<•■ L.
Southern Branch
of the
University of California
Los Angeles
Form L 1
\\\s
This book is DUE on the last date stamped belo.
^'AV 16
1930
Form L-9-15;?i-8,'24
STUDIES IX DEVELOPMENT AND
LEARNING
COXTKIBUTIOXS FK03I THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOL-
OGY AND CHILD STUDY IN THE FITCHBUKG NORMAL
SCHOOL, 3I\DE BY THE ADVANCED CLASS OF
1907, AND EDITED
BY
EDWIN A. KIRKPATRICK, Pn.M.
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT.
ARCHIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY
BDITBD BT
B. S. WOODWORTH
No. 12, MABcn, 1909
NEW YOKK
THE SCIENCE PKESS
1909
Press of
The New era printing CoMPANr
Lancaster. Pa.
CONTENTS
Page
THESIS I
Physical Tests and Measueements. Lillian G. Myers 1
Comments 2
THESIS II
Development of Auditoey and Visual IMemoby. Mary J. Conway 4
Comments 8
THESIS III
Development of Childeen in Quickness of Peeception and Movements.
Sadie E. Lamprey 9
Comments 14
THESIS IV
Development of the Aetistic Sense. Grace L. Seaver 1&
Comments 24
THESIS V
Development of Penmanship. Grace E. Stockwell 25
Comments 31
THESIS VI
The Development of Language. Elizabeth S. Smith 32
Title only.
THESIS VII
Chaeacteeistics of Childeen as Viewed by Teachees. Mabel Josephine
Spalter 33
Comments 35
THESIS VIII
The Cubve of Learning. Abbie F. Munn 36
Comments 52
THESIS IX
Fatigue in Habit Foemation. Marian F. Lane 53
Title only.
THESIS X
Ways of Learning Visual Foems. May N. Hills 54
Comments 59
THESIS XI
Methods of Leaening Visual Foems. Edna L. Battles 60
iii
j^ C0NTENT8
Page
THESIS XII
IIow CniLDREN Study. Martha Josephine Baldwin 65
THESIS XIII
An Expebimentai- Study of Musical Lkakning. Mary G. Gilles 71
THESIS XIV
Incidental Memory. Isabel Wallace 79
THESIS XV
Children's Ideas of Right and Wrong. Fannie G. Stearns 89
THESIS XVI
An Individual Child. Frances D. Smitli 100
Title only.
THESIS XVII
Notes on a Child's Development. Grace I. Davis 100
PREFACE
The students of the advanced or four years course in the Fitch-
burg Normal School are required to write a thesis during the last
year on some subject connected with psychology or child study.
They usually collect data and treat them statistically. This year
the data, consisting largely of a series of measurements and tests
made upon the six hundred children in the training school during
the last five years, were of more value than usual, and it was thought
best to print parts of a number of the theses, with an introduction
and supplementary comments by the head of the department. Only
those parts of the theses that are of general psychological and peda-
gogical interest are included. Complete theses would doubtless be
of interest to some who are interested in knowing the value of thesis
writing as a method of training elementary teachers, but to have
published in full would have made the monograph too large and
detracted from its interest to psychologists. All unnecessary details
therefore, together with some suggestions of practical applications,
are omitted. With very few minor exceptions the language of the
students is unchanged. All the theses were accompanied by refer-
ences, but as most of them were incomplete, including only material
well known to psychologists, they are omitted. The editor when
necessary has prefaced each thesis with an explanation of the tests
on which it is based, and followed each with brief comments.
It may be of interest to remark that the past year nearly all
of the advanced class, instead of taking a general topic for study,
took a concrete case of a child backward in one or many lines and
tried to improve him, accompanying the teaching by reading and
by carefully kept records of what was done and the results. This
studying of individual children in order to teach them more effec-
tively proved to be of much more value and interest than the mere
studying of individuals without expecting to do anything for them.
E. A. KiRKPATRICK.
FiTCHBURG, Mass.,
November, 1908.
STUDIES IN DEVELOr^MENT AND LEARNING
THESIS I
/ 93-a S
Physical Tests and - IVIeasurements
By Lillian G. Myers
Editor's Explanation.— The data regarding physical develop-
ment summarized in the tables that follow were taken about the
first of October of each year by the Normal students under the direc-
tion of the head of the Department of Child Study. One or two
students usually took charge of each instrument and made the tests
and measurements of all the children as they passed along the line.
The ordinary clothing at that season of the year was worn by the
children except that the boys were asked to remove their coats while
being weighed and measured. At first shoes were also removed, but
later this was given up. The head of the department tried to secure
accuracy in measurement but of course there were slight errors due
to the personal equation of those taking the measurements at dif-
ferent times. Larger errors, due to the mishandling of an instru-
ment, sometimes occurred but were usually discovered and corrected
before many measurements were made. Although not quite as ac-
curate as measurements made by experts the sources of error are
not large enough to vitiate the general results. In the grip test
an adjustable dynamometer of the Smedley type was used, which
gives a higher record especially for small children than the ordinary
non-adjustable instrument. The tests of chest expansion and of
lung capacity are not always correct indications of the strength of
individual children, especially of the lower grades because they do
not know how to empty and fill the lungs to the extent that they are
capable of if they only knew just how to do it. Sometimes a de-
termined effort to contract the chest results only in rigidity or actual
expansion. Better results are usually obtained by letting the chil-
dren imitate other children or the experimenter than by telling them
what to do and urging them to do their best.
Thesis.— (As the facts discussed in this thesis are of a familiar
character only the table is here reproduced.)
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
TABLE
I
Physical Measubements and Tests
Ages
Girls
Boys
1
1
1
1
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Number
40
40
40
40
40
40.
30
10
40
40
40
40 40
40
30
10
Weight
20-
99
25.1
125.9
26.8 9.Q
32.5
142
37.6
147.9
41.3
154
21.4
115.4
23.5
121.8
25.1
126.2
27.5 30.3 32.4
34.H
38,5
Height standing..
fl 3.5 120.8
130.3
136.3
130.4135.6 139.7144
148.4
Height sitting....
61.4 165.3
67.5
69.2
72.4
73.4
75.5
80
62.7
65.2
67
68.7 ,70.7 72.4 73.5175.7
Breadth of head..
14.1
14.1
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.7
14.2
14.3
14.5
14.6 14.5 14.6 14.8ll4.8
Breadth of chest..
18.3
18.8
19.4
20.1
20.4
21.1 122
22.4
18.9
19.5
20
20.9 21.3 21.6 21.7|21.8
Breadth of waist..
16.5
17.6
18.8
18.7
18.9
19.3 19.5
19.2
16.6
17.5
18.7 !19.7 20.2 20.3 20.2 19.3
Girth of head
50.6
51.7
52
52.4
52.7
52.7
53
52.6
51.3
51.7
52.6 53.2 53.3 53.4 53.4 53.9
Depth of chest....
14.6
14.9
15
15.7
15.8
16.2
16.9
17.2i
15
15.4
15.5
16.2 !16.4 16.7 17.2 17.8
Chest expansion..
5.0
5.6
7.2
6.4
7.4
7.9
8.4
8.3
5.2
6.0
7.2
7.4 j 7.6 8.6 i 8.1 8.5
Lung capacity....
.67
.92
.95
1.11
1.201.41
1.50
1.34
.80
1.07
1.18
1.43! 1.54 1.721.87' 1.86
Grip, right
99
121
134
i?j »
14 9 18 3
9n
22 5
12 2
14 5
15 8 18 8 lis 9 20 9 22 2 216
Grip, left
101
124
133 14.«
15 2 17 9 1QQ
20X!
12 3
14 1
14 9 17.^ llR.'i 190 217:20 7
' "^
^'
-
Editor's Comment. — These tables may best be compared with
those of Professor Hastings in his " Manual of Physical Measure-
ments " since the instruments and methods used were similar.
With very few exceptions these tables are higher for both boys and
girls at all ages than those of Professor Hastings though in most
cases where there is no difference in the instruments and the mode
of taking the measurements, the difference is very slight. His tables
are based on more children but these have the advantage of being
based in a large measure upon the same children at different ages.
The differences in height and weight which, according to the
tables, place eastern children about one year in advance of western
in those respects is partly, but perhaps not wholly, accounted for by
the fact that our children retained their shoes, while those measured
under the direction of Professor Hastings did not.
In height sitting the differences are slight, also in breadth of
head and girth of head, but in breadth of chest and of waist they
are somewhat greater, while in depth of chest the difference is very
marked amounting at nearly every age to two or more cm. This
can not be accounted for by any difference in clothing or mode of
measurement so far as we know. It seems to indicate a marked
physiological difference between eastern and western children.
Chest expansion and lung capacity correspond pretty well, con-
sidering the difficulty of making accurate tests of children who have
had little or no practice in controlling the muscles of chest and
lungs.
The difference of from two to six kilograms in the strength of
forearm, as indicated by grip, can not be wholly accounted for by
the adjustable dynamometer used by us, for our records are some-
PHYSICAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 3
what higher than those of the Chicago Child Study Department
where the same instrument was used. The fact that many of our
children had taken the test one or more times may have given them
some advantage. In one other respect our results are peculiar, i. e.,
in the relative strength of right and left hands. In our tables the
figures for the left hand are relatively high at all ages, and up to
nine years of age are absolutely higher than for the right hand.
Others have found the right hand slightly superior at six and
markedly so after twelve.
It was hoped that these tests, carefully chosen for their close
relation to development and health, would be a valuable means of
diagnosing the condition and progressive development of individual
children, but this hope has been realized only in part. In averages
of the measurements of a number of children, errors due to slight
difference in clothing and to the personal equation of different per-
sons who make the measurements, and to the variation in the intelli-
gence and intensity of effort on the part of the children in the
strength tests, are likely to cancel each other. In individual cases,
however, the figures recorded for the same child in successive years
may often be misleading. This is true of the vital strength tests
and the measurements of breadth of chest and waist. In such
measurements as those of girth of head and breadth of head, although
the probable error of measurement is not great, yet the change from
year to year is slight and may be less than the error of measurement.
If the same person made all these measurements and tests year
after year in the same way, the records would doubtless be very
significant of the actual development of individual children, but
where different persons have handled the instruments and directed
the efforts of children w^ho have not practiced the tests, the records
can not be implicitly relied upon as showing variations in the
individual though any marked individual variations from the normal
are clearly shown, and the averages are fairly reliable.
In the case of measurements of height and weight the facts are
somewhat different, for the changes from year to year are well above
any probable error due to the personal equation of the measurers
or to slight variation in clothing (if the measurements are made at
the same time of the year).
THESIS II
Development of Auditory and Visual j\lEiiORY
By Maby J. CoxwAY
Editor's Explanation.— The data regarding memory discussed
in this thesis were taken each year at about the same time by the
head of the Department. Cards with from three to nine figures of
good size were used for the visual test and similar series of spoken
numbers for the auditory test. In both cases the time occupied
was between one and two seconds for each digit. In the lower
grades series of from three to six digits were given, while in the
upper grades series with two or three more digits were also given.
The same number of digits wa's given two or three times. In mark-
ing, no credit was given excex>t for series that were correctly re-
produced in the proper order. Averages were not made but each
pupil was credited with the highest number of digits that he repro-
duced correctly every time that many digits were given him. This
was taken as his standard memory span while variations from this
standard, due to fluctuating attention and other causes were indi-
cated by i)lus or minus the excess or deficiency. For example a
boy who reproduced six digits every time that number was shown,
but failed once on five digits and succeeded on one of seven and one
of eight digits was marked 6 -f 1 + 2 — 1. Such extreme variation
as this was of course rare. Had four or five series of each number
of digits been used the standard alone would probably have been
a good indication of the individual mental span. The children were
always very much interested in this test, and though pains was
taken to prevent them from beginning to write before the series was
complete or from looking on the paper of some other child, yet a few
incorrect records due to these causes were doubtless included. Some
errors were prol^al^ly also made by the student teachers who looked
over the children's papers and recorded the results. Such sources
of error however would not apply to one age or sex more than
anoiluT and Injnce would not affect the comparative averages.
Thesis.— Tha results of tlie tests taken, when tabulated, show
what has been proved l)y other tests and what is learned by ordinary
observation, that the memory span, or the power to reproduce im-
pressiorjs just received, increases with age to a marked degree.
These same tests had been taken on the students at the Fitch-
4
DETELOPMEyi OF AUDITORY ASD TISUAL MEMORY 5
burg Normal School and the average of 103 students was 6.3 for
the auditory and 7.3 for the visual record in the first test, and the
average of eight who took the test a second time is 7.2 for the audi-
tory and 8.5 for the visual. These show a slight superiority over
the record of the children in the grades.
Older pupils have the advantage in a memory test, because no
test that can be given is so new to them as to the child. In another
test in this school where some adults who were unacquainted with
Greek and some children were tested with the Greek letters, the
adults' record did not show much gain over the children's. Even
in this case, although the letters were unfamiliar to the adults, still
they could see their resemblance to other symbols more readily than
the children and they still had the advantage.
Development of memory is really a training of the mind, in the
power of concentrating the attention and of associating the new
with the old.
TABLE n
INCREASE rx Memost Spa^
Auditory
Ages.
6
7
s
9
10
11
12
IS
14
Boys, Xo.,
s
56
63
56
62
51
40
26
IS
Averag^e,
3.S
3.9
4.2
4.6
4.9
5.5
5.1
5.6
6.0
Girls, Xo.,
15
54
71
65
79
53
3S
30
5
Average,
3.6
4.1
4.3
Ti
4.S
sual
5.0
5.3
5.5
5.8
5.0
BOTS, Xo.,
10
4S
62
5S
66
52
19
26
7
Average,
3.1
3.S
4.0
5.0
5.6
5.9
5.4
5.0
5.8
Girls, Xo.,
14
4S
63
74
71
53
40
25
3
Average,
3.4
3.6
4.5
4.9
5.5
6.0
6.1
6.3
6.0
Table II. shows the average memory span of cMldren of different
ages, age sis meaning more than six and less than seven, and the
same for other ages. Fig. 1 shows the same as the table, except that
allowance has been made in the figure for the " variations " from
the standard records (see above, p. 3). One third of each variation
is added to or subtracted from the standard.
With the boys from six to nine the auditory memory is better
than the visual, with the girls from six to eight the same is true
showing what has been proved by other tests that younger children
remember better what they hear, probably because of the fact that
before a child euters school he receives most of his ideas through
the auditory sense, while the experience that the child gets in
the school room teaches him visual language, and this learning of
words and numbers visually gives him a tendency to represent things
visuallv.
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
T
6
5
4
3
'.A^^%,
(o
Auditory
(;> T 8 9 io li ^^ ^3 >^
?5
O
1^
3
Visual
Fig. 1. Increase in Memory Span.
From the ages of eight and nine to fourteen the visual memory
is better than the auditory. In the tests taken upon Normal School
students the same is true.
The auditory memories of girls from six to eleven are better
than those of boys, from eleven to twelve both records are the same,
from twelve to thirteen the record of the girls is better than the boys
again, but at fourteen the curve of the boys is above.
In the visual curve the girls record is higher than the boys except
from eight to nine where the boys' record is better. From ten to
fourteen the record of the girls is very much better than of the
boys.
Generally speaking the curves seem to indicate that the memory
span or immediate memory of girls is better than that of boys.
The preceding table and curve show the average memory span
of children, not all of whom were the same at the different ages.
An attempt was also made to trace the gain of the same children
DEVELOPMENT OF AUDITORY AND VISUAL MEMORY 7
from one year to the next — which could be done to some extent, as
three or four successive tests had been made on a good number of
them. The records for each individual for the three or four suc-
cessive tests were examined, and if there was a gain from one year
to the next it was marked plus and if there was a loss it was marked
minus. The results are shown in Table III., which gives the aver-
age gain both in the "standard" record (see above, p. — ), and in
the record when allowance is made for the ' ' variations. ' ' The num-
bers under each age give the gains in the year preceding that age.
TABLE III
Memory Span
Auditory
Age.
Girls, No.,
Standard,
7>^
8
3
.3
8>^
6
.5
9
11
1.1
934 1"
6 31
.7 —.1
WX2
5
1.6
11
25
.5
4
12
15
.2
3
2.0
13 ]
15
.6
3>^
14
Variation
combined.
.3
.3
1.4
1.7 .1
1.2
.3
.4
2.1
1.3
Boys, No.,
Standard,
5
.2
3
1.0
25
.8
25
.9
12
1.1
2
1.0
8
.9
4
.3
9
—.1
1
2.0
5
.8
Variation
combined,
.3
1.1
.9
.6
Visual
.9
.3
.3
—.1
1.7
.3
Girls, No.,
Standard,
2
1.0
5
3.0
5
.4
15
.9
7 25
.1 1.0
8
1.0
18
1.0
3
1.3
12
—.3
16
—.3
3
—.7
2
.5
Variation
combined.
1.0
2.7
— .1
1.0
.3 1.0
1.0
1.0
1.4
—.5
— .1
.7
Boys, No.,
Standard,
3
1.3
3
—.3
20
1.1
5 17
1.4 1.5
7
1.3
10
1.3
3
1.3
13
.3
G
—.2
11
—.6
3
—.7
2
1.0
Variation
combined.
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2 1.5
1.1
1.3
1.6
.4
—.4
—1.0
—.6
.7
In the auditory memory of the girls there is a marked gain to
nine and a half, then at ten there is a loss with a gain from twelve
to thirteen.
In the visual memory of the boys there is a very marked loss
at thirteen the same as with the auditory.
In the visual memory of the girls there is a loss between eight
and nine but a more marked loss at twelve.
In the visual memory of the girls there is a loss between eight
and nine but a more marked loss at twelve.
In each case there seems to be a difference of from one to three
years in the time when this retarded growth of memory comes to the
boys and girls, the retarded growth coming earlier in the girls in
each case.
8
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
This corresponds with the studies which have been made of the
bodily -rowth of children, since there is a diminished rate of growth
in girir about ten and in boys about twelve with a rapid growth
afterward. .1,1
This matter of memory span is very important m the learning
of spelling; the fact that some children fail repeatedly in their
spelling may be because those children have a poor visual or audi-
tory memory.
If we remember that there is a limit to a child's mental grasp
we shall be careful about the length of directions which we give
him and will not think a child stupid because he does not take in
very many directions at once. In giving a dictation lesson the
number of words dictated at a time should be determined by the
child's age and mental grasp.
The primary teacher should remember the fact that the younger
pupils are more ear minded than eye minded.
Since an impression is more lasting if it is received through two
senses at once, the teacher should see that the pupils receive both vis-
ual and auditory impressions of facts as much as possible. In fact
these principles are applicable to everything we teach.
Editor's Comynent. —With, many, and probably most persons the
number of things that can be held in mind at one time, or that can
be grasped and immediately reproduced, is very definitely limited,
at least for any particular kind of mental content. The determina-
tion of such limit for an individual at a particular stage of develop-
ment is therefore a practicable and important means of measuring
certain forms of his individual mental ability. These tests indicate
that such limits or standards may be determined by only a few
tests, since a large number of children can remember just so many
digits, and uniformly fail when more are given. It is probable
that most tests of individual mental ability would better be directed
toward determining the limit of power under usual conditions, in-
stead of averages of a large number of experiments. Variations
from these limits should not be fused with the ordinary limits by
averages but kept separate and interpreted as signs of variation,
which is such a marked feature of some lives and comparatively
rare in others.
