawing in the middle of the page. I found the following things represented: a bunch of grapes, birds of various kinds, a foot-ball, flags, blackboard with arithmetic ex- amples, a squash, a pine-tree, pictures which illustrated stories and other equally diverse objects. These drawings were studied from a three-fold standpoint, (I.) that of color, (II.) design or form, (III.) arrangement and general artistic effect. Regarding color, the generalizations were b'ased upon data as to brilliancy, particular tone used, combinations of color, and choice of neutral tints through the medium of ink, pencil or brash. Under form there were four typical divisions, objects from nature, geo- metric forms, those associated with some activity or recent expe- rience, and printing or lettering. The last set of statistics in regard to arrangement were put on the basis of comparative rank or degree of excellence. The letters A, B and C stand respectively for good, fair and poor, A meaning good, and C poor. I first made a list of the names of all the children. The space after each name contained divisions for all the half-years between the ages of six and thirteen, inclusive. In each division I noted the color, design and rank of the child's drawing for that particular month (the tests being taken every June and October.) This made it easy to obtain the averages for the whole, and also to make studies of the development of individual children. I With both boys and girls a marked preference for bright colors is shown in the lower grades, which decreases steadily as the child becomes older. It is noticeable that with the boys the use of bright colors remains at about the same per cent, until October of the ninth year. (It should be stated, perhaps, that in obtaining these per cents, five tenths of a number, or over five tenths, was reckoned as an addi- tional per cent.) The work of the previous June showed that over f DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC SENSE 17 one half the colors used by the boys were bright, that is, not grayed or softened in any way, while in October of the same year only three tenths of the colors were bright. A corresponding decrease in the per cent, of girls who made use of bright colors, also appeared in the ninth year. The decrease for the nine-year-old girls from June to October was twelve per cent., while for the boys of the same age there was a decrease of twenty per cent., in the use of bright colors. About the same number of colors was used by both sexes, but the girls chose more as they grew older, while the boys used more in the four earlier years. This confirms the theory that the attention of girls is drawn more to color as they begin to think of matters of dress, while as the boys grew older they left the color for pen and ink work and printing. Up to October of the ninth year, the data, for all the half-years showed that in every case more girls used bright colors than hues. Commencing with that October, however, the reverse was true for all the following half-years. More girls grayed their colors, using tints and shades, and securing more artistic effects. This was not true of the boys, for only in the eleventh and thirteenth years, did the majority of the boys use grayed tones rather than brilliant colors. As to particular colors used, both boys and girls seemed to prefer red and green, using these colors not only for flowers, autumn leaves, and sprays of berries, but also in their original drawings. Blue came third in the list of those most used by the boys, then yellow and orange, while violet was the least popular. The colors chosen by the girls, in order of preference, are as fol- lows: green, red, yellow, blue, violet and orange. For the boys, the highest per cent, for the choice of red came in the ninth year, for green in the seventh and eighth, for blue in the eighth, while the six-year-olds showed the highest per cent, for violet. As this last-named color was so little used by the children, I did not attribute the choice of it by those in the first grade to any particular liking for that color. Probably the high average was rather due to the promiscuous use of all the colors in their crayon boxes, as most of the children were not satisfied unless they used them all. The change which is brought about in this direction as the child progressed through the grades, is clearly shown by a study of the development of individuals. In the lowest grades the girls used red, green and violet more frequently than any other colors. As they grew older, blue came to be a favorite, then yellow, and finally, in the twelfth year, orange took the lead. 18 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING As the portfolios were made twice a year, it was possible to note the development from October to June, and also the effect of the summer vacation upon the child's ability to draw. In June more bright colors and more hues were used by the children of all grades than in October. In all cases the neutrals were more often found in the fall port- folios than in those made in the spring. A possible explanation of this might be that after vacation the children do not have as many ideas of designs to be worked out in color. After having used crayons and paints more or less during the year they are more ready to apply color to their cover designs in June. At the ages of twelve and thirteen, where the pupils had more decided preferences and could remember better how they had iLsed their materials, they did more color work in October than they did in June. The per cents for the use of neutrals (ink, gray, black and white, etc.) increase at a fairly uniform rate, until, in the thirteenth year, seventy-five per cent, of all the colors used by both sexes are neutral tints. This is partly explained by the fact that in the higher grades the children turned much more to the use of lettering. They seemed to develop a sense of the fitness of things, and decorated their covers with appropriate designs, and with printing, instead of the various objects which were characteristic of their earlier years. With the boys, the use of neutral mediums had been steadily in- creasing up to the ninth year, but then, in October, the average showed a jump of from thirty-five to fi,fty-six per cent. The per cents then continuel to increase until, at the age of thirteen, we find all the boys using these materials in preference to color. Girls, as well as boys, selected neutral mediums in the upper grades, though as has been stated, the girls still clung to the use of color, while the boys dropped it somewhat as they grew older. II Regarding the objects represented in the decoration of the port- folios, the curves for both sexes showed, as the child progressed through the grades, a decided increase in the use of models from nature. In studying the statistics I found that the October of the ninth year, which was mentioned before, marked a drop in the per cent, of nature forms drawn by the boys. It might be inferred that this caused the decrease in the use of brilliant colors. After the drop the average per cent; remained about the same in both cases, never returning to the higher figure. The girls also used nature forms less after they reached the ninth year. There was, perhaps, a little higher average for the use of nature specimens in June than in October. DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC SENSE 19 Geometric forms, such as squares, circles and triangles, appeared in nearly half of the boys' portfolios in the two lowest grades, while in the eighth grade, none were used. This choice in the first years of school-life was probably due to the daily use of cardboard forms for "busy work." In general, not as many girls as boys made use of the circles, squares and other precise forms, bvit the per cent, of those who did use them decreased at about the same rate for both sexes. One of the girls' papers showed a pretty arrangement of diamonds and circles in a border effect. Decorations and designs made up from drawings of things asso- ciated with the child's life and work were a study in themselves. They varied in the different grades from houses and steam-engines in the lower, to Greek frets and lotus-flower borders, in the higher classes. This style of design gives more scope for originality, and I found that the children took the associated objects to draw from more as they grew older, until at the age of thirteen nearly half the boys and a correspondingly large per cent, of the girls chose this method of decoration. Through all the grades, the girls drew more associated objects than did the boys. The October designs show^ed more of this kind of work. Some- times they were related to activities of the suiAmer, such as games, boating, seashore amusements and the like. In June I noticed flags, wreaths and other decorations connected with Memorial Day. But even this tendency did not bring the average for associated objects up as high as it was in October. For the boys, the highest per cents for the lettering were in June of the eleventh and thirteenth years, but in October of the eleventh year there was a decrease of nearly forty per cent., and in October of the thirteenth year there was a decrease of thirty-four per cent. In fact, the curve for the lettering was very irregular. The girl's portfolios for the last two years showed that very- many of them selected lettering in preference to any other form of decoration. Indeed, in the thirteenth year three fourths of all the children printed on their covers. One was very neatly done in a beautiful tone of brown, with a fine line of bright orange around the letters in the words "Portfolio of My Best Work." Below were painted two books and at the very bottom the girl's initials in a monogram. Ill The rank for both boys and girls grew steadily higher till at the age of thirteen very few were marked C. The choice of materials and subjects probably had some effect upon the rank, as most of >f %^. 