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GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 BY 
 
 SAMUEL S. GREENE, A.M. 
 
 AUTHOR OF " INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GRAMMAR," " ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES," ETC. 
 
 Si volet usus 
 Quern penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi. 
 
 HOBACK. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 COWPERTHWAIT & CO. 
 
 1870. 
 

 i 
 
 EDUCATION DEPT« 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1867, by 
 
 SAMUEL S. GREENE, 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Ehode Lsland. 
 
 BLECTEOXTPED BY MACKELLAR, SMITHS k JOEDA^ 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Language is a growth, and, like every other growth, is primarily 
 dependent upon an inward vital energy. It has its origin and its 
 development in answer to an instinctive desire of the soul to express 
 its thoughts and feelings. The power of speech is stimulated by 
 the presence of external objects, and takes its actual form by means 
 of an unconscious ability to imitate the vocal symbols which 
 chance to be made the conventional representatives of thought. It 
 matters not to what nation or people the child may belong : be he 
 English, French, German, or Chinese, it is all the same. The 
 speech which he hears in his childhood becomes his vernacular 
 tongue, and all others are foreign. 
 
 Place him among the cultivated and refined, and he employs, he 
 knows not why, the pure and polished speech of his guardians and 
 associates. On the contrary, let him fall among the rude and 
 illiterate, and he as readily and as surely accepts for his native lan- 
 guage, his mother tongue, their perverted words and incorrect modes 
 of expression. 
 
 Unfortunately for the teacher, the period for direct cultivation 
 does not come till after instinct and habit have given a degree of 
 permanency to these malformations which have grown into a vital 
 union with all that is good in the child's style of speaking. The 
 task of correction has become doubly difficult, requiring the uproot- 
 ing of old expressions and the planting and nurturing of new. 
 Just what should be done to give to the child a knowledge of a foreign 
 language, must now be done to establish a correct and refined use 
 of his own. It is not abstract principles that he wants, but rather 
 a practical use of good, well-authorized expressions. These he will 
 adopt, not by repeating rules, but by discarding the faulty and using 
 the good. He learns to speak good English by speaking good 
 English. He learns the use of new expressions by using them. 
 Of what consequence, then, is it hew he obtains them, — whether by 
 rule, or by direct dictation from the teacher? The time for the 
 teacher to commence this process of cultivation is the day the pupil 
 
 enters school. • 
 
 3 
 
 700944 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 How unfortunate is the prevailing impression that the cultivation 
 of language and the study of grammar, as a science, must begin 
 together! There is no period from the time the child begins to 
 speak, through his whole life, during which his language may noi 
 be improved. On the contrary, there is a time when the technical 
 and scientific statements of grammar are of little or no use. They 
 become valuable when the child has reached such a degree of 
 development as shall enable him to comprehend their application. 
 Shall all the earlier period of his school life be passed without 
 a systematic effort to cultivate his power to use the language 
 correctly ? 
 
 For some of the methods of this earlier culture, and especially 
 for the processes of transition to the more technical methods of 
 teaching grammar, the reader is referred to the Introduction to the 
 Study of English Grammar, Part I. 
 
 Not a few teachers labor under a mistaken idea of the proper 
 function of grammatical rules. Mere rules cannot correct an in- 
 veterate habit ; the pupil may repeat them with entire verbal accu- 
 racy again and again, and as often violate them in his very next 
 utterances. The rule merely informs him of a given analogy of the 
 language. His habit is stronger than his rule, and can be overcome 
 only by that resolute effort and determined purpose which might 
 have given him success at an earlier period, guided merely by the 
 dictation of the teacher. The difference would be this ^ then, he 
 would have received his law from the teacher ; now, he is a law unto 
 himself. He has the means of correction at his own command. 
 But it is only a persistent obedience to law, in either case, that 
 insures success. The rules of grammar are the criteria by which 
 he can test his own language ; but it depends upon himself whether 
 these tests shall be applied and enforced. The advantage which he 
 enjoys over those who are ignorant of the rules of grammar is, that 
 he may always know whether he is right or wrong, while they are 
 ever in doubt as to the correctness of their own expressions. 
 
 The following work contains a discussion of the principles of 
 English Grammar. The fundamental rule by which the subject 
 has been developed is, that no theory of grammar is true or 
 reliable that cannot be abundantly verified by direct appeals to thfe 
 usage of standard authors. The grammar of a language should 
 be derived from the language itself. It is not the province of the 
 grammarian to legislate in matters of language, but to classify 
 and arrange its forms and principles by a careful study of its 
 analogies as seen in the usage of the best writers. He does not 
 
1»EEFACE. 5 
 
 make the rules and definitions which express these analogies : they 
 had already existed, and were obeyed, —unconsciously, it is true, — ■ 
 long before he formed them into words and published them. Nor 
 are they authoritative because he has uttered them, but simply 
 because they are just and faithful interpretations of the already 
 existing laws which underlie and pervade the language itself. He 
 is a discoverer, — not an inventor, not a dictator, — but is true to his 
 task just so far as he investigates and reinvestigates original sources 
 found in the language itself, — not, of course, rejecting the light 
 which cotemporary or previous labor has shed upon his pathway. 
 
 In the following classification of the principles of Grammar, 
 great prominence has been given to thoughts and ideas in their rela- 
 tion to forms. The complete sentence is at first regarded as a unitj 
 — an expression of a single thought, — and that, too, whatever may be 
 the number of propositions combined in it, or whatever may be the 
 characteristic of the thought, as a statement, a command, an inquiry^ 
 or an exclamation. The thought determines the sentence. The 
 classification of the sentence depends upon its specific peculiarities. 
 Again, in separating the sentence into its parts, the element is 
 taken as the unit, an expression of a single idea of the full thought, 
 and that, too, whether it be a single word or a group of words, or 
 whatever may be its form, structure, rank, or office. Here, again, 
 the idea determines the element, while the classification depends 
 upon some peculiarity of the element itself. Again, an element of 
 the sentence may itself contain elements which may all unite to 
 express one of the chief ideas of the whole sentence. These, in 
 like manner, *are determined and classified. Finally, each single 
 element is itself a word, or may be separated into the words which 
 form it. Thus, it will be seen that the sentence is not treated at 
 first as an assemblage of words (which is the usual way), but as an 
 assemblage of elements variously expressed ; and in the final analy- 
 sis these elements are reduced to words. It is this peculiarity that 
 brings the learner into sympathy with the thought itself, — the vi|;al 
 power which determines all the forms of the sentence. It gives 
 him an interior view of its structure, and enables him to witness its 
 growth and to sit in judgment with the writer in his choice of forms. 
 
 The Grammar of the English Language will be found to contain 
 the same classifications of sentences and elements that are embodied 
 in the Analysis, and in all that pertains to the classification, modifi- 
 cation, and construction of words, it is believed, is sufficiently full. 
 
 It is intended to follow the Introduction, and to precede the 
 Analysis, which is adapted to advanced pupils. 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 Although each book may be used independently of the others, 
 the order in which they stand is : — 
 
 I. The Introduction. 
 
 II. The Grammar of the English Language. 
 III. The Analysis of Sentences. 
 
 A careful perusal of the book, it is believed, will justify the 
 following statement of its peculiarities : — 
 
 1. It recognizes the sentence as a growth from the subject and 
 the predicate, and proceeds, step by step, to examine each accumu- 
 lation around these as a centre. (See Models in Syntax.) 
 
 2. It gives the relation and effect of whole expressions ; that is, 
 it teaches how to parse these, as well as to parse single words,— an 
 advantage lost sight of in most treatises. 
 
 3. It teaches how to parse every kind of word, in its rare as well as 
 in its usual relations. 
 
 4. It discriminates clearly between important matter to be studied, 
 and useful matter to be read. 
 
 5. The several subjects are developed logically and, it is believed, 
 stated clearly. 
 
 6. The author has not evaded, or left without an opinion dis- 
 tinctly stated, those perplexing points which often annoy the 
 teacher. 
 
 7. It will be found to contain a great variety of models for 
 parsing and analysis. 
 
 8. So far as a text-book can do it, the pupil is made to use and 
 apply his knowledge as fast as he acquires it, by means of exercises 
 which compel him to think, write, and invent for himself. 
 
 9. A copious index will enable the teacher to turn readily to 
 any topic. 
 
 10. The mechanical execution, both as it respects printing and 
 binding, is superior. 
 
 The author acknowledges his indebtedness to many friends for a 
 great variety of suggestions which he has noted, and embodied in 
 some form or other in these pages. A few changes have been made 
 in the arrangement of the matter, and slight modifications will be 
 found in the matter itself. As a whole, it is hoped, the work will 
 be found both complete and convenient as a text-book of English 
 Grammar. 
 
 S. S. GREENE. 
 Providence, July, 1867. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 [The Section-numbers are indicated by bold figures.] 
 
 A, peculiar use of. ^ }il3, 2 
 
 Abridged expressions 133, 3 
 
 propositions 16 7 
 
 clauses „167, 2 
 
 Absolute tenses 99, 4, 5, 6 
 
 nominative 191, 2 
 
 Abstract noun, defined 36, 8 
 
 Accent, defined 21, 6 
 
 marks of. 335, 12 
 
 Active verb 83, 5, a 
 
 voice 87, 3, 8 
 
 Adjective, defined 55, 1 
 
 limiting 56, 2 
 
 qualifying 63, 1 
 
 pronominal 59 
 
 numeral 61 
 
 comparison of. 64 
 
 rule for 181 
 
 participial 63, 3; 305, 2, a 
 
 position of 181, 5 
 
 Adverb, defined 34, 6 
 
 classes of. 134 
 
 modal 134, 6 
 
 independent 134, 11 
 
 conjunctive 135 
 
 comparison of 137 
 
 rule for 189 
 
 position of. 189, 3 
 
 Adverbial idea, how expressed 133, 2 
 
 elements 154, 1, 6 
 
 phrases 199, 4 
 
 Adversative conjunctions 143, 6 
 
 clauses 165, 1 
 
 Affirm, how employed 80, 3, 4 
 
 After, peculiar use of 313, 2 
 
 Agreement of pronouns 177, 1 
 
 of verbs 179, 1 
 
 of verb and pronoun with coordi- 
 nate nouns 195 
 
 Alexandrine verse 341, 9 
 
 All, peculiar use of 313, 2 
 
 Allegory, defined 317, 4 
 
 I Alphabet, the 8, 2 
 
 Alternative conjunctions 143, 9 
 
 clauses 169, 1 
 
 Amphibrach, the 339, 10 
 
 Analysis 18, 5; 147, 10 
 
 directions for 170 
 
 general exercise in... 171 
 
 Anapsest 339, 8 
 
 Anapaestic verse 343 
 
 Antecedent, the 68, 3 
 
 ■when a collective noun 177, 1, a 
 
 Antiquated words 346, 3 
 
 Antithesis 317, 10 
 
 Aphajresis 315, 3 
 
 Apocope 315, 5 
 
 Apostrophe 317, 14 
 
 mark of. 335, 2 
 
 Apposition, noun in 183, 1, 4 
 
 Arrangement of elements 168, 4 
 
 improper, of Avords 309, 8 
 
 unusual 346, 3 
 
 Article, defined 57 
 
 rules for 181, 1 
 
 omitted, inserted, repeated.... 181, 6,'/ 
 
 As, use of. 301, 6, 7, 8; 313, 2 
 
 Aspirates 3, 6 
 
 classes of. 5 
 
 Asterisk 335,4 
 
 Attribute, rule for 175, 1 
 
 in abridged propositions 175, 1, 6 
 
 Attributive object 187, 1, 9 
 
 Auxiliaries, signification of. 113 
 
 Auxiliary verb 64, 5 
 
 names of. Ill 
 
 conjugation of. 113 
 
 uses of. 115 
 
 Ballad, the 238,9 
 
 Be, pure verb 80, 5 
 
 as an auxiliary 113, 2 
 
 Between and betwixt 197, 5 
 
 Blank verse 337, 10 
 
 7 
 
8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Both, peculiar use of. 313, 1 
 
 Brace, the 335, 8 
 
 Brackets 335,1 
 
 But, as preposition 199, 3 
 
 peculiar use of. 313 
 
 Caesural pause 345, 2 
 
 Can 113, 10 
 
 Capitals, defined 9, 2 
 
 rules for use of. 11 
 
 Caret 235, 5 
 
 Case, of nouns 50 
 
 possessive, how formed 50, 5 
 
 how used 73, 2; 185, 2 
 
 Cautions, special 309 
 
 Classes of adverbs 134 
 
 of connectives 14:3 
 
 Clause used as subject 173 
 
 as attribute 175, 1, a 
 
 Clauses defined 150, 6 
 
 substantive 163, 1 
 
 classes of. 165, 1 
 
 Climax 317,15 
 
 Collective noun defined 36, 7 
 
 as antecedent 177, 1, a 
 
 as subject of verb 179, 1, a 
 
 Colon, use of 337, 1 
 
 Common form of verb 109, 5, 6 
 
 metre 341, 10 
 
 Comparative, when used 181, IG 
 
 Comparison of adjectives 64 
 
 rules for 65 
 
 of adverbs 137 
 
 Complex sentence 150, 2 
 
 element 156, 3 
 
 subject, how formed... 160, 4; 163, 3 
 predicate, how formed, 160,5; 163,4 
 
 sentence, how contracted 167, 1 
 
 words 313, 2 
 
 Compound word 33, 3 
 
 personal pronouns 70, 6 
 
 relative pronouns 76, 1 
 
 element 156, 5 
 
 sentences 165 
 
 epithets 346, 2 
 
 Conjugation of auxiliaries 113 
 
 of the verb 117 
 
 of Bg..... 119 
 
 of Love 131 
 
 Conjunction, defined 34, 8 
 
 copulative 143, 4, 5 
 
 adversative 143, 6 
 
 rule for coordinate 193, 1 
 
 Conjunctive adverbs 135, 189, 7 
 
 Connectives, classes of. 143 
 
 rule for subordinate 301, 1 
 
 Consonants, union of 15 
 
 Construction, rules of 1^3 
 
 of pronouns 177, 10 
 
 coordinate 195 
 
 errors in 308 
 
 Contracted sentences 166 
 
 Coordinate connectives 143, 2 
 
 elements 153, 3 
 
 conjunctions, rule for 193, 1 
 
 constructions, rules for 195 
 
 Copula, defined 80, 5 
 
 Copulative conjunctions 143, 4, 5 
 
 Correlatives 143,5; 193,6; 301,4 
 
 Couplet 340,5 
 
 Dactyl 339, 9 
 
 Dactylic verse 344 
 
 Dash, when used 339 
 
 Declarative sentences 149, 1 
 
 Declension of nouns 51 
 
 of pronouns 73, 1 
 
 Defective verb, defined 84, 4 
 
 verbs, list of. 139, 2 
 
 Derivation, defined 31, 15 
 
 Derivative words 33, 2 
 
 Diseresis, mark of 335, 12 
 
 figure of. 315, 9 
 
 Didactic poetry 238, 
 
 Different kinds of poetry 338, 1 
 
 of verse 340, 1 
 
 Diphthong 14, 1 
 
 Direct discourse 163, 1 
 
 object 187, 2 
 
 Directions for analysis 170 
 
 Discourse, direct and indirect 163 
 
 Do, as an auxiliary 113, 3 
 
 Dramatic poem 338, 3 
 
 Elegy, defined 238, 5 
 
 Elementary sounds 3 
 
 table of. 6 
 
 Elements of a sentence 147, 9 
 
 syntax of 153, 1 
 
 principal, subordinate, coordinate, 153 
 
 simple, complex, compound 156 
 
 equivalent 16 8, 1 
 
 arrangement of. 168, 4 
 
 punctuation of. 330, 333, 334 
 
 Ellipses, improper 309, 5 
 
 Ellipsis, defined 316, 3 
 
 when it occurs 316, 4 
 
 marks of. 335, 7 
 
INDEX. 
 
 9 
 
 Emphatic form of verb 109, 7, 8; 13^ 
 
 Enallage, figure of. 316, 7 
 
 Epic poem 338, 2 
 
 Epigram, defined 338, 11 
 
 Epitaph, defined 338, 12 
 
 Epithets, compound 346, 3 
 
 Equivalent elements 168, 1 
 
 Errors in construction 30 8 
 
 corrected by cautions 309 
 
 miscellaneous 210 
 
 Etymology, defined 33, 1 
 
 figures of. 315 
 
 Exclamation, figure of 317, 12 
 
 point of. 333f 1 
 
 Exclamatory sentences 14:9, 4 
 
 False syntax 308 
 
 Feet, poetic 339, 1, 5 
 
 Figures, defined 314:, 1 
 
 of etymology 315 
 
 of syntax 316 
 
 of rhetoric 31T 
 
 Final pause 34:5, 2 
 
 Foot, in poetry 339, 2 
 
 Foreign idioms 346, 3 
 
 Forms of the verb 109 
 
 for each division of time 110, 136 
 
 of the elements 155 
 
 Future tense 105 
 
 perfect tense 106 
 
 Gender, defined ■4'?', 1 
 
 methods of distinguishing 48 
 
 Have, as an auxiliary 113, 4 
 
 Heroic verse 341, 9 
 
 Hyperbaton, figure of. 316, 8 
 
 Hyperbole, figure of. 317, 11 
 
 Hyphen, use of. 335, 6 
 
 Iambic verse 343 
 
 Iambus, defined 339, 6 
 
 Idea-words 313, 1 
 
 Idiomatic use of words 311, 2 
 
 phrases 213, 2 
 
 Idioms 311, 3 
 
 foreign 346, 3 
 
 Illative conjunction 193, 4, 5 
 
 Imperative mode 89, 8, 15 
 
 sentences 149, 3 
 
 Impersonal verb 84, 6; 130, 3 
 
 Improper ellipses 309, 5 
 
 arrangement of words 309, 8 
 
 Incorrect use of words 307 
 
 Independent adverb 134, 11; 189, 2 
 
 nominative 191 
 
 participle 305,2,/ 
 
 expressions, punctuation of. 336 
 
 Index, mark of. 335, 9 
 
 Indicative mode 89, 5, 10 
 
 Indirect discourse 163, 2 
 
 object 187,2 
 
 Infinitive mode 89, 9, 16, 17 
 
 rule for 303, 1 
 
 subject of. 303, 3 
 
 uses of. 303, 4 
 
 Inflection, defined 31, 15 
 
 strong and weak, of verbs 137, 1 
 
 Interjections 34, 10 
 
 list of. 137, 2 
 
 Interrogation, figure of. 317, 13 
 
 point 333, 1 
 
 Interrogative pronouns 78 
 
 form of verb 133 
 
 sentences 149, 2 
 
 conjugation 133 
 
 Irony, figure of. 317, 9 
 
 Irregular verbs, defined 84, 3 
 
 list <«f. 137, 2 
 
 It, uses of. 70, 4 
 
 as subject 175, 2 
 
 Italics, use of. 11, 10 
 
 Letter, defined 8, 1 
 
 used as a subject 173 
 
 used as an attribute 175, a 
 
 License, poetic 346 
 
 List of prepositions 140 
 
 of irregular verbs 137, 2 
 
 Logical subject 15 8, 2 
 
 predicate 15 8, 3 
 
 Long metre 341, 10 
 
 Lyric poem 338, 4 
 
 May, used as an auxiliary 113, 9, 10 
 
 Metaphor, the 317, 2 
 
 Metonymy, figure of. 317, 6 
 
 Metre, different kinds of. 341, 1ft 
 
 Misapplications to be avoided 309, 4 
 
 miscellaneous, in use of words 310 
 
 Mixed sentences 149, 2 
 
 Modal adverbs 134, 6 
 
 Mode, defined 89, \ 
 
 Modifier, defined 147, 8 
 
 Must, used as an auxiliary 113, H 
 
 Negative conjugation 133 
 
 Neuter verb 83, 5, e 
 
10 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 No, peculiar use of. /81/8 
 
 Nominative, the, defined 50, 3 
 
 independent 191 
 
 absolute 191, 2 
 
 Noun, defined 34, 2 
 
 classes ofl 36 
 
 persons of. 39 
 
 numbers of. 41 
 
 genders.of. 4:7 
 
 cases of. 50 
 
 declension of. 51 
 
 as subject 1'3'3, 1 
 
 as attribute 175, 1 
 
 how restricted 181, 3 
 
 in apposition 183, 1 
 
 in the possessive 185, 1 
 
 participial S05, 3 
 
 Now, peculiar use of. /81JJ 
 
 Number of noun 41 
 
 of verb 116 
 
 Object of transitivef verb 83, 6 
 
 as subject 173, 5 
 
 rule for 187, 1 
 
 attributive 187,1,9 
 
 direct and indirect 187, 2 
 
 position of. 187, 8 
 
 of preposition, rule for 199, 1 
 
 the infinitive as 303, 4 
 
 Objective, the, defined 50, 11 
 
 rule for 199, 1 
 
 as predicate 303, 3 
 
 Omitted subject 173, 3 
 
 Orthography 3 
 
 Paragoge, figure of. 315, 7 
 
 Paragraph, mark of. 335, 11 
 
 Parenthesis, when used 339,4 
 
 Parenthetic expressions, punctuation 
 
 of 336 
 
 Parsing, defined 53 
 
 Participial adjective 63, 3; 305, 2 
 
 noun 305, 3 
 
 Participle, defined 91, 1 
 
 different kinds of. 93, 94, 95 
 
 rules for 181,1; 305, 1 
 
 uses of. 305, 2, 3, 4 
 
 Parts of speech, defined 34 
 
 Passive verb~ 83, 5, 6 
 
 voice 87, 4, 7 
 
 form 109, 11 
 
 Past tense 103 
 
 perfect tense 104 
 
 Pastoral poem 338, 7 
 
 Pauses, poetic 345 
 
 Peculiar use of words 311 
 
 Period of time 99, 3 
 
 use of. 331, 1 
 
 Person, defined 39, 1 
 
 of verb 116 
 
 Personal pronouns 70, 1 
 
 declension of. 73, 1 
 
 Personification, figure of. 317, 5 
 
 applied to inanimate objects 47, 7 
 
 Perversions to be avoided 309, 2 
 
 Phrase, a 139,3; 155,2; 160,1 
 
 used as subject 173 
 
 used as attribute 175 
 
 adverbial 199, 4 
 
 Phrases, idiomatic 313, 2 
 
 antiquated .346, 3 
 
 Pleona.sm 316, 5 
 
 Plural of nouns 43 
 
 how formed 43, 44 
 
 Poetic feet 339, 1 
 
 pauses 345 
 
 license 346 
 
 Poetry, defined 337, 4 
 
 different kinds of. 338, 1 
 
 Point of time 99, 2 
 
 Points, punctuation 3 1 8 
 
 Position of subject 173, 4 
 
 of the pronoun 177, 7 
 
 of the adjective 181, 5 
 
 of the object 187, 8 
 
 of the adverb 189, 3 
 
 Possessive case, defined 50, 5 
 
 formation of. 50, 6, 7, 8 
 
 Possessives, how used 73, 2 
 
 in apposition 183, 12 
 
 rule for 185 
 
 constructions 185, 8, 9, 10 
 
 Potential mode 89, 6, 11, 12 
 
 Power of a letter 8, 4 
 
 Predicate, defined 147, 5 
 
 nominative 83, 7 
 
 adjective 181 
 
 objective 303, 3 
 
 logical 158, 160, 163 
 
 Prefixes, defined 31, 12 
 
 rules for applj'ing 37 
 
 Prepositions, defined 34, 7 
 
 list of 140 
 
 complex 140, 1 
 
 rule for 197, 1 
 
 object of. 199, I 
 
 when omitted 199, 1, a 
 
 Present tense 101 
 
INDEX. 
 
 11 
 
 Present perfect tenso 10/8 
 
 Primitive word 33, 1 
 
 Principal parts of verb 117, 4 
 
 elements 153, 1 
 
 Progressive form of verb 109, 9; 134: 
 
 Pronoun, defined 68 
 
 personal 70 
 
 compound personal TO, 6 
 
 declension of. 73 
 
 relative 74, 75 
 
 interrogative 78 
 
 construction of. 177, 1, 10 
 
 position of. 177, 7, 8 
 
 agreement with coordinate nouns, 195 
 
 Proposition, defined 150, 2 
 
 different kinds of 150, 5 
 
 abridged 167 
 
 Prosody, defined 337, 1 
 
 Prosthesis 315, 6 
 
 Provincialisms 309, 3 
 
 Punctuation, defined 318, 1 
 
 marks of 318, 6 
 
 Pyrrhic foot 339, 10 
 
 Quantity, in prosody 337, 1 
 
 Quotation-marks 335, 3 
 
 Quotations, direct and indirect 163 
 
 Radical, or root 31, 11 
 
 Rather, peculiar use of. 313 
 
 Redundant verb 130, 1 
 
 Reflexive pronouns 70, 8 
 
 Regular verb 84, 2 
 
 use of words 173 
 
 Relative tenses 99, 4, 5, 6 
 
 when restrictive 177, 12 
 
 when explanatory 177, 12 
 
 Relatives, simple 75 
 
 compound 76, 1 
 
 uses of. 177, 14 
 
 Repetitions, unnecessary 309, 6 
 
 Rhetoric, figures of. 317 
 
 Rhyme, defined 337, 6 
 
 Root, defined 31, 11 
 
 Rules of syntax 173 
 
 Satire, defined 338, 8 
 
 Save, peculiar use of. 313 
 
 Scanning 340, 4 
 
 Section, mark of. 335, 10 
 
 Semicolon, use of 337, 1 
 
 Sentence, defined 147, 2 
 
 kinds of, 149, 150, 158, 165, 166 
 
 transformation of 168 
 
 Sentenee-making 147 
 
 Shall and Will, auxiliaries 113, 5 
 
 rules for use of. 113, 6, 7, 8 
 
 Short metre 341, 10 
 
 Signification of auxiliaries 113 
 
 Simile, defined 317, 3 
 
 Simple element 156, 1 
 
 sentences 15 8 
 
 So, peculiar use of. 313 
 
 Sonnet, defined 338, 10 
 
 Special cautions 309 
 
 Spelling, defined 35 
 
 rules for 36, 37, 38 
 
 Spondee, the 339, 10 
 
 Stanza, the 340, 6 
 
 Subject, defined 80, 7; 147, 4 
 
 complex or logical 15 8, 2; 160, 4 
 
 as a clause 163 
 
 rule for 173 
 
 when omitted 173, 3 
 
 position of. 173, 4 
 
 of infinitive 303, 3 
 
 Siibjunctive mode 89, 7, 13, 14 
 
 Subordinate connectives 143, 12 
 
 rule for 301, 6 
 
 classes of. 143, 15 
 
 elements 15 3, 2 
 
 clause, how abridged 167, 2 
 
 Subsequent, the 139, 2 
 
 Subvocals 3, 5 
 
 classes of. 5 
 
 Suffix, defined 31, 13 
 
 rules for applying 38 
 
 Superlative, when used 181, 17 
 
 Syllabication 30 
 
 Syllables 18 
 
 Synjeresis, figure of. 315, 8 
 
 Syncope, figure of 315, 4 
 
 Synecdoche, figure of. 317, 8 
 
 Synopsis 134 
 
 Syntax, defined 147, 1 
 
 preliminary, development of. 147 
 
 of sentences 149 
 
 of elements 153 
 
 of words 173 
 
 false 308 
 
 figures of. 316 
 
 Synthesis, defined 18, 5; 147, 10 
 
 Table of poetic feet 339, 12 
 
 Tense, defined 98, 1 
 
 present 101 
 
 present perfect. 103 
 
 past 103 
 
 past perfect 104 
 
12 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tense, future 105 
 
 future perfect 106 
 
 Tenses in all the modes 107 
 
 Than, before Whom 199, 5 
 
 showing comparison 301, 6 
 
 That, uses of. T5, 8; 1T7, 19; 
 
 181,10; 301,8 
 
 There, an expletive 134, 9; 313, 2 
 
 They, erroneous use of. ll^, 5 
 
 Thou, uses of. 70, 5 
 
 Time, point of. 99, 2 
 
 period of 99, 3 
 
 Tmesis, figure of. 315, 10 
 
 To, when omitted 303, 1, a 
 
 Ti-an sformation of sentences 168 
 
 Transitive verb, defined 83, 2 
 
 Tribrach, the 339, 10 
 
 Triphthong 14, 4 
 
 Trochaic verse 343 
 
 Trochee, the 339, 7 
 
 True rhyme 337, 7 
 
 Unbecoming expressions 309, 9 
 
 Union of vowels 14 
 
 of consonants 15 
 
 of vowels and consonants 16 
 
 Unnecessary repetitions 309, 6 
 
 words 309, 7 
 
 Unusual arrangement of words 346, 3 
 
 Use of words 173, 307, 311 
 
 Uses of the infinitive 303, 4 
 
 of the comma 319 
 
 of dash and parenthesis 339 
 
 of the period 331 
 
 . of semicolon and colon 337 
 
 of interrogation and exclamation 
 
 points 333 
 
 of other marks 335 
 
 Vsrlj, defined 80, 1 
 
 Verb, attributive 80, > 
 
 ^^ 80,6 
 
 transitive gjj o. 
 
 intransitive g^ 3 
 
 active, passive, neuter 83 
 
 regular and irregular 84, 2, 3 
 
 defective and auxiliar}' 84, 4, 5 
 
 impersonal 84, 6; 130, 2, 3 
 
 forms of. , 109 
 
 list of irregular 137, 2 
 
 list of redundant 130, 1 
 
 number and person of. 116 
 
 conjugation of. 117 
 
 principal parts of. 117, 4 
 
 agreement with subject 179, 1 
 
 agreement with coordinate nouns, 195 
 
 Verse, defined 337 
 
 different kinds of.....3405 341, 343, 
 343, 344 
 
 Versification, defined 337, 2 
 
 Vision, figure of. 317, 7 
 
 Vocals,- defined 3, 4 
 
 classes of. 4. 
 
 union of 14 
 
 Voice 8 7 
 
 Vowel-mark*..: 335, 12 
 
 Vulgarisms 309, 1 
 
 What, different uses of. 75, 7; 189, 5; 
 
 313 
 
 Will and Shall 113 
 
 Words, defined 31 
 
 classes of. %% 
 
 formation of. 30 
 
 syntax of. 173 
 
 unnecessary 309, 1 
 
 complex 313 
 
 antiquated 346, 3 
 
 Worth, peculiar use of. 313, 2 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Definitions and Divisions. 
 
 1. Crraminar is the science which treats of the gene- 
 ral principles of language. 
 
 2. £ngliisli Orainiuav treats of the principles and 
 usages of the English language; it teaches us to speak and 
 write it correctly. 
 
 3. It relates, — 
 
 (a.) To the elementary sounds and letters of the language.; 
 (&.) To the classification and modification of its words ; 
 (c.) To the structure of its sentences, — and 
 (d.) To the laws of its versification. Hence, — 
 
 4. Orammar is divided into four parts, — Orthogra- 
 pliy. Etymology, ISyntax, and Prosody. 
 
 5. Orthograpliy treats of elementary sounds, the letters 
 which represent them, and the combination of letters into 
 syllables and words. 
 
 Orthoepy treats of the proper pronunciation of words. 
 
 6. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, 
 and various modifications of words. 
 
 7. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 
 
 8. Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 
 
 2 13 
 
14 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 Ortbograpliy treats of elementary sounds, the letters 
 which represent them, and the combination of letters into 
 syllables and words. 
 
 ELEMENTAEY SOUNDS. 
 
 3. Number and Classes. 
 
 1. An elementary sound is the simplest sound of the 
 language. ^ 
 
 Ex. — Tke sound of a, e; h or k. 
 
 2. The English language contains about forty elementary 
 sounds. 
 
 3. These sounds are divided into three classes, — vocals, 
 subToeals, and aspirates. 
 
 4. The vocals consist of pure tone only. 
 
 They are formed by an interrupted flow of vocalized breath. 
 
 Examples. — The sounds of a, e, i, o, u, ou; as, in a-le, f-a-r, b-a-11, 
 li-a-t, m-e, m-e-t, f-i-ne, p-i-n, g-o-ld, m-o-ve, n-o-t, m-w-te, p-w-11, c-w-p, 
 f-ow-nd. 
 
 Remark. — The letters are but imperfect guides to these sounds. 
 
 5. The subTocals consist of tone united with breath. 
 
 They are formed by an interrupted flow of breath partially vocalized. 
 
 Ex. — The sounds of 6, cf, g,j, I, m, n, ng, r, th, v, w, z, z (zh), y; as, in 
 6-at, d-og, g-o, j-oj, lot, w-an, n-o, eo-ng, ba-r, th-ia, r-at, w-in, 2-one, 
 a-2-ure, y-es. 
 
 6. The aspirates consist of pure breath only. 
 
 They are formed by an interrupted flow of breath without vocality. 
 
 Ex. — The sounds of/, h, k, p, s, t, th, sh, ch, wh; as, in /-aith, A-ome, 
 ir-t, p-ine, s-un, t-ake, th-ink, sh-one, cA-ur-Z, wh-eu. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY — ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 15 
 
 Remark. — When closely examined, it will be found that some of the sounds 
 here represented as elementary, as, for example, i in isle (a in far and e in 
 me), ou in found (a in all and oo in fool), J in joy (dzh), ch in church (tsh), 
 may be resolved into simpler sounds; yet, for practical purposes, they may be 
 regarded as elementary. 
 
 4. Classes of Tocals. 
 
 1. Vocals are divided into long and short. 
 
 2. The long sound is one that can be protracted at 
 pleasure; as in may ay, hee ee. 
 
 3. The short sound is one that is uttered with an ex- 
 plosive effort; as in pin, pen, hat, sit. 
 
 Remark. — The long and short vocals are formed with the same position 
 of the organs. Thus, a in hat is properly the short sound of a in far, not a 
 in hate; while e in met is the short sound of a in hate. The i in pin is the 
 short sound of ee in seen. The o in not is the short sound of o in nor, not o 
 in note. The « in but is the short sound of u in fur, not u in 7nutc. 
 
 5. Classes of Subvoeals and Aspirates. 
 
 1. The subvoeals and aspirates are divided, in a similar 
 manner, into continuous and explosive. 
 
 2. The continuous are capable of prolongation. 
 
 They are tlie sounds of (subvoeals) /, m, n, ng, r, th, v, w, y, z=r zh; as 
 in ba-^^, ca-m-e, rai-w, BO-ng, ca-r, ba-iA-e, la-v-e, w-o, y-es, ma-z-e, a-z-ure ; 
 (aspirates),/, h, s, th, sh, wh, in lea-/, A-eat, thi-s, hea-th, lea-sA, wh-j. 
 
 3. The explosive are incapable of prolongation. 
 
 They are the sounds of (subvoeals) b, d, g, j; as in ca-6, be-c?, do-^, 
 j-ob ; (aspirates), p, t, k, ch, in ti-p, pi-^, k-in, lur-cA. 
 
 4. The subvoeals, represented by w and y, are nearly allied to the 
 vocals in oo-ze and m-ee-t. They may be called semi-vocals. 
 
 5. The aspirates represented by wh and h are properly breathings. 
 
 The sound of h is formed with an open position of the organs ; that of 
 wh, with the lips contracted nearly as in the sound of w. 
 
16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. Of the remaining subvocals and aspirates, sixteen are 
 called correlatives or cognatefs, and may be arranged in 
 eight pairs. 
 
 Thus, h-p, d-t, g-k, j-ch, th-th, v-f, z-s, zh-sh. Each pair is formed with 
 the same position of the organs. 
 
 7. The first four pairs are explosive, the others are con- 
 tinuous. 
 
 8. The correlatives are sometimes called mutes, because, 
 in their formation, the organs are more or less closed. 
 
 9. The subvocals, represented by I, m, n, ng, and r, have 
 no corresponding aspirates. They are called liquids, be- 
 cause they flow readily into other sounds. 
 
 Remark 1.— All the liquids are subvocals, — while half of the mutes are 
 aspirates. 
 
 The liquids are all continuous, — while half of the mutes are explosive. 
 
 Every continuous subvocal mute has a rough, buzzing sound ; the liquids 
 have a smooth, flowing sound. 
 
 A mute may unite with a mute, hut it must be a subvocal with a subvocal, 
 or an aspirate with an aspirate. (See 15, 2.) A liquid may unite with a 
 liquid, as in arm, barn/ or with a mute either subvocal or aspirate, as in carja, 
 czrd, har^, hare?. It must not be understood, however, that any liquid will 
 combine with any other liquid, or that any liquid will combine with any mute. 
 Thus, the sounds of mn will not coalesce ; the sound of I seldom unites with 
 that of m or n. The sound of m does not readily unite with that of k; nor 
 does the sound of n with that of p. 
 
 Remark 2. — The mutes and liquids have certain afiBnities for each other, 
 which arise mainly from a similarity in the position of the organs with which 
 they are produced. Thus, the sound of m most readily unites with the sound 
 of p, or « (= z), as in hemjp, lamp, stems, hams/ the sound of n unites most 
 readily with t, d, s, c, or aspirate tli, as in sen«, end, tens, fence, tenth; also, 
 rtg with th, as in strength, length; the sounds of I and r readily unite with 
 nearly all the mutes, as in elf, melt, vreld, helch, orb, hearth, ark, large. 
 These affinities will explain the euphonic changes which so often take place 
 in derivation. (See 37, 28.) 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY — ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 
 
 17 
 
 
 6. Ti 
 
 able of 
 
 Elementary 1 
 
 Soi 
 
 inds. 
 
 Vocals. 
 
 Sub vocals. 
 
 Aspirates. 
 
 
 Correlatives. 
 
 1. a-le 
 
 1. 
 
 6-at 
 
 1. /-aith 
 
 1. 
 
 b-ow = p-o\e 
 
 2. f-a-r 
 
 2. 
 
 d-og 
 
 2. A-ome 
 
 2. 
 
 d-og = ^on 
 
 3. h-a-ll 
 
 3. 
 
 9-0 
 
 3. &r-k 
 
 3. 
 
 ^-et = ^-ind 
 
 4. h-a-t 
 
 4. 
 
 J-oy 
 
 4. p-ine 
 
 4. 
 
 ^A-is = th-\xmh 
 
 6. m-e 
 
 5. 
 
 l-ot 
 
 5. s-un 
 
 5. 
 
 J-ob = ch-in 
 
 6. m-e-t 
 
 6. 
 
 m-an 
 
 6. jJ-ake 
 
 6. 
 
 v-sm =--/-an 
 
 7. f-z-ne 
 
 7. 
 
 n-o 
 
 7. ^/i-ink 
 
 7. 
 
 0-one = s-on 
 
 8. p-z-n 
 
 8. 
 
 so-ng 
 
 8. sh-one 
 
 8. 
 
 a-2-ure = sA-ut 
 
 9. g-o-ld 
 
 9. 
 
 ba-r 
 
 9. cA-url 
 
 
 
 10. m-o-ve 
 
 10. 
 
 ^^-is 
 
 10. ■z/;A-en 
 
 
 Liquids. 
 
 11. n-o-t 
 
 11. 
 
 v-at 
 
 
 
 l-ong 
 
 12. m-w-te 
 
 12. 
 
 w-ise 
 
 
 
 m-ane 
 
 13. p-t^-ll 
 
 13. 
 
 2;-one 
 
 
 
 n-ame 
 
 14. c-w-p 
 
 14. 
 
 a-2;-ure 
 
 
 
 so-ng 
 
 15. f-ou-nd 
 
 15. 
 
 y-es 
 
 7. 
 
 Exercise. 
 
 
 r-ate 
 
 1. The teacher, uttering 
 
 the sound of a in name, says, "How 
 
 many heard my voice f^' Let the class give the same. The teacher, 
 again, gives the sound of/ in fine (not the name JEJf, but the sound 
 alone). "Do you hear a voice sound, or a whispering sound f" The 
 class utter the sound. Adding a slight vocality to the sound of /, 
 with the organs in the same position, he gives the sound of v. 
 "How many hear any voice sound now?" Eeturning to the sound 
 of/, — "Do you now hear any voice sound? or only a whispering or 
 breath sound?" Giving the sound of o in note, — "What sound do 
 you hear now?" In the same manner treat the other elementary 
 sounds, till all are readily distinguished. 
 
 2. Tell by the sound ivhich letters in the following promiscuous exam- 
 ples represent vocals, which SUBVOCALS. and which aspirates : — 
 
 And, great, made, fame, sad, mete, gave, life, voice, six, zebra, 
 full, bridge, sup, thin, thought, thine, when, whiffle, sent, gone, 
 white, lone, fidget, cup, farm, wine, yes, so, knit, type, book, crow, 
 met, line, pin, hat, harp, jug, king, long, nut, move, lot, queer, 
 rind, street, sing, mute, suit, vine, sire, exist, sift, form, risk, mart, 
 park, plum. " 
 
 3. In the preceding examples, tell ivhich of the vocah are long, and 
 
 B 2* 
 
18 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 
 
 which SHORT ; tell which of tht suhvocals and aspirates are CONTlKiy- 
 ous, and which explosive. Select three words having two aspirate 
 sounds united; two having two subvocal mutes; five having a liquid 
 and a subvocal mute; five having a liquid and an aspirate; and two 
 having two liquids. 
 
 LETTEES. 
 
 -^ 
 
 8. The Alphabet. 
 
 1. A letter is a character used to represent an element- 
 ary sound. 
 
 2. The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters: A, a; B, b; 
 C, c; D, d; E, e; F, f; G, g; H, h; I, i; J, j; K, k; L, 1; M, m; 
 N,n; 0,o; P,p; Q, q; R, r; S, s; T, t; U, u; V, v; W, w; 
 X, x; Y, y; Z, z. . 
 
 3. The name of a letter is the term or appellation by which it is 
 known. 
 
 Ex.— ^e, De, Aitch. 
 
 4. Th-Q power of a letter is the elementary sound which it repre- 
 sents. 
 
 Ex. — The sound a in h-a-il, h-a-nd. 
 
 Remark. — Letters cannot be too carefully distinguished from elementary 
 sounds. The letter is an arbitrary mark addressed to the eye; an elementary 
 sound is always addressed to the ear. 
 
 9. Classes of Letters. 
 
 1. Letters are divided, — 
 
 (a.) In respect to their forms, into capitals and small letter's. 
 
 (6.) In respect to the sounds they represent, into voivels and consonants. 
 
 Let it be remembered that vowels represent vocals; consonants, both sub- 
 Tocals and aspirates. 
 
 (c.) In respect to their application to these sounds, into perraanent, 
 variable, and silent. 
 
 2. Capitals are used for the sake of distinction; small letters 
 constitute the principal part of every composition. (See u.) 
 
 3. The various styles of letters are the Eoman, the Italic, (f^ltl 
 
 Sngl(js!),and^^«^^. 
 
ORTHOGRArHY — KULES FOR CAPITALS. 19 
 
 10. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell which letters are vowels, and which are consonants, in the following 
 words: — 
 
 Name, war, come, peace, tree, fish, good, live, old, sad, young, wine, 
 •said, yet, win, new, gay, day. 
 
 2. Tell which of the following letters represent vocals, which subvocals, and 
 which aspirates: — 
 
 a, f, g, m, c, k, d, p, o, w, s, h, y, t, r, v, x, 1, e, j. 
 
 3. Analyze the following words by giving, in order, the elementary sounds 
 {not the names of the letters) ; tell how many sounds and hoiv many letters 
 each has; also, what letters are silent: — 
 
 Mete, laugh, bought, fought, believe, phthisic, balm, rough, piece, 
 beauty, thought, blight. 
 
 Model. — M — e — t = mete: — three sounds and four letters. The 
 final e is silent. 
 
 4. In the following examples, tell what words contain equivalents of a in 
 name; of a in ball; of a in fare; of e in mete; of e in end; of i in iron; 
 of i in ink; of o in go; of o in dot; of u in music; of u in pull; of u in 
 gun; of oil in plough, and of oi in toil: — 
 
 Grain, air, awl, see, bread, symbol, floor, what, new, could, son, now, 
 deign, lair, nor, defraud, brought, awed, key, deaf, been, owed, blue, 
 should, rough, boy, feign, bear, sea, women, coat, lieutenant, tough, 
 hay, there, lief, buy, beaux, pay, perceive, guile, bouquet, league, rain, 
 sought, nay, brief, bee, deceive, instead. 
 
 5. Tell what words in the following list contain equivalents to any sounds 
 of c, f g, X, z, sh, and ch : — 
 
 Kent, phlegm, tacks, chagrin, righteous, phonography, physician, sac- 
 rifice, champagne, single, exist, ferocious, partition, nation, phonetics, 
 physics, sit, stand, chamois, quarrel, join, Xenophon, passion, phospho- 
 rus, just, oceanic, jump, beaux. 
 
 11. Rules for the Use of Capitals and other Letters. 
 
 1. EULE I. — The titles of books, and the heads of 
 
 their parts, chapters, sections, and divisions, are usually 
 
 printed in capitals. 
 
 Ex.— History of Philosophy; Classes of Nouns; Compound 
 Relatives. 
 
20 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 When the titles of books are quoted, only their princi- 
 pal words should begin with capitals. 
 Ex.— Watts on the Mind. 
 
 Inscriptionis on signs and monuments are subject to 
 the same rule. 
 
 2. Rule II. — The first word of every entire sentence, 
 and of every independent expression or phrase, should 
 begin with a capital. 
 
 Ex. — Evil communications corrupt good manners. The words of the 
 prophet. 
 
 3. EuLE III. — The first word of any dependent part 
 
 of a sentence should begin with a capital, — 
 
 (1.) When, to give prominence, that^art is made into a distinct 
 line or paragraph 
 
 Ex. — Nouns are divided into, — 
 
 Proper, which denote individuals. 
 Common, which denote classes. 
 
 (2.) When a direct quotation is introduced so as to form a sen- 
 tence of itself. 
 
 Ex. — He saith unto him, Feed my sheep. 
 
 (3.) When the words of a resolution or an enactment follow 
 such words as resolved, be it enacted. 
 
 Ex. — Eesolved, That a committee of three, &c. Be it enacted, That, 
 &c. 
 
 4. Rule TV. — Proper names, and adjectives derived 
 from proper names, should begin with a capital. 
 
 Ex. — America, American ; Boston, Bostonian. 
 
 (a.) When the proper name of a person, a place, a river, or a mountain^ 
 has become a consolidated compound word, only one capital should be 
 used. 
 
 Ex. — Northampton, Southbridge, Newcastle. 
 
 When the parts remain separate, each should begin with a capital. 
 
 Ex. — South Berwick, New York, Old Saybrook, In many compound 
 names usage is not uniform. Thus, Newcastle, used as the name of about 
 thirty different places in England, Ireland, and British America, is con- 
 
-t. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY— RULES FOR CAPITALS. 21 
 
 polidated ; while in the United States, in about twenty different instances, 
 the parts are separated, thus: — New-Castle. The same may be said of 
 New Haven, New Market, and others. 
 
 5. Rule Y. — Titles of lionor, office, respect, and 
 
 distinction, usually begin with a capital. 
 
 Ex. — Chief Justice Marshall, His Majesty, General Washington. 
 
 (a.) When a title is used with a proper name merely for the purpose 
 of explanation, it should begin with a small letter. 
 
 Ex. — The apostle Peter ; The prophet Daniel. 
 
 6. Rule YI. — All appellations of the Deity should 
 begin with a capital. 
 
 Ex.— God, Jehovah, The Eternal, The Almighty. 
 
 (a.) The personal pronouns, he, his, him, thou, thy, and thee, when they 
 refer to the Deity, sometimes — especially when emphatic — begin with a 
 capital. This usage is neither universal nor uniform. 
 
 7. Rule YII. — The first word of every line in poetry 
 
 should begin with a capital. 
 
 8. Rule YIII. — The words I and O should be 
 capitals. 
 
 9. Rule IX. — Any common noun used to denote an 
 object personified, or an object to be made specially 
 emphatic, should begin with a capital. 
 
 Ex. — Cheered with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles. — Milton. 
 In the Creed the same distinction is properly observed. — Harrison, 
 
 10. Rule X. — Italics are used, — 
 
 (1.) To direct attention to an emphatic word, phrase, or clause 
 of a sentence. 
 
 Ex. — Where he got all these nothings I know not. — Junius. 
 
 This tenuity was the only hard word that I heard him use during this 
 interview. — BoswcWs Johnson. 
 
 (2.) To distinguish words borrowed from foreign languages. 
 Ex. — ^The res dura et regni novitas is the great apology of Cromwell. — 
 3facaulay. 
 
 Remark. — In the Bible, the words in italics are those supplied by the 
 translators to explain the sense of the original. 
 
22 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 
 
 (3.) The names of ships, newspapers, and periodicals, and paren- 
 thetical words and phrases, are frequently printed in italics. 
 
 Ex. — A full report of his speech will be found in to-day's Tribune. 
 Chairman (at the highest pitch of his voice), " Order !" 
 
 Remark. — A special emphasis is indicated by the use of small capitals ; as, 
 *' I will rear my structure of better materials than painted cards ; in a word, 
 I will write history." — Walter Scott. 
 
 Note. — In writing, italics are shown by a single line drawn under the word j 
 small capitals, by two lines. 
 
 Full-faced type is also used for distinction. 
 
 12. Exercise. 
 
 1. Explain by rule the use of each capital in the following examples : — 
 Dr. Kane relates many curious facts respecting the Esquimaux. 
 
 " Lossing's Field-Book of the Kevolution" gives an interesting ac- 
 count of the surrender of the British army under General Burgoyne, 
 to General Gates, the American commander. He inquired, " For 
 what purpose is this waste ?" and I could make no reply. The eye 
 of the Omniscient is ever our guard, and the hand of the Almighty 
 our support. My beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine in- 
 structions : " My name is Eeligion." In the agony of the moment 
 he exclaimed, " 0, I am lost." The Austrians were defeated in the 
 battle of Magenta. President Woolsey's "International Law." 
 Michael Angelo had nearly reached the years of Dryden when he 
 gave the "Last Judgment" to the world. To an American eye, 
 European life presents strange contrasts. 
 
 In colleges in ancient days, 
 
 There dwelt a sage called Discipline. 
 
 With eyes upraised, as one inspired. 
 
 Pale Melancholy sat retired. — Collins. 
 
 2. By the preceding rules, correct the erroneous use of capitals in the 
 following examples, and insert them where they should be used: — 
 
 new york is the largest of all american cities, and i heard, but i 
 understood not ; then said i, " o my lord, what shall be the end of 
 these things ?" huss, the reformer, w^as a martyr to the cause which 
 he espoused, have you visited the falls of niagara? the auditor 
 \ias sent in his report, the english custom differs from ours. They 
 Met on the Twenty-Fifth of novetnber, in paris, to form a New 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY — UNION OF VOWELS. 23 
 
 Map of europe. Hail, holy light, offspring of heaven. I am. My 
 Dear sir, your Obedient Servant, Jacob trusty. 
 
 the lightnings flash along the sky, 
 
 The thunder bursts and rolls on high ; 
 
 Jehovah's voice methinks I hear 
 
 amid the storm, 
 
 as riding on the clouds of even 
 ' he^Sprcads ]iis glory o'er the heaven, 
 but wisdom is justified of( her children. 
 
 13. Combination of Letters. 
 
 1. "When two or more letters unite, to represent a union 
 of elementary sounds, they form a combinaUon of letters. 
 
 Ex. — Ou, oi, hi, on, no, not, breath, breadth, thrusts. 
 
 2. Sometimes a combination of elementary sounds is represented 
 by a single letter ; as, ^ = ae {a in far, and e in me) ; u in union = 
 yu; in one = wu. 
 
 3. Sometimes a combination of letters represents a single ele- 
 mentary sound. 
 
 Ex. — Th in this; ti, ci, si, ce, in martial, mission, official, ocean; oo, ee, 
 aa, gg, zz, bb, ff, II, tt, in door, feet, Isaac, egg, buzz, ebb, off, call, butt. 
 
 14. Union of Towels. 
 
 1. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one 
 syllable. 
 
 Ex. — Ou in sound, oi in voice, oy in joy, ay in say. 
 
 2. A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels 
 are sounded. 
 
 Ex. — Ou in thou, oi in toil. 
 
 3. An improper diphthong is one in which one of the 
 vowels is silent. 
 
 Ex. — The a in heat, oi in hail, un in fruit. 
 
24 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 4. A triplitliong is the union of three vowels in one 
 syllable. 
 
 Ex. — Eau in beauty, iew in view, ieu in lieu. 
 
 6. A proper triphthong is one in which the three 
 vowels are sounded. 
 Ex. — Uoy in biLoy. 
 
 6. An improper triphthong is one in which one or two 
 of the vowels are silent. 
 Ex. — Ea in heaviy, ie in adieu* 
 
 15. Union of Consonants. 
 
 1. Two or more consonants are said to unite when their 
 sounds coalesce. 
 
 Ex. — Bl-Q-nd, thr-ee. 
 
 2. If they represent two mutes, these must be similar ; that is, both 
 Bubvocals or both aspirates. 
 
 Ex. — Apt, adze, hats. (See 5, Eem.) 
 
 3. If two consonants representing dissimilar mutes come together, 
 the sound of one, usually the latter, is changed to its correlative, 
 though the letter remains the same (s, 6). 
 
 Ex. — Bag, bags, pad, pads, = bags, pads, placed = plac'c? = -plact. In 
 oath, bath, and others, th aspirate becomes th subvocal in the plural, and 
 s follows the rule. Not so with th in truths, youths. 
 
 4. When they represent two liquids, they are always similar 
 (5, 8, 9), and their sounds, with some exceptions, readily coalesce. 
 
 Ex.-rr-Arm, elm, ham, marl, ^becomes silent after m, as in hymn, 
 and after I, as in kiln. 
 
 5. When they represent, the one a mute, and the other a liquid, 
 even though dissimilar, their sounds readily unite. 
 
 Ex. — Spend!, speni, halt, hart. (See 5, Eem.) 
 
 6. When two identical letters (double letters) come together, 
 whether standing for mutes or liquids, they seldom represent more 
 than a single sound (i3, 3). 
 
 Ex. — "Egg, hutt, ebb, whi/= eg, hut, e6, whi/. 
 
ORTHOGKAPIIY — SYLLABLES. 25 
 
 IG. Union of Towels and Consonants. 
 
 Any consonant sound may unite with a vowel sound. 
 
 Ex. — An, no, did, csLlljfat, vail, rib, job, gig, ham. 
 
 17. Exercise. 
 
 1. Point out the voivel combinations in the following words; tell 
 whether the diphthongs are proper, or improper: — 
 
 Fear, pear, voice, sound, pierce, receive, Europe, people, view, 
 adieu, beauty, though, chief, fail, Csesar, how, sew, gaol, mail, deal. 
 
 2. Point out the consonant combinations in the following, and tell 
 what letters are identical, and what are changed into their correlatives : — 
 
 Birds, blend, apt, capped, clapped, buzz, mats, heads, beads, 
 brought, off, skiff, pass, insist, first, faced, round, word, gird, gold, 
 Bold, bulb, verb, worm, last, craft, compact, acts. 
 
 SYLLABLES. 
 18. Formation of Syllables. 
 
 1. A syllable is a letter or a combination of letters 
 the sound of which is uttered with one impulse of the voice. 
 
 Ex. — 3fat, niat-ter, ma-te-ri-al, in-com-pre-hen-si-bil-i-ty. 
 
 2. The essential part of a syllable is a vowel. 
 
 Note. — By voiod here is meant a vowel sound, whether representecl by a 
 •inglo letter, a diphthong, or a triphthong. 
 
 3. A syllable may consist,-^ 
 (a.) Of a vowel. 
 
 Ex. — J. -ere, et-ther. 
 
 (6.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants prefixed. 
 
 Ex. — jBa-sis, 6n-er, three, phthisis. 
 
 (c.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants affixed. 
 
 Ex. — In, elf, inter-es<s, earths. 
 
 (d.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants both prefixed and affixed. 
 
 Ex. — N-oo-n, tr-u-th, thr-u-sts. 
 
 4. A vowel is said to be modified by the consonant which unites 
 with it. Thus, in model, o, and not e, is modified by d. 
 
26 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 5. The process of combining elementary parts is called Synthe. 
 sis, and that of separating a combination into its elements is called 
 Analysis. 
 
 Note. — In analyzing a syllable, let the learner tell, — (1.) the essential part, 
 that is, the vowel or diphthong; (2.) the consonant, or combination (13) of 
 consonants, which is prefixed to it; (3.) the consonant, or combination of con- 
 sonants, which is affixed to it. 
 
 19. Exercise. 
 
 MODELS FOR ANALYZING SYLLABLES. 
 
 An . .i^2i syllable consisting of two elements: — 
 
 -4 ... is the essential element, — it is a vowel. (Give its sound.) 
 
 w ... is a consonant, and represents a subvocal ; it is affixed to a, 
 which it modifies. (Give its sound.) 
 
 Break is a syllable consisting of three parts : — 
 
 ea . . . is the essential part, — it is a diphthong (why?), improper 
 (why?) ; e is silent, — a only is sounded. (Give its sound.) 
 
 ^y , . is a union (is) of two consonants, both representing sub vocals, 
 h and r, which are prefixed to ea. (Give their sounds sepa- 
 rately, then together.) 
 
 ^ ... is a consonant representing an aspirate, and is affixed to ea. 
 (Give its sound.) 
 
 1. Analyze the following syllables, and describe each element: — 
 Kite, dog, numb, boat, friend, truth, day, wax, bat, view, sound, 
 
 aid, meet, suit, rude, the, think, sit, leave, three, bursts, threats. 
 
 2. Form syllables by prefixing one consonant to a, ay, ey, ou, ieu, 
 y ; TWO or more consonants to e, oo, oe, i, ou, oi, ee, ea, ay, ey ; by 
 affixing ONE, TWO, or three consonants to any five of the above vowels 
 or diphthongs. 
 
 3. Form ten syllables in which one, two, or more consonants shall be 
 prefixed and affixed to any vowel or union of vowels. 
 
 20. Eules for the Division of Words into Syllables. 
 
 1. Syllabication is the proper division of words into 
 syllables. 
 
 2. Rule I. — Every word has as many syllables as there 
 are distinct vowel sounds heard in a correct pronunciation 
 
 of it. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY — SYLLABLES. 27 
 
 (a.) When two vowels come together, they unite (14) in one syllable, 
 if in the pronunciatioii only one vowel sound, single or combined (14, 2, 
 3), is heard. 
 
 Ex. — Feast, poorly. 
 
 Otherwise, they separate into two syllables. 
 
 Ex. — Li-on, pit-crile, cooperate. 
 
 (6.) When the two vowels are the same, the separation is often indi- 
 cated by a diaeresis ( " )• 
 
 Ex. — Preemption, coordinate. 
 
 2. EuLE II. — The consonants, singly or combined (l5), 
 are either prefixed or affixed to the vowels (l8, 3, 6, c, d) 
 which they modify. 
 
 (a.) Primitive Words. — (1.) A single consonant between two vowels 
 is joined to the latter when the former is long (4). 
 Ex. — Pa-per, la-dy, ci-pher. 
 Otherwise, it should be joined to the former. 
 Ex. — Lep-er, ep-ic, ech-o. 
 
 Note. — The combinations th, ch, tcTi, pTi, gh, ah, ng, tch, should be regarded 
 as single consonants (13, 3), since they represent only one elementary sound, 
 and are never separated when thus used. 
 
 (2.) Two consonants between two vowels are separated, except 
 when a mute and either of the liquids I or r follow a long vowel. 
 
 Ex. — Cas-ter, dam-per, ap-ple, am-ber ; peo-ple, a-cre, tri-Jle. 
 
 (3.) When three consonants come between two vowels, the last 
 consonant— or the last two consonants, when they are a mute, and 
 either of the liquids I or r — must be joined to the latter vowel. 
 
 Ex. — Emp-ty, am-ple, strug-gle. 
 
 {b.) Derivative Words. — The prefix should be separated from the 
 root in all cases, except as in Eule II. (1) ; and the suffix always when it 
 forms a syllable. 
 
 Ex. — Pre-fix, suf-fix; hut pref-ace, not pre-face; good-ness, tru-ly. 
 
 (c.) Compound Words. — Compound words are separated into the 
 primitive or derivative words which compose them, and these are divided 
 by the preceding rules. 
 
 Caution. — In writing, never divide a syllable at the 
 end of a line. 
 
 Note.— Let the pupil take as an exercise the words of any page in the 
 Reader. 
 
28 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 
 
 WORDS. 
 
 21, Formation and Classification of Words, 
 
 1. A word in reference to its sounds consists of one or 
 more syllables. 
 
 Remark. — Written words are used to represent Loth sounds and ideas. As 
 the representatives of sounds, they are classified according to the number of 
 syllables they contain. 
 
 2. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable. 
 
 Ex. — Boy, pen, tree. 
 
 3. A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable. 
 
 Ex. — Na-ture, faith-ful. 
 
 4. A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable. 
 
 Ex. — Nat-u-ral, faith-ful-ness. 
 
 5. A word of four or more syllables is called a poly- 
 syllable. 
 
 Ex. — Un-nat-u-ral, un-faith-ful-ness. 
 
 6. Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a par- 
 ticular syllable, to distinguish it from other syllables. 
 
 7. Every word of more than one syllable has one of its 
 syllables accented. 
 
 8. The accented syllable may be either tlie first, the last, or a 
 middle syllable. 
 
 Ex. — Du^ty, be-long^, pre-par^ing. 
 
 9. Some words have a primary and a secondary accent. 
 
 Ex. — In^^defat^igable, in/ ^ comprehend sihle. 
 
 Similar to accent is the emphasis on one or more words in a 
 sentence. 
 
 Ex. — " I go, but I return." 
 
 Note. — In analyzing a word according to its syllables, it should be sepa- 
 rated by (21, 1), the accented syllable pointed out, and then each syllable 
 analyzed as in (19). 
 
 10. A word in reference to its significant parts must 
 contain a root, and may contain a prefix or a suffix. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY — SYLLABLES. 29 
 
 11. A root, or radical, is either a word, or that part of 
 a word which is modified by a prefix or a suffix. 
 
 Ex. — Fair, un-fair, un-/air-ness. 
 
 12. A prefix is that part of a word which is placed 
 before the root to modify its meaning. 
 
 Ex. — 22e-turn, pre-jjay, wn-fit. 
 
 13. A suffix is that part of a word which is placed after 
 a root to modify its meaning. 
 
 Ex. — Heart-Zess, child-hood, good-ness. 
 
 Note. — In analyzing a word according to its significant parts, point out 
 the root, then the prefix or the sufiix, and show how it modifies the root. 
 
 14. Words are varied by prefixes, suffixes, or by some 
 change in the root. 
 
 Ex. — Bond, bond-s, dear, dear-es^, she-goat, man, men, write, wrote. 
 
 15. The variation is called, — 
 
 Inflection, when it affects neither the part of speech, 
 nor the essential meaning of the word, but merely exhibits 
 some grammatical property, such as comparison, number, 
 tense, &c. 
 
 Ex. — Fair, fair-est, church, church-es, bond, bownd. 
 
 Derivation, when it gives rise to a new, though related, 
 
 meaning, or to a change in the part of speech. 
 
 Ex. — Fair, un-Mr-ly, ww-fair-wess. Here we have the negative of the 
 root, and three different parts of speech. 
 
 Remark. — AVords are properly called declinable only as they admit of 
 inflection. Thus, farm-er-s and 6e-neath are both derivatives, the one de- 
 clinable, the other indeclinable. 
 
 22. Exercise. 
 
 MODELS FOR ANALYZING WORDS. 
 (L) In reference to tbeir sonnds. 
 
 Faithfulness . . is a trisyllable ; repeat (21, 4.) 
 
 Faith is the accented syllable; repeat (21, 6.) 
 
 Jul and ness . are unaccented syllables. 
 
 3* 
 
30 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 Change the accent first Uiful, then to ness; restore it to its true 
 place. 
 Analyze each syllable (i9). 
 
 1. Analyze and describe the following words: — 
 
 Beat, said, tree ; friendship, social, himself, stately ; complaining, 
 interpret, indolence; incessantly, condemnation, interdicting, do- 
 mesticate; consanguinity, confederation, impenetrable; mispro- 
 nunciation, incomprehensible, indefatigable; impenetrability; in- 
 comprehensibility. 
 
 2. Correct the accent in the following words: — 
 
 LocaF, indo^lence,memo^rable, ig^noble, frequent^ly, lament^able, 
 actu^al, indispu^table, immuta^ble, retro^spect, com^pletion, late^ral. 
 
 3. Change the accent in the following words to the second syllable^ and 
 
 give their meaning : — 
 
 Au^gust, con^jure, dessert, en^trance, min^ute, pres^ent, proj^ect, 
 in^valid. 
 
 4. Write the following words upon your, slate, and divide them into 
 syllables, marking the accented syllable: — 
 
 Conscience, detecting, inability, indubitable, commotion, laborious, 
 relate, detestation, infesting, exemplary. 
 
 Model. — Con^science. 
 
 (2.) In reference to their significant parts. 
 
 Impenitent . has two significant parts. 
 
 Penitent . . is the root, and signifies repenting. 
 
 Im is the prefix [in, see 5, Eem. 2), and signifies, not. 
 
 Hence, Impenitent, not repenting. 
 
 Point out the roots, prefixes, and suffixes in the following words: — 
 
 Impenitent, shapeless, learning, goodness, insight, unfair, deface, 
 
 begging. 
 
 23. Primitive, Deriyative, and Compound Words. 
 
 1. A word in no way derived from a root is a primitiTO 
 word. 
 
 Ex. — Form, harm. 
 
SPELLING. 31 
 
 2. A word formed by joining to a root a prefix or a 
 suffix, to modify its meaning, is a derivative word. 
 
 Ex. — jRe-form, liarm-/!e8s. 
 
 3. A word formed by uniting two or more entire words 
 is a eompound word. 
 
 Ex. — Inkstand, schoolhouse. 
 
 4. The parts of those compounds which have been long in use 
 are generally united closely. 
 
 Ex. — Nevertheless, sunrise. 
 
 In others, the hyphen (-) is used to separate the parts. 
 
 Ex. — Labor-saving. 
 
 24. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell which of the following words are PRIMITIVE, which DE- 
 EIVATIVE, and lohich compound, ayid point out their parts : — 
 
 Bright, fair, told, meek, some, playful, joyless, income, bookstore, 
 play-mate, cloud-capped, ink, housetop, fearful, reform, dismember, 
 dreary. 
 
 2. Form derivative luordsfrom the following primitives, and draiu a 
 line under the added syllable or letter : — 
 
 Hope, fear, harm, love, care, know, peer, ape, weed, cloud, form, 
 grade, place, joy, truth, poet, fade, weep, laugh. 
 
 Model. — HovEless. 
 
 3. Form compound luords by Joining some appropriate ivord to each 
 of the folloiving : — 
 
 Air, chest, alms, bank, birth, bill, fire, eye, weed, toll, wood, foot, 
 work, play, land, busy, tree, breeze. 
 