THESIS III
The Development of Children in Quickness of Perception
AND Movement
By Sadie E. Lamprey
Editor's Explanation. — The Perception Motor test consisted of
making with a pencil one hundred marks in fifty squares in each
of which was the figure 1, 2 or 3 to indicate the number of marks
to be made. Students supervised the tests of individual children,
recording the time in seconds from an ordinary watch, the children
being encouraged to work as rapidly as possible. Since this test
was made at the same time as the other tests, about a month after
school began, many of the first grade children were not familiar with
figures. Those who were not were taught how many marks the
figures told them to make and when they could tell correctly how
many marks they were going to make in various indicated squares
the test was begun. In general the errors were so few as not to
be worth while keeping account of. Children who could not learn or
were so slow that they could not complete the test in five minutes
were excused, their cards being marked "x." There were only a
few such children and in every case they were children who were
not capable of doing successfully the regular school work. Children
sometimes stopped to rub out an extra line they had made or to see
what some one else was doing, but were always reminded by the
student in charge to go on marking as fast as possible. The sources
of error due to such cases as these were large in the case of the
smaller children, but much less for the larger children.
Thesis. — The data upon which this thesis is based consist of the
complete records of ninety boys and ninety-five girls who were tested
at least four times. Besides these there were records of about two
hundred and fifty children, who had taken the tests a less number
of times. As an aid in getting at the conclusions, this supplemen-
tary list was sometimes used as will be explained later.
In one set of tabulations the results of all the children taking
the first test were tabulated according to age and sex ; here the com-
parison is between different children at different ages. In the other
tabulations the gain of each child over his own previous record
is the basis of tabulation. The two tables agree fairly well as to the
periods of greatest gain.
9
10
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
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Fig. 2. Time Occupied in the Perception-motor Test at Different Ages, and
at First to Fifth Tests.
DEVELOPMENT IN QUICKNESS OF PERCEPTION H
The progress in rapidity according to this test may be divided
for each sex into three periods, the time of greatest growth, the
time of next greatest, and the time of least. With the girls the
first period extended from five to nine, the second from nine to
eleven, the third from eleven to fourteen. With the boys the first
period extended from five to nine, the second from nine to twelve,
and the third from twelve to fourteen. The complete arrest of
growth with the girls came from twelve to thirteen, a year younger
than with the boys. The average of the 335 boys of all ages was 86
seconds, while of the 246 girls was 78 seconds, shewing that girls
were better in this test than boys. The only ages in which the boys
did not require more time than the girls were those of thirteen
and fourteen.
The results of the second test correspond in a general w^ay with
those obtained in the first. The ages of the boys ranged from six to
thirteen, and of the girls from six to fourteen, though the number
taking the test at fourteen was only two.
The most important thing to be noted is the fact that the girls
failed to improve from eleven to thirteen and especially from twelve
to thirteen. With the boys this failure in improvement began at the
age of twelve, but the data do not cover the fourteenth year, so that
this can not be traced any further.
An interesting thing in comparing the averages of the first two
tests for the corresponding years is the fact that with the practice
gained in the first test came added ability which carried over the
interval of a year so that children taking the test the second time
were superior to those of the same age taking it the first time.
The total average for the 194 girls taking this second test was
66 seconds ; for the 223 boys, 70 seconds.
The third test which included children of the ages seven to thir-
teen showed a curve something like those of the first and second
tests. In the case of the girls the arrest came at the formerly found
period — from eleven on. With the boys there is a loss from the age
of twelve to thirteen. The average time required by the 129 girls
was 58 seconds, by the boys 61 seconds. There was a slight gain in
the ability of the children of different years in the third test over
the ability of those in the corresponding years in the second test,
though the difference was not as great as was that between the
first and second tests.
The curves for the fourth and fifth tests are given, though the
number of pupils in comparison with those in the first are so few
that the results are less reliable.
12
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Ai^
Ns
ii«kj3^aJ»Li^^
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Fig. 3. The Perception-motor Test. Gains of individuals from year to year.
Broken line for girls, solid line for boys.
In the second tabulation the result sought was the gain of the
children over what they were themselves a year before.
With both boys and girls the gain was much greater in the ear-
lier years than in the later. From eleven on, the girls practically
made no gain. This slackening of development in the boys came
from twelve on. Both sexes suffered actual loss at one period: the
fourteen-year-old girls over those of thirteen, and the fifteen-year-
old boys over those of fourteen. The greatest gain in both sexes of
one age over the preceding was of those of six over those of five, the
gain of the girls being 35 seconds, and of the boys, 39 seconds.
DEVELOPMENT IN QUICKNESS OF PERCEPTION 13
In order to find out if practice actually did influence the results
of the successive tests, the gain in time of boys and girls in the
second test over the first, in the third over the second, and the
fourth over the third, was reckoned and divided by the number
in each case taking the test. The average gains for the boys were
respectively 21, 15 and 13 — for the girls 20, 14 and 11. Practice
must therefore have aided.
Other experiments show that with continuous special practice the
improvement in this perception motor test is rapid. These experi-
ments were made upon a group of normal school students and upon
two children. As a result of the practice, the decrease in time after
ten trials was 18 per cent, for the normal school students, 20 per cent,
for the seven-year-old girl, and 25 per cent, for the five-year-old boy.
TABLE IV
Time for the Perception-motor Test, Repeated Annually
Girls
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Age in years
18
20
20
20
28
42
32
37
24
5
Number taking
test 1
194
140
118
95
62
57
50
47
48
47
Average time
20
20
25
23
24
32
23
25
2
Number taking
test 2
132
91
79
61
52
47
45
44
37
Average time
20
20
20
20
16
20
13
Number taking
test 3
85
74
62
51
43
42
40
Average time
11
17
13
18
14
13
3
Number taking
test 4
68
64
56
46
41
39
34
Average time
6
6
12
4
Number taking
test 5
54
42
35
37
Average time
Boys
28
34
30
31
33
44
57
48
18
12
Number taking
test 1
206
144
116
89
68
63
56
49
46
46
Average time
19
29
23
27
28
41
36
20
Number taking
test 2
135
102
86
68
57
52
46
44
Average time
14
24
21
24
24
24
13
Number taking
test 3
88
80
73
57
46
41
49
Average time
11
17
13
19
18
12
Number taking
test 4
77
56
61
48
45
43
Average time
8
56
6
45
7
48
4
40
Number taking
Average time
test 5
The two children later took the tests four times a day with few
omissions, for four months. The first seventeen days the girl made
a great improvement, the time required changing from 43 to 30
seconds. During the fourth month the results of the tests varied
little. This seems to point to the same fact that has been mentioned,
u
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
namely, that at first practice brings rapid improvement in speed or
rapidity of movement, but that progress decreases as the limit ot
speed is approached. , ,, . ^ 4. +
The tests with the boy were incomplete, but the thing of greatest
note was the eflPect of interest in his work. When that lagged, the
time required for the test was correspondingly increased. For in-
stance the time record after a month's practice suddenly dropped
from the lowest record— 106 seconds to 185 seconds, which was 15
seconds higher than the initial record.
Editor's Comment.— This test seems to be a pretty good one for
establishing a norm for children of each age and grade, considerable
variations from which would indicate the possession of exceptional
characteristics in general. This was particularly true for younger
children, the backward ones always being slow in this exercise.
As in all other tests, however, special practice quickly makes
greater changes than years of development and general practice
in perception and movement. This accounts also for the fact that
the greatest improvement is from the first to second grade where the
children are becoming familiar with numbers and with the manipu-
lation of a pencil.
It is interesting to note that we have here indications that the
first repetitions have more effect than later ones even when they are
a year apart.
It is also interesting to note in this and several other studies of
this series that figures based on changes in the same children from
year to year are of the same general character at different periods
as those that have been inferred from determining the difference
between different children of all ages. The agreement is not, how-
ever, complete and the figures based on the changes in the same
children at different ages are undoubtedly the more significant when
the data are reliable, a few cases being equal in significance to many
upon the usual basis.
THESIS IV
The Development of the Artistic Sense
By Grace L. Seaveb
Editor's Explanation.— Data for the study of individual progress
in this and the two following theses were secured by taking samples
of the children's best work twice a year about a month after school
began and a month before it closed. These specimens were deposited
in a pasteboard box upon which was the individual child's name.
The children knew of these boxes and tried to have as good a speci-
men of their work as possible to put in them. The covers or port-
folios were made by folding a piece of drawing paper to enclose
the other work. The pupil placed on the outside of this portfolio
his name, grade, the date and whatever decorations he chose. The
' ' designs ' ' on these portfolios constituted the data upon which this
study of drawing and artistic development was made.
Thesis.— There is, in the school where these drawings were done,
a system by means of which a sample of each child's work in all
the departments is placed semi-annually in portfolios which the chil-
dren make for this purpose. Thus in many cases it is possible to
study the cover designs drawn by an individual child at the age of
six, six and a half, seven, seven and a half, and so on until he is
thirteen or fourteen years of age. In many cases the series were,
through various causes, incomplete, but after eliminating those not
worth considering, there were left the portfolios of one hundred and
thirteen children, fifty-three boys and sixty girls. From these draw-
ings and designs it has been possible to extract some general and
particular truths regarding the development of the artistic sense
of the child.
It must be understood that in this work the children had no
help or suggestions from the teacher, and relied wholly upon their
own ingenuity in decorating the covers of their portfolios. They
also had perfect freedom in their choice of materials and models
for their designs.
A description of a few of these portfolios may help to give a
better idea of the problem of development in drawing as it was
presented to me.
The first cover I examined had at the top a border of squares
colored with red and blue crayons. The next had lines across the
15
16 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
corners, forming triangles wliich were filled in with the bright red
crayon Still another had an inch border of bright orange on all
four sides of the paper. This I found to be a typical form of decora-
tion, especially with flat washes of paint. The colors were m many
cases very crude and combined without any regard to harmony.
Sometimes a portfolio would be completely covered with scrolls,
flowers, etc., with no attempt at design. One had a fanciful border
of stars. Many had the word ''Portfolio" at the top, the child's
name at the bottom and some drawing in the middle of the page.
I found the following things represented: a bunch of grapes, birds
of various kinds, a foot-ball, flags, blackboard with arithmetic ex-
amples, a squash, a pine-tree, pictures which illustrated stories and
other equally diverse objects.
These drawings were studied from a three-fold standpoint, (I.)
that of color, (II.) design or form, (III.) arrangement and general
artistic effect.
Regarding color, the generalizations were b'ased upon data as to
brilliancy, particular tone used, combinations of color, and choice
of neutral tints through the medium of ink, pencil or brash. Under
form there were four typical divisions, objects from nature, geo-
metric forms, those associated with some activity or recent expe-
rience, and printing or lettering.
The last set of statistics in regard to arrangement were put on
the basis of comparative rank or degree of excellence. The letters
A, B and C stand respectively for good, fair and poor, A meaning
good, and C poor.
I first made a list of the names of all the children. The space
after each name contained divisions for all the half-years between
the ages of six and thirteen, inclusive. In each division I noted the
color, design and rank of the child's drawing for that particular
month (the tests being taken every June and October.) This made
it easy to obtain the averages for the whole, and also to make
studies of the development of individual children.
I
With both boys and girls a marked preference for bright colors
is shown in the lower grades, which decreases steadily as the child
becomes older.
It is noticeable that with the boys the use of bright colors remains
at about the same per cent, until October of the ninth year. (It
should be stated, perhaps, that in obtaining these per cents, five
tenths of a number, or over five tenths, was reckoned as an addi-
tional per cent.) The work of the previous June showed that over
f
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC SENSE 17
one half the colors used by the boys were bright, that is, not grayed
or softened in any way, while in October of the same year only
three tenths of the colors were bright.
A corresponding decrease in the per cent, of girls who made
use of bright colors, also appeared in the ninth year. The decrease
for the nine-year-old girls from June to October was twelve per
cent., while for the boys of the same age there was a decrease of
twenty per cent., in the use of bright colors.
About the same number of colors was used by both sexes, but
the girls chose more as they grew older, while the boys used more in
the four earlier years. This confirms the theory that the attention
of girls is drawn more to color as they begin to think of matters
of dress, while as the boys grew older they left the color for pen
and ink work and printing.
Up to October of the ninth year, the data, for all the half-years
showed that in every case more girls used bright colors than hues.
Commencing with that October, however, the reverse was true for all
the following half-years. More girls grayed their colors, using tints
and shades, and securing more artistic effects. This was not true
of the boys, for only in the eleventh and thirteenth years, did
the majority of the boys use grayed tones rather than brilliant colors.
As to particular colors used, both boys and girls seemed to prefer
red and green, using these colors not only for flowers, autumn
leaves, and sprays of berries, but also in their original drawings.
Blue came third in the list of those most used by the boys, then
yellow and orange, while violet was the least popular.
The colors chosen by the girls, in order of preference, are as fol-
lows: green, red, yellow, blue, violet and orange.
For the boys, the highest per cent, for the choice of red came
in the ninth year, for green in the seventh and eighth, for blue in
the eighth, while the six-year-olds showed the highest per cent, for
violet. As this last-named color was so little used by the children,
I did not attribute the choice of it by those in the first grade to
any particular liking for that color. Probably the high average was
rather due to the promiscuous use of all the colors in their crayon
boxes, as most of the children were not satisfied unless they used
them all. The change which is brought about in this direction as the
child progressed through the grades, is clearly shown by a study
of the development of individuals.
In the lowest grades the girls used red, green and violet more
frequently than any other colors. As they grew older, blue came to
be a favorite, then yellow, and finally, in the twelfth year, orange
took the lead.
18 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
As the portfolios were made twice a year, it was possible to note
the development from October to June, and also the effect of the
summer vacation upon the child's ability to draw.
In June more bright colors and more hues were used by the
children of all grades than in October.
In all cases the neutrals were more often found in the fall port-
folios than in those made in the spring. A possible explanation of
this might be that after vacation the children do not have as many
ideas of designs to be worked out in color. After having used
crayons and paints more or less during the year they are more
ready to apply color to their cover designs in June. At the ages of
twelve and thirteen, where the pupils had more decided preferences
and could remember better how they had iLsed their materials, they
did more color work in October than they did in June.
The per cents for the use of neutrals (ink, gray, black and
white, etc.) increase at a fairly uniform rate, until, in the thirteenth
year, seventy-five per cent, of all the colors used by both sexes are
neutral tints. This is partly explained by the fact that in the higher
grades the children turned much more to the use of lettering. They
seemed to develop a sense of the fitness of things, and decorated
their covers with appropriate designs, and with printing, instead
of the various objects which were characteristic of their earlier years.
With the boys, the use of neutral mediums had been steadily in-
creasing up to the ninth year, but then, in October, the average
showed a jump of from thirty-five to fi,fty-six per cent. The per
cents then continuel to increase until, at the age of thirteen, we
find all the boys using these materials in preference to color.
Girls, as well as boys, selected neutral mediums in the upper
grades, though as has been stated, the girls still clung to the use
of color, while the boys dropped it somewhat as they grew older.
II
Regarding the objects represented in the decoration of the port-
folios, the curves for both sexes showed, as the child progressed
through the grades, a decided increase in the use of models from
nature. In studying the statistics I found that the October of
the ninth year, which was mentioned before, marked a drop in the
per cent, of nature forms drawn by the boys. It might be inferred
that this caused the decrease in the use of brilliant colors. After
the drop the average per cent; remained about the same in both cases,
never returning to the higher figure. The girls also used nature
forms less after they reached the ninth year. There was, perhaps,
a little higher average for the use of nature specimens in June than
in October.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC SENSE 19
Geometric forms, such as squares, circles and triangles, appeared
in nearly half of the boys' portfolios in the two lowest grades,
while in the eighth grade, none were used. This choice in the first
years of school-life was probably due to the daily use of cardboard
forms for "busy work."
In general, not as many girls as boys made use of the circles,
squares and other precise forms, bvit the per cent, of those who did
use them decreased at about the same rate for both sexes. One of
the girls' papers showed a pretty arrangement of diamonds and
circles in a border effect.
Decorations and designs made up from drawings of things asso-
ciated with the child's life and work were a study in themselves.
They varied in the different grades from houses and steam-engines
in the lower, to Greek frets and lotus-flower borders, in the higher
classes. This style of design gives more scope for originality, and I
found that the children took the associated objects to draw from
more as they grew older, until at the age of thirteen nearly half
the boys and a correspondingly large per cent, of the girls chose this
method of decoration. Through all the grades, the girls drew more
associated objects than did the boys.
The October designs show^ed more of this kind of work. Some-
times they were related to activities of the suiAmer, such as games,
boating, seashore amusements and the like. In June I noticed
flags, wreaths and other decorations connected with Memorial Day.
But even this tendency did not bring the average for associated
objects up as high as it was in October.
For the boys, the highest per cents for the lettering were in June
of the eleventh and thirteenth years, but in October of the eleventh
year there was a decrease of nearly forty per cent., and in October
of the thirteenth year there was a decrease of thirty-four per cent.
In fact, the curve for the lettering was very irregular.
The girl's portfolios for the last two years showed that very-
many of them selected lettering in preference to any other form of
decoration. Indeed, in the thirteenth year three fourths of all the
children printed on their covers. One was very neatly done in
a beautiful tone of brown, with a fine line of bright orange around
the letters in the words "Portfolio of My Best Work." Below were
painted two books and at the very bottom the girl's initials in a
monogram.
Ill
The rank for both boys and girls grew steadily higher till at the
age of thirteen very few were marked C. The choice of materials
and subjects probably had some effect upon the rank, as most of
>f %^.
20 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
the printing was excellent, while the flowers so often drawn on
the covers by the lower grade pupils were not in many cases deserv-
ing of any higher mark than C.
However, the average rank did not increase in excellence as reg-
ularly as one would expect from the growing power of drawing
which proper training in the grades should bring. I attributed this
variation in rank somewhat to a fact which was corroborated by the
individual studies, namely, that each half-year many of the children
attempted something new which was as hard for them as that which
they had done the year before. If at every test they had tried the
same thing, doubtless the rank would have been bettered accordingly.
One thing is to be noted in the per cents of those whose covers
ranked excellent. In every case, with the exception of the six-
year-olds, the per cent, of boys marked A was higher in June than
in either the previous or the following October. For the girls, the
per cent, marked A was higher in the fall for four different years.
This uniform change in rank from spring to fall would seem to
indicate an increase of ability during the school year and a loss of it
during the summer. Taken all together the boys received better
marks than the girls.
One significant fact was noticeable throughout the work. Both
sexes show much greater similarity of choice in the earlier years than
they do later on in their school-life. In the higher grades the in-
dividuality becomes more marked, and there is a greater diversity
of selection.
Another fact is perhaps worthy of notice. The age of nine,
for both sexes, marks a change in the per cents in several particulars.
This may be due to the subjects included in the drawing-course at
this time, or may be due to the natural development of the child at
this period.
Some of the general truths brought out by a study of these covers
might be applied to the teaching of drawing in the grades.
Interest is an important factor in drawing. Many principles
which are sometimes taught in abstract ways, could be made more
instructive if presented in connection with things associated with
the child's life and pastimes.
Children have a natural love for bright colors, but during the
early years a child needs training in color perception, more es-
pecially regarding combinations of color; they may also be led to
prefer the softer tones to the very brilliant colors.
They should be given only one or two colors, to use at one time,
thus avoiding poor combinations. The use and effectiveness of neu-
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC SENSE 21
trals may be taught early by giving the pupil one bright color to be
combined with black, white or gray.
Pupils in the higher grades should be led to an appreciation of
the possibilities of color, and encouraged to choose this medium for
original work, as well as the pen and ink or pencil. The printing
Perceat I 2 3 ^ S' C> 7 S 9 /o // /2/3 /^ ^ /^ // /^
EoTH Sexes
Orange «_____
Yellow «_i^________^_^.