20 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING the printing was excellent, while the flowers so often drawn on the covers by the lower grade pupils were not in many cases deserv- ing of any higher mark than C. However, the average rank did not increase in excellence as reg- ularly as one would expect from the growing power of drawing which proper training in the grades should bring. I attributed this variation in rank somewhat to a fact which was corroborated by the individual studies, namely, that each half-year many of the children attempted something new which was as hard for them as that which they had done the year before. If at every test they had tried the same thing, doubtless the rank would have been bettered accordingly. One thing is to be noted in the per cents of those whose covers ranked excellent. In every case, with the exception of the six- year-olds, the per cent, of boys marked A was higher in June than in either the previous or the following October. For the girls, the per cent, marked A was higher in the fall for four different years. This uniform change in rank from spring to fall would seem to indicate an increase of ability during the school year and a loss of it during the summer. Taken all together the boys received better marks than the girls. One significant fact was noticeable throughout the work. Both sexes show much greater similarity of choice in the earlier years than they do later on in their school-life. In the higher grades the in- dividuality becomes more marked, and there is a greater diversity of selection. Another fact is perhaps worthy of notice. The age of nine, for both sexes, marks a change in the per cents in several particulars. This may be due to the subjects included in the drawing-course at this time, or may be due to the natural development of the child at this period. Some of the general truths brought out by a study of these covers might be applied to the teaching of drawing in the grades. Interest is an important factor in drawing. Many principles which are sometimes taught in abstract ways, could be made more instructive if presented in connection with things associated with the child's life and pastimes. Children have a natural love for bright colors, but during the early years a child needs training in color perception, more es- pecially regarding combinations of color; they may also be led to prefer the softer tones to the very brilliant colors. They should be given only one or two colors, to use at one time, thus avoiding poor combinations. The use and effectiveness of neu- DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC SENSE 21 trals may be taught early by giving the pupil one bright color to be combined with black, white or gray. Pupils in the higher grades should be led to an appreciation of the possibilities of color, and encouraged to choose this medium for original work, as well as the pen and ink or pencil. The printing Perceat I 2 3 ^ S' C> 7 S 9 /o // /2/3 /^ ^ /^ // /^ EoTH Sexes Orange «_____ Yellow «_i^________^_^. Blue __^___«_^«««_ Violet lea Orfltnge Yell ow Green Blue Violet Rei Ora.Tu?€ Yellow Green Blu,e Violet Boys Girls Fig. 4. Line Chart showing Per Cent, of Various Colors used in all the Designs taken together. may be made very effective in color and with training the child may learn to delight in its use. Little children may learn how to make border and surface de- signs by the use of common everyday forms. This later shows its influence and effect on the space divisions and rhythms of the original designs taken up in the higher grades. A review in September of the principles of drawing taught the year before is necessary as the children do poorer work and apply their knowledge to less advantage in October than in June. 22 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING 00 (M la o t^ o o (M CO lO GO >-i M O CO >— I M O i-H CO O U5 O Tt* -^ fO o O IM O O Tj< o to o O 1— I IC GO lO C5 (M ^ eo o CO CO o .2 CO 6 3 CO « 22 B ^ TjH o '^ a S oo )-q o s> < a o 1-5 H Q Q "8 o g; O '1' O o •*^ h^ ^ (M (^ ?0 O t^ O — I r}< "^ "^ Ci >? ^ C-1 (N CO 0^ o CO CO CO o o CO CO •<*( i-H CO r-1 CO Ci GO 1:^ t^ i-H CO O i» LO CO lO CO LO CO in CO ■* M o C5 CO CO Tj< o C5 o o !>. o 00 o (M CO CO o eo Ci o l^ CO ic CO CO o C-l CI CO lO (M IS - UO CO CO lO «3 i» Q^ 2 O LO i-j M O CO CO lO IC «0 GO O. CO O LO 1-H O <5 s C c c cS M 0) a> qj OJ Is a o a i) 1 o -u o !i o ;h tc ll O !h 0) OJ OJ 03 OJ H P^ Ph O PM < p-l a .a !=! I-? PW tS t3 tS a> t3 a> V ,1^1 (U ,M ^ fl ,^4 a c cS C ci c4 Si a ^ ^ u 03 •+j Sh 03 -l-i ,12 a 3 01 a 0) 13 a» !2i PM ;zi pn ;z; A* DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC SENSE 23 o « a CO (M ift CC O t^ i-< Tf O O CO Ci O Hi— I (MOaOi"— IOC5CO = (M (M >-i 00 -S'-H -^(MtOCOOOCO;© I— it--C0UiOO(MCiC5 0(M^in-<*52 (JCO CO rt(Nt- CO (M rHi— ICO (M ^LO>-ICO ^ PCO Tt ■+-> c c 1=1 -|J c .5 c p a> m a s >-5 1— 1 pH O H 6 paAOjdtnj CO lO C5 o (M -< t; H CO -(soq CO O lO t--. u a> o la s s ->J i-j o CO CO I-- '^ '*^ atuBg CO •> £ W w^ ^ »•< X >• o (-H o 9 ■3d c: < i O --V s 3! > w '^ "t^ ^ CD "'^ •g s i^ ^ -iJ .-. o -4^ > -2 ^ 0) 02 ■*^ C o ^ ^ O o o TS t> 02 c a o: rt K O o s-i i^ ^, .S "*^ .a ^ ^ ^cl >< o 33 *^ 1 < 02 O 0) o '^ P *2 pC; 03 S "t:; ■+J O o o ^ ;-i tr "2 ^3 u ^ -^-' 5 9 t. en '$ -iJ X -ij a> CO o ;h o c: 5c 03 _ g C ^ "S) 02 ■— " ;j o a o 3 O 03 OD -<-i •t-> ^H Cf) 03 C o •^ n ;-! 1^1 4) C tf u M -1^ OJ •4J o "" "3 03 o 03 w hr X <4-l o ^ n .2 o l^ eo 03 -t^ o g (M t.r a: O o !B o 40 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING The subject who was the slowest in doing the tests at the beginning made more rapid and greater gains throughout the entire series than did the one whose first test was done in the least time. Fig. 6 also shows that the limit in the rate of progress had not been reached by the reagent while Fig. 7 shows the opposite to be true. The gain made by the reagent whose results are shown on Fig. 6 was 46.6 seconds, Fig. 6. Individual Making the Greatest Gain. 3.3 times as much as that made by the other reagent whose gain was 13.2. After the first five or six trials of a test there is usually a loss of a second or two, this loss however is frequently made up by the following trial and almost without fail before the end of the test. The longest time taken by any individual for the first trial was 90 seconds, the shortest time was 30 seconds. For the last trial the longest time was 35 seconds, the shortest was 7 seconds. THE CURVE OF LEARNING 41 Fig. 7. Individual Making the Least Gain. Fig. 8 represents the results of one of the special series, iu which ten tests were taken one Saturday and ten on the Saturday following. These tests were taken by four normal school students. This curve is less regular than the curves of the ' ' regular series ' ' shown in Fig. 5, but there are no great gains or losses, save for the one loss which is noticeable between the two periods of the exer- FiG. 8. Ten Tests a Day, on Two Days a Week Apart. cise. These losses too are not permanent for by the second test after the interval they are more than reclaimed. From these curves too we notice that the greater gains are near the beginning of the series, that as the practice continues the gains decrease. The gains made throughout all these curves are pretty uniform. The average gain made during the entire exercise was 20.7 seconds. The gain the first half was 14.4 seconds; gain last half was 6.3 seconds. 42 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Here we find the gain made during first half of series to be twice the gain of the second half, while in the case of the regular series the gain in the first half was three times the gain in the second half. We find that the week's interval between the two periods of prac- tice caused a slight set-back in the rate of speed but the loss was only temporary and easily regained. In another experiment, a series of 17 "tests" — each consisting of 10 lines of the test sheet — was executed on the same day and without intermission between the tests. This experiment was tried on 4 normal school students. The average result is shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 9. Seventeen Tests Without Intermission. On comparing this curve with that of the "regular series" in Fig. 5, we find them alike in that the gains are in both instances near the beginning of the series. They are unlike in other respects. The curves of the regular series are even and gradual, while those of the continuous practice series are much more irregular. Gains, Fig. 5 Gains, Fig. 9 Entire gain 28 14.4 Gain in first half 21 17 Gain in second half 7 — 3 (loss) From the above comparisons it can readily be seen that the process of learning gradually counts for more than learning quickly ; that short periods of practice in learning are more effective and bene- ficial than the long extended ones. Fig. 10 shows the results of another series, in which five tests were taken at each of four different periods on the same day ; there being two morning periods and two afternoon periods. Normal school students were the subjects of this experiment. THE CURVE OF LEARNING 43 The curve indicates that four times as much gain was made dur- ing the first half of this series as in the last half. The gain of the first half was 17 seconds while