 Model. — Aiv-jmmp. 
 
 SPELLING. 
 
 25. Spelling Defined. 
 
 Spelling is the art of representing words by their proper 
 letters. 
 
32 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 It may be treated of under the three classes of words, primitive, derivative, 
 and compound. 
 
 PRIMITIVE WORDS. 
 26. Rules for Primitives. 
 
 Note. — The spelling of primitive words should be learned mainly from 
 the dictionary or the spelling-book. The following are the most obvious 
 rules : — 
 
 1. Rule I. — Monosyllables ending in/, ?, or s, preceded 
 
 by a single vowel, double the final consonant. 
 
 Ex. — Stuff, bell, miss. If, of, as, gas, was, has, yes, is, his, this, us, ihv^, 
 are exceptions. 
 
 2. Rule II. — Words ending in any other consonant 
 than /, I, or s, do not double the final letter. 
 
 Ex. — Put, rap, on, trim, brag, star. Add, odd, ebb, egg, inn, bunn, err, 
 burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, are exceptions. 
 
 DERIVATIVE WORDS-PREFIXES. 
 27. Rules for applying Prefixes. 
 
 Note. — In applying prefixes to radicals, certain changes often take place, 
 to render the sound more agreeable. (5, Rem. 2.) These changes are made 
 according to the following rules : — 
 
 1. Rule I. — Dropping the Final Letter. — The 
 final letter of a prefix is sometimes omitted. 
 
 Ex. — Cb-existent, for coii-existent ; ant-arciic, for anti-arctic. 
 
 2. Rule II. — Changing the Final Letter. — The 
 final letter of a prefix is often changed to one which will 
 harmonize in sound with the initial letter of the root. 
 (5, Rem. 2.) 
 
 Ex. — /m-pious, for in-pious. 
 
 (a.) The final letter of the prefix generally becomes the same as the 
 first letter of the root. 
 
 Ex. — illimitable, iV-radiate, ac-cept, op-pose. 
 
 (6.) The principal prefixes which undergo this change are^ — 
 
 Ad = ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at; 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY — DERIVATIVES. 33 
 
 Con = CO, cog, com, col, cor ; 
 
 En = em ; 
 
 E =ex, ec, ef; 
 
 Dis =dif, di,' 
 
 Ob =-• of, oc, op ; 
 
 Sub = sue, suf, sug, sup, sur, sus ; 
 
 Syn =sym, syl; 
 
 Trans = tran, tra. 
 
 DEEIVATIVE WORDS— SUFFIXES. 
 28. Rules for applying Suffixes. 
 
 Note. — In applying suffixes, the final letter or letters of the radical are often 
 changed. Such changes are made according to the following rules : — 
 
 1. KuLE I. — Doubling the Final Letter. — On 
 receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, the final eon- 
 sonant of a monosyllable, or of any word accented on the 
 last syllable, is doubled, if the root ends with a single 
 consonant preceded by a single vowel ; otherwise it re- 
 mains single. 
 
 Ex. — Dig-m^r, digging; defer-ing, deferring. 
 
 So appecd^, becoming in the derivative appeV, gives appeVlant. Not 
 so repair-ing, defend-ing, differ-ing. Acquit, following the rule, gives 
 acquitted, since qu ■=■ kw. 
 
 (a.) In many words ending in I, as travel, libd, cancel, cavil, chisel, 
 counsel, duel, equal, gravel, marvel, model, pencil, revel, rival, trammel, tunnel, 
 argil, &c., some double the I on adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, 
 though the accent is not on the last syllable ; others follow the rule. To 
 these words add worship, bias, kidnap; worship-ping, bias-sing, kidnap-ping, 
 
 (6.) As X final is equivalent to ks, it is never doubled. 
 
 Ex. — Mix, mixed, mixing. 
 
 (c.) When in the derivative word the accent is changed to a preceding 
 syllable of the root, the final letter is not always doubled. 
 
 Ex. — From prefer^, we have preference, and preferable; from refer\ 
 reference, and referable or referWible; injer^, in^ference, in^ferable, infer' - 
 rible; transfer', transferable or transfer 'rible. 
 
 The derivatives of excel', and of some other words, though the accent 
 is changed, still double the final letter. 
 
 Ex. — Excel', ex' cedent, ex'cellence. 
 
 2. Rule II. — Dropping the Final Letter. — On 
 receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, in words ending 
 in e silent, the final vowel of the radical is dropped. 
 
 c 
 
34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. — Jjore-ing, loving; love-ed, loved. 
 
 It is also dropped in some words ending in y and i, 
 
 Ex. — F elicity -ate, felicitate ; dei-zsm, deism. 
 
 (a.) Contrary to the general rule, the final e is retained when preceded 
 by c or g, to preserve the soft sound of these letters. 
 
 Ex. — 'Pea.ce-able, peaceable; change-able, changeable. So, also, we have 
 singeing and swingeing, to distinguish them from singing, swinging. 
 
 {b.) The final letters le, when followed by ly, are dropped. 
 Ex. — Noble-/?/, nobly. 
 
 So, also, t or te before ce or cy. 
 
 Ex. — Vagrant-c^/, vagrancy ; prelate-ci/, prelacy. 
 
 (c.) Words ending in U usually drop one I on taking an additional 
 syllable beginning with a consonant. 
 
 Ex.— Skill-/w/, skilful. • 
 
 (d.) Sometimes when the final e is preceded by a vowel, it is dropped 
 before a suffix beginning with a consonant. 
 Ex. — True, truly; awe, aufid. 
 Sometimes it is retained. 
 Ex. — Hue, rueful; shoe, shoeless. 
 
 The final e preceded by a consonant is dropped before a suffix begin- 
 ning with a consonant, in the words whole, wholly; judge, judgment; 
 abridge, abridgment; acknowledge, acknowledgment. 
 
 3. Rule III. — Changing the Final Letter. — 
 The final i/ of a root is generally changed to iy if preceded 
 by a consonant ; otherwise it usually remains unchanged. 
 
 Ex. — Happy-es^, happiest; duty-es, duties; day-s, days. 
 
 (a.) Before the terminations ly and ness, some words, as shy, dry, do 
 not change the final y. To prevent doubling i, the y is not changed 
 when the suffix begins with i. 
 
 Ex. — Marry-in^f, marrying. 
 
 For the same reason, the e being dropped by Eule II., in die, lie, tie, 
 vie, the i is changed to y. 
 
 Ex. — Dying, lying, tying, vying. 
 
 (b,) The/, in words ending inforfe, is often changed to v, when the 
 suffix begins with a vowel. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY — COMPOUND WORDS. 35 
 
 Ex. — Life, by (S8, 2,) Uf, — plural liv-es, lives. 
 
 (c.) From lay, pay, say, and stay, though y is preceded by a vowel, we 
 have laid, paid, said, and staid. So from day, we have daily; and from 
 gay, gaily and gaiety; though better written gayly and gayety. 
 
 29. Exercise. 
 
 1. Change by rule, and prefix ANTi to arctic; CON to temporary, 
 laborer, extensive, location, mend, mix, mingle, nomen, relative; 
 AD to scribe, credit, firm, fluent, legation, rest, point, ply, tempt ; 
 IN to religious, legal, legible, liberal, mature, noble, perfect, perti- 
 nent, penitent, potent, prove, relevant; en to body, broil; OB to 
 position, press, cur, fend; sub to cession, fix, fumigation, fusion, 
 gest, press, render ; syn to pathetic, logistic ; ex to centric, flux ; 
 Dis to fuse, late. 
 
 2. Apply the preceding rides by adding ING, ED, or ER, to beg, sit, 
 dig, dim, bed, dog, let, bet, prefer, transfer, forget, dispel, propel, 
 befit, control, travel, level, counsel; love, compile, receive, leave, 
 grieve, confine, define. Add able to peace, change, sale; ly to 
 able, disagreeable, conformable, idle, noble; ful to skill, will; 
 ES, ED, or ING, to duty, lily, glory, story, history, beauty, beautify, 
 amplify, rectify. 
 
 3. Correct the folloiving, and explain your corrections : — 
 Beding, beting, wifes, debared, abliorent, alkalioid, glory ous, 
 
 citys, fanciful, tarriing, carriing, dutyful, bountyful, handsomeest, 
 bloting, fameous, agreeabley, incompatibley. 
 
 COMPOUND WOEDS. 
 
 30. Formation of Compound Words. 
 
 1. Compound words usually follow the orthography of 
 the 'primitive words of which they are composed. 
 
 2. In compounds which are closely united (23, 4), full and all 
 drop the final I. 
 
 Ex. — Handful, careful, fidfil, always, although, idthal. 
 
 But in those compounds which are merely temporary, the II is 
 retained. 
 
 Ex. — FiUlfaced, chock-full, all-wise. 
 
36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. When possessives are compounded with other words, they often 
 drop the apostrophe. 
 
 Ex. — Herdsman, helmsman (185, 11, a). 
 
 4. Chilblain, welcome, welfare, smdfuljil, drop one I; shepherd, 
 wherever, and whosoever, drop an e; and wherefore and therefore 
 assume an e. 
 
 31. Exercise. 
 
 1. Correct the errors in the following examples, and give the rule by 
 which each correction is made : — 
 
 Wil, kniting, frized, clif, peacable, bur, stil, manumited, buieth, 
 occuring, differring, begg, knel, bels, mobb, bigotted, whigism, gass, 
 coquetish, swiming, cryeth, spyed, shily, shuned, veryest, maiest, 
 interruptting, spoonful, al-powerful, allways, somthing, stilyards, 
 defering, prevailling. 
 
 Questions. — What is Grammar? What is English Grammar? To what 
 does it relate ? Into how many parts is it divided ? Of what does Ortho- 
 graphy treat? Etymology? Syntax? Prosody? What is an elementary 
 sound? How many elementary sounds are there in the English language? 
 How are they divided ? Of what do vocals consist ? Subvocals ? Aspirates ? 
 How are vocals divided ? What is the long sound ? The short ? How are 
 the subvocals divided? Describe the continuous; the explosive; the semi- 
 vocals. Which aspirates are breathings ? How formed ? What is said of 
 the remaining subvocals and aspirates ? Give the pairs called correlatives or 
 cognates. What are the first four pairs? The remaining ones? Why are 
 they called mutes? Give the liquids. Why so called? Pronounce, in order, 
 the words in the table, then give the sound of the element in Italics. What 
 is a letter? How many letters are there in the English alphabet? What 
 is the name of a letter? The power? How are letters divided, in respect 
 to form, — sound, — application f How are capitals used? What letters are 
 called vowels ? Consonants ? Repeat the rules for the use of capitals. Italics. 
 When have we a combination of letters ? What is a diphthong ? A proper 
 diphthong ? An improper diphthong ? A triphthong ? A proper triphthong ? 
 An improper triphthong? When are two consonants said to unite? What 
 may unite with a vowel sound ? What is a syllable ? How many syllables 
 has every word? How are the consonants applied? Repeat the Caxition. 
 Divide the words in the first part of Exercise 12 into syllables. Of what 
 does a word, when considered in reference to its sound, consist? What is a 
 word of one syllable called? Of two syllables? Of three syllables? Of 
 four or more syllables? What is accent? What words have an accent? 
 Which may the accented syllable be ? Give an example of a primary and a 
 secondary accent. Mention the significant parts of a word. What is a root? 
 A prefix ? A suffix ? Define a primitive word. A derivative. A compound. 
 Define spelling. Give the rules for spelling primitive words. Give the rules 
 for applying prefixes, Vox suflaxes. For compound words. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PARTS OF SPEECH. 37 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 32. Definitions. 
 
 1. Etymology treats of the classification, the derivation, 
 and the various modifications of words. 
 
 2. A word is the sign of an idea, and is either spoken 
 or written. 
 
 33. Classes of Words. 
 
 1. According to their meaning and use, words are divided 
 into eight classes, called Farts of Speech, 
 
 Remarks. — Words are divided, according to their sounds in pronunciation, 
 into vionosyllahles, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables (21) ; according 
 to their significant parts, into primitive, derivative, and compound (23). So 
 far as the treatment of roots, prefixes, and sufiixes pertains to the simple union 
 of syllables into complete words, it belongs to Orthography. It becomes, how- 
 ever, a department of Etymology when the modifying influence of the sig- 
 nificant elements is considered. 
 
 2. Words which vary their forms in construction are called de- 
 clinable. Those which do not vary them are indeclinable, 
 
 Ex. — Friend, friend-s; love, lov-ecZ (declinable) ; but, as, upon (inde- 
 clinable). 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 34. Parts of Speech defined. 
 
 1. In English, there are eight parts of speech, — the 
 Nowij the Adjeciivey the Pronoun, the Verb, the Adverb, 
 the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection, 
 
 2. A noun is the name of an object. 
 
 Ex. — Fruil, Henry, Boston. 
 
38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The word noun is derived from the Latin "nomen," a vame. All words 
 which are the names of 2i€r8on8, animals, places, or things, material or imma- 
 terial, are nouns. 
 
 3. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify a noun. 
 
 Ex. — Good, faithful, this, some. 
 
 Adjective (derived from the Latin "adjeetus," added to, i.e. to a noun) 
 is a term applying to a large class of words which are added to nouns to ex- 
 press their qualities or to define them. 
 
 Ex. — Woi^thy citizens ; this book. 
 
 Those words which are united to nouns answering such questions as 
 Whatf Wliat kindf How manyf are adjectives. 
 
 4. A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a 
 noun. 
 
 Ex. — I, he, you, who. 
 
 /KJie word pronoun (derived from the Latin "pro/'/'^'*> ^^^1 "nomen," a 
 name) applies to a small number of different words; yet any noun may be 
 represented by a pronoun. The noun, the adjective, and the pronoun are 
 intimately connected : the first is the name of an object; the second expresses 
 the 2^>'opertie8 of an object; the third may take the ^Zace of the first. 
 
 5. A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or 
 state. 
 
 Ex. — Be, read, sleep, is loved. 
 
 Nothing can be affirmed without a verb. The term is derived from the 
 Latin *'verbum,"' the word, i.e. the important word: it designates a large 
 class of words. 
 
 6. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of 
 a verb, an adjective, a participle, or another advei^b. 
 
 Ex. — Quickly, first, far. 
 
 Adverb (from the Latin "ad" and "verbum," added to a verh) is the narao 
 given to those words which are added to verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, 
 to denote time, place, manner, &q. 
 
 7. A preposition is a word used to show the relation 
 between a noun or a pronoun and some other word. 
 
 Ex. — From, upon, on, with. 
 
 This part of speech includes a small list of words which are used to denote 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PARTS OF SPEECH — NOUNS. 39 
 
 the relations of place, time, cause, manner, pro^ierty, quality, &Q. It is called 
 a preposition (from the Latin "pras," before, and "positio," a placing; a 
 placing before) from the circumstance of its being commonly placed before 
 the object with which it is always associated. 
 
 8. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences^ or 
 the parts of sentences. 
 
 Ex. — And, hut, or. 
 
 The conjunction includes but a small number of words, which are used to 
 join the parts of a sentence: it is derived from the Latin " conjunctus," 
 joined together. 
 
 9. An interjection is used to express some strong or 
 sudden emotion of the mind. 
 
 Ex.— 0/ ala^f 
 
 The term interjection (from the Latin "interjectus," ihroton between) is 
 applied to a few words that do not enter into the structure of a sentence, but 
 are thrown in at pleasure. 
 
 10. The noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the verb, and 
 the adverb are declinable; the rest are indeclinable. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 35. Definition and Distinctions, 
 
 1. A noun is the name of an object. 
 
 Ex. — House, tree, Boston, goodness. 
 
 Remark. — The word object, as here used, should be carefull3^ distinguished 
 i'rom the same term employed in Syntax to denote the complement of the 
 transitive verb. It here denotes every species of existence, material or 
 immaterial, which may be considered independently or alone; and is opposed 
 to the term attribute, which always represents something dependent upon, be- 
 longing to, or inherent in, an object. An attribute, when regarded as an object 
 to the mind, that is, when abstracted from that to which it belongs, becomes 
 an object of itself. The name of such an attribute is a noun, and is usually 
 derived from the word denoting the attribute. 
 
 Ex. — Good, (jood-ness; bright, hriglit-ness. 
 
 2. AVlienever a word, a syllable, a letter, or a symbol of any kind 
 is spoken of as an object, it is a noun. 
 
 Ex. — We. is a personal prononn. Un is a prefix. Ji is a vowel. 
 4- is the si'^n of addition. , is a comma. 
 
40 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 8. So, when a phrase, or a clause of a sentence, is used to denot« 
 an object, it becomes a noun. 
 
 Ex. — To see the sun is pleasant. That you have uronged me dotli appear 
 in this. 
 
 Remark. — The noun is often called a substantive. All phrases or clauses, 
 when used as nouns, and even pronouns, are called substantives. 
 
 36. Proper and Common Nouns. 
 
 1. Nouns are divided into two classes,— proper and 
 common. 
 
 2. A proper noun is the name of an individual object. 
 
 Ex. — James, Erie. 
 
 Such plural names as Romans, Alps, Azores, are commonly con- 
 sidered proper nouns, because a whole group is regarded as an 
 individual. 
 
 3. A Gommon noun is a name which applies to each 
 individual of a class of objects. 
 
 Ex. — 3fan, boy, house. 
 
 4. As a proper noun denotes simply an individual by itself, when- 
 ever it is made to represent an individual as belonging to a class, it 
 becomes a common noun. 
 
 Ex.-—" He is the Cicero of his age," i.e. a distinguished orator. 
 
 Still, when the same name, as Thomas, happens to be given to several per- 
 sons, but to each individually by itself, it is as truly a proper name as though 
 it had been given to one alone. 
 
 5. Common nouns, on the contrary, may become proper, when, 
 by personification or special use, the object named is regarded as 
 an individual. 
 
 Ex.— O Justice, thou art fled to brutish beasts, and men have lost their 
 reason. The Common. The Park. 
 
 6. Under the head of common nouns are commonly reckoned 
 collective, abstract, and verbal nouns. 
 
 7. A collective noun is one which, in the singular, denotes more 
 than one object. 
 
 Ex. — Army, family, flock. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 41 
 
 8. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or of an action, con- 
 sidered apart from the object to which it belongs. 
 
 Ex. — Goodness, virtue, wisdom, movement. 
 
 9. A verbal noun is a participle used as a noun. 
 
 Ex. — He was convicted of stealing. 
 
 Remark. — The ivjinitive is a kind of verbal noun : as, " To see the sun is 
 pleasant." 
 
 10. Nouns which denote substance or kind, without reference to 
 an individual, are common nouns. 
 
 Ex. — Wood, q7'ass, music, earth, algebra. 
 
 37. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell which of the following words designate objects, and which 
 properties; then select the nouns: — 
 
 Horse, old, good, peach, vine, heavy, hard, strong, hill, star, 
 empty, ocean, hilly, wright, William, European, engine, road, stile, 
 rose, upright, smoke, balloon, oyster, sea, chariot, wild, hungry, 
 farm, evil. 
 
 2. Select the nouns in the following sentence: — 
 
 As soon as the sun was seen coming over the hills, the farmer 
 aroused the laborers from slumber, who, with their scythes on their 
 shoulders, and pitchforks in their hands, marched gayly to the field 
 to begin the labors of the day. 
 
 3. Tell ivhich of the following nouns are common, md which are 
 proper: — 
 
 Posterity, virtue, Eome, tea, Nero, Cicero, Germany, Paris, pomp, 
 sunshine, meadow, Pekin, gulf, Medici, astronomy, Darius, father, 
 calico, London, dungeon, district, Japan. 
 
 4. Tell which of the following comvfion nouns are abstract, which are 
 collective, and which are verbal: — 
 
 Army, tasting, goodness, heat, harmless, rising, sailing, wisdom, 
 flock, wonder, teaching, energy, frankness, freedom, multitude, 
 teething, shutting, dulness, company. 
 
 5. Change thefolloioing names of properties into abstract nouns: — 
 Good, cheerful, diligent, rapid, dark, strong, heavy, lovely, bril- 
 liant, beautiful, flaming, brave, swift, solid, easy. Thus, goo&ness. 
 
 4* 
 
42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. Write the names of fifteen objects in this room. Select all the 
 nouns from page — in your Reader. [Let the teacher assign the page. ) 
 
 7. Fill the blanks in the following examples with nou7is of your own 
 selection : — 
 
 is short. are strong. have fallen. — 
 
 IS 
 
 a quadruped. were destroyed. will decay. will 
 
 rise at six o'clock. is the king of beasts. was the father 
 
 of his country. was a tyrant. were overthrown in the 
 
 Eed Sea. mourned for Absalom. shine at night. 
 
 38. Properties of Nouns. 
 
 To nouns belong the properties of persoUj number ^ gerv- 
 der, and case. 
 
 39. Person of Nouns. 
 
 1. Person is that property of a noun or a pronoun 
 which shows the relation of the speaker to the object 
 (»5, Rem.) spoken of. 
 
 2. The object spoken of may be — (1) the speaker himself (2) the 
 person spoken to, or (3) a party neither speaking nor spoken to, 
 but merely spoken of. Hence, — 
 
 3. There are three persons, — thefirsty the second, and the 
 third, 
 
 4. ThQ first person denotes the speaker. 
 
 Ex. — I, John, saw these things. 
 
 Remark. — Observe, here, that " P' denotes the one spoken of, as well as the 
 one speaking. 
 
 5. The second person denotes the person spoken to. 
 
 Ex. — Children, obey your parents. 
 
 Here^^e or you understood, meaning cliildren, denotes the party spoken to, 
 and also that spoken of. 
 
 6. The third person denotes the person or thing spoken 
 of. 
 
 Ex. — Thomas did not come. The harvest is abundant. 
 Here Thomas and harvest represent merely the party spoken of. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PERSON OF NOUNS. 43 
 
 Remark.— The first or the second person as such, alone, is never repre- 
 sented in any sentence. Yet every sentence presupposes a first, a second, and 
 a third person. It i^ the last of these only which rightfully demands ex- 
 pression. The third person viust be expressed. Hence, when the first or the 
 second becomes also the third, it is for that reason that it claims a place in 
 the sentence. But the mere name of the speaker or the hearer would repre- 
 sent him only as the party spoken of. It requires, therefore, the word /or 
 you to represent him both as speaking and spoken of or spoken to at the 
 same time. 
 
 7. A noun in the first or the second person is never used as the 
 subject or the object of a verb, but may be put in apposition with 
 either, for the purpose of explanation. 
 
 Ex.— I, Paul, beseech you. The salutation of me, Paul. 
 
 8. The names of inanimate objects are in the second person 
 when the objects to which they apply are spoken to. Objects thus 
 addressed are personified, and are treated as though they were actual 
 hearers. 
 
 Ex. — And I have loved thee, Ocean. 
 
 40. Exercise. 
 
 1, Tell the person of the nouns in the following sentences: — 
 
 Nero was a tyrant. Children, obey your parents. Philip, thou 
 art a man. Delays are dangerous. His praise, ye brooks, attune. 
 The ferryman took us safely across the river. Keep thy heart with 
 all diligence. King Philip was the last of the Wampanoags. " Let 
 my country be thine," said his preserver. Seest thou a man dili- 
 gent in his business ? he shall stand before kings. Babylon, how 
 art thou fallen ! I, Daniel, was grieved in my spirit. 
 
 2. Fill the blanks in the following expressions; tell the person of the 
 noun or the pronoun inserted: — 
 
 was executed for murder. art the man. The lady 
 
 lost purse and all contents. are willing to re- 
 main. has strangely ended. delight in surf bathing. 
 
 The father called sons and daughters around . 
 
 The duke was esteemed for uprightness, and the duchess 
 
 beloved for kindness. Art a spirit of earth or air ? 
 
 wast wrong to urge me so. 
 
44 ElfGLISH GRAMMAK. 
 
 4:1. Number of Nouns. 
 
 1. Nnmber is that property of a noun (or a pronoun) 
 which distinguishes one object from more than one. 
 
 2. Nouns have two numbers, — the singular and the 
 plural, 
 
 3. The singular number denotes but one object. 
 Ex. — Horse, river, nation. 
 
 4. The plural denotes more than one object. 
 
 Ex. — Horses, rivers, nations. 
 
 42. Regular Formation of the Plural. 
 
 1. The plural of nouns is regularly formed, — 
 
 (a.) By adding s, when the singular ends with a sound 
 that can unite or coalesce with s, 
 Ex. — Book, books; tree., trees. 
 
 (b.) By adding es, when the singular ends with a sound 
 that cannot coalesce with s. 
 Ex. — Box, boxes; church, churches. 
 
 2. When es is added, s has the sound of z. 
 Ex. — Fox, foxes; branch, branches. 
 
 When s only is added, it has the sound of z when it unites or 
 coalesces with a vowel. 
 
 Ex. — Folio, folios ; flea,fieas. 
 
 It follows the rule (i5, 3) for the combination of consonants 
 when it follows a consonant ; that is, it is « aspirate when it unites 
 with an aspirate. 
 
 Ex. — Hat, hats; cap, caps; surf, surfs; clock, clocks. 
 
 It is s subvocal (or z) when it follows a subvocal. 
 
 Ex. — Lad, lads; log, logs; ball, balls; farm, farms ; fan, fans ; war, 
 
ETYMOLOGY — NUMBER. 45 
 
 3. The s or es adds a syllable when it does not coalesce with the 
 final syllable of the singular. 
 
 Ex. — Church, church-es; race, rac-es; cage, cag-es. 
 The s or es does not add a syllable when it coalesces with the final 
 syllable. 
 
 Ex. — Work, ivorks; echo, echoes. 
 
 43. Irregular Formation of the Plural. 
 
 1. When the final s, contrary to the rule (42, 2), is subvocal, 
 after the aspirate sounds /,/(?, the /must be changed (i5, 3) into 
 its correlative v. 
 
 Ex. — Loaf, loaves; life, lives; sheaf, sheaves; thief, thieves. 
 
 When s is aspirate, as in the plural of dwarf, brief, scarf, reef, 
 chief, grief, kerchief, handkerchief, gulf surf turf, serf, proof, hoof, 
 roof, safe, fife, strife, the / is not changed. Staff, when meaning a 
 stick, has staves for its plural ; when meaning a set of officers, it 
 has staffs. The plural of wharf, in the United States, is wharves ; 
 in England, wharfs. 
 
 2. The s added to th aspirate is also subvocal (except in tricth. 
 youth, and, it may be, a few other words), and would cause a similar 
 change in the orthography of the plural, were not the correlative 
 (6) also represented by th. 
 
 Ex. — Oath, oaths; bath, baths. 
 
 8. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es, not- 
 withstanding s alone w^ould coalesce with o (42, 1). 
 Ex. — Cargo, cargoes. 
 
 Zero, canto, grotto, quarto, junto, duodecimo, octavo, solo, portico, 
 tyro, halo, piano, memento, add only s. Yet by some writers es is 
 added. 
 
 Nouns ending in preceded by a vowel, follow the general rule. 
 
 Ex. — Folio, folios ; cameo, cameos. 
 
 4. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant (28, 3), change 
 y into ies. 
 
 Ex. — Glory, glories; mercy, mercies. 
 
 Formerly these words in the singular ended in ie. Their plurals 
 were then formed regularly. 
 Ex. — Glorie, tnercie. 
 
46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, form the plural regularly. 
 Ex. — Day, days; key, keys. 
 
 5. The following plurals are very irregular : — 
 
 Man, men; woman, women; ox, oxen; goose, geese; child, children; foot, 
 feet; louse, lice; mouse, mice; cow, formerly kine; tooth, teeth. 
 
 6. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular plural ; but 
 the two forms have usually different significations. 
 
 Ex. — Brother, brothers (of the same family) ; brethren (of the same 
 society) ; die, dies (stamps) ; dice (cubes used in gaming) ; genius, geniuses 
 (men of genius) ; genii (spirits) ; index, indexes (tables of reference) ; 
 indices (signs in algebra) ; pea, peas (distinct seeds) ; pease (quantity) ; 
 penny, pennies (coins) ; pence (a sum, or value). 
 
 7. Names of substances, and most abstract nouns, commonly 
 have no plural form. 
 
 Ex. — Gold, cider, flax, milk, tar, goodness, darkness. 
 
 When different kinds of the substances are referred to, the plural 
 form is used. 
 
 Ex. — Waters, wines, teas. 
 
 8. In compound words, if the word denoting the principal idea 
 is placed first, it is changed to form the plural. 
 
 Ex. — Court-martial, courts-martial; cousin-german, cousins-german ; 
 hanger-on, hangers-on. 
 
 But if the principal word is placed last, the final word is changed. 
 
 Ex. — Handful, hand-fuls. 
 
 Both parts, being (apparently) equally prominent, are changed in 
 man-servant, woman-servant, and knight-templar. 
 
 Ex. — Men-servants, women-servants, knights-templars. 
 
 9. Letters, marks, figures, and signs are pluralized by adding 's. 
 Ex.— The s's; the I's; the *'s; the 9's; the + 's. 
 
 10. When other parts of speech are used as nouns, their plurals 
 are formed regularly. 
 
 Ex.— The ifs and buts. The whys and wherefores. At sixes and 
 sevens. 
 
 11. Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original 
 plurals. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — NUMBER. 47 
 
 Examples. — Antithesis, antitheses; arcanum, arcana; automa- 
 ton, automata; axis, axes; bandit, banditti; basis, bases; beau, 
 beaux ; cherub, cherubim ; criterion, criteria ; crisis, crises ; datum, 
 data; desideratum, desiderata; encomium, encomia; effluvium, 
 effluvia; erratum, errata; ellipsis, ellipses; focus, foci; form.ula, 
 formulae; genus, genera; hypothesis, hypotheses; madame, mes- 
 dames ; magus, magi ; memorandum, memoranda ; medium, media ; 
 minutia, minutiae; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; monsieur, mes- 
 sieurs; nebula, nebulae; phenomenon, phenomena; radius, radii; 
 Beraph, seraphim ; stimulus, stimuli ; stratum, strata ; stamen, sta- 
 mina ; vortex, vortices. 
 
 44. Plural of Proper Names. 
 
 1. Single Names. — The proper name of an individual object 
 has no plural. 
 
 2. When several of the same name or family are spoken of 
 together, the name takes the plural form. 
 
 Ex. — The Tudors; The twelve Cccsars. 
 
 3. So, also, the proper names of races, communities , and nations, 
 are plural. 
 
 Ex. — The Indians; The Jesuits; The Bomans. 
 
 4. The plurals of proper names are formed, as a general rule, 
 according to the analogy of common names. 
 
 Ex. — Canada, Canadas; Jew, Jews; Ptolemy, Ptolemies. 
 
 5. Complex Names. — When two or more names, applied to the 
 same individual, stand in a sort of apposition to each other, they 
 are generally considered as one complex name, and are made plural 
 by varying the last only. 
 
 Ex. — The George Washingtons. May there not be Sir Isaac JSfewtons 
 in every science ? — Watts. 
 
 6. A Title and a Name.— When a title, as Miss, Mrs., Mr., 
 Messrs., Gen., Capt., or Dr., is prefixed to a proper name, usage has 
 not been uniform in the formation of the plural. Sometimes the 
 title, sometimes the name, and sometimes both, have been varied. 
 
 Ex. — The Misses Brown; The Miss Thompsons ; The Misses Winthrops. 
 
 7. In all these cases, the relative prominence of the name and 
 title, for the most part, determines the plural form. Thus, — 
 
48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (a.) When the name is made prominent, that alone, and not the title, 
 takes the plural form. In speaking of three persons by the name of 
 Brown, we should say (44, 2), " The three Browns ;" thus distinguishing 
 them from the Smiths, or those of any other name. Now, with this idea 
 uppermost, if we wished also to distinguish them as young ladies, we 
 should add, incidentally, the distinctive title, — " the three 3Iiss Brovms." 
 So, the Dr. Smiths. 
 
 (b.) When the title is to be made prominent, that alone should be 
 varied. Thus, if we should speak of three persons, and say, the three 
 Misses, we should distinguish them, as ladies, from so many gentlemen ; 
 in the same way we say, the two Drs., the three Generals. If now, with the 
 title prominent, we would incidentally add the name, we should say, (1) 
 if the names were different^ " the three Misses Brown, Atwood, and Put- 
 nam;" (2) if the same, "the three Misses Brown," and especially so with- 
 out the numeral ; as, " the Misses Brown." In the former of these eases, 
 if the name were prominent, we should say, " Miss Brown, Miss Atwood^ 
 and Miss Putnam." 
 
 (c.) When two titles are made equally prominent, they are both varied. 
 
 Ex. — The Lords Bishops of Durham and St. David's ; The Knights 
 Baronets (43, 8). 
 
 And so it would seem, by the same law, that, when a title and a name 
 are made equally emphatic, they should both be varied. Thus, the 
 Misses Winthrop, in distinction from the Messrs. Winthrop; and the 
 3Iisses Winthrops, in distinction from the 3Iessrs. Mortons. Yet usage 
 seems to be nearly uniform in placing the plural name after 3frs, — as, 
 " the 3frs. Whites," — and the plural title before the names, when persons 
 of different names are mentioned together ; as, " the Misses Wilson and 
 Everett ; 3Iessrs. Little and Brown." 
 
 45. Remarks on the Number of Nouns. 
 
 1. Nouns without a Plural. — Proper nouns, except as in (44, 
 2, 3), and nouns denoting substance (43, 7), except when different 
 sorts are expressed, have no plural. 
 
 Ex. — Gold, grass, urine. 
 
 2. Nouns without the Singular. — The following nouns have 
 no singular: scissors, vespers, ashes, clothes, billiards, ides, vitals, 
 bellows, drawers, nippers, tongs, shears, &c. Lungs, boiuels, and some 
 others, have a singular denoting a part of the whole. Embers, oats, 
 literati, antipodes, intestines, are seldom used in the singular. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 49 
 
 3. The following words are plural in respect to their original 
 form, but singular or plural in respect to their meaning: alms, 
 amends, news, riches, pams (meaning ejfort), odds, wages, molasses, 
 series, suds, corps, measles, tidings, mumps, rickets, nuptials; as also 
 the names of some of the sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, optios, 
 statics, mechanics, mnemonics. 
 
 Note. — News is now regarded as singular; so also are measles and molasses, 
 although they have the plural form. 
 
 4. Nouns either Singular or Plural.— Some nouns are 
 alike in both numbers. 
 
 Ex. — Deer, sheep, mine, vermin, hose, fry, trout, salmon, brace, couple, 
 dozen, yoke, gross. 
 
 46. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell which of the following nouns are singular, and which are 
 plural: — 
 
 Daughter, day, chairs, watches, apple, pears, stars, oats, coat, 
 goose, oxen, nails, inkstand, horn, darkness, hearts, hoof, books, 
 bundle, scissors, news, trout, milk, purity, chimneys, automata, 
 beaux, genus. 
 
 2. Write the plural of the following nouns, and give the rule for the 
 termination : — 
 
 Work, example, lady, oak, horse, hope, box, stratagem, ferry, 
 leaf, storm, bird, bond, thief, sex, day, filly, half, watch, iron, 
 vinegar, turkey, canto, tomato, potato, spoonful, knight-ternplar, 
 step-father. 
 
 3. Tell the singular of the following : — 
 
 Heroes, pence, strata, teeth, dies, memoranda, children, mice, 
 hypotheses, messieurs, brethren, scissors, seraphim, axes, snuffers, 
 errata, cherubim, sheep, formulae, swine, solos, flies', knives, riches, 
 mottoes, octavos, courts-martial, inkstands, indices, dozen, genii, 
 wharves. 
 
 4. Correct the following plurals, and give the rule or remarks for the 
 correction : — 
 
 Negros, folioes, vallies, dutys, thiefs, yokes, calfs, phenomenons, 
 criterions, mans, turkies, flys, father-in-laws, grottoes, son-in-laws, 
 cups-full, echoes. 
 
 D 5 
 
60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 47, Gender of Nouns, 
 
 1. Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex. 
 
 2. There are three genders, — the masculine, the/emmme, 
 and the neuter. 
 
 3. Nouns which denote males are of the masculine 
 gender. 
 
 Ex. — Man, king, hero. 
 
 4. Nouns which denote females are of the feminine 
 gender. 
 
 Ex. — Woman, queen, mother. 
 
 5. Nouns which denote neither males nor females are 
 of the neuter gender. 
 
 Ex. — Tree, rock, paper. 
 
 6. Some nouns denote either males or females. 
 Ex. — Parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor. 
 
 These are sometimes said to be of the common gender ; but, as the 
 gender of such nouns may generally be determined by the connec- 
 tion, there seems to be no necessity for the distinction. In case the 
 gender is not so determined, such nouns may be called masculine. 
 
 7. By a figure of speech, called Personification, the masculine or 
 feminine gender is applied to inanimate objects : thus, we say of a 
 ship, ^^ She sails well ;" of the sun, ^^ He rises in the east." The use 
 of this figure imparts peculiar beauty and animation to language. 
 " Her flag streams wildly, and her fluttering sails pant to be on their 
 flight." " The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews." 
 
 8. In speaking of the inferior animals, and sometimes even of 
 infants, the distinction of sex is not observed. 
 
 Ex. — And it became a serpent, and Moses fled from before it. The 
 child was lying in its cradle. 
 
 But in speaking of animals distinguished for boldness, size, or 
 any other marked quality peculiar to the male, we attribute to them 
 the masculine gender, even when the sex is not known. 
 
 Ex. — The eagle is the king of birds. 
 
 9. Collective nouns, if they convey the idea of unity, or take the 
 ])kiral form, are neuter. 
 
t 
 
 ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — GENDER. ' 51 
 
 Ex. — The army, on its approach, raised a shout of defiance. 
 
 But if they convey the idea of plurality without the plural form, 
 they take the gender of the individuals which compose the col- 
 lection. 
 
 Ex. — The jury could not agree upon their verdict. 
 
 10. When the sexes are distinguished by different words (48, 1), 
 the masculine is used to include both sexes. 
 
 Ex. — Jenner conferred a great benefit on man. 
 
 48. Methods of distinguishing the Sexes. 
 
 1. By using different words : — 
 
 Examples. — Bachelor, maid ; beau, belle; boar,:>sow; boy, girl; 
 brother, sister ; buck, doe ; bull; cow ; cock, hen ; drake, duck ; earl, 
 countess; father, mother; gander, goose; horse^ mare; husband, 
 wife; king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady; male, female; man, 
 woman; nephew, niece; ram, ewe; son, daughter; stag, hind; 
 uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; dog, bitch; monk, nun; hart, roe; 
 master, mistress ; Mister, Mistress (Mr., Mrs.) ; papa, mamma; sir, 
 madam ; sloven, slut ; steer, heifer ; youth, damsel ; swain, nymph. 
 
 (a.) Some masculine nouns have no corresponding feminines. 
 Ex. — Baker, brewer, porter, carrier. 
 
 While some feminine nouns have no corresponding masculines. 
 Ex. — Laundress, seamstress. 
 
 2. By a difference of termination : — 
 
 Examples. — Abbot, abbess ; actor, actress ; administrator, admi- 
 nistratrix ; adulterer, adulteress ; ambassador, ambassadress ; author, 
 authoress; baron, baroness; bridegroom, bride; benefactor, bene- 
 factress; count, countess; czar, czarina; dauphin, dauphiness; 
 deacon, deaconess ; director, directress ; don, donna ; duke, duchess ; 
 emperor, empress ; executor, executrix ; governor, governess ; heir, 
 heiress; hero, heroine ; hunter, huntress; host, hostess; instructor, 
 instructress; Jew, Jewess; landgrave, landgravine; lion, lioness; 
 marquis, marchioness ; monitor, monitress ; patron, patroness ; poet, 
 poetess; priest, priestess; prince, princess; prophet, prophetess; 
 shepherd, shepherdess; tailor, tailoress; testator, testatrix; tiger, 
 tigress; tutor, tutoress; viscount, viscountess; widower, widow; 
 god, goddess ; giant, giantess ; negro, negress ; songster, songstress ; 
 sorcerer, sorceress ; sultan, sultana. 
 
52 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. By joining some distinguishing word : — 
 
 Examples. — luamdlord, landlady ; gentleman, gentlewoman ; pea. 
 cock, -pesihen; he-goat, she-goat; man-servant, maid-ser\ant ; malt 
 child, female child ; coc/?;-sparrow, Aew-sparrow ; grandfather, grand- 
 mother; English?/za?i, EnglishwomaTi/ memian, meimaid; school- 
 master, schoohnistress. 
 
 4:9. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell which of the following nouns are masculine, which feminine, 
 and which neuter: — 
 
 Picture, walnut, duchess, Spaniard, letter, sailor, queen, priest, 
 curtain, lioness, nun, captain, widow, wizard, deacon, hospital, 
 banner, brother, countess. 
 
 2. Give the feminine gender of the following nouns: — 
 
 Man, abbot, horse, hero, tiger, heir, prophet, Jew, male, lord) 
 widower, husband, beau, uncle, host, poet, gander, sultan, master, 
 king, bridegroom, prince, nephew, duke. 
 
 3. Give the masculine gender of the following : — 
 
 Empress, mother, sister, marchioness, woman, she-goat, electress, 
 witch, doe. 
 
 4. Fill the blanJcs in the following examples; the first five with com- 
 mon nouns in the masculine gender : — 
 
 is patient. loves his sister. reigns king 
 
 of beasts. exposes his wares for sale. should vene- 
 rate the old. The next five with proper w' common nouns in the 
 feminine gender: was Queen of England. enter- 
 tained her guests with grace. — was a distinguished poetess. 
 
 was the nightingale of Sweden. loves her offspring. 
 
 The next five with collective nouns, and tell the gender : met at 
 
 the house of a friend. brought in a verdict. were 
 
 appointed by the chair. must obey its leaders. 
 
 listened with delight. 
 
 5. Select the nouns in the following example; tell the class, person, 
 number J and gender of each noun: — 
 
 Thou too sail on, Ship of State I 
 Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! 
 Humanity, with all its fears, 
 With all the hopes of future years. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — CASE. 53 
 
 Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! 
 
 We know what Master laid thy keel, 
 
 What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. — Longjellow. 
 
 50. Case of Nouns. 
 
 1. Case denotes the relation of a noun or a pronoun to 
 tjther words. 
 
 2. There are three cases, — the nominativej the possessive, 
 and the objective. 
 
 3. The nominative case is the simplest form of the noun, 
 and is commonly used as the subject of a proposition. 
 
 Ex. — George speaks. The door was shut. 
 
 4. Besides being the subject of a proposition, the nominative 
 case may be used — 1st, as the attribute of a proposition; 2d, to 
 identify the subject or the attribute ; 3d, it may be independent of 
 any other word. 
 
 Ex. — (1st.) Peter was an apostle. The stars are suns. (2d.) Milton, 
 the poet, was blind. It was John, the beloved disciple. (3d.) Henry, 
 attend to your studies. Mary, are you ready ? ^ 
 
 5. The possessive case denotes the relation of property 
 or possession. 
 
 Ex. — David's harp. 
 
 6. The possessive singular of nouns is regularly formed 
 by adding an apostrophe ( ' ) and the letter &» to the nomi- 
 native. 
 
 Ex. — Man's, David's. 
 
 7. When the plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is 
 added. 
 
 Ex. — Boys', ladies'. 
 
 But the (^) and s are added when the plural ends in 
 any other letter than s. 
 
 Ex. — Men's, women's, brethren's. 
 
 8. The possessive termination ('s) in the singular is evidently a 
 contraction of the Anglo-Saxon or Old English genitive es or /d. 
 
 5* 
 
54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The ( ' ) in the plural is a modern invention used to denote the 
 possessive case. In Lord Grey's letter to the Prince of Wales, 
 written in the latter part of the twelfth or the first of the thirteenth 
 century, are these expressions :—" Our liege Lordes pryve seal;" 
 " The Kynges commaundement ;" " The Erles ground." 
 
 9. When the singular ends in s, or in a letter or combination of 
 letters having the sound of s, and the addition of a syllable would 
 be harsh, the poets and some prose- writers add the ( ' ) only. 
 
 Ex. — Peleus' son, goodness' sake, conscience' sake, Moses' seat, cockatrice^ 
 den. 
 
 Remarks. — Some difference of opinion prevails among writers respecting 
 the form of the possessive in other cases where the singular ends in s, some 
 adding the ( ' ) only, and some the ( ' ) and s. Thus, wo have Adams' Kvpj-ess, 
 or Adams's Exjjress; Otis' Letters, or Otis' s Letters. The weight of authority is 
 in favor of the additional s, whenever the laws of euphony will admit ; espe- 
 cially if a syllable is added in pronouncing the word; as, Bates's Sermons, 
 Barnes's Notes. • 
 
 10. In nouns whose singular and plural are alike (45, 4), the 
 apostrophe should precede the s in the singular, and follow it in the 
 plural. 
 
 Ex. — Deer's, deers'; sheep's, sheeps*. 
 
 Remarks. — For the sound of the apostrophic s, and the increase of sylla- 
 bles, see (42, 2, 3.) The use of the apostrophe and s to mark the plural of 
 letters and signs (43, 9) has no connection with case. 
 
 11. When a noun follows a transitive verb or a pre- 
 position, it is in the objective case. 
 
 Ex. — Thomas opened his knife. The bird sat on the free. 
 
 12. The nominative case answers the question Whof or WJmt? 
 as, " Who writes ?" " John writes."—" What alarms him ?" " The 
 storm alarms him." ThQ possessive case answers the question Whose f 
 as, ^^ Whose book have you?" "I have my brother's book." The 
 objective case answers the question Whom? or What? as, "Whom 
 do you see?" "I see the captain." — "On what does he stand?" 
 ^ He stands upon the decTc.'^ 
 
 13. The possessive case may be known by its form. But the 
 forms of the nominative and the objective are alike : hence they 
 must be determined by their relation to other words. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — DECL.ENSION OF NOUNS. 55 
 
 51. Declension of Nouns. 
 
 The declension of a noun is its variation to denote 
 number and case. 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 
 
 1. Boy. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 riural. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 ^ Boy, 
 
 Boys, 
 
 Pos. 
 
 Boy's, 
 
 Boys', 
 
 ObJ. 
 
 Boy; 
 
 2. Fly. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Fly, 
 
 Flies, 
 
 Pos. 
 
 Fly's, 
 
 Flies', 
 
 ObJ. 
 
 Fly; 
 
 3. John. 
 
 Flies. 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 John, 
 
 Wanting. 
 
 Pos. 
 
 John's, 
 
 
 ObJ. 
 
 John. 
 4. Goodness. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Goodness, 
 
 Wanting. 
 
 Pos. 
 
 Goodness', 
 
 
 ObJ. 
 
 Goodness. 
 
 
 52. Exercise. 
 
 1. Put the following nouns in Italics into the possessive case, and Id 
 each expression be ivritten on your slates, thus : — 
 
 The carpenter axe. The carpenter's axe. 
 
 Abraham son. David harp. 3foses law. Adams Arithmetic. 
 Webster Dictionary. The coachman dog barked at the herdsman 
 sheep. The lion roar aroused the shepherd dog. The farmer corn 
 was destroyed by his neighbor cow. 
 
 2. Give the rule for forming the possessive case. 
 
56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. Write the following nomis in the possessive plural ^ and place some 
 appropriate noun after them, thus : — 
 
 The tailors^ shears. The men^s apartment. 
 
 Tailor, seaman, captain, doctor, brother, valley, folly, alley, ally, 
 hero, arch, child, director, president, sheep. 
 
 53. Parsing. 
 
 1. Parsing consists, — 
 
 (1.) In telling the part of speech. 
 (2.) In telling its properties or accidents, 
 (3.) In pointing out its relation to other words, and 
 giving the rule for its construction. 
 
 2. In parsing a noun, — • 
 (1.) Say it is a noun, and why. 
 
 (2.) Common or proper, and why. 
 
 (3.) Of the first, the second, or the third person, and why. 
 
 (4.) Of the singular or tho, plural number, and why. 
 
 (5.) Of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender, and why. 
 
 (6.) Of the nominative, the possessive, or the objective case, and why. 
 
 (7.) The rule for construction. 
 
 Note. — The pupil who has been thoroughly drilled in the Introduction 
 may be able to introduce this third element of parsing, if the teacher choose. 
 The Kules of Syntax will of course be anticipated, if applied here. The 
 teacher can omit or use the rules, as he may think best. 
 
 54. Exercise. 
 
 MODELS FOR PARSING NOUNS. 
 
 Washington, the successful general, vjas also a true patriot. 
 Wasbing^n is a noun, — it is the name of an object ; proper, — it is 
 the name of an individual object ; third person,— it de- 
 notes the person spoken of; singular number,— it de- 
 notes but one ; masculine gender, — it denotes a male ; 
 nominative case, — it is the subject of the proposition 
 " Washington was a patriot," according to Rule I. : 
 "A noun or pronoun, used as the subject of a pro- 
 position, must be in the nominative case." 
 
ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — PARSING. 57 
 
 General . . . is a noim (why?) ; common (why?) ; third person (why?) ; 
 singular number (why?); masculine gender (why?; 
 nominative case, and is put in apposition with Washing- 
 ton. Rule VI. : " A noun or pronoun, used to explain 
 or identify another noun or pronoun, is put by appo- 
 sition in the same case." 
 
 Patriot . . . is 2i noun (why?) ; common (why?) ; third person (why?) ; 
 singular number (why?); masculine gender (why?); 
 nominative case (why?) ; it is used as the attribute of 
 the proposition, "Washington was a patriot." Rule 
 II. : "A noun or pronoun, used as the attribute of a 
 proposition, must be in the nominative case." 
 
 2. John, bring me Fanny's History, that book lying on the desJc. 
 
 John . . is a proper noun, second person, singular number, mascu- 
 line gender, and nominative case independent. Rule X. : 
 " The nominative case independent, and the interjection, 
 have no grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence." 
 
 Fanny's is a proper noun, third person, singular number, feminine 
 gender, possessive case (why?), and limits History. Rule 
 VII. : " A noun or pronoun, used to limit another noun by 
 denoting possession, must be in the possessive case." 
 
 Ilistory is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
 gender, objective case, and is the object of bring. Rule 
 VIII. : " A noun or pronoun, used as the object of a transi- 
 tive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective case." 
 
 Book . . is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
 gender, objective case, and is put in apposition with History. 
 Rule VI. 
 
 Desk . . is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
 gender, objective case, and is the object of the preposition 
 on. Rule XIV. : " A noun or pronoun, used as the object 
 of a preposition, must be in the objective case." 
 
 3. Select the nouns in the following examples, and parse them accord- 
 ing to the forms given above: — 
 
 The first land discovered by Columbus was an island, to which 
 he gave the name of San Salvador. King Agrippa, believest thou 
 the prophets ? In truth, the proper rest for man is change of occu- 
 pation. 
 
 In autumn there is no sudden blight of youth and beauty ; no 
 Bwect hopes of life are blasted, no generous aim at usefulness and 
 
68 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 advancing virtue cut short. The year is drawing to its natural term, 
 the seasons have run their usual course ; all their blessings have 
 been enjoyed, and all our precious things are cared for. — Cooper. 
 One moment I looked from the hill's gentle slope, 
 
 All hushed was the billow's commotion, 
 And methought that the light-house looked lovely as Hope, 
 That star on life's tremulous ocean. — Moore. 
 Land of the beautiful and brave. 
 The freeman's home, the martyr's grave. 
 The nursery of giant men, 
 ^ Whose deeds are linked with every glen ! 
 
 My own green land for ever ! — Whittier. 
 Attention makes the genius ; all learning, fancy, and science de- 
 pend upon it.— Wilmott. 
 
 4. Let the whole class parse these or other words on the slate, thus : — 
 Washington is N. p. 3d, s. m. nom. R. I. 
 Fanny's is N. p. 3d, s. f. pos. R. VII. 
 Desk is N. c. 3d, s. n. obj. R. XIV. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 55. Definitions. 
 
 1. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify a 
 noun. 
 
 Ex. — A good school ; a diligent boy ; this table ; ten men ; the box. 
 
 All words which have the construction of the adjective are here considered 
 under the head of adjectives. The article, like the adjective, belongs to the 
 noun ; it has the same construction as the adjective, and is hence jilaced 
 among adjectives. 
 
 2. Every adjective is a dependent or subordinate word, and must 
 belong to some noun or pronoun as its principal. 
 
 3. When the noun or pronoun to which the adjective belongs has 
 been previously used in the same sentence, or is some indefinite 
 word, as, person, some one, or some thing, it may be omitted. 
 
 Ex. — I will give you this book, if yoii will give nie that [book]. 
 The kingdom of heaven suffereth violence, (and the violent [persons] 
 take it by force. 
 
 An adjective belonging to a noun understood or omitted, takes the place 
 of the latter, and is said to be a.n- adjective need as a noun. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES — ARTICLES. 5y 
 
 56. Classes of Adjectives. 
 
 1. Adjectives are divided into two classes. — limiting and 
 qualifying. 
 
 2. A limiting adjective is used to define or i^estrict the 
 meaning of a noun, without expressing any of its qualities. 
 
 Ex. — The house ; five books ; this pen ; many men. 
 
 3. Limiting adjectives are divided into three classes, — 
 articles, pronominal adjectives, and numeral adjectives, 
 
 57. Articles. 
 
 1. The particular limiting adjectives, the, and a or an, 
 are called articles. 
 
 2. The is called the definite article, because it points 
 out some particular thing. 
 
 Ex. — The desk ; the sun. 
 
 3. A or an is called the indefinite article, because it 
 does not point out any particular thing. 
 
 Ex. — A pen ; an orchard. 
 
 4. An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a con- 
 sonant sound. 
 
 Ex. — An apple ; a pin ; an hour ; a union ; an honor. 
 
 Although the article is intimately connected with the limitation of nouns, 
 it is to be regarded rather as the sign of limitation than as itself a limiting 
 word. When one says, " The man," the gives notice to the hearer that some 
 particular man is regarded in the mind of the speaker. He will point out, by 
 limiting or individualizing, who that particular man is. A or an, again, is a 
 siyn that the speaker, in regarding a multitude of objects of the same kind, 
 thinks of one, but no specific or particular one. The noun may be limited to 
 show what class or description of objects is meant, but not to show any par- 
 ticular individual. A or an, however, may be said to limit whenever it pre- 
 vents a noun from being used in its widest sense. 
 
 Ex. — Man == the whole human race; a man = one man, but no parti- 
 cular one. 
 
 The, again, may be said to extend the meaning of a noun in the singular, 
 when it is used in such examples as these : " The horse" == all horses. 
 " The dog," &<i. 
 
60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 5. The article has the construction of the limiting adjective, and 
 is to be parsed like it. 
 
 A or an is used before nouns in the singular; the, before nouns 
 in the singular or plural. 
 
 • 6. Usually no article is needed before nouns used in the whole 
 Client of their signification, or nouns denoting an individual, whether 
 belonging to a class or not (36, 4). 
 
 Ex. — Man is mortal. ' Gold is precious. 
 
 58. Exercise. 
 
 Point out the articles in the following examples; tell which are 
 definite and which are indefinite : — 
 
 The hat, a book, a knife, a box, an heir, an ox, a plough, an 
 orchard, an industrious man, an honest man, a good citizen, a hill, 
 a huge round stone, the enemy, the union the ewe, a university. 
 
 59. Pronominal Adjectives. 
 
 1. Those limiting adjectives which may, without the 
 use of the article, represent a noun understood, are called 
 pronominal adjectives. 
 
 Ex. — That (book) is his; this is yours. 
 
 2. The principal pronominal adjectives are iliiSy that, these, 
 those, former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, neither, 
 some, one, none, any, other, another, all, whole, such, much, 
 both, few, fewer, fewest, first, last, little, less, least, many, 
 more, most, own, same, several, sundry, certain, divers, enough, 
 
 3. When such adjectives represent a noun understood, they are 
 generally called pronouns. They may more properly be called 
 limiting adjectives [pronominal adjectives) used as nouns. 
 
 Ex. — This is my book. 
 
 The articles never represent a noun understood. 
 
 4. Qualifying adjectives may also represent a noun when under- 
 stood ; but the article must be prefixed. 
 
 Ex. — The good are happy. 
 
 5. All is sometimes a noun. 
 
 Ex.— He robbed me of my house, my goods, my home, my all. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 61 
 
 Both is frequently a conjunction. 
 Ex. — I both saw and heard him. 
 
 6. Among the pronominal adjectives may be distinguished,— 
 (1.) Distributives, or those which point out objects taken singly. 
 They are each, every, either, neither. 
 
 (2.) Demonstratives, or those which point out objects definitely, 
 fehowing which is meant. 
 
 They are this, that, these, those, former, latter, same. 
 
 (3.) Indefinites, or those which point out objects indefinitely. 
 
 They are some, one, none, all, any, whole, such, other, another. 
 
 (4. ) Reciprocals, or those which are reciprocally related. 
 
 They are each other, one another. 
 
 Remark. — The possessives of the personal pronouns are by some reckoned 
 as pronominal adjectives ; namely, my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, 
 his, her, hers, its, their, theirs. It is better to regard them as the possessive 
 case of the pronouns. 
 
 7. These, those, all, many, both, few, fewer, fewest, several, sundry ^ 
 usually require a noun in the plural. 
 
 Ex. — These days ; those plants. 
 
 8. Either and neither are used with reference to two things only. 
 When more than two objects are referred to, any and none should 
 be used. 
 
 Ex. — Take either road ; both are bad enough ; and neither will suit 
 you. Any of the four plans will meet with favor. 
 
 9. This refers to the nearer or last-mentioned object ; that, to the 
 more remote or first-mentioned. 
 
 10. One and other are declined thus : — 
 
 Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 
 
 Norn. One, Ones, Norn. Other, Others, 
 
 Pos. One's, Ones', Pos. Other's, Others', 
 
 Obj. One; Ones. Obj. Other; Others. 
 
 60. Exercise. 
 
 1. Point out thepronominal adjectives in the following sentences: — ■ 
 This rule is preferable to that. These scholars are more studious 
 than those. The former plan has yielded to the latter. Eacli exer- 
 
 
 
62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 cise was well written. Every accused one was acquitted. The first 
 method is better than the last. Many of our hopes are blasted. 
 Few men are of the same mind. Much remains to be said upon al] 
 these points. Our own wishes must often be yielded to those of 
 others. More were present than were expected. Little hope was 
 entertained of his recovery. Neither remark was just. The same 
 course was pursued by several of the members. Much harm arises 
 from imprudence. " Unto me, who am less than the least of all 
 saints." 
 
 61. Numeral Adjectives. 
 
 1. Nnmeral adjectives are those which express num- 
 ber; as, onCy two, three, fir sty second, &c. 
 
 2. Numeral adjectives are divided into, — 
 Cardinal, which denote how many, 
 
 Ex. — Owe, two, three, &c. 
 
 Ordinal, which show which one of a series, 
 
 Ex. — First, second, third. 
 
 Multiplicative, which show repetition. 
 
 Ex. — Twice, or twofold, thrice, or threefold, &c. 
 
 3. When a numeral is used as a noun, the cardinal, like the pro- 
 nominal adjective, takes no article; while the ordinal has the 
 article prefixed. 
 
 Ex. — Two only were present. The third was lost. 
 
 62. Exercise. 
 
 1. Apply cardinal numhei's to the following nouns; change them to 
 the plural, if necessary: — 
 
 Peach, berry, box, match, cork, shoe, penny, mouse, goose, 
 woman, court-martial, tooth, brother-in-law, handfuls, stratum, 
 index, stamen, cherub, phenomenon. 
 
 2. Correct the following plurals, and apply to each any numeral 
 greater than one or first: — 
 
 Oxes, calfs, sheeps, deers, geeses, 9s, 7s, fs, cherubims, seraphims, 
 swines, vallies, loafs, chimnies, journies, studys, commander-in- 
 chiefs, heros, soloes, grottoes, ladys, spoonsful, trouts, dozens. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON. 63 
 
 63. Qualifj ing Adjectiyes. 
 
 1. A qualifying adjective is one which limits the mean- 
 ing of a noun, by denoting some property or quality, 
 
 Ex. — A virtuous man ; a running horse. 
 
 2. To this class of adjectives belong the participles, 
 which have the signification of the verb and the con- 
 struction of the adjective. 
 
 3. When the participle is placed before the noun which it modi- 
 fies, it is called a participial adjective, 
 
 Ex. — The rising sun. 
 
 When it is placed after the noun, and is itself limited by other 
 words, it is parsed as a participle. 
 Ex. — The sun rising in the east. 
 
 4. When a qualifying adjective represents an object understood, 
 either definite or indefinite, the article the must be placed before it. 
 
 Ex.— The wise [persons] ; the benevolent [ones] ; the beautiful, tlie 
 good, and the true. 
 
 When a quality is used abstractly, the adjective is changed to 
 an abstract noun. 
 
 Ex. — Wise, y^hdom; beautiful, beaui?/. . 
 
 \/ 64. Comparison of Adjectires. 
 
 / 1>.^ Comparison is the variation of tbe adjective to ex- 
 press different degrees of the quality which it denotes. 
 
 The variation may take place in the meaning only; as in generous; very, 
 rttther, too, somewhat, quite generous ; more generous, most generous ; or iu both 
 meiining and fortn; as in clear, clearer, clearest 
 
 2. There are three degrees of comparison, — the positive, 
 the comparative^ and the superlative. 
 
 3. The positive denotes a quality without comparison. 
 
 Ex. — Righteous, pleasant. The pen is long. The street is long. The 
 Atlantic cable is lo7ig. 
 
 Had pen, stret-f, and Atlantic cable been compared in respect to length, we 
 should have liad long, longer, longest. 
 
64 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 4. The eomparatiTe expresses a higher or a lower de-. 
 
 gree than the positive. 
 
 Ex. — The sun is larger than the moon. The march was lesa difficuli 
 bj night than by day. 
 
 5. The siuperlatiTe expresses the highest or the lowest 
 
 degree of the quality. 
 
 Ex. — The dog is the most faithful of animals. The miser is the least 
 esteemed of men. 
 
 6. In respect to intensity, comparison may show equal or unequal 
 degrees. 
 
 Ex. — Monday will be as convenient as Tuesday. Truth is stranger 
 than fiction. The sweetest, ivildest land on earth. 
 
 7. In respect to the terms compared, it may show, — 
 
 (1.) That tivo objects, qualities, or conditions are contrasted in the 
 comparative degree, and one, with two more, or all others, in the super- 
 lative. 
 
 Ex. — George is older than his brother, or is the older of the two. He 
 is more prosperous than scrupulous. Many animals are more active by 
 night than by day. Of all jewels, the diamond is the most precious. 
 
 (2.) That diflTerent objects may possess the same quality in equal 
 or in unequal degrees. 
 
 Ex. — Snow is as white as loool. Wool is whiter than hemp. This tree 
 is the tallest of all (the trees). 
 
 (3.) That, in different circumstances, the same quality may be- 
 long to the same object in equal or in unequal degrees. 
 
 Ex. — Our commander was as self-possessed in danger as in safety. 
 The Asiatic cholera is more prevalent in autumn than in winter, and 
 usually most prevalent in summer, 
 
 (4.) That different qualities may belong to the same object in equal 
 or in unequal degrees. 
 
 Ex. — The aid was as timely as acceptable. The servant was more skillful 
 than willing. 
 
 (5.) That different qualities may belong to different objects in equal, 
 but rarely, if ever, in unequal, degrees. 
 
 Ex. — He was as agreeable as his opponent was offensive. Scarcely, with 
 propriety. He was more agreeable than his opponent was offensive. 
 
 8. In respect to form, comparison may take place, — 
 
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON. 
 
 65 
 
 (1.) Without any change of the adjective, as in comparison of equality, 
 or when an adverb is applied to vary the meaning. 
 
 (2.) By a change of termination, — warm, warmer, warmest. 
 
 65. Formation of the Comparative and the Superlatire. 
 
 1. The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed 
 by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or 
 est, to the positive. 
 
 Ex. — Wise, wiser, wisest; bold, bolder, boldest. 
 
 Remark. — Dissyllables in le and y, and some others, are compared like 
 monosyllables; as, noble, nobler, noblest; loorthy, worthier, worthiest. 
 
 2. The comparative of most adjectives of more than one 
 
 syllable (sometimes of one only) is formed by prefixing 
 
 more or less, and the superlative by prefixing most or 
 
 least, to the positive. 
 
 Ex.- — Industrious, more industrious, most industrious; beaitti/ul, less 
 beautiful, least beautiful. 
 
 3. The following adjectives are compared irregularly: — 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 Good, 
 
 better. 
 
 
 best. 
 
 Bad,) 
 
 
 
 
 Evil, [ 
 
 worse, 
 
 
 worst. 
 
 111, 3 
 
 
 
 
 Little, 
 
 less [lesser]. 
 
 least. 
 
 Much, 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 more. 
 
 
 most. 
 
 Many, j 
 
 
 
 
 Far, 
 
 farther, 
 
 
 farthest. 
 
 Forth [obsolete), 
 
 further. 
 
 
 furthest. 
 
 Near, 
 
 nearer. 
 
 
 nearest or next. 
 
 Late, 
 
 later. 
 
 
 latest or last. 
 
 Old, 
 
 older or 
 
 elder. 
 
 oldest or eldest. 
 
 Fore, 
 
 former, 
 
 
 foremost or first. 
 
 4. Adjectives terminating in ish indicate the possession of a qua- 
 lity in a lower degree than the positive ; as, bluish, approaching in 
 color to blue. 
 
 5. The meaning of the adjective is also varied by the addition 
 of such adverbs as somewhat, rather, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly^ 
 
 E 6* 
 
66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 exeeedmghj, &c. ; that of the comparative and the superlative, by 
 such Avords as much, far, vastly, altogether, by far, &c. 
 Ex.— Bather Aveak tea. Eclipse is much the better horse. 
 
 6. Several adjectives in the superlative degree are formed by- 
 adding most to up, upper, nether, in, inner, hind, hinder, out (con- 
 tracted to ut), outer, further, hither, top, bottom; as, upmost, upper- 
 most, nethermost, &c. 
 
 7. Adjectives derived from proper names, numerals, 
 those referring to position, material, and form, and those 
 having an absolute signification, are seldom, if ever, com- 
 pared. 
 
 Ex. — German, Spanish, seven, sixth, perpendicular, level, square, wool- 
 len, icy. 
 
 With the exception of much, few, first, last, little, less, least, many, more, 
 most, the pronominal adjectives are not compared. 
 
 8. Many adjectives denoting place or situation are deficient in 
 some of the degrees : thus, further, furthermost or furthest, hither, 
 hithermost, nether, nethermost, under, undermost, want the positive. 
 Northern, northernmost; rear, rearmost, and others, want the com- 
 parative. Inferior, superior, junior, major, anterior, posterior, prior, 
 ulterior, senior, minor, are directly from the Latin, and have neither 
 the positive nor the superlative. 
 