Blue __^___«_^«««_
Violet
lea
Orfltnge
Yell ow
Green
Blue
Violet
Rei
Ora.Tu?€
Yellow
Green
Blu,e
Violet
Boys
Girls
Fig. 4. Line Chart showing Per Cent, of Various Colors used in all the
Designs taken together.
may be made very effective in color and with training the child may
learn to delight in its use.
Little children may learn how to make border and surface de-
signs by the use of common everyday forms. This later shows its
influence and effect on the space divisions and rhythms of the
original designs taken up in the higher grades.
A review in September of the principles of drawing taught the
year before is necessary as the children do poorer work and apply
their knowledge to less advantage in October than in June.
22
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC SENSE 23
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24 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Editor's Comment.— The discussion of the above data is so com-
plete and clear that further explanation is unnecessary. It is worth
while, however, to emphasize the value of such data of which as yet
little has been collected or published. The children being entirely
free from the constraint of authority, but with a motive to do their
best, chose and executed according to their own ideas, as influenced
of course by training, special events, and the example of com-
panions. Since the tables are based largely upon the work of the
same children from year to year they are good indications of the
way in which the artistic sense and ability develop in individual
children under the influences to which those children were subjected.
The development of a science of education would be greatly helped
by giving pupils an opportunity and motive to freely do work
according to their own ideas in the varioLis lines of school work, and
preserving such work year after year as data for determining just
how children do develop in interest and effective power under the
influence of a given school system and the social conditions of the
locality. Boxes for the preservation and alphabetical filing of such
records can be made at an expense of not over five dollars per
hundred, and if the school population is stable, the labor of filing
the papers is not excessive. In our own schools the labor of keeping
the files was great in proportion to the number of complete papers
obtained, because pupils frequently changed from our district to
other parts of the city. If such records were kept, there are plenty
of specialists who would be glad to work up the data.
i
THESIS V
Development op Penmanship
By Grace Emogene Stockvsteli,
Thesis. — My interest in this study lies in the importance of legible
writing as a means of expression. My aim is to find the changes that
occur from year to year during school life.
Through the statistics and facts I have gained I hope to present
the changes that occur, both general and individual, and yearly and
half yearly. In gathering these records, I had an excellent oppor-
tunity, for the children of the Edgerly school select specimens of
their best work which they would like to have preserved, each Oc-
tober, one month after school has begun, and each June — one month
before school closes. Thus in many cases, there are complete sets of
each child's writing selected at half yearly periods from the second
through the eighth grades.
I classified the writing of the pupils as to general appearance,
slant regularity, neatness, and individual letters, grading them as
excellent, good, poor or very poor.
In all there were ninety-eight sets of which the greater number
were complete from October, 1902, to October, 1906, thus giving four
June records and four October records. A few were incomplete be-
cause the child was absent at the time of selection; others because
the child did not enter at the lowest grade or left before he reached
the higher grades.
The statistics gathered from these records are reasonably ac-
curate. The fact that the records were not of special writing lessons
but of language or spelling work, and that the child himself chose
what he considered a specimen of his best work, makes them of
special value.
It must be taken into consideration that the work was done under
conditions impossible to render exactly similar, and this is the cause
of any slight inaccuracy that may appear in the records.
A great deal depends upon the teacher, the special teacher for
each different year undoubtedly caused a difference in the strength
of the motive to do good work.
The first comparison was made of the records from October to
June embracing the period of time spent by the children in the
school.
The results show that in general appearance and regularity, the
25
26
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
?SO'I g ^
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I
DEVELOPMENT OF PENMANSHIP 27
greatest number improve, a second class remain the same, while a
very few lose. In the slant of the writing much the greatest num-
ber retain the same slant, about one half of the rest improve, that is,
bring the slope of their letters nearer a recognized form, while nearly
as many lose, that is, fall away from the standard slope, sometimes
sloping their letters both right and left. In neatness and formation
of individual letters, the greatest number remained the same, nearly
as many improved, while a few lost.
The next comparison was from June to October, the period of
time spent mostly in summer vacation.
These results show that in every respect, in general appearance,
slant, regularity, neatness, and individual letters, there is a stand-
still, more than one half remaining the same, while of the rest few
more gain than lose.
I then made yearly comparisons from October to October and
June to June. In the October to October comparisons, it must be
noted that the children received their practice in writing before the
summer vacation and that the specimens of writing were obtained
after the summer vacation.
In general appearance the greatest number improved, a close
second remained the same, a very few lost.
In slant the greatest number remained the same, nearly as many
improved, a few lost.
In regularity the greatest number improved, nearly as many re-
mained the same, a few lost.
In neatness a large proportion improved, nearly as many re-
mained the same, a very few lost.
As to individual letters nearly equal numbers improved and re-
mained the same, a few lost.
The next comparison was of the June to June records. In this
case the summer vacation came before the practice and the specimens
of writing were selected after a year of work.
This time in general appearance and regularity the greatest
number improved, those who remained the same came a close second
and a few lost.
In slant and neatness the greatest number remained the same,
nearly as many improved and a few lost.
In individual letters nearly equal numbers improved and re-
mained the same and a few lost.
I then made individual comparisons from year to year, classing
the girls and boys separately. These comparisons noted whether the
writer remained constant or lost and the age at which he remained
constant or lost.
28
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
TABLE VIII
Changes in Wbiting
Girls' Individual Yeaely Compaeisons
Age
Number of comparisons
r Number
General appearance ^ p^^ ^^^^_
Constant
7 7i 8 8J 9
8 22 40 65 78
112 6
4 2
Slant
[Number
(Per cent.
, ., (Number
Regularity |p^^ cent.
^ , f Number
Neatness -i -^ ,
(^Per cent.
f Number
Individual letters
(Per cent. 12
9J 10
88 84
10 9
11 10
10 14
11 16
6 12
6 14
2 9
2 10
4 12
4 14
lOJ 11
80 79
11 14
13 17
15 7
18 8
13 11
16 13
13 16
16 20
10 15
12 19
Hi 12 12A 13 13J
51 41 29 24
16 9 5 1
31 21 17
6 5 5
12 17
7 6
10
1
10
1
11
14
27 17 20 8
15 16 5 5
29 39 17 20
16 10 4
31 24 13
8 10
2 1
8 10
5 1
10
1
10
Age
Number of comparisons
^ , (Number
General appearance <
(Number
Slant -{ -r, ,
I^Per cent.
Number
Per cent.
[Number
(Per cent.
(Number
[Per cent.
Negative
7 7| 8 8^
8 22 40 65
2 2
9 9J
Regularity }
Neatness
Individual letters
14 11
17 12
10 lOJ 11
84 80 79
1 1 5
1 6
12 14
15 17
1 8
1
10
11
2
2
5
5
2
2
llj
51
5
9
7
13
6
11
3
5
7
13
12 12i 13 13J
41 29' 24 10
In the girls' comparisons I found the following results: First,
those who remained constant. In general appearance of the writing
the greatest per cent, remained constant at eleven and one half years.
The standstill began at nine and one half and lasted until twelve and
one half.
In slant the highest per cent, remained constant at twelve years.
The standstill began at nine and one half years and lasted until
twelve and one half.
In regularity the greatest per cent, came to a standstill at eleven
and one half years. The standstill began at ten and lasted until
twelve and one half.
In neatness the standstill began at ten and lasted until twelve
and one half while the highest per cent, came at the age of twelve.
So it can be seen that in general, in the case of the girls, the
majority stop their development of writing at about nine and one
I
DEVELOPMENT OF PENMANSHIP 29
TABLE IX
Changes in Writing
Boys' Individual Yeably Compaeisons
Constant
Age 7 7i 8 8^ 9 9J 10 lOi 11 llj 12 12i 13 13* 14
Number of comparisons 8 22 40 65 78 88 84 80 79 51 41 29 24 lo" 8
[Number 11 16 10 69 11 10 97973
General appearance | ^^^ ^^^^ ^2 4 2 9 12 6 10 13 12 17 17 31 29 30
(-Number 247 10 9 13 55 11 6835
Slant |p^^ ^^^^ g g 8 11 10 16 6 9 26 20 33 30 62
(Number 22 6 10 6 10 7766634
Regularityjp^^^^^^ 2^ 9 9 12 6 11 8 8 11 14 20 12 40
(Number 1 3 6 7 11 14 11 9 13 10 5 3
Neatness |p^^ ^^^^ ^ 4 7 7 13 17 13 12 31 30 20 30
j Number 2216 10 69 10 13 695341
Individual letters |p^^ ^^^^ 25 9 2 9 12 6 10 12 16 11 21 17 12 40 12
Negative
Age 7 7i 8 8A 9 9^ 10 lOJ 11 lU 12 12i 13 13i 14
Number of comparisons 8 22 40 65 78 88 84 80 79 51 41 29" 24 lo' 8
(Number 1 12 14 6 16 2 3 1
General appearance I p^^ ^^^^ 2 1 2 1 5 7 1 14 6 12 10
[Number 12258997464411
Slant |p^^ ^^^^ j2 9 5 7 10 10 10 16 5 11 9 13 4 10
^ , ., (Number 1 354572253
Regularity ■<
Neatness
Individual letters
Per cent. 2 3546834 17 12
(Number 11 254435144
(Per cent. 42 25453923 16
(Number 1 1433442342
[Per cent. 2 1 4 3 3 5 7 4 10 16 20
half years of age; the number of those who stop developing grad-
ually increasing until the ages of eleven and one half and twelve
when the per cent, is largest, then decreasing in number until the
standstill is virtually ended at twelve and one half or thirteen.
For those girls who lost, the highest per cents came at these ages
— in general appearance at eleven and one half, the losses coming
between eight and twelve and one half ; in slant — at nine and eleven,
the losses coming between nine and twelve and one half ; in regularity
at eleven and one half, the losses coming between eleven and twelve
and one half; in neatness at eleven, the losses coming between ten and
eleven and one half ; in individual letters at eleven and one half, the
losses coming between nine and one half and twelve.
In general the greatest per cent, of girls lost at the ages of eleven
and eleven and one half, the losses coming between the ages of nine
and twelve and one half.
5
30 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
So it can be seen that between the ages of nine and twelve and
one half girls either lose or come to a standstill in the development
of writing.
Comparing the boys' records with those of the girls, I find that
while a large per cent, of both either lose or come to a standstill at
about nine years of age, that period is ended with the girls at about
twelve and one half, and improvement begins again while the boys
continue longer in their standstill or losses. Moreover the per cent,
of girls who lose or remain the same is much smaller than the per
cent, of boys.
Probably this is due partly to the fact that girls are naturally
more painstaking in their work than the average boy; also to the
finer coordination in the girls' muscles than in the boys. But this
subject will be taken up later.
The fact that after the age of twelve and one half the girls again
show signs of improvement while the boys continue to lose or remain
the same is explained in this way ; as girls grow older they write well
because good writing is asked for and praised while boys follow their
other interests and cease in their efforts for improvement.
In order to understand fully the difficulties a child has to over-
come, and the full significance of his development of this process, it
is necessary to go back to fundamental principles.
Writing involves complex muscular movements. All the differ-
ent factors fit each other perfectly. Children 's nerve centers are far
from perfectly developed, so it follows that the movements of the
muscles do not cooperate perfectly, and we who have not known this
have sometimes wondered why children can not seem to direct their
movements in writing.
Writing must be developed by trial after trial with the mind con-
centrated upon the result obtained and not upon the movement itself.
It should be realized that the development of coordinated move-
ments is the important point in teaching a child to write, and not
merely some particular method.
At first the child's movement is not easy. His attention is not
free for he has to study the form of the letters. His movements are
cramped and jerky and lack organization. This irregularity refers
back to lack of organization in the brain.
That a regular coordinated movement of the muscles is necessary
for good writing is shown by the fact that after the summer vacation,
during which these movements have ceased, there is comparatively
far less improvement than after the year of work and practice. But
it is wonderful that loss after vacation is not greater than it is, for
the majority hold their own and more improve than lose.
I
DEVELOPMENT OF PENMANSHIP 31
We may explain this perhaps by the fact that the rest and the
recreation of a vacation gives new vigor to the wearied muscles even
as the lack of coordinated movements takes away from their regu-
larity.
Editor's Comment. — Educationally these results are important in
that they confirm the common opinion of teachers that after a certain
age children usually cease to improve and perhaps deteriorate in
their writing, and emphasize the importance of determining just why
this is. In my opinion, school methods are largely, but not wholly,
responsible. In the early stage of writing only are the children
learning the visual forms of letters, while in the later stages they are
forming motor habits. Unfortunately teachers have failed to recog-
nize clearly these two phases of learning to write, and they have also
failed to realize that a habit formed under these conditions of copy-
book practice will almost surely not carry over and function under
the condition of expressing thought while writing.
On the theoretical side the data are interesting as indicating what
is also suggested by several other studies of this series, i. e., that there
is a decrease or increase in the rate of development in various forms
of physiological and mental functioning correlated more or less
closely with the rate of growth of boys and girls in height and
weight. Perhaps, as claimed by C. W. Crampton in a recent num-
ber of the Psychological Clinic, these changes are not dependent
upon growth, but like growth are indications of the degree of physio-
logical maturity in relation to the attainment of pubescence.
THESIS VI
The Development op Language
By Elizabeth S. Smith
The original papers upon which this study was based were not
sufficiently numerous and uniform to permit the drawing of general
conclusions of value regarding sentence structure, length of sentence,
etc. Hence, they are not printed.
32
THESIS VII
Characteristics of Children as Viewed by Teachers
By IMabel Josephixe Spalter
Editor's Explanation. — This thesis is based upon reports of
teachers, in training, regarding the conduct, ability, success in
studies and most marked characteristics, of individual children.
Thesis. — My main thought in this thesis is to find out to what
extent different teachers judge the same children in the same way,
and, where a difference of opinion occurs, to what it is due.
Under conduct, I used good, fair, and poor, as the three heads
under which to correlate the one hundred and eighty-three papers.
There were in the majority of cases from three to six reports con-
cerning each child, so my standard of "complete correlation" was
that every teacher had judged the child in the same way; and of
"incomplete correlation" that some difference in the opinion of the
teachers was shown, as where, perhaps, two reports out of three
agreed, or three reports out of four or five.
The reports upon "Means of Influence" were very hard to
classify, owing to the many different ways in which teachers seek to
influence their pupils. Praise and affection were used most fre-
quently by teachers.
It was especially hard to classify the characteristics of children.
The most prominent characteristics noticed with the boys were
"self control," "an interest in work," "a desire to learn," "restless-
ness," "stubbornness" and "pleasantness," while among the girls
"shyness," "willingness" and "inattention" prevailed. The fol-
lowing are typical individual records.
B. F.
In the first grade this boy seemed shy and sneaky, proved him-
self untrustworthy and would not try to do w^ell.
In the second grade he still continued to be mischievous, sly and
lazy.
He is now in the third grade and still has the spirit of contrari-
ness, but many times does little helpful things.
A. G.
This boy in the lower grades was inclined to be mischievous,
needed a firm hand and could only be influenced by an interest in
33
34 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
his work. Now he is doing much better, by having been made an
officer in the school where self government is prominent.
E. M.
This little girl in the first grade was very slow in her work, but
thought herself quite smart and always wanted to be first without
any effort. She was out a great deal from school because of sick-
ness and perhaps that partially accounts for her being slow in her
work.
In the second grade she was slow in her work but always wanting
to be first.
Now in the third grade she is very sensitive, and easily discour-
aged if reprimanded for anything, however slight.
E. F.
One teacher thought this girl silly, a giggler, but earnest in
her work, while the next teacher attributed her silliness to ner-
vousness.
M. M.
In the lower grades this girl was thought to be very lazy and
idle but in the fifth grade the teacher reported her as learning
very easily but lacking persistence which perhaps accounts for her
seeming idleness.
L. H.
This boy was very silly and giggled incessantly. One teacher re-
ported that this giggling had ceased but the next teacher thought en-
vironment had caused the laughter, for the lad suddenly showed a
natural ability which had lain dormant and was on the alert, showing
great improvement in all his work.
It would seem from these statements that the teachers appealed
to different qualities which called forth various actions and responses
from the children.
I compared the work of nine children who had complete corre-
lation and three with whom there was no correlation in different
subjects.
In composition work I found that only one of the nine showed
a decrease in the standing of her work, and of the three the standing
was variable — first a decrease, then increase, and decrease again.
In the perception motor test six out of the nine, having complete
correlation, did it in a shorter time each year but the remaining three
were irregular— one year it took a shorter time and then perhaps
the next year a longer time. From the three with whom no correla-
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN AS VIEWED BY TEACHERS 35
tion was found only one could shorten the time each year while
the other two lengthened the time one year and shortened it the next.
In physical measurements one of the nine and one of the three
showed uneven development.
In writing only one of the nine did not show progress— the others
went from poor to either good or excellent. With the three, whose
correlation was incomplete, progress was also shown.
In auditory and visual tests of memory all but one of the nine
and one of the three showed an increase in ability to remember dic-
tation.
From these papers I should say that the teachers do judge chil-
dren, to a great extent, in the same way, and from the preceding
reports I should think that they judge them quite correctly.
There is more complete correlation with boys than with girls.
I talked with the different supervisors about different children
and found that a child with perfect physical growth showed com-
plete correlation oftener than a child whose growth was backward
or stunted.
TABLE X
COBBELATION IN THE REPORTS OF SUCCESSIVE TEACHERS OF THE SAME CHILDREN
Girls
Grades
Conduct,
Influence,
Ability,
Good in what,
Poor in what.
Characteristic,
Conduct,
No. of Reports
12 3 4 5 6
12 16 23 19 16 23
35 8 3 2
18 21 22 20 28 3
13 23 14 7 2 10
26 19 4 5
20 28 29 8 9 2
5 4 18 27 10 10
Influence, 33 23 3 7 8
Ability, 13 25 23 2 9 1
Good in what, 20 24 16 13 16 3
Poor in what, 29 20 6 12
Characteristic, 17 25 14 3 6 4 11 16
Complete
No. ^
46 42
3 6
34 33
22 32
16 29
12 12
Boys
26 35
5 6
38 52
20 21
13 19
More
than 3^
No- li
33 30
1 2
33 25
13 18
7 12
4 4
23 31
1 1
13 17
18 17
3 4
7 10
Less
than %
No. ^
3 2
3 2
2 3
5 6
1 1
5 6
2 3
None
No. ^
27 24
44 91
42 38
32 46
31 57
80 83
20 27
67 90
17 23
54 58
51 77
49 71
Total
109
48
112
69
54
96
74
74
73
92
67
69
Editor's Comment. — Data of this character, consisting in part of
reports by young teachers in practice, are not well suited to statistical
study; but some of the individual reports are interesting and the
fact that in general children about whom the reports of teachers
agree are more likely to show consistency in mental and physical
tests than those whose reports vary from year to year is very sig-
nificant.
THESIS VIII
The Curve op Learning
By Abbie F. Munn
Editor's Explanatmi.— This experiment for studying habit for-
mation was devised by Professor Lougb, of New York University,
who very kindly furnished the blanks for the test. (He would be
glad to have others cooperate in the same test, that norms for prac-
tice curves may be established.)