that of the last was but 4 seconds, making the entire gain 21 seconds. From the perusal of this chart one new significant point is gained, namely, that work in the morning is more effective than the after- noon work. If we apply the above to school work, it follows that the harder work of the day should be a part of the morning program, rather than of the afternoon one. Fig. 10. Four Periods of Five Tests Each, on the Same Day. Fig. 11 shows the results of a series of twenty tests taken in groups of five on four successive days; this was tried on 4 normal school students. Here the general character of the curves is regular. There are no losses which are not regained. These curves are more nearly like those of Fig. 5 than any previously considered. The entire gain made was 31 seconds, gain first half was 24 seconds, gain last half was 7 seconds. The first gain was over three times last gain. Comparing the results of Fig. 11 with those of Fig. 5, we find that the gain made by the former which was 31, was more than that made by the latter. This shows that continuous practice periods, if not too long, are of value in that there is no time for "forgetting" to enter in. The carrying out of this idea in the work of the lower grades 44 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING would be advantageous, for the little ones easily forget if drills are not frequent. • v^-u The series in which the greatest gam was made was one m which the tests were taken twice a day, two at each period, for five suc- cessive days. Four normal school students took part m this experiment. Fig. 11. Five Tests a Day on Four Successive Days. The end of each day's practice is indicated by a cross below the curve. The results, as seen in Fig. 12 (average of the average results), show unusual uniformity up to the tenth test, from there on the curve is much less regular. The gain made during this series of tests was 39 seconds, the gain first half was 32 seconds, the gain second half was 7 seconds, the former gain being over four times the latter gain. Comparing the above results with the corresponding results of the regular series, we find that this special group gained more through the first half than did those who took the tests in the regular way. This however may be in part accounted for by the fact that the initial rate of speed of this special group was much slower than was the rate of speed attained in the regular tests at the beginning, thus affording more chance for gain on the part of the special group. TEE CURVE OF LEARNING 45 Taking two tests twice a day for five days appears to be more effective than taking them one a day for twenty days or five a day for four successive days. Fig. 12. Two Tests Twice Each Day, on Five Successive Days. Beginning with Fig. 13 we have the tests taken first with the a-x key, then the a-o key, that the effect of the interference may be noticed, and the part it plays in the practice determined. §t> >^\ ^A ^^ \ u \ % V 32 \ 3k \ l^ \ 35. V^ L 36 ^ It \A 3D} Fig. 13. Interference. 46 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Fig. 13 shows the results of 10 a-x tests, then an interval of one week followed by one a-o test, then another a-x test. The interval of one week is represented in the curve by the broken line, and the line that follows shows the result of the a-o tests. The practice and knowledge gained in doing the a-x series of ten tests aided much in doing the tests with the a-o key. Practice in doing or learning one thing helps in the mastery of other things of a like character. Groups of papers were received where ten tests with the a-x key were taken followed immediately by 8 tests with the a-o key. In con- trast to this group there was another set of papers of the same number where an interval of one week came between the two series. Table showing results of papers where there was no interval be- tween a-x and a-o series: l«t trial a-x 43 seconds | Difference of 10 seconds 1st trial a-o 33 " j 10th trial a-x 21 " j „ _2 10th trial a-o 23 Table showing results of papers where an interval of one week came between the a-x and a-o series : 1st trial a-x 58 seconds | j^^q^^^^^^ ^f gi seconds 1st trial a-o 37 " ) 10th trial a-x 23 " 1 „ _ ^ 10th trial a-o 27 " j _ jy « The above tables show that though the amount of gain was more where the week's interval came between the two series, the propor- tionate gain varied but one second. This shows that the short inter- val of one week had slight if any effect.- So far, the results reported have been from adults. The first series with children consisted of 10 tests with the A-X key, taken, one each day in the morning, by six children from the seventh and eighth grades ; the average age was 11 years, 7 months. The gain made by the children during the 10 tests was much greater than that made by the normal school students ("regular series") in the same number of tests. The gain made by the stu- * In other words, practice with the use of the A-X key decreased the time for the first trial with the A-O key by 10 seconds in one group and by 21 seconds in the other group, while the difference between the tenth trials of the A-X and the A-O series was in the first group 2 seconds and in tne second group 4 seconds — which indicates that the practice effect is proportionally the same in the two cases. THE CURVE OF LEARNING 47 dents in the first ten tests of the regular series was 21 seconds ; that made by the children in the same number of tests was 48 seconds, more than twice as much. Gain in first five tests — adults 16 seconds Gain in first five tests — children 34 " Gain in second five tests — adults 5 " Gain in second five tests — children 14 " From the above we see that the gain of adults, in the first five tests of the ''regular series," was three times as much as in the second five tests ; while the gain made by the children in the first five tests was twice their gain in the second five. The children began their tests at a much lower rate of speed than did the normal school students, the average time for the first "trials" or lines by the students being 47 seconds, and by the children 88 seconds. The best records among the children were, however, about as good as the best records among the normal school students. Tests were also taken after school, at four o'clock, by six children from the seventh and eighth grades. The average age of these chil- dren — 11 years, 7 months — was the same as the average age of the children in the preceding group, who were tested in the morning. Prom the following table we find that there is an average loss of 10 seconds when the tests are taken at night : Tests taken A.M. Tests taken P.M. Gain in first half 34 seconds 25.7 seconds. Gain in second half 14 " 12.5 " Total gain 48 " 38.2 " This indicates that with the children, as well as with adults, the morning work is of more value. Besides the results received from the children of the seventh and eighth grades, I also had some papers from twelve little children of a third grade. I took the tests myself with these children, taking six of the children for the tests in the morning and six children for the tests after school. The average age of these little ones was eight years. Charts were also plotted to show these results, the chart repre- senting the tests taken in the morning is not on exactly the same basis as others because one or two of the little children were unable to do the entire first five tests, some only doing the first three trials in the time at our disposal. With the little ones it took some time for them to learn what they were expected to do and how to do it, but once this part was under- stood, their gains were rapid. 48 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING In studying Fig. 14 we find that the gains were not as gradual as they might have been, the very great gains came at the beginning but toward the end the gains were of a more equal length. We find the greatest gain to be at the first of the curve — a gain of forty seconds. As the practice continues the amount of gain decreases. The total gain made by the children taking the tests in the morning was 138.1 seconds. During the tests taken after school an average gain of 108 seconds was made, being 30 seconds less than the morning gain. Fig. 14. Ten Tests taken A.M. on Children of Third Grade. Average results. From studying Fig. 14 one can readily see how enormous are the gains made by the children as compared with those made by the normal school students. If we consider some of the individual papers of the children we find that in many places there is evidence of no real gain whatever, but this period of standstill is not truly one of no gain, for after these resting periods, as we may call them, great gains are frequently THE CURVE OF LEARNING 49 made and also kept. It seems almost as though we might call these periods of assimilating, for the acceleration which follows shows that some learning must have been going on or otherwise the sudden gains would not have ensued. It was intensely interesting to watch the little ones as they were taking the tests. They were all greatly interested in doing the exer- cise and were especially anxious to know the progress they were Fig. 15. Practice Curves of Elderly Persons. A sliows tlie results obtained, in 7 tests, by an individual 72 years old; B shows the results obtained, in 10 tests, by an individual of 60 years. 