 66. Exercise. 
 
 1. Telliohich of the following words are adjectives: — 
 
 Ice, cold, soft, water, this, little, chair, knob, arise, brave, dili- 
 gent, inkstand, lamp, many, former, light, white, match, rough. 
 
 2. Tell which of the following adjectives are limiting, and which are 
 qualifying : — 
 
 Strong, twenty, faithful, green, this, first, an, old, former, yellow, 
 every, such, wonderful, timid, sweet, any, fifth, the, soft, those, pure, 
 ripe, tough. 
 
 3. Tell which of the following adjectives are of the positive, which 
 of the comparative, and which of the superlative degree : — 
 
 Braver, more acceptable, eldest, less useful, worst, better, most 
 honorable, strongest, sadder, more plentiful, least worthy, last, 
 good. 
 
ETYxMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES PARSING. 67 
 
 4. Compare the following adjectives: — 
 
 Bright, active, handsome, wise, sad, able, jiLst, diligent, beautiful, 
 good, excellent, dutiful, little, serene, fruitful, large, warm, lovely. 
 
 5. Apply limiting adjectives to five common nouns; qualifying ad- 
 jectives in the positive degree to five common nouns of the masculine 
 gender ; qualifying adjectives in the comparative degree to five common 
 nouns of the feminine gender ; qualifying adjectives in the superlative 
 degree to five nouns of the neuter gender, plural number^ 
 
 67. Models for Parsing. 
 
 1. In parsing an adjective, — 
 
 (1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why? 
 
 (2.) Tell what kind of adjective. Why? 
 
 (3.) Compare it, and give the degree (if a qualifying adjective). 
 
 (4.) Tell to what noun it belongs. 
 
 (5.) Give the rule. 
 
 2. The faithful man will be rewarded. 
 
 Faithful is an adjective; it is used to limit or qualify a noun ; qua- 
 lifying, — it denotes quality; compared, — positive, faithful, 
 comparative, more faithful, superlative, most faithful; in 
 the positive degree; and belongs to man, according to Eule 
 V. : " An adjective or a participle must belong to some 
 noun or pronoun." 
 
 3. Her house is larger than mine. 
 
 Larger . isan adjective (why?) ; qualifying (why?) ; compared, — posi- 
 tive, large, comparative, larger, superlative, largest; in the 
 comparative degree ; it shows that one of two objects has 
 a higher degree of the quality than the other ; and belongs 
 to house, according to Rule V. 
 
 4. She is worthy of the highest praise. 
 
 Worthy is an adjective (why?) ; qualifying (why?) ; compared, — 
 positive, worthy, comparative, worthier, superlative, wor- 
 thiest; in t\iQ positive degree, and belongs to she. Eule V. 
 
 Highest isan adjective (why?) ; qualifying (why?) ; compared, — posi- 
 tive, high, comparative, higher, superlative, highest; in the 
 superlative degree ; it shows the highest degree of the qua- 
 lity ; and belongs to praise, according to Rule V. 
 
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The ... is a definite article (why?), and as a limiting adjective it 
 belongs to praise, according to Eule V. 
 
 5. Three birds were killed. 
 
 Three . . is a numeral adjective (why?) ; limiting (why?) ; it belongs 
 to birds, according to Rule V. 
 
 6. Give me this apple, and I will give you that 
 
 This . . is a pronominal adjective, singular number (59, 6, 2), and 
 limits apple, according to Rule V. 
 
 That . . is a pronominal adjective, singular number, and is used to 
 limit the noun apple, understood ; — or it is used as a 7ioun, 
 instead of apple, of the third person, sitigular 7iumber, neuter 
 gender, objective case, and is the object of the verb give, 
 according to Rule VIII. 
 
 7. The field of combat fills the young and bold; 
 The solemn council best becomes the old. — Pope. 
 
 Toungr . is an adjective; it belongs to persons, understood; or it is 
 used as a noun, of the third person, plural number, masculine 
 gender, objective case, and is the object of fills, according to 
 Rule VIII. 
 
 Point out the ADJECTIVES in the following examples, and parse them 
 according to the above forms : — ^ 
 
 The passionate are like men standing on their heads ; they see^ 
 all things the wrong way. 
 
 There are two ways of arriving at the highest personal liberty; 
 one is to have few wants, and the other is to have abundant means 
 of satisfying them. 
 
 Shining characters are not always the most agreeable. 
 
 Mental pleasures never cloy ; unlike those of the body, they are 
 increased by repetition. 
 
 The beautiful strikes us as much by its novelty as the deformed 
 itself. — Burke. 
 
 Stone walls do not a prison make, 
 
 Nor iron bars a cage. 
 Minds innocent and quiet take 
 That for a hermitage. 
 
 9. Parse the nouns and the adjectives in the following examples: 
 
 Rarely in public office, he (Rufus Choate) was still a public 
 man in the largest sense ; all were proud of him. The old honored 
 him, the young loved him, and both old and young admired him. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 69 
 
 How sweetly come the holy psalms 
 
 From saints and martyrs down, — 
 The waving of triumphal palms 
 
 Above the thorny crown ! 
 The choral praise, the chanted prayers 
 
 From harps by angels strung. 
 The hunted Cameron's mountain airs, 
 
 The hymns that Luther sung ! — Whittier. 
 
 A 
 
 PKONOUNS. 
 
 68. Definitions and Distinctions. 
 
 A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun. 
 
 Ex. — The farmel ploughs his field ; he reaps his wheat, and gathers it 
 into his barn. 
 
 1. The pronoun takes the place of the noun, not merely to be a 
 substitute for it, or to avoid a disagreeable repetition, but to repre- 
 sent it in some important relation. 
 
 Sometimes it is used to avoid repetition, as -when a noun in the third per- 
 son, with its modifications, would occur frequently in a sentence; sometimes 
 it is employed to avoid misapjirehemion or ambiguity, as when the first or the 
 second person becomes the object spoken o/ (39, 8, Rem.); sometimes to in- 
 troduce an adjective expression to modify the noun, as when by means of a 
 relative and its clause we restrict the meaning of a noun; sometimes to repre- 
 sent the noun as the subject o^ inquiry, as when the interrogatives are used. 
 
 2. The relations which the pronoun may represent are, — 
 (a.) That of the object spoken of to the speaker. 
 
 In this relation the object may be either the speaker himself, the one 
 spoken to, or the one spoken of. Hence the^rs^, the second, and the third 
 2)er8on (39, 8), and the pronouns /, thou, and he, she, it; and hence, too, tho 
 name j^ersonal. 
 
 (6.) That of the object to some modifying circumstances. 
 
 Ex. — A fortress which stands on a hill is a conspicuous object. 
 
 Here we employ the pronoun which, incidentally to denote the object fort- 
 ress, but chiefly to join to it the circumstance of its position as that which 
 renders it conspicuous. Hence the pronouns who, which, that, and what; and 
 hence, too, the name relative. 
 
 (o.) That of an object to the r^peaker as an inquirer. 
 
70 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Here, again, the object is incidentally represented by the pronoun (its nam« 
 being unknown), and that for the special purpose of making it a subject of in- 
 quiry. Hence we have Who? Which? and What? a,ndii\iQ na^mQ interrogative. 
 
 (d.) That of the object to the speaker, as something known or unknown, 
 mentioned or not mentioned. 
 
 The personal pronouns of the third person, and all the relative pronouns, 
 are employed when an object is supposed to be not only known, but to have 
 been previously mentioned. The personal pronouns of the first and the second 
 person are used when the object is known (by its presence) but has not 
 (necessarily) been previously mentioned. The interrogative pronouns are used 
 when the object is neither known nor has been pjreviously mentioned. 
 
 3. The antecedent is the noun or substantive ex- 
 pression for which a pronoun stands. 
 
 Ex. — The world in which they are placed, opens with all its wonders 
 upon their eyes. 
 
 4. The antecedent may he a phrase ot an entire proposition. 
 Ex. — To believe the report, which is the thing you desire, would be 
 
 ofTensive to one of the noblest of men. The servant opened the window, 
 which was strictly forbidden. 
 
 The term antecedent, however, usually means something more than the 
 noun which the pronoun represents; it denotes the leading term of a rela- 
 tion, and implies a subsequent term. Hence it is more especially used in the 
 case of a relative pronoun, which is employed to show a relation between its 
 antecedent noun and some following circumstance. The personal pronoun 
 bears no such syntactical relation to its antecedent. 
 
 5. The object represented by tlie personal pronouns of the first 
 and the second person is ahvays supposed to be present, and, con- 
 sequently, the antecedent noun is seldom given ; that of the third 
 person is usually expressed. Sometimes, however, a personal or an 
 interrogative pronoun is employed without an antecedent, and so 
 limited by a relative and its clause as to give to the whole the 
 effect of a single name. 
 
 Ex. — "He who sways the minds of men by his eloquence," i.e. the orator, 
 "exerts the highest human power." "Who, that marks the fire still 
 sparkling in each eye, but would deem their bosoms burned anew?" 
 
 6. Sometimes the antecedent pronoun, in such cases, is omitted, 
 or is included in the relative. 
 
 Ex.—" Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow ;" that is, 
 they who. " Who steals my purse steals trash ;" that is, he who. 
 
 7. The pronoun stands not merely for a noun, but for a noun in 
 its syntactical relation, and also as restricted by modifying words. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 71 
 
 Ex. — " We saw tlie little deformed boy who watched at the gate, and 
 pitied him ;" i.e. the little deformed hoy who watehed at the gate. 
 
 8. The antecedent, as the term indicates, is something going be- 
 fore; but, as an interrogative pronoun inquires for an object as yet 
 unknown, the antecedent cannot be a preceding noun. The pro- 
 noun, therefore, must agree in person, number, and gender, not 
 necessarily with the noun in the answer, — ^the subsequent, — but with 
 a noun which the speaker conceived to be the name of the object 
 (however erroneous his thought might be) when he uttered the 
 question. 
 
 Ex. — What is there? Aus. A friend. 
 
 Here tohat evidently refers to thing or animal, being equivalent to lohai 
 thing. It would have been who, had the speaker known the character of the 
 object inquired for. 
 
 69. Classes of Pronouns. 
 
 1. Pronouns are divided into three classes, — -personaly 
 relative^ and interrogative. 
 
 2. To these classes some grammarians add adjective pronouns. 
 It is true that certain limiting adjectives may take the place of 
 nouns ; as, this, that, these, those, each, all, &c. So, any qualifying 
 adjective, preceded by an article, may stand for a noun in the same 
 way ; as, The good, the wise, the prudent; but a noun, in both cases, 
 is properly understood; Hence they should be disposed of alike, 
 — that is, as adjectives used as nouns. 
 
 3. To pronouns, like nouns, belong Person, Number , 
 Ge^ider, and Case, 
 
 70. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 1. A personal pronoun is used both to represent a 
 noun, and to show whether it is of the first, the second, or 
 the third person. 
 
 2. I (plural, we) is of thej^rs^ person; thou (plural, ye 
 or you) is of the second person ; he, she, and it (plural, 
 they) are of the third person, masculine, feminine, and 
 neuter, respectively. 
 
 3. The personal pronouns of the first and the second person 
 
72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 represent the speaker or the hearer. The gender is supposed to be 
 known, and is not indicated by the form of the pronoun ; while that 
 of the third person is represented by one of the forms he, she, or it. 
 
 4. It is often used in a vague sense, as the subject of verbs de- 
 scriptive of the weather ; as, " It rains." " It thunders." It is used 
 as an expletive, — (1) as the object of a verb ; as, " Come and trip it 
 as you go;" (2) to introduce a sentence whose subject is placed 
 after the predicate, "/^fis pleasant to see the sun." "/j5 has been 
 ascertained that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen." It is 
 used as subject to represent a noun or a pronoun as attribute, of any 
 number, gender, or person; as, "It is /." "It is they." "It is 
 James." " It is she." 
 
 5. Formerly, thou was used in addressing a single individual, 
 and a corresponding form of the verb was used ; as, " Thou singest;" 
 but gradually you has come to take its place, till the use of thou, 
 except in the solemn or poetic style, is now wholly discontinued. 
 You, therefore, is both singular and -plural in its application, but 
 the verb does not change its form ; it invariably takes the plural 
 form; as, "You (meaning one) write," not ivritest. 
 
 6. The compound personal pronouns are, — first person, 
 myself (plural, ourselves) ; second person, thyself, yourself 
 (plural, yourselves) ; third person, (masculine) himself, (femi- 
 nine) herself (neuter) itself (plural, themselves). 
 
 7. The compound personal pronouns are sometimes, but seldom, 
 used as the subject of a proposition, though they are often used in 
 apposition with it. 
 
 Ex.— He hiTnself knows not whereof he affirms. 
 
 8. When used as the object of a transitive verb, they are called 
 reflexive, because the act of the agent falls back upon himself. 
 
 Ex. — The boy struck himself. 
 
 71. Exercise. 
 
 1. Substitute the nouns and their modifying words for tlie pronouns 
 in the following sentences: — 
 
 At this time, the commander of the American forces and his 
 army took post at Harlem ; he now sought to ascertain the state of 
 his enemy's forces on Long Island. Captain Nathan Hale volun- 
 teered his services ; h^ entered the British army in disguise. On his 
 
ETYMOT.OGY — PRONOUNS — DECLENSION. 73 
 
 return, he was apprehended and sent to the cruel Marshal Cunning- 
 ham, by ivhom he was ordered to execution without a trial. 
 
 Edward carelessly lost his books on his way to school ; he tried 
 to excuse himself to his teacher for his deficiency in his lessons, 
 but she required him to prepare them after school, and recite them 
 lo her. 
 
 f. 
 
 ■^2. Declension of tlie Personal Pronouns. 
 
 1. The personal pronouns are thus declined: — 
 
 
 FiEST Peeson. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 I, 
 
 We, 
 
 Fos. 
 
 My or mine. 
 
 Our or ours, 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Me, 
 Second Person. 
 
 Us. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Thou, 
 
 Ye or you, 
 
 Fos. 
 
 Thy or thine. 
 
 Your or yours, 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Thee, 
 
 You. 
 
 
 Third Person, Masculine. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 He, 
 
 They, 
 
 Fos. 
 
 His, 
 
 Their or theirs. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Him, 
 
 Them. 
 
 
 Third Person, Feminine. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Phiral. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 She, 
 
 They, 
 
 Fos. 
 
 Her or hers, 
 
 Their or theirs. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Her, 
 
 Them. 
 
 
 Third Person, Neuter. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 It, 
 
 They, 
 
 Fos. 
 
 ite, 
 
 Their or theirs, 
 
 Obj. 
 
 It, 
 
 Them. 
 
74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 First Person. 
 
 
 Nom, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Myself, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Ourselves, 
 
 ObJ. 
 
 Myself, 
 Second Person. 
 
 Ourselves. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Pof 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Thyself, yourself, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Yourselves, 
 
 Obj\ 
 
 Thyself, 
 
 Yourselves. 
 
 
 Third Person. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 Masc. Fern. Neut. 
 
 Nom. Himself, Herself, Itself, 
 
 Pn- 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Themselves, 
 
 Obj. Himself, Herself, Itself, 
 
 Themselves. 
 
 2. Of the possessives, my, thy, her, our, your, their, are used when 
 the noun is expressed ; mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs (in 
 modern style), when it is understood, and the latter must be 
 changed to the former whenever the noun is supplied. " That book 
 is yours; this is mine." "That book is your book; this is my 
 book." 
 
 3. When mine, thine, &c. are used as in the above example, they seem to 
 perform a double office : first, to represent the speaker, the hearer, or the person 
 spoken of, as a possessor; and, secondly, like other limiting or qualifying 
 words, when the noun is understood, to represent or stand for that noun, not 
 as a pronoun does, but as an adjective (69, 2). Thus, we say, "This [book] 
 is an arithmetic ,• that [book] is a geography." " The violent [persons] take 
 it by force." "Mine [my task] was an easy task." Properly, neither of the 
 above words is a noun. The first three are adjectives used to limit the noun 
 understood, which follows them, and the last a personal pronoun in the pos- 
 sessive case, used to limit the noun taah, understood. If it is proper to say 
 that this, that, or violent is used as a noun, it is equally so of the word mine, 
 not in its pronominal, but in its adjective office. It is then, strictly, a pro- 
 noun in the possessive, governed by some noun understood, but may, like an 
 adjective, be parsed as that noun, in the nominative or the objective case. 
 
 73. Exercise. 
 
 1. In parsing a pronoun, — 
 
 (1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why? 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PEESONAL PRONOUNS. 75 
 
 (2.) Tell what kind of pronoun. Why? 
 
 (3.) Tell what its antecedent is. Why? 
 
 (4.) Decline it. 
 
 (5.) Give the person, number, gender. Why? 
 
 (6.) Rule for person, number, gender. Why? 
 
 (7.) Case and construction. 
 
 (8.) Rule for construction. 
 
 Note. — In parsing, let the pupil follow this order, and, as soon as possible, 
 . without any question from the teacher. The pronoun is parsed very much 
 like the noun. 
 
 2. Study the following models for parsing : — 
 David brought his book, and laid it on the table. 
 
 His . is ^pronoun ; it takes the place of a noun ; personal; it is used 
 both to represent a noun, and to show whether it is of the first, 
 the second, or the third person; it refers to David for its 
 antecedent ; (singular, nominative he, possessive his, objective 
 him; plural, nominative they, possessive their ox theirs, objec- 
 tive them;) it is of the third person, singular number, masmi- 
 line gender, because its antecedent is (Rule III. : " A pro- 
 noun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and 
 person^^) ; possessive case, and is used to limit tool:, by denoting 
 possession, according to Rule VII. (Repeat it. ) 
 
 It ... is a pronoim (why?) ; personal (why?) ; it has book for its 
 antecedent; (decline it;) it is of the third persoii, singular 
 number, neuter gender, because its antecedent booh is (Rule 
 III.), objective case, and is the object of laid: Rule VIII. 
 (Repeat the rule.) 
 
 The messenger himself revealed the treachery. 
 Himself is apronoun (why ?) ; compound, composed of him and self; 
 it has messenger for its antecedent; third person, singular 
 number, masculine gender, because its antecedent is (Rule 
 III.), nominative case, and used to identify or explain mes- 
 senger, according to Rule VI. 
 
 3. Parse the personal pronouns in the following sentences: — 
 Can it be that America, under such circumstances, can betray 
 
 herself? that she is to be added to the catalogue of republics, the 
 inscription upon whose ruins is, " They were, but they are not !" 
 Forbid it, my countrymen ! forbid it. Heaven ! — Story. 
 
 It is a noble faculty of our nature which enables us to connect 
 
76 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 our thonghts, our sympathies, and our happiness, with what is dis^ 
 tant in place or time. — Webster. 
 
 His praise, ye winds that from five quarters blow, 
 Breathe soft or loud ; and wave your tops, ye pines. — Milton. 
 Love took up the glass of Time, and turned it in his glowing hands, 
 Every moment, lightly shaken, ran itself in golden ssLnds.— Tennyson. 
 Not theirs the blame who furnish forth the treat. 
 But ours who throng the board and grossly esit.—Sprague. 
 4. Give the class, the person, the number, the gender {when it can be 
 determined by the form), and the case of the following pronouns : — 
 
 I, he, his, hers, mine, you, thou, they, them, us, w^e, myself, him- 
 self, they, herself, me, themselves, ourselves, my, thee, your, thine, 
 herself, yourselves. 
 
 74. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 1. A relative pronoun is used both to represent a pre- 
 ceding noun or pronoun, called the antecedent, and to con- 
 nect with it a dependent proposition. 
 
 Ex. — Those who wish for favors must assist others. 
 
 Kelative adverbs are commonly called conjunctive adverbs. By analogy, 
 we ought to have conjunctive instead of relative pronouns. 
 
 2. The relative pronoun, when used only as such, follows the 
 antecedent ; as, " All that I have is yours ;" when used both as a 
 limiting adjective and a pronoun, it always precedes it ; as, " I will 
 give you ivhat money I have." 
 
 3. The following distinctions will show the difference between a 
 relative and a personal pronoun : — 
 
 (a.) The relative refers to an object always known, and either pre- 
 viously mentioned, or so clearly implied as to need no mention ; the per- 
 sonal pronouns refer always to an object known, — in the third person 
 to an object previously mentioned, but in the first and the second person 
 to an object not previously mentioned. 
 
 (b.) The personal pronouns have a distinct form for each grammatical 
 person ; I for the first, thou or you for the second, and he, she, or it for the 
 third. The relative pronouns do not change their form to reprasent 
 person. 
 
 (c.) The essential difference is seen in the relations which they denote 
 (see 68, 2), and in their use in construction. The personal pronoun may 
 
ETYMOLOGY— RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 77 
 
 represent the subject of an independent sentence, — tliat is, one expressing 
 a thought ; the relative shows a dependent adjective relation ; as, " He is 
 present." "Which is irai3ortant." The first is a complete sentence; 
 the second needs some word, as measure (which is important), on which 
 it may depend. 
 
 75. Simple Relatives. 
 
 1. The simple relatives are who, which, that, and tchcit. 
 
 2. Who is used to represent ^erso^i^; whicli and what, 
 
 to represent things; and that, to represent both persons 
 and things, 
 
 3. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is not only the word for 
 which the pronoun stands, but is the leading or antecedent term of 
 a relation, of which the clause introduced by the relative is the 
 subsequent term ; it is that on which the relative clause depends, 
 and is either a definite or an indefinite object. 
 
 4. Who, which, and that usually refer to a definite 
 
 antecedent. 
 
 Ex. — The man who came. The liorse which died. The tree that fell. 
 
 In the sentence, "Who steals my purse steals trash," who refers to an 
 indefinite antecedent. 
 
 5. What may refer either to a definite or an indefinite 
 antecedent. 
 
 Ex. — I gave him what money he wanted (definite). I gave him what 
 he wanted (indefinite). 
 
 When the antecedent is indefinite, the relative stands alone, some indefi- 
 nite word, like thing or things, being understood. 
 
 6. What is both a relative pronoun and a limiting adjective, and 
 is equivalent as adjective to that or those, as relative to which, and, 
 consequently, has a double construction. 
 
 Note. — In disposing of lohat, we should not parse that and then which, — 
 two words not given, — but tohat itself, calling it a relative jironoiin. (77, 6.) 
 
 When the antecedent is definite, what should be parsed — (1) as an 
 adjective ; (2) as a relative pronoun ; as, " He gave me tvhat books I 
 wanted." Here what as limiting adjective belongs to boots, — a^ rela- 
 tive pronoun relates to books. When the antecedent is indefinite, 
 
 7* 
 
78 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 the noun "thing" or "things" may be supplied, making this case 
 the same as above; or, it may be taken — (1) as an adjective in the 
 sense of that or those, but used as a noun (69, 2) ; it practically then 
 becomes both antecedent and relative ; (2) as a relative in the sense 
 of which, relating to itself in the sense of thing or things; as, "He 
 gave me what I wanted," that is, " He gave me what (ant. = that) 
 what (rel. = which) I wanted." The two methods are practically 
 the same. The former, from its perfect identity with the case of a 
 definite antecedent, will be the more easily understood. (77, 5, 6.) 
 
 7. Wbat is, — 
 
 (a.) A relative — (1) when it can be changed into that which; as, "It is 
 what {that which) I wanted;" (2) when it both limits and relates to a 
 noun ; as, "What ore was found, was very poor," = That ore which was 
 found, &c. 
 
 (6.) An interrogative pronoun when used alone (belonging to an in- 
 definite object) to ask a question ; as, " What [things] do you want ?" 
 
 (c.) An interrogative adjective when used to limit a noun (a definite 
 object), and also to ask a question ; as, " What excuse does he render ?" 
 
 {d.) An interjection when it denotes an exclamation; as, "What! 
 have you come ?" 
 
 (e.) An adverb when it is equivalent io 'partly ; as, "The year before, 
 he had so used the matter, that, what by force, vjhat by policy, he had 
 taken from the Christians above thirty castles." 
 
 8. That is, — 
 
 (a.) A relative only when loho or ivhich can be substituted for it; as, 
 " He that [who) getteth wisdom loveth his own soul." " What private 
 grief they have, alas ! I know not, that (which) made them do it." 
 
 (6.) A pronominal adjective when it limits a noun, expressed or under- 
 stood ; as, " That book." 
 
 (c.) A subordinate conjunction when it joins a dependent clause to some 
 part of a principal ; as, " I know that my Kedeemer liveth." 
 
 9. When that is used as the object of a preposition, the latter is 
 always placed at the end of a clause ; and that must be changed to 
 whom or which whenever the preposition precedes. 
 
 Ex. — It was James that I depended upon, = upon whom I depended. 
 
 10. As, by an ellipsis of the relative, after such, ma7iy, or same, 
 seems to take its place, and may be regarded as a relative, though, 
 properly speaking, it is never a relative. 
 
 Ex. — The Lord added to the church daily such as [were those who] 
 should be saved. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — EEL ATI VE PEONOUNS. 79 
 
 76. Compound Relatives. 
 
 1. The compound relatives are tuhoso, ichoever, whoso- 
 ever J whiGhever, whichsoever j whatever^ and ivhcdsoever, 
 
 2. These are formed from the simple relatives by adding the adverbs 
 ever, so, and so-ever. 
 
 What, on account of its double construction (75, 6), has been erroneously 
 regarded as a compound pronoun. 
 
 8. \%lioevei' and whosoever refer to some indefinite antecedent, 
 as, he, person, any one, and are equivalent to any one who. 
 Ex. — Whoever hopes a faultless piece to see. 
 In all other respects they are parsed like who, ivhose, whom. 
 
 4. Whichever and whichsoever refer to a definite object, to 
 which they belong as adjectives. 
 
 Ex. — Whichever way you take will lead to the city. 
 They are equivalent to any — which. 
 
 5. 'ivhatever and whatsoever belong, as adjectives, either to a 
 definite or an indefinite object, and relate, as pronouns, to the same 
 
 (75,5). 
 
 Ex. — We are interested in whatever occupation you follow. Whatso- 
 ever is more than these cometh of evil. 
 
 They are equivalent to that — ivhich, or any thing — ivhich. 
 
 6. The relative and interrogative pronouns are thus declined : — 
 
 
 Sing, and Flu. 
 
 Sing, and Flu. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Who, 
 
 Which, 
 
 Pos. 
 
 Whose, 
 
 Whose, 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Whom. 
 
 Which. 
 
 That and lohat have 
 
 no variation. 
 
 WJioever and ' 
 
 declined like w'ho. 
 
 
 
 11, Exercise— Models for Parsing. 
 
 1. The man ivho is faithfiilly attached to religion will be upright. 
 Who . . is a relative pronoun. (Why?) 
 
 ( 1. ) As a pronoun, it has man for its antecedent ; nominative 
 who, possessive to hose, objective to horn; plural the same; 
 third person, singular number, masculine gender, because 
 
80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 its antecedent is (Rule III.: Repeat it), nominative case, 
 and is used as the subject of the proposition, "who is 
 attached." (Rule I. : Repeat it. See 172.) 
 
 (2.) As a relative or connective, it joins the subordinate 
 proposition, " who is faithfully attached to religion," to the 
 antecedent man. Rule XV. : " Subordinate connectives are 
 used to join dissimilar elements." 
 
 2. Cherish true patriotism, whose root is benevolence. 
 Wbose is a relative pronoun. (Why?) 
 
 (1.) As a pronoun, it hsi^ patriotism for its antecedent; 
 nominative which, &c. ; third person, singular number, 
 neuter gender (Rule III. : Repeat it), possessive case, and 
 is used to limit root, by denoting possession. (Rule VII. : 
 Repeat it.) 
 
 (2.) As a relative or connective, it connects the subordi- 
 nate proposition, " whose root is benevolence," to the 2ia\jQ- 
 cedent patriotism. (Rule XV. : Repeat it.) 
 
 8. Compassion is an emotion of which we should never be 
 ashamed. 
 Wbicta is a relative pronoun. (Why ?) 
 
 (1.) As a pronoun, it represents emotion as its antecedent 
 (decline, and give person, number, gender: Rule III.), ob- 
 jective case, and is used as the object of the preposition of, 
 (Rule XIII. : Repeat it: 197.) 
 
 (2.) As a relative or connective, it joins the subordinate 
 proposition, "of which we should never be ashamed," to 
 the antecedent emotion. (Rule XV.) 
 
 4. Here is the sofa that he sat upon. 
 That . . is a relative pronoun. (Why ?) 
 
 (1.) As a pronoun, it has sofa for its antecedent (decline, 
 and give person, number, gender: Rule III.), objective 
 case, and used as the object of the preposition upon. (Rule 
 XIV. See 75, 8.) 
 
 (2.) As a relative or connective, it connects the subordi- 
 nate proposition, " that he sat upon," to the antecedent sofa. 
 (Rule XV.) 
 
 5. I have ascertained what lesson we must learn. 
 
 T¥hat . is a relative pronoun, used also as an adjective. (1.) As an 
 adjective, it belongs to lesson, according to Rule V. (i72.) 
 
ETYMOLOGY — EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 81 
 
 (2.) As a pronoun, it has lesson for its antecedent, and is 
 of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, accord- 
 ing to Eule III. ; objective case, and is the object of must 
 learn, according to Eule VIII. (i72.) 
 
 (3.) As a relative or connective, it joins the subordinate 
 proposition, " what we must learn," to the antecedent lesson. 
 (Eule XV.) 
 
 6. I know ivhat will be done. 
 
 What . is a relative pronoun, used also as an adjective. 
 
 (1.) As an adjective, it belongs to some noun, as thing 
 (what thing) J understood, and should be parsed as above 
 (73, 6) ; or, as an adjective, it is used for the noun, which it re- 
 presents (55, 3), in the third person, singular number, neuter 
 gender, objective case, and the object of know. (Eule VIII.) 
 
 (2.) As a pronoun, it relates to thing understood, or to 
 what, its representative, for its antecedent, and is of the 
 third person, singular number, neuter gender (Eule III.); 
 nominative case, and the subject of will be done. (Eule I.) 
 
 (3.) As a relative or connective, it connects the subordi- 
 nate proposition, " what will be done," to thing, or to what, 
 its representative. (Eule XV.) 
 
 7. He has lost ivhatever fortune he had. 
 
 Parse "whatever" according to the first model {6) for "what." 
 
 8. Whoever fails must try again. 
 
 Supply the antecedent (76, 3), and parse as in Model 1. 
 
 9. Parse the relatives in the following examples: — 
 
 A dauntless soul erect who smiles on death. — Thomson. 
 Call imperfection what thou fanciest such. — Pope. 
 Whoever seeks the good of others, will himself be blest. 
 Whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper. 
 But that which gave the brightest lustre not only to the eloquence 
 of Chatham, but to his character, was his loftiness and nobleness 
 of soul. He loved fame, but it was the fame that follows, not the 
 fame that is run after ; not the fame that is gained by the little acts 
 that. bring forward little men, but the fame that a minister will and 
 must wring from the very people whose prejudices he despises, and 
 whose passions he controls. — Mahon. 
 
 For the structure that we raise, 
 Time is with materials filled ; 
 Our to-days and yesterdays 
 
 Are the blocks with which we build. — Longfdhw. 
 
82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 10. Tell what part of speech " that" is in the following examples (75» 8) : 
 
 Thoughts that breathe and words that burn. 
 
 That is the same man that we met before. 
 
 I do not deny that you may be right. 
 
 I will send the articles that you asked for. 
 
 I hope that that boy that stole that purse will be punished. 
 
 He said that that " that" that that boy, that sat on that seat, parsed 
 yesterday was not a pronoun. 
 
 It is not from my lips that that strain of eloquence is this day to 
 flow. — Webster. ■/ 
 
 78. Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 1. An interrogatiTe pronoun is used both to represent 
 a noun, and to ask a question. 
 
 Ex. — Who art thou, Lord ? What shall this man do ? 
 
 2. The interrogatives are who^ used to inquire for per- 
 sons ; which, for persons and things ; and what (usually) 
 for things. 
 
 Ex. — Who gave thee that authority ? Which house does he live in ? 
 What have I to do with thee ? 
 
 3. When a definite object is inquired for, what and which are 
 interrogative adjectives used to limit the name of the object in- 
 quired for. 
 
 Ex. — What books do you want ? Which road shall we take ? 
 
 When an indefinite object is inquired for, the interrogative takes 
 its place, or belongs to it, understood (59, 3). 
 
 Ex. — What (thing) do you want? 
 
 The difference between who, which, and xohat as interrogatives will appear 
 in the following example, in which who asks for the jiame, which for the indi- 
 vidual, and what for the occupation. 
 
 Ex. — TTAo did that work ? Mr. Jones. TTHcA Jones ? John Jones. What 
 is he ? A printer. 
 
 4. When an interrogative sentence is quoted, and incorporated 
 into another sentence, it loses much of its interrogative character ; 
 the interrogative pronoun becomes a connective, and, as the incor- 
 porated clause is an unanswered question, the pronoun refers to 
 some person or thing both unknown and unmentioned. It may, 
 therefore, be called an indefinite interrogative pronoun. 
 
 Ex.— Who is concealed in the garden ? 
 
ETYMOLOGY — INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 83 
 
 The name has not been mentioned; and although he may be a familiar 
 friend, yet, as the concealed one, he is unknown. The answer, therefore, must 
 be, " I do not know tcho is concealed in the garden." Who is here (1) an 
 indefinite interrogative pronoun, third person, singular number (shown by the 
 verb), masculine gender, nominative case, &c.; and (2) a subordinate con- 
 nective, joining the subordinate proposition, "who is concealed in the gar- 
 den," to knoio. (Rule XV.) Compare this with "I do not know Aim who is 
 concealed in the garden." Here tcho should be parsed as a relative pronoun 
 having him for its antecedent. 
 
 5. Besides pronouns, various interrogative adverbs are used in 
 asking questions (134, 7) ; as, Why? Where? When? How? 
 
 79. Exercise. 
 
 1. Point out the interrogative pronouns in the following examples: — 
 Who has learned his lesson ? Which seat do you prefer ? What 
 
 have you found in the garden? For what are you punished? 
 Whose school do you attend ? Who went with you ? Whom do 
 you follow ? Which way has she gone ? 
 
 2. Tell which of the above examples are pronouns, and which inter- 
 rogative adjectives. (See 78, 3.) 
 
 3. Tell which of the following pronouns are relative, and which in- 
 terrogative : — 
 
 He whose image thou art. From what fountain flowed their 
 light? What title dost thou bear? Whose genius had angelic 
 wings. What readiest way would bring me to the place ? Who 
 found the flower? I am he whom ye seek. He found the book for 
 which I sent him. Of whom do you speak ? That which was lost 
 is found. 
 
 4. Models for parsing interrogatives : — 
 
 Who shall separate us from the love of Christ ? 
 
 Wlio . is 2i pronoun (why?); interrogative (why?); its antecedent 
 (subsequent) is not expressed (68, 8) ; nominative who, pos- 
 sessive whose, objective lohom; plural, the same ; third person, 
 singular number, masculine gender, because its antecedent 
 (subsequent, 7io one implied) is (Rule III. : Repeat it), nomi- 
 native case, and used as the sub^'ect of the proposition, " who 
 shall separate." (Rule I. : Repeat it.) 
 
 Whose books have you found ? 
 
 Whose is an interrogative pronoun; nominative tvho, &c. [person, 
 number, and gender depending upon the object conceived of 
 
84 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 as the answer (es, 8), possessive case, and is used to limit 
 boohs by denoting possession. (Rule VII. : Repeat it.) 
 What seek ye ? 
 
 Wbat. is 2J1 interrogative pronoun; indeclinable; third person {num- 
 ber and gender depending upon the object conceived of as 
 the answer), objective case, and used as the object of the veyb 
 seek (Rule YIII. : Repeat it.) 
 
 What lesson shall we learn ? 
 
 What . is a pronomhial adjective, used interrogatively, or an inter- 
 rogative adjective, and belongs to lesson, for which it inquires. 
 
 (RuleV.) 
 
 I know not who is there. 
 
 Who . is an (1) indefinite interrogative pronoun, having properly 
 no antecedent, but referring to some unknown person pre- 
 viously inquired for, third person, singidar number (shown 
 by the verb), masculine gender. {4ni, 6), &c. ; and (2) a sub- 
 ordinate connective, joining the subordinate proposition, 
 "%ho is there," to know. (Rule XV.) 
 5. Parse the nouns, the adjectives, and the pronouns, in the 
 following examples : — 
 
 A great mistake, which is too common, especially among those 
 who have experienced many trials and difficulties in life, is, that 
 happiness is to be found in rest. But, as has been pointedly re- 
 marked, that man is most restless who is most at rest. — Buck- 
 minster. 
 
 An ill book well written is like poisoning a fountain that runs 
 forever ; a man may do mischief this way, it may be, as long as the 
 world lasts. He is a nuisance to fiiture ages, and lays a snare for 
 those who are yet unbofei. — Jeremy Collier. 
 
 Mark but mjf-fall, and that that ruined me. 
 Cromwell, 1 charge tliee, fling away ambition ! 
 By that sin fell the angels. — Shakspeare. 
 Motionless torrents ! silent cataracts I 
 Who made you glorious as the gates of heaven 
 Beneath the keen ftill moon ? Who bade the sun 
 Clothe you with rainbows? — Coleridge. 
 Ay ! Heaven had set one living man 
 
 Beyond the pedant's tether ; 
 His virtues, frailties. He will scan 
 
 Who weighs them all together ! — Holmes. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 85 
 
 VERBS. 
 80. Definitions and Distinctions. 
 
 ^1. A Terb is a word which expresses being y action j or 
 state; as, be, read, sleep, is loved, 
 
 2. It is the characteristic property of the verb to affirm 
 what it expresses. Yet the being, action, or state may be 
 affirmed, assumed, or used abstractly, 
 
 Ex. — George runs. George running. To run. 
 
 Thus, -when an affirmation is made, the verb, being either the predicate or 
 copula of the proposition, is ubq^l predicatively, and is said to hQ finite; when 
 the action of the verb is assumed, it takes the construction of the adjective, or 
 is used adjectively, that is, is joined to the subject, and is called o. participle ; 
 when it is used abstractly, it is separated from the subject, and, being un- 
 limited by its person or number, it is said to be infinitive [unlimited)^. 
 
 3. Affirm, as here used, includes an absolute declaration; as, 
 "Mary learns;" — a conditional statement; "If Mary learns;" — 
 an interrogation; "Does Mary learn?" — a> petition; "May Mary 
 learn ?" — a command; " Mary, learn." 
 
 4. If a word is a verb only when it affirms being, action, or state, neither 
 the participle nor the infinitive is a verb. These can be included in the verb 
 only by defining it as expressing action, &c. They are really both participles, 
 being derived from the verb and partaking of its meaning. 
 
 5. The abstract or substantive verb is the pure verb Be, called 
 the copula, having no other power or value than to assert some 
 attribute of a noun. 
 
 When the attribute expresses a quality or class, this verb or an equivalent 
 must always be usedj as, "Lead is heavy;" but when the attribute is an 
 action, it may blend with the verb he, and then both become one word ; as, 
 " The sun is rising." " The sun rises." The combined form then takes the 
 name of verb, and undergoes inflections to represent voice, mode, tense, num- 
 ber, and person/ in all other cases, the verb to he undergoes these variations. 
 
 6. A verb is called attributive, when to the pure verb it joins 
 an attribute. 
 
 The verb to he is attributive whenever it is used to assert existence ; as, 
 " There xoas a man sent from God." When thus used, the verb is commonly 
 followed by its subject, and preceded by the expletive "there," which serves 
 no other purpose than to introduce the sentence and indicate this peculiarity 
 of the verb. 
 
 8 
 
86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 7. Every finite verb represents some person or thing as 
 acting or existing in a certain state ; and that which re- 
 presents this person or thing is called the subject, 
 
 Ex. — Frank plays. She sleeps. 
 
 81. Exercise. 
 
 1. Point out the verbs and their subjects in the following examples: — 
 The clouds vanish. The vapor rises. The plant lives. Flowers 
 
 die. Children sing. They stand. Can you see ? Here they are ! 
 The ice melts. 
 
 2. Write appropriate verbs for the following nouns as subjects: — 
 
 Samuel, the pen, the book, flowers, we, oceans, moon, the earth, 
 forests, the king, Victoria. 
 
 3. Write appropriate nouns as subjects for the following verbs: — 
 Rules, is, thinks, hopes, learns, shine, grow, dig, revolve, sits, 
 
 fears, blossom, arise, sink. 
 
 4. Point out the verbs on page — in your Reader, and tell the 
 subjects. 
 
 Note. — Let the teacher assign this lesson. 
 
 82. Terbs classified by their Use. 
 
 1. Verbs are divided, according to their use^ into transi- 
 tive and intransitive, 
 
 2. A transitiTe verb receives or requires an object to 
 
 complete its meaning. 
 
 Ex. — The servant opened the door. What walls can guard me, or 
 what shades can hide [me] ? — Pope. 
 
 3. An intransitive verb neither receives nor requires 
 an object to complete its meaning. 
 
 Ex. — The sun rises. The horse runs. 
 
 4. Verbs may be divided, on account of their relation to 
 
 the subject, into, — 
 
 (a.) The abstract or substantive verb Be, which represents no attribute 
 of the subject whatever (80, 5). 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VEKBS. 87 
 
 (6.) Attributive or mixed verbs, in which an attribute denoting an 
 action or a state of the subject is blended with the copula; as, rum, = is 
 running; is being the copula, and running the attribute. 
 
 5. Attributive verbs, including also the copula to be, have been 
 divided, with reference to the subject, into, — 
 
 [a.) Active verbs, or those which represent the subject in an active 
 ptate. 
 
 (6.) Passive verbs, or those which represent the subject in a passive 
 state ; that is, in such a state as to receive or suffer an action. 
 
 (c.) Xeuter verbs, or those which represent the subject in neither of 
 these states ; that is, a state in which it neither acts nor receives the effect 
 of an action. 
 
 Remark 1. — But this distinction has little to do with the construction of 
 language. It is the relation of the verb to a succeeding term, the object, that 
 renders a classification important. This division is retained in the dic- 
 tionaries, and the learner should understand, in consulting a dictionary, that 
 17. a. = verb active, after a verb, is equivalent to transitive, v. 7i. = verb neuter, 
 to intransitive. Thus, run, fly, walk, though they represent the subject in a 
 very active state, are marked v, n. 
 
 Remark 2. — The terms transitive and intransitive have been generally 
 adopted by recent grammarians, as best suited to the purpose of construction. 
 Although the idea of an act originating in an agent and " passing over" to an 
 object seems inapplicable to such verbs as have, possess, receive, acquire, and 
 many others, still the terms, as defined above, are liable to little or no ob- 
 jection. 
 
 Remark 3. — The subdivision of verbs into active-transitive and active-in- 
 transitive is not only needless, but partial in its application. The distinction 
 is made to apply exclusively to active verbs ; whereas it may apply as well to 
 neuter as to active verbs. In the sentence, " The son resembles his father," no 
 one will maintain that resembles is any more an active verb than sleeps. Yet 
 it is transitive; and, to be consistent, we ought to have neuter-transitive and 
 neuter -intransitive. By omitting the words active and neuter altogether, we 
 have a practical division, and one of universal application. 
 
 6. The object or eomplemeMt of the transitive verb 
 
 stands as an answer to the question Whatf or Whomf 
 
 with the verb. 
 
 Ex. — The ox eats {whatf) hay, grass, oats, corn, &c. The boy found 
 (whomf) his father, his mother, &c. 
 
 To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, we have only to 
 use this test: ask with it the question What? or Whom? and if, in its signi- 
 fication as used in the example in question, it has, as answer, a noun or a pro- 
 noun meaning a different thing from the subject, or if one is obviously re- 
 
88 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 
 
 quired to complete the meaning intended, it is transitive; otherwise it Is 
 intransitive. 
 
 7. When the noun or the pronoun thus added means the same 
 person or thing as the subject, it is not the object, but is a predicate- 
 nominative, and the verb is either intransitive, or transitive in the 
 passive voice. All such verbs perform the office of the copula, and 
 are hence called copulative verbs. These are be [the simple copula), 
 become, seem, appear, stand, walk, and other verbs of position, motion, 
 and condition; the passive verbs is called, is named, is styled, is 
 appointed, is constituted, is elected, is chosen, is made, is esteemed, is 
 reckoned, and others. 
 
 8. A transitive verb in a proposition necessarily implies three 
 terms, — a subject, a predicate, and an object. 
 
 Ex. — Csesar (sub.) crossed {pred.) the Kubicon {obj.). 
 
 An intransitive verb requires but two terms, — a subject and a predicate; 
 as, " The tempest (sub.) rages" {j^red.). 
 
 9. Many verbs are transitive in one signification, and intransi- 
 tive in another. 
 
 Ex. — It breaks my chain. Morning breaks in the east. 
 
 AVhen the object is not necessarily implied, it is better to consider such 
 verbs intransitive, and not transitive, because an object, in some other pos- 
 sible signification of the verb, may be supplied : as, " She sings beautifully" 
 (intransitive). " She sings soprano" (transitive). 
 
 10. Some verbs, usually intransitive, become transitive when 
 used with a causative signification. 
 
 Ex. — The train usually runs at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour ; 
 but they ran a train (caused it to run) at the rate of forty. 
 
 Some verbs become transitive when they take an object after them of a 
 kindred signification ; as, " He ran a race." " They played a game." 
 
 83. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell which of the following verbs are transitive, and which in- 
 transitive : — 
 
 Anna loves her motherj^^JIlie^olden gates open. The moon 
 silvers the distant hills, ^ary hSfound her ring. Eleanor writes 
 poetry. The snow meltsS-The dl'v ^tters i>i£ ak. The innocent 
 lamb dies. The child play^^. Th^rnigraut^fl<:iwers^loom. She re- 
 ceived a letter. Does Paul live thereT"' 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 89 
 
 2. Write an appropriate subject and object for each of the folloioing 
 verbs : — 
 
 Rings, learn, find, hide, fears, remembers, inflicts, receives, lift, 
 hears, renews, reviews, write. 
 
 Model. — The sexton rings the bell, 
 
 3. Point out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the following 
 examples; also the subject of each verb, and the object^ if it has one: — 
 
 Oh, spare me, that I may recover strength before I go hence and 
 be no more. 
 
 Awake ! arise ! or be forever fallen ! 
 
 Hannibal passed through Gaul, crossed the Alps, came down into 
 Italy, and defeated several Roman generals ; but he could not con- 
 quer the C'unt ', nor take the city of Rome. 
 
 Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be 
 like his. 
 
 Hands of angels hidden from mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of 
 the heavens ; the glories of night dissolved into the glories of the 
 dawn. The blue sky now turned more softly gray ; the great watch- 
 stars shut up their holy eyes, the east began to kindle, and soon the 
 whole celestial concave was filled with the inflowing tides of the 
 morning light. — Everett. 
 
 The shadow of departed hours 
 Hangs dim upon thine early flowers ; 
 Even in thy sunshine seems to brood 
 Something too deep for solitude. — Henians. 
 
 84. Yerbs classified by their Form. 
 
 1. Verbs are divided, according to their /o/'r?i, into regu- 
 lar and irregular. 
 
 2. A regular verb is one which forms its past tense 
 and past participle by adding ed (28, 2) to the present 
 tense. 
 
 Ex. — Love, lovec^, \o\ed; gain, gainer?, gainec?. 
 
 3. An irregular verb is one which does not form its 
 past tense and past participle by the addition of ed to the 
 present tense. 
 
 Ex. — See, saw, seen; lorite, ivrofe, vjritten. 
 
90 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. 
 
 4. A defective verb is one in which some of the parts 
 are wanting. 
 
 Ex. — May, might; shall, should; will, would (participle wanting). 
 
 5. An auxiliary verb is one which is employed in the 
 conjugation of other verbs. 
 
 Ex. — Have, in have loved ; mil, in will love ; may, in may love. 
 
 6. An impersonal verb is one by which an action or 
 a state is asserted independently of any particular subject. 
 
 Ex.— It rains. It snows. It lightens. It thunders. 
 
 85. Exercise. 
 
 1. Point out the verbs in the following examples; tell whether they 
 are regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive. (See list of ir- 
 regular verbs.) 
 
 Where shall a man go to avoid pain and sickness ? 
 
 If thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give him drink. 
 
 All that the Father giveth me, shall come to me. 
 
 Canst thou hind the sweet influences of the Pleiades ? or loose 
 the bands of Orion ? 
 
 I impeach him (Warren Hastings) in the name of the English 
 nation, whose ancient honor he has sullied. — Burke. 
 
 Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam. 
 Survey our empire, and behold our home. — Byron. 
 
 2. Write Jive sentences containing regular transitive, and five con- 
 taining irregular transitive verbs. Draw a line under the verb and its 
 object. 
 
 MODEL. 
 REG. TRANSITIVE. IREEG. TRANSITIVE. 
 
 Mr. Brown has incurred a great debt. The child led the blind man. 
 
 3. In the same way, write five sentences containing regular intransi- 
 tive, and five containing irregular intransitive vei^bs. 
 
 86. Properties of Terbs. 
 
 To verbs belong voicey mode, tense, number, and jierson. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 91 
 
 87. Yoice. 
 
 1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which shows 
 whether the subject ads or is acted upon. 
 
 2. There are two voices, — the active and the passive, 
 
 3. The active voice represents the subject as acting* 
 Ex. — John struck William. 
 
 Here Johi is the subject, and John performs the act. 
 
 4. The passive voice represents the subject as acted 
 upon, 
 
 Ex. — William was struck by John. 
 
 Here William is the subject, but he does not act : he only receives the act, 
 or is acted upon; that is, is passive, which means suffering or receiving an act, 
 the subject or receiver, meanwhile, being in an inactive state. 
 
 Only transitive verbs can properly have a passive voice. 
 
 5. Any sentence, having for its predicate a transitive verb, may 
 be transformed by changing the active to the passive voice, or the 
 passive to the active. The same meaning, or nearly the same, will 
 be expressed in either case. 
 
 Ex. — The locusts devoured (active) the grass. The grass was devoured 
 (passive) by the locusts. 
 
 Strictly speaking, the ideas of active and passive, though manifesting 
 themselves in the form of the verb, are not attributes of the verb, but of the 
 persons or things connected with it: the one performs the act, the other 
 receives or suffers it. If the active one is made the subject of the sentence, 
 the verb is said to be in the active voice; if the passive one is made the sub- 
 ject, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. 
 
 6. The following are all the possible cases which can occur : — 
 (a.) One and the same person or thing may represent both relations, 
 
 — the active and the passive, 
 
 Ex. — He struck himself. She struck herself. It destroyed itself. Yot% 
 struck yourself. I struck myself. (See Personal Pronoun, 70, 7, 8.) 
 
 (6.) Tivo different persons or things may be employed to represent 
 these relations. 
 
 (1.) One may be simply active, and the other simply passive. 
 Ex. — George struck William, :^:^ William was struck by George. 
 
92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (2.) Each may be, at the same time, both active and passive. 
 Ex. — They struck each other, = They struck, each [struck] the other. (See 
 183, 8.) 
 
 (c.) Three different persons or things may be employed ; one active, 
 and two passive. 
 
 (1.) One may act, another suffers the act, while the third stands as 
 that to which the act is tending. 
 
 Ex. — He (act.) gave me (tending to) a hooh (pass.) He told me his history, 
 = His history was told me by him, = I was told his history by him. 
 
 (2.) One acts, another is acted upon, and thereby transformed or 
 made into the third (187, 9). 
 
 Ex. — They made him an officer, = He was made an officer by them, = An 
 officer was made of him by them. 
 
 In this case there are but two different persons or things. The second and 
 third denote the same individual. 
 
 7. The use of the passive voice enables us, — 
 (a.) To conceal the agent. 
 
 Ex. — The deed was performed, I must not tell by whom. 
 
 (6.) To give prominence to an event, or to stcUe it when the agent is 
 unknown. 
 
 Ex. — Letters were introduced at an early period. 
 
 (c.) To preserve the unity of a sentence which the use of the active 
 voice would destroy. 
 
 Ex. The ore was mined, shipped to England, and smelted in less than 
 
 six months. 
 
 Observe, here are at least three diflFerent agents. 
 
 8. We use the active voice when we wish to make the 
 agent prominent. 
 
 Ex.— Moses conducted the Israelites out of Egypt. 
 
 9. Some intransitive verbs, when accompanied by the preposi- 
 tion following, admit of a passive form. 
 
 Ex. — They laughed at him, = He was laughed at. 
 
 So, when a verb takes two objects, one direct and the other in- 
 direct, the latter is sometimes made the subject of the verb in the 
 passive voice (i87, 12). 
 
 Ex.— I told him a story, = He was told a story. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — VOICE. 93 
 
 10. Certain intransitive verbs, as come, arrive, fall, rise, &c., ad- 
 mit of a passive form, yet with an intransitive signification, as will 
 be seen by observing that the agent or actor, not the object, is the 
 subject of the sentence in either form. 
 
 Ex. — Babylon is fallen (has fallen). 
 
 This idiom is less common now than formerly, and may bo regarded as an 
 imitation of the French or the German form of similar verbs. 
 
 88. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell which of the following verbs are in the active voice, and ivhich 
 in the passive: — 
 
 The moon gives a pleasant light. The book was written by my 
 father. The song of the bird is heard in the grove. Leverrier dis- 
 covered a new planet. How doth the little busy bee improve each 
 shining hour ! Knowledge gives power. The heavens declare the 
 glory of God. 
 
 2. In the above sentences, change the verbs in the active voice info the 
 passive, and the verbs in the passive voice into the active. 
 
 3. Write five sentences containing regular, and five containing ir- 
 regular verbs in the passive voice. 
 
 MODEL. 
 EEG. PASSIVE. IRREG. PASSIVE. 
 
 Charles I. was beheaded. The grass was mown. 
 
 4. Select the verbs in the following examples, tell whether they are 
 regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive, of the active or the passive 
 voice : — 
 
 The thunders of heaven are sometimes heard to roll in the voice 
 of a united people. - 
 
 In the battle of Solferino, four hundred thousand men are said to 
 have been engaged. 
 
 I care not what mines are opened in the mountains of Siberia, or 
 in the sierras of California ; wheresoever the fountains of the golden 
 tide may gush forth, the streams will flow to the regions where edu- 
 cated intellect has woven the boundless network of the useful and 
 ornamental arts. — Everett. 
 
 'Tis finished. — Their thunders are hushed on the moors ; 
 
 Culloden is lost, and ray country deplores : 
 
 But where is the iron-bound prisoner ? Where ? 
 
 For the red eye of battle is shut in despair. — Campbell. 
 
94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 89. Mode. ^ 
 
 1. Mode is the manner in which the action, the being, 
 or the state is asserted. 
 
 2. Mode does not show the manner of the action or state, but the manner 
 of its assertion. It may be asserted as a reality, or as something ivmgined 
 that may, can, or must take place, or as something imagined or vupposed vihiah. 
 is placed under a condition, or as something desired. The manner of the 
 action or state is expressed by means of limiting words j as, " The soldier 
 fought (a reality) bravely" (manner of the act) ; " The soldier may fight 
 (something imagined) bravely" (manner of the supposed act). 
 
 3. The infinitive is not properly a mode of the verb (80, 2) ; for, since it 
 does not assert action at all, it cannot be said to have any manner or mode of 
 assertion. The same may be said of the participle. In fact, the infinitive is 
 a participle, partaking of the properties of the noun and the verb, as the 
 (so called) participle partakes of the properties of the adjective and the verb 
 (80, 4). It is inserted here in conformity with established usage, but may 
 be called the infinitive, — not the infinitive mode. 
 
 4. There are commonly reckoned five modes, — the in- 
 dicativey the potentialj the subjunctive, the imperative^ and 
 the infinitive, 
 
 5. The indicative mode asserts a thing as actually 
 existing. (See 10, below.) 
 
 Ex. — James loves. William was struck. Has he comef 
 
 6. The potential mode asserts the power, liberty, per- 
 mission, necessity, or duty of acting, or of being in a certain 
 state. 
 
 Ex. — We can sing. You may write. Must he read? They should 
 obey the law. Can you do it ? 
 
 7. The subjnnetiTe mode asserts a thing as conditional 
 or as doubtful, 
 
 Ex. — If he leave me. Though he slay me. 
 
 8. The imperative mode asserts a command, an en- 
 treaty, or a permission, 
 
 Ex. — Write. Go thou. Be admonished. 
 
 9. The infinitive represents the action or state as an 
 abstract noun. 
 
 Ex. — To write. To be seen. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — MODE. 95 
 
 10. The indicative mode is used in principal propositions, and is 
 employed to represent what is actual, real, or absolute. It may be 
 used in interrogative or exclamatory sentences. 
 
 Ex. — Has he arrived ? The villain has fired the dwelling ! 
 
 It is often used in subordinate propositions, but always to represent what 
 is actual J as, "I know that he discovered (actually) the plot." 
 
 11. The potential mode is also used in principal propositions, 
 not, however, to represent the actual, but that which, at the time of 
 speaking, exists, or is supposed to exist, only in idea, — that which 
 is merely imagined or thought of. 
 
 Ex. — A storm may arise. {Actually there is no storm.) Can he 
 write ? How can you persist ? 
 
 The ideal act or state, however, is supposed to have some relation to reality. 
 It can become a reality ; that is, there is no impossibility in the way of its 
 realization; no ability is wanting: it may become a reality; that is, per- 
 mission is granted, or in the final result perhaps it will be a reality : it must 
 become actual; that is, o. necessity or an obligation exists. This mode may 
 be used in interrogative, exclamatory, or supplicatory sentences ; as, " Can 
 he leave the city in safety ?" " He may be assassinated." " May the truth bo 
 victorious !" It may be used in subordinate propositions, but always to 
 represent what is ideal or what has not been realized; as, "He says that I 
 may (I do not now) attend school." 
 
 12. The potential may be known by the auxiliaries, may, can^ 
 must, might, could, would, should. (See lis.) 
 
 13. The subjunctive mode is used exclusively in subordinate pro- 
 positions, and hence its name ("sub," under, and "jungo," I join). 
 It is joined to the verb of the principal proposition by the subordi- 
 nate conjunctions, if, though, although, lest, except, that, save that, 
 unless, provided that, and some others; they impart the idea of 
 doubt, contingency, or conditionality. 
 
 Whatever of futurity may be implied in the subjunctive, is to be accounted 
 for either from the fact that any thing that is conditional or contingent is yet 
 to be realized (if ever), or from the influence of a suppressed auxiliary, such 
 as shall or should, which imparts (though understood) the idea of futurity ; 
 as, " Though he (should) slay me, yet will I trust in him." 
 
 14. The subjunctive represents an ideal act, or a real act con- 
 ceived only as an idea, and places it under a condition accompanied 
 with more or less doubt. As to a distinctive form of the subjunc- 
 tive, it can scarcely be said to have any, unless it be found in the 
 present tense, or the present and past of to be; and in all such cases 
 (with the single exception of were, in examples like " If it werej^ 
 
96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 "If I were"), by supplying an ellipsis, they may be referred to the 
 forms of the indicative future or the past potential. 
 
 Ex. — If it rain, we shall not leave, = If it should rain, &c. Till one 
 greater man restore {shall restore) us, and regain {shall regain) the blissful 
 seat, sing, heavenly muse. 
 
 The majority of writers, at present, employ the forms of the indicative 
 present; as, "If it rains;" "If he leaves." Hence the subjunctive may be 
 regarded as borrowing its forms from the indicative and the potential mode. 
 Indeed, as a/orm of the language, it is now but little used. " The subjunctive 
 is evidently passing out of use ; and there is good reason to suppose that it 
 will soon become obsolete altogether." — Geo. P. Marsh. 
 
 15. The imperative mode is used in principal propositions. It is 
 the mode which expresses will or desire. It may usually be known 
 bv the omission of the subject. 
 
 Ex. — Read (thou) ; vrrite. 
 
 The force of this mode, under the same form, depends upon the relation of 
 the parties. If a superior speaks imperatively to an inferior, it is a command ; 
 if an equal to an equal, it is an exhortation or an entreaty; if an inferior to 
 a superior, it is a prayer or a supplication. The imperative is made subordi- 
 nate only in a direct quotation ; as, " Grod said. Let there be light." It is often 
 elegantly put for a conditional clause ; as, " Let but the commons hear this 
 testament, and they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds," = Could the 
 commons, &c., or, If the commons could but hear, &c. 
 
 16. The infinitive is used in abridged propositions, and hence is 
 wholly dependent, being incorporated as an element of another 
 proposition. It does not assert any thing ; it is not limited by the 
 number and the person of a subject, and hence its name (so, 2), in- 
 finitive, = unlimited, in distinction from finite, which is applied to 
 all verbs used in construction with their subjects, and thereby 
 limited by the number and person of the latter. 
 
 17. The infinitive is used as an abstract noun ; yet it may be 
 associated with the subject from which it has been abstracted. 
 
 Ex.— The soldier faints (finite) ; for the soldier to faint (infin.). He 
 goes; for him to go; we told him to go. 
 
 90. Exercise. 
 
 Tell the mode of each of the verbs in the following examples; also 
 the kind of verb : — 
 
 Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth ? de- 
 clare, if thou hast understanding. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PARTICIPLES. 97 
 
 Then said Jesus to his disciples, If any man will come after me, 
 let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow me. 
 
 We can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion 
 in a statue. — Addison. 
 
 Daughter of Faith ! awake, arise, illume 
 The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb. — Campbell. 
 And out again I curve and flow. 
 
 To join the brimming river ; 
 For men may come, and men may go, 
 But I go on forever. — Tennyson. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 91. Definition and Distinctions. 
 
 1. A participle is a word having the signification of a 
 
 verb, but the construction of an adjective. 
 
 Ex. — We found him lying on the ground. Having written his letter, 
 he sent it to his friend. 
 
 2. The participle is so called because it participates or partakes of 
 the properties of the verb and the adjective. It is the attributive 
 (so, 4, 5) part of the verb alone ; it is the being, action, or state de- 
 prived of the power of assertion ; and therefore, when joined with- 
 out the copula to the noun whose attribute it expresses, it must be 
 assumed (not predicated) (205, 2), just as an adjective is assumed 
 under similar circumstances. It has the meaning of the verb and 
 is modified like the verb, but is used like the adjective. 
 
 3. The participle is not a distinct part of speech, but is derived 
 directly from the verb, — the present by adding ing^ the past by 
 adding ed, to all regular verbs, and the perfect by prefixing to the 
 past the auxiliary having. 
 
 92. Classes of Participles. 
 
 1. There are, properly, two participles, — the present and 
 the jperf ect 
 
 Ex. — Reading, having read; (being) loved, having been loved. 
 
 2. These two participles correspond to the present and the perfect tense of 
 the verb. They are used in abridged propositions : the former, when the pro- 
 
 9 
 
98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 position before its abridgment was in the present, the past, or the future tense-, 
 the latter, when it was in either of the perfect tenses. See abridged propo- 
 sitions (167, 2). 
 
 3. There are, however, three forms, commonly called 
 participles, — the present, the past, and the perfect 
 
 Ex. — Pres. Past. Perf. 
 
 Active Voice, Loving, Loved, Having loved. 
 
 Passive Voice, (Being) loved, Loved, Having been loved. 
 
 4. The passive participle loved does not necessarily denote past 
 time. Of itself, it simply denotes the reception of an act, complete 
 or incomplete. The time depends upon that of the verb with which 
 it is associated. 
 
 Remark 1. — The form called the past participle may hare been once the 
 passive participle, having the same form. If so, it has now wholly lost its origi- 
 nal signification, and, strictly speaking, has lost its character as a participle. 
 It never partakes of the properties of the adjective; it is never used to limit 
 a noun, like that part of speech ; it is never used alone in participial con- 
 structions, — that is, where the participle, with the words depending upon it, 
 takes the place of a subordinate proposition ; it is always found in the predi- 
 cate, either of complete or abridged propositions, and is connected with some 
 form of have ; as, have loved, had loved, having loved ; it has an active signifi- 
 cation, and always denotes a past, completed act, and belongs as well to in- 
 transitive as to transitive verbs. 
 
 Remark 2. — The passive participle of the same form, on the contrary, is 
 limited to transitive verbs, has always a passive signification, may denote as 
 well present as past time ; it may have the participial construction, or, with 
 the copula, may form the passive verb in all the modes and tenses. 
 
 5. Participles, in their appropriate use, take the place of de- 
 pendent propositions, and consequently represent time in the same 
 manner as the propositions from which they are derived. As the 
 verb of the dependent clause dates from the time expressed by the 
 principal verb, and not from that of the speaker, the participle may 
 be present, with a past, a present, or a future act. 
 
 Ex. — I saw a man walking; I see a man walking; I shall see a man 
 walking. 
 
 So, again, the participle may denote a past act, completed at the 
 Ume of a past, a present, or a future act. 
 
 Ex. — Having ploughed his field, the farmer sowed, sows, will sow, the 
 seed. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PARTICIPLES. 99 
 
 93. Present Actiye Participle. 
 
 1. The present active participle denotes an action or 
 a state present and in progress at the time represented by 
 the principal verb. 
 
 Ex. — y^Q find, found, or shall find him sitting in a chair. 
 
 2. This participle always ends in ing : it has an active signifi- 
 cation, and may be used, — 
 
 (a.) To abridge a dependent proposition. 
 
 Ex. — I saw a man walking in the meadow, i.e. who was walking, &c. 
 (6.) AS an adjective. It is then placed before the noun. 
 Ex. — The roaring billows. 
 
 When thus used, it is called a participial adjective* 
 (c.) In the progressive form of the verb. 
 Ex. — I am reading. 
 
 (d.) Oerundively, to denote a concomitant act, — came hoiv? 
 Ex. — The Son of man came eating and drinking. 
 (e.) As a noun, — (1) Wholly so, with the preceding, and of following. 
 Ex. — The reading of the law. 
 
 (2.) In the construction of the noun with the modifications of the verb. 
 Ex. — The eye is never satisfied with beholding the stupendous works 
 of the Creator. 
 
 3. Though this participle is usually active, it sometimes has a 
 passive signification. When an object is undergoing a progressive 
 change, and we wish to express this as a continuous reception of 
 the act, our language is deficient in appropriate forms. Good 
 writers have resorted to the use of the active participle, giving it a 
 passive signification. 
 
 Ex. — The house is building. New efforts are making for the extension 
 of this trade. — Webster. This new tragedy was acting. — Everett. 
 
 Recent writers of some distinction have adopted the forms, " The house is 
 heimj built;" "Preparations are beirifj made." It is not the province of the 
 grammarian to dictate as to questions of usage, but to admit and explain 
 whatever good, national, and reputable usage sanctions. When subjected to 
 these tests, it must be said of such forms, that they are by no means adopted 
 by the best writers as good English, they are not sanctioned by the best 
 grammarians, and they are of too recent origin to be regarded as idioms of 
 the language. 
 
100 Ei^fGLISH GKAMMAK. 
 
 94. Present Passive Participle. 
 
 1. The present passive participle denotes the reception 
 of an act at the time represented by the principal verb. 
 
 Ex. — He lives, lived, will live, loved by all. 
 