TEST SHEET
1. TO PESNI DRMHCQLGBJKFA
2. P, TKO FGAESQNLI DBRMHCJ
3. CFLSBGAPKHMRDI NTEO JQ
4. JANTBI QRO LEKPSMCGDFH
5. EJO TDI NSCHMKBGQAFKPL
6. TCEFADKO QJRPI GMSHI NB
7. GBMSAHNTCI O PDKQEFLJR
8. HTI SRKQLPMO AGBFCENDJ
9. DGJMPSAEHKO RBTFI LNQG
10. KHO FAGMJPEBQSRI NDLCT
KEY SHEETS
I
II
A— X
A—
B— U
B— I
C— F
C— G
D— L
D— N
E— Y
E-^
F— M
F— V
G— B
G— A
H— W
H— H
I— Z
I— D
J— E
J— R
K— R
K— E
L— D
I^-Z
M— H
M— W
N— A
N— B
0— V
0— M
P— J
P— Y
Q— N
Q— L
R— G
R— F
S— I
S— U
T—
T— X
t
The material for the test consists of (1) a test sheet with ten
36
TEE CURVE OF LEARXIXG 37
lines of letters in mixed order, and (2) a key sheet, in which the
twenty letters used in the test sheet are arranged in a vertical colunm
and opposite each is printed some other letter. The idea of the
test is that the letters in the second column of the key sheet are to
be substituted respectively for the corresponding letters in the first
column. The procedure was as follows: Only one line of the test
sheet was exposed to view at once. A blank sheet covered all the
lines below the line in use at any moment, and the lines that had
already been used were folded under and so concealed. The key
sheet was kept in sight all of the time. Having before him the key
sheet and the first line of the test sheet, the person tested, at a given
signal, began writing beneath each letter of the test sheet the letter
corresponding thereto in the key sheet ; thus, writing X beneath each
A of the test sheet, U beneath each B, etc. Having no previous ac-
quaintance with the key sheet, the person tested had, at the begin-
ning of the experiment, to refer continually to the key sheet in order
to determine what letter to write beneath each letter of the test
sheet.
As soon as one row of letters was written, the time in seconds was
recorded, the edge of the sheet upon which they were written folded
under, the second row of letters exposed, and the experiment con-
tinued. Each line of letters is called a "trial," and the ten lines
done at one time constitute a "test." After one or more trials the
subject notices that the first column on the key sheet is in alpha-
betical order and then knows just where to look for the required
letter. After a greater or less amount of practice most of them
learned also what letter was opposite each letter of the alphabetical
series so that it was not necessary to look on the key sheet at all.
When the learning was parth' complete, a few students wasted time
in trying to think what letter to write instead of looking at once on
the second sheet, and thus took a longer time than when they first
began ; but this was not a general source of irregularity.
Directions for the experiment were given the normal school
students in class and the experiments performed in their rooms.
They were asked to have the conditions as nearly the same as possible
and to take the time as accurately as they could with a watch. Most
of them had a classmate keep the time, but a few kept it themselves.
The "standard series" consisted of one test a day, at the same time
of day, but several groups of students were asked to take more tests,
and at different intervals, as is indicated in detail in the thesis. Tests
of children were made under the immediate direction of ]\Iisses Lane
and J\Iunn.
In order to study interference effects, persons who had already
38 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
practiced with key sheet I. were required to change to key sheet II.
Thesis.— The aim of this study was to find a standard curve of
learning, the variations in this curve resulting from the different
methods of taking the tests ; the conditions under which most prog-
ress was attained and those where least progress was made.
As a means for this investigation, I made a study of one hundred
and twenty papers, from as many individuals, showing the results
of a habit formation experiment. The greater part of these papers
were received from normal school students, all women; some few
however were obtained from children of a third, a seventh and an
eighth grade.
Each individual, with a few exceptions noted below, went through
a series of twenty tests, each "test," as explained above, consisting
of ten lines or ' ' trials. ' ' In different series, the tests were differently
distributed in time. The individuals participating in the various
practice series, mentioned below, were in all cases different in-
dividuals.
The first group comprises individuals who took one test a day
for twenty successive days. This group I call my standard or
regular series, and the curve of learning resulting from these papers
I call the standard or regular curve of learning.
Fig. 5 represents the results of the regular series, taken by twenty-
three normal school students. On this chart are five curves, A, B,
C, D, E.
Curve A represents the record made during ten trials or one
test ; curve B the record of the second ten trials or test two ; curve
C shows the records of the first trials of the twenty tests; curve
D the results of the tenth trials of the twenty tests; curve E the
averages of the twenty tests.
Discussion of Regular Series.
Curve A shows steady gain first half, little gain last half;
former gain 6.8 seconds, latter gain 2.8 seconds — entire gain 9
seconds.
Curve B. Here the gain is more even, the first and second halves
of curve varjnng little. The entire gain was 6.2 seconds.
Curves C and D both show great gain, first half less gain toward
the end. As the practice continues, the rate of progress diminishes
Curve E is the important curve of all, for it shows the average
of all the tests. The total gain made during the practice was 28
seconds, the gain first half was 21 seconds, gain second half was
7 seconds. Gain first half was three times the gain of second half.
Before leaving this set of papers it may be of interest to notice
one or two of the individual papers. For this study I chose the
TEE CURVE OF LEARNING
39
two papers which showed the most marked contrast, one the paper
of the individual who made the greatest gain, the other the paper
belonging to the one whose gain was the least. Fig. 6 represents the
former gains ; Fig. 7 the gains of the latter.
By comparing these two curves, it is evident that the natural
ability as far as quickness is concerned varied greatly. One was
extremely slow at the beginning while the other was quick.
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40
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
The subject who was the slowest in doing the tests at the beginning
made more rapid and greater gains throughout the entire series than
did the one whose first test was done in the least time. Fig. 6 also
shows that the limit in the rate of progress had not been reached by
the reagent while Fig. 7 shows the opposite to be true. The gain made
by the reagent whose results are shown on Fig. 6 was 46.6 seconds,
Fig. 6. Individual Making the Greatest Gain.
3.3 times as much as that made by the other reagent whose gain was
13.2.
After the first five or six trials of a test there is usually a loss of
a second or two, this loss however is frequently made up by the
following trial and almost without fail before the end of the test.
The longest time taken by any individual for the first trial was
90 seconds, the shortest time was 30 seconds. For the last trial the
longest time was 35 seconds, the shortest was 7 seconds.
THE CURVE OF LEARNING
41
Fig. 7. Individual Making the Least Gain.
Fig. 8 represents the results of one of the special series, iu which
ten tests were taken one Saturday and ten on the Saturday following.
These tests were taken by four normal school students.
This curve is less regular than the curves of the ' ' regular series ' '
shown in Fig. 5, but there are no great gains or losses, save for
the one loss which is noticeable between the two periods of the exer-
FiG. 8. Ten Tests a Day, on Two Days a Week Apart.
cise. These losses too are not permanent for by the second test
after the interval they are more than reclaimed.
From these curves too we notice that the greater gains are near
the beginning of the series, that as the practice continues the gains
decrease. The gains made throughout all these curves are pretty
uniform. The average gain made during the entire exercise was
20.7 seconds. The gain the first half was 14.4 seconds; gain last
half was 6.3 seconds.
42
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Here we find the gain made during first half of series to be twice
the gain of the second half, while in the case of the regular series the
gain in the first half was three times the gain in the second half.
We find that the week's interval between the two periods of prac-
tice caused a slight set-back in the rate of speed but the loss was only
temporary and easily regained.
In another experiment, a series of 17 "tests" — each consisting
of 10 lines of the test sheet — was executed on the same day and
without intermission between the tests. This experiment was tried
on 4 normal school students. The average result is shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Seventeen Tests Without Intermission.
On comparing this curve with that of the "regular series" in
Fig. 5, we find them alike in that the gains are in both instances
near the beginning of the series. They are unlike in other respects.
The curves of the regular series are even and gradual, while those
of the continuous practice series are much more irregular.
Gains, Fig. 5 Gains, Fig. 9
Entire gain 28 14.4
Gain in first half 21 17
Gain in second half 7 — 3 (loss)
From the above comparisons it can readily be seen that the
process of learning gradually counts for more than learning quickly ;
that short periods of practice in learning are more effective and bene-
ficial than the long extended ones.
Fig. 10 shows the results of another series, in which five tests were
taken at each of four different periods on the same day ; there being
two morning periods and two afternoon periods. Normal school
students were the subjects of this experiment.
THE CURVE OF LEARNING
43
The curve indicates that four times as much gain was made dur-
ing the first half of this series as in the last half. The gain of the
first half was 17 seconds while that of the last was but 4 seconds,
making the entire gain 21 seconds.
From the perusal of this chart one new significant point is gained,
namely, that work in the morning is more effective than the after-
noon work. If we apply the above to school work, it follows that
the harder work of the day should be a part of the morning program,
rather than of the afternoon one.
Fig. 10. Four Periods of Five Tests Each, on the Same Day.
Fig. 11 shows the results of a series of twenty tests taken in
groups of five on four successive days; this was tried on 4 normal
school students. Here the general character of the curves is regular.
There are no losses which are not regained. These curves are more
nearly like those of Fig. 5 than any previously considered.
The entire gain made was 31 seconds, gain first half was 24
seconds, gain last half was 7 seconds. The first gain was over three
times last gain.
Comparing the results of Fig. 11 with those of Fig. 5, we find
that the gain made by the former which was 31, was more than
that made by the latter.
This shows that continuous practice periods, if not too long, are
of value in that there is no time for "forgetting" to enter in.
The carrying out of this idea in the work of the lower grades
44 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
would be advantageous, for the little ones easily forget if drills are
not frequent. • v^-u
The series in which the greatest gam was made was one m which
the tests were taken twice a day, two at each period, for five suc-
cessive days. Four normal school students took part m this
experiment.
Fig. 11. Five Tests a Day on Four Successive Days. The end of each day's
practice is indicated by a cross below the curve.
The results, as seen in Fig. 12 (average of the average results),
show unusual uniformity up to the tenth test, from there on the
curve is much less regular.
The gain made during this series of tests was 39 seconds, the gain
first half was 32 seconds, the gain second half was 7 seconds, the
former gain being over four times the latter gain.
Comparing the above results with the corresponding results of
the regular series, we find that this special group gained more
through the first half than did those who took the tests in the regular
way. This however may be in part accounted for by the fact that
the initial rate of speed of this special group was much slower than
was the rate of speed attained in the regular tests at the beginning,
thus affording more chance for gain on the part of the special group.
TEE CURVE OF LEARNING
45
Taking two tests twice a day for five days appears to be more
effective than taking them one a day for twenty days or five a day
for four successive days.
Fig. 12. Two Tests Twice Each Day, on Five Successive Days.
Beginning with Fig. 13 we have the tests taken first with the
a-x key, then the a-o key, that the effect of the interference may be
noticed, and the part it plays in the practice determined.
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46 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Fig. 13 shows the results of 10 a-x tests, then an interval of one
week followed by one a-o test, then another a-x test. The interval
of one week is represented in the curve by the broken line, and the
line that follows shows the result of the a-o tests.
The practice and knowledge gained in doing the a-x series of
ten tests aided much in doing the tests with the a-o key. Practice in
doing or learning one thing helps in the mastery of other things of
a like character.
Groups of papers were received where ten tests with the a-x key
were taken followed immediately by 8 tests with the a-o key. In con-
trast to this group there was another set of papers of the same
number where an interval of one week came between the two series.
Table showing results of papers where there was no interval be-
tween a-x and a-o series:
l«t trial a-x 43 seconds | Difference of 10 seconds
1st trial a-o 33 " j
10th trial a-x 21 " j „ _2
10th trial a-o 23
Table showing results of papers where an interval of one week
came between the a-x and a-o series :
1st trial a-x 58 seconds | j^^q^^^^^^ ^f gi seconds
1st trial a-o 37 " )
10th trial a-x 23 " 1 „ _ ^
10th trial a-o 27 " j _ jy «
The above tables show that though the amount of gain was more
where the week's interval came between the two series, the propor-
tionate gain varied but one second. This shows that the short inter-
val of one week had slight if any effect.-
So far, the results reported have been from adults. The first
series with children consisted of 10 tests with the A-X key, taken,
one each day in the morning, by six children from the seventh and
eighth grades ; the average age was 11 years, 7 months.
The gain made by the children during the 10 tests was much
greater than that made by the normal school students ("regular
series") in the same number of tests. The gain made by the stu-
* In other words, practice with the use of the A-X key decreased the time
for the first trial with the A-O key by 10 seconds in one group and by 21
seconds in the other group, while the difference between the tenth trials of the
A-X and the A-O series was in the first group 2 seconds and in tne second
group 4 seconds — which indicates that the practice effect is proportionally the
same in the two cases.
THE CURVE OF LEARNING 47
dents in the first ten tests of the regular series was 21 seconds ; that
made by the children in the same number of tests was 48 seconds,
more than twice as much.
Gain in first five tests — adults 16 seconds
Gain in first five tests — children 34 "
Gain in second five tests — adults 5 "
Gain in second five tests — children 14 "
From the above we see that the gain of adults, in the first five
tests of the ''regular series," was three times as much as in the
second five tests ; while the gain made by the children in the first five
tests was twice their gain in the second five.
The children began their tests at a much lower rate of speed than
did the normal school students, the average time for the first "trials"
or lines by the students being 47 seconds, and by the children 88
seconds. The best records among the children were, however, about
as good as the best records among the normal school students.
Tests were also taken after school, at four o'clock, by six children
from the seventh and eighth grades. The average age of these chil-
dren — 11 years, 7 months — was the same as the average age of the
children in the preceding group, who were tested in the morning.
Prom the following table we find that there is an average loss of
10 seconds when the tests are taken at night :
Tests taken A.M. Tests taken P.M.
Gain in first half 34 seconds 25.7 seconds.
Gain in second half 14 " 12.5 "
Total gain 48 " 38.2 "
This indicates that with the children, as well as with adults, the
morning work is of more value.
Besides the results received from the children of the seventh and
eighth grades, I also had some papers from twelve little children of
a third grade. I took the tests myself with these children, taking
six of the children for the tests in the morning and six children for
the tests after school. The average age of these little ones was eight
years.
Charts were also plotted to show these results, the chart repre-
senting the tests taken in the morning is not on exactly the same
basis as others because one or two of the little children were unable
to do the entire first five tests, some only doing the first three trials
in the time at our disposal.
With the little ones it took some time for them to learn what they
were expected to do and how to do it, but once this part was under-
stood, their gains were rapid.
48
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
In studying Fig. 14 we find that the gains were not as gradual as
they might have been, the very great gains came at the beginning
but toward the end the gains were of a more equal length. We find
the greatest gain to be at the first of the curve — a gain of forty
seconds. As the practice continues the amount of gain decreases.
The total gain made by the children taking the tests in the morning
was 138.1 seconds.
During the tests taken after school an average gain of 108 seconds
was made, being 30 seconds less than the morning gain.
Fig. 14. Ten Tests taken A.M. on Children of Third Grade. Average results.
From studying Fig. 14 one can readily see how enormous are the
gains made by the children as compared with those made by the
normal school students.
If we consider some of the individual papers of the children we
find that in many places there is evidence of no real gain whatever,
but this period of standstill is not truly one of no gain, for after
these resting periods, as we may call them, great gains are frequently
THE CURVE OF LEARNING
49
made and also kept. It seems almost as though we might call these
periods of assimilating, for the acceleration which follows shows that
some learning must have been going on or otherwise the sudden
gains would not have ensued.
It was intensely interesting to watch the little ones as they were
taking the tests. They were all greatly interested in doing the exer-
cise and were especially anxious to know the progress they were
Fig. 15. Practice Curves of Elderly Persons. A sliows tlie results obtained,
in 7 tests, by an individual 72 years old; B shows the results obtained, in 10
tests, by an individual of 60 years.
50 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
making and how it compared with that made by their friends. En-
couragement did much in raising the record and the trying to outdo
their friends held the interest of the children and proved the best
incentive to doing the work.
After an afternoon spent almost entirely in drawing, the tests
were taken, and the weariness of the children influenced the rate of
progress greatly. Their interest in the doing of the tests was much
less than it previously had been and the gains they made interested
them little. It was only with great coaxing and encouragement that
they were able to be kept long enough to finish the tests.
In two instances, children having a headache could not work
nearly so quickly as they had been accustomed, and one little girl
who had a hard cold was unable to do more than three trials of one
test, and to do this amount she took as much time as she usually
would require to accomplish the ten trials.
These instances show that the physical condition of a child, espe-
cially, has much influence on his mental ability.
Having tested the normal school students and some few children,
I was interested to know how tests of older people would compare
with the previous tests of children and students. This study I could
not carry very far, for subjects were hard to find. However, the
tests were taken in the ''regular" way — one test a day — ^by two
elderly individuals, a gentleman of seventy-two years, and a woman
of sixty years. Fig. 15 shows the results obtained by these two.
Curve A is very similar to the corresponding curves on the charts
which represent the results of the children's tests, while curve B is
more nearly like the corresponding curve in Fig. 5.
After a period of five months or so, during which time no tests
were taken, the subjects who had previously taken the tests were
asked to try one test more, of ten trials, that it might be seen whether
the learning was permanent or not, and if so to determine where it
was the most so.
This was done and the following table shows the result.
From this table we find by comparing results of the first trials
before the interval with the first trials after the interval that in
every case save two there was a gain at the beginning of the period
after the interval, showing that the knowledge gained from practice
five months previous still in part remained.
In the two instances where no gain was made during first trial
after the interval over first trial before interval we have good proof
that the forgetting played an important part.
It is not surprising that this is the result where all the tests were
taken at the same time or even where they were taken four different
periods on the same day.
THE CURVE OF LEARNING
TABLE XI
51
1. General test
2. All test, one period
3. Four different periods,
same day
4. Ten tests, two successive
Saturdays
5. Two tests, twice a day,
five successive days...
6. Children' s tests, 7th and
8th grades, A. M
7. Children' s tests, 7th and
8th grades, P. M
8. Children's tests, 3d
grade, A. M
9. Children's tests, 3d
grade, P. M
1st
Trial
Best
Av.
Last
Av.
Last
Trial
1st
Trial
Last
Trial
47.6
63.7
13.4
21.1
13.4
31.7
13.8
37.5
33.6
60.7
21
33.7
44
14.9
17
15
3
45
28
53.5
18.2
18.2
17.7
n
<
41
29
90.6
17.1
17.1
15
<
B
42.3
31
88.8
14.8
20.6
19.3
51.2
26.2
66.5
22.5
22.9
18
a
36
24.2
23.9
24
25.9
24.5
68
33
25.0
35.5
35.5
22
86.7
55.7
Av. of Test
after
Interval
28.4
40.8
31.4
33.7
34.3
35.5
27.5
42.8
61.7
If we compare the averages after the interval with the last ones
before the interval we may, I think, form a just estimate of how
great a part the long interval played. Where all the tests were
taken at one period, as well as where they were taken from different
periods of the same day, it would be more accurate, it seems, to
compare the best average of these two groups with the average
after the interval.
Considering the groups, of the normal school students, we find
the loss caused by the interval to be rather more marked where the
tests were taken all at one period, and less marked where the tests
were taken daily.
With the children's tests we find that where the tests were taken
in the afternoon by the seventh and eighth grade children the inter-
val caused the least effect. With the little children who took the tests
in the afternoon the interval caused the greatest effect.
From observation of those taking the tests, as well as from written
statements from many of them, some of the conditions which in-
fluenced progress were made apparent.
1. Physical condition of subject, most noticeable in the nervous-
ness which followed inability to find a certain letter in quick time ;
headache was accountable in several instances for lack of power to
work quickly.
2. Temperature of the room — if the room was warm, work was
much slower than usual ; if too cold the same result was noticeable.