50 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING making and how it compared with that made by their friends. En- couragement did much in raising the record and the trying to outdo their friends held the interest of the children and proved the best incentive to doing the work. After an afternoon spent almost entirely in drawing, the tests were taken, and the weariness of the children influenced the rate of progress greatly. Their interest in the doing of the tests was much less than it previously had been and the gains they made interested them little. It was only with great coaxing and encouragement that they were able to be kept long enough to finish the tests. In two instances, children having a headache could not work nearly so quickly as they had been accustomed, and one little girl who had a hard cold was unable to do more than three trials of one test, and to do this amount she took as much time as she usually would require to accomplish the ten trials. These instances show that the physical condition of a child, espe- cially, has much influence on his mental ability. Having tested the normal school students and some few children, I was interested to know how tests of older people would compare with the previous tests of children and students. This study I could not carry very far, for subjects were hard to find. However, the tests were taken in the ''regular" way — one test a day — ^by two elderly individuals, a gentleman of seventy-two years, and a woman of sixty years. Fig. 15 shows the results obtained by these two. Curve A is very similar to the corresponding curves on the charts which represent the results of the children's tests, while curve B is more nearly like the corresponding curve in Fig. 5. After a period of five months or so, during which time no tests were taken, the subjects who had previously taken the tests were asked to try one test more, of ten trials, that it might be seen whether the learning was permanent or not, and if so to determine where it was the most so. This was done and the following table shows the result. From this table we find by comparing results of the first trials before the interval with the first trials after the interval that in every case save two there was a gain at the beginning of the period after the interval, showing that the knowledge gained from practice five months previous still in part remained. In the two instances where no gain was made during first trial after the interval over first trial before interval we have good proof that the forgetting played an important part. It is not surprising that this is the result where all the tests were taken at the same time or even where they were taken four different periods on the same day. THE CURVE OF LEARNING TABLE XI 51 1. General test 2. All test, one period 3. Four different periods, same day 4. Ten tests, two successive Saturdays 5. Two tests, twice a day, five successive days... 6. Children' s tests, 7th and 8th grades, A. M 7. Children' s tests, 7th and 8th grades, P. M 8. Children's tests, 3d grade, A. M 9. Children's tests, 3d grade, P. M 1st Trial Best Av. Last Av. Last Trial 1st Trial Last Trial 47.6 63.7 13.4 21.1 13.4 31.7 13.8 37.5 33.6 60.7 21 33.7 44 14.9 17 15 3 45 28 53.5 18.2 18.2 17.7 n < 41 29 90.6 17.1 17.1 15 < B 42.3 31 88.8 14.8 20.6 19.3 51.2 26.2 66.5 22.5 22.9 18 a 36 24.2 23.9 24 25.9 24.5 68 33 25.0 35.5 35.5 22 86.7 55.7 Av. of Test after Interval 28.4 40.8 31.4 33.7 34.3 35.5 27.5 42.8 61.7 If we compare the averages after the interval with the last ones before the interval we may, I think, form a just estimate of how great a part the long interval played. Where all the tests were taken at one period, as well as where they were taken from different periods of the same day, it would be more accurate, it seems, to compare the best average of these two groups with the average after the interval. Considering the groups, of the normal school students, we find the loss caused by the interval to be rather more marked where the tests were taken all at one period, and less marked where the tests were taken daily. With the children's tests we find that where the tests were taken in the afternoon by the seventh and eighth grade children the inter- val caused the least effect. With the little children who took the tests in the afternoon the interval caused the greatest effect. From observation of those taking the tests, as well as from written statements from many of them, some of the conditions which in- fluenced progress were made apparent. 1. Physical condition of subject, most noticeable in the nervous- ness which followed inability to find a certain letter in quick time ; headache was accountable in several instances for lack of power to work quickly. 2. Temperature of the room — if the room was warm, work was much slower than usual ; if too cold the same result was noticeable. 3. Interruption of any kind barred progress. This was especially true with the children. Once their minds were off their work, it was hard for them to concentrate themselves upon it again for some time. 52 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING 4. "Mind-wandering"— thinking of outside things — caused de- crease in rapidity of action. 5. If subjects were in a hurry, for any reason, the work was slower than usual. ^^^ 6. Weariness from school work made a great difference"*! the records. 7. If an unusually strong effort was put forth to do the work quickly, without fail undesired results would follow. Brief Summary of Results 1. The greater gains in the process of learning to do something are at the first of the practice. 2. Periods of morning work are more effective than the afternoon periods. 3. Children work much slower to begin with than do adults, but the gains made by them are greater. The gains of the adults, how- ever, are more even and uniform than those of the children. 4. Short and frequent periods of practice are more valuable than long extended ones. Editor's Comment. — The test sheet and key used in the above ex- periments are reproduced above that others may use them if they so desire. The exercise has proved very serviceable, both as a means of making a simple research and for illustrating a number of truths taught in the psychology class. As a research, w^hile revealing little that is entirely new, it helps to confirm and emphasize, and suggests some truths that have not as yet received sufficient attention. The comparison of the learning curves of children, adults and the aged is interesting, but the ques- tions of greatest importance raised by the study are those concerning the number of repetitions at one time and the length of intervals between practice that are most favorable to rapid and permanent learning. To what extent an individual curve of learning and fatigue is typical of all learning by that individual is also a matter of great theoretical and practical importance. ^P THESIS IX Fatigue in Habit Formation Experiment by Mabian F. Lane The same test-sheet and key sheets which were used in the pre- ceding study and described on p. 36 were also employed in the study of fatigue. This discussion is too extensive to be quoted in full, and parts given alone would not be clear without considerable explanation. In general, the results are what might be expected ; such as decrease in rate of improvement, or irregularity in the record where a number of tests were taken at one time and usually less rapid improvement in the afternoon than in the morning. Even in a single test there seems to be evidence of fatigue, for in the sixth to eighth trial there is usually little or no improvement, sometimes a loss. The poor record made after a drawing lesson indicates that the fatigue is largely local rather than general, and perhaps mainly motor. There is probably no actual inability to maintain the rate but decreased tendency to do so. The experiment is a good one with which to illustrate to a class the phenomena of fatigue as well as those of learning processes and habit formation. 53 THESIS X Ways op Learning Visual Forms By IVIay N. Hills Thesis.— 1 placed before the pupils of the first, third, sixth and eighth grades and before the normal school students five meaningless figures based on geometrical forms. I asked the pupils to study the figures, but did not suggest any particular way of studying them. I allowed ten minutes. Then I took away the figures and asked the pupils to draw them. After the drawing, I asked the pupils to answer the following questions : 1. How did you learn the figures ? 2. Did you move your hand or any part of your body in the shape of the outline while studying ? 3. Did you associate the figures with any familiar shape or ob- ject? 4. Did you study the parts of the figures separately or try to think of words which would describe the parts ? From the first grade, of course, I received only oral answers, which could not be tabulated, but I learned much about the char- acteristics of little children. I marked the papers received from the third, sixth and eighth grades and normal school students as to the general appearance of the drawings they had made and then as to the perfectness of the details in the drawings. In marking the papers, I tried to keep one standard of excellence for a, another for b, and another for c, without regard to grade or sex. After marking all the papers, I found the per cent, receiving a, h and c respectively, as to the general appearance, and then as to the more detailed repre- sentation. Next I found the per cent, of correspondence between the general appearance and the detail — that is, what per cent, of those who got a in the general, got a in the detail also. My next problem was to find how pupils learn. Very often a teacher places a lesson — spelling, for instance — on the blackboard and tells the class to write each word five times or else she gives them no direction for learning. So it seemed important to try to know something of the natural ways in which children learn. For if we, as teachers, can appeal to a natural method, it saves much energy^ and time for both teacher and pupil. 