 2. This participle may be used as an adjective, or, with the copula, 
 k> form the passive verb. 
 
 Ex. — A refined taste is possessed only by the caliivated. 
 When preceded by being, it may be used as a noun. 
 Ex. — By being involved in one wrong act, he was soon lost to all the 
 ai)peals of his friends. 
 
 95. Perfect Participles, Active and Passive. 
 
 1. The perfect active participle denotes an action or 
 a state completed at the time represented by the principal 
 verb. 
 
 Ex. — Having finished his speech, he sat down. 
 
 2. The perfect passive participle denotes the reception 
 of an act past and completed at the time represented by 
 the principal verb. 
 
 Ex. — Having been driven from home, he enlisted in the army. 
 
 3. The perfect participles are never used like the present, with 
 the copula, to form the predicate. They may be used as verbal 
 nouns. 
 
 Ex. — He was accused of having obtained goods on false pretences. 
 
 96. The Participle predicated or assumed. 
 
 1. The action or the state expressed by the participle 
 
 may be either predicated or assumed (205, 2). 
 
 Ex. — The horse is running through the street. The horse running 
 through the street. 
 
 2. The participle, when the act is predicated, constitutes, with 
 the copula, or auxiliary have, a form of the verb. The present 
 participle is used in the progressive form (i09, 1) or imperfect 
 
ET YMOLUG Y— ;Vi!:RB-7^PARTlCTpi.,Ji:S. 101 
 
 tenses ; the past, in the comj^leie Jorm^ or the perfect ; the passive, in 
 
 the, passive form. ' ^ .','■ ^ ! ! > ;, ^' !«;' C',\ \ ,' '. 
 
 Ex. — The farmer was ploughing his field. The farmer had ploughed 
 his field. The field was ploughed by the farmer. 
 
 3. The participle, when the act is assumed, is equivalent to a 
 subordinate clause; as, "The boat which sails on yonder lake is 
 propelled by steam," = The boat sailuig on yonder lake is pro- 
 pelled by steam. (See 205, 2.) 
 
 97. Exercise. 
 
 1. Write the participles of the following verbs: — 
 
 Find, obey, ride, grow, lie, lay, sit, set, lose, loose, load, steal, 
 arrive, suppose, happen, come, do, take, run. 
 
 2. Use each of the above participles in a short sentence. 
 Models. — Finding his mistake, he left. The source of the river 
 
 being found, the travellers returned home. Having found the owner, 
 he restored the ring. 
 
 3. Point out the participles in the following examples; tell what 
 kind of participle each one is, and nanie the verb from which it is 
 derived: — 
 
 Let the last feeble and lingering glance of my dying eyes rather 
 behold the gorgeous ensign of the Eepublic, now known and honored 
 throughout the earth, still full high advanced, — its arms and trophies 
 streaming in their original lustre, not a stripe erased or polluted, 
 nor a single star obscured. — Webster. 
 
 One wave rises, and, having reached its destined limit, falls 
 gently away, and is succeeded by yet another. — Story. 
 Then shook the hills, with thunder riven ; 
 Then rushed the steeds to battle driven ; 
 And, louder than the bolts of heaven, 
 
 Far flashed the red artillery. — Campbell, 
 The warriors on the turrets high, 
 Moving athwart the evening sky, 
 
 Seemed forms of giant height. 
 Above the gloomy portal arch, 
 Timing his footsteps to a march. 
 The warder kept his guard, 
 Low humming, as he paced along, 
 Some ancient border-gathering song. — Scott. 
 9* 
 
102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ' - • -08. Tense;.- 
 
 1. Teiise primarily denotes the time of an action or 
 an event, in its relation to the moment of speaking. 
 
 2. In reference to the time of speaking, an action or an event 
 may he present, past, or future. 
 
 Ex. — I ride; I rode; I shall Hde. 
 
 3. The tense-form of the verb denotes also the state 
 of an action or an event with reference to its continuance, 
 
 4. An action or an event is,*^^ 
 
 Indefinite, when (i09, 5) it is viewed at the commencement as one 
 event, complete in itself, without reference to its progress or completion, 
 Ex. — I love; I loved; I shall love. 
 
 Progressive, when (i09, 9) it is contemplated in its progress as 
 going on, without regard to its commencement or completion. 
 Ex. — I am writing ; I was writing; I shall he wiiing. 
 
 Perfect or completed, when the attention is directed to its end 
 or completion, without reference to its commencement or progress. 
 Ex. — I have written; I had written; I shall have written. 
 
 Perfect prog^ressive, when regard is had to both the progress 
 and the completion, and not to the commencement. 
 
 Ex. — I have been writing; I had been writing; I shall have been writing. 
 
 Remark. — As the passive voice denotes tlie reception of an act, it expresses 
 an event which may be regarded as indefinite, progressive, or completed (110). 
 
 99. Divisions of Time. 
 
 1. In each of the three divisions of time — the past , the 
 present, and the future — we distinguish a point and a 
 period. 
 
 Remark. — By a "point" is not meant the least possible division of time, 
 but any portion taken without regard to its duration. Thus, the time of 
 speaking may really be a period. The point is referred to by tchen, as, the 
 moment; whereas the period is referred to by while, during which, how long. 
 
 2. The point of time denotes either the time of speaking, as the 
 first and principal point of reference, or a specified date in either of 
 the periods. 
 
 Ex. — I have written a letter io-daij since twelve d clock. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSE. 103 
 
 Here, observe the time of speaking, — now; the event, — jmst as to the 
 moment of speaking, — have written, — but present as to its completion in the 
 present period, — to-day ; also a specified date, — twelve o'clock. 
 
 I had written a letter last month before the 15th. 
 
 Here we have tho time of speaking, — noio; the past event, — had written; 
 also the past period, including the time of its completion, — last month; and 
 the specified date, — the 15th. 
 
 I shall have written a letter before the mail leaves. 
 
 Here the future period is indefinite. 
 
 3. The period is a definite or an indefinite portion of time, either 
 past, present, or future. 
 
 Ex. — Last month, last year ; this century, this age ; next week, next 
 quarter. 
 
 The indefinite present is any assumed portion of time; while the indefinite 
 past or future extends from the present without limit. It is important to 
 observe that a present period includes the time of speaking, and also the time 
 of the completion of an act; that the past or the future period excludes the 
 time of speaking, but includes the time of the completion, and usually a 
 second date to which the latter is referred. 
 
 4. Tenses which receive this second point of reference are called 
 relative tenses; while those which have only a single reference to 
 the speaker are called aZ>so/^<^e tenses. 
 
 5. Each division has two tenses, — an absolute and a relative. 
 There are, therefore, six tenses, — three absolute and three relative ; 
 as (absolute), "I xorite^^ "I wrote^^ "I shall write;" (relative), 
 " I have written" (some time to-day or this year), " I had written" 
 (before the boat sailed), " I shall have written" (at noon). 
 
 6. The absolute tenses take their names from the division of time 
 to which they belong. Thus, we have the present tense, the past 
 tense, the future tense. The relative tenses affix to the name of the 
 tense the word perfect, which refers not so much to the time as to 
 the completion of the act. Thus, we have the present perfect, the 
 past perfect, and the future perfect. 
 
 Strict analogy would give us, for the progressive forms, lam writing, I was 
 writing, I shall be writing, present, past, and future imperfect tenses. 
 
 100. Tenses in tlie Indicative Mode. 
 
 The tenses of the indicative are, — the present , the pre^ 
 sent perfect; the past, the past perfect; the future , the 
 future perfect. 
 
 These tenses have their characteristic significations only in tho indicative 
 mode. 
 
104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 101. Present Tense. 
 
 1. The present tense represents what takes place in 
 present time. 
 
 Ex. — I see; I am seeing; I do see; I am seen. 
 
 By present, here, is meant the present of the speaker or the writer. The 
 present of the hearer is the same as that of the speaker ; but that of the reader 
 is not the same as that of the writer. 
 
 2. This tense may be used to denote an action or an event, — 
 (1.) As in itself complete at the precise moment of speaking; as, 
 
 " I see it/' "I feel the heat;'' " I perceive your meaning ;" i.e. when 
 the event is instantly perceived and mentioned. Compare with (3), 
 below. 
 
 (2.) As incomplete at the precise moment of speaking; as, "I am 
 meriting;" "The boy is studying." 
 
 (3.) As a habit or a citstom in a lirnited period assumed as present ; 
 as, " He reads seven languages ;" but not at the time of speaking, 
 nor forever. 
 
 (4.) As & universal truth during an unlimited period; as, "Vice 
 produces misery;" "God is just;" and that regardless of the time 
 of speaking, and forever. 
 
 (5.) As ii present, though really in the past or future, — to repre- 
 sent a thing more vividly, or to make it present to another future 
 event. 
 
 Ex. — Hark I heard ye not those hoofs of dreadful note? Sounds not 
 the clang . . . . — Byron. They rally, they bleed (as now seen in vision) 
 for their kingdom and crown. — Campbell. We ivill pay him when he 
 comes {shall come). Matthew traces {has traced) the descent of Joseph; 
 Luke traces {has traced) that of Mary. 
 
 102. Present Perfect Tense. 
 1. The present perfect tense represents a past event 
 as completed in present time. 
 
 Ex. — I have seen; I have beefn seeing ; I have been seen. 
 
 In this tense, present-perfect, observe that a period — this day, this year, 
 the present age (hence the prefix ^jre«en<) — embraces the time of finishivg an 
 act (hence perfect), and also a subsequent time of speaking of it (hence a 
 present and a past loithin the period). (See 99, 2, 3.) 
 
 Note. — Be careful to distinguish present meaning the period, from present 
 meaning the time of speaking. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — TENSES. 106 
 
 2. This tense may be used, — 
 
 (1.) To denote an act completed in the assumed present, with only 
 an implied reference to the time of speaking. 
 
 Ex. — "He has learned his lesson," — the /act remains till now. 
 
 (2.) To denote an act spoken of as completed, but continuing till 
 the time of speaking, either in itself or in its effects. 
 
 Ex. — " Jupiter has revolved around the sun for ages," — the fact and 
 the act continue. " The culprit has been imprisoned for ten years," — the 
 act was completed, and the condition remains till now. 
 
 (3.) To denote an act completed in a future period, to correspond 
 with a future event. 
 
 Ex.— They will he dissatisfied before they have remained a month. 
 
 103. Past Tense. 
 
 1. The past tense represents what took place in time 
 wholly past. 
 
 Ex. — I saw; I was seeing; I was seen. 
 
 In this tense, the time of speaking is the present j that of the act or the 
 event, a period wholly past. 
 
 2. This tense is used to denote an act or an events — 
 
 (1.) As in itself complete, begun and ended in a past period 
 absolutely, or with reference to a specified time. 
 
 Ex. — He wrote a letter ; He wrote a letter at noon yesterday. 
 
 This is the Latin perfect, or the Greek aorist, 
 
 (2.) As incomplete at, before, or after a past time mentioned. 
 
 Ex. — He was riding by, at, before, or after noon. 
 
 This is the true Latin imperfect. 
 
 (3.) As a custom or habit belonging to a past ^moc?. 
 Ex. — He braided lace at intervals. 
 
 104. Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 1. The past perfect represents a past event as com- 
 pleted in time wholly past. 
 
 Ex. — I had seen; I had been seeing; I had been seen. 
 
106 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 
 
 Note.— Observe the difference between the past and the past perfect. "1 
 wrote a letter yesterday." Here the act is spoken of as complete in itself, 
 that is, be(/un, continued, and Jiniahed (but without reference to either, 98, 4), 
 in the period yesterday. " I had written a letter yesterday at twelve o'clock." 
 Here the act is spoken of as completed at a specified time in the period ?/e«<er- 
 day. 
 
 2. This tense is used only when the present, or time of speak- 
 ing, is separated from a period wholly past, and the time of an act 
 is at or before a specified time in this period. 
 
 Ex. — " He had written his letter before noon ;" that is, He had (in a 
 past period) written (finished the act) before noon (specified time in the 
 period). 
 
 105. Future Tense. 
 
 1. The future tense represents what will take place in 
 future time. 
 
 Ex. — I shall see; I shall be seeing; I shall be seen. 
 
 2. In this tense, as in the others, an event may be represented as 
 in itself co7nplete, incomplete, or as a custom. 
 
 Ex. — He will write; He will write before noon. They will be marching 
 before the dawn. The lion shall eat straw like the ox. 
 
 106. Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 1. The future perfect tense represents an event as com- 
 pleted in future time. 
 
 Ex. — I shall have seen. 
 
 Note. — Observe that in all the perfect tenses /our different times are, or 
 may be, distinguished: — a. period, past, present, or future (sometimes named, 
 oftener not) ; the time of completing something in any one of the periods ; the 
 time of speaking, always in the present period; a specified time, always in the 
 same period as the event. 
 
 Ex. — " I have (time of speaking) caused (time of completing) the bells to 
 be rung 6e/bre twelve (specified time) to-day {present period)." So, "I had 
 caused, &q., yesterday." " I shall have caused, <fcc., to-morrow." 
 
 2. This tense differs from the simple future as the past perfect 
 differs from the past. It represents an act as completed, and refers 
 to a specified time in some future period. 
 
 Ex. — I shall have written a letter at twelve to-morrow. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — TENSES. 107 
 
 107. Tenses in all the Modes. 
 
 1. The subjunctive mode has six tenses j — the same as 
 the indicative. 
 
 2. The potential mode has four tenses, — the present, the 
 present perfect, the past, and the past perfect. 
 
 3. The infinitive has two tenses, — the present and the 
 perfect. 
 
 4. The imperative has only one tense, — the present. 
 
 5. Tense in the subjunctive mode does not usually mark time 
 with the same exactness as in the indicative. Thus, — 
 
 (a.) In conditional clauses, if the thing spoken of denotes something 
 actual or taken as actual, the tense-form usually denotes the true time. 
 Ex. — If it rained, I did not know it. 
 
 But if it refers to something merely hypothetical or supposed, the past 
 tense represents present time, and the past pei^ect represents past time. 
 
 Ex. — If I were going now (but I cannot), I should ride. If I had had 
 an opportunity yesterday (but I had none), I should have spoken to him. 
 
 (6.) The 7erb to be has a distinct form for the present and the past 
 tense used hypothetically and denoting present time (89, 13). 
 
 Ex. — If it be true. If I ivere not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 
 
 (c.) Were in this use cannot stand for would be, or would have been, 
 although in other uses it may. 
 
 Ex. — It were an impossibility to raise the requisite sum, — ivould be. 
 Had, in like manner, is used for would, or woidd have. 
 Ex. — I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, than such a Eoraan. 
 It had been better for him if he had pursued the opposite course. 
 
 6. The tenses in the potential mode have by no means the signifi- 
 cation which their names denote. 
 
 (a.) The present denotes present possibility, permission, ability, or 
 necessity to perform an act sometimes present and sometimes future. 
 
 Ex. — We may (now) go (to-morrow). You can (noiv) write (now). He 
 must (now) leave (now, to-morrow, next week). 
 
 (b.) The present perfect generally denotes a -present possibility, neces- 
 sity, &c. that a past act was performed. 
 
 Ex, — I mv.^t have written (= it is now undeniable that I v}rote) (yester- 
 day). 
 
108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (c.) The past denotes, — 
 
 (1.) A jpast possibility, &c. to perforin an act. 
 
 Ex. — Can you write ? I could write yesterday. 
 
 (2.) A custom. 
 
 Ex. — He would often sit the entire evening without uttering a word. 
 
 WovM and might are now seldom, if ever, used to denote past time. 
 
 (3.) It denotes the present possibility, &c. when followed by a con- 
 ditional clause. 
 
 Ex. — I might or could go (now) if I would. I should or would go 
 (now) if I could. 
 
 (4.) It denotes a, future possibility, &c. 
 
 Ex. — I shall not go ; but if I should go (hereafter), I could (hereafter) 
 walk. 
 
 (5.) It denotes a universal duty without reference to time. 
 Ex. — Children should obey their parents. 
 
 (d.) The past perfect denotes usually a past possibility, &c., but by no 
 means a past completed act. It usually implies the non-performance of 
 the act. Thus : I could have assisted you (yesterday) if you had desired 
 it, = I was able to assist you, but you did not desire it, and I did not do it. 
 
 7. The infinitive has but two tenses, — the present and the per- 
 fect. They denote, the former an indefinite or a progressive, and the 
 latter a completed, state of the act. 
 
 Ex. — To write; To be writing. To have written; To have been writing. 
 
 (a.) The infinitive, like the participle, may be connected with any 
 mode or tense of the principal verb. 
 
 (6.) The present infinitive denotes a time either present or future with 
 reference to that of the principal verb, and not necessarily present with 
 the speaker. 
 
 Ex. — I intend to write. I intended to write. I had intended to write. 
 I shall begin to write. 
 
 (c.) The perfect denotes a past act completed at the time denoted by 
 the principal verb. 
 
 Ex. — She is said to have sung. She was thought to have written. She 
 will be known, to have done it. 
 
 8. The imperative has only the present tense, which denotes the 
 time of giving a command ; the time of its performance is future. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — FORMS. 109 
 
 108. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell the tenses of the following verbs:— 
 
 Did you hear the lecture ? He listened earnestly. I hope to find 
 the study interesting. It will not rain. Ralph had intended to go. 
 I have heard the Irish orator. We saw the constellation of the 
 Southern Cross. Richard will have learned his lesson by the time 
 we wish to leave. I shall have finished my work when Sarah conies. 
 The child cried. Was the view pleasant ? Are the notes of the 
 nightingale sad? Had Anne read the book? The hills were 
 covered with snow. 
 
 2. Tell the TEi!iSBS of the following verbs ; also those ivhich denote 
 the RECEPTION of an act, which the PROGRESS, which the COMPLETION 
 of an act, and which an act complete in itself: — 
 
 The paper is published in Boston. Is he planting the seed ? Has 
 Frank been drawing ? I shall be allowed to go. When will Caro- 
 line go to ride? Have they been to the concert? My brother is 
 teaching. Happiness will be her portion. Sorrow is the common 
 lot. Have you been taught to sing ? Had his wife heard the good 
 news ? I wish to go. I will not be denied. He shall not forget 
 the penalty. Flowers bloom. Our friends will have gone when 
 you come. Joseph tore the book. What shall I do ? William has 
 gained the prize. Have you been to Europe? Fanny has been 
 learning to skate. The clock has struck. Washington was never 
 known to tell a lie. He had been promoted. You do not think so. 
 You will learn to know her better. It shall not be. The general 
 is deceived. Charles has fallen from the tree. He broke his arm. 
 Louisa was carrying the package. He shall be immortal who liveth 
 till he be stoned by one without fault. 
 
 109. Forms of the Verb. 
 
 1. The forms of the verb are its various changes to 
 express the time and state (98, 1, 3) of an act in the several 
 modes and tenses. 
 
 2. Transitive verbs may have four forms, — the common^ 
 the emphatic, the progressive, and the passive. 
 
 Ex. — I love; I do love; I am loving; I am loved. 
 
 3. The emphatic form is confined to the present and past indi- 
 cative, and the present imperative. The other forms are extended 
 through all the modes and tenses. 
 
 10 
 
110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 4. Intransitive verbs may have three forms, — the cwn- 
 moTfiy the emphatic, and the progressive, 
 
 Ex. — I sit; I do sit; I am sitting. 
 
 5. The common (indefinite) form represents an act indefinitely, 
 as a custom, or as completed, without reference to its progress. 
 
 Ex. — I love; I loved; I shall love; I have loved. 
 
 6. The variations of this form in the second and the third person, as seen 
 in the terminations eat and eth, belong to what is called the solemn style. They 
 are found in the Scriptures, in forms of prayer, in poetry, and in various 
 sacred books. 
 
 7. The emphatic form Represents an act with emphasis. 
 Ex. — I do write; I did write. 
 
 8. This form is used in interrogative or negative sentences without emphasis. 
 Ex. — Do you lorite ? Did you write ? I do write. 
 
 9. Tho, progressive form represents ^(^progress of an unfinished act. 
 Ex. — 1 am writing. 
 
 10. In the perfect tenses, it represents the completion of a progressive act. 
 Ex. — I have been writing ; I shall have heen meriting. 
 
 11. The passive form represents the reception of an act. 
 Ex. — I am loved; I was loved; I shall he loved. 
 
 12. The perfect tenses of this form are used when we wish to represent the 
 completion of a, passive state. 
 
 Ex. — I have heen honored ; I had heen honored ; I shall have heen honored. 
 
 The following table gives the form for each division of time, with 
 a description of the state of the act : — 
 
 110. Forms for each Division of Time. 
 
 I. Present. 
 
 Time. Act. Example. 
 
 1. Present. Complete in itself. He writes. 
 
 2. " Progressive incomplete. He is writing. 
 
 3. " Completed. He has written. 
 
 4. " Progressive completed. He has heen writing, 
 
 5. " Emphatic. He does write. 
 
 6. " Passive or received. The letter is written. 
 
 7. " Progressive received. The house is building. 
 
 8. " Passive completed. The letter has heen toritien. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — AUXILIARIES. ^111 
 
 II. Past. 
 Time. Act. Example. 
 
 1. Past. Complete in itself. He wrote. 
 
 2. " Progressive incomplete. He was writing. 
 
 3. " Completed. He had written. 
 
 4. " Progressive completed. He had been writing, 
 6. " Emphatic. He did write. 
 
 6. " Passive or received. The letter was written. 
 
 7. " Progressive received. The house was building. 
 
 8. " Passive completed. The letter had been written. 
 
 • 
 
 III. FUTUEE. 
 
 1. Future. Complete in itself. He will write. 
 
 2. " Progressive incomplete. He loill be writing. 
 
 3. " Completed. He ivill have written. 
 
 4. " Progressive completed. He will have been wr-iting. 
 
 5. " Passive or received. The letter will be written. 
 
 6. " Progressive received. The house will be building. 
 
 7. " Passive completed. The letter will have been written. 
 
 111. Auxiliaries. 
 
 1. Auxiliary verbs are those which are used in conju- 
 gating other verbs. They are, — 
 
 Pres. Do, be, have, shall, will, maxj, can, mu^t. 
 Past. Did, was, had, should, would, might, could, 
 
 2. The auxiliaries were origxrxduWy principal verbs; and some of them aro 
 still used as such. 
 
 3. The auxiliary verbs are used to form the modes and tenses of 
 other verbs, and to give to the forms in which they are used the 
 shades of meaning peculiar to their original signification. 
 
 4. In the early stages of the language, these verbs were undoubtedly used 
 as principal verbs followed and modified by the infinitive of what is now 
 called the principal verb; as, may go, can read, must sing; like the Latin 
 Possum scrihere, or the French Je puis alter, or the German Ich kann schreiben. 
 Finally, the subordinate infinitive came to be regarded as the principal verb, 
 and that on which it depended became its auxiliary. 
 
 6. The auxiliaries should bo regarded merely as relation-icords, or words 
 used to show relations of time and mode, as the preposition is used to show 
 relations of fima, place, origin, caxiae, manner, property, material. <tc. In fact, 
 
112 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 all words used to show a relation of whatever nature — such as prepof^itiov^, 
 relative pronouns, and conjunctive adverbs — are a species of auxiliary. In the 
 progress of language, these auxiliaries have increased, and in the same ratio 
 the inflection of the principal word has diminished. An exact and familiar 
 acquaintance with their various uses is essential to a correct knowledge of the 
 language. (See 113, below.) 
 
 6. The auxiliaries, as such, have only two tenses, — the 
 present and the past^ — except 7nust, which has no varia- 
 tion. They may be thus represented ; — 
 
 112. Conjugation of the Auxiliaries. 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 1st Per. 
 
 2d Per. 
 
 3d Per. 
 
 1st Per. 
 
 2d Per. 
 
 3d Per. 
 
 /. 
 
 Thou. 
 
 He. 
 
 We. 
 
 You. 
 
 They. 
 
 Am 
 
 art 
 
 is 
 
 are 
 
 are 
 
 are 
 
 Do 
 
 dost 
 
 does 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 Have 
 
 hast 
 
 has 
 
 have 
 
 have 
 
 have 
 
 Will 
 
 wilt 
 
 will 
 
 will 
 
 will 
 
 will 
 
 Shall 
 
 Shalt 
 
 shall 
 
 shall 
 
 shall 
 
 shall 
 
 May 
 
 mayst 
 
 may 
 
 may 
 
 may 
 
 may 
 
 Can 
 
 canst 
 
 can 
 
 can 
 
 can 
 
 can 
 
 ^Must 
 
 must 
 
 must 
 
 must 
 
 must 
 
 must 
 
 Present. 
 
 ' "Was wast was 
 
 Did didst did 
 
 Had hadst had 
 
 Past. \ Would wouldst would 
 
 Should shouldst should 
 
 Might mightst might 
 
 Could couldst could 
 
 were were w^ere 
 
 did did did 
 
 had had had 
 
 would would would 
 
 should should should 
 
 might might might 
 
 could could could 
 
 113. Signification of the Auxiliaries. 
 
 1. The auxiliaries, deriving much of their force from 
 their original significations, give their own shades of mean- 
 ing to the tense-form into which they enter. 
 
 2. Be, from the Saxon " beon," to be fixed^ to exist, denotes 
 existeriGe, 
 
 As an auxiliary, it is the copula, used (80, 6) to join an attribute to, aJid 
 ai>xert its existence in, the subject j as, " The heat is oppressive." 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — AUXILIARIES. 113 
 
 3. Do, from the Saxon " don," to do, denotes action. 
 
 As an auxMiary, it is used chiefly to give intensity/ of meaning to the action 
 o\ the principal verb. This it does especially in aflBrmative sentences, and, 
 to some degree, in negative. But in interrogative sentences it is little more 
 than a sign of interrogation ; as, " I do try ;" " I did go ;" " He did not 
 speak;" "Do you hear it?" 
 
 4. Have, from the Saxon " habban," to have, denotes possession. 
 
 As an auxiliary, it retains its original meaning in the idea of completion j 
 as if an act was not fully possessed by its subject until completed. It seems 
 to have acquired this meaning thus : — In " I have treasures concealed," have 
 denotes possession, and is separated from "concealed;" in "I have concealed 
 treasures," it still denotes possession, but is brought into connection with 
 " concealed ;" whereas, in " I have concealed the treasures," it is brought into 
 intimate relation with " concealed," which passes from a passive to an active 
 signification ; and here we have the idea of possession or completion of the act. 
 
 5. Sbail, from the Saxon " scealan," to be obliged, and will, from 
 the Saxon " willan," to determine, have, — 
 
 (a.) A complex signification, when a future event is made to depend 
 upon the determination, resolution, or volition of a personal agent (either 
 the actor or another). 
 
 Ex. — He shall go (I so resolve) ; I will go (I myself so resolve). 
 
 (6.) A simple signifix^ation, denoting mere futurity, when a future event 
 is wholly or chiefly independent of volition or resolution. 
 
 Ex. — It will rain (whatever you or I may resolve) ; I shall be over- 
 taken (independent of my will). 
 
 In this case the speaker merely predicts or expresses an opinion. The past 
 tenses should and would are used with the same or nearly the same signifi- 
 cations. 
 
 The following rules apply to shall and will. 
 
 6. Rule I. — When the person who resolves or predicts is not 
 mentioned, the speaker or first person is always understood in affirma- 
 tive, and the hearer or second in interrogative sentences. 
 
 Ex.— You shall go. (/will it.) Shall he go? (Do yow will it?) It 
 will rain, (/predict it.) Will it rain? (Do you predict it?) 
 
 7. Rule II. — Will should be used when the resolution and the 
 action are attributed to the same person, and shall when they are 
 attributed to different persons. 
 
 Ex. — I will go. (I myself resolve.) Will you go? (Do you yourself 
 resolve?) He will go. (He himself resolves.) He shall go. (I resolve.) 
 They have determined that you shall go. Shall he go ? (Do you resolve ?) 
 H 10* 
 
11-1 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 8. Rule III. — Shall should be used when the prediction a7id the 
 action are both attributed to the same person, or in any case, provided 
 the action be attributed to the yiebt person; and will should be used 
 when the prediction and the action {except in the case of the first person) 
 are attributed to riTTEEENT persons. 
 
 Ex.— You wiU be promoted. (I predict it.) I shall teach, or be a 
 teacher. (I, he, you, or they, predict it.) Will he teach? (Do you pre- 
 dict it ?) Will it rain ? (Do you think so ?) It will rain. (I think so.) 
 
 Shall is used in animated discourse, contrary to the last part of Rule III., 
 when the speaker offers an implied pledge that his prediction shall be fulfilled ; 
 as, " When the precepts of the gospel shall have been thoroughly inwrought 
 into the lives of men, then shall war be known only in history." 
 
 9. May, from the Saxon "magan," to be strong, expressed the 
 primary idea of power, and implied a personal agency from without, 
 employed to remove all hindrance. Hence the idea of permission. 
 
 10. Can is from the Saxon " cunnan," to know, — that is, an intel- 
 lectual power within one's self. Hence the idea of ability. 
 
 11. Must is from the Saxon " motan," to be able, — that is, to be 
 impelled by a power coming — not from any personal agency with- 
 out, as in case of may, nor within, as in case of can — but from the 
 nature, constitution, or fitness of things. Hence the idea of neces- 
 sity, and, in a moral point of view, obligation. 
 
 Note. — It will be seen that may, can, and must agree in the idea of power,-^ 
 hence the term 2}otential, — but they differ in the source of it. As auxiliaries, 
 they retain much of their original meaning. 3fay expresses, in general, per- 
 mission ; as, " You may visit the country." 
 
 12. May sometimes denotes possibility, and implies doubt j as, "It viay 
 rainj" "He may have written;" sometimes a petition; as, "J/ay it please 
 you." 
 
 13. Might and could also express in past time the same general meaning as 
 in the present; as, " I know I may or can go." " I knew I might or coidd go."' 
 
 14. Might, could, should, and xooxdd are used in conditional sentences, 
 might in one clause answering to could in the other, when power, ability, or 
 inclination is implied; as, "He might sing, if he coxdd or woidd." So, "He 
 cnuld sing, if he looidd." " Ho would sing, if he could," Sometimes the con- 
 ditional clause is omitted. "He might write." "He coxdd write." "He 
 would write.'' In all these examples a present possihility, liberty, &c. is re, 
 ferred to. When past time is referred to, we use the past perfect tense ; as 
 " He might have written, if he would (have written"). 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — AUXILIARIES. 115 
 
 114. Exercise. 
 
 1. In the following sentences, do shall and will resolve, or pre- 
 diet?— 
 
 I will go to the party. You shall not leave the room. It will be 
 a sad day for him. He shall do as I tell him. Eugene will come 
 to see me. I shall go to see my sister. I shall see him to-morrow. 
 In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die. Thou 
 wilt show me the path of life. He will be elected. Perhaps I shall 
 find my book. I will fear no evil. I will dwell in the house of 
 my God forever. Shall I go to ride? Will Florence do it? In 
 spite of all your objections, I will do it. The sun will shine. The 
 clock will strike. Shall you go to the lecture? When will the 
 time come? Will the earl do well ? 
 
 2. Correct the following examples by giving and explaining the right 
 use of SHALL and will : — 
 
 I will receive a letter when my brother comes. If they make 
 the changes, I do not think I will like them. Will we have a good 
 time if we go ? Perhaps you shall find the purse. I will be un- 
 happy if you do not come. I will be afraid if it is dark. Surely 
 goodness and mercy shall follow me, and I will dwell in the house 
 of the Lord forever. I resolve that he will return with me. I will 
 be obliged to you. I will be punished. What sorrow will I have 
 to endure ! The moon shall give her light. Will I write ? He is 
 resolved that Mary will go. If we examine the subject, we will 
 perceive the error. I will suffer from poverty ; nobody shall help 
 me. When shall you go with me ? Where will I leave you ? 
 
 3. Study the following Models for Analysis, and explain the auxili- 
 aries : — 
 
 We are marcbingr. . . . Are is an auxiliary verb, denotes present 
 time, and asserts a thing as actual ; march- 
 ing is a present participle, denoting a pro- 
 gressive act: hence are marching is the 
 present tense, indicative mode, progressiva 
 form. 
 
 I do write Do is an auxiliaiy verb, denotes the pre- 
 sent tense, asserts a thing as actual, and 
 imparts emphasis ; wH^e denotes the simple 
 act : hence do write is the present indica- 
 tive, emphatic form. 
 
116 
 
 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 
 
 Se will slngr* 
 
 He bas conquered. 
 
 I had been wrltin§p. 
 
 Iliey wiU bave fong^bt. 
 
 I ma J read. 
 
 If be is detained. 
 
 Will is an auxiliary verb, denotes future 
 time (simply predicts), and asserts a thing- 
 as actual; sing denotes the simple act: 
 hence will sing is in the future tense, in- 
 dicative mode. 
 
 Mas is an auxiliary verb, denotes present 
 time, is a sign of completed action, and 
 asserts a thing as actual ; conquered is the 
 past participle of conquer, denoting a com- 
 pleted or perfect act : hence has conquered 
 is the present perfect, indicative. 
 . Had is an auxiliary verb, denotes past 
 time, is a sign of completion, and with 
 been asserts a thing as actual ; been is the 
 past participle of the auxiliary to be, and 
 is used to denote completion; writing is 
 the present participle of write, formed by 
 adding ing (28, 2) , and denotes a progressive 
 act: hence had been writing is the past 
 perfect progressive, indicative. 
 Will is an auxiliary verb ; it denotes future 
 time (simply predicts), and asserts a thing 
 as actual ; have is a sign of completion ; 
 hence will have is the sign of future com- 
 pletion; fought is the past participle of 
 fight; it denotes completion: hence will 
 have fought is the future perfect tense, 
 indicative. 
 
 May is an auxiliary verb ; it denotes pre- 
 sent time, asserts a thing as imagined or 
 thought of (not as actual), and gives per- 
 mission, or expresses doubt ; read denotes 
 the simple act now in contemplation: 
 hence may read is the present potential, 
 common form. 
 
 Is is an auxiliary verb, denotes present 
 time, and of itself asserts a thing as actual, 
 but, under the influence of if, asserts a 
 thing as doubtful and conditional: de- 
 tained is a passive participle, denoting the 
 reception of an act : hence w detained is 
 the present passive, subjunctive. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENBE-FORMS. 117 
 
 4. In the same manner analyze the following examples: — 
 
 The tempest has passed. The sun was rising. 1 shall be satisfied. 
 The sailor would have been discharged, if he had not given a satis- 
 factory excuse. The boys were anxious to go. Leslie hoped to 
 have finished the work before the storm approached. Go to the 
 prison. Write an answer. The letter may have been delayed. If 
 you should write a correct lesson, you would be commended. 
 
 5. Write three examples of the emphatic indicative past; three of 
 the progressive past perfect ; four of the progressive potential past per- 
 fect; also any other which your teacher may give. 
 
 6. Tell the mode, the tense, and the fokm of each of the following 
 verbs: — 
 
 Shepherd, lead on. Sweet is the breath of morn. These are thy 
 works. He will be coming. Silence filled the courts of heaven. 
 Thus far shalt thou go. He leads them forth through golden portals. 
 Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. Do thou in secret pray. 
 If thy brother die, he shall live again. By that time he will have 
 been reaping his wheat. They must go to rest. He has been 
 studying his lesson. The sun will have set when I reach home. 
 He sunk to repose where the red heaths are blended. 
 
 115. Uses of the Auxiliaries. Formation of Tenses. 
 
 1. The auxiliaries may combine to form the tenses, — 
 
 (a.) With participles. 
 
 Ex. — I am writing; He was loved; We have written. 
 
 [b.) With infinitives (ill, 4). 
 
 Ex. — I may write; They shall read, 
 (c.) With both united. 
 Ex. — I may have learned. 
 
 2. In the indicative mode they combine as follows : — 
 
 Do love, emp. form, — inf. and do, dost, does. 
 Am loving, prog, form, — pres. part, and 
 
 (a.) Abs. tenses. -I Present. -| «"'» ^«» «^«' «'*«• 
 
 Am loved, pas. form, — past part, and am, 
 
 is, art, are. 
 
118 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (a.^ Abs. tenses. 
 (Coniinued.) 
 
 Past. 
 
 ' Did love, emp. form, — inf. and did, did»t. 
 Was loTingr, prog, form, — pres. part, and 
 
 was, wast, were. 
 Was loved, pas. form, — past part, and toa», 
 
 toast, were. 
 
 Future. 
 
 (6.) Bel. tenses. 
 
 Sball love, com. form, — inf. and shall, shali, 
 
 loill, wilt. 
 Shall be loving:, prog, form, — inf. of 6c, 
 
 and pres. part, with shall, shalt, will, wilt. 
 Sball be loved, pas. form, — inf. of be, and 
 
 pas. part, with shall, shalt, will, wilt. 
 
 ^Have loved, com. form, — past part, and 
 
 have, hadst, has. 
 Have been loving*, prog, form, — past part. 
 pen. -^ heen, and pres. part, with have, hast, has. 
 Have been loved, pas. form, — past part. 
 
 been, and pas. part, with have, hast, has. 
 Had loved, com. form, — past part, and 
 
 had, hadst. 
 Had been loving:, prog, form, — past part. 
 
 been, and pres. part, with had, hadst. 
 Had been loved, pas. form, — past part. 
 
 been, and pas. part, with had, hadst. 
 
 Sball bave loved, com. form, — inf. of have, 
 
 and past part, with shall, shalt, will, wilt. 
 Sball bave been loving, prog, form, — 
 
 inf. of have, past part, of been, and pres. 
 
 part, with shall, shalt, will, wilt. 
 Sball bave been loved, pas. form, — inf. 
 
 of have, and past part, been, and pas. part. 
 
 with shall, shalt, xcill, wilt. 
 
 Past perf. 
 
 Fut. per£ 
 
 8. In the potential mode they combine as follows : — 
 
 (a.) Abs. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 May love, com. form, — inf. and may, mayat, 
 
 can, canst, must. 
 May be loving-, prog, form, — inf. of be, 
 
 and pres. part, with may, mayst, can, canst, 
 
 must. 
 May be loved, pas. form, — inf. of be, and 
 
 pas. part with may, mayst, can, canst, must. 
 
 Mlgbt love, com. form, — inf. and might, 
 mightst, could, eouldst, should, shouldst, 
 would, wouldst. 
 
ETYMOLOGY— -VERBS — TENSE-FORMS. 
 
 X19 
 
 {a.) Abs. tenses. 
 (Continued.) 
 
 Past. 
 Continued. 
 
 Pres. perf. 
 
 (6.) ReL tenses. 
 
 Past perf. 
 
 f Mig:ttt be lovingr, prog, form, — inf. of he, 
 and pres. part, with might, mightst, could, 
 couldat, would, wouldst, shotild, shouldat, 
 Mjg'lit be loved, pas. form, — inf. of be, and 
 pas. part, ■withmight, mightst, could, coiddat, 
 tcoidd, looiddst, should, ehouldst. 
 
 May have loved, com. form, — inf. of have, 
 
 and past part, with may, maysi, can, canst, 
 
 must. 
 May bave been loving:, prog, form, — inf. 
 
 of have, past part, been, and pres. part. 
 
 with may, mayst, can, canst, must. 
 May have been loved, pas. form, — inf. of 
 
 have, past part, been, and pas. part, with 
 
 may, mayst, can, canst, must. 
 
 Mig^ht have loved, com. form, — inf. of 
 
 have, and past part, with might, mightst, 
 
 could, coiddst, looidd, tcouldat, shotdd, 
 
 shouldst. 
 Mig-ht have been loving-, prog, form, — 
 
 inf. of have, past part, been, and pres. part. 
 
 with might, mightst, could, couldst, should, 
 
 shouldst, xoould, wouldst. 
 Might have been loved, pas. form,— inf. 
 
 of have, past part, been, and pas. part. 
 
 with might, mightst, could, couldst, should, 
 
 shotddst, would, tcouldst. 
 
 4. With the exception of the distinctive form in the present and 
 fche past (i07, 5, 6), the subjunctive mode has the same tense-forms as 
 the indicative or the potential, with if, unless, though, &c., prefixed. 
 
 Ex. — If Hove; if I may love. 
 
 5. The imperative mode has but one tense, the present, which is 
 used generally without the subject expressed, and in all the four 
 forms of the verb. 
 
 Ex. — Study; be thou studying; be thou loved; do write. 
 
 6. The infinitive mode has two tenses, — the present and the per- 
 fect. The present is used in the common, the progressive, and the 
 passive forms of the verb, and is formed by prefixing " to" to tlie 
 simple verb for the common form, " to be" to the present participle 
 for the progressive form, and "^o be" to the passive participle for 
 the passive form. 
 
 Ex. — To torite; to be writing ; to be uritten. 
 
1^0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The perfect is used in the common, the progressive, and the passive 
 form of the verb, and is formed by prefixing to have to the past 
 participle of the verb for the common form,— to have been to the 
 present participle for the progressive form,— and to have been to the 
 passive participle for the passive form. 
 
 Ex. — To have written; to have been writing; to have been written. 
 
 7. The present participle is formed by adding ing to the simple verb. 
 
 Ex. — ^QdA-ing. 
 
 The past participle is formed for regular verbs by adding ed to 
 the simple verb (as, 2). 
 Ex. — Honor-ec?; honored. 
 
 The perfect participle is formed by prefixing having to the past 
 participle of the verb for the common form, — having been to the 
 present participle for the progressive form, — and having been to the 
 passive participle for the passive form. 
 
 Ex. — Having written,; having been turiting; having been vrritten. 
 
 116. Number and Person of the Yerlb. 
 
 1. The nnmber and person of the verb are properties 
 which show its agreement with the subject. Like the sub- 
 ject, the verb has two numbers and three persons. 
 
 2. The^rs^ person singular, and the first, the second, and the third 
 person plural, of the present tense indicative, in all verbs {am, are, 
 was, were, excepted) are alike. The second person singular is like the 
 first, except in the solemn or ancient style, when it is formed by 
 adding st, or est, to the first person. The third person singular is 
 formed from the first, by adding s or es; in ancient style it ends 
 in eth. 
 
 Ex. — Thou lovest me not. He prayefA. best who loxeth best. 
 
 Verbs ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i, and 
 add es, to form the third person singular ; as, try, tries. 
 
 3. By a figure of enallage (216, 7), the second person plural of 
 the pronoun and the verb is substituted, in conversational, common, 
 and familiar style, for the second person singular. 
 
 Ex. — Hubert, you are sad, = Hubert, thou art sad. 
 
 Note. — The tendency among some grammarians to omit from their para- 
 digms, as obsolete, the forms of the second person singular, is to be regretted. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSE-FORMS. 
 
 121 
 
 To say nothing of these forms in the prose of the past few centuries, mudh of 
 which is read at the present time, wc have them in all kinds of poetry, ancient 
 and modern, in the Scriptures, and in religious books : especially in prayer, 
 thou, as the 79ronome?i rcverentise, is in daily use. There can be no objection 
 to give the plural i/oic for the singular as an example of the common form ; 
 but the other should not be omitted. 
 
 4. The imperative mode has usually only the second person. 
 
 Ex. — Go thou. 
 
 In some languages the imperative has also a form for the first person 
 plural and the third person singular and plural. A few examples seem to 
 occur in English ; as, " Rise thy sons ;" " Be it decreed." Most of these cases, 
 however, can be explained by supplying an ellipsis j as, "Let thy sons rise;" 
 " Let it be decreed." 
 
 117. Conjugation. 
 
 1. The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrange- 
 ment of its several modeSy tenses j voices, numherSy aiid per- 
 sons. 
 
 2. The only tenses which change their termination are the present and the 
 past ; as sit, siiteat, sit«, sat, soitest ; tarry, taxviest, iarvies, iixxxied, tuvr iedst^ 
 All other changes are made by means of auxiliaries. 
 
 3. In adding s or es, observe the same rules as in the formation of 
 the plural of nouns; as, play, plays/ fly, flies; go, goes. So, also, 
 observe the rules (as) for the changes of the radical verb ; as, drop, 
 dropped (Rule I.) ; reply, replied (Eule III.). 
 
 4. The principal parts of a verb are the present indica- 
 tive, the past indicative, and the past participle. 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Fast. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Explain, 
 
 explained. 
 
 explained. 
 
 Rely, 
 
 relied, 
 
 relied. 
 
 Write, 
 
 wrote. 
 
 written. 
 
 Shine, 
 
 shone, 
 
 shone. 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 hurt. 
 
 hurt. 
 
 118, Exercise. 
 
 1. Give the principal parts of the following verbs: — 
 Sail, smile, see, shut, close, open, burn, glaze, gild, turn, try, 
 reform, renew, take, leave, make, build, hope, fold, alter, correct. 
 
 n 
 
122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. Study the following Models: — 
 
 Thou hast gone to thy rest. 
 
 Hast gone . . is a verb— it expresses being, action, or state ; irregular — 
 it does not form its past tense and past participle by- 
 adding ed;— principal parts— ^re^. go, past went, past 
 part, gone; intransitive — it does not receive or require 
 an object to complete the meaning; common form — it 
 represents an act as completed without reference to its 
 progress ; indicative mode— it asserts a thing as actual ; 
 present perfect tense— it expresses an action completed 
 in present time ; second person, singular number, to 
 agree with its subject thou. 
 
 Abbreviated form : — 
 
 Hast gone . . is an irreg. intransitive yerb, — go, went, gone, indicative 
 mode, present perfect tense, 2d person, sing, number, to 
 agree with its subject thou. Or, for the slate, thus : — is 
 a V. ir. int. ind. — pres. perf. — 2d per. sing. 
 
 3. In the following examples, explain the verbs in the same 
 manner: — 
 
 We read of that philosophy which can smile over the destruction 
 of property, of that religion which enables its possessor to extend 
 the benign look of forgiveness and complacency to his murderers ; 
 but it is not in the soul of man to bear the lacerations of slander, 
 
 " Lord, and what shall this man c^?" 
 Ask'st thou. Christian, for thy friend ? 
 
 If his love for Christ be true, 
 Christ hath told thee of his'iend: — 
 
 This is he whom God approves. 
 
 This is he whom Jesus loves. — Keble. 
 
 And the raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting 
 
 On the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber-door ; 
 And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming, 
 And the lamplight o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the 
 floor, 
 And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor, 
 Shall be lifted — nevermore ! — E. A. Poe. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONGUGATION. 
 
 123 
 
 119. Conjugation of the Yerb TO BE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am, We are, 
 
 2. Thou art, (Ye o)-) You are, 
 
 3. He is ; They are. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 We have been. 
 
 1. I have been, 
 
 2. Thou hast been, 
 
 3. He has been ; 
 
 1. I was, 
 
 2. Thou wast, 
 
 3. He was ; 
 
 You have been. 
 They have been. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 We were. 
 You were. 
 They were. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I had been, 
 
 2. Thou hadst been, 
 
 3. He had been ; 
 
 We had been, 
 You had been. 
 They had been. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 1. I shall or will be. We shall or will be, 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt be. You shall o?- will be, 
 
 3. He shall or will be ; They shall or will be. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I shall or will have been. We shall or will have been, 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been. You shall or will have been, 
 
 3. He shall or will have been ; They shall or will have been. 
 
 1. I may be, 
 
 2. Thou mayst be, 
 
 3. He may be ; 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 We may be, 
 You may be, 
 They may be. 
 
124 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 
 
 PEESEXT PERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular. I'lural. 
 
 1. I may have been, We may have been, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been. You may have been, 
 
 3. He may have been ; They may have been. 
 
 PAST TEJS^SE. 
 
 1. I might be, We might be, 
 
 2. Thou mightst be. You might be, 
 
 3. He might be ; They might be. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I. might have been, We might have been. 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been. You might have been. 
 
 3. He might have been ; They might have been. 
 
 "v 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I am, If we are, 
 
 2. If thou art. If you are, 
 
 3. If he is ; If they are. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I have been. If we have been, 
 
 2. If thou hast been. If you have been, 
 
 3. If he has been ; If they have been. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. If I was. If we were, 
 
 2. If thou wast, If you were, 
 
 3. If he was ; If they were. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I had been. If we had been, 
 
 2. If thou hadst been. If you had been, 
 
 3. If he had been ; If they had been. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 1. If I shall or will be. If we shall or will be, 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt be. If you shall or will be, 
 
 3. If he shall or will be ; If they shall or will be. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 
 
 125 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I shall or will have been, If we shall or will have been, 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt have been, If you shall or will have been, 
 
 3. If he shall or will have been. If they shall or will have been. 
 
 P^SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Subjunctive form) 
 
 NoVe. — Besides the forms already given, the subjunctive has another in the 
 present and the past, peculiar to itself. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I be, 
 
 2. If thou be, 
 
 3. If he be ; 
 
 1. If I were, 
 
 2. If thou wert, 
 
 3. If he were ; 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 If we be. 
 If you be. 
 If they be. 
 
 If we were, 
 If you were, 
 If they were. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Be, or Be thou ; Be ye or you. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 
 Present Tense. To be. 
 
 Present Perfect. To have been. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present. Being. Past. Been. 
 
 Perfect. Having been. 
 
 COMMON STYLE. 
 
 Congugate the verb be in the common style, thus : — 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I am, 
 
 2. You are, 
 
 3. He is: 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 11* 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We are, 
 You are, 
 They are. 
 
126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 PEESENT PERFECT TEXSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have been, We have been, 
 
 2. You have been, You have been, 
 
 3. He has been ; They have been. 
 
 In the same manner, let the learner go through all the tenses and modes. 
 
 Synopsis is a short view of the verb, showing its forms through 
 the modes and tenses in a single number and person. 
 
 Synopsis of the verb be, in the first person, singular number. 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 Present, I am. Past Perf. I had been. 
 
 Pres. Perf. I have been. Future. I shall be. 
 
 Past. I w^as. Put. Perf. I shall have been. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 Present. If I am. Past Perf If I had been. 
 
 Pres. Perf. If I have been. Future. If I shall be. 
 
 Past. If I was. Fhit. Perf If I shall have been. 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 
 Present. I may be. PomL I might be. 
 
 Pres. Perf. I may have been. Pa^t Perf. I might have been. 
 Here Wiz first 'person ends; yet it is well for the pupil to give the impera- 
 tive, the infinitive, and the participles. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 Present. Be thou. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Present. To be. Perfect. To have been. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present. Being. Perfect. Having been. 
 
 120. Exercise. 
 
 1. In vjhat mode and tense are the following verbs? — 
 I am. He has been. If I were. You can be. He might be. 
 To have been. They were. He will have been. You might be. 
 
ETYMOLOG Y — VERBS — C02s JUGATION. 1 27 
 
 She had been. You will be. To be. I must have been. Thou art. 
 If he be. If you are. They might have been. We were. I had 
 been. Thou wast. He is. 
 
 2. Give a synopsis of to be, in the Ind., second person singular, — 
 sec. per. plur.,— first per. plur.,— third per. sing., — third per. plur. 
 Pot., third per. sing.,— sec. per. plur.,— third per. plur. Sub., sec. 
 per. sing., — sec. per. plur., — third per. plur., — first per. plur. 
 
 121. Conjugation of the Regular YerbTO LOYE. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TEXSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I love, We love, 
 
 2. Thou lovest, You love, 
 
 3. He loves ; They love. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I have loved, We have loved, 
 
 2. Thou hast loved, You have loved, 
 
 3. He has loved ; They have loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I loved, We loved, 
 
 2. Thou lovedst, You loved, 
 
 3. He loved;- They loved. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I had loved. We had loved, 
 
 2. Thou hadsf loved, You had loved, 
 
 3. He had loved ; They had loved. 
 
 FUTURE TENBE. 
 
 1. I shall or will love. We shall or will love, 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt love. You shall or will love, 
 
 3. He shall or will love ; They shall or will love. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I shall or will have loved, We shall or will have loved, 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, You shall or will have loved, 
 
 3. He shall or will have loved ; They shall or will have loved. 
 
128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may love, We may love, 
 
 2. Thou mayst love, You may love, 
 
 3. He may love ; They may love. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I may have loved, We may have loved, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have loved. You may have loved, 
 
 3. He may have loved ; They may have loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I might love. We might love, 
 
 2. Thou mightst love. You might love, 
 
 3. He might love ; They might love. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I might have loved. We might have loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have loved. You might have loved, 
 
 3. He might have loved ; They might have loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Regular form.) 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I love. If we love, 
 
 2. If thou lovest. If you love, 
 
 3. If he loves ; If they love. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I have loved. If we have loved, 
 
 2. If thou hast loved, If you have loved, 
 
 3. If he has loved ; If they have loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. If I loved, If we loved, 
 
 2. If thou lovedst, If you loved, 
 
 3. If he loved ; If they loved. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I had loved, If we had loved, 
 
 2. If thou hadst loved. If you had loved, 
 
 3. If he had loved ; If they had loved. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 129 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I shall 07' will love, If we shall or will love, 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt love, If you shall or will love, 
 
 3. If he shall or will love ; If they shall or will love. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TEXSE. 
 
 1. If I shall or will have loved, If we shall or will have loved. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved, If you shall or will have loved, 
 
 3. If he shall or will have loved ; If they shall or will have loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Subj'unctlve form.) 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I love, If we love, 
 
 2. If thou love, If you love, 
 
 . 3. If he love ; If they love. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. If I loved. If we loved, 
 
 2. If thou loved. If you loved, 
 
 3. If he loved ; . If they loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 Love, or Love thou. Love, or Love you. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present. Loving. Past. Loved. 
 
 Perfect. Having loved. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am loved, AV^e are loved, 
 
 2. Thou art loved. You are loved, 
 o. He is loved ; They are loved. 
 
 I 
 
130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have been loved, We have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou hast been loved, You have been loved, 
 
 3. He has been loved ; They have been loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I was loved, We were loved, 
 
 2. Thou wast loved. You were loved, 
 
 3. He was loved ; They were loved. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I had been loved. We had been loved, 
 
 2. Thou hadst been loved, You had been loved, 
 
 3. He had been loved ; They had been loved. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 1. I shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved, 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. You shall or will be loved, 
 
 3. He shall or will be loved ; They shall or will be loved. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I shall or will have been We shall or will have been 
 
 loved, loved, 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been You shall or will have been 
 
 loved, loved, 
 
 3. He shall or will have been They shall or will have been 
 
 loved ; loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 1. I may be loved, We may be loved, 
 
 2. Thou mayst be loved, You may be loved, 
 
 3. He may be loved ; They may be loved. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I may have been loved. We may have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been loved, You may have been loved, 
 
 3. He may have been loved ; They may have been loved. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 1 31 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might be loved, We might be loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst be loved, You might be loved, 
 
 3. He might be loved ; They might be loved. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I might have been loved. We might have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been loved. You might have been loved, 
 
 3. He might have been loved ; They might have been loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. [Regular form,) 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I am loved, If we are loved, 
 
 2. If thou art loved, If you are loved, 
 
 3. If he is loved ; If they are loved. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I have been loved, If we have been loved, 
 
 2. If thou hast been loved. If you have been loved, 
 
 3. If he has been loved ; If they have been loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. If I was loved. If we were loved, 
 
 2. If thou wast loved, If you were loved, 
 
 3. If he was loved ; If they were loved. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I had been loved. If we had been loved, 
 
 2. If thou hadst been loved. If you had been loved, 
 
 3. If he had been loved ; If they had been loved. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 1. If I shall or will be loved, If we shall or will be loved, 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt be loved, If you shall or will be loved, 
 
 3. If he shall or will be loved ; If they shall or will be loved. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I shall or will have been If we shall or will have been 
 
 loved, loved, 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt have If you shall or will have been 
 
 been loved, loved, 
 
 3. If he shall or will have been If they shall or will have been 
 
 loved ; loved. 
 
132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. (Subjunctive form.) 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I be loved, If we be loved, 
 
 2. If thou be loved, If you be loved, 
 
 3. If he be loved ; If they be loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. If I were loved. If we were loved, 
 
 2. . If thou wert loved. If you were loved, 
 
 3. If he were loved ; If they were loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 Be loved, 07' Be thou loved ; Be Jpved, or Be you loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 
 Present. To be loved. Perfect. To have been loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present. Being loved. Past (passive). Loved. 
 
 Perfect. Having been loved. 
 
 122. Interrogative and Negative Forms. 
 
 1. A verb is conjugated interrogatively in the indicative and the 
 potential mode, by placing the subject after it, or after the first 
 auxiliary. 
 
 Ex.— Ind., Do I love ? Have I loved ? Did I love ? Had I loved ? 
 Shall I love? Shall I have loved? Pot., Can I love? Can I have 
 loved? &c. 
 
 2. A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the adverb not 
 after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the negative adverb should 
 be placed before the infinitive and the participles. 
 
 Ex. — Ind., I love not, or I do not love. I have not loved. I loved 
 not, or I did not love. I had not loved, &c. Inf., Not to love. Not to 
 have loved. Part., Not loving. Not loved. Not having loved. 
 
 3. A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 1 33 
 
 indicative and the potential mode, by placing the subject, and the 
 adverb not, after the verb, or after the first auxiliary. 
 
 Ex. — Love I not ? or Do I not love ? Have I not loved ? Did I not 
 love ? Had I not loved ? &c. 
 
 128. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell the mode, the tense, the voice, the number, and the person of 
 the following veebs : — 
 
 She has loved. I might love. We had loved. We had been 
 loved. He may have loved. If I be loved. I love. He will love. 
 He shall have loved. I have loved. They shall have loved. She 
 is loved. We may be loved. You might have been loved. If I 
 love. If they love. They may love. We will love. I had loved. 
 Thou hast loved. Thou wilt have loved. I love. Thou art loved. 
 He was loved. She will have been loved. 
 
 2. Write or repeat a full conjugation of the following verbs: — 
 Believe, defy, think. 
 
 3. Conjugate the first of the above verbs interrogatively, the 7iext 
 negatively, and the third interrogatively and negatively. 
 
 4. Give a synopsis of either of the above verbs in either form, in the 
 first, the second, or the third person. 
 
 124. Synopsis— Progressiye and Emphatic Forms — 
 Terb Read. 
 
 Note. — The progressive form is the verb be joined to the present 
 participle. 
 
 Ex. — I am reading^* I was reading:. 
 
 The passive form is the verb be joined to the passive participle. 
 Ex. — I am pleased, I uras pleased. 
 
 ^&^ The pupil should be careful not to mistake the one for the other. In 
 the emphatic form, the auxiliary do is added to the simple verb for the 
 present, and did for the past. It is found only in the indicative and the im- 
 perative mode. 
 
 Verb read, progressive. — Ind., I am reading, I have been reading, 
 I was reading, I had been reading, I shall be reading, I shall have 
 been reading. Pot., I may be reading, I may have been reading, 
 I might be reading, T might have been reading. Sttb., If T am or 
 
 VI 
 
134 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 be reading, if I have been reading, if I was or were reading, if I had 
 been reading, if I shall be reading, if I shall have been reading- 
 Imp., Be thou reading. Inf., To be reading, to have been reading. 
 Part., Reading, having been reading. 
 
 Verb read, emphatic. — Ind., I do read, I did read. Imp.^ Do 
 thou read. 
 
 125. Exercise. 
 
 1. Write or repeat a full conjugation of write, lend, play, in the 
 progressive form. 
 
 2. Give a synopsis of either of the above verbs in the second and the 
 third person, singular and plural. 
 
 3. Tell the difference between the progressive and the passive form. 
 (See Note above.) 
 
 126. Forms for each Diyision of Time combined! 
 
 THE VERB TO MAKE. 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 
 1st Sing. 
 
 2d Sing. 
 
 ZdSing. 
 
 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He, She, It, 
 
 1. Indef. 
 
 make, 
 
 makest. 
 
 makes. 
 
 2. Prog, incomp 
 
 . am making, 
 
 art making, 
 
 is making. 
 
 3. Compd. 
 
 have made. 
 
 hast made, 
 
 has made. 
 
 4. Prog, compd. 
 
 have been making, 
 
 hast been making. 
 
 has been making. 
 
 6. Emphatic. 
 
 do make, 
 
 dost make, 
 
 does make. 
 
 6. Passive. 
 
 am made. 
 
 art made. 
 
 is made. 
 
 7. Pas. prog. 
 
 
 
 is making. 
 
 > 
 
 8. Pas. compd. 
 
 have been made, 
 
 hast been made, 
 
 has been made. 
 
 
 1st Hur. 
 
 2d Plur. 
 
 Sd Hur. 
 
 
 We 
 
 Ye or You 
 
 They 
 
 1. Indef. 
 
 make. 
 
 make. 
 
 make. 
 
 2. Prog, incomp 
 
 . are making, 
 
 are making, 
 
 are making. 
 
 3. Compd. 
 
 have made. 
 
 have made. 
 
 have made. 
 
 4. Prog, compd. 
 
 have been making, 
 
 have been making. 
 
 have been making. 
 
 5. Emphatic. 
 
 do make. 
 
 do make. 
 
 do make. 
 
 6. Passive. 
 
 are made. 
 
 are made, 
 
 are made. 
 
 7. Pas. prog. 
 
 
 
 are making. 
 
 
 
 8. Pas. compd. 
 
 have been made. 
 
 have been made, 
 
 have been made. 
 
ETYMOLOGY— VERBS — COXJUGATIOX. 
 
 135 
 
 
 
 
 PAST TEXSE. 
 
 
 
 
 1st Sing. 
 
 2(7 Sing. 
 
 Sd Sing. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Tnou 
 
 m, SHE, It, 
 
 1. 
 
 Indef. 
 
 made, 
 
 madest, 
 
 made. 
 
 2. 
 
 Prog, incomp 
 
 . was making, 
 
 wast making, 
 
 was making. 
 
 3. 
 
 Compd. 
 
 had made, 
 
 hadst made, 
 
 had made. 
 
 4. 
 
 Prog, compd. 
 
 had been making, 
 
 hadst been making. 
 
 had been making. 
 
 5. 
 
 Emphatic. 
 
 did make, 
 
 didst make. 
 
 did make. 
 
 6. 
 
 Passive. 
 Pas. prog. 
 
 ■was made, 
 
 wast made. 
 
 was made, 
 was making. 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 8. 
 
 Pas. compd. 
 
 had been made. 
 
 hadst been made. 
 
 had been made. 
 
 
 
 1st Hur. 
 
 2d Hur. 
 
 3d Hur. 
 
 
 
 We 
 
 Ye or You 
 
 They 
 
 1. 
 
 Indef. 
 
 made, 
 
 made, 
 
 made. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 6. 
 
 Prog, incomp 
 Compd. 
 Prog, compd. 
 Emphatic. 
 
 . were making, 
 had made, 
 had been making, 
 did make, 
 
 were making, 
 had made, 
 had been making, 
 did make, 
 
 were making, 
 had made, 
 had been making, 
 did make. 
 
 6. 
 
 Passive. 
 
 were made. 
 
 were made. 
 
 were made. 
 
 7. 
 8. 
 
 Pas. prog. 
 Pas. compd. 
 
 
 
 were making, 
 had been made. 
 
 had been made, 
 
 had been made, 
 
 1st Sing. 
 
 I 
 
 1. Indef. will make, 
 
 2. Prog, incomp. will be making, 
 
 3. Compd. 
 
 4. Prog, compd. 
 
 5. Emphatic. 
 
 6. Passive. 
 
 7. Pas. prog. 
 
 8. Pas. compd. 
 
 will have made, 
 
 FUTUEE TENSE. 
 
 2d Sing. 
 
 Tnou 
 wilt make, 
 wilt be making, 
 wilt have made, 
 
 Zd Sing. 
 He, She, It, 
 will make, 
 will be making, 
 will have made. 
 
 will have been making, wilt have been making, will have been making. 
 
 will be made. 
 
 wilt be made. 
 
 will have been made, wilt have been made. 
 
 will be made, 
 will be making, 
 will have been made. 
 
 1st Plur. 
 We 
 
 1. Indef. will make, 
 
 2. Prog, incomp. will bo making, 
 8. Compd. 
 
 will have made. 
 
 2d Hur. 
 Ye or You 
 will make, 
 will be making, 
 will have made. 
 
 Zd Hur. 
 They 
 will make, 
 will be making, 
 will have made. 
 
 Prog, compd. 
 Emphatic. 
 Passive. 
 Pas. prog. 
 Pas. compd. 
 
 will have been making, -will have been making, will have been making. 
 
 will be made, 
 
 will be 
 
 will have been made, will have been made. 
 
 will be made, 
 will be making, 
 will have beon marlp. 
 
136 
 
 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 
 
 127. Iiregular Terbs. 
 
 1. All irregular verb is one which does not form its past 
 tense and past participle by adding ed to the present tense ; 
 as, see, saw, seen; write, ivrote, written. 
 
 The irregular verbs were much more numerous in the early history of tho 
 language than at present. The tendency in modern English is constantly to 
 diminish the number of irregular formations : hence the numerous obsolete 
 forms. Some of the present forms are derived from other verbs. Went comes 
 from wend, and not from go. Philologists call the irregular the strung, and 
 the regular the weak inflection. 
 
 2. The following list contains the principal parts of the irregular 
 verbs. Those verbs which are marked R. have also the regular 
 forms. Those which are italicized are either obsolete or are becoming 
 so, and should not be committed to memory. When the R is dark- 
 faced, the regular form is preferred, and should be repeated first ; 
 r. in italics means regular but seldom used. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Abide, 
 
 Abode, 
 
 Abode. 
 
 Arise, 
 
 Arose, 
 
 Arisen. 
 
 Awake, 
 
 Awoke, r. 
 
 Awaked. 
 
 Be or am. 
 
 Was, 
 
 Been. 
 
 Bear [to bring forth), 
 
 Bore, bare, 
 
 Born. 
 
 Bear [to carry), 
 
 Bore, bare, 
 
 Borne. 
 
 Beat, 
 
 Beat, 
 
 Beaten, beat. 
 
 Begin, 
 
 Began, 
 
 Begun. 
 
 Belay, 
 
 Belaid, E. 
 
 Belaid, ii. 
 
 Bend, 
 
 Bent, r. 
 
 Bent, r. 
 
 Bet, 
 
 Bet, R. 
 
 Bet, E. 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 Bereft, 
 
 Bereft, r. 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 Besought, 
 
 Besought. 
 
 Bid, 
 
 Bid, bade. 
 
 Bidden, bid. 
 
 Bind, Un- 
 
 Bound, 
 
 Bound. 
 
 Bite, 
 
 Bit, 
 
 Bitten, bit. 
 
 Bleed, 
 
 Bled, 
 
 Bled. 
 
 Blend, 
 
 Blent, R. 
 
 Blent, R. 
 
 Bless, 
 
 Blest, R. 
 
 Blest, R. 
 
 Blow, 
 
 Blew, 
 
 Blown. 
 
 Break, 
 
 Broke, brake, 
 
 Broken, broke. 
 
 Breed, 
 
 Bred, 
 
 Bred. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VEHBH — IRliEGUJLAE. 13, 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Bring, 
 
 Brought, 
 
 Brought. 
 