3. Interruption of any kind barred progress. This was especially
true with the children. Once their minds were off their work, it was
hard for them to concentrate themselves upon it again for some time.
52
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
4. "Mind-wandering"— thinking of outside things — caused de-
crease in rapidity of action.
5. If subjects were in a hurry, for any reason, the work was
slower than usual. ^^^
6. Weariness from school work made a great difference"*! the
records.
7. If an unusually strong effort was put forth to do the work
quickly, without fail undesired results would follow.
Brief Summary of Results
1. The greater gains in the process of learning to do something
are at the first of the practice.
2. Periods of morning work are more effective than the afternoon
periods.
3. Children work much slower to begin with than do adults, but
the gains made by them are greater. The gains of the adults, how-
ever, are more even and uniform than those of the children.
4. Short and frequent periods of practice are more valuable than
long extended ones.
Editor's Comment. — The test sheet and key used in the above ex-
periments are reproduced above that others may use them if they so
desire. The exercise has proved very serviceable, both as a means
of making a simple research and for illustrating a number of truths
taught in the psychology class.
As a research, w^hile revealing little that is entirely new, it helps
to confirm and emphasize, and suggests some truths that have not
as yet received sufficient attention. The comparison of the learning
curves of children, adults and the aged is interesting, but the ques-
tions of greatest importance raised by the study are those concerning
the number of repetitions at one time and the length of intervals
between practice that are most favorable to rapid and permanent
learning.
To what extent an individual curve of learning and fatigue is
typical of all learning by that individual is also a matter of great
theoretical and practical importance.
^P THESIS IX
Fatigue in Habit Formation
Experiment by Mabian F. Lane
The same test-sheet and key sheets which were used in the pre-
ceding study and described on p. 36 were also employed in the study
of fatigue.
This discussion is too extensive to be quoted in full, and parts
given alone would not be clear without considerable explanation.
In general, the results are what might be expected ; such as decrease
in rate of improvement, or irregularity in the record where a number
of tests were taken at one time and usually less rapid improvement
in the afternoon than in the morning. Even in a single test there
seems to be evidence of fatigue, for in the sixth to eighth trial there
is usually little or no improvement, sometimes a loss. The poor
record made after a drawing lesson indicates that the fatigue is
largely local rather than general, and perhaps mainly motor. There
is probably no actual inability to maintain the rate but decreased
tendency to do so.
The experiment is a good one with which to illustrate to a class
the phenomena of fatigue as well as those of learning processes and
habit formation.
53
THESIS X
Ways op Learning Visual Forms
By IVIay N. Hills
Thesis.— 1 placed before the pupils of the first, third, sixth and
eighth grades and before the normal school students five meaningless
figures based on geometrical forms. I asked the pupils to study the
figures, but did not suggest any particular way of studying them.
I allowed ten minutes. Then I took away the figures and asked the
pupils to draw them. After the drawing, I asked the pupils to
answer the following questions :
1. How did you learn the figures ?
2. Did you move your hand or any part of your body in the shape
of the outline while studying ?
3. Did you associate the figures with any familiar shape or ob-
ject?
4. Did you study the parts of the figures separately or try to
think of words which would describe the parts ?
From the first grade, of course, I received only oral answers,
which could not be tabulated, but I learned much about the char-
acteristics of little children. I marked the papers received from the
third, sixth and eighth grades and normal school students as to the
general appearance of the drawings they had made and then as to the
perfectness of the details in the drawings. In marking the papers,
I tried to keep one standard of excellence for a, another for b, and
another for c, without regard to grade or sex. After marking all
the papers, I found the per cent, receiving a, h and c respectively, as
to the general appearance, and then as to the more detailed repre-
sentation.
Next I found the per cent, of correspondence between the general
appearance and the detail — that is, what per cent, of those who got a
in the general, got a in the detail also.
My next problem was to find how pupils learn. Very often a
teacher places a lesson — spelling, for instance — on the blackboard
and tells the class to write each word five times or else she gives them
no direction for learning. So it seemed important to try to know
something of the natural ways in which children learn. For if we,
as teachers, can appeal to a natural method, it saves much energy^
and time for both teacher and pupil.
54
WATS OF LEARNING VISUAL FORMS 55
After reading the answers for both the children and the students,
I was able to make four classifications: first, those who learned by
moving the hand or some part of the body in the direction of the
outline of the figure to be learned ; second, those who associated the
figure or a part of it with some object or figure already familiar;
third, those who tried to learn the figures as wholes; and fourth,
those who analyzed the parts, learning only a part at a time.
According to Table XII., it is seen that as to the general ap-
pearance of the figures the normal school students received a higher
mark by only a few per cent, than the pupils of the eighth grade;
and also it may be noticed that the increase in ability to remember
the general appearance is gradual, but with more variation between
the sixth and eighth grades, 47 per cent, of the normal school
students receiving a ; 30 per cent, of the eighth grade ; 27 per cent,
of the sixth grade, and 26 per cent, of the third grade. In the third
and eighth grades the boys did the best, but in the sixth grade the
girls took the lead. This difference between the ability of the girls
and boys is even more noticed as to the detailed appearance of the
figures.
Fifty-seven per cent, of the normal school students received a as
to the detailed correctness of their drawings; 13 per cent, of the
eighth grade ; 11 per cent, of the sixth grade, and 8 per cent, of the
third grade. Here the difference in ability in remembering many
details between the normal student and the pupil of any grade is
quite marked.
Table XIII. shows the per cent, of students and pupils receiving
€,, h, c, as to the general appearance, who also received the same mark
in detailed appearance.
Table XIV. I found the most interesting and instructive. This
shows the method by which each child learned the figures. Nearly
all the students and pupils used a combination of two or three
methods and several used all the methods. The normal school
student depended the most upon association in remembering the
figures, 92 per cent, using this method, while 37 per cent, consider it
the most important method of learning; but the children consider
the learning of wholes as wholes the most important. For example,
one typical normal school student writes:
' ' In order to place the figures better in my mind I at once thought
of their likeness to other things. Upon looking at the first one, I
noticed that the upper, lower and left hand sides were straight lines
put together so as to form a square. The fourth side made me think
of a crude drawing of a human face. The second figure looked like
an Indian tent ; the third one like a semicircle on an axe ; the fouth
one like writing, and the fifth like an oak leaf.
56 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Let us next notice what importance was assigned to the motor
element in learning. Eighty-eight per cent, of the third grade, 80
per cent, of the sixth grade, 76 per cent, of the eighth grade and 40
per cent, of the normal school students used this method. Nearly-
all the children said that they moved their finger on their desk or in
the air while learning. When they thought they could draw it, they
looked away from the figure and tried to draw it with the finger.
This method seemed most natural to them, but as the children ad-
vanced in age and in grade they gradually lost the motor method of
drawing, or rather of learning; and when we come to the normal
school student, we find that the only form of the motor element exist-
ing is the moving of the eyes around the figures just as the child
moved the finger. There may be two causes for this ; first, the natural
instinct toward motor learning may be less strong as the child grows
older ; second, this natural instinct may have been repressed so often
through the discipline of the school room that the older students do
not have so strong a tendency to use this method. Only 9 per cent,
of the normal school students consider this method the most im-
portant; 16 per cent, of the eighth grade; 24 per cent, of the sixth
grade, and 40 per cent, of the third grade.
As mentioned before the normal school students consider the
learning by association the most important method, but as we come
down through the grades we find the method decreasing in popu-
larity. Ninety-two per cent, of the normal school students use it;
86 per cent, of the eighth grade ; 68 per cent, of the sixth grade, and
48 per cent, of the third grade. "While 41 per cent, of the eighth
grade consider it the most helpful method, only 5 per cent, of the
third consider it the most helpful. In comparing the drawings with
the methods used, I found that those who used this method — associa-
tion — modified their images so that often the drawing looked more
like the figure with which it was associated than like the original
form. For example, an eighth grade boy said that the second figure
"looked just like a pine tree" and his drawing did look decidedly
like a pine tree.
All the children of the third grade used the method of learning
by wholes to some extent. Ninety-four per cent, of the eighth grade
and 75 per cent, of the normal school students used it, while 55
per cent, of the third grade considered this method most helpful ; 45
per cent, of the sixth grade ; 32 per cent, of the eighth grade, and 30
per cent, of the normal school students.
This fact may be given as one reason why so much smaller pro-
portion of the children received a as to the details of their drawings
than received a as to the general appearance. Naturally children
WATS OF LEARNING VISUAL FORMS 57
see the whole thing at once, instead of analyzing. Only 8 per cent,
of the third grade used the method of analysis, while 57 per cent, of
the normal school students used it.
After several days had passed since the students and children had
seen the original figures, I asked them to draw the figures again
from memory. Then I asked them which method helped the most in
remembering the figures. These papers I did not tabulate but from
them I learned many facts. Those who considered the motor element
of learning very important the first day they drew the figures said
that the motor element did not help them so much when they had
to remember the figures for several days. The normal school stu-
dents considered this method "a quick method of learning but the
easiest to forget. ' ' While many who did not realize that association
helped them the first day say that it helped them to remember for a
longer period. One student writes :
"The first three figures which I associated with a familiar object
came back readily to-day, but the others which I had learned by
hand tracing did not come back so readily. ' '
It is interesting to notice the combinations of methods used and
the results obtained from various combinations. Nearly all the
students and pupils who received an a in both general and detailed
appearance used a combination of three or four methods, while those
who were marked c rarely used more than one or two methods. The
normal school students obtained the best results by studying the
figure as a whole first and then spending much time in associating it
with other known figures and analyzing it. The children of the
third grade obtained the best results by studying the figure as a
whole carefully and then tracing it with the finger many times.
When they thought they could draw it, they looked away and tried
to trace it in the air or on the desk; if they couldn't do it, they
studied it some more.
As the children grow older imagination or association seems to
take the place of the motor element ; and the tendency to reason and
analyze grows with age. These facts too often pass unnoticed in the
school room. ]\Iany teachers who do good work with older children
fail with the little pupils because they do not realize the importance
of the motor learning to the undeveloped mind. And the reverse is
equally true. The motor process of learning must be used but not
so constantly that as the child grows older he will lose the power to
analyze and to reason.
58
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
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55
WAYS OF LEARNING VISUAL FORMS 59
TABLE XIV
Showing the Method of Leabning
Method
Per cent, of normal school students using,
Per cent, of eighth grade using,
Per cent, of sixth grade using,
Per cent, of third grade using.
Per cent, of normal school students helped most by,
Per cent, of eighth grade helped most by.
Per cent, of sixth grade helped most by.
Per cent, of third grade helped most by.
Method I. is by motor tracing.
Method II. is by association.
Method III. is by wholes.
Method IV. is by analysis.
Editor's Comment. — This and the two studies following are repre-
sentative of forms of study that can be made and that should be
made frequently by intelligent teachers who are not satisfied with the
mechanical learning of lessons, but who wish to economize the time
of their pupils and help them to gain the power to direct their
activities to the best advantage.
The results of this study suggest that probably movements are
of greatest importance when habits are to be formed, but that recol-
lection of specific things after an interval is best insured by associa-
tive memory.
THESIS XI - -i
Methods of Learning Visual Forms
By Edna L. Battles
Thesis. — To test the methods of learning in the different grades,
I drew three figures. The first figure was composed of a circle,
a triangle, a rectangular shape which was pointed at one end, and
a figure resembling an oak leaf and having five points. The second
figure was made up of the same parts differently arranged. The
third figure was entirely different. The island of New Guinea was
taken as a basis for the form. This island was taken because it
was thought that the pupils had probably never studied it to any
great extent nor learned to draw it, so that they would not be
familiar with its shape. It was simplified somewhat but the general
shape was preserved. The dividing lines between the Dutch, Ger-
man and British territories were put in the figure, also the two
largest rivers. Two marks indicating capitals and two dots indicat-
ing cities were also added.
The tests were taken in the second, fourth, sixth and eighth
grades. Three tests were taken in each grade. In the first test the
pupils were asked to learn the figure and were allowed to learn
it in the way they chose ; in the second test they were asked to look
at the figure, and then to shut their eyes or look away and see
if they could see a picture of the figure; in the third test the
pupils were asked to learn the figure by drawing it on the desk
with their finger. In each test, they were then given four minutes
in which to study the figure; after which time they were re-
quired to draw it from memory. The tests were given in the after-
noon; in nearly every case (except where there was no recess) they
were given directly after the afternoon recess,
I went over the tests, marking them as to general form, detail
and proportion. The general form was marked with the letters
from a to g, according to the correctness of the form ; a being used
when the form was correct ; h, c and d as the forms were less correct ;
e when there was no resemblance to the original form ; / when only
a part was drawn, and g when nothing was drawn. In grading
the first two figures for detail, the circle, the triangle, the rectangular
form, the shape of the leaf and the number of its points each counted
as one. The details of figures 1 and 2 thus numbered five. In
60
METHODS OF LEARNING VISUAL FORMS Ql
figure 3 each dot representing a city, each river, each boundary-
line and five parts, either points or curves of the figure each counted
as one, making the number of details equal thirteen. In marking the
proportion of parts, the letters ran from a to e.
The tables are made on the standard of twenty-five boys and
twenty-five girls in each of the four grades used. Table XVI. gives
the distribution of the total marks for general form and proportion
in each test for each grade.
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62
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
In the second table, 7 was substituted for a, 6 for h, 5 for c, etc.
The number of a's was multiplied by 7, the number of &'s by 6, etc.
The results were added and the total was placed in the table. The
number of details which were right in each test were also added and
put in the table.
TABLE XVI
Boys
Test I
Test II
Test III
Child's own
Method
Imagination
Method
Motor
Method
Total
1
C5
'3
G
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P " o
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1
S 2
'3
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1
§ .2
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o
II.
62
224
60
210
78
224
200
658
IV.
102
243
113
247
105
237
320
727
VI.
118
260
105
270
120
259
343
789
VIII.
135
298
143
296
180
312
458
906
Total
417
1025
421
1023
483
1032
1321
3080
Total
1442
1444
1515
4401
Girls
II.
59
211
63
203
68
219
190
633
IV.
106
244
104
242
122
244
332
730
VI.
114
260
115
293
133
260
362
813
VIII.
151
310
146
313
165
313
462
936
Total
430
1025
428
1051
488
1036
1346
3112
Total
1455
1479
1524
4458
Boys
and Girls
II.
121
435
123
413
146
443
390
1291
rv.
208
487
217
489
227
481
652
1457
VI.
232
520
220
563
253
519
705
1602
VIII.
286
608
289
609
345
625
920
1842
Total
847
2050
849
2074
971
2068
2667
6192
Total
289
7
2923
3039
8859
The table shows, in regard to detail, a great improvement from
the second to the fourth grades, no great change from the fourth
to the sixth grades, and again a great improvement from the sixl^
to the eighth grades. In test II. the boys of the fourth grade actually
surpassed those of the sixth ; but this result is perhaps accidental, as
it is due to the great success of two or three boys in the fourth
grade — who ranked as high in the number of correct details as the
best of the eighth grade — combined with the very low rank of two
or three boys in the sixth grade.
The gain in general form and proportion is usually gradual from
grade to grade. It totals less, from the second to the eighth grades,
than the gain in number of correct details. The number of correct
METHODS OF LEARNING VISUAL FORMS 63
details is doubled and a little over, while the general form and pro-
portion is not very much better in the eighth grade than in the
second. The younger children get the general form of the figure
much better than they get the details. They see anything as a whole,
and have not yet learned to look for the parts. One important
phase of the primary teacher's work is to lead the child to see the
details in the things around him.
One very interesting thing is the number of times that the
figures were reversed. Figures 1 and 2 were often reversed and
usually it was after one or the other of them had been learned be-
fore. There were most reversals in Grade IV., there being very few
in the other grades.
In regard to the relative success of the three metJiods of learning
used respectively in tests I., II. and III., we find from Table XVI.
that, for all the children taken together, the motor method gave
better results than either the method in which the children were
directed to close their eyes and imagine the figure or the method
of the child's own choosing. This superiority of the motor method
is much more marked in correctness of details than in general form
and proportion. The importance of motor methods in school work
is indicated by these results.
Looking at the results of each grade separately, we see that the
motor method of learning is by far the best for the second grade,
w^hile the imagination is very poor. The importance of the motor
method was brought very forcibly to my mind in giving the tests
in this grade. When the children were learning their figures by
the choice or motor methods, a great many of them moved their
whole body in the direction in which they would move their fingers
when drawing the figure. In the fourth and sixth grades the
imagination tests begin to gain prominence, showing that the chil-
dren are gaining the power to form images.
The question arises. Would it not be better to lead the pupils
to learn by a method which is found to be best for children in
that grade than to allow them to learn as they choose? It would
seem from the results of these tests that it would be much better
to direct them as to the w^ay they should study, especially in the
low grades. The choice tests do not give the best results, as per-
haps one might expect, but it was where some specified method
was prescribed that the best results were obtained. If the children
had better results when some specified method was used, with
only one trial, does it not seem probable that there would be
still greater improvement if it was continued ?
The individual child, however, should be studied. Some children
?^f^^ T^r^.r
v/yi
64 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
are greatly helped by having the method of learning suggested. For
instance, there was a boy in grade II. who advanced from e in the
choice test to a in the motor test for correctness of general form.
He also gained in details and proportion although not so much.
That boy certainly was helped, that time at least, by having the
method of learning suggested to him. Of course there might have
been other things which combined to make it better. The motor
test was the last test given, and as this was probably the first time
that the children in this grade had ever done anything of the kind
they had grown more accustomed to doing it in the last test and so
could put their minds more entirely upon it. Another child would
be greatly hindered in its development if forced to learn by some
specified method. There was one girl in grade II. who fell, in gen-
eral form, from h in the choice test to / in the imagination test ; and
her loss in detail and proportion was nearly as great. This time, at
least, the girl was hindered in her learning by having to learn
by the imagination method. She however ranked quite high in the
motor test.
While the tabulated results show that the majority of the chil-
dren gained in the motor test, there were very few cases where there
was a great difference. There was one boy in Grade II. who gained
from / in the imagination test to h in the motor for general form;
in details he gained from 1 to 4, and in proportion from e to h. This
shows again the great value of the motor method of learning for
some individuals, especially young children.
Although this study is made of the learning of visual forms and
seems very narrow, it may be applied to many phases of the school
work. In the map drawing in the higher grades it should be remem-
bered that it is important that the children shall have plenty of
practice in drawing the maps and that they shall have an image
of the map. In the manual training department, a knowledge of
how to use the tools will not suffice. There must be practice in using
them. Also in the study of the sciences, we find this recognized
and see that in a great many schools, the pupils try the experiments
themselves instead of merely getting an image of the results from
descriptions which they read in books or which the teacher gives
them. When the small children are learning to read, it helps to
impress it more deeply upon their minds if when they are learning
a new word, they learn to speak it, as well as get an image of its
form. Thus we find that in all the school work, when possible,
the children should ' ' learn to do by doing. ' '
THESIS XII
How Children Study
By Martha Josephine Baldwin
Thesis.— The following questions were sent to teachers in the
grades and high school to be answered by the pupils:
1. How long did you spend on this lesson?
Was it a study period?
2. Were you interrupted at all?
3. How did you try to learn the lesson?
4. How did you know you had your lesson?
The pupils were not allowed to see the following question until
after they had finished the preceding ones ?
5a. Did you try to learn the words of the book?
h. Did you write down any part?
c. Did you use an outline?
Papers were received from the sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth
grades, and from the four classes of the high school, altogether
numbering four hundred and five: two hundred and thirteen girls
and one hundred and ninety-two boys.