54 WATS OF LEARNING VISUAL FORMS 55 After reading the answers for both the children and the students, I was able to make four classifications: first, those who learned by moving the hand or some part of the body in the direction of the outline of the figure to be learned ; second, those who associated the figure or a part of it with some object or figure already familiar; third, those who tried to learn the figures as wholes; and fourth, those who analyzed the parts, learning only a part at a time. According to Table XII., it is seen that as to the general ap- pearance of the figures the normal school students received a higher mark by only a few per cent, than the pupils of the eighth grade; and also it may be noticed that the increase in ability to remember the general appearance is gradual, but with more variation between the sixth and eighth grades, 47 per cent, of the normal school students receiving a ; 30 per cent, of the eighth grade ; 27 per cent, of the sixth grade, and 26 per cent, of the third grade. In the third and eighth grades the boys did the best, but in the sixth grade the girls took the lead. This difference between the ability of the girls and boys is even more noticed as to the detailed appearance of the figures. Fifty-seven per cent, of the normal school students received a as to the detailed correctness of their drawings; 13 per cent, of the eighth grade ; 11 per cent, of the sixth grade, and 8 per cent, of the third grade. Here the difference in ability in remembering many details between the normal student and the pupil of any grade is quite marked. Table XIII. shows the per cent, of students and pupils receiving €,, h, c, as to the general appearance, who also received the same mark in detailed appearance. Table XIV. I found the most interesting and instructive. This shows the method by which each child learned the figures. Nearly all the students and pupils used a combination of two or three methods and several used all the methods. The normal school student depended the most upon association in remembering the figures, 92 per cent, using this method, while 37 per cent, consider it the most important method of learning; but the children consider the learning of wholes as wholes the most important. For example, one typical normal school student writes: ' ' In order to place the figures better in my mind I at once thought of their likeness to other things. Upon looking at the first one, I noticed that the upper, lower and left hand sides were straight lines put together so as to form a square. The fourth side made me think of a crude drawing of a human face. The second figure looked like an Indian tent ; the third one like a semicircle on an axe ; the fouth one like writing, and the fifth like an oak leaf. 56 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Let us next notice what importance was assigned to the motor element in learning. Eighty-eight per cent, of the third grade, 80 per cent, of the sixth grade, 76 per cent, of the eighth grade and 40 per cent, of the normal school students used this method. Nearly- all the children said that they moved their finger on their desk or in the air while learning. When they thought they could draw it, they looked away from the figure and tried to draw it with the finger. This method seemed most natural to them, but as the children ad- vanced in age and in grade they gradually lost the motor method of drawing, or rather of learning; and when we come to the normal school student, we find that the only form of the motor element exist- ing is the moving of the eyes around the figures just as the child moved the finger. There may be two causes for this ; first, the natural instinct toward motor learning may be less strong as the child grows older ; second, this natural instinct may have been repressed so often through the discipline of the school room that the older students do not have so strong a tendency to use this method. Only 9 per cent, of the normal school students consider this method the most im- portant; 16 per cent, of the eighth grade; 24 per cent, of the sixth grade, and 40 per cent, of the third grade. As mentioned before the normal school students consider the learning by association the most important method, but as we come down through the grades we find the method decreasing in popu- larity. Ninety-two per cent, of the normal school students use it; 86 per cent, of the eighth grade ; 68 per cent, of the sixth grade, and 48 per cent, of the third grade. "While 41 per cent, of the eighth grade consider it the most helpful method, only 5 per cent, of the third consider it the most helpful. In comparing the drawings with the methods used, I found that those who used this method — associa- tion — modified their images so that often the drawing looked more like the figure with which it was associated than like the original form. For example, an eighth grade boy said that the second figure "looked just like a pine tree" and his drawing did look decidedly like a pine tree. All the children of the third grade used the method of learning by wholes to some extent. Ninety-four per cent, of the eighth grade and 75 per cent, of the normal school students used it, while 55 per cent, of the third grade considered this method most helpful ; 45 per cent, of the sixth grade ; 32 per cent, of the eighth grade, and 30 per cent, of the normal school students. This fact may be given as one reason why so much smaller pro- portion of the children received a as to the details of their drawings than received a as to the general appearance. Naturally children WATS OF LEARNING VISUAL FORMS 57 see the whole thing at once, instead of analyzing. Only 8 per cent, of the third grade used the method of analysis, while 57 per cent, of the normal school students used it. After several days had passed since the students and children had seen the original figures, I asked them to draw the figures again from memory. Then I asked them which method helped the most in remembering the figures. These papers I did not tabulate but from them I learned many facts. Those who considered the motor element of learning very important the first day they drew the figures said that the motor element did not help them so much when they had to remember the figures for several days. The normal school stu- dents considered this method "a quick method of learning but the easiest to forget. ' ' While many who did not realize that association helped them the first day say that it helped them to remember for a longer period. One student writes : "The first three figures which I associated with a familiar object came back readily to-day, but the others which I had learned by hand tracing did not come back so readily. ' ' It is interesting to notice the combinations of methods used and the results obtained from various combinations. Nearly all the students and pupils who received an a in both general and detailed appearance used a combination of three or four methods, while those who were marked c rarely used more than one or two methods. The normal school students obtained the best results by studying the figure as a whole first and then spending much time in associating it with other known figures and analyzing it. The children of the third grade obtained the best results by studying the figure as a whole carefully and then tracing it with the finger many times. When they thought they could draw it, they looked away and tried to trace it in the air or on the desk; if they couldn't do it, they studied it some more. As the children grow older imagination or association seems to take the place of the motor element ; and the tendency to reason and analyze grows with age. These facts too often pass unnoticed in the school room. ]\Iany teachers who do good work with older children fail with the little pupils because they do not realize the importance of the motor learning to the undeveloped mind. And the reverse is equally true. The motor process of learning must be used but not so constantly that as the child grows older he will lose the power to analyze and to reason. 58 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING . a> oi oi la (M'tMin i-ioco t- I ^ i-H o CO o "S a r-1 (M (N LO i-i (N t^ ^ r-; t-; -H •>: <^. jrfTflOlOOJ CSrt(>i IMCOOO OOMGO 1 g rH CM 00 CM CO 00 °^ IN (M rt s CO (M CO CO o 05 « a rtCO'*'* t-OO (M"*»n lO •* '^ t^ ^ ?0 tH CO ?0 05 CO O ci rt . O W IC CO T)H r-H c; d d ■* CO (N ej c: o t^ lO t^ O CO (N UO (N i-H pq a -t t— -"i* 00 t~- CO X o w § H-5 a iz; o m 0) 0) -iS ^ ^ o; 0/ O '^ ^ ^ ^ t^ t-i ;-. ^ ^ ^ &> tH (-< !h rt cS ri ;h b ^ c^ c^ c5 a a a cj c3 ci o a s a s a a ^^ (I f- ^^ ^ Vi M a> 0) a) 3 S 3 !zi iz; ^ !z; Pk Ph f2^ 1^ 121 !^ OJ -i -+i -IJ -U fl fl C (D g} a> OJ O) V p^ Pk P4 15 '5 cs :;3 n3 ."S I— I f-^ ^^ c€ c^ ri .rt .PH :;3 -+j +j ^j oS =4 eS « « « -4-^ -4J -(J ^ '^ 'O oi a> o n3 '^ '^ "^ "^ (Tj r- — _ C C fl m c^ cs =. rt cS cS CCS ^^ p.