 Build, Be- 
 
 Built, r. 
 
 Built, r. 
 
 Burn, 
 
 Burnt, R. 
 
 Burnt, R. 
 
 Burst, 
 
 Burst, 
 
 Burst. 
 
 Buy, 
 
 Bought, 
 
 Bought. 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Cast. 
 
 Catch, 
 
 Caught, r. 
 
 Caught, r. 
 
 Chide, 
 
 Chid, 
 
 Chidden, chid. 
 
 Choose, 
 
 Chose, 
 
 Chosen. 
 
 Cleave (to adhere) , 
 
 Cleaved, clave. 
 
 Cleaved. 
 
 Cleave [fo split), 
 
 Clove, cleft, clave, 
 
 Cleft, cloven, r. 
 
 Cling, 
 
 Clung, 
 
 Clung. 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 Clad, R. 
 
 Clad, R. 
 
 Come, Ac- 
 
 Came, 
 
 Come. 
 
 cost, 
 
 Cost, 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Creep, 
 
 Crept, 
 
 Crept. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 Crew, R. 
 
 Crowed. 
 
 Cut, 
 
 Cut, 
 
 Cut. 
 
 Dare {to venture), 
 
 Durst, R. 
 
 Dared. 
 
 Dare (to challenge), R. 
 
 , Dared, 
 
 Dared. 
 
 Deal, 
 
 Dealt, r. 
 
 Dealt, r. 
 
 I>ig, 
 
 Dug, r. 
 
 Dug, r. 
 
 Do, Mis-, Un-, Out', 
 
 Did, 
 
 Done. 
 
 Draw, 
 
 Drew, 
 
 Drawn. 
 
 Dream, 
 
 Dreamt, r. 
 
 Dreamt, R. 
 
 Dress, 
 
 Drest, R. 
 
 Drest, R. 
 
 Drink, 
 
 Drank, 
 
 Drunk, drank. 
 
 Drive, 
 
 Drove, 
 
 Driven. 
 
 Dwell, 
 
 Dwelt, r. 
 
 Dwelt, r. 
 
 Eat, 
 
 Ate, eat. 
 
 Eaten, or eat. 
 
 Fall, Be-, 
 
 Fell, 
 
 Fallen. 
 
 Feed, 
 
 Fed, 
 
 Fed. 
 
 Feel, 
 
 Felt, 
 
 Felt. 
 
 Fight, 
 
 Fought, 
 
 Fought. 
 
 Find, 
 
 Found, 
 
 Found. 
 
 Flee, 
 
 Fled, 
 
 Fled. 
 
 Flina 
 
 Flung, 
 
 Flung. 
 
 Fly, 
 
 Flew, 
 
 Flown. 
 
 Forbear, 
 
 Forbore, 
 
 Forborne. 
 
 Forget, 
 
 Forgot, 
 
 Forgotten, forgot 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 Forsook, 
 
 12* 
 
 Forsaken. 
 
138 
 
 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 Froze, 
 
 Freight, 
 
 Freighted, 
 
 Get, Be-y For-, 
 
 Got, 
 
 Gild, 
 
 Gilt, K. 
 
 Gird, Be-, En-, 
 
 Girt, R. 
 
 Give, For-, Mis-, 
 
 Gave, 
 
 Go, 
 
 Went, 
 
 Grave, Fn-, 
 
 Graved, 
 
 Grind, 
 
 Ground, 
 
 Grow, 
 
 Grew, 
 
 Haiig (to take life, R 
 
 .) Hung, 
 
 Have, 
 
 Had, 
 
 Hear, 
 
 Heard, 
 
 Heave, 
 
 Hove, B. 
 
 Hew, 
 
 Hewed, 
 
 Hide, 
 
 Hid, 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hold, Be-, With-, 
 
 Held, 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Keep, 
 
 Kept, 
 
 Kneel, 
 
 Knelt, r. 
 
 Knit, 
 
 Knit, r. 
 
 Know, 
 
 Knew, 
 
 Lade, to load {to dip, B 
 
 ,.), Laded, 
 
 Lay, 
 
 Laid, 
 
 Lead, 3Iis-, 
 
 Led, 
 
 Leap, 
 
 Leapt, B. 
 
 Learn, 
 
 Learnt, r. 
 
 Leave, 
 
 Left, 
 
 Lend, 
 
 Lent, 
 
 Let, 
 
 Let, 
 
 Lie {to recline), 
 
 Lay, 
 
 Lie {to speak falsely), 
 
 R. Lied, 
 
 Light, 
 
 Lit, K. 
 
 Lose, 
 
 Lost, 
 
 Make, 
 
 Made, 
 
 Mean, 
 
 Meant, 
 
 Meet, 
 
 Met, 
 
 Mow, 
 
 Mowed, 
 
 Pass, 
 
 Past, R. 
 
 Pay, Be-, 
 
 Paid, 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Frozen. 
 
 Fraught, r. 
 
 Got, gotten. 
 
 Gilt, R. 
 
 Girt, R. 
 
 Given. 
 
 Gone. 
 
 Graven, r. 
 
 Ground. 
 
 Grown. 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Had. 
 
 Heard. 
 
 Hoven, R. 
 
 Hewn, R. 
 
 Hidden, hid. 
 
 Hit. 
 
 Held, holden. 
 
 Hurt. 
 
 Kept. 
 
 Knelt, r. 
 
 Knit, r. 
 
 Known. 
 
 Laden, r. 
 
 Laid. 
 
 Led. 
 
 Leapt, R. 
 
 Learnt, R. 
 
 Left. 
 
 Lent. 
 
 Let. 
 
 Lain. 
 
 Lied, 
 
 Lit, R. 
 
 Lost. 
 
 Made. 
 
 Meant. 
 
 Met. 
 
 Mown, R. 
 
 Past, R. 
 
 Paid. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — IRREGULAR. 
 
 139 
 
 Present. 
 
 Fust. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Pen {to enclose), 
 
 Pent, R, 
 
 Pent, B. 
 
 Prove, 
 
 Proved, 
 
 Proven, R. 
 
 Put, 
 
 Put, 
 
 Put. 
 
 Quit, 
 
 Quit, r. 
 
 Quit, r. 
 
 Eap, 
 
 Rapt, K. 
 
 Rapt, R. 
 
 Eead, 
 
 Read, 
 
 Read. 
 
 Rend, 
 
 Rent, 
 
 Rent. 
 
 Rid, 
 
 Rid, 
 
 Rid. 
 
 Ride, 
 
 Rode, 7-id, 
 
 Ridden, rid. 
 
 Ring, 
 
 Rang, rung, 
 
 Rung. 
 
 Rise, A', 
 
 Rose, 
 
 Risen. 
 
 Rive, 
 
 Rived, 
 
 Riven, R. 
 
 Run, 
 
 Ran, run, 
 
 Run. 
 
 Saw, 
 
 Sawed, 
 
 Sawn, R. 
 
 Say, 
 
 Said, 
 
 Said. 
 
 See, 
 
 Saw, 
 
 Seen. 
 
 Seek, 
 
 Sought, 
 
 Sought. 
 
 Seethe, 
 
 Sod, R. 
 
 Sodden, R. 
 
 Sell, 
 
 Sold, 
 
 Sold. 
 
 Send, 
 
 Sent, 
 
 Sent. 
 
 Set, Be-, 
 
 Set, 
 
 Set. 
 
 Shake, 
 
 Shook, 
 
 Shaken. 
 
 Shape, Mis-y 
 
 Shaped, 
 
 Shapen, R. 
 
 Shave, 
 
 Shaved, 
 
 Shaven, r. 
 
 Shear, 
 
 Sheared, {shore, obs.) 
 
 Shorn, R. 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shed. 
 
 Shine, 
 
 Shone, R. 
 
 Shone, R. 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 Shod, 
 
 Shod. 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 Shot, 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Show, 
 
 Showed, 
 
 Shown, R. 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shred, [shrunken. 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 Shrunk, shrank, 
 
 Shrunk or 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Shut. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Sang, sung, 
 
 Sung. 
 
 Sink, 
 
 Sunk, sank, 
 
 Sunk. 
 
 Sit, 
 
 Sat, 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Slay, 
 
 Slew, 
 
 Slain. 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 Slept, 
 
 Slept. 
 
 Slide, 
 
 Slid, 
 
 Slidden, slid. 
 
 Sling, 
 
 Slung, shfif/, 
 
 Slung. 
 
 Slink, 
 
 Slunk, 
 
 Slunk. 
 
140 
 
 EliTGLISH GRAMMAJR. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Fust. 
 
 Past Participle- 
 
 Slit, 
 
 Slit, r. 
 
 Slit, r. 
 
 Smell, 
 
 Smelt, B, 
 
 Smelt, B, 
 
 Smite, 
 
 Smote, 
 
 Smitten, smit. 
 
 Sow [to scatter), 
 
 Sowed, 
 
 Sown, R. 
 
 Speak, Be-, 
 
 Spoke, spake, 
 
 Spoken. 
 
 Speed, 
 
 Sped, r. 
 
 Sped, r. 
 
 Spell, 
 
 Spelt, R. 
 
 Spelt, R. 
 
 Spend, Mis-y 
 
 Spent, 
 
 Spent. 
 
 Spill, 
 
 Spilt, E. 
 
 Spilt, R. 
 
 Spin, 
 
 Spun, spa7i, 
 
 Spun. 
 
 Spit, Be-, 
 
 Spit, spat. 
 
 Spit. 
 
 Split, 
 
 Split, r. 
 
 Split, r. 
 
 Spoil, 
 
 Spoilt, B. 
 
 Spoilt, B. 
 
 Spread, Be-, 
 
 Spread, 
 
 Spread. 
 
 Spring, 
 
 Sprang, sprung, 
 
 Sprung. 
 
 Stand, With-, &c., 
 
 Stood, 
 
 Stood. 
 
 Stave, 
 
 Stove, B. 
 
 Stove, B. 
 
 Stay, 
 
 Staid, R. 
 
 Staid, R. 
 
 Steal, 
 
 Stole, 
 
 Stolen. 
 
 Stick, 
 
 Stuck, 
 
 Stuck, 
 
 Sting, 
 
 Stung, 
 
 Stung. 
 
 Stride, 
 
 Strode, strid, 
 
 Stridden, strid. 
 
 Strike, 
 
 Struck, 
 
 Struck, stricken 
 
 String, 
 
 Strung, 
 
 Strung. 
 
 Strive, 
 
 Strove, 
 
 Striven. 
 
 Strow, or Strew, Be-, 
 
 , Strowed or strewed, 
 
 Strown, strewn. 
 
 Swear, 
 
 Swore, sware. 
 
 Sworn. 
 
 Sweat, 
 
 Sweat, B. 
 
 Sweat, R. 
 
 Sweep, 
 
 Swept, 
 
 Swept. 
 
 Swell, 
 
 Swelled, 
 
 Swollen, R. 
 
 Swim, 
 
 Swam, swum, 
 
 Swum. 
 
 Swing, 
 
 Swoing, 
 
 Swung. 
 
 Take, Be-, &c.. 
 
 Took, 
 
 Taken. 
 
 Teach, Mis-, Be-, 
 
 Taught, 
 
 Taught. 
 
 Tear, 
 
 Tore, tare. 
 
 Torn. 
 
 Tell, 
 
 Told, 
 
 Told. 
 
 Think, Be-, 
 
 Thought, 
 
 Thought. 
 
 Thrive, 
 
 Throve, B. 
 
 Thriven, b. 
 
 Throw, 
 
 Threw, 
 
 Thrown. 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 Thrust. 
 
 Tread, 
 
 Trod, 
 
 Trodden, trod. 
 

 ETYMOLOGY — VERBS— 
 
 -IKREGULAK. 
 
 P}-esent. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Wake, 
 
 Woke, R. 
 
 Woke, R. 
 
 Wax, 
 
 Waxed, 
 
 Waxen, R. 
 
 Wear, 
 
 Wore, 
 
 Worn. 
 
 Weave, 
 
 Wove, 
 
 Woven. 
 
 Wed, 
 
 Wed, R. 
 
 Wed, R. 
 
 Weep, 
 
 Wept, 
 
 Wept. 
 
 Wet, 
 
 Wet, R. 
 
 Wet, R. 
 
 Whet, 
 
 Whet, R. 
 
 Whet, R. 
 
 Win, 
 
 Won, 
 
 Won. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Wound, R. 
 
 Wound. 
 
 Work, 
 
 Wrought, R. 
 
 Wrought, R. 
 
 Wring, 
 
 Wrung, 
 
 Wrung. 
 
 Write, 
 
 Wrote, 
 
 Written. 
 
 141 
 
 Note. — Many of the words in the list are irregular to the eye, not to the 
 ear. The preference is one of orthography. Thus, rapt and rapped are pro- 
 nounced alike; so, also, drest, dressed, blest, blessed, and others. Sometimes 
 the difference in sound is that of t and its correlative d, — dicelt, dioelled, spelt, 
 spelled. Besides the words in the list, there are a few forms which are sel- 
 dom found except in the poets or in the older usages of the language. The 
 following ve7'i/ rarely have a regular past and past participle : — Grind, lay, 
 pay, shake, slide, sioeep, string, strive, loind, wring. 
 
 Betide has (obs.) betid; bide has (obs.) bided ; creep has (obs.) crope ; curse 
 has sometimes curst; dive has (obs.) dove, diven; heat has (colloquial) heat; 
 plead has (improperly) plead; reave (itself little used) has re/t, B. ; shear has 
 (obs.) shore; show has (obs.) sheio, shewn; strow, strew, or (obs.) straw, has 
 stroiced, streioed, (obs.) strawed, strawn, strewn; but it may now be regarded 
 as a regular verb, — streio, streioed, strewed. 
 
 128. Exercise. 
 
 1. Give the past and the past participle of teach, sing, write, read, 
 hurt, sit, arise, take, beat, tell, &c. &c. 
 
 2. Give the present and the past for the following past participles :-^ 
 Thrown, sworn, s^vum, built, spoken, stolen, &c. &c. 
 
 3. Correct the following examples, and give the number and person 
 of each: — 
 
 The blossoms have fell from the trees. Mary come to school in 
 haste, parah's exercise is wrote badly .'A The thief stoled the money 
 and telted a falsehood about it. The lake is froze hard. Charles 
 has took the wrong course. The bell ringed loud. The soldiers fit 
 bravely. She did not git the premium. The exercise is wrote 
 
142 ENGLISH gra:>[mar. 
 
 badly. James has not spoke the truth. A sad misfortune has be- 
 fell him. The carriage was drawed by four horses. Being weary, 
 I laid down, and ris much refreshed. The ball was throwed too 
 high. I see the soldiers when they come. The wind has^blowed 
 the fruit from the trees, and broke the branches, /tie sit^down\ 
 upon the bank. The cattle were drove to pasture./ After he had j 
 strove many times, he winned the prize. The bee/stinged NcUi^ 
 badly. Edwin has took my knife. The sky has wore a**cl(Mc[^' 
 aspect for several days. vShe singed the song well. The cars have 
 ran off the track. Grandmother has weaved the cloth beautifully. 
 Who teached him grammar? These apples have grower! veiy fast. 
 He dinged to the mast. He give me some money. Anna stringcid 
 the beads quickly. The vessel has hove in sight. She s])ringed a 
 leak. The stone smit him in the face. The river has overflown its 
 banks. I seen Harrv when he done it. 
 
 129. Defectiye Terbs. 
 
 1. Defective verbs are those in which some of the prin- 
 cipal parts are wanting. 
 
 2. They are may, can, shall, and will, which have the 
 past tense, but no participles ; must and ought, which have 
 neither a past tense nor participles; quoth, which has 
 neither a present tense nor participles. 
 
 3. When 7nust refers to past time, it is used in the present-per- 
 fect tense. 
 
 Ex. — He must have left. 
 
 When ought refers to past time, it is followed by the perfect 
 infinitive. 
 
 Ex. — He ought to have written. 
 
 4. Quoth is now seldom used, and only in the past tense, first and 
 third person singular. 
 
 Ex. — Air, quoth he, thy cheeks may blow. 
 
 Beware formerly was written in two words : — " Of whom bs thou 
 loare" It is used chiefly in the imperative mood. 
 Ex. — Beware of dogs. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VEKBS — IMPERSONAJL. 143 
 
 130. Redundant and Impersonal Yerbs. 
 
 1. A redundant verb has more than one form for its 
 past tense or past participle. 
 
 Ex. — Thrive, thrived or throve, thrived or thriven. 
 
 2. An impersonal verb is one by which an action or 
 a state is asserted independently of any particular subject. 
 
 Ex. — It rains. It snows. 
 
 3. Methinks, methought, nieseems, meseemed, may be regarded aa 
 impersonal, or rather unipersonal, verbs. 
 
 Ex. — My father ! methinks I see my father. 
 
 They are equivalent to I think, I thought, It seems, It seemed to mc. 
 
 131. Exercise. 
 
 1. Study the following models for parsing the verb: — 
 (Full form.) 
 (1.) Give the part of speech, and tell why. 
 (2.) Tell whether it is regular or irregular, and why. 
 (3.) Give the principal parts. 
 
 (4.) Tell whether it is transitive or intransitive, and why. 
 (5.) Tell the voice and form, and why. 
 (6.) Tell the mode, and why. 
 (7.) Tell the tense, and why. 
 (8.) Inflect the tense. 
 
 (9.) Tell the number and person, and why. 
 (10.) Give the rule. 
 
 (Abbreviated form.) 
 (1.) It is a regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive, verb, 
 (if transitive) active or passive form. 
 (2.) Principal parts. 
 (3.) Mode. 
 (4.) Tense. 
 
 (5.) Number and person. 
 (6.) Construction and rule. 
 
144 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 2. Sarah has written a letter. 
 
 Has written ... is a verb (why?) ; principal parts (pres. write, past 
 wrote, past part, written) ; transitive (why?) ; active 
 voice (why?); common form (why?); indicative 
 mode (why?) ; present-perfect tense; — it is formed 
 by prefixing have, which both denotes present 
 time and is the sign of completion, to the past 
 participle written, which denotes completion 
 (I have written, thou hast written, he has written; 
 we have written, you have written, they have written) ; 
 third person, singular number, and agrees with its 
 subject Sarah, according to Eule IV. : " The verb 
 must agree with its subject in number and per- 
 son." 
 
 3. She can play. 
 
 Can play is a verb (why?) ; regular (why?) ; principal parts ; 
 
 intransitive (why?); common form (why?); poten- 
 tial mode (why?) ; present tense (why?) ; (analyze 
 and inflect it); third person, singular number 
 (why?). Eule IV. 
 
 4. America was discovered by Columbus. 
 
 Was discovered . is a regular transitive verb, passive voice, — or simply 
 a regular passive verb, — the subject is represented 
 as acted upon; {discover, discovered, discovered), 
 indicative mode (why?) ; past tense (why?) ; (analyze 
 (ll4, 3) and inflect it) ; third person, singular num- 
 ber, and agrees with its subject America, accord- 
 ing to Eule IV. 
 
 5. I love to see the sun shine. 
 
 To see is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, &c., in- 
 finitive mode (why?) ; present tense, and limits love, 
 according to Eule XVI. : " The infinitive has the 
 construction of the noun," &c. 
 
 Shine is an irregular intransitive verb {shine, shone, 
 
 shone), infinitive mode, present tense, and limits 
 see. 
 
 6. If they were reading the book. 
 
 Were reading . . is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, pro- 
 gressive form (why?) ; subjunctive mode (why?), &c. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — EXERCISE. 145 
 
 7. Has he come ? 
 
 Has come is an irregular intransitive verb, common form (con- 
 jugated interrogatively), &c. 
 
 8. Add an object, and change the following transitive verbs from the 
 active to the passive voice : — 
 
 Mary loved. They read. Henry lost. The children played. 
 Augustus threw. Anna found. He rowed. Hear. The father 
 punished. Jane broke. Give. Will you lend? (Thus: Mary 
 loved the truth, = The truth was loved by Mary.) 
 
 9. Change the following transitive verbs from the passive to the active 
 form, and supply a subject when it is omitted: — 
 
 America was discovered in 1492. Eeligious liberty was established 
 in Khode Island. Magna Charta was granted to the English. 
 The Mexicans were defeated at Buena Vista. The king was con- 
 cealed in the tree. The retreat of the Greeks was conducted very 
 skilfully. A great battle was fought at Marathon. The Gunpowder- 
 Plot was discovered. King Charles was restored to the throne in 
 1660. Paradise Lost was written by Milton. The Messiah was 
 written by a distinguished poet. (Thus : Christopher Columbus dis- 
 covered America in 1492.) 
 
 10. Parse the veebs in the following examples; also the NOUNS, 
 the ADJECTIVES, the peonouns, a7id the paeticiples : — 
 
 In August, even, not a breeze can stir but it thrills us with the 
 breath of autumn. A pensive glory is seen in the far, golden 
 gleams among the shadows of the trees. — Hawthorne. 
 
 Reproach did not spare Braddock even in his grave. Still, his 
 dauntless conduct on the field of battle shows him to have been a 
 man of fearless spirit ; and he was universally allowed to be an ac- 
 complished disciplinarian. Whatever may have been his faults and 
 errors, he expiated them by the hardest lot that can befall a brave 
 soldier, ambitious of renown, — an unhonored grave in a strange 
 land, a memory clouded by misfortune, and a name forever coupled 
 with defeat. — Irving, 
 
 Now, by the skies above us, and by our fathers' graves, 
 Be men to-day, Quirites, — or be forever slaves ! — Macaiday. 
 
 Whatever changes be rung upon bells, they ought to be chimes. — 
 Willmott. 
 
 J The game is done lU've wonJPve won ! 
 (Quoth she, and whhU^s'Sivice^ Coleridge. 
 
146 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 Yet once, metliought, 
 
 It lifted up its head, and did address 
 
 Itself to motion, like as ib would speak. — Hamlet 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 133. Definition. 
 
 1. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of 
 
 a verb, an adjective^ a participle^ or another adverb. 
 
 Ex.— He leaves quickly. Washington was a truly great man. The 
 judge, rising slowly, addressed the prisoner. I beg your pardon, I spoke 
 very hastily. 
 
 Remark. — When an idea, however expressed, is put in such relation to a 
 verb, an adjective, a participle, or an adverb, as to represent some circumstance 
 of place, timef cause, manner, or degree, it is adverbial, because it is placed in 
 an adverbial relation in the sentence. The same idea placed in relation to a 
 noun or a pronoun is of the nature of an adjective ,• as, " He who acts uprightly 
 is an upright man;" "The star rose in the east;" "The star in the east/' 
 " The eagle which perched upon the cliff;" " They S^aw the eagle as it perched 
 upon the cliff." 
 
 2. An adverbial idea may be expressed, — 
 
 (1.) By a sing^ie word, an adverb, having its relation determined 
 by its termination, its position, or its meaning. 
 
 Ex.— 'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours. 
 
 (2.) By a noun or a prononn, having its relation expressed by 
 a preposition. 
 
 Ex.— The affair was managed with prudence, = prudently. They 
 gathered around it. 
 
 In this case, the phrase consisting of the preposition and the noun is said 
 to be adverbial. 
 
 (3.) By a propoisition, having its relation expressed by a con- 
 junctive adverb. 
 
 Ex. — Speak so that you may be understood = distinctly. 
 Here the clause or proposition is adverbial. 
 
 3. Adverbs are usually abridged expressions taking the 
 place of phrases consisting of a preposition and a noun. 
 
 Ex.— He lived there, ~ in that place. He conducted wisely, — in a wi^e 
 
ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS — CLASSES. 147 
 
 4. Sometimes an adverb seems to qualify a noun, and thereby to 
 partake of the nature of an adjective. 
 
 Ex. — I found the boy only. 
 
 5. Sometimes an adverb modifies a phrase, or an entire propo- 
 sition. 
 
 Ex. — Far from home. The accident happened directly after we 
 crossed the bridge. 
 
 133. Exercise. 
 
 1. Point out the adverbs i?i the following setitences: — 
 
 She sang sweetly. The wind moaned mournfully over her grave. 
 O, lightly, lightly tread. The storm raged fearfully. When shall 
 I see you aguin ? They lived very happily. They were agreeably 
 disappointed. Do you expect them to-morrow ? She is continually 
 changing her mino. It cannot be true. Perhaps I shall go. 
 Doubtless it U true. George writes elegantly. 
 
 2. Insert the following adverbs in sentences of your t)wn: — 
 Where, hopefully, soon, bravely, yes, surely, undeniably, sor- 
 rowfully, briefly, quite, below, above, ever, constantly, so, yet, 
 although, no. 
 
 134. Classes of Adverbs. 
 
 1. Adverbs may be divided into four general classes, — 
 adverbs of place j of timej of cause, of maimer, 
 
 2. Adverbs of place answer the questions Whe7xf Whither f 
 Whence ? 
 
 Ex. — Here, there, where, herein, therein, wherein, hither, thither, 
 whither, hence, thence, whence, above, below, up, down, yonder, some- 
 where, nowhere, everywhere, away, aside, aloof, back, forth, off, far, 
 aboard, ashore, aloft, aground, forwards, backwards, outwards. 
 
 3. Adverbs of time answer the questions Whe7i? How long? 
 How often ? 
 
 Ex. — Now, when, then, often, immediately, always, frequently, to-day. 
 to-morrow, yesterday, ever, never, sometimes, lately, early, again, forever, 
 soon, hiiherto, seldom, rarely, after, ago, anon, hereafter. 
 
 4. Aviverbs of cause answer the questions Whyf Wherefore f 
 Ex.— Why, wherefore, therefore, then. 
 
148 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 
 
 Causal relations are commonly expressed hy jihr as es and clauses. 
 
 5. Adverbs of manner and decree answer the questions How ? 
 How much? They are generally derived from adjectives denoting 
 quality. 
 
 Ex. — Faithfully, fairly, elegantly, so, thus, well, too, very, chiefly, 
 quite, partly, wholly, amiss, scarcely, nearly, asunder, however, other- 
 wise, together, just, less, much, least, enough, almost, asunder, headlong, 
 generally, somewhat, excellently, gracefully. 
 
 6. Modal adverbs, or those which show the manner of the asser- 
 tion, belong to this class. 
 
 Ex.— Yes, yea, verily, truly, surely, doubtless, forsooth, certainly, no, 
 nay, not, perhaps, perchance, indeed, really, haply, possibly, probably, 
 nowise, peradventure. 
 
 7. The adverbs when, where, why, how, &c., when used in asking 
 questions, are called interrogative adverbs. 
 
 Ex. — When did he come ? 
 
 8. Adverbs of manner are numerous. Most of them are formed 
 from adjectives by adding ly. 
 
 Ex. — Bright, bright-^?// smooth, smooth-??/. 
 
 But when the adjective ends in ly, the phrase is commonly used. 
 
 Ex. — " In a lovely manner," instead of lovelily. '^' 
 
 9. 7fie7'e is used as an expletive to introduce a sentence when the 
 verb to be denotes existence. It is also sometimes used with the 
 verbs seem, appear, come, go, and others. 
 
 Ex. — There are many men of the same opinion. Jjhere went out a 
 decree from Caesar Augustus. 
 In this use it has no meaning. 
 
 10. The adverb so is often used as a substitute for some preceding 
 word or group of words. 
 
 Ex. — He is in good business, and is likely to remain so. 
 
 11. In colloquial use, some adverbs limit no particular word or words in 
 the sentence, and are said to be used independently. 
 
 Ex.— Well, I will let you know, if I decide to go. Wh^/, you told me so 
 yourself. 
 
 135. Conjunctiye Adyerlbs. 
 1. Conjunctive adverbs are those which express the 
 
ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS — COMPARISON. 149 
 
 adyerbial relation of a dependent clause, and connect it 
 vrith the verb, the adjective, or the adverb which it 
 "Modifies. 
 
 Ex. — I shall meet my friend when the boat arrives. 
 
 2. They are equivalent to two phrases, the one containing a rela- 
 tive pronoun, the other its antecedent. 
 
 Ex.— The lilies grow luhere the ground is moist, = The lilies grow in 
 that -place in which the ground is moist. 
 
 Here the phrase in that place modifies (/roios, and the phrase in which modi- 
 fies moist: hence where, the equivalent of the two, modifies both. For the 
 principal conjunctive adverbs, see (143, 18). 
 
 3. The words therefore, loherefore, hence, whence, comequenthj, then, now, 
 besides, likeioise, also, too, moreover, and some others, are adverbs, and at tho 
 same time are used — either alone or when associated with other connectives 
 — to join propositions. But, unlike conjunctive adverbs, they connect coordi- 
 nate and not subordinate clauses. 
 
 136. Exercise. 
 
 1. Tell the class of the following adverbs:— 
 
 Very, greatly, perhaps, therefore, below, to-morrow, when, there, 
 purely, truly, always, continually, yesterday, why, sorrowfully, pain- 
 fully, down, above, here, vainly, exceedingly. 
 
 2. Point out the conjunctive adverbs in the following examples: — 
 He will be prepared when the time arrives. The patriot answers 
 
 whenever his country calls. Whither I go ye cannot come. It was 
 for a long time uncertain where the gypsies originated. Newton, 
 only by profound study, discovered why an apple falls to the ground. 
 The Bible teaches us how to guide our steps aright. Make hay 
 while the sun shines, (^hen a man's coat is threadbare, it is easy 
 to pick a hole in it.^ 
 
 
 137. Comparison of Adverbs. 
 
 1. Many adverbs, especially those denoting manner, 
 admit of comparison. 
 
 Ex. — Brightly, more brightly, most brightly; soon, sooner, soonest. 
 
 2. When an adjective undergoes comparison, it usually shows that two or 
 '^ore objects are compared j but when an adverb undergoes the same change, 
 
 13« 
 
150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 it shows that two or more actions or qualities are compared-, as, ** James 
 speaks more fluently than George [speahs']." 
 
 3. The following adverbs are compared irregularly : III or badly ^ 
 worse, ivorst; little, less, least; far, farther, farthest; much, more, 
 most; well, better, best 
 
 138. Exercise. 
 
 1. Study the following outline for parsing adverbs:— ^ 
 To parse an adverb, tell, — 
 
 (1.) What part of speech it is, and why. 
 
 (2.) Compare it (where it admits of it), and tell what degree. 
 
 (3.) Tell what it modifies, 
 
 (4.) Give the rule. 
 
 2. The sun shines brightly, 
 
 Br%iitiy is 2iTL adverb; it modifies the meaning of the verb; 
 
 it is compared (positive brightly, comparative 
 more brightly, superlative most brightly) ; it is in 
 the positive degree, and modifies the verb shines, 
 according to Eule IX. (Eepeat it.) 
 
 3. Mary writes more elegantly than her brother. 
 
 More elegrantly . is an adverb ; it modifies the meaning of the verb ; 
 it is compared {elegantly, more elegantly, most ele- 
 gantly) ; it is in the comparative degree, and modi- 
 fies the verb writes, according to Eule IX. (Ee- 
 peat it.) 
 
 4. I will go whenever you wish. 
 
 Whenever is a conjunctive adverb of time. (Why?) 
 
 (1.) As an adverb it modifies both will go and 
 
 wish, according to Eule IX. 
 
 (2.) As a connective it connects the subordinate 
 
 clause " whenever you wish" to will go. Eule XI. 
 
 5. Parse the adverbs in the following examples; also the adjec- 
 tives, the VERBS, and the pronouns : — 
 
 He (Sir Thomas ■lore) stands unchangeably on the centre of 
 eternal right; his head,, majestically erect, gloriously lifted up to 
 hea^'en, bends not before the shock, and his breast receives the 
 tempest only to shiver it. — Giles.. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 151 
 
 No human fancy can take in this mighty space in all its grandeur, 
 and in all its immensity ; can sweep the outer boundaries of such a 
 creation ; or lift itself up to the majesty of that great and invisible 
 arm, on which all is suspended. — Chalmers. 
 
 Hitherto shalt thou come, and no further; and here shall thy 
 proud waves be stayed. 
 
 Where I could not be honest, I never yet was valiant. — ShaJs' 
 speare. 
 
 When man is at peace with man, how much lighter than a feather 
 are the heaviest metals in his hand ! — Sterne. 
 
 When Music, heavenly maid, w as young, 
 While yet in early Gre.'ce f>hc sung. 
 The Passionsoft, to hem lier shell, 
 Thronged^4iround hcpma^ ccTT^ j Co llim. 
 / Yet where to fincP&hfrniappiest sp(y^l^elo^^vv 
 I Who can direct, when all pretend to know '^f-Goldsmith, 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 139. Definition. 
 
 1. A preposition is a word used to show the relation 
 
 of a noun or a pronoun to some other word. 
 
 Ex. — The ship was seen from the citadel. He sailed upon the ocean in 
 a ship of war. 
 
 2. The preposition always shows a relation between two terms, 
 — an antecedent and a subsequent. The subsequent term is called the 
 object of the preposition. The preposition and the object united 
 form a dependent element of the sentence, having the antecedent 
 term as its principal element. 
 
 3. The preposition and its object form a phrase. When the 
 antecedent term is a noun, the phrase is of the nature of an adjective. 
 When it is a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an adverb, the phrase 
 is of the nature of an adverb (sometimes an indirect object). 
 
 Ex. — The rays of the sun, = solar rays. The case was conducted with 
 skill, = skilfully. 
 
 4. The object of the preposition is not always a single word : it 
 may be a phrase or a clause. 
 
 Ex. — The city was about to capitulate when Napoleon arrived. Much 
 will depend on wh(^ the commissioners are. 
 
152 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 5. The preposition is sometimes placed after its object. 
 Ex. — While its song, sublime as thunder, rolls the woods along. 
 
 The preposition and the object sometimes precede the word on 
 which they depend. 
 
 Ex. — Of all patriots, Washington was the noblest. 
 
 110. List of Prepositions. 
 
 aboard, 
 
 before. 
 
 excepting. 
 
 till, 
 
 about, 
 
 behind, 
 
 for. 
 
 to. 
 
 above, 
 
 below. 
 
 from. 
 
 touching. 
 
 across, 
 
 beneath, 
 
 in, into. 
 
 toward. 
 
 after. 
 
 beside. 
 
 notwithstanding, 
 
 , towards, 
 
 against, 
 
 besides. 
 
 of. 
 
 under. 
 
 along, 
 
 between. 
 
 on. 
 
 underneath, 
 
 amid or 
 
 betwixt. 
 
 over. 
 
 until, 
 
 amidst, 
 
 beyond. 
 
 past, 
 
 unto. 
 
 among, 
 
 by, 
 
 regarding, 
 
 up. 
 
 amongst, 
 
 concerning. 
 
 respecting, 
 
 upon. 
 
 around, 
 
 down, 
 
 round. 
 
 with. 
 
 at. 
 
 during. 
 
 since. 
 
 within. 
 
 athwart, 
 
 ere, 
 
 through. 
 
 without. 
 
 bating. 
 
 except. 
 
 throughout. 
 
 
 1. A complex preposition consists of two words, and is parsed 
 as a single word. 
 
 Ex. — According to, as to, as far, out of, instead of, because of, off from, 
 over against, round about, from among, from between, from around, from 
 before, and the like. 
 
 The first word of the phrase is sometimes parsed as an adverb. According, 
 contrary, in the phrases according to, contrary to, are sometimes regarded as 
 participles or adjectives modifying some noun in the sentence. 
 
 2. In such combinations as the following, put in, go up, go down, 
 cut through, pass by, climb up, and others, the preposition may be 
 parsed as an adverb when it is not followed by an object. 
 
 Ex. — The captain stood in for the shore. They rode hj in haste. 
 
 3. Some words commonly employed as prepositions are occasion- 
 ally used as adverbs. 
 
 Ex. — Before, afber, till, until, above, beneath, for, on, in, &c. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 153 
 
 So also some words commonly employed as adverbs or as con- 
 junctions are sometimes used as prepositions. 
 Ex. — But, save, despite, &c. 
 
 Off is usually an adverb, but may be parsed as a preposition, when followed 
 by an object. Instead is either a preposition or equivalent to a preposition 
 and a noun, = in stead. 
 
 4. In such expressions as a hunting, a fishing, &c., if authorized 
 at all, the a may be regarded as itself a preposition, or a contraction 
 of at, in, or on. 
 
 141. Exercise. 
 
 1. Study the following outline for parsing the preposition : — 
 To parse a preposition, tell, — 
 
 (1.) What part of speech, and why. 
 
 (2.) Between what words it shows the relation. 
 
 (3.) Give the rule. 
 
 2. He \f Qui from England to France. 
 
 From . . is ^preposition; it is used to show the relation of a noun 
 or a pronoun to some other word ; it shows the relation of 
 the noun England to the verb loent, according to Eule XIII. 
 (Repeat it.) 
 
 To .... is 2i preposition ; it shows the relation of the noun France 
 to the verb went, according to Rule XIII. 
 
 3. Point out the PREPOSiTioisrs in the following sentences, and explain 
 their relations : — 
 
 He heard the birds sing in the morning. The bud& are swelling 
 in the sun's warm rays. The winds will come from the distant 
 south. The bees gather honey from the flowers. I bring fresh 
 showers for the thirsty flowers from sea and stream. I shall be 
 Queen of the May. In the garden the crocus blooms. The hills 
 are covered with a carpet of green. We shall have pleasant walks 
 with our friends. We shall seek the early fruits in the sunny 
 valley. 
 
 4. Parse the Nouxs, the pronouns, the adverbs, and the prepo- 
 sitions in the folloiving sentences: — 
 
 Humility mainly becometh the converse of man with his Maker, 
 But oftentimes it seemeth out of place in the intercourse of man 
 with man ; 
 
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Yea, it is the cringer to his equal, that is chiefly seen bold to hia 
 
 God, 
 While the martyr whom a world cannot browbeat, is humble as a 
 
 child before him. — Tapper. 
 
 Of mU the thoughts of God that are 
 Borne inward unto souls afar 
 
 Along the Psalmist's music deep, 
 Now tell me if there any is 
 For gift or grace surpassing this — 
 
 *'He givetli His beloved sleep." — Mrs. Browning. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 142. ©efinition. 
 
 1. A conj miction is a word used to connect sentences 
 
 or the parts of sentences. 
 
 Ex. — The horse fell over the precipice, hui the rider escaped. The 
 horse and rider fell over the precipice. 
 
 In the first example, hxit connects two sentences; in the second, and con^ 
 nects the two parts, horse and rider. 
 
 2. A pure conjunction forms no part of the material (i52, 1) or 
 substance of a sentence : its office is simply to unite the materials 
 into a single structure. 
 
 3. Besides pure conjunctions, there is a large class of words which 
 enter into the sentence as a part of its substance and at the same 
 time connect different elements or parts. 
 
 Ex. — This is the pencil which I lost. 
 
 Here ichich is the object of lost, and at the same time connects the de- 
 pendent clause, xchich I lost, to pencil. All such words are called connectives, 
 or conjunctive words. 
 
 143. Classes of Connectives. 
 
 1. All connectives (whether pure conjunctions or con- 
 junctive words) are divided into two classes, — coordinate 
 and subordinate. 
 
 2. Coordinate connectives are those which join similar 
 or homogeneous elements. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 155 
 
 Ex. — John AND James were disciples. 
 
 Here John and James are similar in construction, and. have a common re- 
 lation to the predicate. Two elements are coordinate, and consequently de- 
 mand a coordinate conjunction, when they are placed in the same relation or 
 rank; as, "The insects devoured leaves and blossoms." Here leaves is de- 
 pendent on devoured; blossoms, also, is not only dependent, but has precisely 
 the same sort of dependence as leaves ; hence they are coordinate with each 
 other. In the sentence, " The insects devoured the leaves greedily," leave* 
 and greedily are both dependent on devoured, but they have not a similar de- 
 pendence; hence they are not coordinate, and cannot be connected by and, or 
 any other coordinate conjunction. 
 
 3. Coordinate connectives are always conjunctions, and 
 may be divided into three classes, — copulative^ adversative, 
 and alternative. 
 
 4. Copulative conjunctions are those which add parts 
 in harmony with each other. 
 
 Ex. — The day dawned, and our friends departed. 
 
 5. The copulative conjunctions are, — 
 
 (a.) And, a connective of the most general character, placing the con- 
 nected parts in a relation of perfect equality, without modification or 
 emphasis. 
 
 (6.) So, also, likewise, too, besides, moreover, furthermore, now, hence, 
 therefore, wherefore, consequently, even, connectives associated with and ex- 
 pressed or understood, and used to give em,phasis or some additional idea. 
 
 Ex. — Cromwell was a successful soldier; [awd] besides, he was the 
 greatest statesman of his age. 
 
 (c.) Both — and; as well — as; not only — but; but also ; but likewise; 
 first — secondly: these connectives are employed when we wish not only 
 to make the second part emphatic, but to awaken an expectation of some 
 addition. 
 
 Ex. — Both religion and reason condemn excess. qTou might as well 
 deny me at once as begin to find excused Not only the wise and the 
 learned, but also the common people, heard him gladly. 
 
 As these parts correspond to each other, these connectives are called 
 correlatives. 
 
 6. Adversative conjunctions are those w^hich unite 
 
 parts in opposition to, or in contrast with, each other. 
 
 Ex. — The fish was brought to the shore, 6m/ plunged into the water 
 again. 
 
156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 7. Adversative conjunctions are employed, — 
 
 (1.) "When the second part is placed in opposition to the first 
 Ex. — It does not rain, but it snows. 
 
 (2.) When the second part is placed in opposition to a suppose(t 
 inference from the first. 
 
 Ex. — The army was victorious, hut the general was slain. 
 
 Here, lest the inference should be that all was prosperous, the second clause 
 preceded by hut is added. 
 
 8. The adversative conjunctions are, — 
 
 (a.) But, which simply shows opposition without emphasis. 
 Ex. — I shall go, hut I shall not walk. 
 
 (6.) Yet, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding, however, now, and some 
 others, which are associated with hut, either expressed or understood, 
 and give emphasis or some additional idea. 
 
 Ex. — The delinquent has been repeatedly admonished, {hut) still he 
 is as negligent as ever. 
 
 9. AlternatiTe conjunctions are those which offer or 
 deny a choice between two things. 
 
 Ex. — Obey and live, or disobey and die. She can neither sing no/ 
 play. 
 
 10. The alternative conjunctions are, — 
 
 (a.) Or, which offers, and nor {not or), which denies a choico. 
 
 (6.) Else, otherwise, associated with or for the sake of emphasis. 
 
 (c.) Either and neither, correlatives of or and nor. 
 
 Ex.— (^We must fighty or our liberties are lost. Thou desirest not sacri- 
 fice, else would I give it. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. Either 
 the Turk or the Christian shall withdraw his forces. 
 
 11. Parts standing in a causal relation to each other are some- 
 times coordinate; but usually there are, in such cases, two con- 
 nectives, one expressed and the other understood. 
 
 Ex. — The south wind blows, [and'] therefore there must be rain. 
 
 12. ISnborctinate connectives are those which join dis- 
 similar or heterogeneous elements. 
 
 Ex.— I shall go when the stage arrives. 
 
 Here, ioh€7i joins the subordinate clause when the stage arrives, to the verb 
 thall go. It is a part of the clause itself, being equivalent to at the time at 
 
ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 157 
 
 which. Hence it should be introduced in naming the clause ; but not so with 
 the pure coordinate conjunctions. 
 
 13. The connected element is always a proposition; it is sub- 
 ordinate, and consequently demands a subordinate connective, be- 
 cause it becomes ■ merely a limiting expression of the antecedent 
 term on which it depends. It is unlike the part with which it is 
 connected, in its form, in its relation or rank, and in its grammatical 
 character. 
 
 14. A subordinate connective, like a preposition, always shows a relation 
 of dependence. But the second term is a proposition instead of a noun or 
 a pronoun. 
 
 15. Subordinate connectives are divided into three 
 classes, — those which connect substantive clauses, those 
 which connect adjective clauses, and those which connect 
 adverbial clauses. 
 
 16. Substantive clauses containing a statement (l63, 3) are con- 
 nected by the conjunctions that, that not, and sometimes but, but that. 
 
 Ex. — Addison acknowledged that he would rather inform than divert 
 his readers. 
 
 Substantive clauses containing an inqniry are connected by the 
 interrogatives who, which, what, tvhere, whither, whence, when, how 
 long, how often, why, wherefore, how. 
 
 Ex. — I wish to know where we may look for redress. 
 
 17 Adjective clauses are connected by the relative pronouns 
 who, ivhich, what, that, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever^ 
 ivhatever, whatsoever, and sometimes the relative adverbs tvhy, when^ 
 where. 
 
 Ex. — A writer who abuses the confidence of friends should be treated 
 with contempt. 
 
 18. Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal element by, — 
 (L' Connectives which denote place: these are, tvhere, whither, 
 whence, wherever, whithersoever, as far as, as long as, farther than. 
 
 Ex. — We feel that we are on the spot where the first scene of our his- 
 tory was laid. — Webster. 
 
 (2.) Connectives which denote time: these are, when, while, 
 whilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until, since, whenever, as long as, as 
 soon rw, the moment, fhr instant, as frequeiiihi rr..*^, r/x ofien os. 
 
 11 
 
168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. — He scarce had ceased when the superior fiend 
 Was moving to the shore. — Milton. 
 
 (3.) Connectives which denote causal relations : these are the con- 
 junctions because, for, as, whereas, since, inasmuch (causal), if, unless, 
 though, lest, except, provided, provided that (conditional), that, that 
 not, lest (final), though, although, notwithstanding, however, what- 
 ever, whoever, while, with the correlatives yet, still, nevertheless (ad- 
 versative). 
 
 Ex. — A timid man shrinks from an enterprise because he fears a dan- 
 ger may be in the way. 
 
 (4.) Connectives which denote manner: these are, as, just as, 
 so — as, same — as (correspondence), so — that, such — that (conse- 
 quence), as — as (comparison of equality), the — the, the — so much 
 the (proportionate equality), than, more than, less than (comparison 
 of inequality). 
 
 Ex. — True politeness requires you to act as a kind heart dictates. 
 
 IM. Exercise. 
 
 1. Study the following outline for parsing conjunctions. 
 In parsing a conjunction or connective, tell, — 
 
 (1.) What part of speech, and why. 
 (2.) To what class it belongs. 
 (3.) What elements it connects. 
 (4.) Give the rule. 
 
 2. Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers. 
 
 And ... is a conjunction; it is used to connect sentences, or the 
 parts of sentences ; coordinate, because it connects similar 
 elements; it connects Socrates and Plato, according to 
 Eule XI. (Repeat it.) 
 
 3. Wisdom is better than riches. 
 
 Tlian . . is a conjunction (why?); subordinate, because it connects 
 dissimilar elements ; it connects the proposition than riches 
 [are) with better, according to Rule XVI. (Repeat it.) 
 
 4. We must either obey or be punished. 
 
 Eitlier . is a coordinate conjunction (alternative), used to awaken ex- 
 pectation of an additional element, and also to introduce it 
 with emphasis. 
 
ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 159 
 
 Or .... is a coordinate conjunction (alternative), and with its cor- 
 relative either is used to connect the predicate must be 
 punished with must obey. (Rule XI. : Repeat it.) 
 
 5. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
 
 Tboug^b is a subordinate conjunction (adversative), used to awaken 
 
 expectation of an additional idea. 
 Yet ... is a subordinate conjunction (adversative), and, with its 
 
 correlative though, is used to connect the subordinate 
 
 clause he slay me, with the principal one will I trust in 
 
 him, according to Rule XVI. 
 
 6. Tell which of the following connectives are coordinate, and which 
 are subordDr te: — 
 
 The pen and ink are poor. The horse and the rider were plunged 
 into the water. If you come, I shall have the work in readiness. 
 When the million applaud, seriously ask yourself what harm you 
 have done. He knew that he had disobeyed instructions. That 
 which cannot be cured must be endured. Take heed lest ye fall. 
 
 7. Parse the conjunctions, the adjectives, and the verbs, in 
 the following examples : — 
 
 It is to the Union that we owe our safety at home, and our con- 
 sideration and dignity abroad. Every year of its duration has 
 teemed with fresh proof of its utility and its blessings ; and, although 
 our territory has /Stretched out wider and wider and our population 
 spread farther and further, they have not outrun its protection or 
 its benefits. — Webster. 
 
 In a word, point us to the loveliest and happiest neighborhood in 
 the world on which we dwell, — and we tell you that our object is 
 to render this whole earth, with all its nations and kindreds and 
 tongues and people, as happy as — nay, happier than — such a neigh- 
 borhood. — Way land. 
 
 Thy Hector, wrapped in everlasting sleep. 
 
 Shall neither hear thee cry, nor see thee weep. — Pope, 
 
 'Twas but a kindred sound to move ; 
 For pity melts the heart to love. — Druden. 
 
160 ENGLISH GRAMMAK 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 145. Definition. 
 
 1. An interjection is a word used to express some 
 strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 
 
 Ex. — Alas ! I then have chid away my friend. 
 
 2. As the interjection is not the sign of an idea, but merely an expression 
 of emotion, it cannot have any definable signification or grammatical con- 
 struction ; but, as it is of frequent use in colloquial and impassioned discourse, 
 it should not be omitted in parsing. 
 
 3. " Interjection" is derived from the Latin word " ini "'"jectus,"— 
 thrown between, that is, between the parts of the sentence ; but it is 
 often placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. 
 
 4. The most common interjections are those expressing, — 
 Joy or exultation, — hey, hurra, huzza. 
 
 Surprise, — aha, hah, ah. 
 
 A wisb for attention, — ho, lo, halloo, hem. 
 
 Aversion or contempt,— ^e, pshaw, pugh, tush, foh. 
 
 Sorrow, g-rief, or compassion, — alas, woe, alack, 0, 
 
 A wisli for silence, — hist, hush, mum, 
 
 lian^uor, — heigh-ho, heigh-ho-hum. 
 
 I^aug^liter, — ha, ha, he, he. 
 
 Some words used as interjections may be parsed as verbs, nouns, or ad- 
 jectives; as in the sentence, "Strange ! cried I," — where strange is an adjective, 
 and the expression is equivalent to "It is strange;" and in the sentence, 
 " Behold ! how well he bears misfortune's frowns !" behold is a verb in the im, 
 perative, equivalent to behold ye. 
 
 146. Exercise. 
 
 1. Outline for parsing an interjection: — 
 To parse an interjection, tell, — 
 
 (1.) What part of speech, and why? 
 (2.) Give the rule. 
 
 2. Hark ! they whisper. 
 
 Hark . is an interjection (why ?) ; it is used independently. Rule X. 
 
 3. Parse all the words in the following examples: — 
 
 Oh, say, what mystic spell is that which so blinds us to the suffer- 
 
ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 161 
 
 ings of our brethren, — which deafens our ear to the voice of bleed- 
 ing humanity, when it is aggravated by the shriek of dying thou- 
 sands. — Chalmers. 
 
 Woe worth the chase ! woe worth the day I 
 That cost thy life, my gallant grey. — Scott. 
 
 Oh, now you weep ; and I perceive you feel 
 
 The dint of pity ; these are gracious drops. 
 
 Kind souls ! What ! weep you when you but behold 
 
 Our Csesar's vesture wounded ! Look you here ! 
 
 Here is himself, marred as you see, with traitors. — Shakspeare. 
 
 Hail ! holy light, offspring of heaven first-born, 
 Or of the Eternal, co-eternal beam ! — Milton. 
 
 Unfading Hope ! when life's last embers burn, 
 When soul to soul, and dust to dust, return, 
 Heaven to thy charge resigns the awful hour ! 
 Oh ! then, thy kingdom comes ! Immortal Power I 
 What though each spark of earth-born rapture fly 
 The quivering lip, pale cheek, and closing eye ! 
 Bright to the soul thy seraph hands convey 
 The morning dream of life's eternal day ! — 
 Then, then, the triumph and the trance begin, 
 And all the phoenix spirit burns within ! — Campbell, 
 
162 
 
 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR EEYIEW. 
 
 "What is Etymology ? 
 
 What is a word ? 
 
 How are words divided according to 
 their meaning and use? According 
 to their sounds ? According to their 
 significant parts? 
 
 What are declinable words ? Inde- 
 clinable ? 
 
 How many parts of speech are there ? 
 Name them. Define each. What 
 part of speech is «n, in the sentence 
 " Un is a prefix" ? Why ? What is a 
 proper noun ? A common noun ? A 
 collective noun ? An abstract noun ? 
 A verbal noun ? 
 
 Give an example of a noun of each 
 kind. 
 
 What are the properties of the noun ? 
 
 What is Person ? Define each per- 
 son. 
 
 When is a noun in the first or second 
 person ? 
 
 What is Number? Define each 
 number. 
 
 •**~Give the rule for forming the plural 
 of nouns regularly. 
 
 How do nouns ending in/or/e form 
 the plural? Nouns ending in o/ Nouns 
 ending in y? What nouns have a 
 very irregular plural ? 
 
 What nouns have no plural ? 
 
 Crive the rule for the plural of com- 
 pound nouns. 
 
 How are other parts of speech used 
 as nouns pluralized ? 
 
 What is the rule for the plural of 
 single names? Of complex names? 
 Of a title and name ? 
 
 Mention three nouns that have no 
 singular. Three that are either singu- 
 lar or plural. Three that are alike in 
 both numbers. 
 
 What is Gender? How many genders 
 are there? Define each. How can 
 inanimate objects become masculine or 
 feminine ? Name the three modes of 
 distinguishing the sexes. 
 
 What is Case? How many cases 
 are there ? Define each. How is the 
 possessive regularly formed ? When 
 is the apostrophe only added? How 
 may you know the nominative case? 
 The possessive ? The objective ? 
 
 What is Declension ? Parsing ? 
 
 What is an Adjective? Name the 
 
 two classes. The three kinds of limit- 
 ing adjectives. 
 
 How many Articles are there ? De- 
 fine each. When is each used ? When 
 is no article needed ? 
 
 What is a Pronominal Adjective? 
 Name the principal ones. What are 
 distributives? Demonstratives? In- 
 definites? Reciprocals? Name the 
 classes of Numeral Adjectives. 
 
 What is a Qualifying Adjective? 
 A Participial Adjective ? 
 
 What is Comparison? Define the 
 three degrees. 
 
 What may comparison show in re- 
 spect to intensitij? The terms? 
 
 Give the rule for forming the com- 
 parative and superlative of mono- 
 syllables. Of words of more than 
 one syllable. Mention five adjectives 
 compared irregularly. What adjec- 
 tives are not compared ? 
 
 What is a Pronoun ? What four re- 
 lations does the pronoun represent? 
 What is the Antecedent? Into what 
 three classes are pronouns divided? 
 What properties have pronouns in 
 common with nouns? 
 
 Define and name the Personal Pro- 
 nouns. Name the different uses of It. 
 Of Thou and You. Name the com- 
 pound personal pronouns. Decline 
 the pronouns. Where do you use 3Ty 
 and Mine? 
 
 What is a Relative Pronoun ? How 
 does the relative difi"er from the per- 
 sonal pronoun? Name the simple 
 relatives. What can you say of What ? 
 Of That? Name the compound rela- 
 tives, and give the rule for forming 
 them. 
 
 Define and name the Interrogative 
 Pronouns. What besides pronouns 
 are used in asking questions? 
 
 What is a Verb ? What is the mean- 
 ing of affirm ? What can you say of 
 Be ? When is a verb attributive ? De- 
 fine the sicbject. How are verbs divided 
 according to their nse? Define a 
 Transitive Verb. An Intransitive. 
 What do you mean by an Active, 
 Passive, and Neuter Verb ? Wh at can 
 you say of this distinction ? What 
 is the object of a transitive verb ? Can 
 the same verb be both transitive and 
 
ETYMOLOGY — QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 
 
 163 
 
 intransitive? How are verbs divided 
 according to tlieir form? Define a 
 Regular Verb, an Irregular Verb, a De- 
 fective, an Auxiliary, an Impersonal. 
 — What properties belong to verbs ? 
 What is Voice? Define the Active 
 voice. The Passive. What verbs can 
 have the passive voice ? W^hat are the 
 uses of the passive voice? Of the 
 active ? 
 
 What is Mode ? Define each mode. 
 What modes are used in principal 
 propositions ? What one in subordi- 
 nate propositions? What one in 
 abridged propositions ? 
 
 What is a Participle? Wby so 
 called ? What is the mode of forming 
 the participles ? How many Participles 
 are there ? How many forms ? De- 
 fine the Present Active Participle. 
 Name the uses of it. What can you 
 say of the form " is being built," and 
 the like? 
 
 Define the Present Passive Parti- 
 ciple ; the Perfect Active ; the Perfect 
 Passive. When is the participle predi- 
 cated ? When assumed ? 
 
 What is Tense ? What are the four 
 ways of considering an action or event ? 
 What is meant by a, point of time ? A 
 period? What are relative tenses? 
 Absolute ? How many of each / 
 
 Define the Present Tense in the 
 indicative mode. How is it used? 
 The Present Perfect. How used ? The 
 Past Tense. How used? The Past 
 Perfect. How used? The Future. 
 The Future Perfect. 
 
 How many tenses has each mode ? 
 What is the signification of the tenses 
 in the Subjunctive mode? In the 
 Potential? "in the Infinitive ? In the 
 Imperative ? 
 
 What are the forms of the verb ? 
 Name and define each. Give the form 
 for each division of time. 
 
 What are Auxiliary Verbs? Name 
 them. For what are they used ? Con- ' 
 
 jugate them. What is the signification 
 of he? Of do? Of have? Of shall 
 and will? Give the rules for the use 
 of shall and will. What is the signifi- 
 cation of 7?jo?/f oi can? of 7nust? Show 
 how the auxiliaries combine to form 
 the tenses of the Indicative mode. 
 Of the Potential mode. 
 -=-What are the Number and Person 
 of the verb ? How do you distinguish 
 them ? 
 
 What is the Conjugation of the 
 verb ? The Principal Parts ? Conju- 
 gate the verb be in all the modes and 
 tenses. Conjugate the verb ^ote. How 
 is a verb conjugated interrogatively ? 
 Negatively ? Give the list of Irregu- 
 lar Verbs. Name the Defective Verbs. 
 What is a Redundant Verb ? 
 
 AVhat is an Adverb? Name the 
 three ways of expressing an adverbial 
 idea. Adverbs of Place answer what 
 questions? Adverbs of Time? Ad- 
 verbs of Cause ? Adverbs of Manner 
 and Degree? What are Modal Ad- 
 verbs? What are Conjunctive Ad- 
 verbs ? What adverbs admit of com- 
 parison ? 
 
 What is a Preposition? What do 
 you mean by the object of the prepo- 
 sition ? What constitutes a phrase? 
 What is a Complex Preposition ? 
 
 What is a Conjunction? What is 
 the office of conjunctions ? Name the 
 two /lasses of connectives. How many 
 classes of coordinate connectives are 
 there? What are Copulative Con- 
 junctions? Name them. Adversa- 
 tive Conjunctions? When are they 
 used? Name them. Alternative Con- 
 junctions ? Name them. 
 
 What are Subordinate Connectives ? 
 Name the three classes. How are sub- 
 stantive clauses connected ? Adjective 
 clauses? Adverbial clauses? 
 
 What is an Interjection? Name 
 the most common. 
 
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 147. Preliminary Deyelopment— Sentence-Making. 
 
 1. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 
 
 2. A jsentenee is a thought expressed in words. 
 
 Ex. — The flowers fade. The sun is shining. The boy heeded not his 
 father's advice. Socrates was unmoved when the sentence of death was 
 pronounced against him. 
 
 Syntax signifies putting together. Thus, the words in these examples are 
 put together, — but in such a manner as to say, affi,rm, or assert something. If 
 joined thus, — the fading flowers, the shining sun, the boy heeding not his 
 father's advice, Socrates unmoved, &c., — they would not say, tell, or assert 
 any thing : i.e. they would not express a thought. 
 
 3. To express a thought, we must say something of 
 some object. 
 
 Ex. — The moon is rising in the east. 
 
 The object here is the moon; we say of it, is rising. When we say or 
 assert something, as we do here, it is implied that we know or believe what we 
 say, — or we speak as if we knew or believed what we said. If we know of 
 the rising, but do not know what object is rising, we can still speak, but so 
 as only to intimate what we know, and seek for what we do not know. Thus, 
 *'What is rising?" If ignorant of the act, but not of the object, we should 
 say, " What is the moon doing ?" If we did not know the 2^lctce, we should say, 
 " Where is the moon rising ?" Thus, a sentence may express knowledge, or igno- 
 rance. It may also express our feelings or desires. " How beautifully the 
 moon is rising in the east I" " Give me that book." 
 
 4. The subject represents that of which something is 
 said or affirmed. 
 
 Ex. — ^The trees grow; the clouds are beautiful; is reading; 
 
 is coming ; was beheaded. Is the capital ? 
 
 Let the pupil point out the subjects, and supply appropriate ones in place 
 of the blanks. 
 
 5. The predicate represents that which is said or 
 affirmed. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 165 
 
 Ex. — The house is built; the rain is falling; the boy ; the 
 
 duck ; the daisy . Will Walter ? 
 
 Remark. — The predicate is sometimes used to deny, ask for, command, or 
 exclaim; and the term say, affirm, or assert applies to either case (80, 3). 
 
 Observe that in these examples we say only one thing of one object. 
 
 6. We may say one thing of several objects, or seTe- 
 ral things of one object. 
 
 Ex. — Lilies, roses, asters, hyacinths, and dahlias hloom. 
 
 The bird chirps, sings, hops, builds a nest, lays eggs, and feeds her young. 
 
 are cities of New York. 
 are branches of the Mississippi. 
 -, -j empty into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 are factors of 72. 
 are vowels. 
 
 are 
 
 The days of the week 
 The parts of a tree 
 The seasons of the year 
 The States of the Union ^ 
 
 Let the blanks be filled by the pupil. The two cases may then be com- 
 bined, thus : — " The oranges, apples, lemons, peaches, and pears, are ripe, 
 mellow, sweet, juicy, and delicious." 
 
 7. A sentence expresses, — 
 
 (1.) An indefinite thought, when the subject or the predicate is 
 a general term without limitations. 
 
 Men formed. 
 
 Any word, as a common noun, a verb, a participle, or an adjective, is a 
 general term when it can apply to any number of individuals. Thus, an 
 adjective, as white, may apply to many objects, as, tohite house, ichite snow, 
 lohite birds, &c. ; the verb run may express the action of many objects; a 
 common noun, as men, in the example above, may belong to many classes ; 
 there may ha few or many, old or young, rich or poor, good or had, strong or 
 loeak, brave or cowardly, wise or umoise, &c. The verb formed has nothing 
 joined to it to show what, where, lohen, how, or why they formed. 
 
 (2.) A definite thought, when the subject and the predicate are 
 properly limited. 
 
 To limit the subject, we may join to it, — 
 
 (a.) The definite article, to show that some particular men are intended. 
 The men formed. 
 
166 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 
 
 (b.) A numeral adjective, to restrict the numher. 
 
 The twenty men formed. 
 
 (c.) A qualifying: adjective, to show lohat kind, and thereby to exclude 
 all others. 
 
 The twenty young men formed. 
 
 {d.) An adjective expression, to point them out by showing how they 
 were regarded. 
 
 The twenty young men wlio were the pride of the town formed. 
 
 To limit the predicate, we may join to it, — 
 
 (a.) An adverb, to determine the time. 
 
 The men .... immediately formed. 
 
 h.) A noun, to show tohat they formed. 
 
 The men .... immediately formed a combination. 
 
 (c.) An adverbial expression, to show ichy they formed a combination. 
 
 The men .... immediately formed a combination, that they mig-ht 
 free the people from these nig^htly invaders. 
 
 Thus we have the definite thought intended, namely, — 
 
 The-twenty-young-men-who were the pride of the town-immediately- 
 formed-a combination-that they might free the people from these nightly 
 invaders. 
 
 Observe, here, — 
 
 (1.) We have one subject and one predicate (6, above). 
 
 (2.) That each, to become definite, must have many added words. 
 
 (3.) As the thought becomes more and more definite, the sentence becomes 
 more and more extended, and the definite thought is obtained from the indefi- 
 nite thought by various modifications. 
 
 8. A modifier is a word or a group of words joined to 
 a term to limit, extend, or in some way to determine, its 
 application. 
 
 Ex. — Men, — ten men, all men, the men of the last century; seek — the 
 lost — diligently — in every place. 
 
 9. The subject, the predicate, and the modifiers of each, 
 form the elements of the sentence. 
 
 Ex. — CAarZes's— resignation— filled — all Europe — with astonishment. 
 Observe, here and above, that some elements are single words and some 
 are groups, and that each expresses an idea. 
 
SYNTAX — EXERCISE. 167 
 
 10. The uniting of elements into a sentence is called 
 construction, or isyntliesis ; the separation of a sentence 
 into its elements is called analyisis. 
 
 Remark. — As a sentence is a thought and its expression, so its elements 
 are ideas and their expressions. The first steps in analysis should be guided 
 by the prominent ideas which constitute the thought. In the final analysis, 
 all expressions should be reduced to single icords. Hence, — 
 
 11. Syntax is naturally divided into syntax of sentences, syntax 
 of elements^ and syntax of words. 
 
 148. Exercise. 
 
 In thefoUowing examples, point out the subject and the predicate, and 
 unite them to form the indefinite thought ; then point out the modifiers 
 of the subject, explaining the limitations; then the modifiers of the 
 predicate in the same manner, and show how the definite thought is 
 expressed : — 
 
 The clouds are gathering. Humboldt wrote Kosmos. The 
 fashions change. Madeira has a fine climate. Do all birds 
 migrate? The wind is east. The weathercock is rusty. Caesar 
 crossed the Eubicon. The Rubicon is an Italian river. Coleridge 
 wrote "The Ancient Mariner." The drone is an idle, lazy bee. 
 The best tobacco grows in Cuba. A continent is a large island. 
 Thimble is derived from thumb. Humility is a graceful ornament. 
 
 Travellers can ascend, by a winding road, to the top of Mt. 
 Washington. The climate of Florida is favorable to invalids. A 
 man's word should be kept sacred. Solon, the Athenian lawgiver, 
 lived about six hundred years before Christ. There is through all 
 nature a regular succession of events. Montaigne, the entertaining 
 French essayist and philosopher, travelled on horseback, from his 
 chateau in France, through Germany and Switzerland, into Italy. 
 Apicius, a Eoman glutton, having spent seven and a half million 
 dollars in the gratification of his palate, and finding he had but 
 three hundred thousand dollars left, killed himself for fear of 
 dying of hunger. A basket, left on the ground and overgrown by 
 acanthus, suggested the Corinthian capital. The Giant-killer with 
 the familiar name has the whole heart of the boy. 
 