The lessons had been prepared the day before and the questions
were answered upon one special lesson: history in the sixth and
seventh grades and in the freshman and sophomore classes, geography
in the eighth, grammar in the ninth, and German in the junior and
senior classes. Two typical papei-s are given on the followingpages.
Qif'l^ Subject, Grammar.
NintJi Grade. Age, Fourteen.
1. I spent three quarters of an hour on the lesson.
It was a study period.
2. I was not interrupted.
3. I tried to learn the lesson by first reading it, then learning
some of the rules by heart.
4. I knew I had my lesson by reciting it to myself.
5a. I did not try to learn the words of the book.
&. I wrote a little down.
c. I did not make an outline for any part of it.
Botj. Subject, History.
Freshman. Age, Fifteen.
1. I studied my lesson fifty minutes.
65
66
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNINQ
It was not a study period.
2. My dog barked and I had to go to speak to him.
3. Concentrated myself for the length of time stated.
4. I answered the questions which I expected Miss B would ask us.
5a. Partly.
&. I did not.
c. I wrote out part of the lesson.
The papers received were studied for the characteristics shown
by the answers to the questions. Then I obtained from the high
school teachers, records of the pupils' standing received in the studies
concerning which these papers were written for the previous eight
weeks. The system runs in A, B, C, D ; A being the highest mark.
There are twelve different methods of study used. They divide
into two great heads, the word methods or studying simply words,
and the thought method, illustrated by one quotation which says
"I tried to understand the lesson as I studied it." Under the first
head are included reading, reading and reciting, reading and writing,
reading by sections, reading and using other books, and learning
by heart. The thought method includes reading for story, reading to
understand, concentrating self, try^ing to answer questions, finding
important facts, and merely spending time required. According to
Table XVII. it is found that 82 per cent, of the children used the
word method of learning as shown above, leaving a very small per
cent, whose answers indicate that they tried in any way to under-
stand the content of the text. A larger per cent, of girls than of
boys studied by the thought method.
Boys
TABLE XVII
How Did You Study Youb Lesson?
Grades
Grammar High
G S k--^ »^ ►H
> > >
{Number
Per cent.
Time
11 16 32 22 34 5 24 8
73 67 86 57,92 100 100 73
20 18 44 43 49 69 71 97
[Number 4 8 5 17
Thought^ Percent. 27 33 14 43
[Time [25 20 30 34
85
3 16 15 31 20 21 17 18 8 1
75 76 56 76 83 78 94 90 89 100
27 20 23 55 17 46 47 45 54 75
1 5 12 10 461 2 1
25 24 44 24 17 22 6 10 11
20 23 19 43 54 41 90 56 56
Girls
(Number 112 17 30 24151 12 28 91 3 16 27 24 47 23 24 10 8 1
Word] Percent. 92 23 23 33 18 92 100 100 100 84 82 75 91 26 92 100 100 100
[Time 27 19 27 40 60 69 78 46 30 24 21 39 45 62 58 48 62 65
{Number
Percent.
Time
14 7 8
8 77 77 67
15 30 20 40
9 1
82 8
63 69
3 6 8 5 6 2
16 18 25 9 74 8
17 30 63 53 48 65
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HOW CHILDREN STUDY (57
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69
There are two of the twelve divisions which take the lead. The
first is reading, which is used in the case of twenty-five per cent, of
both boys and girls, being more popular with the boys. The other
prominent method is that of reading and using other books. Twenty
per cent, of all the papers show the use of this method, which is
employed more by the girls than by the boys. In contrast with the
simple reading method, this is used much more in the high school
than in the grades, especially in the junior class. This is doubtless
due to the fact that the papers came from German classes where the
translation was done by the use of the German dictionary. In the
ages, this method is used very much by the older pupils.
Tests •
Tests •
No tests ■
TABLE XX
How Did You
Know You Had
YouB Lesson?
Boys
VI
VII VIII
IX IV III II I
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18
19
Number
7
14
25
21
36 4 6 9
3 10 19 25 25 17 12 3
7
1
Per cent.
47
67
74
62
67 57 43 38
43 59 62 64 63 56 67 23
70
20
Number
8
7
9
13
8 3 9 15
4 7 12 14 5 13 6 10
3
4
Per cent.
53
33
26
38
33 43 57 62
57 46 38 36 37 44 33 77
30
80
Girls
Number
10
6
30
33 38 13 11 5
3 13 18 29 32 24 18 4
4
1
Per cent.
67
43
79
94 83 81 63 55
60 57 64 94 87 80 77 45
75
100
Number
5
8
8
2 8 3 5 5
2 10 10 2 5 6 3 5
1
Per cent.
33
57
21
6
17 19 37 50
40 43 36 6 13 20 23 55
25
Table XIX. shows how the pupils knew they had their lessons.
Table XX. shows the same, only in different divisions, which are two,
one in which the pupils tested themselves in some definite way and
one where no definite tests were employed. It was found that higher
marks were obtained by those using some sort of test. Boys of
thirteen and sixteen and girls of thirteen and fourteen used tests
more than those of any other age.
Of the nine classes of tests represented by the headings and quo-
tations of Table XX. the most prevailing is the second, which is the
proof by reciting either to one's self or to some one else by topics.
Fifty-six per cent, of all used this test and it seems more popular
among the girls. It is used more in the high school and most in the
freshman class. The ages thirteen, fourteen and fifteen are the
ones that used it most.
On comparing the results of my inquiry with the standing of the
pupils in their studies, it was found that the average time spent
in obtaining the highest mark was sixty minutes, the girls spending
more time than the boys and the juniors and the seniors using the
most. The preparation was at home, usually the pupils not being
interrupted. The largest per cent, of those who obtained the highest
70 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
mark used the simple reading method, with nearly as many referring
also to other books.
In obtaining the mark B, the average time spent was sixty one
minutes, the boys spending more time than the girls, and the fresh-
man class required more than thg others. Here, also, the lessons
were prepared at home in the afternoon with no interruptions. The
method most used was that of reading and using other books.
A little more time was spent in obtaining the mark C, that is,
sixty nine minutes and the boys spent more time than the girls.
This preparation was also at home and in the afternoon, although
the boys of the higher classes studied in the evening. They were
not interrupted to any great extent and forty-four per cent, used
the methods of reading and using other books, which applies more to
the girls.
The greatest interest in the marks centers in the lowest one, for
those receiving D were all boys, and the average time spent was one
hundred and fifty minutes. They all studied at school with recita-
tions going on around them and they were interrupted. The com-
mon method was reading, over and over again.
In drawing conclusions from these studies, the first which comes
up is that the children study words rather than thoughts, that they
study in a mechanical sort of way, which enables them to say they
have studied the lesson and spent the time required. They read the
words over and over, and doubtless get more confused the more they
read.
This seems to me a great fault. Children should study to under-
stand what they read and it will prove a quicker and surer method.
This is one problem for teachers to solve, and it is certainly a very
important one.
G. Stanley Hall says that at least three fourths of the time spent
by a boy of twelve in trying to learn a hard lesson out of a book,
is time thrown away, not in deliberate idling, but through uncon-
scious mind wandering, lack of concentration, the unwise attempts of
memorizing words of the text without proper assimilation of
thoughts.
One most serious side of the problem is that most of the loss is
experienced by boys and girls who are trying hard to master the
lesson.
THESIS XIII
An Experimental Study of Musical Learning
By Mary G. Gilles
Thesis. — This study was made to ascertain the different methods
employed in learning and remembering a series of tones and the best
method of doing the same.
The reagents were nine normal school students, two instructors,
and eight children from grades five to eight, and two high school
students, making a total of twenty-one. Of this number nineteen
have had practice, varying from considerable to a very little, in
either playing or singing or both, one sang by note only and one
could neither sing or play, and had no knowledge of notation, the
keyboard or the relation of one tone to another though he could dis-
criminate tones higher or lower than a given tone.
The experiment was made in four ways, the instrument used
being a piano.
I shall refer to the different parts of the experiment as test I., II.,
III. and IV. Test I. consisted of a series of fifteen notes played to
the reagent, who reproduced them from memory on the piano. Test
II. comprised a series of fifteen notes which the reagent read from
the score and reproduced from memory on the piano. Test III. con-
tained a series of fourteen notes. These the reagent read and played
from the score until he could reproduce them from memory. Test
IV. was made up of a series of thirteen notes. They were played to
the reagent who followed the score at the same time, completing the
test by reproducing from memory.
The reagent was not limited as to time or number of trials but he
attempted to reproduce as soon as he thought he could do so.
The children often tried to reproduce before they were able to do
so, seeming to depend upon the trial and success method, while the
adults, in most instances, did not attempt to reproduce from memory
I until they were fairly sure they could reproduce correctly, yet after
reproducing they w^ere not always sure that they had done it cor-
rectly.
It was noticeable that the first and last tones were reproduced
more quickly and more accurately than the intervening ones, by both
children and adults. This fact has been found to be true in all
memory tests.
71
72 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
The children almost invariably began with the feeling that they
couldn't do what was asked of them. They underestimated their
ability and in many cases said they had reproduced the tones incor-
rectly simply because they thought it beyond them to do it. How-
ever by encouraging them and naming some of their little friends
who had taken the tests, and said it was great fun, I succeeded in
overcoming this fear.
Several of the adults and the children noticed the scale form in
some of the series of tones given, and in that way recognized the
series in less time than they would have otherwise.
Six of the adults failed to recognize a series as correct after play-
ing it so, and three failed to recognize it as wrong when it was wrong.
Six of the children were troubled in a similar way and made the
error more than once. Four played a series wrong, thinking it right,
and made this mistake from one to four times.
Three distinct methods were used by the reagents, sound, symbol
and visual. Combinations of these three were used to some extent.
The symbol method involved the use of syllables, numbers and
letters. The visual included a visual image of the keyboard or a key
as representing a given tone, the position of the notes on the staff or
their relative position when representing tones.
It is readily seen that test I. affords a greater opportunity for the
use of the sound method than any other test. Test II. is more
favorable for the use of the visual method. In tests III. and IV.
there is occasion to use both the sound and visual methods equally.
Table XXI shows the number of children and adults that used
each method. The children used the sound method the greatest
number of times, twelve, and the adults the sound and visual
methods, each twelve times.
The adults used visual memory more than the children, which
supports the statement made by Colegrove that "Visual stimuli
usually make the strongest appeal to adults, excepting during sleep
and repose." There is a great tendency as age increases to use the
visual memory. Only in one instance did a child under thirteen
use visual imagery, while all the adults, with the exception of one,
made more or less use of it. The children used the symbol method
to a greater extent than the visual memory. They used it to a
greater extent than the adults, probably because in school they are
taught to read notes by means of symbols, which would naturally
influence them to remember not by the relative position of one note
to another, but in terms of another and more familiar system of
remembering.
From the table it follows that both the adults and children com-
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MUSICAL LEARNING
73
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74 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
pleted test III. in the least time and with the least number of trials,
the adults taking less time than the children and fewer trials in
either case, although there is no marked difference.
Both adults and children had the poorest record in test I., it
taking the children more than twice as long as the adults and three
times the number of trials.
Of the three principal methods of learning, the symbol method
required the least time for the children and the auditory for the
adults.
It will be noticed that the symbol method took the least time for
the children and the greatest for the adults, the latter even requir-
ing more time than the former. This is the only instance in which
the adult requires more time than the children. It would seem
from this that time is lost if we try to fit things into a system with
which we are not very familiar, but if we use the system of remem-
bering with which we are most familiar time is gained, and the use
of the trial and success method is eliminated.
With both children and adults, this symbol method required the
least number of trials, and the visual the greatest, which seems to
indicate that we can depend upon our visual memory the least in
memory of musical notes, and that when we have a system into which
to fit things our power of recall is surer. The children seem to use
this method of remembering more than the adults.
Table XXII. represents the number that used different methods,
of those who play by ear or do not, and those who play from
memory or do not. For convenience I will refer to them as groups
a, b, c and d. Three children were placed in group a and seven in
group b. It is more than probable that most of those in the latter
group could play by ear if they tried, but had never attempted
to do so before this experiment. Seven adults were placed in group
b and four in group a.
The children in groups a and b used the sound method to the
greatest extent. The visual method was not used at all by those in
group a, and was made considerable use of by those in group b.
The adults in group a used the sound method the greatest number
of times, while those in group b used the visual.
Both children and adults belonging to group b used the visual
method more than those of group a.
All the children and eight adults were placed in group c, and the
remaining three adults were placed in group d. Group c contains
those who play from memory, and group d those who are unable
to do so.
Both children and adults in group c used the sound method the
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MUSICAL LEARNING 75
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76 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARyiXG
greatest number of times and those of group d the least, substituting
the visual for it.
From a survey of the Avhole, it seems that the auditory memory
is most essential to musicians, and if they are lacking- in this, adults
rely uj^on the visual memory, and the ehiklren upon a system with
which they are more familiar and into which they can fit the thing
to be remembered, for example, the use of the symbols.
As age increases there is a great tendency to use the visual
memory. Visual memory is better for the older students because it
is employed more by them.
The motor memory is important in connnitting to memory. In
several cases I noticed a movement of the fingers or the lips, and in
some cases the symbols were said aloud or were sung.
The usual practice method of musicians seems to be without doubt
the best method of learning.
There were many individual peculiarities. One boy took note
of the highest tone played, which showed that he reasoned about it,
taking less time, fewer trials, and having to hear it the least number
of times of all the children. His record too was better than that of
many of the adults.
Another child belonged to a family, several of which were very
fine musicians. She herself played well, but could not play by ear,
as could none of her relatives. It took her fifty-five minutes to com-
plete the first test, thirty trials, and she was obliged to hear it played
forty-nine times. Then in order for her to get it, I had to offer sug-
gestions, and call her attention to the relation of one tone to another.
One particular tone, a, she couldn't place, and although she played
the series twice correctly, she didn't realize it. Finally she became
assured that it was correct by comparison, listening intently to the
series after having played it herself.
Of the two who could not play the piano, I noticed a similarity
in the manner of learning. They were given just enough instruc-
tion to enable them to perform the tests. They arranged the notes
or tones into three groups, but not by measures, as one would natu-
rally think. A series of tones, one following the other in succession,
fonned one group, then the repetition of two tones determined the
end of a second group, and the third group included the remaining
tones. They repeated these groups several times, one more than
another, and made no attempt to play from memory until quite sure
they could remember it. Both depended on the sjonbols largely.
One of these two I have just mentioned, f, took twenty-five
minutes for the completion of the test, while it took one very pro-
ficient in the art of music only a minute. In another test f took
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MUSICAL LEARNING 77
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78 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
eighteen minutes, while the musician required only thirty seconds.
Not age, but training is probably the secret of whatever greater
ability the older classes possess. It is true that system is the secret
of memory. But system depends on the discovery of distinctions
unnoted by the unsystematic, which constitute threads of connection
between details. It elevates the association between these details
from a mere serial association by contiguity to a simultaneous asso-
ciation in which similarity plays a most important part. The kind
of connection that makes all these details one thought may absorb
them so that in recall their separate existence is lost. System is the
secret of remembering, but also of forgetting whatever it finds in-
convenient or unneoessary.
THESIS XIV
Incidental Memory
By Isabel Wallace
Thesis. — Much of what we remember has been learned without
conscious effort. During the first few years of his life, when more is
learned than during any later period, a large part of the knowledge
gained is acquired without volition on the part of the child. Neither
does the acquisition without effort cease at the end of these few years.
The data for this thesis were taken in connection with an illus-
trated lecture on Hiawatha. The lecture was given in the main hall
of the normal school, and it was attended by the normal school
students and the pupils from the fourth to the eighth grades. Ques-
tions were asked which had nothing to do with the lecture itself,
but were of things purely incidental.
The questions about the lecture were asked about four weeks after
the lecture was delivered. Therefore what was remembered at that
time would probably be retained much longer. I received eighty
papers from the normal school students, and two hundred and sixteen
from the children from the fourth to the eighth grades.
The first question was: "When did Mr. Kempton lecture at the
normal school? Give the date and the hour." The normal school
students had a much higher per cent, of correct answers than the
grade pupils.
The following give an idea of the answers received:
Normal School Pupils:
"December 21, from about half past ten to twelve o'clock. I
thought about the lecture for a moment and the remembrance came
to me that it was just before the vacation. I thought of the day on
which Christmas came, then counted and found that Friday came
the twenty-first."
"Mr. Kempton lectured on Hiawatha the Frida}'- before the
Christmas vacation — Dec. 21, 1906. The time was 10 :30 in the morn-
ing. I remembered the day because Howard was married on Tues-
day the twenty-fifth and the Friday before was therefore the twenty-
first."
"Mr. Kempton lectured on Hiawatha Dec. 23, 1906. The lecture
was on Friday and came at 10 :40 A. M.
"He gave it on Friday afternoon between four and five. I re-
79
80 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
member it was about five because I did not have to wait long after
the lecture until supper."
"It was Wednesday before the Thanksgiving recess. I remember
because we went home that day. ' '
An eighth grade boy: ''Mr. Kempton lectured Dec. 28, 1906, at
half past two in the afternoon. ' '
A fourth grade boy: "Before Christmas."
The normal school pupils acknowledged that they used reason as
well as memory in answering questions. They thought first that the
lecture came before a vacation and then they calculated the date.
Some did not think of the right vacation, while one thought that
supper rather than dinner followed the lecture. The answers of the
normal and the eighth grade pupils include more details than the
answers of the children in the lower grades.
The second question was : ' ' What color was his suit ? ' '
The normal school students:
"His clothes were of dark mixed goods."
' * I think his clothes were black. ' '
An eighth grade boy: "His suit was blue."
A sixth grade girl : ' ' His suit was gray. ' '
A fourth grade boy: "Dark."
Several said that they could not see the color of his suit because
the lights were turned out and some of the reasons for the answers
were peculiar. For instance, "He wore a dark suit such as all men
wear." "He has always worn black." These indicate that some
relied on their previous knowledge and not upon their memory of
the particular individual and day.
The third question was: "From what did he read?"
The normal school pupils :
"He read from a book which had limp covers, for he folded one
side of the book back. ' '
"He read from a book about three fourths of an inch thick."
"He read from small sized note paper."
An eighth grade girl: "He read from a book."
A sixth grade boy: "He read from the poem."
A fifth grade girl: "He read out of a little book of Longfellow's
poems. ' '
The fourth question was : ' ' Who managed the lantern ? ' '
The normal school students :
"A lady managed the lantern."
"The man who managed the lantern has acted in the same
capacity here before."
"Mrs. Kempton managed the lantern."
IXCIDENTAL MEMORY 81
A boy in the fifth grade: "Mrs. Kempton."
A fifth grade boy: "Mr. Alexander managed the lantern."
A fourth grade boy: "Mr. Thompson managed the lantern."
A fourth grade girl: "The minister from the C. C. church."
The per cent, of the sixth grade children who were able to answer
the question was very low. (The children in this grade had been
told by their teacher not to look around the hall.)
The fifth question was : ' ' Describe the clothing of the person
who managed the lantern. ' '
The normal school pupils:
"She had on a light waist and a black skirt."
"She wore a white waist and a dark skirt."
"A striped waist and a dark skirt."
"A light cape and no hat."
An eighth grade boy: "A light waist and a blue skirt."
Another: "A plaid waist and a dark skirt."
A sixth grade girl: "She wore a gray suit."
A sixth grade boy: "He had pants, vest, jacket, necktie, collar
and watch. ' '
A fourth grade boy: "She had pretty clothes on."