^ ,— I ooo; d rt cS be fcC bO £ « bo be be O e c d 03 CD CO tQ to e9 r) Ph Pi pLi S cS ci cS a a a cc CO tn ;-< (h >-c o) oj a; Pi P< Pi c^ c^ ^ p4 Ph P4 •+j -l-> -|J fl fl fl ^^)^ a ■ £ ^ eo o in CO CO CO go, --- ^ ^^- CH «(Mint^t^ (MMin*3 » «D o (M l-H (M ^ (M "« CO Tj* ■-<■* M o ::: H-l ,^j H(N rW <^ o in t^ CO O •* in 1—1 ^ •a 00 1— 1 r— I l—H XI o ao KM CO 1— 1 e N tJ* CO 1— 1 in eo ® hH t» I-! l-H hH* sI h-J l-I o > > 62 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING In the second table, 7 was substituted for a, 6 for h, 5 for c, etc. The number of a's was multiplied by 7, the number of &'s by 6, etc. The results were added and the total was placed in the table. The number of details which were right in each test were also added and put in the table. TABLE XVI Boys Test I Test II Test III Child's own Method Imagination Method Motor Method Total 1 C5 '3 G *^ a o P " o « U 1 S 2 '3 g .1 ^ OS ft 1 § .2 • rt ft o II. 62 224 60 210 78 224 200 658 IV. 102 243 113 247 105 237 320 727 VI. 118 260 105 270 120 259 343 789 VIII. 135 298 143 296 180 312 458 906 Total 417 1025 421 1023 483 1032 1321 3080 Total 1442 1444 1515 4401 Girls II. 59 211 63 203 68 219 190 633 IV. 106 244 104 242 122 244 332 730 VI. 114 260 115 293 133 260 362 813 VIII. 151 310 146 313 165 313 462 936 Total 430 1025 428 1051 488 1036 1346 3112 Total 1455 1479 1524 4458 Boys and Girls II. 121 435 123 413 146 443 390 1291 rv. 208 487 217 489 227 481 652 1457 VI. 232 520 220 563 253 519 705 1602 VIII. 286 608 289 609 345 625 920 1842 Total 847 2050 849 2074 971 2068 2667 6192 Total 289 7 2923 3039 8859 The table shows, in regard to detail, a great improvement from the second to the fourth grades, no great change from the fourth to the sixth grades, and again a great improvement from the sixl^ to the eighth grades. In test II. the boys of the fourth grade actually surpassed those of the sixth ; but this result is perhaps accidental, as it is due to the great success of two or three boys in the fourth grade — who ranked as high in the number of correct details as the best of the eighth grade — combined with the very low rank of two or three boys in the sixth grade. The gain in general form and proportion is usually gradual from grade to grade. It totals less, from the second to the eighth grades, than the gain in number of correct details. The number of correct METHODS OF LEARNING VISUAL FORMS 63 details is doubled and a little over, while the general form and pro- portion is not very much better in the eighth grade than in the second. The younger children get the general form of the figure much better than they get the details. They see anything as a whole, and have not yet learned to look for the parts. One important phase of the primary teacher's work is to lead the child to see the details in the things around him. One very interesting thing is the number of times that the figures were reversed. Figures 1 and 2 were often reversed and usually it was after one or the other of them had been learned be- fore. There were most reversals in Grade IV., there being very few in the other grades. In regard to the relative success of the three metJiods of learning used respectively in tests I., II. and III., we find from Table XVI. that, for all the children taken together, the motor method gave better results than either the method in which the children were directed to close their eyes and imagine the figure or the method of the child's own choosing. This superiority of the motor method is much more marked in correctness of details than in general form and proportion. The importance of motor methods in school work is indicated by these results. Looking at the results of each grade separately, we see that the motor method of learning is by far the best for the second grade, w^hile the imagination is very poor. The importance of the motor method was brought very forcibly to my mind in giving the tests in this grade. When the children were learning their figures by the choice or motor methods, a great many of them moved their whole body in the direction in which they would move their fingers when drawing the figure. In the fourth and sixth grades the imagination tests begin to gain prominence, showing that the chil- dren are gaining the power to form images. The question arises. Would it not be better to lead the pupils to learn by a method which is found to be best for children in that grade than to allow them to learn as they choose? It would seem from the results of these tests that it would be much better to direct them as to the w^ay they should study, especially in the low grades. The choice tests do not give the best results, as per- haps one might expect, but it was where some specified method was prescribed that the best results were obtained. If the children had better results when some specified method was used, with only one trial, does it not seem probable that there would be still greater improvement if it was continued ? The individual child, however, should be studied. Some children ?^f^^ T^r^.r v/yi 64 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING are greatly helped by having the method of learning suggested. For instance, there was a boy in grade II. who advanced from e in the choice test to a in the motor test for correctness of general form. He also gained in details and proportion although not so much. That boy certainly was helped, that time at least, by having the method of learning suggested to him. Of course there might have been other things which combined to make it better. The motor test was the last test given, and as this was probably the first time that the children in this grade had ever done anything of the kind they had grown more accustomed to doing it in the last test and so could put their minds more entirely upon it. Another child would be greatly hindered in its development if forced to learn by some specified method. There was one girl in grade II. who fell, in gen- eral form, from h in the choice test to / in the imagination test ; and her loss in detail and proportion was nearly as great. This time, at least, the girl was hindered in her learning by having to learn by the imagination method. She however ranked quite high in the motor test. While the tabulated results show that the majority of the chil- dren gained in the motor test, there were very few cases where there was a great difference. There was one boy in Grade II. who gained from / in the imagination test to h in the motor for general form; in details he gained from 1 to 4, and in proportion from e to h. This shows again the great value of the motor method of learning for some individuals, especially young children. Although this study is made of the learning of visual forms and seems very narrow, it may be applied to many phases of the school work. In the map drawing in the higher grades it should be remem- bered that it is important that the children shall have plenty of practice in drawing the maps and that they shall have an image of the map. In the manual training department, a knowledge of how to use the tools will not suffice. There must be practice in using them. Also in the study of the sciences, we find this recognized and see that in a great many schools, the pupils try the experiments themselves instead of merely getting an image of the results from descriptions which they read in books or which the teacher gives them. When the small children are learning to read, it helps to impress it more deeply upon their minds if when they are learning a new word, they learn to speak it, as well as get an image of its form. Thus we find that in all the school work, when possible, the children should ' ' learn to do by doing. ' ' THESIS XII How Children Study By Martha Josephine Baldwin Thesis.— The following questions were sent to teachers in the grades and high school to be answered by the pupils: 1. How long did you spend on this lesson? Was it a study period? 2. Were you interrupted at all? 3. How did you try to learn the lesson? 4. How did you know you had your lesson? The pupils were not allowed to see the following question until after they had finished the preceding ones ? 5a. Did you try to learn the words of the book? h. Did you write down any part? c. Did you use an outline? Papers were received from the sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth grades, and from the four classes of the high school, altogether numbering four hundred and five: two hundred and thirteen girls and one hundred and ninety-two boys. The lessons had been prepared the day before and the questions were answered upon one special lesson: history in the sixth and seventh grades and in the freshman and sophomore classes, geography in the eighth, grammar in the ninth, and German in the junior and senior classes. Two typical papei-s are given on the followingpages. Qif'l^ Subject, Grammar. NintJi Grade. Age, Fourteen. 1. I spent three quarters of an hour on the lesson. It was a study period. 2. I was not interrupted. 3. I tried to learn the lesson by first reading it, then learning some of the rules by heart. 4. I knew I had my lesson by reciting it to myself. 5a. I did not try to learn the words of the book. &. I wrote a little down. c. I did not make an outline for any part of it. Botj. Subject, History. Freshman. Age, Fifteen. 1. I studied my lesson fifty minutes. 65 66 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNINQ It was not a study period. 2. My dog barked and I had to go to speak to him. 3. Concentrated myself for the length of time stated. 