 When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy 
 dies within me. The sumptuous cities which have lighted the 
 world since the beginning of time, are now beheld only in the 
 
168 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 
 
 pictures of the historian or the poet. 'Whenever the queen bee 
 goes forth to take the air^ many of the small bees attend upon hei\ 
 guarding her before and behind. Longfellow, in the " Psalm of 
 Life/' one of his best-known poems, says that our hearts, like 
 muffled drums, are beating funeral marches to the grave. The life 
 of Agricola, the Roman general who conquered Britain, was written 
 by his son-in-law Tacitus, the celebrated Latin historian. The 
 Venetians, while under Austrian rule, were a nation in mourning. 
 Absence of mind which is the result of thinking of something else 
 is quite different) from absence of mind which is the result of 
 thinking of nothing at all. 
 
 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 
 149. Sentences classified by their Use as a Whole. 
 
 1. Sentences considered as a whole are, — 
 
 (1.) Declarative, or those which declare something as real and 
 absolute, or as possible, probable, obligatory, or necessary. 
 
 Ex. — I have found favor in the sight of the king. It may rain. We 
 Ehould pay our debts. The work must be done. 
 
 The declarative sentence forms the main body of every species of com- 
 position. It may be positive or negative; its mode may be indicative or 
 potential. 
 
 (2.) Interrogative, or those which ask a question. 
 
 Ex. — Doth my father yet live ? Can a mother forget her child ? 
 
 Interrogative sentences are used either to obtain information or gain 
 assent; as, " Who opened the door ?" "Doth God pervert judgment?" 
 
 An interrogative sentence is direct -when it can be answered by yes or no ; 
 indirect when it is introduced by an interrogative (78, 2, 5) and cannot be 
 answered by yea or no; as, "Will you ride to town to-day ?" "Who is walk- 
 ing in the garden ?" 
 
 (3.) Imperative, or those which express a command, an entreaty, 
 an exhortation, or a prayer. 
 
 Ex.— Let justice be done. Do extricate my suffering friend. Let 
 love be without dissimulation. Thy kingdom come. 
 
 An imperative sentence is determined in character by the rank of the 
 parties involved (89, 15). 
 
 (4.) Exclamatory, or those which express emotion. 
 Ex.— The foe has come ! Was it not strange ! Make haste ! 
 
SYNTAX — CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 169 
 
 Exclamatory sentences are often fragmentary, partaking of tlie nature of 
 anterjections; as, ''Strange!" "Impossible!" "To arms!" 
 
 2. A mixed sentence is one which is composed of two different 
 classes. 
 
 Ex, — Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world. They 
 entered indeed upon the work ; but why did they not continue ? 
 
 150. Sentences classified by their Propositions. 
 
 1. All sentences consist either of a single proposition or 
 of two or more united propositions, and are divided 
 into, — 
 
 (1.) Simple sentences, or those which contain but one propo- 
 sition. 
 
 Ex. — The wind blows. Will you heed the warning? Obey your 
 parents. How feeble is man I 
 
 (2.) Complex sentences, or those which contain at least two 
 propositions, one of which is principal, and one or more sub- 
 ordinate. 
 
 Ex. — When the wind blows, the trees bend. As they advanced, they 
 heard the sound of music. You speak like one who has never felt the 
 pangs of separation. 
 
 (3.) Compound sentences, or those which contain at least two 
 principal propositions. 
 
 Ex. — The wind blows, and the trees bend. His wish still continued, 
 but his hope grew less. 
 
 2. A proposition is the combination of a subject and a 
 predicate. (See 147, 4, 5, and Rem.) 
 
 Ex. — Trees — grow. The moon — is bright. The hour — has arrived. 
 
 3. A proposition is — 
 
 (1.) A sentence (l47, 2), when, independently and alone, it ex- 
 presses a thought of the speaker. 
 
 Ex. — The mists of the morn have passed away. Coming events cast 
 their shadows before. 
 
 (2.) An element of a sentence, when it expresses a mere idea 
 (l47, 10, Rem.) or part of a thought. 
 
 15 
 
170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. — I know thai my Redeemer liveth. The things thai are before us 
 require attention. Though I cannot teach courage, I must not learn 
 cowardice. 
 
 Observe that a sentence is always a proposition, either alone or combined 
 with another, but a proposition is not always a sentence. In complex sen- 
 tences, at least one proposition is used to express merely an idea. In com- 
 pound sentences, at least two propositions are used to express thoughts. 
 
 4. A proposition used as a sentence is a simple sentence, however 
 much it may be extended to express a definite thought. (147, 7.) 
 
 But a proposition used as an element, like all other elements (156), is 
 aimjile only as it expresses the most general idea without limitations. 
 
 Ex. — To the skeptic — all — the — events — of all the ages of the world 
 — are — but a — crowd — of useless and indigested materials. — BucJcmin- 
 ster. I suspected that sleep had robbed (simple) — me — of some part 
 of my powers {complex element). 
 
 5. Among united propositions, that one is — 
 
 (1.) The principal proposition, which contains the principal or 
 leading assertion ; and is that on which the subordinate depends. 
 Ex. — When spring comes, the flowers will bloom. 
 
 The snbordinate proposition, which, by means of a connective, 
 depends upon some part of the principal. 
 
 Ex. — When spring comes, the flowers will bloom. 
 
 6. United propositions are called clauses. 
 
 A sentence containing but one proposition (150, 1) cannot be said to have 
 clauses. A clause is always a proposition ; but a proposition is not always 
 a clause. 
 
 7. Two united propositions are — 
 
 Similar principal propositions, when both express kindred 
 thoughts of the speaker ; or 
 
 Similar subordinate propositions, when they express elements of 
 the thought kindred in construction (i53, 3). 
 
 Ex. — Talent is power, [but] tact is skill. I cannot tell when he camcy 
 nor when he went. 
 
 Dissimilar propositions, when one expresses a thought of the 
 speaker, and the other a mere element of the thought, or when any 
 two express elements of the thought unlike in their construction 
 or relations. 
 
 Ex. — He who assumes the guidance of others, should govern himself. 
 
SYNTAX — EXERCISE. 171 
 
 If we take no account of our sins on tlie day — on which they are 
 committed — can we hope — that they will recur to us at a more dis- 
 tant period, — that we shall watch against them to-morrow,— or that 
 we shall g-ain the strength to resist them, which we will not implore ? — 
 Channing. 
 
 Observe in this complex sentence that the principal clause, " Can we hope," 
 is not similar to any of the others; that the subordinate clauses marked by 
 the bold type are alike dependent upon " hope," and are similar to each other; 
 that any one of these, compared with any of the other subordinate clauses, 
 has a different construction. 
 
 Kemark. — These distinctions lay the foundation for the division of sen- 
 tences into simiyle, complex, and compotind (1, (1), (2), (3), above). A simple 
 sentence has but one proposition ; a co7>i2^lex, two or more dissimilar propo- 
 sitions ; and a comjwiind, two or more similar propositions. It should be borne 
 in mind that two or more mere subordinate propositions, whether similar or dis- 
 similar, can never form a sentence. 
 
 8. Entire sentences, by some affinity in the thoughts 
 expressed, are united into paragraphs either by con- 
 junctions or by simple succession. 
 
 Ex. — Her (Athens's) power is, indeed, manifested at the bar, in the 
 senate, in the field of battle, in the school of philosophy. But these are 
 not her glory. 
 
 As an example of succession, observe the paragraph from Patrick Henry, 
 below. 
 
 151. Exercise. 
 
 Point out the declarative, the interrogative, the imperative, and the 
 exclamatory sentences in the following examples. Construct or select 
 others like them. Change any of them from one class of sentence to 
 another; that is, turn the declarative into interrogative, or the interro- 
 gative into declarative. 
 
 Note. — The learner should first read the sentence attentively, and then 
 consider whether, as a whole, it declares something, asks a question, expresses 
 a command, or utters an exclamation. 
 
 Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 
 Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. What think ye of Christ? 
 Whose son is he ? Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom ! 
 my son ! my son ! Is this a dagger that I see before me ? The way 
 was long, the wind was cold. Strike! till the last armed foe 
 expires I 
 
172 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 Great Hierarch i tell thou the silent sky, 
 
 And tell the stars, and tell the rising sun. 
 
 Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. — Coleridge. 
 
 They tell us, sir, that we are weak, — ^unable to cope with so 
 formidable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger ? Will it 
 be the next week, or the next year ? Shall we gather strength by 
 irresolution and inaction ? Sir, we are not weak, if we make a 
 proper use of those means which the God of nature hath placed in 
 our power. The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone : it is to the 
 vigilant, the active, the brave. If we were base enough to desireit^' 
 ;4t is now too late to retire from the contest. The war is inevitable, 
 — and\let it com^ Oiir brethren are already in the field. Why 
 stand we'il'ere idle ? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be pur- 
 chased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it. Almighty 
 God! 1 know not what course others may take; but as for me, 
 give me liberty, or give me death ! — Patrick Henrm 
 
 Tell luhich of the foregoing or of the following sentences are simple, 
 which are COMPLEX, and which are compound. Bi the foregoing 
 paragraph, tell what sentences are connected hy cONJUisrcTloiS'S, and 
 %vhat by simple succession. What relation of thought can you see f 
 
 In the production of order, all men recognize something sacred. 
 Decide not by authoritative rules, when they are^inconsistent with . 
 reason. Though he were as rich as Croesus, still ^ould man be dis- 
 satisfied hvith his condition. Pope had perhaps the judgment of 
 Dry den, but Dry den certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. The 
 emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. Good and evil 
 are inseparable companions ; but the latter often hides behind the 
 back of the former. fTell me when it was that you felt yourself 
 most strongly inclined to go astra^ 
 
 SYNTAX OF ELEMENTS. 
 152. Definition and Diyision. 
 
 1. The elements of a sentence are its component parts, 
 each standing for an idea and its relation to some other idea. 
 
 Ex.— The shepherd— gave— the alarm— when he discovered the ap- 
 proach of the wolf. 
 
 Here we have the person, the act/ion, the object, and the time, — feur distinct 
 oleipeHts (147, 9). 
 
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 173 
 
 2 Every element, considered — 
 
 (1.) As a whole, i^ principal or subordinate, — substantive, adjective^ 
 or adverbial. 
 
 The first two distinctions refer to the ranh of the united elements ; 
 the last three, to their grammatical value as parts of speech. This 
 use of an expression as a whole for any grammatical purpose re- 
 sembles that of the parenthesis in algebra. 
 
 (2.) As to its component parts, is a word, 2i phrase, or a clause^ 
 • — simple, complex, or compound. 
 
 The first three have reference to the/or?7i of the element ; the last 
 three, to its relation to, or union with, other elements. 
 
 153. Principal, Subordinate, and Independent Elements. 
 
 1. The principal elements are the essential parts of the 
 sentence, — namely, the subject and the predicate (l47, 4, 5). 
 
 Ex. — The — seasons of the year — bring- — each its peculiar pleasures. 
 
 2. The subordinate elements are those which depend 
 upon and modify the principal. They are the adjective^ 
 the objective, and the adverbial element. 
 
 Ex. — Coming — events — cast — their shadows — before. 
 
 The subject and the predicate are of the first rank ; elements depending on 
 them are of the second; while elements depending upon these are of the third' 
 and so on. It is best, however, to consider a sentence as having only five ele 
 ments, — two principal, the subject and the predicate, and three subordinate, 
 the adjective, the objective, and the adverbial. All elements below the second 
 rank are to be regarded as parts of a complex element of the sentence. 
 
 3. Two principal or two subordinate elements are coordinate 
 when they have a similar construction. 
 
 Ex. — Peter and John went up to the temple. We were employed 
 early and late. He could not tell where he was or lohat he had done. 
 
 Observe that Peter and John have a similar construction ; so, also, early 
 and lat^, and v^here he teas and what he had done. Two elements may hav6 
 the same rank (coordinate), but not a similar construction. Thus, " The 
 boy studies — 'grammar — diligently." Here grammar and diligently are of the 
 same order of dependence, — that is, they are both of the second rank, — yet they 
 are not coordinate, because they have dissimilar constructions. For the same 
 reason, the subject and the predicate are not coordinate, though both are 
 principal elements. 
 
 15* 
 
174 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 
 
 4. Of two united elements differing in rank, the principal governs, 
 and the subordinate limits. 
 
 Ex. — Now launch the boat upon the wave. 
 
 Here launch is principal, and governs hoat; while boat is subordinate, and 
 limits launch. 
 
 Remark 1. — The government of the principal element is of two kinds. It 
 may cause the subordinate element to agree with itself, in which case it is 
 called concord, — or it may cause it to take some particular case, mode, or 
 tense, in which case it is called government; as, "These (not this) books;" 
 "He walks" (not walk); "I am he" (not him). The government may be 
 eflFected -directly ; as, " Solomon's temple ;" *' We saw him ;" or indirectly, by 
 means of a connective; as, "The temple of Solomon;" "We looked at him." 
 
 Remark 2. — The subordinate element limits the principal by restricting or 
 extending its application. (See 147, 7.) 
 
 Remark 3. — Coordinate elements neither govern nor modify each other. 
 
 5. Coordinate elements are connected by coordinate conjunctions 
 
 (143, 3). 
 
 Ex. — Youth is bright and lovely. Then build anew, or act it on a 
 plain. 
 
 6. A subordinate element is joined to its principal by a subordi- 
 nate connective (i43, 12). 
 
 Ex. — Shall I be frighted, when a madman stares ? 
 
 Remark. — The preposition is a subordinate connective, and is used to con- 
 nect a subordinate to a principal element; as, "A man of tcisdom;" "0 
 Cassius, you are yoked with a lamb." When the subordinate element is a 
 single word, no connective is used ; as, " A tcise son maketh a glad father." 
 
 7. An independent element is one which stands in no gram- 
 matical relation to the parts of the sentence. 
 
 Ex. — You wrong me, Brutus. Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow 
 world like a Colossus. 
 
 Remark. — The independent element may be the nominative independent, 
 the interjection, or an adverb used independently. 
 
 154. Substantiye, Adjective, and Adverbial Elements. 
 
 1. An element in any of its forms is substantive, adjective, 
 or adverbial, when, as a whole, it has the construction and 
 use of the part of speech for which it is named. 
 
 Ex. — Substantive. — Birds devour insects. To live happily requires 
 
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 175 
 
 obedience to all the laws of our being. That the mind is under any necessity 
 to adopt this or that mode of action is denied. 
 
 Adjective.— The best books were selected. Wisdom^ s ways are ways 
 of pleasantness. The lesson which was assigned was too long. 
 
 Adverbial. — The wind blew briskly. The voice of the Lord was 
 heard in the garden. Who shall decide when doctors disagreed 
 
 Kejiark. — These three kinds of elements enter in to form the principal 
 and the subordinate parts of the sentence. 
 
 2. The subject (147, 4) is always substantive : it is either a word 
 or a group of words answering the question Who f or What f 
 
 Ex. — Bees buzz. He rides. To be contents his natural desire. Who 
 invented letters is not certainly known. 
 
 3. The predicate, in its attribute, may be either substantive or 
 adjective, and is a word or a group of words answering the question 
 What is said? 
 
 Ex. — The day dawns. The affair is to be investigated. The only 
 objection to the credibility of miracles is, that they are contrary to general 
 experience. — Buckminster. 
 
 Observe that the predicate stands, in every case, as answer to the question 
 What ia said? of the subject. As the predicate contains the copula and the 
 attribute, the latter only can become a group of words. 
 
 4. The adjective element may be either substantive or adjective, 
 and is a word or a group of words added to the subject (or to the 
 noun or the pronoun in any relation) to show what kind, what one, 
 how many, whose. 
 
 Ex. — White clouds are seen in the west. These hands have ministered 
 to my necessities. Peter the hermit. The proposition that the whole is 
 equal to all its parts is a self-evident truth. Wisdom^ s ways are ways of 
 
 5. The objective element is substantive, and is a word or a group 
 of words added usually to a verb, answering the question What? 
 Whom f To, for, or of what or whom f 
 
 Ex. — The boy opened the door. He gave me a book. I perceived 
 that I lost the sense of song. 
 
 Remark. — The direct object answers the question What? or Whom? The 
 indirect answers the question To, for, or of ^o hat or whom? The attrihutive 
 answers the question What? In lohat state? or To do v)hat? as, "They made 
 the man — a servant — idle, — wnrk." The double or combined object consists 
 usually of the direct and the attributive. 
 
176 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 6. The adverbial element is any word or group of words (132, 2) 
 added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an adverb, answering 
 the question When f Where f Why f How f How 7nuch f &c. 
 
 Ex. — We approached very slowly. They came in the spring. They 
 stopped when the night overtook them. 
 
 155. Forms of the Elements— Words— Phrases— Clauses. 
 
 1. A single word, expressing an idea without a con- 
 nective (153, 6, Rem.), is an element of the^rs^ class, 
 
 Ex. — Constant — boasting — always — betrays — incapacity. 
 
 Remark. — "When such a word depends upon one of the subordinate ele- 
 ments, it is of the third rank, and, though an element of the first class, it is 
 an element of an element, — that is, forms part of a complex element ; as, *' We 
 hoped to find employment." 
 
 2. A phrase, having one word to represent an idea, 
 and another to show its relation, is an element of the 
 second class, 
 
 Ex. — A statue of marble — was chiselled — by the artist. 
 
 Remark 1. — Any j?roup of words not containing an assertion is a phrase; 
 as, " very earnestly ;" " qu>i* favorably ,•" but here each word expresses an idea. 
 A phrase, as used in the analysis of sentences, is restricted to a group of 
 words having one word to show a relation, and another, either alone or modi- 
 fied, to express an idea; as, "a« dawn;" "at early dawn." 
 
 Remark 2. — When a phrase depends upon one of the subordinate elements, 
 it is still an element of the second class, but not a sentence-element (153, 2); 
 as, "A popular poet had the post 0/ honor." 
 
 All phrases, as a whole, are either substantive, adjective, or adver^ 
 bial (153, 2). 
 
 Every simple phrase should be separated into its two parts; and every 
 complex or compound phrase, into its simple elements. For a full discussion 
 of Phrases, see Analysis, Chap. 11. 
 
 3. A Clause, having a proposition to represent an idea, 
 and some word to show its relation, is an element of the 
 third class, 
 
 Ex. — Satan, whom now transcendent glory raised above his fellows, spake. 
 
 Observe that a clause, like a phrase, is always a group of words ; but, un- 
 like a phras>e, it always contains a proposition. 
 
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 177 
 
 A word, a phrase, or a clause, is a sentence-element only when it is used 
 as the subject, the predicate, or the part directly dependent upon one of these ; 
 otherwise, it is but an element of an element. 
 
 156. Simple, Complex, and Compound Elements. 
 
 1. A simple element is a word, a phrase, or a clause^ 
 without addition or modification. 
 
 Ex. — An honest man ; a man of honesty; a man who is honest. 
 
 2. The simple subject is called the grammatical subject 
 the simple predicate, the grammatical predicate. 
 
 The same distinction might be made in the other elements. Thus, 
 we have the simple or grammatical adjective, objective, or adverbial 
 element. 
 
 3. A complex or logical element is an expression con- 
 taining a simple or a grammatical element with all its 
 modifications. 
 
 4. In this case, the grammatical or leading element is called the 
 principal element, or basis, and gives its own name and properties to 
 the whole group. 
 
 Thus, in the sentence, "They improved the opportunities which they 
 enjoyed," the objective element is "the opportunities which they enjoyed;" 
 opportunities is the basis, limited by the adjective clause "which they 
 enjoyed." 
 
 Remark. — In complex elements, the simple parts unite subordinately (153, 
 4). An element may be subordinate to one and principal io another; as, 
 "They discovered huge masses of ice." Here "masses" is suhordinate to 
 " discovered," and principal to the phrase " of ice." 
 
 5. A compound element consists of two or more simple 
 or complex elements joined together coordinately. 
 
 Ex. — Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 
 
 157. Exercise. 
 
 1. Separate the folloioing sentences into their ELEMENTS (l55, 1, 2, 
 3), so as to represent the prominent 1DF,AS, : — 
 
 The trees are leafless. A life of prayer is a life of heaven. The 
 Swiss love liberty. Ho was not clad in costly raiment. Henry 
 M 
 
178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 begged that they would come to his assistance. His parents 
 mourned his untimely death. He labored diligently to complete 
 the work. The quality of mercy is not strained. Simon, son of 
 Jonas, lovest thou me? He jests at scars that never felt a wound. 
 How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! Let me stand 
 here till thou remember it. Peace, tranquillity, and innocence, shed 
 their mingled delights around him. Approach and behold, while I 
 lift from his sepulchre its covering. 
 
 2. Tell which are principal, and which subordinate. 
 
 3. Point Old the subjects, predicates, adjective, objective, 
 and adverbial elements. 
 
 4. Tell which are substantive, which adjective, and which 
 adverbial. 
 
 5. Tell which are simple, which complex, and tohich compound. 
 
 6. Tell which are words, which phrases, and which clauses. 
 
 7. Separate the following sentences into their elements (i54), and 
 tell the RANK of each. 
 
 Soft stillness and the night become the touches of sweet harmony. 
 
 The man that hath not music in himself. 
 
 Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, 
 
 Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. 
 
 Now the bright morning star, day's ^harbinger, comes dancing 
 from the east^ 
 
 All the triumphs of truth and genius over prejudice and power, 
 in every country and in every age, have been the triumphs of 
 Athens. 
 
 /The way was long — the wind was cold, 
 The minstrel was infirm and old.^ 
 
 8. Separate the following sentences into their elements, and describe 
 each element in full. 
 
 Regard the rights of property. Columbus died in ignorance of 
 the real grandeur of his discovery. On Prague's proud arch the 
 fires of ruin glow. The credulity which has faith in goodness is a 
 sign of goodness. The noble Brutus hath told you Caesar was 
 ambitious. We stand the latest, and, if we fail, probably the last, 
 experiment of self-government by the people, ^e have begun it 
 under circumstances of the most auspicious nature) We are in 
 ihe vigor of youth, j' Our growth has never been cnecked^by the 
 
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 179 
 
 oppressions of tyranny. The Atlantic rolls between us and any 
 formidable foe. 
 
 Locbiel, Lochiel, beware of the day 
 
 When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array. 
 
 ELEMENTS COMBINED.— CONSTRUCTION 
 AND ANALYSIS. 
 
 I. SIMPLE SENTENCES.— SINGLE WOKDS. 
 
 158. Elements joined without a Connective. 
 
 1. The simplest possible sentence contains only two 
 elements, — a subject and a predicate. 
 
 Model 1.— Time flies. Here, time and fly combine to form the 
 simple declarative sentence (l49, 1) Time flies, of which — 
 
 Time. is the simple subject; it represents that of which something 
 
 is affirmed, and 
 Flies . is the simple predicate ; it represents what is affirmed. 
 
 Time is to be parsed as in (54) ; flies, as in (131, 1). Let the following 
 examples be analyzed in a similar manner. Let the pupil mark the changes 
 in the words (fly=/je«) as they enter into combination, and the changes in 
 the classification of the sentences. 
 
 Ex. — Eoses fade. Children play. I laugh. You read. She writes. 
 They run. He sings. We ride. Jesus wept. God reigns. 
 
 Who came? What comes? Which fails? Understandest thou? 
 Know ye ? 
 
 Come [thou or you]. Learn. Study. Go. Wait. They come! 
 Hasten ! Arise ! 
 
 2. The complex or logieal subject is formed by join- 
 ing to the simple subject — 
 
 (1.) A singrie word, as an adjective element. 
 
 Model 2.— These men came. Here this, man^ and come unite and 
 form a declarative sentence, of which — 
 
 Men is the simple subject (why?). 
 
 Came is the simple predicate (why?). 
 
180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Tbese is the simple adjective element ; it is a word joined to 
 
 the subject to limit its application (i47, 7). Parse it by 
 (67, 6.) 
 These men is the complex subject; it is the simple subject with its 
 modifications (i56, 3). 
 Ex. — Five dogs barked. What trees fell ? The ink fades. A cat 
 plays. Which boys study ? Every star shines. 
 
 Old trees decay. Wise men err. Hot water scalds. Good scholars 
 learn. Cold winter comes. Queen Mary reigned. General Scott 
 conquered. Prince Eugene commanded. 
 
 Mary's mother wept. Wellington's renown increased. William's 
 invention failed. Our door creaks. His term ends. 
 
 (2.) By joining two or more words directly to the subject. 
 
 In this case, one word usually modifies the subject, as limited by the other; 
 as, two old men. 
 
 Model 3.— What two travellers returned? This is an interrogative 
 sentence; it is used to ask a question. Travellers is the simple 
 subject, and returned is the simple predicate. Travellers is limited 
 by two, which shows how many are considered together (parse two 
 by 67, 5) ; it is further limited by what, which asks for some par- 
 ticular two travellers. What two travellers is the complex subject. 
 Parse what as in (79). 
 
 Ex.— The first dawn appeared. The second class recites. The twelve 
 Caesars reigned. Many a gem sparkles. 
 
 Every new lesson varies. Any good book instructs. Several old 
 houses fell. Which smooth button shines? Those two young men 
 agree. Many a serious struggle arose. Those bright, cheerful days 
 return. 
 
 The apostle Paul (54, 1) labored. The martyr Stephen died. Jacob's 
 (54, 2) eldest son Reuben returned. 
 
 (3.) By forming a complex adjective element, and joining it to 
 the subject. 
 
 Model 4 Very strange reports arose. A simple sentence, — it 
 
 contains but one proposition; declarative, — it is used to declare 
 something as a fact. 
 
 Reports is the simple subject (why?). 
 
 Arose is the simple predicate (why?). The subject 
 
 is limited by 
 Very strange a complex adjective element of the first class, 
 
 used to show what kind of reports arose. 
 
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS. 181 
 
 (^itrange is the basis, or leading element (l56, 4), and is 
 
 itself an element of the first class (parse it 
 as in 67, 2) ; it is limited by 
 
 Tery a simple adverbial element of the first class, 
 
 used to express intensity. 
 Very strange reports is the complex subject. 
 
 Ex. — A truly great man appeared. Too many competitors entered. 
 Exceedingly heavy rains fell. 
 
 The old man's daughter left. The bright sun's rays illumine. The 
 shepherd's dog barked. 
 
 Arnold, the base traitor, escaped. Elizabetli, Henry's daughter, 
 delayed. Peter, Christ's bold disciple, denied. 
 
 3. The compies: or logical predicate is formed by joining to the 
 simple predicate — 
 
 (1.) A single word as an objective element. 
 
 Model 5. — The boy gathered nuts. A simple declarative sentence, 
 of which boy is the simple, and the boy the complex subject; 
 gathered is the simple, and gathered nuts the complex predicate. 
 Gathered is limited by nuts, — a simple objective element of the 
 first class, used to show what the boy gathered. Parse boy as in 
 (54, 2, history.) 
 
 Ex. — Csesar conquered Gaul. Attila invaded Eome. Whom seest 
 thou ? What have you ? Which has he ? We write sentences. 
 
 (2.) A single word as an adverbial element. 
 
 Model 6. — The bells ring merrily. A simple declarative sentence, 
 having bells for the simple subject, the bells for the complex sub- 
 ject ; having also ring for the simple predicate, p^nd riwgr merrily 
 for the complex predicate. Bells ring expresses the indefinite 
 thought; the bells ring merrily, the definite thought. Ring is 
 limited by merrily, a simple adverbial element of the first class, 
 showing how the bells ring. Parse merrily as in (iss, 2.) 
 
 Ex. — The shadow moves onward. Where standest thou? Who 
 came here ? Go forward. Come hither. The coach arrived yesterday. 
 He changes often. They ride occasionally. Why came ye? The 
 campaign opened vigorously. The curtains hang gracefully. 
 
 (3.) By joining two or more words directly to the predicate. 
 
 As a model, combine Models 5 and 6. 
 
 Ex. — Give me flowers. They lent him money. I wrote liim letters. 
 The teacher appointed Charles monitor. They called him traitor, 
 Jesus made the water wine. 
 
 16 
 
182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 They raise oranges there. Study the lesson faithfully. The master 
 taught him thoroughly. He never found it. He utters the syllables 
 distinctly. 
 
 In the case of combined objects, as in, *' They elected him commander," each 
 is joined to the predicate, while at the same time they are joined together. 
 Analyze thus: — The predicate elected is limited by the double object him 
 commander, which is used to complete its meaning, the direct object him 
 answering the question Wliom? and the attributive answering the question 
 What? They elected {ichom?) They elected him {what?) The attributive 
 object is called by many i\i.Q factitive object, — that into which the direct object 
 is made. 
 
 (4.) By first forming a complex objective or a complex ad- 
 verbial element. 
 
 Model 7. — The tropical islands yield deUcions spices. This is a 
 simple declarative sentence, of which 
 Islands . is the simple subject, and 
 
 Yield . . is the simple predicate. Islands yield expresses the indefi- 
 nite or unlimited thought. Islands is limited by tbe and 
 tropical, two simple adjective elements of the first class. 
 The tropical islands is the complex or definite subject. Yield 
 is limited by delicious spices, — a complex objective element 
 of the first class, of which spices is the basis, and is 
 limited by delicious, a simple adjective element of the first 
 class. 
 Ex. — The monk led a desolate life. The merchant gained a hand- 
 some profit. He recognized his mother's voice. He kept his word. 
 Herod beheaded John the Baptist. She plays very skilfully. Bead 
 Shakspeare very attentively. The general managed his troops most 
 adroitly. 
 
 4. A sentence may have connected with it an independent ele- 
 ment. 
 
 Model 8.— Plato, thou reasoiiest well. A simple declarative sen- 
 tence (why?). 
 
 Plato is the independent element, — the compellative '. it represents 
 the person to whom the words are addressed, and forms no 
 part of the sentence thou reasonest well. Parse it as in (54, 2.) 
 
 Remark. — The subject and the predicate may both become complex in any 
 of the foregoing ways. Let it be observed that no sentence in all the pre- 
 ceding examples, though it contains any or all of the five elements, has a 
 connective of any kind. The pupil should carefully apply the models in the 
 following exercise. 
 
SYNTAX — SIMPLE SENTENCES. 183 
 
 159. Exercise. 
 
 The lightning glares. This old mountain still stands. Speak 
 the truth. God gives every bird its food. A wise man sometimes 
 changes his mind. Bushed the bold eagle exultingly forth. The 
 refreshing showers soon revived the drooping plants. The dis- 
 tinguished historian Xenophon skilfully conducted the dangerous 
 retreat. Leonidas, the brave Spartan hero, gallantly defended the 
 narrow pass. 
 
 The soft hautboy's melting trill 
 Confessed the magic master's skill. 
 
 II. SIMPLE SENTENCES.— PHEASES. 
 
 160. Elements joined hj some Auxiliary or by a Prepo- 
 sition. 
 
 1. A phrase (155, 2) is, — 
 
 (1.) Inseparable; as, to read, to walk, to have learned; or,-— 
 (2.) Separable; as, in town, is base, over mountains. 
 
 Here, in parsing to read, to xoalk, &c., we call the whole expression a verb, 
 — the infinitive. But in parsing in toton, is base, &c., we must separate each into 
 two parts, — preposition and object, cojmla and attribute. But in such phrases 
 as may be done, we should parse the phrase as a whole, yet should distinguish 
 between the auxiliarij as the relation-word, and ih.Q principal verb as the irfea- 
 tcord. 
 
 2. The parts of a separable phrase are, — 
 
 (1.) The connective, expressing a relation, — namely, the copula, 
 the auxiliary, or the preposition. 
 
 (2.) The word expressing^ an idea, — namely, the attribute, de- 
 noting the cla^s, quality, action, or condition of the subject; the 
 principal verb, denoting the state (98, 3) of the act or the event (98, 
 113, 114, lis) ; or the object, denoting the person or the thing named. 
 
 Kemark. — Here the learner finds the first kind of connectives not improperly 
 called term-connectives, inasmuch as they join, not propositions, but usually a 
 subordinate to a principal term. 
 
 3. The subject or tlie predicate may be a pbrase, or 
 
 an element of the second class. 
 
 Model 9.— To steal is base. Here the two phrases to steal and is 
 base unite and form a simple declarative sentence. 
 
184 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 
 
 Observe, here we cannot say that steal is the simple subject, modified b> 
 to, but both must unite to form the subject in its simplest state. So of is 
 base. 
 
 ^osteal is the simple subject (why?); an element of the second 
 form or class, because it has one word, steal, to express an 
 idea, and another, to, to represent its relation. 
 
 Parse to steal as an irregular intransitive verb, present tense, — used as a 
 noun in the nominative case, and subject of the proposition. 
 
 is base . is the simple predicate (why?); it is of the second class, 
 having the attribute ba^e to express the predicated idea, 
 and is, the copula (so, 5), to predicate it and connect it 
 with the subject. Parse is and base. 
 
 Remark. — The subject only may be a phrase, — the predicate only, — or both 
 together; as. To forgive ennobles. Night is approaching. To betray is 
 infamous. 
 
 Ex. — To love exalts. The ceremony was performed. Silence is 
 impressive. To err is human. To forgive is divine. 
 
 Her desire is to leave. To love is to obey. The lady is in grief. 
 His intention is to return. To rob is to plunder. 
 
 4. The complex subject may be formed by joining to 
 the simple subject, — 
 
 (1.) A simple phrase ?is> an adjective element. 
 Model 10.— FieMs of g-rain were waving. Here the single word 
 fields, and the two phrases of grain and were waving, unite and 
 form a simple declarative sentence, of which 
 
 Fields is the simple subject (why?) ; an element of the 
 
 first class. 
 Were waving . is the simple predicate; a phrase of which were 
 is the copula and waving is the attribute. Fields, 
 the subject is limited by the simple adjective- 
 phrase of grain; of is the connective, and grain is 
 the object. 
 
 Parse of by (141, 2,) and grain as in (54, 2, last model.) 
 
 Ex. — Many works on history were carefully consulted. Days of 
 fasting were often appointed. Bouquets of flowers were presented. 
 
 (2.) By two or more adjective elements of the first or the second 
 class, each joined to the subject. 
 
 Ex. — The first settlers at Plymouth were called Puritans. Huge 
 waves of the ocean overwhelmed the ship. The dawn of light appeared. 
 
SYNTAX — SIMPLE SENTENCES. 185 
 
 (3.) By a comple:s: phrase as an adjective element. 
 
 Compare Models 4 and 10. 
 
 Ex. — An army confident of success is invincible. Paul, the Apostle 
 to the Gentiles, was imprisoned. The father of the lost prince never 
 smiled. A visit from a friend in Boston is soon expected. A jailer of 
 the Dauphin of France was named Simon. 
 
 5. The complex predicate may be formed by joining 
 to the simple predicate, — 
 
 (1.) A simple phrase as an objective or an adverbial element. 
 For models, see 10 for the /or???, and 3 for the relation. 
 
 Ex. — He hopes to succeed. I am trying to learn. The watch needs 
 to be repaired. We spoke to him. They gave money to the poor. He 
 failed of the opportunity. The fruit fell from the tree. The express 
 will come from Boston. In the morning it flourisheth. Come on Mon- 
 day. Can you write in cipher ? The Greeks succeeded by stratagem. 
 
 (2.) By tivo or more elements of the first or the second class, 
 added directly to the simple predicate. 
 Compare Models 10 and 6. 
 
 Ex. — They urged me to go. The doves besought the hawk to defend 
 them. I heard the cannon [to] roar. He bade me tell you. They 
 made the prisoner stand up. My cousin gave a book to me. The dis- 
 patch informed me of my brother's arrival. Throw the ball to me. The 
 teacher promised a reward to the best scholar. We heard their songs in 
 the grove. Did you learn to sing in childhood ? 
 
 (3.) By two or more elements of the first or the second class, 
 joined together, and then joined to the predicate. 
 
 See Models 6 and 7. 
 
 Ex. — We found large masses of ice. The party made a tent of 
 boughs. The general gave the command to the colonel of the regiment. 
 The arrangement was made for the child of my brother. The savages 
 came from their hidden retreats. They hope to reach home safely. The 
 air was filled with the fragrance of the flowers. Moses stood on the 
 summit of Pisgah. The city was situated at the head of the bay. 
 
 161. Exercise, 
 
 The massy trunks are cased in the pure crystal. The relation of 
 sleep to night appears to have been expressly intended by our 
 benevolent Creator. In every period of life, the acquisition of 
 
 16* 
 
186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 knowledge is one of the most pleasing employments of the human 
 mind. Hope, the charmer, lingered still behind. <Men apt to pro- 
 mise are apt to forget) This hour's work will breed proscriptions, 
 ^^any actions apt to procure fame are not conducive to our ultimate 
 nappinesa The brilliant flowers of the tropics bloom from the 
 windows of the green-house. The hermit trimmed his little lamp. 
 His troops moved to victory with the precision of machines. A 
 ship incurs guilt by the violation of a blockade. ^ sea of blood 
 gushed from the gaping wound^ ^h that those lips had languag^! 
 
 III. COMPLEX SENTENCES.— SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES. 
 
 162. Elements joined hj a Subordinate Conneetiye. 
 
 1. The subject may be a substantive clause, or an ele- 
 ment of the third class. 
 
 Model 11.— That you have wronged me, doth appear in this. 
 Here the substantive clause that you have ivronged me, the phrases 
 doth appear, and in this, unite and form a complex (i5o) declarative 
 sentence, of which the substantive clause 
 That you have wronged me is the subject, and 
 
 Both appear is the simple predicate. 
 
 Doth appear in this is the complex predicate. 
 
 The subject is a substantive clause, having 
 
 That as its connective, used here without an 
 
 antecedent term (201, 3). 
 
 You is the subject (why?), and 
 
 Have wronged is the simple predicate. Hence 
 
 That you have wronged ... is the basis, or unmodified element. 
 
 Wronged is limited by 
 Me a simple objective element of the first 
 
 Parse That as in (144, ?>.) Observe, there is no principal element on which 
 it can depend, since the whole clause occupies the highest place in the sentence. 
 
 Ex.— That the truth will finally prevail cannot be questioned, (= It 
 cannot be questioned that the truth will finally prevail.) Who wrote 
 Junius's Letters is uncertain. AVhen Congress will adjourn is a question. 
 Where the thief concealed the goods has been ascertained. Why will 
 he persist ? is often asked. How he lives on such a pittance is a mystery. 
 Whether the clouds will pass away is doubtful. 
 
SYNTAX — COMPLEX SENTENCES. 187 
 
 2. The predicate may consist of the copula and a sub- 
 stantive clause. 
 
 As a model, see 11 for the clause and 9 for its relation. 
 
 Ex. — My desire is that the difficulty may be adjusted. Our hope is 
 that an entire change of his habits may restore his health. His objection 
 was that the requisite means could not be easily obtained. 
 
 Let the pupil change all the examples in this section 1 and 2 to equivalent 
 ones introduced by it (173, 4). 
 
 3. The complex subject may be formed by joining to 
 the simple subject an adjective clause. 
 
 At the same time, it may be limited by a word or a phrase. 
 
 Model 12. — Lines tvbicli are drawn parallel to each other will 
 never meet. In this example, the single word lines^ the clause 
 which are drawn parallel to each other, the phrase will meet, and the 
 word never, combine and form the complex declarative sentence, 
 of which 
 
 liines is the simple subject (why?). 
 
 Will meet is the simple predicate (why?). 
 
 l<ines which are drawn parallel to each other is the complex sub- 
 ject (why?). 
 
 Will never meet .is the complex predicate (why?). 
 Lines is limited by 
 
 Wtiich are drawn parallel to each other, an adjective clause or ele- 
 ment of the third class, of which 
 
 Which is the subject and the connective, and 
 
 Are drawn parallel is the predicate, of which the copulative (82,7) 
 verb are drawn is the connective, and parallel is 
 the attribute. The attribute is limited by to each 
 other {is7, l,b), an indirect objective element of the 
 second class. 
 
 Ex. — Evils which cannot be cured must be endured.^ Rays which 
 fall perpendiculariy upon the earth are called vertical. uVho steals my 
 purse steals trashy The unwearied^ pains which he took to accomplish 
 his plans insured their success. (Peter the Hermit, who preached tlie 
 first crusade, was a native of Amiens, in France. The dreams of Joseph, 
 who was the favorite son of Jacob, were the occasion of much ill will. 
 The stream which flows from the mountain-range that bounds the valley 
 on the east, takes its name from an early custom of the inhabitants. 
 
188 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 Remark. — The learner will readily see that the complex subject may b© 
 formed by joining to the simple subject several single adjective xoords, phrases; 
 or clauses, or that any of these may be first joined to each other, forming a 
 complex adjective element, which may be united to the subject. Let him be 
 careful to show that the leading elevient always determines the name (adjec- 
 tive) and class of the whole complex element. Thus, in the last example the 
 adjective element is of the third class ; in the one before it, of the second class. 
 
 4. The complex predicate may be formed by joining to 
 the simple predicate an objective or an adverbial clause. 
 
 Here, also, modifying loords or ph- as es may be employed besides the limit- 
 ing clause; and they may be joined directly to the simple predicate, or to 
 each other, forming a complex element of the first, the second, or the third 
 class. As a model for the clause, see Model 12 ; as a model for its relation, 
 see ModeL5 or 6. 
 
 Ex.-|jJ at first believed that all these objects existed within t^ 
 During this moment of darkness I imagined that I had lost the greatest 
 part of my being. By this exercise I soon learned that the faculty of 
 feeing was expanded over every part of my frame. — Buffon. v^ 
 
 J^JIe closed his career before he had completed his thirty-sixth yearf 
 Place the package where it will not be injured. ^Had he reformed, I 
 would have assisted himjf as I encouraged him to hope. /If such be the 
 character of the youthml mind, am I to ask you what must be the 
 appearances of riper yearsj* When the farmer came down to breakfast, 
 he declared that his watcn had gained half an hour in the night. (The 
 views which we have now unfolded show that a vigorous action of the 
 mind is dependent upon a healthful condition of the physical function^ 
 
 163. Direct and Indirect Discourse— Quotations. 
 
 1. Discourse is, — 
 
 (1.) Direct, when originally uttered as a thought of its author, 
 or when afterwards quoted by the speaker, without change, as the 
 already uttered words of the author. 
 
 (2.) Indirect, when narrated for the author with only such 
 changes as shall make it the adopted language of the speaker. 
 
 Ex. — (J I wiljobey your orders:" — the thought of the author. 
 
 J Direct. Indirect. 
 
 ( I said, " I will obey your orders," =^ said that I ivovl^ obey, &c. 
 {Jfou said, " I willyobey your orders," ='aou said that you woul^ohey my 
 
 ^ oruers. 
 
 'He said, " I willjobey your orders," =^e said that he woulc^ obey my 
 
 orders. 
 
SYNTAX — QUOTATIONS. 189 
 
 In this last case, instead of 7ny we might have her, your, Ms, our, their, to 
 correspond to the party to whom the pledge was made. 
 
 2. The quoted part is used substantively, and appears as a sub- 
 stantive clause most commonly in the objective. 
 
 3. All substantive clauses may be divided into those containing, — 
 
 (1.) A statement or a command. 
 
 Ex. — Many suppose that the planets are inhabited. The captain gave 
 the order, " Shoulder arms." 
 
 (2.) An inquiry. 
 
 Ex. — Let me ask why you have come. 
 
 4. In quoting a statement of another directly, we should indicate 
 the quotation by the marks, or the use of the capital, without a con- 
 nective. But in quoting indirectly, the quotation-marks are omitted, 
 and the connective that should be employed. 
 
 Ex. — God said, Let there be light, and there was light. St. John 
 says that God is love. 
 
 5. In quoting an inquiry of another, two cases may occur : — 
 (a.) The interrogative may be a direct question (l49, 1), without an 
 
 interrogative word ; or, 
 
 (6.) It may be an indirect question, with an interrogative pronoun or 
 an adverb for a connective (78, 5). 
 
 6. When a direct or an indirect question is quoted directly, the 
 quoted part should begin with a capital, or receive the quotation- 
 marks, having the interrogation point at the close. 
 
 Ex. — They inquired, Will he certainly comef He asked, ^^ How long 
 must we wait?" 
 
 7. When a direct question is quoted indirectly, the connective 
 whether (sometimes if) is used, the quotation-marks are omitted, and 
 a period is placed at the close; as, "He asked whether the time had 
 arrived." When an indirect question is quoted indirectly, the in- 
 terrogative word becomes the connective, and the sentence closes 
 with the period, the quoted part having no quotation-marks ; as, 
 " They asked where we were to stop." 
 
 8. The quoted passage, whether direct or indirect, may form 
 either of the five elements of the sentence, except the adverbial. 
 
 Examples.—" *. Will he do %' is the question ;" " The question 
 is, '(iVill he do A"^ "The question, 'i^ill he do i^' has not yet 
 been answered." " He said that he would do it." 
 
190 - ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Remark. — It should be observed that the interrogation point follows all 
 interrogative clauses when quoted directly, and is omitted after all such 
 clauses when quoted indirectly. The case in this last remark must not be 
 confounded with that in which the principal clause is interrogative ; as, " Shall 
 I tell where we met with encouragement?" " Do you ask me who I am ?" 
 
 9. The clause which is generally the leading one may take, — 
 (a.) A prominent position ; as, " They say that they have bought it." 
 (6.) An intermediate position ; as, " For all that, said the pendulum, it 
 
 is very dark here." 
 
 (c.) A position wholly subordinate ; as, " He left, as he told me, before 
 
 the arrival of the steamer." 
 
 164. Exercise. 
 
 1. Separate the following sentences into their elements, and point out 
 the quotations : — 
 
 Then Judah came near unto him, and said, my lord, let thy 
 servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord's ears. " Punctuality," 
 replied Washington, "is an angel virtue." *t(Tell me, my son^' 
 said he, " did you ever hear of any who are called ungrateful ?" 
 Try the spirits, whether they be of God. He asked whether they 
 were friends or foes. "Why have you come so late?" was the 
 prompt inquiry. The question, "Where shall the funds be 
 obtained ?" seemed not to have entered their minds. Let me ask 
 you if your resolutions are as firm as when you first set out in the 
 spiritual life. The Scriptures inform us how we may obtain eternal 
 life. It is natural to man, as Patrick Henry eloquently said, to 
 indulge in the illusions of hope. I am not to discuss the question 
 whether the souls of men are naturally equal. But I would ask, 
 does the recollection of Bunker's Hill, Saratoga, and Yorktown 
 afford no pleasure ? 
 
 2. Show which quotations are direct, and which are indirect. 
 
 3. Show which contain statements or commands, and which 
 
 INQUIRIES. 
 
 IV. COMPOUND SENTENCES.— PEINCIPAL CLAUSES. 
 
 165. Elements joined Iby a Coordinate Conjunction. 
 
 1. The elements of a compound sentence are principal 
 propositions. 
 
SYNTAX — COMPOUND SENTENCES. 191 
 
 Remark.— Each principal proposition may have any of the preceding 
 forms of elements, and hence may by itself be a complex sentence. 
 
 Model 13.— I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat. In this sen- 
 tence the two independent propositions I was hungry and ye gave 
 me no meat unite and form a compound declarative sentence, of 
 which I was hungry is the first clause, and ye gave me no meat is the 
 second, being joined to the first coordinately by the conjunction and. 
 
 Analyze each clause as a simple sentence by the preceding models, and 
 parse and by (144, 2.) 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I. Copulative Clauses. 
 
 Witliont emphasis, with a single connective. — The rain is over, 
 aiMl the sun shines. 
 
 Second clause emphatic, by means of an associated connective. 
 — She sings, and, besides, she plays skilfully. 
 
 Emphatic by correlative.— Xot only am I instructed by this ex- 
 ercise, but I am also invigorated. 
 
 II. Adversative Clauses. 
 
 Opposition or contrast. — He did not return to his parents, but 
 he persisted in wandering among strangers. 
 
 liimitation or restriction. — The army was victorious, but the 
 general was slain. 
 
 Emphatic opposition or restriction. — The delinquent has been 
 repeatedly admonished, but still he is as negligent as ever. 
 
 III. Alternative Clauses. 
 
 oireringr or denying: a choice.-^urrender, or take the conse- 
 quences. He cannot ride, nor will he walk. 
 
 With emphasis. — Either he will love the one, and hate the 
 other ; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. 
 
 IV. Causal Clauses. 
 
 The south wind blows, [and] therefore it will rain. 
 
 Component parts complex. — ^When he rose, every sound was 
 hushed ; and when he spoke, every eye was fixed upon him. You 
 take my house, when you do take the prop that doth sustain my 
 house ; you take my life, when you do take the means whereby I 
 live. 
 
192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 V. CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 
 
 166. Common Part omitted.— Compound Elements. 
 
 1. A compound sentence may be contracted to a sentence joar^m% 
 compound, by using but once all elements common to the fiill propo- 
 sitions, and uniting all others. 
 
 Thus, Heaven shall pass away, and earth shall pass away, = Heaven 
 and earth shall pass away. Observe that the contracted sentence has only a 
 compound subject. 
 
 Model 14.— Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 
 It is a contracted declarative sentence, derived from the compound 
 
 sentence, Exercise strengthens the constitution, and temperance 
 strengthens the constitution, by omitting the common part in the first 
 proposition. 
 
 Exercise and temperance . . is thetjompound subject, and 
 
 fiitreng^then is the simple predicate, and 
 
 Streng^then the constitution is the complex predicate. Exercise 
 
 and strengthen are connected by the 
 
 coordinate conjunction and, because 
 
 they are equal in rank and have 
 
 a similar construction, being both 
 
 equally subjects of the proposition. 
 
 Streng:then is of the plural number 
 
 (Rule XII). 'Pa.rse and sindstroigt hen. 
 
 Examples. — Subjects compound. — Virtue and vice form a strong 
 
 contrast to each other. To soothe thy sickness, and to watch thy health, 
 
 shall be my pleasure. That their poetry is almost uniformly mournful, 
 
 and that their views of nature were dark and dreary, will be allowed by 
 
 all who admit the authenticity of Ossian. 
 
 Predicates compound. — No fascinated throng weep, and melt, and 
 tremble at his gate. The present life is not wholly prosaic, precise, 
 tame, and finite. His direction was, that the patient should take a great 
 deal of exercise, that his diet should be very carefully attended to, and 
 that every thing of an exciting nature should be avoided. 
 
 Adjective element compound. — Wise and good men are frequently 
 unsuccessful. The parting of Hector and Andromache is beautifully 
 described by Homer. That faith which is one, which renews and justifies 
 all who possess it, which confessions and formularies can never adequately 
 express, is the property of all alike. 
 
 Objective element compound. — Behold my mother and my brethren. 
 It teaches us to be thankful for all favors received, to love each other, 
 
SYNTAX — ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 193 
 
 and to be united. He found that every thing was changed, that strangers 
 inhabited the home of his childhood, and that he was alone in the world. 
 Adverbial element componnd. — The boy studied diligently and 
 faithfully. With trembling limbs and faltering steps, he departed from 
 his mansion of sorrow. When a few more friends have left, a few more 
 hopes deceived, and a few more changes mocked us, we shall be brought 
 to the grave, and shall remain in the tomb. 
 
 167. Subordinate Clause Abridged.— Abridged Propo- 
 sitions. 
 
 1. A complex, sentence may be contracted by abridging 
 its subordinate clause. 
 
 Thus, from the sentence, " When peace of mind is secured, we may smile at 
 misfortune," we obtain the contracted sentence, "Peace of mind being secured, 
 we may smile at misfortune." The expression in italics conveys the same, or 
 nearly the same, meaning as the full proposition : it is called an abridged i^ro- 
 position. 
 
 Remark. — A proposition is abridged when it loses its copula, or when its 
 predicate retains only its attribute, whatever may be the number of words or 
 syllables remaining. The remaining expression is called an abridged propo- 
 sition, even though it contains no assertion to indicate both its changed form 
 and its relation to the primitive form. 
 
 2. A subordinate clause is abridged by dropping its 
 connective, and changing the predicate into a 'participle or 
 an infinitive. 
 
 Ex. — To an American (who -visits Europe =) visiting Europe, the long 
 voyage he has to make is an excellent preparative. I am glad that I 
 find you well, = I am glad to find you well. 
 
 Remark. — The participle is employed usually to abridge adjective and 
 adverbial clauses, and the infinitive (sometimes the participle) to abridge sub- 
 stantive clauses. In many cases the copula is dropped and the attribute alone 
 remains, in apposition, or as an attributive object. 
 
 3. The subject is dropped when it has already been expressed in 
 the principal clause. Otherwise it must be retained, either in the 
 nominative, the possessive, or the objective case. 
 
 4. Abridged propositions may be divided into two classes,— 
 participial forms, and infinitive forms. 
 
 I. Participial Forms. 
 
 IWodel Vi.—A ship g-liding: over the tvave.«) is a beaut if ul objects 
 N 17 
 
194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 It is a contracted complex sentence, or a simple sentence derived from 
 the complex sentence, "A ship which glides over the waves is a 
 beautiful object," by abridging its subordinate clause. 
 
 Ship is the simple subject, and 
 
 A ship g-liding over the waves is the complex subject. 
 
 Is object is the simple predicate: is is the 
 
 copula, and object is the attribute. 
 Is a beautiful object is the complex predicate (point out 
 
 the modifications of object). 
 
 The subject, ship, is limited by "gliding over the waves," a complex adjec- 
 tive element of the first class; it is equivalent to "which glides over the 
 waves" (an adjective element of the third class), and is, therefore, an abridged 
 proposition, obtained by dropping the subject and connective "which," and 
 changing " glides," the predicate, into the participle " gliding." 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Subject nominative retained. — When shame is lost, all virtue is 
 lost, = Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. 
 
 Predicate nominative retained.— That one should be a servant to 
 the whole public is no easy task, = Being a servant to the whole public 
 is no easy task. 
 
 soth retained. — Since a youth is their leader, = A youth being their 
 leader, what can they do ? 
 
 Observe, where a clause denotes a causal relation, or some accompanying 
 circumstance, as in the last example, the abridged expression does not come 
 under the governing influence of any word in the principal clause : hence 
 both the subject nominative and the predicate nominative are as it were 
 abaoh-ed from any grammatical regimen ,• they are, hence, in the nominative 
 absolute. 
 
 Subject changed to the possessive. — I was not aware that he 
 lived in the city, = I was not aware of his living in the city. 
 
 Here the full clause and the abridged expression are under the regimen 
 of aware, or aware of in the principal clause. Observe, however, that 
 this governing word has no control over his, which is wholly under the 
 government of living. 
 
 The same with pred. noun unchang^ed. — I was not aware that 
 he was a foreigner, = I was not aware of his being a foreig^ner. I 
 Wiis not aware of its being he. 
 
 Here his, itself a subordinate element (153, 4, Rem.), has no power over 
 leiiig a foreigner, its principal (153, 1). Hence, though being a foreigner is 
 governed by of, foreigner alone is governed neither by of nor being. Like the 
 
SYNTAX — ABEIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 195 
 
 case above, it is absolved from any government, and is pred. nom. aheolute. 
 Similar to this is the case of the nominative after the expletive there when 
 the proposition is abridged. "Was this owing to there being twelve primary- 
 deities among the G-othic nations?" Here the abridged expression is under 
 the regimen of owing to, but deities is not governed by to. In the full form, 
 deities is the subject:— "Was this owing to thefactihaX there were twelve pri- 
 mary deities," «fcc. 
 
 Subject and pred. changed to the objective. — ^We regarded him 
 as being a good writer. He intrusted his son to a gentleman named 
 Edric. I saw that the chrysalis was becoming a butterfly, = I saw 
 the chrysalis becoming a butterfly. 
 
 Here, as in many other cases, there is a difference of meaning between the 
 two forms. In this case the usual form for abridgment is the infinitive. 
 In fact, the participle is equivalent to the infinitive. The subject is changed 
 to the objective, and the predicate noun takes the same case. 
 
 Subject dropped. — As ice were walking by the sea-shore, we dis- 
 cerned the light of the burning ship, = WaUcing by the sea-shore, &c. 
 When we arrived at the gate, we found the porter asleep, = O71 
 arriving at the gate, &c. 
 
 II. Infinitive Forms. 
 Model 16. — The officer commanded him to retire. It is a simple 
 sentence, derived by contraction from the complex sentence, The 
 officer commanded that he should retire. 
 
 Officer is the simple subject, and 
 
 The officer is the complex subject. 
 
 Commanded is the simple predicate, and 
 
 Commanded him to retire is the complex predicate. Commanded 
 
 is limited by him to retire, a double 
 object, of which him is the direct and to 
 retire the attributive object. 
 
 Observe, in the full form, that the whole clause is the only object, while in 
 the abridged form the subject becomes the direct object, and the predicate, still 
 holding ita relation to it as attribute, is the attributive object. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Subject retained in the objective.— We taught them to read. We 
 wish that you would stay, -- We wish you to stay. 
 
 Here the subject should be dropped when it is the same as that of the 
 principal clause. I wish to go; not, I wish me to go. 
 
196 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 Predicate noun retained in the nominative.— 7b he a k.ing^ is U 
 be a sovereign. 
 
 Snbject and predicate retained in the objective. — I believed 
 that he was an honest man, = I believed him to be an hotiest man. 
 For him to be such a spendthrift was wholly inexcusable. 
 
 The abridged expression, the term of a comparison. — The bed 
 is shorter than that a man can stretch himself in it. — Bible. = The 
 bed is shorter than for a man, &c. 
 
 Here the subjects are unlike. 
 
 My friend was so elated as that he forgot his appointment, — as to 
 forget, &c. The soldiers desired nothing more than that they might 
 know where the enemy was, — than to know, &c. 
 
 Here the subjects of the two clauses are alike. 
 
 An incorporated interrogative sentence. — I knew not what I 
 should do, = what to do. 
 
 Remark. — In the same manner we have whom to send, when to go, when 
 to stop, Koto to proceed. The connectives what, xohere, xohen, &c., by Rule 
 8, above, should be dropped ; but, as they are a part of the substance of the 
 sentence, they must be retained. Were they merely connectives, they would 
 be dropped. 
 
 VI. TRANSFOKMATION OF SENTENCES.— EQUIVALENT 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 168. Equiyalent Elements. 
 
 1. A sentence is transformed when it undergoes a 
 change in the form of any of its elements, without any- 
 material change in the meaning; the new forms of the 
 elements, which express the same or nearly the same 
 meaning, are called equivalents, 
 
 Ex. — After he had discovered Hispaniola, Columbus returned to 
 Spain, = Having discovered Hispaniola, Columbus returned to Spain. 
 Here the subordinate clause denoting time is exchanged to an equivalent 
 abridged proposition denoting time (see 167). 
 
 2. We may change the form of a sentence, — 
 
 (a.) By altering the grammatical construction of any of its elements ; 
 
 (b.) By causing or supplying an ellipsis; 
 
 (c.) By transposing any element to another part of the sentence. 
 
SYNTAX — EQUIVALENT ELEMENTS. 197 
 
 3. The grammatical construction of an element may be altered 
 by changing,— 
 
 (1.) The voice of the verb. 
 
 Ex. — Columbus discovered America, == America was discovered by 
 Columbus. 
 
 (2.) The class from one of the first class (i55, 1, 2) to one of the 
 second, or from one of the second to one of the first. 
 
 Ex. — A morning ride is refreshing, = A ride in the morning is refreshing. 
 
 (3.) A complex sentence to a simple one (a contracted complex)^ 
 by abridging its subordinate clause. 
 
 Ex. — When the shower had passed, we resumed our journey, = The 
 shower having passed, we resumed our journey. 
 
 (4.) A simple sentence to a complex, by expanding any of its 
 elements into a proposition. 
 
 Ex. — A merciful man is merciful to his beast, = A man who is merci- 
 ful is merciful to his beast. 
 
 (5.) A complex sentence to a compound, by raising the subordi- 
 nate clause to an equal rank with the principal, and changing the 
 subordinate connective to a coordinate. 
 
 Ex. — When spring comes, the flowers will bloom, = The spring will 
 come, and the flowers will bloom. 
 
 (6.) A compound sentence to a complex, by depressing one of 
 its propositions into a subordinate rank. 
 
 Ex. — Man has a moral sense, and therefore he is an accountable 
 being, = Since man has a moral sense, he is an accountable being. 
 
 (7.) A question for gaining assent (i49, 2, Eem.) may be changed 
 into a declarative sentence, or a declarative sentence may be 
 changed into a question for gaining assent. 
 
 Ex. — Will he plead against me with his great power ? = He will not 
 plead against me with his great power. 
 
 (8.) Its wliole constrnction, by entirely remodelling it. 
 
 Ex. — That which agrees with the will of God should please us, = We 
 should be pleased Avith whatever is agreeable to the will of our heavenly 
 Father. 
 
 (9.) A compound sentence to a partial compound. 
 
 Ex. — Bacon was a distinguished writer, Shakspeare was a distinguished 
 writer, and Butler was a distinguished writer, = Bacon, Shakspeare, and 
 Butler were distinguished writers. 
 
198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (10.) Any contracted compound sentence, to a complete com- 
 pound. 
 
 Ex. — The king and queen were absent, = The king was absent, and 
 the queen was absent. 
 
 4. The arrangement of the elements is the position 
 which they take in the sentence. 
 
 5. There are two kinds of arrangement, — the natural or gram- 
 matical, and the inverted or transposed. 
 
 6. In a proposition, by the natural order, the subject is placed 
 before the predicate; the adjective element is placed before the 
 noun when of the first class, but after the noun when of the second 
 or third; the objective element is placed after the verb which 
 governs it ; and the adverbial element commonly follows the ob- 
 jective element. 
 
 Ex. — The good boy studied his geogra]phy attentively. The kingdom 
 of Sardinia is situated in the south of Europe. 
 
 7. An element is transposed whenever it is placed out 
 
 of its natural order. 
 
 Ex. — Great is Diana of the Ephesians. Copernicus these wonders 
 told. Wisely were his efforts directed. 
 
 8. When the verb "to be" predicates existence, the subject is not 
 only transposed, but its place is supplied by the expletive " there" 
 (i34, 9). So when a phrase or a clause as subject (i60, 1 ; 162, 1) is 
 transposed, its place is supplied by " it" used as an expletive (70, 4). 
 
 169. Exercise. 
 
 1. Use the active for the passive, and the passive for the active, in the 
 following examples, supplying the agent where omitted: — 
 
 AVellington is buried in Westminster Abbey. Not a drum was 
 heard, nor a funeral note. Energy of purpose awakens powers 
 before unknown. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust ? Three 
 of your armies, O Eomans, have been slaughtered by Mark Antony. 
 I give my hand and my heart to this vote. 
 
 2. In the following, change any element of the first class to one of the 
 second; and the reverse : — 
 
 A marble statue was placed in the grove. Achilles was a Grecian 
 hero. The siege of Troy lasted ten years. In dreams his song of 
 
SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 199 
 
 triumph [he] heard. Strike the golden lyre again. Last came Joy's 
 ecstatic trial. 
 
 3. Change the following complex sentences to simple or contracted 
 complex sentences, by abridging the subordinate clauses : — 
 
 A man who is deceitful can never be trusted. When the orator 
 had finished, the assembly retired. Heard ye the whisper of the 
 breeze, as soft it murmured by ? He declares that she is a slave of 
 his. This is the man who deserves commendation. He went to 
 Egypt that he might see the pyramids. 
 
 4. Expand the italicized elements into clauses : — 
 
 The crocuses, blooming in the garden, attracted the bees. Hanni- 
 bal, the Carthaginian general, conquered the Romans in four battles. 
 We told him to leave, Caesar should have perished on the brink of 
 the E-ubicon before attempting to cross it. 
 
 Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid 
 Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire. 
 
 5. Supply the words omitted by ellipsis : — 
 
 All nature is but art, unknown to thee , 
 
 All chance, direction which thou canst not see ; 
 
 All discord, harmony not understood ; 
 
 All partial evil, universal good. 
 
 6. Arrange the elements in their natural order : — 
 
 Great is Diana of the Ephesians. Welcome thou art to me. To 
 each honor is given. In fearless freedom he arose. Whom ye 
 ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. 
 
 7. See if the following can be improved by transposing any element : — 
 I would be Diogenes, were I not Alexander. The parting soul 
 
 relies on some fond breast. That is the question, — to be, or not lo 
 be. Then the hills shook, riven with thunder. When creation 
 began we know not. 
 
 170. Directions for Analysis of Sentences and Elements. 
 
 Sentences.—!. Read the sentence, and determine by its meaning 
 whether it is declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 
 
 2. Determine the leading assertion, and point out the subject and 
 the predicate. 
 
 3. If any of the parts are inverted, arrange them in the natural 
 order. 
 
200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 4. If necessary, supply ellipses. 
 
 5. Find all the separate words or groups of words which express 
 distinct ideas added to the subject, and show in what way they 
 modify it. 
 
 6. In the same manner dispose of all the additions to the predicate. 
 
 7. If neither the subject, nor the predicate, nor any of the addi- 
 tions to either, contains a proposition, the sentence is simple. 
 
 8. But if either contains a proposition, the sentence is complex. 
 
 9. If the sentence contains two or more independent assertions, 
 it is compound, and should first be separated into its component parts, 
 each of which should be analyzed as a simple or a complex sentence. 
 
 10. If the subject, the predicate, or any of the additions to either, 
 contains two coordinate parts, the sentence is a. partial compound, 
 and should be analyzed like a simple sentence, with the exception 
 of the compound part : this should be named as a compound element, 
 and then resolved into its component parts. 
 
 11. If the subject, the predicate, or any of the additions to either, 
 contains 2^ participle, or an infinitive equivalent in its use to a de- 
 pendent proposition, the sentence is a contracted complex, and 
 should be analyzed like a simple sentence. Yet the part derived by 
 abridging a dependent clause (i67, 2) should be named, and its 
 equivalent proposition given. 
 
 Elements.— 1. Eesolve the sentence as in ito; and then, regard- 
 ing each part as an element, classify it as in (i55.) 
 
 Note. — This analysis gives the oflSce and relation of all the subordinate 
 ideas and of all the words in the sentence ; that in 170 gives the relation of 
 all the prominent ideas. 
 
 2. If any element contains but one word, it is completely reduced, 
 and may then be parsed. 
 
 3. If an element containing more than one word is simple (i56, 1), 
 it must be a phrase or a clause, and is to be still further analyzed by 
 pointing out, — 
 
 [a.) The connective, showing what parts it joins. 
 [b.) The part which expresses the idea:— in case of the phrase, 
 a word; in case of the clause, the subject and the predicate. 
 
 4. If an element is complex or compound, reduce it to its simple 
 elements, and then proceed as in 2 or 3 above. 
 
 5. In case of a complex element, point out and dispose of the 
 principal element, or basis (i56, 4), then each of the others in the 
 order of their rank. 
 
SYNTAX — EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS. 201 
 
 6. In case of a compound element, separate it into its component 
 simple elements, point out and classify the coordinate conjunction 
 which joins them, and then dispose of each as in 2 or 3 above. 
 
 7. Thus the sentence is reduced by simple and methodical steps 
 to the parts of speech which enter into it, 
 
 Remakk. — It will not, generally, be best to parse all the words. It is a 
 good exercise for the pupil to name them in the order of their rank, from the 
 subject or the predicate to that which holds the lowest rank. The teacher 
 can best judge what ones should be parsed. 
 