There is a great variety in the answers to this question because
the person stood at the back of the hall where she was out of the
range of vision of most of the children. Unless they saw her enter
the hall, they w^ere obliged to turn around to see her. Owing ta
the fact that the hall was darkened, it was necessarily difficult,
to obtain an idea of the clothing. IMany of the answers are so gen-
eral that they would apply even if the pupil had not seen Mrs..
Kempton.
The sixth question was : ' ' Tell me about any change in the light-
ing of the hall."
The normal school pupils :
"The hall was darkened by the shutters over all the windows.
During the first part of the lecture, the electric lights were on.
When Mr. Kempton was ready for the pictures, the lights were
turned out. They were on again for the audience to go out. ' '
"When we went in, the hall was as usual. Then the dark
curtains were let down. After Mr. Kempton had read a few mo-
ments, the lights were turned on until he was ready to show the
pictures, and then they were turned off again. After the pictures,
the curtains were raised."
An eighth grade girl: "The curtains were pulled down and the
doors closed."
A seventh grade girl: "It changed from red to green."
82 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
A seventh grade boy : ' * The curtains were drawn and the electric
lights lighted."
A sixth grade girl: ''The lights were put out."
A fifth grade girl : ' ' Sometimes it was dark, at other times light. ' '
A fifth grade boy: "Darkened."
The girl who answered that it changed from red to green must
have been thinking of something entirely different. It was noticeable
that the normal school pupils had a knowledge of the order in the
changes made in the lighting. This knowledge was not contained in
the answers from the lower grades, but almost everyone knew that
the hall was darkened during the time when the pictures were
shown.
The seventh question was: "Tell anything you can about Mr.
Thompson (principal of the normal school) during the lecture."
The normal school pupils :
* ' Mr. Thompson introduced the speaker, going upon the platform :
He also helped to pull the curtains."
"Mr. Thompson helped lower the curtains and introduced Mr.
Kempton. After it was over, he raised some of the curtains. He
asked ]\Ir. Alexander if he had anything to say to the Edgerly
pupils. ' '
An eighth grade boy : ' ' He pronounced the name of Hiawatha. ' '
Another: "Mr. Thompson was quiet and sat near the stage."
Eighth grade girl: "Mr. Thompson introduced Mr. Kempton."
A seventh grade boy: "He spoke."
The eighth question was : ' ' Tell me anything you can about Mr.
Alexander during the lecture."
The normal school pupils:
"Mr. Alexander had charge of the pupils from the Edgerly. He
gave an announcement to the Edgerly School children at the close
that school would begin again after the Christmas vacation. ' '
"Mr. Alexander stood in the back of the room watching the
tihildren and when they were making a disturbance he spoke to
them quietly. I remember that he watched a particular group of
boys and spoke to them."
A girl in the eighth grade: "He placed the people in their seats."
Eighth grade boys: "Mr. Alexander was at the head of it all."
"Mr. Alexander was a chairman."
A seventh grade girl: "He saw that nobody was rude."
A sixth grade boy: "He helped run the machine."
The children seemed better able to answer this question than the
previous one. They are more familiar with Mr. Alexander and
INCIDENTAL MEMORY 83
are more accustomed to watch him because he is principal of the
Edgerly School.
The ninth question was : ' * What kind of a day was it ? "
The normal school pupils:
"It was a dark, rainy day. It was very slushy. I remembered
that because I found it hard walking when coming to school."
"Pleasant and sunny and quite cold." "A misty day. I remember
because I was uncertain about taking an umbrella, but finally sent
it back to my room. Also very slippery and slushy under foot,
for one of the girls fell down and got her coat wet."
An eighth grade boy: "It was slippery."
An eighth grade girl : " It was dark and damp. ' *
A seventh grade girl : " It was muggy. ' '
A fifth grade boy : " It was rainy. ' '
A fourth grade girl : " It was cold. ' '
Any of the answers could be applied to this particular day, as the
weather was decidedly unsettled. It is difficult therefore to decide
whether the pupils actually remembered the conditions of the weather
on this particular day or not.
The tenth question was: "Was there anything except the lec-
ture?"
The normal school pupils :
"The children and the normal school students sang Christmas
carols before the lecture. Miss Perry gave out the names of the
songs and played the accompaniments."
An eighth grade boy: "There were colored pictures."
A sixth grade girl: "There were moving pictures."
A fourth grade girl: "We sang Christmas songs."
The eleventh question was : ' ' Did anyone come in the front
door during the lecture?"
The normal school pupils :
"Dr. Chalmers and a few others came in during the lecture."
"Two men and some ladies came in the front door."
An eighth grade boy: "Ernest Seton Thompson came in the
front door."
A fifth grade boy: "Dr. Chalmers and Mr. Kratzer came in
during the lecture."
When anyone came in the front door, the contrast between the
darkened hall and the light corridor attracted attention. This is
probably the reason that many knew that some people came in
during the lecture. Those who were able to mention names had
definite knowledge. The boy who said that Ernest Seton Thompson
came in the front door may have referred to Principal Thompson.
84 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
The twelfth question was: ''Were there any decorations in the
hall and what was there on the platform?
The normal school pupils:
"There was a white screen, a drawing table, a chair and a lantern
on the stage."
The hall was decorated with autumn leaves."
' ' There were the decorations from the last party.
(These last two show that the individuals were thinking of some
previous lecture.)
"Across the front of the platform a large white curtain was
stretched. To the right of the curtain was a drawing table used
by Mr. Kempton to rest his book and his light upon. There was a
dark red curtain upon the platform when the moving pictures were
shown. There was a fern on a stand, a desk and a chair. ' '
(The curtain was white and this person must have been thinking
of some other occasion.)
A seventh grade girl : " A chair and a glass of water on a little
stand. ' '
(She must have had in mind another lecture where the lecturer
had a glass of water as there was none on the platform in this case.)
In preparing the tables those who acknowledged that they knew
nothing about the questions were grouped with those whose knowl-
edge was clearly incorrect. The other papers were grouped to-
gether as having knowledge of the question.
As the answers cited in this paper indicate, the normal school stu-
dents have answered at greater length than the pupils in the grades.
They have given more details and many gave accounts of the ways in
which they remembered. The greater command of language enabled
the normal school pupils to express themselves more fluently and with
a greater degree of accuracy. The pupils in the higher grades
have given more details than those in the lower ones.
Reason as well as memory was used in answering some of the
questions. This was especially true of the normal school pupils and
to some extent of those of the grades. The questions where reason
was unquestionably used by many are the first, for many acknowl-
edged that they calculated in order to find the date; the sixth,
because in order to show stereopticon views we know that the hall
must be darkened and also the twelfth to some extent, because there
must have been something on wiiich the lecturer could place his
books or papers. •
Previous knowledge was used in the second, where an answer
which could be applied to any man was given; in the fourth, for
many knew that Mrs. Kempton often manages the lantern for Mr.
IXCIDEXTAL MEMORY 85
Kempton; in the fifth where general answers were given; in the
sixth, for many know that the hall is always darkened for a stereop-
ticon lecture ; in the seventh because many, especially normal school
students, know that Mr. Thompson usually introduces the speaker;
and in the eighth because Mr. Alexander usually has charge of the
pupils at a lecture.
Some used direct association as in answering the question, "From
what did he read?" Some evidently answered from a desire to
write something in spite of the fact that they had no knowledge of
the question.
The statistical result of the study is presented in tables XXIV.
and XXV., which show the per cent, of boys and of girls of each
school grade, and the per cent, of normal school students, whose
answers to each question showed knowledge of the fact.
The question which was answered with the greatest degree of
accuracy by all the grades was the third, and next came the sixth
and ninth. The questions which were answered better by the lower
grades than the higher were the third, the tenth, and the eleventh.
There is no regular decrease according to grades in any of the ques-
tions. Girls are seen to have more ability to remember incidentally
than boys.
Normal
8th Grade
7th Grade
6th Grade
5th Grade
4th Grade
79i
67xV
64|^
53i
651
61 1
This table shows the final total averages and it indicates that
there is no very marked difference in the per cents. The per cent,
of the normal school pupils is the highest, but the decrease in passing
to lower grades is not regular. Considering that the normal school
pupils and the higher grades have greater ability to reason and also
a greater amount of knowledge upon which to rely, they show no
remarkable gain in the amount remembered incidentally. The dif-
ferences in incidental memory seem to be due to natural individual
differences.
For instance one person of my acquaintance has a remarkable
power to remember the clothing of individuals. This person is able
at the close of the day to describe the clothing of every teacher,
and of many of her acquaintances. Seemingly after a mere glance
she will describe in detail the clothing of a person whom she meets on
the street. In marked contrast to this person is another who seldom
notices a person's clothing unless something unusual attracts. This
latter person is more apt to notice what a person says than what he
wears.
86
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Another acquaintance can tell many of the peculiar habits of
her associates. Various attitudes, tricks of expression, favorite
phrases, and different mannerisms are associated with her mental
images of the persons with whom she comes in contact. She is able
to tell just what certain persons have done during the day and the
attitudes they have assumed under various conditions.
One person acknowledges that he is remarkably defective along
the line of incidental memory. He can drive all day and not be able
TABLE XXIV
Boys
8
Number of papers, 25
Question I.
Per cent, with knowledge, 16
Per cent, with no knowledge, 84
Question II.
Per cent, with knowledge, 88
Per cent, with no knowledge, 12
Question III.
Per cent, with knowledge, 96
Per cent, with no knowledge, 4
Question IV.
Per cent, with knowledge, 84
Per cent, with no knowledge, 16
Question V.
Per cent, with knowledge, 52
Per cent, with no knowledge, 48
Question VI.
Per cent, with knowledge, 76
Per cent, with no loiowledge, 24
Question VII.
Per cent, with knowledge, 56
Per cent, with no knowledge, 44
Question VIII.
Per cent, with knowledge, 60
Per cent, with no knowledge, 40
Question IX.
Per cent, with knowledge, 74
Per cent, with no knowledge, 26
Question X.
Per cent, with knowledge, 32
Per cent, with no knowledge, 68
Question XI.
Per cent, with knowledge, 80
Per cent, with no knowledge, 20
Question XII.
Per cent, with knowledge, 60
Per cent, with no knowledge, 40
Grades
7 6
25 19
100
72
28
92
8
80
20
28
72
32
44
56
64
36
84
16
48
52
68
32
40
60
5
95
74
26
100
68
32
32
68
84
16
63
37
43
57
95
5
43
57
43
57
48
52
5
17
100
88
12
100
77
23
47
53
71
29
47
53
59
41
100
53
47
83
17
48
52
4
19
10
90
68
32
84
16
63
37
38
62
63
37
48
52
63
37
95
5
63
37
74
26
37
63
INCIDENTAL MEMORY
87
to tell the color of the horse! He even was so unfamiliar with his
daughter's best coat that he sent it off in a missionary box. These
are a few instances of the remarkable differences in the memories
of individuals.
In a study supplementary to the one about the lecture, quotations
were put upon the blackboard for the normal school students and
for the pupils in the seventh and eighth grades. The quotations were
on blackboards which were seen by the pupils every day. Nothing
TABLE XXV
Girls.
Number of papers,
Question I.
Per cent, with knowledge,
Per cent, with no knowledge,
Question II.
Per cent, with knowledge,
Per cent, with no knowledge,
Question III.
Per cent, with knowledge.
Per cent, with no knowledge.
Question IV.
Per cent, with knowledge.
Per cent, with no knowledge,
Question V.
Per cent, with knowledge.
Per cent, with no knowledge,
Question VI.
Per cent, with knowledge,
Per cent, with no knowledge,
Question VII.
Per cent, with knowledge.
Per cent, with no knowledge.
Question VIII.
Per cent, with knowledge,
Per cent, with no knowledge.
Question IX.
Per cent, with knowledge.
Per cent, with no knowledge,
Question X.
Per cent, with knowledge.
Per cent, with no knowledge,
Question XI.
Per cent, with knowledge.
Per cent, with no knowledge,
Question XII.
Per cent, with knowledge.
Per cent, with no knowledge.
21
53
47
95
5
100
95
5
90
10
95
5
72
28
74
26
95
5
43
57
48
52
32
68
7
32
3
97
12
97
3
78
22
63
37
94
38
62
53
47
91
66
34
78
22
75
25
Grades
6
26
100
63
27
89
11
43
57
34
66
96
4
27
73
62
38
96
4
85
15
69
31
44
56
5
17
94
12
100
54
46
66
34
94
6
59
41
59
41
88
12
59
41
71
29
18
82
4
15
6
94
87
13
100
60
40
20
80
100
74
26
47
53
94
6
74
26
74
26
21
79
Normal
School
84
60
40
87
13
86
14
84
16
59
41
95
5
79
21
89
11
100
85
15
69
31
57
43
gg STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
was said about the quotations and no questions in regard to them
were asked. They were left upon the boards about four weeks,
after which they were erased and the pupils were requested to write
them from memory.
The quotations were chosen with reference to the age and ability
of the pupils. The one for the normal school pupils was :
"Character is higher than intellect; a great soul will be strong
to live as well as to think." Emerson — The American Scholar.
That for the eighth grade was:
"The deed I intend is great, but what as yet I know not." Ovid.
That for the seventh grade :
"Be merry all, be merry all,
With holly dress the festive hall.
Prepare the song, the feast, the dance.
To welcome merry Christmas."
Spencer — Joys of Christmas.
Although the last quotation is longer than the previous one, on
account of the rhyme and rhythm it is more easily learned.
From the normal school pupils I received seventy-seven papers,
from the eighth grade twenty-nine, and from the seventh grade
forty-three. Very few had the quotations absolutely correct. The
highest per cent., fourteen, was found in the eighth grade; the next
highest, seven, in the seventh grade; and the lowest, six, among
the normal school students.
The highest per cent., eighteen, who gave the idea of the quota-
tion, was found among the normal students; the next highest,
fourteen, in the eighth grade, and the lowest, four, in the seventh
grade. Ideas, not words, appealed to the older people.
Some gave quotations which they had seen elsewhere. Many of
the normal school students told just where the quotation was written.
This is a mechanical memory by which one remembers the exact
position of a word in the dictionary or of a paragraph upon a
printed page.
Although much that might be remembered incidentally might
and would prove of value, the power or ability to discriminate that
which could be used later is most worthy of cultivation.
THESIS XV
Children's Ideas of Right and Wrong
By Fannie G. Steabns
Thesis. — Having been placed in close contact with children during
the last two years, I have become interested to know what the child's
conception of right and wrong might be. In order to make a more
intelligent study of the subject, I decided that by questioning chil-
dren of grades one and two, five and six and nine, I might gain some
insight into their opinions regarding right and wrong.
The questions asked of each child were these :
What is the worst thing a girl can do?
Why do you consider this wrong?
What is the worst thing a boy can do?
Why do you consider this wrong?
In all, over three hundred and fifty papers were received, and
in answering the above questions the children gave their ideas con-
cerning what they believed to be wrong for their own and the
opposite sex. In some cases, particularly with the younger children,
the same faults were mentioned for both sexes, but those who did
this were in the minority.
The answers were carefully tabulated according to age and grade,
and those having something in common, such as drinking, smoking,
swearing, lying and cheating were placed in groups. The grouping
according to age was as follows — from five to seven — from ten to
twelve — and from thirteen to sixteen years of age. For convenience
these periods will be considered as childhood — intermediate years —
and adolescence.
The following are answers typical of each period. A boy six
years of age said: "The worst thing a girl can do is to run away
because mother would call and call and the girl wouldn't hear and
mother would cry. The worst thing a boy can do is to set the
house on fire because some one might not know and be burned up."
A boy eleven years old wrote: "Lying is the worst thing a girl can
do, because it is wrong anyway. To smoke or swear is the worst
thing a boy can do because gentlemen never smoke or swear." A
girl of fifteen years wrote: "The worst thing a girl can do is to
disobey her parents. If a girl does just the opposite to what her
89
90 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
parents want her to, she will most likely get into bad company and
will be out on the streets acting rude and disorderly."
The principal faults named were classified in five groups. The
total number of answers included in these groups was 513 and those
mentioned came in this order : bad habits, including drinking, smok-
ing and swearing, 168 ; disobedience, 102 ; having low social habits,
83 ; and stealing, 73.
Deceit was considered by girls as the worst fault for their own
sex, while for the opposite sex they named bad habits, drinking,
smoking and swearing. These two are doubtless the most common
faults in each. Girls do not consider deceit a very bad fault for
boys and place it fifth in the list for them. It is generally acknowl-
edged that girls are more deceitful than boys and it is also conceded
that it is the worst fault in women. That deceit is so prominent
in their minds as to be avoided may be due in part to the fact that
their elders warn them against it continually, and in part to natural
tendency.
Girls name low social habits and disobedience as the next worst
fault to be avoided by themselves, while for boys they put them in
this order — disobedience and low social habits. That girls do not
mention low social habits as being as bad for boys as for themselves
is probably because this vice in boys is not emphasized so much by
older people.
Girls place drinking, smoking and swearing as the fourth worst
fault for themselves. As a rule they do not indulge in these vices,
but when we do find a girl who has stooped so low we are stricken
with horror. It is the unusual that surprises us most and so girls
even though they seldom see these vices in their own sex are im-
pressed with the fact that they are to be dreaded in girls.
The girls believed that stealing was the fourth worst fault for
boys but placed it fifth for themselves.
We will now consider what vices are worst according to the
opinions of the boys. They say that drinking, smoking and swearing
are the worst for both boys and girls. In this they seem to make no
distinction as to sex. Boys say that the second worst fault for them-
selves is cheating while for girls it is deceit.
Stealing seems to hold a very prominent place in the opinion of
boys. They place it second for themselves and third for girls, while
girls place it fifth for themselves and fourth for boys.
Vandalism stands as the third vice boys consider for themselves.
It is scarcely mentioned for girls. Evidently the boys think of this as
belonging only to themselves. The term vandalism is used to include
fighting, hurting people and defacing property. It may be that
CHILDREN'S IDEAS OF RIGHT AND WRONG 91
boys do consider this as the third worst vice for themselves, but I
think it was given this high position because of the stress school
authorities had laid on defacing property just previous to the writing
of these papers by the children. Many papers showed plainly the
influence of this recent experience.
The following answer is typical of many given in a school where
this vice had been particularly emphasized. "The worst thing a
boy can do is to go to school and then deface the building by cutting
it and marking it up. I consider this a wrong thing because the
city gave the children the free use of the school and the children
ought to treat the city in the way the city treated the children. ' '
According to boys, disobedience is equally bad for both sexes while
they consider deceit worse for girls than for themselves.
We found that girls gave low social habits a prominent place as
something to be avoided by both their own and the opposite sex. On
the other hand boys place it at the end of the list for boys and girls.
That boys give it this obscure place is probably due to the fact that
their attention has been called to it less than is the case with girls.
We find that, as to the three periods of development, drinking^
smoking and swearing was denounced by the girls as being a worse
vice in intermediate years than in the two other periods. Their
beliefs during childhood and adolescence regarding this vice are
about the same. Girls from five to seven years of age do not realize
the meaning of these habits. They see older boys and men smoking
and it means practically nothing to them. They see an intoxicated
person and the sight serves merely as an amusement. When they
have reached adolescence, other vices which affect them more closely,
seem worse.
The conception of drinking, smoking and swearing as the worst
things a child can do reaches its climax in the opinion of boys
from the ages of ten to twelve years. During childhood it is less
than half as prominent and in adolescence it ranks much lower than
during intermediate years. This may be due to the fact that during
childhood it does not generally enter into his experience. As he
reaches intermediate years he is easily influenced by what he sees
and hears and it seems an astounding wrong and a vice to be
abhorred. Later the experience becomes common among his friends.