4. I answered the questions which I expected Miss B would ask us. 5a. Partly. &. I did not. c. I wrote out part of the lesson. The papers received were studied for the characteristics shown by the answers to the questions. Then I obtained from the high school teachers, records of the pupils' standing received in the studies concerning which these papers were written for the previous eight weeks. The system runs in A, B, C, D ; A being the highest mark. There are twelve different methods of study used. They divide into two great heads, the word methods or studying simply words, and the thought method, illustrated by one quotation which says "I tried to understand the lesson as I studied it." Under the first head are included reading, reading and reciting, reading and writing, reading by sections, reading and using other books, and learning by heart. The thought method includes reading for story, reading to understand, concentrating self, try^ing to answer questions, finding important facts, and merely spending time required. According to Table XVII. it is found that 82 per cent, of the children used the word method of learning as shown above, leaving a very small per cent, whose answers indicate that they tried in any way to under- stand the content of the text. A larger per cent, of girls than of boys studied by the thought method. Boys TABLE XVII How Did You Study Youb Lesson? Grades Grammar High G S k--^ »^ ►H > > > {Number Per cent. Time 11 16 32 22 34 5 24 8 73 67 86 57,92 100 100 73 20 18 44 43 49 69 71 97 [Number 4 8 5 17 Thought^ Percent. 27 33 14 43 [Time [25 20 30 34 85 3 16 15 31 20 21 17 18 8 1 75 76 56 76 83 78 94 90 89 100 27 20 23 55 17 46 47 45 54 75 1 5 12 10 461 2 1 25 24 44 24 17 22 6 10 11 20 23 19 43 54 41 90 56 56 Girls (Number 112 17 30 24151 12 28 91 3 16 27 24 47 23 24 10 8 1 Word] Percent. 92 23 23 33 18 92 100 100 100 84 82 75 91 26 92 100 100 100 [Time 27 19 27 40 60 69 78 46 30 24 21 39 45 62 58 48 62 65 {Number Percent. Time 14 7 8 8 77 77 67 15 30 20 40 9 1 82 8 63 69 3 6 8 5 6 2 16 18 25 9 74 8 17 30 63 53 48 65 > ;>^ HOW CHILDREN STUDY (57 iS oo>— ii-HO 1—1 OJiMi— iiO 00 r~i-H(Mi.O i-H-HO 1— ii— 100 O ^ rl -i 1-1 C^loD C^JCOiC-* 1-1 rH O '^ l-H T-H (M lOOOi:© -^CO C<)J rt O pH C^ rH Tjl CO CO t-^ M 00 M i-i rH rH rH rH CO b IC ■* ■* (M IM rH CO '<*l (M O I-' CO CO K l-H SCOXrHCOrHrH Tfl rHt^ (M(MS 2 "73 '^ *^ '^ '"^ •■■ C "^ '^ 1> C '^ ^ 68 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING t- JO rHl-l(MlCl-HCO «0 (N ,_(rHr-llMi— ICO ■^ i-H >— ' la ■^(M.-ht-ii-ico-^.-h o ■^ ,-t CO •* CO i-H i-H rH >— I CO O T-i (^ CO C^ eo (M(Ni-H CDC'liC'-HOJ I— iO'*'<*i -H . CO eo I— I CO i^ » o 03 ^ i-KMiM-^COGOCOCO H iC I-H o « Ci rq ,-H lO «o I— 1 ^ bo CO N r-l C<> ?1 --< I-H X t3 O £ s IM (M ,-1 (M t^ w kH 1-1 >■ ^ IM rH CO i-H ■<*< f9 ^ CO ^ < o H » w CJ n i-H CO c; '^ ,-1 05 01 (M & 2 H >o (N r-i o o Q M t^ eo 1-1 ffli>eo T-i CO 1 C<3 M in eo ic i-i Tfi J- '■^. c^ t— 1 i-i CO eo t> i-H lO > I-H I-H i-H Tj< I-H UO •* CO rH I-H Oi I-H ■>* eo I-H l-l i-H i-H Oi Tj< rH rH I<1 rH IM § lO CO >* I-H (M(M t- rH lO C iC •* CO TjH (M t^ lO rH rH rH Ifl l> rH IM i5 (M CO ^ ■* eo rH (M «o CO IM CO CO 00 •^ rH ■^ CD CO (M in i|g Joi g ill l-^gi >.^P5 S^oS ".^i cc •r' 'a3a3i=fe£l!-:i-S-M i^Eirt^^-13-co HOW CHILDREN STUDY 69 There are two of the twelve divisions which take the lead. The first is reading, which is used in the case of twenty-five per cent, of both boys and girls, being more popular with the boys. The other prominent method is that of reading and using other books. Twenty per cent, of all the papers show the use of this method, which is employed more by the girls than by the boys. In contrast with the simple reading method, this is used much more in the high school than in the grades, especially in the junior class. This is doubtless due to the fact that the papers came from German classes where the translation was done by the use of the German dictionary. In the ages, this method is used very much by the older pupils. Tests • Tests • No tests ■ TABLE XX How Did You Know You Had YouB Lesson? Boys VI VII VIII IX IV III II I 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Number 7 14 25 21 36 4 6 9 3 10 19 25 25 17 12 3 7 1 Per cent. 47 67 74 62 67 57 43 38 43 59 62 64 63 56 67 23 70 20 Number 8 7 9 13 8 3 9 15 4 7 12 14 5 13 6 10 3 4 Per cent. 53 33 26 38 33 43 57 62 57 46 38 36 37 44 33 77 30 80 Girls Number 10 6 30 33 38 13 11 5 3 13 18 29 32 24 18 4 4 1 Per cent. 67 43 79 94 83 81 63 55 60 57 64 94 87 80 77 45 75 100 Number 5 8 8 2 8 3 5 5 2 10 10 2 5 6 3 5 1 Per cent. 33 57 21 6 17 19 37 50 40 43 36 6 13 20 23 55 25 Table XIX. shows how the pupils knew they had their lessons. Table XX. shows the same, only in different divisions, which are two, one in which the pupils tested themselves in some definite way and one where no definite tests were employed. It was found that higher marks were obtained by those using some sort of test. Boys of thirteen and sixteen and girls of thirteen and fourteen used tests more than those of any other age. Of the nine classes of tests represented by the headings and quo- tations of Table XX. the most prevailing is the second, which is the proof by reciting either to one's self or to some one else by topics. Fifty-six per cent, of all used this test and it seems more popular among the girls. It is used more in the high school and most in the freshman class. The ages thirteen, fourteen and fifteen are the ones that used it most. On comparing the results of my inquiry with the standing of the pupils in their studies, it was found that the average time spent in obtaining the highest mark was sixty minutes, the girls spending more time than the boys and the juniors and the seniors using the most. The preparation was at home, usually the pupils not being interrupted. The largest per cent, of those who obtained the highest 70 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING mark used the simple reading method, with nearly as many referring also to other books. In obtaining the mark B, the average time spent was sixty one minutes, the boys spending more time than the girls, and the fresh- man class required more than thg others. Here, also, the lessons were prepared at home in the afternoon with no interruptions. The method most used was that of reading and using other books. A little more time was spent in obtaining the mark C, that is, sixty nine minutes and the boys spent more time than the girls. This preparation was also at home and in the afternoon, although the boys of the higher classes studied in the evening. They were not interrupted to any great extent and forty-four per cent, used the methods of reading and using other books, which applies more to the girls. The greatest interest in the marks centers in the lowest one, for those receiving D were all boys, and the average time spent was one hundred and fifty minutes. They all studied at school with recita- tions going on around them and they were interrupted. The com- mon method was reading, over and over again. In drawing conclusions from these studies, the first which comes up is that the children study words rather than thoughts, that they study in a mechanical sort of way, which enables them to say they have studied the lesson and spent the time required. They read the words over and over, and doubtless get more confused the more they read. This seems to me a great fault. Children should study to under- stand what they read and it will prove a quicker and surer method. This is one problem for teachers to solve, and it is certainly a very important one. G. Stanley Hall says that at least three fourths of the time spent by a boy of twelve in trying to learn a hard lesson out of a book, is time thrown away, not in deliberate idling, but through uncon- scious mind wandering, lack of concentration, the unwise attempts of memorizing words of the text without proper assimilation of thoughts. One most serious side of the problem is that most of the loss is experienced by boys and girls who are trying hard to master the lesson. THESIS XIII An Experimental Study of Musical Learning By Mary G. Gilles Thesis. — This study was made to ascertain the different methods employed in learning and remembering a series of tones and the best method of doing the same. The reagents were nine normal school students, two instructors, and eight children from grades five to eight, and two high school students, making a total of twenty-one. Of this number nineteen have had practice, varying from considerable to a very little, in either playing or singing or both, one sang by note only and one could neither sing or play, and had no knowledge of notation, the keyboard or the relation of one tone to another though he could dis- criminate tones higher or lower than a given tone. The experiment was made in four ways, the instrument used being a piano. I shall refer to the different parts of the experiment as test I., II., III. and IV. Test I. consisted of a series of fifteen notes played to the reagent, who reproduced them from memory on the piano. Test II. comprised a series of fifteen notes which the reagent read from the score and reproduced from memory on the piano. Test III. con- tained a series of fourteen notes. These the reagent read and played from the score until he could reproduce them from memory. Test IV. was made up of a series of thirteen notes. They were played to the reagent who followed the score at the same time, completing the test by reproducing from memory. The reagent was not limited as to time or number of trials but he attempted to reproduce as soon as he thought he could do so. The children often tried to reproduce before they were able to do so, seeming to depend upon the trial and success method, while the adults, in most instances, did not attempt to reproduce from memory I until they were fairly sure they could reproduce correctly, yet after reproducing they w^ere not always sure that they had done it cor- rectly. It was noticeable that the first and last tones were reproduced more quickly and more accurately than the intervening ones, by both children and adults. This fact has been found to be true in all memory tests. 