 171. General Exercise in Analysis. 
 
 Eemark. — The learner who has carefully studied the preceding develop- 
 ment of the elements of the sentence is now prepared to analyze and form an 
 English sentence, from the simplest, with which he began, up to the most 
 complicated. Let him examine the following model and apply the general 
 principles of analysis to the examples in this exercise. It will not always be 
 best to separate the elements into their parts. Let the learner name them, 
 and give their general effect in the sentence. 
 
 Model 17. — " The Cynic who twitted Aristippus by observing 
 that the philosopher who could dine on herbs might despise the 
 company of a king, was well replied to by Aristippus, when he re- 
 marked that the philosopher who could enjoy the company of a 
 king might also despise a dinner of herbs." 
 
 This is a complex sentence, containing seven clauses, — one princi- 
 pal, and six subordinate. 
 
 (1.) The Cynic was ivell replied to by Aristippus^ 
 
 (2.) Who twitted Aristippus by observing, 
 
 (3.) Tliat the philosopher might despise the company of a hing, 
 
 (4.) Who could dine on herbs, 
 
 (5.) When he remarked, 
 
 (6.) That the pjhilosopher anight also despise- a dinner of herbs^ 
 
 (7.) Who could enjoy the company of a king. 
 
 The first is the principal clause, and the others are subordinate. 
 
 Cynic is the subject of the principal clause. 
 
 Was replied to is the predicate. 
 
 The subject. Cynic, is limited by "who twitted Aristippus by 
 observing," &c., a complex adjective element of the third class; 
 "who" is the connective and subject, "twitted" is the predicate, 
 and is limited, first, by "Aristippus," a simple objective element of 
 the first class, and also by " by observing that the philosopher might 
 despise the company of a king," a complex adverbial element of 
 
202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 the second class; "by observing" is the basis, "by" is the con* 
 nective, and "observing" is the object; "observing" is limited by 
 " that the philosopher might despise the company of a king," a 
 complex objective element of the third class, of which "that" is 
 the connective; "philosopher" is the subject, and is limited by 
 " who could dine on herbs," an adjective element of the third class ; 
 " might despise" is the predicate, and is limited by " the company 
 of a king," a complex objective element of the first class. 
 
 The predicate, was replied to, is limited, first, by " well," a simple 
 adverbial element of the first class, and by "by Aristippus," an 
 adverbial element of the second class, and also by the clause " w^hen 
 he remarked that the philosopher," &c., a complex adverbial ele- 
 ment of the third class, of which " when" is the connective, " he" 
 is the subject, and "remarked" is the predicate; "remarked" is 
 limited by "that the philosopher," &c., a complex objective element 
 of the third class, of which " that" is the connective, " philosopher" 
 is the subject, "the philosopher who could enjoy the company of a 
 king" is the logical subject, "might despise" is the predicate, and 
 " might also despise a dinner of herbs" is the logical predicate ; the 
 subject, "philosopher," is limited by the clause "who could enjoy 
 the company of a king," a complex adjective element of the third 
 class, of which "who" is the connective and subject, "'could enjoy" 
 is the predicate, and is limited by " the company of a king," a com- 
 plex objective element of the first class; the predicate "might de- 
 spise" is limited by " a dinner of herbs," a complex objective ele- 
 ment of the first class, of which " dinner" is the basis, and is limited 
 by "of herbs," a simple adjective element of the second class. 
 
 Model 18.— Brief Method. 
 
 Cynic, the subject, is limited by the expression who 
 
 twitted Aristippus . . . king^, used to identify 
 the Cynic, by stating what he did and said. 
 Was replied to, the predicate, is limited, — 
 
 (1.) By well, showing iha fitness of the reply. 
 (2.) By by Aristippus, showing by whom the 
 
 reply was made. 
 (3.) By when he remarked . . . dinner of 
 herbs, used to show the reply itself, rather 
 than the time of it. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences according to the models: — 
 
 Most men know what they hate ; few what they love. 
 
 He who openly tells his friends all that he thinks of them, muarti 
 
SYNTAX — EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS. 203 
 
 expect that they will secretly tell his enemies much that they do 
 not think of him. 
 
 That nations sympathize with their monarch's glory, that they 
 are improved by his virtues, and that the tone of morals rises high 
 when he that leads the band is perfect, are truths admitted with 
 exultation and felt with honest pride. 
 
 Highly elated by his unexpected good fortune, he returned home. 
 Saving carefully the fruits of his labor, he at length was able to 
 purchase a farm. 
 
 A pretended patriot, he impoverished his country. 
 
 How is it that tyranny has thus triumphed, — that the hopes with 
 which we greeted the French Revolution have been crushed, — that a 
 usurper plucked up the last roots of the tree of liberty and planted 
 despotism in its place? 
 
 Eevolutions which are acted out in a day have often been years 
 or centuries in preparation. 
 
 Why did Wolsey, near the steps of fate, 
 On weak foundations raise the enormous weight? 
 Why, but to sink beneath misfortune's blow 
 With louder ruins to the gulf below ? 
 
 Will you believe that the pure system of Christian faith which 
 appeared eighteen hundred years ago, in one of the obscurest 
 regions of the Roman empire, at the moment of the highest mental 
 cultivation and of the lowest moral degeneracy ; which superseded 
 at once all the curious fabrics of pagan philosophy ; which spread 
 almost instantaneously through the civilized world, in opposition to 
 the prejudices, the pride, and the persecution of the times ; which 
 has already had the most beneficial influence on society, and has 
 been the source of almost all the melioration of the human cha- 
 racter ; and which is now the chief support of the harmony, the 
 domestic happiness, the moral and intellectual improvement of the 
 best part of the world : will you believe, I say, that this system 
 originated in the unaided reflections of twelve Jewish fishermen on 
 the Sea of Galilee, with the son of a carpenter at their head ? 
 
 Join subordinate elements to the following indefinite se?itences, and 
 thereby convert them into definite ones : — 
 
 Messenger brought. 
 
 Will the pupil remember? 
 
 Men understood. 
 
 Poet says. 
 
 History was traced. 
 
204 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 SYNTAX OF WORDS. 
 
 In the syntax of words we recognize a regular, an 
 incorrect, and a peculiar use. 
 
 I. REGUIiAR USE. 
 
 172. Rules of Construction. 
 
 A rule of syntax is a statement of the law which 
 governs the /orm and the use of a word in construction. 
 
 Rule I.-V^ noun or a pronoun used as the subject of 
 a proposition must be in the nominative case. 
 
 Rule II. — A noun or a pronoun used as the attribute 
 of a proposition must be in the nominative case. 
 
 Rule III. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent 
 in person, number, and gender. 
 
 Rule IV.-^The verb must agree with its subject in 
 person and number. 
 
 Rule V.-f-^^^ adjective or a participle must belong 
 to some noun or pronoun. 
 
 Rule VI.-^A noun or a pronoun used to explain or 
 identify another noun or another pronoun, is put by appo- 
 sition in the same case. 
 
 Rule VII.-V-A noun or a pronoun used to limit another 
 noun by denoting possession, must be in the possessive 
 case. 
 
 Rule VIIL-I^A noun or a pronoun used as the object 
 of a transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the 
 objective case. 
 
 Rule IX.— Adverbs are used to limit verbs, participles, 
 adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 
 Rule X. — The nominative case independent, and the 
 In jection, have no grammatical relation to the other 
 parts of the sentence. 
 
SYNTAX — RULES AND CAUTIONS. 205 
 
 Rule XI. — Coordinate conjunctions are used to con- 
 nect similar elements. 
 
 Rule XII. — When a verb or a pronoun relates to two 
 or more nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — 
 
 (1.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must 
 be in the plural number. 
 
 (2.) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it 
 must be of the same number as the noun or the pronoun 
 which stands next to it. 
 
 (3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must 
 take the number of that one. 
 
 Rule XIII.— A preposition is used to show the rela- 
 tion of its object to the word on w^hich the latter depends. 
 
 Rule XrV. — A noun or a pronoun used as the object 
 
 of a preposition must be in the objective case. 
 
 Rule XV. — Subordinate connectives are used to join 
 dissimilar elements. 
 
 Rule XVI. — The infinitive has the construction of 
 the noun, with the signification and limitations of the 
 verb, and, when dependent, is governed by the word 
 which it limits. 
 
 Rule XVII. — Participles have the construction of 
 adjectives and nounSj and are limited like verbs. 
 
 RULES, CAUTIONS, AND REMARKS. 
 173. The Subject. 
 
 1. Rule I. — A noun or a pronoun used as the subject of 
 
 a proposition must be in the nominative case. 
 
 Ex.— GiBsar conquered Gaul, /have found a man who professes to 
 teach all that is necessary to be known. 
 
 A letter, a symbol, a phraise, or a clause, when used 
 as the subject, is a noun in the nominative singular. 
 
 18 
 
206 EXGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. — A is a vowel. + is the sign of additioo. To steal is base; 
 Tliat you have wronged me doth appear in this. 
 
 A noun or a pronoun, as the subject of an abridged pro- 
 position, is in the — 
 
 NominatiTe absolute with a participle (l67, 4, Ex.) 
 when its case depends upon no other word ; but in the 
 
 ObjectiTe with an infinitive when its case depends upon 
 
 a verb or a preposition. 
 
 Ex. — Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. They requested him to leave. 
 For you to be released, and /or me to be burdened, is obviously unju&t. 
 
 2. A noun or a pronoun is in the nominative when used, — 
 (1.) As subject (l47, 4). 
 
 (2.) As predicate (l47, 5). 
 
 (3.) In apposition with the subject or the predicate (i83). 
 
 (4.) As the compeliative (i58. Model 8). 
 
 (5.) As subject or predicate of an abridged proposition (l67, 4). 
 
 (6.) In headings, titles, and unfinished sentences. 
 
 3. The subject is usually omitted, — 
 
 (1.) In the imperative mode, in which case it is always a pro- 
 noun of the second person, even when the compellative is expressed. 
 Ex. — Son, arise. Go, my friend. 
 
 (2.) After hut, when, while, if, and though; also after compari- 
 sons made by as and than, 
 
 Ex. — We shall go, if [it is] possible. Though poor, luxurious ; 
 though submissive, vain. There is no heart but [what or it'] must feel 
 them. The disaffection was spread far wider than was supposed. 
 
 4. The proper position of the subject is before the predicate ; 
 but it is placed after either the verb or its auxiliary, — 
 
 (1.) In the imperative mode, in direct questions, in exclamatory 
 sentences, in suppositions without a connective, in sentences arranged 
 for rhetorical effect, and in the governing clause of a direct quota- 
 tion. 
 
 Ex. — Go ye into all the world, and preach [ye] the gospel to every 
 creature. Doth my father yet live ? How is the great fallen ! Were I 
 not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 
 Jt is natural to man, said Patrick Henry, to indulge in the illusions of 
 hope. 
 
SYNTAX — RULES AND CAUTIONS. 207 
 
 (2.) When the subject of a sentence is a phrase or a clause. The 
 vacant place of the subject is then filled by the expletive "it," a 
 word adapted to this idiom, but not necessary to the construction. 
 
 "When the subject is before the predicate, the expletive should not be used. 
 The following sentence, therefore, is wrong : — " That the soul be without know- 
 ledge, it is not good." The following sentences are faulty for want of the 
 expletive, because which, the object of the infinitive subject, is erroneously 
 made subject of the following verb. "Why do ye that which [it] is not 
 lawful to do on the sabbath days ?" " We have done that which [it] was our 
 duty to do." 
 
 6. The object of the verb in the active voice becomes its subject 
 in the passive voice. 
 
 Ex. — John granted the Magna Charta, = The Magna Charta was 
 granted by John. 
 
 Caution I. — Never use the objective as the subject of a finite verb. 
 Say, "/did it,"— not ''Me did it." 
 
 Note. — This caution should be specially heeded in the construction of 
 subjects consisting of a personal pronoun used jointly with a noun or another 
 pronoun, in the use of the relative and interrogative pronouns, in the use of 
 a noun or a pronoun as a term of comparison after thmi or as, and in the 
 answers to questions. See examples under Incorrect Use. 
 
 174. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following examples, and parse the SUBJECTS: — 
 Those who would give the highest training to the mind must 
 furnish to it deeds of excellence, tales of heroism. How beautiful 
 an object \% a tree, growing, with all its foliage, freely and fairly on a 
 sheltered lawn ! Ye hills, lift up your voices ; let the shaggy woods 
 upon your summits wave with adoration. Has reason fled from 
 our borders? Have we ceased to reflect? There is great economy 
 in giving pleasure to children. A trifling gift, a little kindness, 
 goes a great way, and is long remembered. It is natural for man 
 to indulge in the illusions of hope. To err is human ; to forgive, 
 divine. It was said that fifty guineas had been paid for a single 
 ticket. It was determined to examine witnesses at the bar of the 
 Commons. The doves besought the hawk to defend them. The 
 captain commanded his company to march. 
 
 Model I. — "Happiness depends upon the prudent 
 constitution of the habits." — Pahy, 
 
208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 This is a simple sentence, containing three sentence-elements. 
 The subject is " happiness ;" the predicate, " depends ;" and the 
 adverbial element, " upon the constitution of the habits." 
 
 Remark. — In this and in the following models the teacher can best jud^^e 
 whether or not the pupil needs more practice in minute analysis. If sufficient 
 skill has already been acquired, it is recommended that only the sentence-ele- 
 ments be pointed out (171, Mod. 18), with their mutual influence upon each 
 other, — except in rare constructions, or when the pupil fails to comprehend the 
 true relations of the parts. 
 
 Happiness is a common noun, third, sing., neut., nom., and is used 
 as the subject. (Eule I.) 
 
 Model II. — "It is evident that his conduct was 
 directed by a profound policy." — Macaulay, 
 
 This is a complex sentence. Arranged in the natural order, it 
 would be, "That his conduct was directed by a profound policy 
 is evident." (i68, 4, 2.) In either form it contains two general 
 elements : — the subject, " That his conduct was directed by a pro- 
 found policy ;" the predicate, " is evident." 
 
 The subject is a substantive clause, third, sing., neut., and in the nomi- 
 native case, by Rule I. a. 
 
 For the use of that, see 201^ 3. This clause is also represented by the 
 expletive "it" (70, 4), of the same person, number, gender, and case as the 
 clause, and is grammatically pleonastic, but is essential to this arrangement 
 of the true subject (see 4, above), and is used to introduce the sentence in an 
 agreeable way. 
 
 Model III. — "The patriots not dispersing, Pitcairn 
 ordered his men to fire." 
 
 This is a simple sentence, having abridged propositions for its 
 elements. It is derived, by contraction, from the complex sentence, 
 "As the patriots did not disperse, Pitcairn ordered that his men 
 should fire." 
 
 The subject is " Pitcairn ;" the predicate, " ordered ;" objective 
 element, "his men to fire;" and the adverbial element, "the 
 patriots not dispersing." 
 
 The subject is not modified. The predicate is modified by the 
 double object "his men to fire." (187, 10.) " Men'' is the direct, 
 and " to fire" the attributive, object. The combination is derived 
 from the objective proposition "that his men should fire," — "men" 
 being the subject, and " should fire" the predicate. 
 
SYNTAX — NOUN AS ATTRIBUTE. 209 
 
 " Men" is a common noun, third person, plural number, mascu- 
 line gender, and is logically the subject of "to fire" (see 173, 1); 
 but, since the proposition is abridged, it becomes, with " to fire," 
 the object of " ordered." " To fire" is a regular intransitive verb, 
 in the infinitive, present tense, and is used as a noun to form the 
 attributive object of " ordered." 
 
 The predicate is further modified by " the patriots not dispersing," 
 an abridged expression equivalent to " as the patriots did not dis- 
 perse," and is used to show the occasion or reason for the order. In 
 the full form, it would be connected with " ordered" by " as ;" but 
 in the abridged form it is grammatically (not logically) (i67, Ex.) 
 set free, and hence is said to be absolute, — " patriots," the subject, 
 still remaining in the nominative, by Rule X., d. 
 
 2. Construct or select examples to illustrate the subject in either form^ 
 as given in the models. 
 
 175. A Noun or a Pronoun as Attribute. 
 
 1. Rule II. — A noun or a pronoun used as the attribute 
 of a proposition must be in the nominative case. 
 Ex. — I am he. I, who walk queen of the gods. 
 
 (a.) A letter, a mark, a phrase, or a clause, used 
 
 substantively as the attribute of a proposition, is a noun in 
 
 the nominative case. 
 
 Ex. — That letter is h. To purloin is to steal. A fourth mistake in 
 relation to happiness is, that we make our provision only for the preseni 
 world. — Buckminster. 
 
 (b.) A noun or a pronoun used as the attribute in an 
 abridged proposition, after the participle or the infinitive 
 of the copula, must agree in case with the subject, or 
 with any equivalent of the subject to which the abridged 
 expression may be joined, except when the subject is 
 changed to the possessive or is wholly dropped from the 
 sentence: it then remains in the predicate nominative 
 absolute. 
 
 Examples. — (1.) In the uominative, after a participle, to agree 
 
 J8* 
 
210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 with its subject ; as^ " You beilig the captain, I must obey," = Since 
 you are the captain, &c. 
 
 (2.) In the objective, after the participle, to agree with an equiva- 
 lent of the subject; as, "Ananias descended with the elders, and 
 with a certain orator [who was] named TertulluB;^^ who, the true 
 subject, being dropped, by 167, 3. 
 
 (3.) In the objective case, after the infinitive, to agree with the 
 subject ; as, " I believed him to be a traitor," = I believed that he was 
 a traitor. 
 
 (4.) In the nominative absolute, after the participle, preceded by 
 the possessive of the subject ; as, " I was not aware of his being a 
 foreigner," = I was not aware that he ivas a foreigner. 
 
 (5. ) In the nominative absolute, after the participle or the infinitive, 
 the subject of the full proposition having no equivalent, and being 
 wholly dropped from the sentence; as, "To be a Jdng is to be a 
 sovereign;" " Being a scholar is not being an idler." See a parallel 
 construction of the predicate adjective (isi, 20). 
 
 Remark. — A noun or a pronoun is the attribute of a proposition when it is 
 used with the copula, or any copulative verb (S2, 9), to form the predicate. 
 It usually denotes the same person or thing as the subject, and when it 
 denotes a person it agrees with the subject not only in case, but in gender and 
 number. In the case of copulative verbs, the predicate seems to have two 
 attributes, — the one the participle or attributive part of the verb, and the 
 other the following noun or adjective; as, "He was called John;" "The boy 
 was made side." 
 
 2. It, used in a vague sense, not unlike the algebraic symbol for an 
 unknown quantity, is made the subject representing a noun or a pro- 
 noun as attribute in any number, person, or gender ; as, " It is //" 
 " It is they;" " It is James;" " It is she;" " It is clear that the enemy 
 has crossed the river." 
 
 3. The number and the person of the verb are affected by the 
 subject, and not by the predicate noun. 
 
 Ex. — Apples are fruit. His meat was (not were) locusts and wild 
 honey. 
 
 4. After the copulative verbs regard, consider, reckon, name, and 
 some others, the connective "as" precedes the attribute when the 
 verb is passive, and the attributive object when it is active, to 
 denote the capacity in which the subject or the direct object is to 
 be taken. 
 
 Ex. — He was regarded as an able advocate, -= They regarded him cw 
 an able advocate. 
 
SYNTAX — ]SOUN AS ATTRIBUTE. 211 
 
 5. The predicate nominative is commonly placed after the verb, 
 and the subject nominative before it ; but in questions, both direct 
 and indirect, in poetry, and in sentences arranged for rhetorical 
 effect, this order is often changed. 
 
 Ex. — Is it If Who is he? And I thy victim now remain. I was 
 eyes to the blind, and/ee^ was 7 to the lame. 
 
 6. The subject may be a noun, and the attribute a clause ; or the 
 subject may be a clause, and the attribute a noun, win lie do it? 
 is the question. The question is, Who will put the bell upon the 
 
 cat? (i63, 6.) 
 
 Caution I. — Never use the objective as the attribute after a finite 
 verb, nor the nominative after an infinitive preceded by its objective 
 subject. Say, " It is /,"— not " It is me;" " I knew it to be him," — 
 not " I knew it to be he." 
 
 Caution II. — Avoid constructions in which the thing denoted by the 
 subject is falsely identified by the attribute. Say, " The noun James is 
 the NAME of the actor," — not " The noun James is the actor." 
 
 176. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the attributes : — 
 John was called the beloved disciple. Ehetoric, logic, and 
 grammar are three arts that should always walk hand in hand. 
 Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences are generally, if not 
 always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought. 
 What is man, that thou art mindful of him ? He returned a friend, 
 who came a foe. It still remains a monument of his greatness. 
 Warsaw was the capital of Poland. Mecca is regarded by the 
 Mohammedans as a holy city. The inhabitants of the Arabian 
 desert are styled Bedouins. 
 
 A second mistake upon the subject of happiness is, that it is to 
 be found in prosperity. The truth is, that of the objects of human 
 acquisition, very few are, beyond a certain limit, even the means of 
 happiness. To be an Englishman in London, a Frenchman in 
 Paris, a Spaniard in Madrid, is no easy matter ; and yet it is neces- 
 sary. I did not dream of its being he. Do you take it to be her? 
 For him ever to become a correct writer is out of the question. 
 Widowhood is the state of beinpr a widow. A second objection 
 raised against our Lord's being the Son oi God and King of Israel, 
 was taken from his mean condition. 
 
212 ^ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Model I. — "Talent is something, but tact is every 
 thing." — London Atlas, 
 
 Analyze. — This is a compound sentence, &c. (See Model 13.) 
 
 Somethings is a common noun, of the third, sing., neut., and in 
 the nom. case, being used as the attribute of the proposition 
 " Talent is something," according to Rule II. (Repeat it.) 
 
 In the same manner parse " thing," in the second clause. 
 
 Model II. — " The reason is, that the outward signs of 
 a dull man and a wise man are the same.'^ — Sydney Smith, 
 
 Analyze as in Model, 162, 2. 
 
 "That," in this case, may be considered as joining the clause as a de- 
 pendent element to the subject, while the copula joins it only as a. predicated 
 element. If the clause were assumed of the subject, "that" would be the 
 only connective. Thus, " The reason that the outward signs," Ac. The pre- 
 position has a similar connection when a phrase becomes the attribute ; as, 
 "The boy is in the field." Compare "The boy in the field." 
 
 Model III. — "It is almost as hard a thing to be a 
 poet in despite of fortune, as it is in despite of nature." — 
 Cowley, 
 
 This is a complex sentence, consisting of one principal and one 
 subordinate clause. It is introduced by the expletive " it," which 
 is disposed of as in Model II., 174. Arranged grammatically, it 
 stands, " To be a poet in despite of fortune, is almost as hard a 
 thing as it is in despite of nature." The logical subject is " to be 
 a poet in despite of fortune ;" the logical predicate is " is almost 
 as hard a thing as [to be a poet] is in despite of nature." The 
 grammatical subject is " to be a poet," and is limited by the com- 
 plex phrase " in despite of fortune." This is an adverbial element, 
 since it limits not " poet," but the whole idea, " to be a poet." The 
 copula is "is," the simple attribute, "thing;" it is parsed as in 
 Model I. The attribute " thing" is limited by " a," and by " as 
 hard as [to be a poet] is in despite of nature," a complex adjective 
 element ; it is of the first class, since the basis is " hard ;" it is com- 
 plex, since the basis is limited by " as [to be a poet] is in despite of 
 nature," which shows a comparison between two things, or the two 
 conditions of being a poet, and would be a comparison of equality^ 
 but for the effect of " almost." In the subordinate clause, " as" is 
 the connective, and joins the adverbial clause to " hard ;" the con- 
 
SYNTAX — PKONOUX. 213 
 
 nection is strengthened by the correlative adverb " as" in the princi- 
 pal clause. The subordinate clause is introduced by the expletive 
 " it," and, when completed and arranged grammatically, stands, " [to 
 be a poet] in despite of nature is [hard]." This clause is analyzed 
 like the principal clause. 
 
 Poet is a part of the granimatical subject of both clauses : " to 
 be" is not the grammatical subject, since it no more expresses an 
 idea than does the copula (80,5). The simple idea is, "to be a 
 poet." 
 
 Poet is a common noun, third pers., sing., masc, nom., and is 
 used as the attribute of an abridged proposition, namely, " That 
 one should be a poet in despite of fortune, &c.," = " To be a poet in 
 despite of fortune, &c." The subject "one" is entirely dropped 
 from the sentence in abridging the proposition ; and hence, by Eule 
 II., 1, b, " poet" is in the predicate nominative absolute. See 167, 
 4, Model 16, Ex. 
 
 2. Construct, analyze, and parse examples of your own similar to 
 the preceding. 
 
 177. Agreement and Construction of the Pronoun. 
 
 1. Rule III. — A pronoun must agree with its ante- 
 cedent in person, number, and gender. 
 
 Ex. — Those who are most consistent are not more unlike to others 
 than they are to themselves. 
 
 (a.) A pronoun relating to a collective noun in the 
 
 singular is put in the neuter singular when the noun 
 
 denotes unity, but in the masculine or feminine plural 
 
 when it denotes plurality, 
 
 Ex. — A civilized people has no right to violate its solemn obligations 
 because the other party is uncivilized. The committee, having made 
 their report, were discharged. 
 
 {b) A pronoun relating to an antecedent consisting of 
 coordinate terms, agrees with it, by Rule XII. (See, also, 
 193, 1, a, 6, &c.) 
 
 2. Interrogative pronouns commonly refer to objects unknown to 
 the speaker ; and hence the person, number, and gender must b© 
 assumed till the person or thing inquired for becomes known. 
 
214 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 Although the pronoun may not agree with the true antecedent, it doe? 
 agree, by rule, with the assumed; and consistency should be preserved in 
 every reference to it. The following sentence is wrong: — "Who was not 
 charmed with the music they heard ?" Was should be changed to were, or they 
 to he. Again, a pronoun relating to a singular antecedent limited by Tvau?/ a 
 is commonly put in the plural ; as, " I have heard mani/ an act of devotion in 
 my life, had Heaven vouchsafed me grace to profit by thevi." — Scott. 
 
 3. The pronoun it is used, — 
 
 {a.) Without an antecedent, — (1) when employed ?.s in 173, 4; 
 (2) as an expletive. 
 
 Ex. — It is good for me to be afflicted. Come trip it as you go. 
 
 (b.) When the antecedent is a young child or an animal, the sex of 
 which is disregarded. 
 
 Ex. — The true friend of the child is he who regards its future well' 
 being. The raccoon feeds chiefly by night, keeping in its hole during 
 the day. 
 
 4. A pronoun sometimes refers (apparently contrary to the gene- 
 ral rule) to a noun taken from its ordinary signification. 
 
 Ex. — We studied Woodhridge^s Elements of Geography on its first ap- 
 pearance before the public. When we say books is a noun, we classify it, 
 — that is, the word, — not the objects themselves. Herod, wMch (not who) 
 is another name for cruelty. 
 
 5. The English language being destitute of a pronoun of the 
 third person, which may apply equally to either sex, an erroneous 
 use of they, referring to persofi, any one, or some one, has been 
 adopted even by respectable writers to conceal the gender, or to 
 avoid an awkward use of he or she. 
 
 Thus : " If any one would test these rules for the preservation of health, 
 they {he or she) must persevere in all states of the weather." The want of 
 such a pronoun is still more apparent when the speaker has a definite person 
 before his mind and wishes to conceal the gender : thus, " The person who 
 gave me this information desired me to conceal name." When the per- 
 son referred to belongs to an assemblage known to be composed wholly of 
 males or wholly of females, the masculine or feminine pronoun should be 
 used accordingly. But when the person belongs to an assemblage of males 
 and females, usage has sanctioned the employment of a masculine pronoun : 
 thus, '* Is any among you afflicted ? let him (not them, — not her) pray." 
 
 6. When things or animals are personified, they should be repre- 
 sented as persons by the pronouns employed. 
 
 Ex. — Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. The wolf who from the 
 nightly fold fierce drags the bleating prev. 
 
SYNTAX — PEOXOUN. 215 
 
 7. The pronoun usually follows its antecedent ; but sometimes it 
 is placed first. 
 
 Ex. — Hark ! they whisper ; angels say. 
 
 8. Relative and interrogative pronouns are usually placed at the 
 beginning of their clauses, even though the order of construction 
 would assign them some other position. 
 
 Ex. — Paternus had but one son, whom he educated himself. 
 
 9. The relative in the objective is sometimes omitted. 
 Ex. — Here is the present [which] he gave me. 
 
 The antecedent is not unfrequently omitted. 
 Ex. — [He] Who steals my purse steals trash. 
 
 The antecedent is sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes 
 a possessive. 
 
 Ex. — The boy closed the blinds, which darkened the room. Supreme 
 authority, strictly speaking, is only His who created* the universe. 
 
 10. The construction of the pronoun is independent of its ante- 
 cedent, and is like that of the noun in similar relations. 
 
 It may be, — 
 
 In the nominative case, as subject of a finite verb, nominative absolute, 
 possessive case, or in the objective case, governed by a transitive verb or by a 
 preposition ; as, " They tcho speak." " We ordered the horses to be harnessed, 
 which being done, we commenced our journey." "He hastened to the palace 
 of his sovereign, into whose presence his hoary locks and mournful visage 
 soon obtained admission." " The person whom I saw." " Whoin did you 
 take him to be ?" " The man tohom they call the janitor." " This is the rule 
 to which we called his attention." 
 
 Remark. — In disposing of a personal pronoun, two rules should be given, 
 — one for its agreement, and one for its construction ; in disposing of a relative, 
 we should add to these the rule for it as a connective ; and in case of what, 
 whatever, or whatsoever, still another, to explain its use as an adjective. 
 
 11. The relative which formerly referred as well to persons as 
 to things. 
 
 Ex. — Our Father which art in heaven. 
 
 It was sometimes preceded by the definite article ; as, " In the which ye 
 also walked sometime." — Bible. "When used interrogatively, which may refer 
 to persons ; as, " Which of the two was the wiser man ?" 
 
 12. The relative pronoun is,— 
 
 (a.) Restrictive, when it introduces a clause which restricts like 
 an adjective the general idea denoted by the antecedent. 
 
216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. — The coffee which grows in Java = Java coffee = is of an excel- 
 lent quality. 
 
 {b.) Explanatory, when it simply resumes the idea expressed by 
 the antecedent, either in its full extent or as previously defined, 
 and adds another thought. 
 
 Ex. — He gave me a book, which he requested me to read, = He gave 
 me a book, and he requested me to read it. 
 
 Remark. — When used restrictively, it often has, prefixed to the antecedent, 
 a correlative, such as the, this, that, these, those; the adjective clause becomes 
 a necessary addition to the antecedent, to complete the limitation intimated 
 by these words. When used in an explanatory way, the relative introduces 
 an additional proposition, and is equivalent to and he, and she, and it, and 
 they. 
 
 That, what, and as are always used restrictively. Who and which may be 
 either restrictive or explanatory. 
 
 13. When the relative is goverijed by a preposition, it is gene- 
 rally best to place .the latter at the beginning of the clause. 
 
 Ex. — "This is the subject to which he alluded," — not "which he 
 alluded to." 
 
 But when the relative that is thus governed, the preposition is always 
 placed at the end ; as, " Here is the last bridge that we shall come to." It ia 
 better not to employ that when the governing preposition is understood : yet 
 sometimes it is so used; as, "In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt 
 surely die." 
 
 14. The compound relatives whoever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, 
 whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever, show that the antecedent — 
 
 (1.) Is taken nniversaiiy, — that is, in the full extent of its appli- 
 cation. 
 
 Ex. — Whoever seeks shall find, = Any one who seeks shall find. 
 
 (2.) Is to be understood, especially in the compounds of who 
 and what; and hence these words must either have a double con- 
 struction, or an antecedent must be supplied. 
 
 Ex. — The soldiers made proclamation that they would sell the empire 
 to whoever [any one who'] would purchase it at the highest price. 
 
 15. The words what, whatever, and whatsoever combine in one 
 word both the relative and its correlative. 
 
 Remark. — They are equivalent to the, this, that, these, or those — which : hence 
 they perform the oflBce of a limiting adjective, and at the same time that of a 
 relative pronoun ; and hence, too, unlike all other relative pronouns, they are 
 placed before the antecedent (except as in 17, below) when expressed (75, 5, 
 and 76, 3). Sometimes the simple tchat is separated from the affix by the 
 
SYNTAX — PRONOUN. 217 
 
 antecedent; as, "Whatsoever plague, lohatsoever sickness, there may be, tvJiut 
 prayer and supplication soeve)' be made by any man."— 1 Kings viii. 37, 38. 
 (See 77, 5, 6, 7.) 
 
 16. Whoever, whatever, whichever, whiclisoever, and whatsoever are 
 often used to introduce and connect an adversative subordinate 
 clause. (See Anal. 327, b.) 
 
 Ex. — Whatever you may say, he persists in doing it. 
 
 In this case an adversative preposition is understood to govern the ante- 
 cedent; as, "]Vhatever useful or engaging endowments we possess, virtue 
 is requisite in order to their shining with proper lustre," = Nottcithstanding all 
 those useful or engaging endowments which we possess, &c. Here endotoments 
 is governed by notwithstanding, and tchich by possess. It is an error to say, 
 as some do, that whatever, here, is simply an adjective; for then we should 
 have no relative word to connect the clauses. In like manner we have 
 " What time I am afraid, I will trust in thee," = J.^ what time, <fcc. 
 
 17. Whatever and whatsoever are often used to express universality 
 (15) emphatically. 
 
 Ex. — I have no confidence whatever in the proposed measure. 
 
 Here, as in comparisons after than or as, the subject or the attribute of 
 the subordinate clause being given, the rest is to be supplied; as, "I have 
 no confidence whatever [it may be] in the proposed measure." It is an error 
 here to suppose that whatever is a mere adjective, or is like the emphatic per- 
 sonal pronoun himself, as in the following : — " The declarations contained in 
 them [the Scriptures] rest on the authority of God himself; and there can be 
 no appeal from them to any authority rohatsoever" [that authority may be]. 
 Care should be taken, in these difiicult constructions, not to make a pleo- 
 nastic use of a personal pronoun or other word. The following sentence is 
 faulty : — " Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it;" omit it. 
 
 18. When interrogative clauses are quoted indirectly (i63, 7), 
 the interrogative pronoun is used indefinitely, having only an 
 implied antecedent (2, above). 
 
 Ex. — What shall I do ? I know not what I shall do. 
 
 Here the whole clause is the object of knoic, and what of shall do. When 
 such clauses are abridged, ^-thus, "I know not what to do," — the whole ex- 
 pression " what to do" is the double object of kno\c, and what is the object of 
 "to do." So, "I know not whom to send." 
 
 19. The relative that is always restrictive, and should be used, — 
 (1.) After the interrogative who. 
 
 Ex. — Who thai marks the fire still sparkling in each eye, &c. 
 (2.) After an adjective in the superlative degree. 
 
 Ex. — Pie was the last that left. 
 
 19 
 
218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (3.) After very, all, same. 
 
 Ex. — This is the very book that I want. Is not this all that you ask > 
 He is the same person that I took him to be. 
 
 (4.) When the relative refers to an antecedent denoting both 
 persons and things. 
 
 Ex. — Here are the persons and papers that were sent for. 
 
 20. Instead of in which, by which, of which, &c., the equivalent 
 relative adverbs where, when, whereby, whereof, &c. are used, like 
 the pronoun, to join an adjective clause to its antecedent. 
 
 Ex. — We discovered the place ivhere the goods had been concealed. 
 
 Caution I. — Avoid the use of a noun and a pronoun as subject or 
 object of the same verb, unless great emphasis is required. Say, " The 
 boy did it,"— not " The boy he did it." 
 
 Caution II. — Avoid the use of a plural pronoun having a singular 
 antecedent. Say, " Let every one attend to his (not their) work." 
 
 Caution III. — In the use of a pronoun, avoid ambiguity in its 
 reference to an antecederit. Say, "A boy who deceives his father will 
 regret it," — not " If a boy deceives his father, he will regret it." 
 
 Caution IV. — In arranging nouns or pronouns of different per- 
 sons, a pronoun of the second person should be placed before one of the 
 first or the third; as, " You and he and /," — not " /and he and t/ow." 
 
 Yet, in confessing a fault, it is more generous for the speaker to put him- 
 self first. 
 
 Caution V. — Avoid the use of who when speaking of animals 
 and inanimate objects, and of which when speaking of persons. Say, 
 "The cat which mews," — not ^^who mew^." *'The stranger who 
 came," — not " The stranger which came." 
 
 Caution VI. — Avoid a change of number, or a change of pro- 
 nouns, when reference is made to the same antecedent in the same sentence. 
 Say, " I know you, and I love you too," — not " I know thee, and I 
 love you too." 
 
 Caution YH.-^— A pronoun relating to an antecedent consisting of co- 
 ordinate terms of different persons or genders, should agree with the first 
 ■person rather than the second or the third, and with the second rather 
 than the third, and with the masculine gender rather than the feminine. 
 Say, " You and Charles are learning your lesson," — not " their lesson." 
 " If a man smite the eye of his servant, or the eye of his maid, that 
 it perish, he shall let him [not h^r, nor them^ go free for his eye's 
 ^ike."~Bibk. 
 
SYNTAX — PKONOUN. 219 
 
 178. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the sentences, and parse the pronouns, in the following 
 examples : — 
 
 Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to love it too. 
 Other sheep I have, which are not of this fold. This is the friend 
 of whom I spoke. He who had no mercy upon others is now re- 
 duced to a condition which may excite the pity of his most im- 
 placable enemy. At sea, every thing that breaks the monotony of 
 the surrounding expanse attracts attention. That life is long 
 which answers life's great end. He is the friend whose arrival is 
 daily expected. The board of health have published their report. 
 The committee, who w^ere divided in opinion, will discuss the ques- 
 tion more fully at their next meeting. It is the undaunted bravery 
 and the wild impetuosity of the Zouaves that render their charges 
 so formidable. All this took place when the vice and ignorance 
 which the old tyranny had generated, threatened the new freedom 
 with destruction. One or the other must relinquish his claim. 
 Either Jane or Julia will perform her task. 
 
 Model I. — "Hastings advanced to the bar and bent 
 his knee." — MacauJay, 
 
 Analyze as in Model 14 (166), and parse Ms thus : — 
 
 His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
 masculine gender, according to Eule III. (repeat it); in the 
 possessive case, limiting " knee." Rule VII. 
 
 Model II. 
 ^' Thus urged the chief; a generous troop appears, 
 Who spread their bucklers, and advance their spears." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 Let the learner analyze this compound sentence, and parse their as in tlia 
 preceding model, giving as a rule 177, 1, a. 
 
 Who is a relative pronoun ; as a pronoun it has troop for its ante- 
 cedent, a collective noun in the singular denoting plurality, and is 
 of the third person, plural number, masculine gender, by 176, 1, a, 
 and in the nominative case, by Eule I. 
 
 Observe that troop first denotes nnity, since appears is singular ; and then 
 it denotes plumliti/, as shown by who and their. 
 
220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Model III. — " I wish, after all I have said about mi 
 and humor, I could satisfy myself of their good effects 
 upon the character and disposition. '^ — Sidney Smith. 
 
 This is a complex declarative sentence, of which / is the subject and wish 
 the predicate of the principal clause. Let the learner point out all the modi- 
 fications of the predicate, and parse the pronouns. 
 
 Their is a personal pronoun, of the third person, plural number, 
 neuter gender, and agrees with its antecedent "wit and humor," 
 whose coordinate terms are taken conjointly, by 177, 1, b, or Eule 
 XII., and is in the possessive case, by Eule VIL 
 
 179. Tlie Yerb as Predicate. 
 
 1. Rule rV. — The verb must agree with its subject in 
 person and number. 
 
 Ex. — I am. Thou art sitting. We have come. 
 
 (a.) A verb agreeing with a collective noun in the 
 
 singular is put in the singular when the noun denotes 
 
 unity J but in the plural when it denotes plurality. 
 
 Ex. — A detachment of two thousand men was sent to support the left 
 wing. The council were divided in their opinion. 
 
 (6.) A verb agreeing with a subject consisting of coordi- 
 nate terms, is singular or plural, according to Rule XII. 
 (See 195, 1, a, Z), c.) 
 
 To the general rule that the verb must agree in number and person with 
 any subject, according as it denotes unity or plurality of idea, there are, pro- 
 perly, no exceptions. In the following examples, " Ten head o. cattle were 
 feeding ,•" " Five yoke of oxen were ploughing ;" " Fifty sail of vessels were 
 seen," the rule 177, 1, a, is properly applicable. So, in case of the apparent 
 exception in which the title of a book is plural, the mind is fixed upon the 
 treatise itself as one thing : thus, " Wayland's Elements of Political Economy 
 locw published in 1837." Here "Elements of Political Economy" is the 
 game as ''Treatise upon the Elements," <fcc. So, again, a, phrase or a clause 
 (173, 1, a) used as a subject is to be regarded as one thing, requiring the verb 
 to be in the third person singular. But when a phrase expressive of a combi- 
 nation of numbers is regarded as denoting separate units rather than a single 
 number, the verb should be plural ; as, " Three times three are nine." 
 
 2. The nominative and the verb after many a or 7nany an should 
 be HI the singular number. 
 
SYNTAX — VERB AS PREDICATE. 221 
 
 Ex. — Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 
 
 3. The subject of verbs in the imperative mode is thou, or ye or 
 you, and is usually omitted. 
 
 The subject is often to be supplied after comparisons with than 
 or as. (See 173, 3.) 
 
 Ex. — John has more fruit than \xvliat = that which'] can be gathered 
 in a week. It is as broad as [it is] long. 
 
 4. In such inverted interrogative sentences as, Who am If Who 
 ishef Who are you? What am If Wio art thou f Is it If Is it he f 
 Is it thouf the attribute should not be taken for the subject, which 
 alone controls the person and number of the verb. 
 
 Caution I. — Avoid all such ungrammatical expressions as, " Says 
 /;" ''ThinU /;" ''Thinks says J/" ''I hears him,'' &c. 
 
 Cautiox II. — Never use a plural verb with a singular subject, 
 though the htter be modified by a noun in the plural. Say, " Each of 
 his brothers is (not are) well." 
 
 Caution III. — Be carefidnot to use the WRONG verb, as, set for 
 sit, lay for lie, come /or go: or the WRONG FORM, as, done /or did, 
 wrote /or -written, &c. ; or the WRONG TENSE, as, see for saw, give 
 for gave; or IMPROPER CONTRACTIONS, as, ain't /or are not, &C. 
 
 180. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze and parse the following examples: — 
 
 The Connecticut River was first explored, as far as Hartford, by 
 Adrian Block. The sun was setting upon one of the rich, glassy 
 glades of the forest. Those who have ever witnessed the spectacle 
 of the launching of a ship of the line, will perhaps forgive me for 
 adding this to the examples of the sublime objects of artificial life. 
 Ferdinand and Isabella were seated, with their son. Prince John, 
 under a superb canopy. The nobility were haughty and exacting. 
 The people take the matter into their own hands. Society is not 
 always answerable for the conduct of its members. 
 
 Model I. — "After a brief interval, the sovereigns 
 requested of Columbus a recital of his adventures.''— 
 Prescott. 
 
 Analyze according to Model (162, 3, 4), and parse requested thus : — 
 
 Requested is a regular transitive verb ; principal parts, ~x>re^. re- 
 
 19* 
 
222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 quest, past requested, past participle requested; indicative mode, past 
 tense, third person, plural number, and agrees with " sovereigns," 
 according to Eule IV. (Repeat it.) 
 
 Model II. — "Why do the heathen rage, and the 
 people imagine a vain thing ?'' — Bible, 
 
 This is a compound interrogative sentence, consisting of two coordinate 
 clauses joined by "and." Analyze them separately. 
 
 Bo rage is a regular intransitive verb, emphatic form, indicative 
 mode, present tense, third person, plural number, and agrees with 
 " heathen," according to Rule IV., a. In the same way parse " do 
 imagine." 
 
 Model III. — "Gold, silver, and copper abound in 
 South America." 
 
 Follow Model 14 (166, 1), and parse abound thus : — 
 
 Abound is a regular intransitive verb, indicative mode, present 
 tense, third person, plural number, and agrees with its compound 
 subject, according to Rule IV., b, or Rule XII. 
 
 2. Construct similar examples of your own, 
 
 181. The Adjective as Modifier and as Predicate. 
 
 1. Rule V. — An adjective or a participle must belong 
 to some noun or pronoun. 
 
 Ex. — The guilty man ; the man was guilty. 
 
 (a.) An adjective or a participle used as the ati7%iite of 
 
 a proposition, belongs to the subject. 
 
 Ex. — The tree is tall. To see the sun is pleasant. Where the funds 
 will be obtained is doubtful. 
 
 (b.) An adjective or a participle used to modify a noun, 
 belongs to the noun which it modifies. 
 
 Ex. — An upright judge. Five boxes. The good old man. 
 
 (c.) Adjectives denoting number agree in number with 
 the nouns they limit. 
 
 Ex. — This book. These trees. Ten men. 
 
 (d) The article a or an belongs to nouns in the singular 
 
SYNTAX — ADJECTIVE AS PREDICATE. 223 
 
 number, except before few j hundred^ or thousand; and thej 
 to nouns either singular or plural. 
 
 Ex. — J. man. ^w hour. TAe desk. 2%e pens. A few men. 
 
 2. The appropriate use of the adjective is to restrict the applica- 
 tion of a noun. 
 
 The adjective thus used is always a dependent term, having the restricted 
 noun as its principal. 
 
 3. A noun may be restricted or limited in its application, — 
 
 (1.) Without affecting any of its properties; as, ^^Ttvo men." 
 "These hooks." 
 
 (2.) By designating some property or quality; as, "Good men." 
 "Industrious boys." 
 
 (3.) By identifying it; as, "Paul the Apostle." "Peter the 
 Hermit." 
 
 (4.) By representing it as an object ^ossessec?/ as, "i>awc£'s harp." 
 
 The first two limitations are effected by adjectives; the last two, by nouna 
 ov pronouns performing the office of the adjective. 
 
 4. Any word, or group of words, employed to limit a noim, is an 
 adjective element; that is, it is of the nature of an adjective. 
 
 Ex. — Industrious men. Men of industry. Men who are industrious. 
 
 5. Limiting adjectives, when used in connection with qualifying, 
 are generally placed first. 
 
 Ex. — The old man. This valuable hint. Ten small trees. 
 
 When two limiting adjectives are used, one of which is an article, the latter 
 is usually placed first; as, "The ten commandments." But after many, such, 
 all, what, and both, the article stands next to the noun; so, also, after adjec- 
 tives preceded by too, so, as, or hoio; as, "Ifani/ a man." "Such a man." 
 *'All the boys. ''What a boy." "Both the girls." "Too great, as great, so 
 great, hoio great, a man." "Half a dollar." 
 
 6. The article should be, — 
 
 (1.) Omitted, — [a.) Before proper nouns, abstract nouns, and 
 nouns denoting substance or material, when used in their general 
 signification. 
 
 Ex. — Patience is a Christian virtue. Gold abounds in Colorado. 
 Wood is becoming scarce. 
 
 [b.) Before the participle used as a noun, with the limitations of 
 the verb. 
 
 Ex. — The ancients erred in siipposing the earth a vast plane. 
 
224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (c.) Before a common noun used in the full extent of its signifi- 
 cation. 
 
 Ex. — Man is mortal. Woman is justly appreciated only in civilized 
 countries. The lizard is a kind of reptile. 
 
 Remark. — Contrary to this rule, the is often used before a noun in the 
 singular to denote the tchole class, and must be distinguished from the cases 
 in which the points out an individual object, by a careful attention to the con- 
 nection. Thus, we have the horse, the bee, the oak, the ash, the dahlia. The 
 horse is a noble animal. The horse is lame. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. 
 The ant was drowned in the cup. 
 
 {d.) Before a noun denoting a mere title, or a name used as a 
 word. 
 
 Ex. — Ye call me Master and Lord. Acorn is derived from ac, oak, 
 and corn, grain. 
 
 (e.) Before any common noun already limited by one of the 
 definitives any, each, either, every, much, neither, no or none, some^ 
 this, that, these, or those, or by any other words which make its 
 meaning sufficiently definite. 
 
 (2.) Inserted, — {a.) Before a common noun used to denote an 
 individual object, or any number of individual objects definitely re- 
 ferred to. 
 
 Ex. — The rose which blooms by the wall. 
 
 (b.) Before adjectives used as nouns. 
 
 Ex. — None but the brave deserves the fair. 
 
 (c.) 'B^ioTQ participles used wholly as nouns. 
 
 Ex. — For the edifying of the church. 
 
 [d.) Before joroper nouns in the plural, abstract nouns, and nouns 
 denoting substance or material when used with specific reference to 
 an individual example (6, 1, a, above). 
 
 Ex. — Tlie Websters. The twelve Caesars. Ye have heard of the 
 patience of Job. The wood is sufficiently dry. 
 
 7. The article, if required at all by the preceding rules, should, — 
 
 (1.) Be repeated, — [a.) Before each noun of a coordinate combi- 
 nation, when the objects, by some correspondence or contrast, or by 
 some limitation not common to all, are specially distinguished. 
 
 Ex. — The soldiers did not inquire for the number, but the place, of the 
 enemy. 
 
 Here the contrast requires the repetition of the article. 
 
SYNTAX — ADJECTIVE AS PREDICATE. 225 
 
 Ex. — England, during the interval between the Protectorate and tha 
 restoration of the Stuarts, was virtually governed by General Monk. 
 
 Here the omission of the before restoration would refer the Protectorate and 
 the restoration alike to the Stuarts. 
 
 (6.) Before each part of a coordinate combination employed as 
 an adjective element (i66, 1, Ex.), when the parts apply to objects 
 individually different, yet of the same name. 
 
 Ex. — "The northern and the southern boundary," — two very different 
 boundaries. "A Bancroft's, a Lossing's, and a Goodrich's history," — three 
 different books. " We had pleasant companions, an Englishman, a Scotch- 
 man, and a German," — each a companion, but three men. 
 
 Eemakk. — By a common usage, justified by standard authority, the article 
 may be placed before the first adjective only, when the noun is put in the 
 plural at the end of the series j as, ''The first, second, and third regiments." 
 It is here supposed that the hearer will distribute the adjectives properly. 
 The rule just given, though it sometimes renders the construction somewhat 
 formal, secures precision in the application of the adjectives; while the omission 
 of the article leaves their application doubtful, and hence sometimes endangers 
 the perspicuity of the sentence. 
 
 (2.) Not be repeated, — {a.) Before any of the foregoing combi- 
 nations when the nouns, as in (a), do not express a correspondence 
 or a contrast, or have a common limitation, or the modifiers, as in 
 {b), belong to a common object. 
 
 Ex. — "The men, women, andchildrenof the party suffered alike," — each 
 being of the party. "Give me the ripe red and mellow peaches," — each 
 being ripe, red, and mellow. " He bought a Wheeler and Wilson's sewing- 
 machine," — one machine of two patentees. " Dr. Kane, the scholar, natu- 
 ralist, and explorer," — one man with three characteristics. 
 
 [b.) Before the second term of a comparison, where both refer to 
 the same person or thing. 
 
 Ex. — He was a better speaker than writer. 
 
 8. Many, followed by a {an), though imj^lying pluralitT/, is followed 
 by a noun in the singular. 
 
 Ex. — Many a man, = Many men. 
 
 9. When two numerals precede a noun, one singular and the 
 other plural, the plural should generally be placed next to the noun. 
 
 Ex.—" The first two lines,"— not " The two first lines." 
 
 In such expressions as, "Five yoke of oxen," "Ten head of cattle," ''Fifty 
 «nil of vessels " the plural adjective belongs to a noun in the singular, but used 
 collectively to convey the idea of plurality. 
 P 
 
226 e:nglish grammar. 
 
 10. When objects are contrasted, that refers to the first and this 
 to the last mentioned. 
 
 Ex. — Wealth and poverty are both temptations : that tends to excite 
 pride ; this, discontent. 
 
 11. By a peculiar use, the — the, primarily articles, belonging to 
 some noun understood, 2^ part, are used with comparatives, to denote 
 proportionate equality, and are to be regarded as conjunctive 
 adverbs used to join two clauses. 
 
 Ex. — The more I see it, the better I like it. 
 
 12. The adjective is often used as a noun, the noun to which it 
 belongs being understood. 
 
 Ex. — The good are respected. 
 
 On the other hand, the noun is often used as an adjective. 
 Ex. — Gold heads. 
 
 13. One adjective often limits the complex idea expressed by 
 another adjective and a noun. 
 
 Ex. — Two old horses. 
 
 So, again, in combined numbers, and in some few other cases, 
 one adjective limits another. 
 
 Ex. — Five hundred thousand. A bright red apple. 
 
 14. The predicate adjective following copulative verbs generally 
 denotes some property of the subject, either already possessed by it, 
 or acquired through the action of the verb. 
 
 Ex. — The boy was made sick. The bread was baked brown. The 
 fruit tastes sweet. 
 
 15. A participle, an adjective, or even a noun, in the predicate, 
 yet referring to the subject, is often used somewhat adverbially to 
 express an accompanying action. Although it does not show the 
 manner of the action, it shows how or with what it is accompanied. 
 
 Ex. — The Son of man came eating and drinking. The maiden sat 
 there sod. He came as a spectator. 
 
 16. When two objects or sets of objects are compared, the com- 
 parative degree is generally used. 
 
 Ex. — " George is taller than William," or, " is the taller of the two." 
 Our oranges are sweeter than yours. 
 
 17. When more than two objects are compared, the superlative 
 degree is used. 
 
SYNTAX — ADJECTIVE AS PREDICATE. 227 
 
 Ex. — Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks. 
 
 18. When the comparative degree is used, the latter term should 
 always exclude the former. 
 
 Ex. — New York is larger than any other city of the United States. 
 He was wiser than his brothers. 
 
 But when the superlative is used, the latter term should always 
 include the former. 
 
 Ex. — ^Ehode Island is the smallest of the United States. 
 
 19. Each, one, either, and neither belong to nouns in the third 
 person singular. Hence, when used as nouns, verbs and pronouns 
 should agree with them accordingly. 
 
 Ex. — Each of his brothers is (not are) well. 
 
 Either and neither have reference to tico things only; each, every, and any, 
 to more than two. All refers to the individuals of a whole taken collectively ; 
 while each, every, and any refer to them when taken distributively. The fol- 
 lowing sentence is wrong, because the individuals should be taken collectively : 
 — " Every term in the series is alike." Say, ^^All the terms are alike." 
 
 20. An adjective after the participle or infinitive of the copula 
 is sometimes used abstractly, referring, it may be, logically (but 
 not grammatically) to some indefinite object. 
 
 Ex. — To be good is to he happy. 
 
 21. An adjective may belong to an adverb, to a phrase, or to a 
 clause used as a noun. 
 
 Ex. — This once. (Here " once" is equivalent to " one time.") To de- 
 ceive is criminal. That youth and vigor must pass away is undeniable. 
 
 22. The reciprocal each other should be applied to two objects ; 
 one another, to more than two. 
 
 Ex. — "Righteousness and peace have kissed each other," — not "one 
 another." These various tribes have been at war with one another. 
 
 Caution I. — Never use A before the sound of a vowel, nor AN 
 before the sound of a consonant. Say, "An apple," — not "A apple." 
 
 Caution II. — Avoid the use of a plural adjective to limit a singu^ 
 lar noun. Say, "This sort of people," — not "those sost." 
 
 Caution III. — Avoid the vulgar use of them for those, and 
 THIS HERE, or THAT 'ERE,/or THIS, or THAT. Say, '' Those books," 
 —not "7%€m books;" ''This chair,"— not ''This 'ere chair." 
 
 Caution IV. — Avoid the use of the adjectme for the adverb. Say, 
 " Sipesk prompt ly,'' — not "prompt.^* 
 
228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Caution V. — Avoid the use of the sujDerlative degree when twe 
 objects are compared, or of the comparative when more than two are 
 compared. Say, " The wiser of the two," — not " The wisest of the 
 two ;" " The wisest of them all," — not " The wiser of them all." 
 
 Caution VI. — Avoid the use of double comparatives and superla- 
 tives. Say, "This is the unkindest cut of all," — not "the most un- 
 kindest cut of all." 
 
 Caution VII. — Avoid the use of the article before a title or name 
 usedmerely asaword. Say, " He is called cap^aw," — not " thecaptain.^^ 
 
 Caution VIII. — Avoid the use of the article before the second, 
 noun, when the same object is compared in two different capacities. 
 Say, "He is a better teacher than^oe^," — not "than a poet." 
 
 182. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following examples, and parse the adjectives: — 
 The yellow sunflower by the brook in autumn beauty stood. 
 
 Life is real, life is earnest. The influence of such pursuits is 
 ennobling. He was a good man, and a just. He was a burning 
 and a shining light. These opportunities, improved as they should 
 be, must produce the desired results. The hopes of the whole 
 family were centred on him. His resources were inexhaustible. 
 To insult the afilicted is impious. Pity the sorrows of a poor old 
 man, whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door. That 
 he should refuse such a proposition, was not unexpected. Every 
 thing which is false, vicious, or unworthy is despicable to him, 
 though all the world should approve it. 
 
 Model. — " The skj was clear, and the immense vault 
 of the heavens appeared in awful majesty and grandeur.'* 
 Brydone, 
 
 Analyze by the proper models, and parse the, clear, and immense. 
 
 The is a definite article, and belongs to " sky," according to Eule 
 v., or Rule V., 1, d. 
 
 Clear is a qualifying adjective, and is used as the attribute of the 
 proposition, and belongs to the subject " sky," according to Rule V., 
 l,a. 
 
 Immense is a qualifying adjective, and is used to modify "vault," 
 to which it belongs, according to Rule V., 1, b. 
 
 2. Construct examples of your own to illustrate the various uses of 
 the adjective. 
 
SYNTAX — NOUN IN APPOSITION. 229 
 
 183. The Noun or tlie Pronoun in Apposition. 
 
 1. Rule VI. — A noun or a pronoun used to explain 
 or identify another noun or pronoun is put by apposition 
 in the same case. 
 
 Ex.— William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the Saxon king. 
 
 2. The explanatory noun or pronoun must denote the same per- 
 son or thing as that which it identifies. 
 
 It usually explains by showing the office, ranh, capacity, occupation, or 
 character of the principal term; as "Peter the Hermit;" "John the Evaiuje- 
 list." 
 
 3. This construction may be regarded as derived from an adjec- 
 tive clause by abridging it. 
 
 Ex. — Paul, who loas the apostle to the Gentiles, = Paul, the apostle to the 
 Gentiles. 
 
 Hence, like the full clause, it may be restrictive, in which case it points out 
 the individual; as, "William the Conqueror;" or it may be explanatory 
 (177, 12) ; that is, it resumes the idea expressed by the principal noun, for the 
 purpose of amplification, rhetorical effect, or even argument; as, "Moses, the 
 servant of the Lord, died there in the land of Moab." Here " servant" is not 
 used to distinguish this Moses from some other, but to show the writer's idea 
 of his exalted character as the servant of the Lord. Mark, also, the follow- 
 ing examples : — " The Lord, the most high God, the possessor of heaven and 
 earth;" "You have ruined him, your p>rotector, your best friend," — that is, not- 
 withstanding he is your protector and your heat friend. 
 
 Remark. — It is an error to suppose that a noun or a pronoun is in appo- 
 sition with another noun or pronoun because the construction requires them 
 to be put in the same case. The predicate noun is not in apposition with the 
 subject noun, though it is required to be in the same case: in one case we 
 affirm what in the other we assume. The second, or attributive object, after 
 the active voice of copulative verbs, is not in apposition with the first, though 
 in the same case. (See 187, 9.) 
 
 4. Three cases of apposition may be distinguished : — 
 
 (a.) The noun in apposition, though subordinate to the principal, 
 is made prominent, and receives the emphasis; as, "Peter the 
 Hermit." In this case it is always placed last. 
 
 [b.) The noun, when put in apposition with a personal pronoun, 
 though placed last, is so nearly equal in value with the latter as to 
 render it sometimes doubtful which should be regarded as principal ; 
 as, " Ye men of Athens." 
 
 20 
 
230 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 
 
 (c.) When used as a title, or part of a name, the noun in appo- 
 sition loses the emphasis, is placed first, and may be taken with 
 the principal noun as one complex name (44, 5); as, ^^ General 
 Scott;" " Washington Irving." Some have supposed the leading 
 noun here to be used adjectively. But when a noun is used wholly 
 as an adjective, it denotes a different thing from that which it limits ; 
 as, " A silver cup." 
 
 5. When, for the sake of emphasis, the same name is repeated, it 
 is in apposition with the former. 
 
 Ex. — A horse I a horse! my kingdom for a horse. 
 
 Bemare. — Any resumed construction, whether it be that of a noun, a pro- 
 noun, or any other part of speech, may be said to be in apposition ; as, " To 
 die, — to sleep ; to sleep, perchance to dream." " He has falsely accused me of 
 conspiring against my country :— falsely, or why has he not made his charges 
 good?" 
 
 6. When the limiting noun denotes a person, it generally, though 
 not always, agrees with the limited in nmnber, gender, and case. 
 
 Ex. — Milton, the poet. The Franks, a people of Germany. 
 
 7. The noun in apposition is rendered more emphatic when 
 joined by such connectives as namely, as, to wit, that is. 
 
 Ex. — Two men, namely, George and James. So that he, as God, sitteth 
 in the temple of God. 
 
 8. A noun or a pronoun in the plural may be represented by two 
 or more nouns which together are equivalent to it. 
 
 Ex. — The victims, a brother and a sister. 
 
 The reverse of this rule is equally true. 
 
 Ex. — Intemperance, oppression, and fraud, vices of the age. 
 
 9. In the case of the expressions each other and one another, 
 the first words, each and one, are in apposition with a preceding 
 plural noun or pronoun, or with two or more singular nouns taken 
 conjointly. 
 
 Ex.— The boys struck one another, = The boys struck— erne struck 
 another. John and David love each other, = John and David love 
 — each loves the other. 
 
 Each and one are in the nominative case, and other is in the objective case. 
 It is better, in some cases, to consider the combination as an inseparable term; 
 as, " He did not recommend the washing of one another's feet." 
 
 10. The proper name of a place, instead of being put in appo- 
 
SYNTAX — NOUN IN APPOSITION. 231 
 
 sition with the common name, is usually governed by the prepo- 
 sition of. 
 
 Ex. — The city of Rome. 
 
 11. A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence, and 
 sometimes a sentence with a noun. 
 
 Ex. — They devoted their whole time to the promotion of our happi- 
 ness, — attentions which we shall not soon forget. The maxim, Enough is 
 as good as a feast, has silenced many a vain wish. 
 
 12. When possessives are in apposition, the sign of possession 
 ('s) is commonly used with only one of them, and with that one 
 which immediately precedes the limited noun. 
 
 Ex. — John the Baptisfs head. His majesty King Henri/ s crown. For 
 Herodias^ sake, his brother Philip's wife. At Smith, s the bookseller. 
 
 13. Sometimes a noun preceded by " as," without the sign and 
 evidently without the signification of the possessive, refers logically 
 to a noun or a pronoun in the possessive. 
 
 Ex. — What do you think of my brother's success as a teacher f As an 
 author, his "Adventurer" is his capital work. 
 
 Rather than to consider teacher and author in the possessive case, here, it is 
 better to siippose teacher to refer in sense to brother's, but to take its case 
 from success; and author to refer logically to his, but grammatically to work. 
 
 184. Exercise. 
 
 1. Anahjze the following examples, and parse the nouns or the pro- 
 nouns in apposition : — 
 
 The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. The Emperor 
 Nero was a cruel tyrant. James, the royal Scottish poet, was 
 imprisoned in Windsor Castle. In the fifth century the Franks, a 
 people of Germany, invaded France. Frederic William III., King 
 of Prussia, son of Frederic William II. and Louisa, Princess of 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, was born August 3, 1770. 
 
 Model. — "Daniel Boone, the pioneer of Kentucky, 
 was born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in the month of 
 February, 17S5J'—Sparks. 
 
 Analyze this sentence, and parse the subject, predicate, and all the oon- 
 nectivea. 
 
 Pioneer is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
 
232 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 
 
 masculine gender, nominative case, and is used to identify " Daniel 
 Boone," with which it is put in apposition, by Eule VI. (Repeat it.) 
 
 2. Construct similar examples of your own to illustrate apposition. 
 
 185. Noun or Pronoun in the Possessive. 
 
 1. Hule VH. — A noun or a pronoun used to limit the 
 
 application of another noun, by denoting possession, is 
 
 put in the possessive case. 
 
 Ex; — Stephen's courage failed. Their fortune was ample. Whose 
 work is this ? 
 
 2. The principal idea expressed by this relation is that of possession : 
 yet this term should not be understood to mean sim]^\y property. 
 The possessive case is employed to denote, — 
 
 [a.) Property; as, "The /armor's house." 
 
 {b.) Sonree or orig^in; as, "Heaven's command;" "the sun's 
 rays." 
 
 (c.) Agency; as, "Solomon's temple," i.e. the temple built by 
 Solomon. 
 
 [d.) Adaptation or fitness; as, "Men's hats." 
 
 [e.) Kindred; as " Brother's SOU." 
 
 (/.) Time, weig^ht, and measure; as, "The ten years' war;" "a 
 pound's weight ;" " a mile's length." 
 
 Remark. — The possessive case is used to limit the noun when we wish to 
 express some agency emanating usually from a person or from some object 
 treated as a person. It performs the office of the adjective, and is hence 
 reckoned an adjective element. 
 
 3. The relation of the possessive is one of dependence. There 
 must, therefore, be some noun for it to limit. This noun, however, 
 may be understood. 
 
 Ex. — He worships at St. Paul's \_church']. 
 
 4. The present active participle, the present passive (with being), 
 and the perfect participles (but never the past, or the simple pas- 
 sive), when used as nouns, may be limited by the possessive, and at 
 the same time may have the limitation which they have when they 
 are complete predicates. 
 
 Ex. — I heard of your studying Latin. I am in favor of their bringing 
 the dispute to a speedy close. 
 
SYNTAX — THE POSSESSIVE. 233 
 
 6. Instead of the possessive form, the preposition o/", with the 
 objective, is often used. 
 
 Ex. — The court oj the Jang, = The king's court. 
 
 6. The possessive case may be either assumed or predicated. 
 Ex. — David/s book. This book is David's. 
 
 7. An adjective sometimes, though seldom, intervenes between 
 the possessive and the noun on which it depends. 
 
 Ex. — Of man's first disobedience. 
 
 When, in such case, the noun is understood, the possessive sign is annexed 
 to the adjective used as a noun ; as, " This is the wretched'a only plea." 
 
 8. All possessive constructions may be divided into simple, com- 
 plex, and compound. The construction of simple possessives is 
 sufficiently explained by Rule VII. 
 