He desires to become a man and considers that the outward signs
make this an enviable condition. This is particularly true of smok-
ing and swearing. The commonest of these habits is smoking and so
it no longer seems wrong or a fault, but an incident, an event in
becoming a man.
Disobedience as the worst fault in the child's opinion is most
92 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
prominent from five to seven years for both boys and girls. Little
girls however think it worse than little boys. And have we not
found it true in our experience with small children that girls rather
than boys think it a greater sin to disobey? This fault holds rather
an insignificant place during intermediate years and adolescence,
and is practically the same for both boys and girls.
Girls during the intermediate period do not consider being deceit-
ful a bad fault and at this age many use deceit when they think
it is for their advantage. In childhood they consider lying worse
than they do in intermediate years. This may be explained by the
fact that small children probably consider lying the same as dis-
obedience.
Deceit for boys is believed to be worse by themselves during
adolescence. At this age they seem to realize that a person whose
word can not be relied upon will not get along in the world for no
one will place sufficient faith in him even to give him work.
When we consider the five worst faults for boys and girls of all
ages we find that girls believed that low social habits was worst for
themselves. The figures show that in childhood they consider this
worst. That this fault should be most prominent during childhood
in the opinion of girls seems almost impossible, but it is to be ex-
plained in this way. Of all the faults mentioned by girls from
five to seven years of age running away was considered the worst.
Running away was included in my classification under the general
term social habits, hence the high place that low social habits holds
in the minds of girls from five to seven.
This having been disposed of we may safely say that low social
habits as the term is commonly used stand highest as that to be
avoided in the opinion of girls during adolescence rather than in
childhood or intermediate years. With boys this stood highest
during intermediate years and lowest during adolescence.
Stealing was not mentioned at all by girls from five to seven
and stood highest from thirteen to sixteen years. That it is highest
during adolescence seems to show that at that period in life girls
come to realize what it means to be looked upon as a thief. Stealing
is looked upon by boys too as being worst during adolescence.
Girls from five to seven believe the vice to be guarded against
most is disobedience, from ten to twelve bad habits — drinking, smok-
ing and swearing and from thirteen to sixteen deceit. With t-he
exception of bad habits, considered worst during intermediate years,
the faults that they named as being worst for themselves are probably
the ones they yield to most.
Boys from five to seven believe disobedience to be the worst
CHILDREN'S IDEAS OF RIGHT AXD WRONG 93
vice, from ten to twelve and from thirteen to sixteen bad habits.
Boys from thirteen to sixteen give stealing a very prominent place
also. I believe that boys, too, indulge most largely in those vices
which they say they believe to be the worst for themselves.
As to the reasons why the things named were worst the answers
given seemed to divide themselves into four classes, namely, the
social, the law abiding, the character and the punishment groups.
From the results obtained by a comparison of the four groups
it seems that the largest number of children, of all ages and both
sexes together, are prevented from wrong doing by the fact that if
they are guilty of certain faults it will prevent them from developing
a good character. Many answers in this group gave the idea that
certain acts were wrong for children not so much because of the
doing of the single act but because of what it would lead to.
A boy twelve years of age wrote : ' ' The worst thing a boy can do
is to steal. I consider this a very bad beginning for a small boy."
"While a girl of fourteen years says: "I think the worst thing a
girl can do is to cheat. A person who cheats once will cheat every
time they get the chance."
For children, of all ages and both sexes counted together, those
motives classed as law-abiding were very nearly as prominent. In
this division were included reverence, home training, wrong and
the Ten Commandments. Typical answers grouped under each of
these particular headings may prove of interest here.
"I think the worst thing a boy can do is to say or do anything
against his mother because your mother is the best friend you have.
If anything goes wrong with you she will protect you."
"The worst thing a boy could do would be to deliberately rob
any person. That boy ought to be fined and imprisoned because a
boy who has had a proper training at home ought to know better."
"The worst thing a boy can do is to go with girls and swear. I
consider this wrong because girls are very giddy and swearing is
very wrong."
A girl of twelve years writes: "The worst thing a girl can do
is to swear because it is taking the name of God in vain. The worst
thing a boy can do is to steal because it says in the Bible "Thou
shalt not steal."
Next in prominence was the social group which includes public
opinion, reputation, approval and desire to please. A girl of thir-
teen years influenced in her moral ideas by public opinion Avrote:
"I think the worst thing a girl can do is to go around with a
+ough crowd for it will make her name quite known and she will
have to work very hard to enter any decent society." A boy of
94 STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
fourteen years of age believed that the worst thing a boy could
do was to get into bad company because it would give him a bad
reputation.
A little girl influenced in her opinion of what is wrong by the
approval of older people said she thought the worst thing a girl
could do was not to be good because mama wouldn't like her.
The following answer might be classed under desire for approval
or desire to please. ''The worst thing a boy or girl can do is to
whisper in school because teacher don't want you to."
Although it has been stated that the groups showing the motives
most prominent, in the minds of children of all ages and both sexes
together, were first — character, second — law-abiding, third — social
and fourth punishment, it may also be stated that the first three
were about equally prominent while the fourth ranked far below.
We will now separate boys from girls, still massing all ages
together, and compare the motives expressed by boys and by girls.
Girls are influenced first by the social motives while with boys
obedience to law is the first requisite. I believe that both have named
the things which do influence them most in their actions. Who can
show us the person who has observed children widely and who will
not say that girls are influenced in their actions first by what people
will think of them, while boys are influenced most by whether they
are keeping within the law or not, not merely law as laid down by
our courts but by the moral law.
With boys social motives come second while with girls law
abiding motives hold second place.
As to the advantage of possessing a good character both boys
and girls agree and both would strive for it equally. This is prob-
ably the result of moral training together with their innate goodness.
In this we in part agree with John Locke, the English philosopher,
"who said that people are naturally good and that they develop other
than in the right way owing to contact with vice in the world.
Punishment as a prevention of wrong doing holds an equally
small place with both sexes.
We will now see what place these four motives hold in the
minds of children during childhood, intermediate years and adoles-
cence.
The motives placed in the social group are most prominent in
childhood and least prominent during intermediate years. They
stand very much higher in girls than in boys during this period.
We found that girls of all ages placed these higher than boys. INIany
people believe this is due to the fact that girls are trained in such a
way as to make them more sensitive to public opinion. But that
CHILDREN'S IEEA8 OF RIGHT AND WRONG 95
during childhood the social motives stand 67 per cent, in girls and
only 19 per cent, in boys points to the conclusion that girls are
naturally more sensitive than boys in this respect, for I do not be-
lieve that up to the time boys and girls are five years old their
training in this respect has been any different.
In girls the law-abiding motives are equally prominent in child-
hood and intermediate years and less so in adolescence. That is,
girls come to realize in adolescence the importance of having a good
character. By girls punishment as a preventative of wrong doing
was scarcely mentioned either in childhood or adolescence but was
most prominent during intermediate years. This may be due to
the fact that parents think they find more occasion to punish chil-
dren of this age and act according to their belief. It may be ex-
plained in part also by the fact that to children of this age immediate
punishment for their sins seems worse than some consequence that
although it might not happen for a longer time would really be
more disastrous and far reaching in the end. This would be realized
by children in adolescence while in early childhood they think it
much worse not to be liked than to be punished.
In regard to the ages when conformity to law seems most neces-
sary, boys and girls agree very closely. Regarding punishment
the prominence in the different ages agrees for both sexes. In child-
hood, however, boys place it higher than girls.
During childhood, intermediate years and adolescence girls are
kept from wrong doing by the opinion of others, conformity to
stated rules and the necessity of having a good character, respec-
tively. During the same periods of life boys are guided by con-
formity to stated rules during the first two and in the third by the
necessity of possessing a good character.
In conclusion let us see how parents and teachers may take advan-
tage of the child's ideals and appeal to him along the line of his own
motives for avoiding wrong. Justice is the primary virtue of all
races and not until the coming of Christ did the world ever hold
the conception of mercy and not sacrifice. So to a child justice is
the primary virtue and the great ideal. To his mind it means doing
according to his reasoning. So if we can meet the child on his own
moral ground, win him through his own conceptions, encourage the
good motive and thwart the low motive we have won our child.
Let us first consider his childhood. The motive and ideal here
is naturally simple and easily reached. We found that girls from
five to seven years of age are influenced most easily through the
social motives — desire to please and approval.
When the children enter the school for the first time we must
96
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
influence them in such a way that they will wish to please us. In
order to do this we must win their affection. We can express our
approval of their little efforts to do right and teach them the kind
of reputation we wish them to covet by means of stories such as
Joseph and other Bible heroes and Baucis and Philemon.
The teacher whose pupil said it was wrong to whisper because
teacher don't want you to, had appealed in some way to a strong
motive in the little one.
The little boys are also strongly influenced by obedience to law
be that law ever so simple. The boy who said he must not drop
chalk because it was wrong was loyal to the teacher's law. So it
would seem that they are willing to take our superior knowledge for
granted and abide by our laws and advice.
Next we will consider the intermediate period, for all children
must pass through the three stages— childhood, intermediate years
and adolescence. The motive appealing to girls during intermediate
years has changed to the law abiding although the social motives
still remain strong. The girl twelve years of age who says it is
wrong to swear because it is taking God's name in vain has grown
some since the period when personal approval was her motive for
avoiding the wrong act. In a few years more she will be influenced
by all the new feelings and ideals of adolescence and we must
recognize the bridge between the two and not swing too far either
way. We have a right to appeal to our girls in the fifth and sixth
grades by examples of the lives of noble men and women who have
sacrificed themselves to obey the higher law of conscience or the
voice of God. Stories from the Greeks and Romans may prove in-
valuable in these grades.
The boys and girls of this intermediate period agree, so that any
well founded system of law in which the children have some part,
that is recognized as universal law, will appeal strongly to both sexes.
Now we come to the great period of change known to the psy-
chologist as adolescence. It is the most trying period of a child 's life.
Everything changes — body, mind and spirit — and we find our girls
and boys leaving previous ideals behind and reaching toward the
great ideal of manhood and womanhood. In both sexes the strong
motive is character building or an appreciation of the great dignity
and worth of life. Here we may in our eighth and ninth grades and
in the high school introduce simple studies in ' ' Every-day Ethics. ' '
It is as though a plant grew up to the light and then found
no food in its welcome rays. The children are seeking after char-
acter and they need more than example, they need instruction in
the fundamentals of good character. The girl who thought it was
wrong to cheat because it led to the habit of cheating was on the
CHILDREN'S IDEAS OF EIGHT AND WRONG
97
right road. The teacher could easily influence that girl along other
lines by appealing to the truth she had discovered for herself that
one wrong act leads to another or that one step in the wrong direction
makes it easier to take the next.
TABLE XXVI
The Worst Fault, According to Girls
The numbers opposite each fault mentioned at the left give the per cent,
of girls, of each age, who condemn this fault most strongly in girls and in
boys.
Worst Fault of Girls
Worst Fault of Boys
Aox
5-7
10-12
13-16
Total
5-7
10-12
13-16
Total
Number of girls judging,
33
46
lOJf
183
S3
^y
38
118
Drink,
2
1
8
10
7
Smoke,
6
1
2
Swear,
9
30
5
12
19
40
8
24
Group total,
9
36
8
15
19
48
18
31
Form bad habits,
4
2
10
4
Keep bad company,
4
2
2
3
1
Be bold.
2
1
Be out late.
2
4
3
Run away,
28
5
22
2
5
8
Kiss a boy,
2
1
Be untidy.
2
3
2
Be impolite.
1
1
Be saucy,
16
6
7
2
7
4
Group total,
28
26
22
24
22
4
25
16
Be deceitful,
2
4
3
Lie,
16
12
19
16
9
3
4
Cheat,
4
12
8
7
2
Group total,
16
18
35
28
9
10
6
Steal,
2
15
10
15
29
15
Group total,
2
15
10
15
29
15
Torture,
1
1
Commit murder,
1
1
3
1
Take animal life,
2
1
Deface property,
1
1
Slap people.
3
1
3
1
Throw dirt,
3
1
3
1
Fight,
15
5
Group total,
6
3
5
6
17
3
9
Disobedience,
19
6
9
10
22
8
5
11
Disrespect to parents,
4
2
7
2
Tease mother,
3
1
Whisper,
19
3
19
5
Drop crayons.
3
1
6
2
Play truant.
6
2
Group total,
44
6
13
17
47
H
12
22
Lose self respect,
1
1
Sin,
2
1
Jump rope,
4
1
98
STUDIES IN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
TABLE XXVII
The Wobst Fault, Accobding to Bots
The numbers opposite each fault mentioned at the left give the per cent.
of boys, at each age, who
condemi
1 this
fault
most s
tronglj
T in DC
ys an
a in
girls.
Worst Fault of Boys
Worst Fault of Girls
Age
5-7
10-12
13-16
Total
5-7
10-12
13-16
Tota
Number of boys judging,
32
52
91
175
31
54
52
137
Drink,
6
8
6
3
6
4
Smoke,
34
24
23
11
5
Swear,
19
18
12
15
19
9
12
12
Group total,
19
58
44
43
19
23
18
21
Lie,
2
4
3
12
11
16
13
Cheat,
2
3
2
14
5
Group total,
4
7
5
12
11
30
18
Steal,
3
16
25
19
22
26
18
Group total,
3
16
25
19
22
26
18
Disobedience,
19
2
6
7
12
2
3
Disrespect to parents,
4
2
4
1
Desert parents.
2
1
Play truant,
2
1
5
2
Whisper,
12
2
6
1
Not look on book.
3
1
Be lazy.
2
1
7
8
6
Group total,
31
8
10
13
21
12
14
15
Have bad thoughts,
2
1
Gamble,
1
1
Deface property.
6
8
5
Kill a person.
6
1
2
2
1
Fight,
2
1
5
6
5
Have matches.
6
1
Set &re,
3
1
Hurt people,
19
3
19
4
Get on track,
6
1
Go out in rain.
3
1
13
3
Group total.
36
8
10
14
38
9
6
14
Be out late,
2
1
1
5
6
4
Go with girl.
4
1
2
Go with boy,
3
4
3
Kiss a boy.
2
1
Be saucy.
2
1
1
4
1
Run away,
9
2
6
1
Group total,
9
8
3
5
6
14
10
10
Sin,
2
-1
5
2
CHILDREN'S IDEAS OF EIGHT AND WRONG 99
TABLE XXVIII
Why Faults Are Wrong, According to Girls
The numbers opposite each reason indicated at the left give the per cent,
of girls, of each age, who assign this as the reason for the badness of the worst
faults of girls and of boys.
Faults of Girls
Faults of Boys
Age
5-7
10-12
13-16
Total
5-7
10-12
13-16
Total
Number of girls judging,
34
43
108
185
S4
^/5
47
130
Public opinion.
20
18
15
17
20
16
11
15
Reputation,
9
16
12
10
15
9
Approval,
18
2
3
12
3
Desire to please,
32
6
32
8
Group total,
70
29
31
38
64
26
26
36
Reverence,
2
6
4
2
1
Home training,
7
11
8
7
2
Wrong,
26
7
5
9
29
4
6
10
Ten commandments.
25
3
8
14
4
5
Group total,
26
41
25
28
29
18
19
21
Character,
12
6
19
6
What it leads tOj
3
16
29
21
30
36
24
Group total.
3
16
41
29
30
55
31
Punishment,
12
2
3
5
24
11
Group total,
12
2
3
5
24
11
TABLE XXIX
Why Faults are Wrong, According to Boys
The numbers opposite each reason indicated at the left give the per cent,
of boys, of each age, who assign this as the reason for the badness for the
worst faults of boys and of girls.
Faults of Boys
Faults of Girls
Acs
5-7
10-12
13-16
Total
5-7
10-12
13-16
Total
Number of boys judging,
32
55
86
173
31
53
50
134
Public opinion,
3
9
10
9
10
28
12
Reputation,
5
7
5
2
22
8
Approval,
15
3
10
2
Group total,
18
14
17
16
20
2
50
23
Reverence,
6
3
17
4
8
Home training.
12
7
11
10
6
14
10
10
Wrong;
46
5
4
12
46
10
10
19
Ten commandments,
18
2
7
4
1
Group total.
58
30
23
32
52
45
24
40
Character,
7
13
9
What it leads to.
12
29
39
33
3
29
26
22
Group total,
12
36
52
40
3
29
26
22
Punishment,
9
11
5
16
21
12
Group total,
9
11
5
16
21
12
Humanitarianism,
1
1
Prudence,
3
2
Virtue,
12
2
Example,
6
1
Group total.
12
4
4
6
1
Theses XVI and XVII
Thesis XVI., by Frances Denis Smith, and Thesis XVII., by
Grace I. Davis, were based on the study of individual children.
Space can be spared to quote only the definitions given by the little
girl studied by Miss Davis for several years.
When she was five, she defined school thus:
"School is made of brick and it is big."
At ten she says: "School really is a place to learn. You have
to go to school until you are fourteen and when you have examina-
tions, that's what shows how much you know. I have just had
mine and I got E in them all."
At five — "Bee is a bird that I never see."
jf^i ten — "Bee is larger than a fly and buzzes louder. It has one
eye right in the center of its face and a hair horn each side of it.
It has yellow on its tail and it will sting, anyway the one I did
see did."
j^t five — "Lady is a growed up woman."
^t ten — "A lady is anyone that knows good manners and uses
them, that is what my father says is a lady. ' '
^t five — "Water is what we drink and you can't pick it up and
you can't hold it in your hands at all. It runs way off with the
dam and it can swim and float along and it is water. ' '
j^t ten — "Water is a liquid. It isn't white but it is the color of
glass and it looks lil?;e glass. It comes from the clouds and makes
rivers. Rivers have whirly places that drown people. We could
not live without water."
At five — "Dogs have four legs. Some have long hair and some
have not. Some are big dogs and some are just little pups. ' '
At ten — "A dog is a little four footed animal and knows more
than any other animal I know. St. Bernards save people."
At five — ' ' A fish has six wings, two eyes and a mouth, and a flat
back and some are gold fishes and have a head — about a hundred
inches long and it flies into the water and has two cuts in the sides
of the head and these cuts shake all the time. ' '
It might be well to add that when she formed this definition she
had a globe containing gold fish before her.
At ten — "A fish has a long fin on its back and three on the un-
derside and lives in water. It has a place cut on each side where-
it breathes and its mouth is most always moving."
100
A CHILD'S DEFINITIONS 101
At five — ' ' A chicken is a little hen — wears white stockings and is
good for white eggs."
At ten — "A chicken is a little hen, some people call them fowls.
The hens lay eggs and if they are not too lazy hatch them into
chickens. ' '
At five — "Pride is to feel funny."
At ten — "Pride, well people that are proud think they are smart
and make a lot of motions and people don't like them."
At five — "Moss is the most like grass or hair of anything I
know of."
At ten — "Moss is damp green stuff. It doesn't grow as high as
grass. Spanish moss is gray like gray hair and grows long and is
stringy and hard to break."
At five — "Man, first God borns them and they are little and cry
and grow until a hundred and seventy years if they don 't die before,
sometimes they do. ' '
At ten — "A man is a master. A fellow is not a man until he is
thirty-five or forty years old. Some men wear glasses, some men
are five feet, six inches tall, some are fat and some are slim. Men
have short hair and some of them have mustaches. You can tell
a man from a woman by his dress and hat and he looks cross."
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