71 72 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING The children almost invariably began with the feeling that they couldn't do what was asked of them. They underestimated their ability and in many cases said they had reproduced the tones incor- rectly simply because they thought it beyond them to do it. How- ever by encouraging them and naming some of their little friends who had taken the tests, and said it was great fun, I succeeded in overcoming this fear. Several of the adults and the children noticed the scale form in some of the series of tones given, and in that way recognized the series in less time than they would have otherwise. Six of the adults failed to recognize a series as correct after play- ing it so, and three failed to recognize it as wrong when it was wrong. Six of the children were troubled in a similar way and made the error more than once. Four played a series wrong, thinking it right, and made this mistake from one to four times. Three distinct methods were used by the reagents, sound, symbol and visual. Combinations of these three were used to some extent. The symbol method involved the use of syllables, numbers and letters. The visual included a visual image of the keyboard or a key as representing a given tone, the position of the notes on the staff or their relative position when representing tones. It is readily seen that test I. affords a greater opportunity for the use of the sound method than any other test. Test II. is more favorable for the use of the visual method. In tests III. and IV. there is occasion to use both the sound and visual methods equally. Table XXI shows the number of children and adults that used each method. The children used the sound method the greatest number of times, twelve, and the adults the sound and visual methods, each twelve times. The adults used visual memory more than the children, which supports the statement made by Colegrove that "Visual stimuli usually make the strongest appeal to adults, excepting during sleep and repose." There is a great tendency as age increases to use the visual memory. Only in one instance did a child under thirteen use visual imagery, while all the adults, with the exception of one, made more or less use of it. The children used the symbol method to a greater extent than the visual memory. They used it to a greater extent than the adults, probably because in school they are taught to read notes by means of symbols, which would naturally influence them to remember not by the relative position of one note to another, but in terms of another and more familiar system of remembering. From the table it follows that both the adults and children com- EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MUSICAL LEARNING 73 !2i o 1— I cs t^ -tJ GO m in ^ 00 Mt-I i^ rt rt r-l (N_ q t>; in r-H q o ■<* Lo t-^ ■>* -^ o m H or-^t^coc^iiccjin CO l-O •^ CJ CO (M C 3 H E-i . (h 0) 11 o CO o-^ o CO O I-H -^ G CO (N f-H CO (M t^ •* O UO ^ o o (M CO r- 1 I-H 9 H ^ I-H (M CO O] (M II H t; CO I— I (M o f_ CO r-l I-H O CO CO (M o in CO Ti* in CO CO t-- 03 CO t^ •* ■<* (M l-Hl-H ^,-H^ 1-H(SI(M(M £ .2 P> Eh -* CO I-H l^ H 00 r-H o" sz; o Tl< (M H ^ H CO 03 00 in in in o i-H cq o o o I-H I-H I-H s OQ GQ > OQ a > a «^ -< ■* Ca O N rH a c a a . . >-. OQ 02 32 H u ^ H a t>» 02 72 II 13 "C a H 02 II h H s o 03 02 3 II .s 02 IS =! II 02 74 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING pleted test III. in the least time and with the least number of trials, the adults taking less time than the children and fewer trials in either case, although there is no marked difference. Both adults and children had the poorest record in test I., it taking the children more than twice as long as the adults and three times the number of trials. Of the three principal methods of learning, the symbol method required the least time for the children and the auditory for the adults. It will be noticed that the symbol method took the least time for the children and the greatest for the adults, the latter even requir- ing more time than the former. This is the only instance in which the adult requires more time than the children. It would seem from this that time is lost if we try to fit things into a system with which we are not very familiar, but if we use the system of remem- bering with which we are most familiar time is gained, and the use of the trial and success method is eliminated. With both children and adults, this symbol method required the least number of trials, and the visual the greatest, which seems to indicate that we can depend upon our visual memory the least in memory of musical notes, and that when we have a system into which to fit things our power of recall is surer. The children seem to use this method of remembering more than the adults. Table XXII. represents the number that used different methods, of those who play by ear or do not, and those who play from memory or do not. For convenience I will refer to them as groups a, b, c and d. Three children were placed in group a and seven in group b. It is more than probable that most of those in the latter group could play by ear if they tried, but had never attempted to do so before this experiment. Seven adults were placed in group b and four in group a. The children in groups a and b used the sound method to the greatest extent. The visual method was not used at all by those in group a, and was made considerable use of by those in group b. The adults in group a used the sound method the greatest number of times, while those in group b used the visual. Both children and adults belonging to group b used the visual method more than those of group a. All the children and eight adults were placed in group c, and the remaining three adults were placed in group d. Group c contains those who play from memory, and group d those who are unable to do so. Both children and adults in group c used the sound method the EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MUSICAL LEARNING 75 •raig •A-S •A in^s ^ ** " -raig -gNM r-4rt (MIM (M.'*ooM t^Ti*coeo t^-^ooeo t^eocoea H p AS S H •A'S rt ,-H ■mis s ^ 'H •mis ■0^ eot-00 eoi>.oo cot^oo coi--.ook>. -^>;S i£ >^ s g a g s a « g a >. a 2 >> a 2 >. a 2 ,Q (U "*H X2 OJ <4-l ^ OJ <*H tT p», a >i ^h" >. a >. H >. a f^ cS is _ cS by ea ot pla from ot pla by ea ot pla from ot pla >i S >i fl >^ c >^. c >. c >> B ^ 45 PM P PM Q rt ^ Ph Q Ph JS ^ PM P Ph Q >; ^ a 02 £* ^j ^ -u J2 o ^ o fi^ P Ph « 76 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARyiXG greatest number of times and those of group d the least, substituting the visual for it. From a survey of the Avhole, it seems that the auditory memory is most essential to musicians, and if they are lacking- in this, adults rely uj^on the visual memory, and the ehiklren upon a system with which they are more familiar and into which they can fit the thing to be remembered, for example, the use of the symbols. As age increases there is a great tendency to use the visual memory. Visual memory is better for the older students because it is employed more by them. The motor memory is important in connnitting to memory. In several cases I noticed a movement of the fingers or the lips, and in some cases the symbols were said aloud or were sung. The usual practice method of musicians seems to be without doubt the best method of learning. There were many individual peculiarities. One boy took note of the highest tone played, which showed that he reasoned about it, taking less time, fewer trials, and having to hear it the least number of times of all the children. His record too was better than that of many of the adults. Another child belonged to a family, several of which were very fine musicians. She herself played well, but could not play by ear, as could none of her relatives. It took her fifty-five minutes to com- plete the first test, thirty trials, and she was obliged to hear it played forty-nine times. Then in order for her to get it, I had to offer sug- gestions, and call her attention to the relation of one tone to another. One particular tone, a, she couldn't place, and although she played the series twice correctly, she didn't realize it. Finally she became assured that it was correct by comparison, listening intently to the series after having played it herself. Of the two who could not play the piano, I noticed a similarity in the manner of learning. They were given just enough instruc- tion to enable them to perform the tests. They arranged the notes or tones into three groups, but not by measures, as one would natu- rally think. A series of tones, one following the other in succession, fonned one group, then the repetition of two tones determined the end of a second group, and the third group included the remaining tones. They repeated these groups several times, one more than another, and made no attempt to play from memory until quite sure they could remember it. Both depended on the sjonbols largely. One of these two I have just mentioned, f, took twenty-five minutes for the completion of the test, while it took one very pro- ficient in the art of music only a minute. In another test f took EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MUSICAL LEARNING 77 •JX o re M< » cc M L-i 'I' CI CI »n o ir: -H M cc ^ — -^ co "X O o u-; 't o o t^ 00 rf 'ti u- t- irt L- -^ cc •;j le ii CO I— I pq 3 O ■ '•'X M >-H C) ^ X —H 1-"^ ce -H ~5 •s M „ „ ~, -, ^, „ 'i fo CI 'T 'O o "t "-S -* 0 i-O 01 O O UO 1-- 1^ 1-0 01 U'' 0>1 CI UO CO -* X rt ,— I rt ^ cj ^ 5,] -), (M ci > > »^^t-„^, ^co;^cow> :::::3;::cSc:::S = Seo 39 W CO^OnHO-HCOCO-f'-* ^J-— IC17^1-0-^>— I— iCl— i-hII ^ rt'S^'^i-i.^^-H— ' ciS^l5 AT- ^^