 9. A possessive is complex when a group of words, consisting of 
 a principal and a subordinate term, is put in the possessive. Of 
 this there are two cases : — 
 
 {a.) The subordinate noun may be in the objective after a prepo- 
 sition. 
 
 Ex. — The Duke of Wellington's sword. 
 
 Here the possessive sign is applied to an inseparable group. Although 
 "duke" alone is in the possessive, it would not be improper to regard the 
 whole group as a noun in the possessive, limiting " sword." When possession 
 in a similar case is predicated (6, above), the sign is applied to the simple 
 possessive noun; as, " There shall nothing die of all that is the children's of 
 Israel." — Exodus ix. 4. 
 
 [b.) The subordinate noun may be put in apposition with the 
 principal noun. 
 
 Here are two cases. (1.) When the subordinate noun unites with the other, 
 forming a complex name (183, 4, c). In this case the sign of possession is 
 applied to the last only, or that nearest the limited noun ; as, "General George 
 Washington's farewell address." (2.) When the subordinate noun is properly 
 in apposition with a possessive noun ; as, " For thy servant David's sake ;" 
 "At Smith's the bookseller." Here the rule is to give the possessive sign to 
 the one immediately preceding the governing noun, whether it be the first 
 possessive, as in the second example, or the second, as in the first example. 
 
 10. A possessive is compound when the terms composing it are 
 coordinate ; and here also are two cases : — 
 
 {a.) The coordinate terms may individually limit a noun denoting 
 one common object. 
 
 20* 
 
234 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 Ex. — Gould, Kendall, and Lin<ioln^s store. 
 
 (b.) They may limit the same noun applied to different objects. 
 Ex. — "Bichardson'Sy Worcester's, and Webster's Dictionary;" that is, 
 three dictionaries. 
 
 In this case each noun has the sign, because "dictionary'* is understood 
 immediately after it. But in the other case the group has the sign, which is, 
 by a general rule, applied to the noun nearest to the governing word. 
 
 Remauk. — There are two other constructions which are thought by some 
 to come under the case of complex possessives : the one is the case of the 
 predicate noun in an abridged proposition whose subject has been changed 
 to the possessive ; the other is that mentioned in 183, 13. For these cases 
 see 175, b, and 183, 13. 
 
 11. Sometimes a possessive and the limited noun unite and form 
 a compound, which may be taken, — 
 
 (a.) liiteraiiy, and should be written without the possessive sign. 
 Ex. — Tradesman, craftsman, ratsbane, doomsday. 
 
 {b.) Metapboricaiiy, in which case it should be written with 
 the sign. 
 
 Ex. — JoVs-tears, Jew's-ear, bear' s-foot, hounds s-tongue, beai-' s-breech, 
 lion's-tail, wolf's-bane, wolf's-pea^ch, — names of plants. 
 
 12. When a combination, consisting of a possessive and its 
 governing noun, is used as an adjective, the sign should not be 
 omitted. 
 
 Ex. — A bird's-eye view. A camel's-hair shawl. Taylor's Kiihner's 
 Greek Grammar. Eden's garden bird. 
 
 Caution I. — In writing nouns in the possessive, never omit the 
 possessive termination. Write ^^ man's," — not "mans." 
 
 Caution II. — In using pronouns in the possessive, never insert the 
 apostrophe in writing, nor add the letter n in speaking. Write 
 *' theirs," — not " their' s." Say, "his, hers, ours, yours, theirs," — not 
 " hisn, hern, ourn, yourn, theirn." 
 
 Caution III. — Never make the limited noun plural because the 
 possessive is plural. Say, " Their decisio7i"— not, " Their decisions;" 
 one only being meant. 
 
 186. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following examples, and parse the possessives : — 
 Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The 
 
SYNTAX — THE OBJECT. 235 
 
 joy of his youth was great. Botha's bay received the ship. Her 
 ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace. A 
 mother's tenderness, and a father's care, are nature's gifts for man's 
 advantage. A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid. Yet my last 
 thought is England's. She stooped her by the runnel's side. 
 Hushed were his Gertrude's lips. Our harps we left by Babel's 
 streams. 
 
 Model. — " What, I say, was Caesar's object ?" — Knowles. 
 
 This is a complex sentence, consisting of a principal clause, " I say," and 
 a subordinate interrogative clause, "What was Cassar's object?" It is quoted 
 directly (163, 1), and hence the interrogation point is used at the close 
 (163, 6). 
 
 I is the subject of the principal clause, and say the gram- 
 matical predicate ; it is limited by the quoted clause, which is sub- 
 ordinate in construction, and is an objective element of the third 
 class. It has no connective (i63, 4) ; its simple subject is " object," 
 and is limited by the adjective element " Caesar's ;" the predicate is 
 "was what," of which "was" is the copula and "what" the attri- 
 bute. 
 
 Csesar's is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
 masculine gender, possessive case, and is used to limit " object," by 
 denoting possession. Rule VII. (Repeat it.) 
 
 2. Construct similar examples of your own. 
 
 187. The Object. 
 
 1. Rule Vlll. — A noun or a pronoun used as the 
 object of a transitive verb, or of its participles, must be 
 in the objective case. 
 
 Ex. — He found the object which he desired. 
 
 (a.) Copulative verbs (9, below) in the active voice 
 take a direct object, and predicate of it an attributive 
 
 object, both of which form a double object. 
 
 Ex. — They called him John. 
 
 Remark. — In the passive voice, the direct object becomes the subject, and 
 the attributive becomes the attribute ,• as, "He was called John." 
 
 (b.) Certain verbs, as give, ask, teacb, and others (11, 
 
236 ElfGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 below), in the active voice, take two objects, one direct , 
 and the other indirect 
 Ex. — He gave me a 600^. 
 
 Remark. — In the passive, the direct object should become the subject, and 
 the indirect should remain in the predicate ; as, "A book was given to me." 
 
 2. When a noun or a pronoun is used to complete the meaning 
 of a transitive verb, without the aid of a preposition expressed or 
 understood, it is called the direct object; but when it is added to a 
 verb, either transitive or intransitive, to show that to or for which 
 any thing is, or is done, or that from or out of which any thing 
 proceeds, it is called the indirect object. 
 
 Ex. — Ellen gave an apple to her brother. They spoke of kis troubles. 
 
 3. When an indirect object precedes the direct, the preposition 
 should be omitted ; when it follows, it should be expressed. 
 
 Ex. — I lent him a book, = I lent a book to him. 
 
 4. The indirect object is sometimes used alone with intransitive 
 verbs, sometimes with an adjective, and in a few instances with a 
 noun. 
 
 Ex. — He spoke of his trials. To me this rule is obvious. To the 
 hero that was a proud day. 
 
 5. The object of a transitive verb may be an infinitive, or a sub- 
 stantive clause. 
 
 Ex. — I love to write. I have heard that he was sick. 
 
 6. Some intransitive verbs are followed by an object of kindred 
 signification (82, 10). 
 
 Ex. — He ran a race. She dreamed a dream. 
 
 7. The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the. 
 passive. 
 
 Ex. — Romulus founded Home, == Home was founded by Romulus. 
 
 8. To avoid ambiguity, the object should be placed after the 
 verb, especially when the subject and the object are both nouns. 
 
 Ex. — "Alexander conquered Darius," — not "Alexander Darius con- 
 quered." 
 
 When the subject or the object is a pronoun, the form usually determines 
 the relation ; as, ''Him followed his next mate." 
 
 9. The following copulative verbs, make, appoint, elect, create, 
 
SYNTAX — THE OBJECT. 237 
 
 constitute, render, name, style, call, esteem, think, consider, regard, 
 reckon, and some others, not only take after them a direct object, 
 but predicate of it another object, which may, therefore, be called 
 its attribute. The attributive object may be either a noun, an adjec- 
 tive, or a verb. 
 
 Ex. — They made him an officer. They made him sick. They made 
 him labor. 
 
 Though it is evident that the attributive object, when a noun, denotes the 
 same person or thing as the first, it is by no means in apposition with it. In 
 the case of apposition, the principal noun completes the meaning of the verb, 
 and the second limits the first; as, " They called Miles, the carpenter." But 
 in the case of two objects (the object and its attribute) both are necessary to 
 complete the meaning of the verb ; as, " They called Miles a carpenter." In 
 one case, the second noun has no grammatical relation to the verb; in the 
 other, it is directly related both to the verb and to the first noun. In the 
 first example, " car2yenter" should be parsed as a noun in the objective, put 
 in apposition with the first, by Rule VI. In the second es^^mple, " carpenter" 
 should be parsed as a noun in the objective, forming, in connection with 
 *'3Iile8," the object of "called," being also an attribute to the first object. In 
 a similar way parse "sick," and "labor," in the above examples ; or, one may 
 be called theirs* or principal, and the other the attributive, object of the verb. 
 
 Remark. — This construction, in many instances, may be traced to an 
 abridged proposition, in which the infinitive has been dropped ; as, " They 
 considered him a poet," that is, to he a poet. In fact, the infinitive of the 
 copula is often expressed, the first object representing, in the objective, what 
 was the subject nominative, the second, in like manner, what was the predi- 
 cate nominative, before the proposition was abridged; as, " I knew that he was 
 a scholar;" "1 knew hiin to be a scholar." In such cases the infinitive and 
 the second noun form the attributive object of the verb, the second noun being 
 in the objective after "to he." Some verbs, as say, announce, hope, and others, 
 take only the full form of the proposition ; others, as believe, know, think, and 
 many others, admit either the full or the abridged form ; while others, as 
 compel, constrain, and others, take only the abridged form ; as, " I say that he 
 did it," — never, him to do it; " I believe that he is honest," =^ him to be honest ; 
 ** They compelled him to go," — never, that he shoxdd go. 
 
 10. An infinitive may be the second or attributive object; the 
 first object being its subject, and the two together forming a kind 
 of abridged proposition. 
 
 Ex. — They ordered the soldiers to march. They ordered that the soldiers 
 should march (l67. Mod. 16). 
 
 11. The following verbs, buy, sell, play, sing, get, lend, draw, seiid, 
 make, pass, write, pour, give, teach, leave, bring, tell, do, present, throw, 
 carry, ask, show, oi'dcr, promise, refuse, dejiy, provide, and some 
 
238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 others, take after them, besides a direct object, an indirect object, 
 showing to or from what the action tends. 
 Ex. — Give me a book. 
 
 12. The indirect object sometimes, though with doubtftil pro* 
 priety, becomes the subject of the passive verb. 
 
 Ex. — He was asked his opinion. I was taught grammar. 
 
 Opinion and grammar are in the objective case after a passive verb, pro- 
 perly governed by some preposition understood. 
 
 13. Instead of a single word, or an infinitive, a substantive clause 
 may become one of the objects. 
 
 Ex. — He informed me that the boat had sailed. 
 
 188. Exercise. 
 
 1. In the following examples, analyze the sentences j and parse the 
 nouns and the pronouns in the objective: — 
 
 Ambition makes the same mistake concerning power that avarice 
 makes concerning wealth. If you have performed an act of great 
 and disinterested virtue, conceal it. (imperial Rome governed the 
 bodies of men, but did not extend her empire farthe^ In former 
 times, patriots prided themselves on their own poverty and the 
 riches of the state. He endeavored to inculcate right principles. 
 He sought to follow the example of the good. They say that they 
 have bought it. The truly great consider, first, how they may gain 
 the approbation of God. He inquired, " Who comes there?" 
 
 . Model I.r^"Thou hast delivered me from the strivings 
 of the people; and thou hast made me the head of the 
 heathen." — Psalm xviii. 43y*^ 
 
 This is a compound sentence, consisting of two coordinate parts, 
 connected by " and." The first is a simple sentence, having " thou" for 
 its subject, and "hast delivered" for its simple and "hast delivered 
 me from the strivings of the people" for its complex predicate. 
 (Point out all the modifications of the simple predicate.) 
 
 The second component part is also a simple sentence, having 
 "thou" for its subject, "hast made" for its simple and "hast made 
 me the head of the heathen" for its complex predicate. The 
 simple predicate "hast made" is modified by "me the head of the 
 heathen," an objective element, consisting of " me," the direct, and 
 
SYNTAX — ADVERBS AS MODIFIERS. 239 
 
 *' the head of the heathen," the attributive object, both together 
 forming a double object, used to complete the meaning of " hast 
 made." 
 
 Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, 
 masculine gender, and in the objective case, and in the first clause 
 is the object of " hast delivered," according to Eule VIII. ; and in 
 the second, the leading or direct object of " hast made." 
 
 Head is a common noun, third person, &c., and is the attributive 
 object of " hast made," " me head," combined, being the double 
 object, according to Rule VIII. a. 
 
 In the same manner parse him, and to write, in the sentence, " I 
 commanded him to write" 
 
 Model II. — " He gave me a promise." 
 
 " He" is the subject, and " gave" the simple and "gave me a pro- 
 mise" the complex predicate; " gave" is limited by " me" and " pro- 
 mise," — the latter a direct and the former an indirect object of 
 " gave." Let the learner parse each, and give Eule VIII. b, and 
 Rule VIII. 
 
 2. Construct examples of your own to illustrate the object after 
 transitive verbs. 
 
 189. Adverbs as Modifiers. 
 
 1. Rule IX. — Adverbs are used to limit verbs, parti- 
 ciples, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 
 Ex. — Lightning moves swiftly. He advanced, walking slowly. The 
 night was very dark. The sound was heard very distinctly. 
 
 2. Some adverbs, instead of modifying any particular word, 
 are either independent, or are used to modify an entire proposi- 
 tion : these are yes, no, nay, amen, likewise, truly, &c. 
 
 Ex. — Will you go? Yes. Truly, God is good to Israel. 
 
 3. An adverb or adverbial expression should be placed so near 
 the word which it limits, as to make its relation obvious : yet no 
 element of the sentence can be so easily transposed without causing 
 ambiguity, as the adverbial. It may be placed at the beginning, in 
 the middle, or at the end of the sentence. 
 
 Ex. — He carefully examined the document, = Carefully did he ex- 
 amine the document. He examined the document carefully. 
 
240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 4. Adverbs are used sometimes to limit the meaning of a prepo- 
 sition, sometimes of a phrase. 
 
 Ex. — He held his hand exactly over the place. We were absent 
 almost a year. 
 
 5. Adverbs are themselves sometimes modified by phrases or 
 clauses. 
 
 Ex. — He left four years afterwards. He came some time ago. He ran 
 faster than his brother. 
 
 6. What J equivalent to partly, is sometimes used as an adverb 
 (75, 7). Once = one time, is often used as a noun. 
 
 Ex. — Excuse me for this once. 
 
 So, also, when, now, and then are used as nouns; as, " Until now;" "Since 
 then;" " Since icAen." 
 
 7. Conjunctive adverbs are complex words usually modifying 
 two words, and at the same time joining an adverbial clause to 
 the word on which it depends. 
 
 Ex. — We shall be present when the boat arrives (135, 2). 
 
 Caution I. — Two negatives should never be employed to express a 
 negation; as, "I have no book," — not "I haven't no book." 
 
 Caution II. — Avoid the use of an adverb when the quality of an 
 object, and not the manner of an action, is to be expressed; as, " The 
 apple tastes sweet," — not " tastes sweetly." 
 
 Caution III, — Avoid the use of no, to express negation, with a 
 verb or a participle; as, " I shall not change my course of action, 
 whether you do or not," — not "whether you do or no." 
 
 Caution IV. — Never use how before that, or instead of it; as, 
 " He said that he should come," — not " how he should come," nor 
 " how that he should come." 
 
 190. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the sentences, and parse the adverbs, in the following 
 examples : — 
 
 You both are truly welcome. Speak softly, for a breath might 
 wake her. Yet we may strongly trust his skill. How heavily her 
 fate must weigh her down ! Freely to give reproof, and thankfully 
 to receive it, is an indispensable condition of true friendship. How 
 
SYNTAX — CASE INDEPENDENT. 241 
 
 happy they who wake no more! How soon man's eartlily enjoy- 
 inents pass away! How easily are men diverted from a good 
 cause ! 
 
 Model I. — " Burke was deeply hurt." — Macaulay. 
 
 Analyze the sentence, and parse deeply thus : — 
 
 Deeply is an adverb, — comp. deephj, more deeply, most deeply, — 
 and is used to limit " was hurt," by Eule IX. (Repeat it.) 
 
 2. Construct examples of your own to illusfrate the uses of the 
 adverb. 
 
 191. Case Independent and Interjection, 
 
 1. Kule X. — The nominative case independent, and 
 the interjection, have no grammatical relation to the 
 other parts of the sentence. 
 
 A noun or a pronoun may be independent, — 
 
 (ft.) By direct address. 
 
 Ex. — Plato, thou reasonest well. 
 {h.) By mere exclamation. 
 
 Ex. — O wretched man that I am I 
 
 (c.) By pleonasm, or when the attention is drawn to an object 
 before any thing is said of it. 
 
 Ex. — Harry's flesh, it fell away. Gad, a troop shall overcome him. 
 
 {d.) As snbject of an abridg^ed proposition, when, in connection 
 with a participle, it is equivalent to a proposition of which it was 
 the subject before the former was abridged. 
 
 Ex. — He having arrived, we returned. 
 
 [e.) As predicate in an abridgred proposition, when it follows 
 the infinitive or the participle of the copula and is uncontrolled by 
 a preceding noun. 
 
 Ex. — I was not aware of his being a scholar. To be a scholar re- 
 quires industry and perseverance. 
 
 In the last two cases the noun is said to be absolute, and the group of 
 words to which it belongs, including the participle or the infinitive, has some 
 connection with the reet of the sentence. 
 Q 21 
 
242 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 
 
 2. In the case of the nominative absolute, — that is, the nomina- 
 tive preceding a participle, — sometimes the noun or the pronoun is 
 understood, and sometimes the participle. 
 
 Ex. — " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as cold ;" that is, 
 "we, or one, speaking properly." "This done, and all is safe;" that 
 is, being done. "This matter at an end, we will proceed;" being at an 
 end. 
 
 Both of the last two cases result from abridging a dependent clause. The 
 abridged construction may usually be restored to a complete proposition. 
 
 192. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the interjections and 
 the ca^e^ independent : — 
 
 Fair daffodils ! we weep to see you haste away so soon. O day 
 most calm, most bright! With thee, sweet Hope, resides the hea- 
 venly light. A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse! The 
 pilgrim fathers! where are they? He having given us the direction, 
 we departed. I was not aware of his being the preacher. O the 
 times! O the manners! Ah, father! these are wondrous words. 
 The savage rocks have drunk thy blood, my brother ! 
 
 Model I. — "Alack! alack! Edmund, I like not this 
 unnatural dealing." 
 
 This is a simple sentence, preceded by the interjections "Alack ! 
 Alack!" and the compellative, or the name of the person ad- 
 dressed. These have no part in the grammatical construction of 
 the sentence. 
 
 "I" is the subject, and "like" the simple and "like not this 
 unnatural dealing" the complex predicate. (Point out the limita- 
 tions of the simple predicate.) 
 
 Alack is an interjection, expressive of grief, and has no depend- 
 ence upon any part of the sentence, by Rule X. a. (Repeat it.) 
 
 Edmund is a proper noun, second person, singular number, 
 and nominative case independent by direct address. Rule X. 
 See a. 
 
 Model II. — "But, O vain boast! 
 
 Who can control his fate ?" — Shahspeare. 
 
 Boast is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
 
SYNTAX — COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 243 
 
 gender, and nominative case independent by exclamation. Rule X. 
 See 6. 
 
 Model III. — "Gad, — a troop shall overcome him." — 
 Bible, 
 
 Gad is a proper noun, third, sing., masc, nom. independent by- 
 pleonasm. Rule X. See c. 
 
 Model IV. — "The war having ended, the army was 
 disbanded." 
 
 For the analysis of this case, see 174, 1, Model III. 
 
 War is a common noun, third, sing., neut., nominative absolute 
 with the participle " having ended." Rule X. See d. 
 
 Model Y. — " He was displeased on account of my 
 
 being a friend to his enemy." 
 
 For analysis, see 176, 1, Model III. 
 
 Friend is a common noun, &c., and is in the nominative abso- 
 lute by Rule X. See e. 
 
 2. Construct examples to illustrate the use of the interjections and 
 cases independent. 
 
 193. Coordinate Conjunctions. 
 
 1. Hule XI. — Coordinate conjunctions are used to 
 connect similar elements. 
 
 Ex. — Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were Jewish patriarchs. 
 
 2. These conjunctions are used only when the parts connected 
 are of the same rank (i53, 2, 3), and not even then unless there is 
 some similarity or contrast in the thoughts or ideas expressed by 
 the united parts. 
 
 Thus, when two thoughts are uttered, as, " The king sat upon his throne," 
 " The south wind is blowing gently," they may hold the same rank as 
 independent sentences, but, being wholly unlike in meaning, they cannot 
 blend into one sentence. So, again, the adjective elements " old," and 
 "brown," in the expression "That old brown house," are of the same rank, 
 but do not express kindred ideas. Compare with these, "We have much to 
 do, AND our time is short;" "A iciae and patriotic sovereign." 
 
 3. When the connection between two similar coordinate thoughts 
 or ideas is to be made close, or one is to be made more emphatic 
 
244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 than the other, two conjunctions are used, — the one corresponding 
 with the other, and both combining to form the connection. 
 
 Ex. — The prince is both virtuous and wise. He not only reads 
 Shakspeare's plays, hut he appreciates them. 
 
 4. Sometimes a thought or an idea sustains a double relation to 
 another, the one simply coordinate, the other causal, illative, con- 
 cessive, augmentative, ordinative, partitive, &c. The former is repre- 
 sented by the simple coordinate conjunction (sometimes under- 
 stood) placed between the coordinate parts, and the latter by a 
 connective (sometimes adverbial in its nature) associated with it. 
 
 Ex. — The south wind blows, [and'\ therefore there must be rain. She 
 sings ; [and,] besides, she plays beautifully. 
 
 5. When the coordinate thought or idea is purely causal, the 
 causal or illative conjunction expresses the whole connection. 
 
 Ex. — The tree is falling, therefore run, = Run, for the tree is falling. 
 
 6. When correlatives are employed, the principal conjunction is 
 usually placed at the beginning of the second or added clause, and 
 its correlative is placed in the first, to give the reader or hearer an 
 intimation of what is to follow. 
 
 Ex. — Whether the truth of the matter will ever be discovered or not 
 is very doubtful. 
 
 Sometimes (inelegantly, however) either or neither is placed at 
 the end of the sentence. 
 
 Ex. — I can not go, nor you neither, ■= Neither you nor I can go. 
 
 Caution I. — In a series of coordinate terms, unless great emphasis 
 is required, insert the conjunction between the last two only. Say, 
 "Peter, James, and John," — not "Peter, and James, and John." 
 
 Caution II. — In using correlatives, be careful to place both con- 
 junctions so as to mark correctly the prominent or contrasted terms. 
 Say, " He was not only poor, but idle," — instead of " Not only was 
 he poor, but idle.'* 
 
 Caution III — Avoid dissimilar and disproportionate coordinate 
 constructions. Say, " I saw him enter the gate and ring the bell," — 
 not " I saw him entering the gate, and ring the bell." 
 
 194. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the conjunctions: — 
 Clouds and darkness are round about him ; righteousness and 
 judgment are the habitation of his throne. They were united both 
 
SYNTAX — COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 245 
 
 by ties of friendship and of kindred. I am debtor both to the 
 Greeks and to the barbarians. The country was wasted, — partly 
 by war, partly by famine, and partly by pestilence. The relations 
 of the teacher will be treated as threefold: first, to his pupils, 
 secondly, to his school officers, and thirdly, to the parents. A hero 
 on the day of battle has sacrificed a meal, and shall we therefore 
 pity him ? The situation is not suited to his tastes ; the compensa- 
 tion, moreover, is meagre. They have indeed honored them with 
 their praise, but they have disgraced them with their pity. Not 
 only can he gain no lofty improvement without labor, but without 
 it he can gain no tolerable happiness. 
 
 Model I. — " Talent has many a compliment from the 
 bench, but tact touches fees from attorneys and clients." — 
 London Atlas, 
 
 This is a compound sentence, consisting of two coordinate prin- 
 cipal clauses. They are related by contrast (i93, 2), and hence 
 readily unite to form one sentence. Let the learner analyze each 
 separately. 
 
 But is an adversative coordinate conjunction, and used to join 
 the second clause to the first, by Eule XI. 
 
 Here hut is coordinate to join clauses of equal rank. It is adversative, 
 since the clauses are not in harmony with each other, but the second restricts 
 the thought expressed by the first, by shutting off or opposing any such in- 
 ference as that the mere preeminence of talent with the bench implies uni- 
 versal preeminence. It also shows that the writer intended, by the contrast, 
 to bring the second thought into greater prominence than the first. 
 
 And, in the second clause, is a copulative coordinate conjunction, 
 and is used to unite the two elements " from attorneys and [from] 
 clients," by Eule XL 
 
 These two phrases are similar in form, similar in the ideas expressed, 
 equal in rank, equal in emphasis, and in perfect harmony with each other. 
 Hence they require not only a coordinate but a copulative conjunction. 
 
 Model II. — " The wolves have been exterminated, and 
 therefore the flocks and herds are unmolested.^' 
 
 This is a compound sentence, containing two coordinate clauses, 
 — the second being a partial compound. Let the learner analyze 
 both clauses. 
 
 And, in the first case, is a copulative coordinate conjunction, 
 joining the two clauses, as grammatically equal and in harmony 
 with each other, by Rule XI. 
 
 21* 
 
246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Therefore is a causal coordinate conjunction, and is used to 
 show that the second clause is a logical deduction from the first. 
 It combines with " and" to join the two clauses, — the one gram- 
 matically, the other logically, but both cobrdinately, by Kule XI. 
 
 And, in the second clause, is a copulative coordinate conjunction, 
 and is used to join the two subjects "flocks" and "herds," by 
 Rule XI. 
 
 2. Construct or select other seiitences containing coordinate conjunC' 
 tionSf and explain their use. 
 
 195. Coordinate Constructions. 
 
 1. Rule XII. — When a verb or a pronoun relates to two 
 or more nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — 
 
 (a.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must 
 be in the plural number. 
 
 ih.) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it must 
 be of the same number as the noun which stands next to it. 
 
 (c.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take 
 the number of that one. 
 
 Ex. — Charles and his sister were absent, but they were sent for. 
 Charles or his sister was absent. Charles or his sisters were absent. 
 Charles, and not his sister, was absent. 
 
 2. In the following cases, nouns in the singular seem to be taken 
 conjointly, and yet the verb and the pronoun should be singular : — 
 
 [a.) When the coordinate nouns denote the same person in dif- 
 ferent capacities. 
 
 Ex. — This great statesman and orator died lamented by all his friends. 
 
 [b.) When the coordinate nouns are considered separately, by 
 means of such limiting words as each, every-, or no. 
 
 Ex. — Each day and each hour brings its own duties and trials. Every 
 book and every paper was taken from its place. No book and no paper 
 should be left out of its place. 
 
 (c.) When the coordinate nouns are distinguished with emphasis 
 by means of not, only, too, as well as, or when there is an emphatic 
 enumeration of individuals. 
 
 Ex. — George, and not James, is at his task. Truth, and truth only^ 
 is worth seeking for its own sake. The man, and his servant too, was ro 
 
SYNTAX — COORDINATE CONSTRUCTIONS. 247 
 
 warded. The father, as well as his son, was in fault. Thine is the king- 
 dom, and the power, and the glory. 
 
 {d.) When the coordinate nouns are regarded by che mind as 
 representing one thing. 
 
 Ex. — Bread and milk is excellent food for children. The horse and 
 chaise is in its place. 
 
 3. When the coordinate parts are of different persons, the verb or 
 the pronoun agrees with the first rather than the second, and with 
 the second rather than the third. 
 
 Ex. — Thou and thy sons with thee (that is, ye) shall bear the iniquity 
 of your priesthood. John, thou, and I (that is, we) are attached to our 
 country. 
 
 4. When the coordinate parts are each singular, and of different 
 genders, — 
 
 (1.) The verb may relate to them conjointly, while the pronoun 
 may relate to but one. 
 
 Ex. — James and his sister were destroying her bonnet. James and his 
 sister were destroying his cap. 
 
 (2.) Tho, pronoun may relate to them taken conjointly, while the 
 verb relates to them taken separately. 
 
 Ex. — ^^ James or his sister has destroyed their dictionary," — the dic- 
 tionary being theirs by a joint ownership. 
 
 (3.) If the pronoun has a common reference to both coordinate 
 nouns taken conjointly, the gender cannot be distinguished by the 
 pronoun, since the latter is plural, and consequently has, in Eng- 
 lish, the same form for all genders. 
 
 (4.) If the pronoun refers to two or more coordinate nouns taken 
 separately, there is no personal pronoun, in English, applicable to 
 each, and there is an inherent difficulty in constructing the ex- 
 pression properly. 
 
 Ex. — John or Ellen has Iqgt his or her pencil. 
 
 To use his alone, or her alone, would reveal the ownership, which is sup- 
 posed to be unknown. Hence it does not avail to say that the masculine is 
 preferred to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter; for either would 
 become explicit, as in case 4, (1), above. To avoid this difficulty, it is best 
 to recast the sentence, or so construct it as to escape such a dilemma. Yet, 
 contrary to the general rule (177, 6), frequent instances occur in which the 
 pronoun, in such cases, is put in the plural, and thus the gender is concealed ; 
 as, "Then shalt thou bring forth that man or that woman unto thy gates, and 
 shalt stone them with stones, till they shall die." 
 
248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 5. When each of the coordinate parts is denoted by the same 
 Word, and that a singular noun referring to different objects, and 
 each, except the last, is understood, — being represented by some 
 modifying word, — the agreement of the verb or the pronoun follows 
 the general rule. 
 
 Ex. — " A Webster's, a Worcester's, and a Richardson's dictionary were 
 consulted ;" that is, three dictionaries. A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, 
 and a poor man were assembled in one room. 
 
 6. Coordinate terms are taken separately when one is affirma- 
 tive and the other negative, or when one is opposed to, or con- 
 trasted with, the others : in such cases, if both or all the terms are 
 plural, the pronoun or the verb must, of course, be plural. When 
 a verb or a pronoun relates to two coordinate terms, connected by 
 as well as, save, but, but not, or and not, it should agree with the for- 
 mer, and be understood with the latter, whatever be its number. 
 
 Ex. — The minutest insect, as well as the largest quadruped, derives 
 its life from the same omnipotent source. None but he can heal the 
 malady of the soul. There was no stranger with us in the house, save 
 we two. 
 
 7. Two terms may be coordinate logically but not grammatically. 
 Ex. — Godliness with contentment is great gain, = Godliness and con- 
 tentment, &c. 
 
 In such cases the verb or the pronoun should agree with the term to which 
 it refers grammatically. 
 
 196. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following sentences, and point out and parse the verbs 
 and the pronouns which illustrate the rule : — 
 
 Where was it when winds and clouds were his only visitors, and 
 when the sun and blue heavens by day, and the moon and stars by 
 night, alone looked down and beheld it, the same as they behold it 
 now ? One day the poor woman and her idiot boy were missed 
 from the market-place. Neither his vote, his influence, nor his 
 purse was ever withheld from the cause in which he had engaged. 
 Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved. Whether one per- 
 son or more were concerned in the business, does not appear. 
 Every insect, and every bird, was hushed to silence. 
 
 Note. — For models, see 178, 1, and 180, 1, Models II. and III. 
 
 2. Construet or select other examples to illustrate this rule. 
 
SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS. 249 
 
 197. Prepositions. 
 
 1. Rule XIII. — A preposition is used to show the 
 relation of its object to the word on which the object 
 depends. 
 
 Ex. — George ivent into the garden. A life of virtue is a life of hap- 
 piness. 
 
 2. The noun or the pronoun following the preposition is always 
 dependent on some term, — usually a preceding one, — and the pre- 
 position is used to show that dependence. 
 
 Properly speaking, the objective is not the object of the preposition, but 
 of the preceding term. In the case of the transitive verb, there are two 
 terms, — the verb itself, and the objective, — and the relation between them is 
 closer than between those in which the preposition is used; the objective is 
 not called the object of that relation, but rather of the antecedent term, the 
 verb. Yet custom makes the noun the object of the preposition. 
 
 3. Sometimes the antecedent term is omitted, and sometimes the 
 subsequent. 
 
 Ex. — In a word, he is ruined, = To express all in a word, &c. " He 
 looked around" (supply him). 
 
 When the object is understood, the preposition is usually parsed as an 
 adverb. 
 
 4. For, used before an infinitive and its objective subject, when 
 the group is taken as the subject of a proposition, has no ante- 
 cedent term. 
 
 Ex. — For him to lie is base. 
 
 The to of the infinitive, when both together constitute the subject, repre- 
 sents no relation to an antecedent term; as, '^To lie is base." 
 
 5. Between and betwixt refer to two objects; among and amongst, 
 to more than two. 
 
 Ex. — He walked between the trees (two trees). He walked among the 
 trees (many trees). 
 
 6. Sometimes the preposition is involved in the antecedent term, 
 or at least is suggested by it. 
 
 Ex. — Near [io] ; like [to]. Near the lake where drooped the willow. 
 
 Remark. — When the proposition is placed at the beginning of a sentence, 
 or when, with its object, it preccdoi* the antecedent term of the relatisn 
 
250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 which it shows, the relation may be easily discovered by rearranging the 
 sentence. Thus, "0/ all the topics involved in this theme, it will be im- 
 possible for me to speak," = It will be impossible for me to speak of all the 
 topics, &c. 
 
 Caution. — In expressing the relations between words, he careful to 
 employ appropriate preposiiions. Say, " That is different from what 
 I expected," — not "different to what I expected." 
 
 These relations may be found in any good dictionary. 
 
 198. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the prepositions: — 
 
 I call to you with all my voice. From end to end, from cliff to 
 lake, 'twas free. Her tears were now flowing without control. She 
 is like some tender tree, the pride and beauty of the grove, — grace- 
 ful in its form, bright in its foliage, but with the worm preying at 
 its heart. 
 
 Model. — " Of all his errors, the most serious was, per- 
 haps, the choice of a champion," = " The most serious 
 [error] of all his errors was, perhaps, the choice of a 
 champion." 
 
 Analyze and parse of. 
 
 "0/"" is a preposition, and in the first instance shows the rela- 
 tion of "errors" to "error" understood; in the second instance it 
 shows the relation of " champion" to " choice." Eule XIII. (Ee- 
 peat it.) 
 
 2. Construct examples of your own to illustrate the use of the pre- 
 position when the antecedent term is a noun, an adjective, a 
 
 VERB, an ADVERB. 
 
 199. The Object of the Preposition. 
 
 1. Rule XIV. — A noun or a pronoun used as the 
 object of a preposition must be in the objective case. 
 
 Ex. — The ruins of the Parthenon stand upon the Acropolis in the city 
 ©f Athens. 
 
SYNTAX — OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION. 251 
 
 (a.) Before nouns in the objective, denoting time, mea- 
 surej distance, quantity^ value, or direction, and before such 
 as follow near, nigh, like, and worth, the preposition is 
 usually omitted. 
 
 Ex. — The wall is six feet high. We walked twenty miles that day. 
 He helped a worthy man, and is not a penny poorer. My friend has 
 gone West. He is like his father. They live near the city. The book 
 is worth a dollar. 
 
 2. The preposition is omitted as in 187, 3; and in dates there 
 is usually an omission of several prepositions. 
 
 Ex. — [At] Boston, [on] Monday, [on] the 10th [of] February, [in 
 the year] 1860. 
 
 Remark. — The word worth is by some called a preposition ; but it can be 
 predicated of a noun like an adjective, and may be qualified by an adverb; 
 and, what is more, it expresses an idea of quality, rather than a relation 
 between words ; as, " The lesson is well worth learning ;" " It is richly worth 
 the money." Worth is sometimes a noun, and sometimes a verb ; as, " The 
 worth of a dollar;" "A person of great worth;" "Woe loorth the day!" In 
 this last example, loorth is a verb in the imperative, equivalent to he to, and 
 day is the indirect object of it. 
 
 3. But and save, in the sense of " except," are generally used as 
 prepositions. 
 
 Ex. — Whence all hut him had fled. 
 
 Yet they are not unfrequently used as conjunctions; as, "Neither knoweth 
 any man the Father, save the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son will reveal 
 him." 
 
 4. Prepositions are sometimes followed by adjectives, or adverbs 
 used substantively, with which they form adverbial phrases ; as, in 
 vain, on high, for this once, till now, from thence, from above. 
 
 5. Than before whom has been erroneously supposed by some to 
 be a preposition. 
 
 Ex. — Than whom none higher sat. 
 
 Than is no more a preposition here than in case of any other proper use 
 of the word. It denotes comparison, and the construction requires that it 
 should be followed by the nominative, instead of the objective lohom. Though 
 used by some good writers, it should be avoided as anomalous. In this case 
 it should be disposed of by saying that it is the objective by the figure 
 enallage (216, 7). 
 
 Cautiox. — Never use the nominative as the object of a preposition. 
 Say, "Between you and we,"— not "between you and /." 
 
252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 200. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following examples ^ and parse the prepositions and 
 their objects : — 
 
 A similar improvement may be made of the memory of our good 
 deeds. What ground of hope is there so sure to his spirit, next to 
 the mercy of his God and the intercession of Christ his Saviour? 
 It was not long before he returned with his man, whom he intro- 
 duced to me as a person of exceeding honesty; and we went into 
 the yard all together. 
 
 Model. — "We live in an age of sifting." — Neander, 
 
 Let the learner analyze this sentence. 
 
 Age is a common noun, third, sing., neut., obj., and is the object 
 of the preposition " in." (Rule XIV.) 
 
 Sifting: is a participial noun, in the objective case, and is used 
 as the object of the preposition " of." (Rule XIV.) 
 
 2. Construct examples in which any of the prepositions (l4o) shall 
 join adjective or adverbial phrases. 
 
 3. Change the phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, 
 into equivalent adjectives or adverbs : — 
 
 The dew of the morning has passed away. The temple of Solo- 
 mon was destroyed by the Chaldean monarch. The messenger was 
 sent in haste. The laborer entered upon his task ivith eagerness. 
 The waves dash upon the rocks with fury. 
 
 201. Subordinate Connectives. 
 
 1. Rule XV. — Subordinate connectives are used to 
 join dissimilar elements. 
 
 Ex. — He that hath pity on the poor lendeth to the Lord. 
 
 2. Subordinate connectives, unlike coordinate, show a relation 
 of dependence, and are used to join, not clauses of equal rank, but 
 dependent clauses to an antecedent term, which they serve to 
 modify, except as below (3). 
 
 3. That, whether, or the various interrogatives, when, where, &c., 
 when used to introduce a substantive clause employed as the 
 subject of a proposition, do not connect the clause to an antecedent 
 
SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES. 253 
 
 term, since the subject can be subordinate to no other part of the 
 proposition. 
 
 The connectives thus used serve to convert a principal proposition into a 
 subordinate substantive proposition, which, like any noun, may be used as 
 the subject. 
 
 4. In many cases the subordinate connective has a correspond- 
 ing word in the principal clause, called the correlative. 
 
 Ex. — Then — wheUy there — vjhere, if — then, though — yet, so — that, 
 so — aSj as — as, the, this, that, these, those — who, that, or ivhich. 
 
 5. Though a subordinate conjunction appropriately joins a clause 
 to some preceding term, yet than and as sometimes appear to con- 
 nect words only. 
 
 Ex. — IjesH judgment than wit, is more sail than ballast. The moon as 
 attends. 
 
 Though this connection seems to resemble coordinate, the terms joined 
 are not of the same rank. As has a peculiar use when thus employed to 
 connect an attribute, either predicated or assumed, to the noun to which it 
 belongs : it not only gives emphasis, but expresses the idea of capacity or 
 office; as, "He was employed as clerk." "The fruit was considered as 
 good." " He offered himself as printer." " I do not respect your rules as 
 such." " What is a pronoun as distinguished from a noun ?" 
 
 6. Than or as, when used to show comparison, instead of con- 
 necting words only, generally introduces an elliptical clause, which 
 becomes so on account of the similarity of its construction to that 
 of the principal clause. 
 
 Ex. — " He is more nice than wise ;" that is, " than he is wise." " He 
 is as old as his cousin ;" that is, " as his cousin is old." 
 
 Sometimes the subsequent term is not only elliptical, but abridged; as, 
 "The patient is so well as to sit up;" that is, "so well as that he can sit up." 
 The boy knows better tha7i to disobey (167, Mod. 16, Ex.). 
 
 7. As, following an adjective, and sometimes a noun, and with- 
 out a correlative, gives an adversative signification to the subordi- 
 nate clause. 
 
 Ex. — Defenceless as we were, we still maintained our ground, = 
 Though we were defenceless, &c. 
 
 8. That or as, after a noun, has a similar construction to denote 
 concession. 
 
 Ex. — Fool that [or as] I was, I entered the army. 
 
 Remark. •'—Subordinate connectives are a kind of prejwsition placed 
 
 22 
 
264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 before a sentence which is to be converted into a novn, an adjective, or aft 
 adverb. Hence their position is almost invariably at the head of the clause 
 (^re-position). 
 
 Caution. — In tising a noun or a pronoun in an elliptical clause foU 
 loiving THAN or AS, avoid both ambiguity and an incorrect construction. 
 Say, " My brother is older than /," — not " than me J' 
 
 There is danger of ambiguity only when two different cases occur in the 
 principal clause; as, "Lovest thou me more than these?" that is, "more than 
 these love me," or, " more than thou lovest these." 
 
 202. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following examples^ and parse the connectives: — 
 While there is life there is hope. However friendly he might 
 appear, his heart was full of anger. Whether the moon has an 
 atmosphere, has not been ascertained. He that plants trees loves 
 others beside himself. What comes from the heart goes to the 
 heart. Time will bring to light whatever is hidden. The more 
 we serve God, the better we serve ourselves. As far as the eye 
 could see, all was ruin and desolation. Work as long as you can. 
 /The more one has, the more he requires.J Eevenge always costs 
 more than it is worth. That you may be loved, be deserving of 
 love. 
 
 Model I. — " If we draw within the circle of our con- 
 templation the mothers of a civilized nation, what do we 
 ^Qef— Webster, 
 
 This is a complex interrogative sentence, consisting of a prin- 
 cipal and a subordinate clause. 
 
 >Ve is the subject of the principal clause, and do see is the 
 simple predicate. "Do see" is limited by the interrogative "what,^^ 
 and by the conditional clause "If we draw,^' &c. 
 
 If is a subordinate connective, and joins the subordinate clause, 
 which it introduces, to the predicate of the principal clause. These 
 elements are dissimilar in rank, in meaning, and in form; they are 
 connected by Eule XV. (Eepeat it.) 
 
 Model II. — "As ye have therefore received Christ 
 Jesus the Lord, so walk ye in him." 
 
 Therefore, in this complex sentence, is a coordinate conjunction, 
 joining the whole sentence, as an inference, to a preceding sentence. 
 
SYNTAX — THE INFINITIVE. 255 
 
 As is a subordinate connective, having as its correlative the ad- 
 verb so in the principal clause. It joins the subordinate clause, 
 " As ye have therefore received," &c., to " walk." Kule XV. 
 
 2. Construct examples in which any of the relative peonouns 
 shall join adjective clauses (l43, 17), — others in which that, that 
 NOT, or any of the interrogatives, shall join substantive clauses (l43, 16), 
 — and still others in which any of the connectives (l43, 18) shall join 
 adverbial clauses. 
 
 203. The Infinitive. 
 
 1. Rule XVI. — The infinitive has the construction 
 of the nowif with the signification and limitations of the 
 verb, and, when dependent, is governed by the word 
 which it limits. 
 
 Ex. — To err is human. They desire to travel in a foreign country. 
 He wishes to obtain a treatise on the deposition of dew. 
 
 (a.) After the active voice of bid, dare, let, need, make, 
 see, behold, hear, Sindfeel, and some others, the to of the 
 infinitive is omitted. 
 
 Ex. — I saw him do it. They let him go. 
 
 Remark 1. — The infinitive is properly the simple na7ne of the verb, and, 
 as such, was originally used without a preposition, as subject or object, in a 
 proposition. Of these uses, we have the form of one only remaining, namely, 
 that of object after the auxiliaries (111, 4); as, "shall torite," "will read," 
 " do love" &c. But here the principal verb has lost its original character, — 
 has become an auxiliary, a mere index of time and mode, — and the infinitive 
 is changed from object to attribute. , 
 
 Remark 2. — The infinitive, as now recognized in the language, is the 
 dative case of the ancient infinitive; or the simple infinitive with the preposi- 
 tion to prefixed. The two words are so united as to be regarded as an in- 
 separable phrase; as, "To live is Christ, and to die is gain." 
 
 2. The infinitive may be used with or without a subject (i67, 3). 
 Ex. — We wish you to stay. We wish to stay. 
 
 3. The infinitive may have a subject in the objectiTe, 
 when its subject has not already been expressed in the 
 sentence. 
 
 Ex. — Thev ordered him to leave. 
 
256 ENGLISH GEAMMAR 
 
 {a.) The infinitive of the copula or of any copulative verb may 
 also have a predicate objective. 
 
 Ex. — I knew him to be a preacher. Let him be called Nathan. 
 
 {b.) The infinitive, and its subject, may be the (subject of a pro- 
 position ; the phrase must then be introduced hy for. 
 
 Ex. — For you to deceive is criminal. For him to be a scholar is im- 
 possible. 
 
 (c.) The infinitive and its subject may be made the object of a 
 transitive verb, or of the preposition /or. 
 
 Ex. — He ordered the horse to be harnessed. They considered Am [to 
 be] a traitor. Tliey appointed him [to be] chaiivnan. They ordered 
 some water /o?' the boy to drink. 
 
 4. When the subject has already been expressed or in 
 not required, the infinitive is used without a subject, and 
 may be, — 
 
 {a.) The subject of a proposition. 
 
 Ex. — To retaliate is censurable. 
 
 [b.) The attribute of a proposition without the sign to (in, 4). 
 
 Ex. — I do love. They may learn. 
 
 (c.) The attribute of a proposition with to prefixed. 
 
 Ex. — To obey is to enjoy. 
 
 When the infinitive is thus used, it denotes, — (1.) An equivalent term; as, 
 *' To pray is to supplicate." (2.) What is possible or obligatory; as, ** The 
 passage is to be found;" "Our duty is to be done," (3.) What is settled or 
 determined upon x as, " The work is to commence to-morroio." 
 
 [d.) The object of a transitive verb, a preposition, or it may be 
 Used to complete the meaning of some intransitive verbs. 
 
 Ex. — He wishes to remain. They are about to go. She went to weep. 
 
 [e.) An adjective element or noun in apposition, limiting 
 another noun. 
 
 Ex. — Time to com£. A desire to go. A hope to recover. A wish 
 to stay. 
 
 (/.) An adverbial element used to denote purpose or motive. 
 
 Ex. — What went ye out to see? 
 
 In this use the infinitive is sometimes said (though perhaps not properly) 
 to be absolute; as, "To confess the truth, I was in fault,"' = That I may confess 
 ike truth, I was in fault. 
 
SY:NTAX — THE INFINITIVE. 257 
 
 (g.) To denote a result, after too, tban, so — as. 
 
 Ex.— He is too proud to beg. He is wiser than to attempt such an 
 enterprise. Be so good a^ to hear me. 
 
 5. Xhe infinitive is often understood. 
 Ex. — They considered him [to be] upright. 
 
 Caution I. — The preposition for should never be used before the 
 infinitive employed to express motive or pnrpose; also, the sign to 
 should not be used at the close of a sentence. Say, " He went to see," — 
 not "/or to see." " He spoke, or intended to speak," — not " He 
 spoke, or intended to." 
 
 CaxTtion II. — Do not use tJie perfect for the present infinitive. 
 Say, " It was your duty to warn him," — not " to have warned him." 
 
 204. Exercise. 
 
 1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the infinitives: — 
 I have brought a book for you to read. Johnson declared wit to 
 consist in finding out resemblances. These passages prove that 
 materialists will sometimes find Hume to be a very dangerous ally. 
 For him to assert and deny the same sentiment on different pages 
 is proof of the instability of his opinions. It was well for him to 
 die at his post, with his armor on. I heard him repeat whole pages 
 of poetry. Few things are more destructive to the best interests of 
 society than the prevalent but mistaken notion that it requires a 
 vast deal of talent to be a successful knave. It is a disgrace to be 
 the author of such a report. To take away the benevolent affec- 
 tions from the moral world would be like extinguishing the sun 
 from the natural. I love to roam over the green fields. He seems 
 to think the rule inapplicable to his case. They appear to rest 
 upon the solid earth. A desire to see his face once more induced 
 us to attempt the journey. The work is to be commenced to-mor- 
 row. To be good is to be happy. They remained to see what was 
 to be done. He was too feeble to write a letter. Will you be so 
 good as to pass me that book ? 
 
 Model I. — " To see the sun is pleasant." 
 
 Analyze the sentence, and parse to see thus : — 
 
 To see is an irregular transitive verb : it is the present tense of 
 the infinitive, and is used as a noun of the third pers., sing., neut., 
 nom., and is made the subject of the proposition. Rule XV. 
 R 22* 
 
268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Model II. — " I have heard say of thee, that thou canst 
 understand a dream to interpret it." — Bible. 
 
 This complex sentence has an infinitive in each clause. 
 
 Say is an irregular transitive verb, having " of thee" for an in- 
 direct, and the subordinate clause for a direct, object; infinitive, 
 present tense, and, with its objective subject [men understood), 
 forms the object of " have heard." Eule XV. See also 5, c. It is 
 put in the infinitive without the sign to, by Eule XVI. a. 
 
 To interpret is a regular transitive verb, infinitive, present, and 
 is used to limit "canst understand" as its object, by Rule XVI. By 
 an ancient idiom, its proper object is made the object of the prin- 
 cipal verb, and is then pleonastically represented by "it." In 
 modern style it would be, " understand how to interpret a dream^^ of 
 " understand a dream 8o as to interpret it." 
 
 2. Construct examples of your own to illustrate the uses of the 
 infinitive. 
 
 205. Participles. 
 
 1. Rule XVII. — Participles have the construction 
 of adjectives and nouns, and are limited like verbs. 
 
 Ex. — He, stooping down, and looking in, saw the linen clothes lying; 
 yet went he not in. A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults is a 
 guard against committing them. 
 
 2. The participle used as an adjective assumes of its 
 subject what the verb asserts. 
 
 Ex. — Hyacinths blooming. Hyacinths bloom. 
 
 (a.) When the participle is used wholly as an adjective (93, 2, b), 
 it is called & participial adjective, and is placed before the noun. 
 
 Ex. — The rising sun. The roaring billows. 
 
 {b.) When the participle is used like an adjective, having the 
 same signification and limitations as the verb, the participle, with 
 the words which limit it, is then called the participial construction. 
 
 Ex. — Encouraged by this magnificent invitation, the inhabitants of the 
 globe considered labor as their only friend. 
 
 (c.) The participle of the copulative verbs may be followed by 
 the predicate nominative,— (1.) When the noun or the pronoun to 
 which it belongs is nominative. (2.) When the noun or the pro- 
 noun to which it logically belongs is changed to the possessive. 
 
SYNTAX — PARTICIPLES. 259 
 
 Ex. — He being an accomplished write)-. I have heard of his being an 
 accomplished writer. 
 
 [d,] The participle of copulative verbs may be followed by a 
 predicate objective when the noun or the pronoun to which it belongs 
 is in the objective. 
 
 Ex. — We regarded him as being a good writer. He intrusted his son 
 to a gentleman named Edric. 
 
 {e.) The participle, like the adjective, may be used with the 
 copula, to form the predicate ; but in this construction it is regarded 
 as a form of the verb. 
 
 Ex. — They were riding. He was deceived. 
 
 (/.) Participles, such as admitting, speaking, granting, and others, 
 are used, as some say, independently ; more properly they belong 
 to some noun or pronoun understood. 
 
 Ex. — Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance, = We 
 speaking properly, &c. 
 
 3. The participle may be used either wholly as a noun, 
 or as a noun having the meaning and limitations of the 
 verb. 
 
 Ex. — It is pleasant to walk at the rising of the sun. We should 
 avoid giving pain to others. 
 
 {a.) The participle used wholly as a noun is preceded by an 
 article or an adjective, and followed by of. 
 
 Ex. — The sighing of the poor. The crying of the needy. 
 In this case the participle cannot be limited, like the verb. 
 
 {h.) The participle having the construction of the noun, with 
 the meaning and limitations of the verb, may be the subject or pre- 
 dicate nominative, or the object of a transitive verb or a preposition. 
 
 Ex. — Loving our neighbor as ourselves is fulfilling the law. Stealing 
 is taking without liberty. We should avoid breaking a promise. On 
 approaching the house, the sound of a bell was faintly heard. 
 
 (c.) In this construction the participle is called the participial 
 noun, and, as such, may be limited by a noun or a pronoun in the 
 possessive. 
 
 Ex. — What do you think of his ivriting a letter, — his being a writer ? 
 
 4. The participle, like the Latin gerund, may limit the 
 
260 
 
 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 predicate by expressing a concomitant action, yet may 
 belong grammatically to the subject. 
 
 Ex. — They remain standing. He stood amazed. He fell at his 
 master's feet, weeping. 
 
 5. The participle is often equivalent to the infinitive. 
 
 Ex. — We saw them approaching the shore, = approach the shore. 
 
 206. Exercise. 
 
 Arialyze the following examples, and parse the participles : — 
 We expect the dancing-master to teach our children " manners," 
 as well as the art of cutting awkward capers to music. Why is the 
 experiment of an extended republic to be rejected? He came near 
 being devoured by a panther. The case is well worth considering. 
 They came upon him without his being apprized of their approach. 
 The urchin's becoming so respectable a man surprised every one. 
 The gentleman's reputation as a scholar was the cause of his being 
 appointed professor of rhetoric. They narrowly escaped being 
 taken prisoners. Being convinced of his guilt, we resolved to 
 punish him. We descried a vessel stripped of its masts. Having 
 declined the proposal, I determined on a course suited to my own 
 taste. They have said. Come, and let us cut them off from being a 
 nation. There is no doubt of his being a great statesman. The 
 young maiden was seen standing on the shore, exposed to the merci- 
 less winds, and extending her hands towards heaven. Whom 
 having not seen, ye love ; in whom, though now ye see him not, 
 yet, believing, ye rejoice. In avoiding one error, do not fall into 
 another. By consulting the best authors, hie became learned. 
 Stretching from horizon to horizon, losing itself, like a limitless 
 wall, in the clouds above, it came pouring its green and massive 
 waters onward, while the continual and rapid crash of falling 
 forests, and crushed cities, and uptorn mountains, thus prostrated, 
 one after another, under its awful power, and the successive shrieks 
 that pierced the heavens, rising even above the roar of the on-rush- 
 ing ocean, as city after city, kingdom after kingdom, disappeared, 
 produced terror and horror inconceivable, indescribable. 
 
 Model I. — "Immured in cypress shades a sorcerer 
 dwells." — Milton, 
 
 Let the learner analyze the sentence. It is a simple sentence, or 
 may be regarded as a contracted complex. 
 
SYNTAX — INCOKEECT USE. 26 1 
 
 Immured is a passive participle, or past participle with a passive 
 meaning {immure, immured, immured), and, like an adjective, 
 belongs to " sorcerer," by Rule XVII., or Rule V. 
 
 Model II. — " The admiral was too desirous of present- 
 ing himself before the sovereigns to protract his stay long 
 at Palos." — Frescott. 
 
 This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is " the admi- 
 ral ;" the simple predicate is " was desirous," of which " was" is the 
 copula and " desirous" the attribute. The attribute is limited by 
 " of presenting himself before the sovereigns," an indirect objective 
 element, complex, of which "of presenting" is the basis, "of" is 
 the connective, and "presenting" is the object. "Presenting" is 
 limited, first, by the objective element " himself," and second, by 
 the complex adverbial element " before the sovereigns." " Desirous" 
 is further limited by " too," which intimates the degree or intensity 
 of his desire, and points, as a kind of correlative, to the phrase "to 
 protract his stay long at Palos," used to express the result of the 
 desire. It expresses a kind of comparison, and is equivalent to 
 another construction with so — as not, thus : — so desirous as not to 
 protract, &c. 
 
 Presenting is a present participle, from the verb present { present ^ 
 presented, presented), used as a noun, and is the object of the pre- 
 position of, by Rule XIV., and is limited according to Rule XVII., 
 like the verb " present," from which it is derived. 
 
 Construct examples of your own illustrating the various uses of the 
 participle. 
 
 II. IXCORRECT USE. 
 
 207. Incorrect Use defined. 
 
 1. The incorrect use of words is any violation of the 
 laws of good usage. It is commonly called fake syntax. 
 
 Remark. — It must be apparent to every one that the mere rules of Syntax 
 do not guard against some of tho most glaring defects in the use of spoken 
 or written language. To provide for some of the most obvious of those, 
 special cautions will be given. 
 
 2. Besides a faulty construction, there may be errors in spelling, 
 pronunciation, or the use of capitals, errors in the application of 
 
262- ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 words, errors arising from an improper omission or a repetition of 
 words, from an insertion of unnecessary words, an improper arrange- 
 ment of the parts, and errors from a neglect of any of the dis- 
 tinguishing marks which good usage requires. 
 
 208. Errors in Coustniction.— False Syntax. 
 
 1. Examples under Eule I. 
 
 You and me will go together. 
 
 Model. — " You and me will go together" is incorrect, because 
 the objective pronoun me is made the subject of the verb will go; 
 but, by Caution I., the objective should never be used as the subject 
 of a finite verb. Correct, " You and I will go together." 
 
 Him that is studious w411 improve. She found the place sooner 
 than us. Them that seek wisdom will be wise. They are people 
 whom one would think might be trusted. Who told you the story ? 
 Him and her. I know it as well as him or her. Who saw the 
 eclipse ? Us. Them are the ones. My brother is a much better 
 singer than him. We are not so much to be blamed as him that 
 upset the boat. Who came in at the door ? Me. Scotland and 
 thee did each in other live. Avoid whomsoever is in a passion. 
 There were present only him and me. You are in fault, and not 
 me. I know not whom are expected. 
 
 Us boys are forming a base-ball club. Him and me are going to 
 town this afternoon. Mary can walk faster than me. I will pro- 
 mote him who I think most deserving. Whom do you think called 
 on me this morning? Not always does the world applaud him who 
 is most deserving of praise ; but him who is most successful receives 
 the homage of men. Thee must not forget my advice. She is a 
 lady whom I know will interest you. 
 
 2. Examples under Rule II. 
 
 It is her. 
 
 I took it to be he. 
 
 You is the second person. 
 
 Models. — " It is her" is incorrect, because the attribute " her" is 
 in the objective case ; but, by Caution I., the attribute of a finite 
 verb should never be in the objective case. It should be, " It is 
 she." 
 
 "I took it to be he" is incorrect, because the nominative "he" 
 
SYNTAX — ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 263 
 
 follows the infinitive " to b«," preceded by its objective subject " it." 
 By Caution I., it should be, " I took it to be him^ 
 
 " You is the second person" is incorrect, because " you," being a 
 pronoun, is not a person, and hence is falsely identified by " person." 
 By Caution II., we should avoid such constructions. It should be, 
 " You is of the second person," that is, a pronoun of the second 
 person. 
 
 Correct, hy the Catttions, not only the following examples, hut any 
 similar ones heard in conversation : — 
 
 Is it me? No ; but it is him. I never thought of its being him ; 
 I took it to be she. Whom do you think it is ? It may have been 
 her, but I always supposed it to be he. Whom do people say it is ? 
 They say they do not know whom it is. Who do you think it is ? 
 I think it is them. I cannot believe it to be he. If I were him, 
 I would know whom it is. If I had been sure of its being her, 
 I should have been present. 
 
 The noun is the agent, and the verb is the action. What part ot 
 speech is each boy in this room ? The first person is the speaker. 
 The animal horse is a noun. To be convicted of bribery, was then 
 a crime altogether unpardonable. / is the first person. " Have 
 written" is the present perfect tense. 
 
 It was me who told you. It is not us who are in fault. If I 
 were her, I would talk less. Whom do men say that I am ? It was 
 George that answered you, not me. They had no suspicion of its 
 being me. They were a long time in doubt whom he might prove 
 to be. It is us who suffer by your carelessness. It is not I, but him, 
 you ought to blame. 
 
 3. Examples under Eule III. 
 
 Correct hy 177, 1, a, b, and the several Cautions, the following ex- 
 amples, and avoid all similar errors yourself: — 
 
 The committee were unanimous in its action. The army w^as 
 badly cut up, but made good their retreat. Let every chair, every 
 book, and every slate be put in their places. Peace and happiness 
 are by no means granted to the rich alone ; yet it is supposed by 
 many to depend upon wealth. The president or secretary will 
 favor us with their presence. Many words they darken speech. 
 That girl she is very ignorant. The king he is very angry. The 
 teacher approving the plan, he immediately adopted it. Whom 
 when they had washed, they laid her in an upper chamber. What 
 
264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 he said, he is now sorry for it. Let each scholar who thinks so 
 raise their hands. A person can content themselves on small 
 means. Let every one answer fox themselves. Rebecca took goodly 
 raiment, and put them upon Jacoli Can any one be sure that they 
 are not deceived ? Thou hast 60 right to be a judge, who art a 
 party concerned. A hawk caught a hen, and eat her in her own 
 nest. A purse was lost in the street, which contained a large sum 
 of money. There are millions of people in the empire of China 
 whose support is derived almost entirely from rice. I and you may 
 go, if I and he can agree. I and you and Harriet are going. 
 Father said that I and Henry should stay at home. Horace and 
 I and you are invited. There was a certain householder which 
 planted a vineyard. He has a soul who cannot be influenced by 
 such motives. This is the dog whom my father bought. The lady 
 which we saw was highly educated. He has some friends which I 
 am acquainted with. The judge which pronounced the sentence 
 was an upright man. Those which desire to be happy should be 
 careful to do that which is right. Though thou art wise, you some- 
 times misjudge. Do thyself no harm, and no one will harm you. 
 This is the man who discovered our distress, and that brought us 
 relief. I know you whom thou art, that annoyest me at thy gate. 
 O thou who art all-wise, and that rulest over all ! I labored long 
 to make thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude. Let 
 no boy or girl drop her pencil. James and you must attend to his 
 studies. 
 
 If any of you have aught to say against this man, let them now 
 speak. I paid for the molasses, and the grocer said he would send 
 them immediately. What one of you can sit silent when they 
 hear their friend abused? Each of you may choose for yourself. 
 If any one calls, tell them I am not at home. England expects 
 every man to do their duty. Please examine my watch, and see 
 what ails her. Now you have heard the news, what do you think 
 of them? Wealth and poverty have its temptations. Neither the 
 Greek nor the Roman had cooking-stoves in their houses. Every 
 drafted man or his substitute reported themselves on the day 
 appointed. When a rat is driven into a corner, they will often 
 turn and fight furiously. It is impossible to fix the exact number 
 of known languages, but its number can hardly be less than nine 
 hundred. Horace as well as Juvenal satirized the follies of their 
 age. Milo began to lift the ox when he was a calf. He is the same 
 person whom I took him to be. 
 
SYNTAX — ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 265 
 
 4. Examples under Eule IV. 
 
 Correct by 179, 1, a, 6, and the Cautions^ the following examples^ 
 and be careful to avoid all similar ei^ors : — 
 
 Where was you this morning when I called? He dare you to do 
 it. They was unwilling to go. Eelatives agrees with their ante- 
 cedents. There's ten of us going. Was you certain of it? We 
 was allowed the privilege. Circumstances alters cases. Has those 
 books been sent home? The committee has accepted their appoint- 
 ment. The majority was disposed to adopt the measure which they 
 at first opposed. Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound. 
 The fleet were seen sailing up the channel, where afterwards it 
 anchored, ,The peasantry goes barefoot without endangering their 
 health. The public is requested to attend for their own benefit. 
 The church have no power to adopt the measure which it advo- 
 cates. Thinks I to myself, I'll do it. Yes, says I, we'll go 
 together. Oh, dear me, says I, (as vulgarly contracted, " Oh, dear 
 me, suz.") The derivation of these words are uncertain. The 
 story, with all its additions, were believed. The increase of his 
 resources render the change necessary. The number of applicants 
 increase. The general, with all his soldiers, were taken. The sale 
 of the goods take place to-morrow. The hope of retrieving his 
 losses increase his diligence. I seen him when he done it. Some 
 one has broke my pencil. Tell them to set still. She laid down 
 by the fire. He soon begun to be weary of the employment. I 
 am going to lay down. Mary has wrote a letter. I see him when 
 he went. Ain't it true? We ain't going this evening. He has 
 drank too much. The tree has fell. You have not did as I told 
 you. John has stole the knife. They are going to our house 
 next week. He give me a great many books. He knowed his 
 lesson better than Henry. They had sang very well. I have lain 
 your book on the shelf. Will you sit the pitcher on the table, and 
 let it set there? The ship lays in the harbor. I done my sums 
 first. 
 
 There is six cents to pay you for your trouble, my little man. 
 Why did you say you was coming? There was four of us went a 
 fishing. " Spare Hours" were written by Dr. John Brown, This 
 fashion is one of the most foolish that ever was imposed on us. 
 A band of robbers were captured by means of a little negro boy. 
 Forest after forest fall before the axe of the white man. Not a 
 feature, not a muscle, were seen to move. The night was dark: 
 
 23 
 
266 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 
 
 neither moon nor star were visible. There was no data given. Tht 
 ladder was forty foot long. There have been quite an increase in 
 the receipt of butter. Nearly six thousand head of cattle was 
 brought to New York market last week. A number of distin- 
 guished people was present. The mob were composed of the 
 worst characters in the city. There seems to be no good reasons 
 for refusing. Three months' probation are enough to decide it. 
 He dare not touch a hair of Catiline. 
 
 5. Examples under Eule V. 
 
 Correct the following examples by the principles and Cautions 
 under Rule V. : — 
 
 He found a acorn in the woods. He was a honorable man. It 
 is an wonderful invention. He is an younger man than we 
 thought. She showed an uniform adherence to truth. This is 
 an hard saying. 
 
 I do not like remarks of these kind. Those sort of people are 
 very disagreeable. Will you buy six pair of boots? I have 
 bought eight foot of wood. It cost a thousand pound. The lot is 
 fifty foot in width. The water is six fathom deep. We walked 
 three mile in a short time. He ordered ten ton of coal. 
 
 I found them books on the table. Which of them scholars recites 
 the best? Go and tell them boys to come here. Ask them children 
 to bring them apples here. 
 
 She dresses neat. The time passed very quick. The ship glides 
 smooth over the water. The stream flows silent on. It is not such 
 a great distance as I thought it was. He behaved much wiser than 
 the others. Mary speaks French very fluent. I am exceeding 
 sorry to hear such tidings. 
 
 He was the larger of them all. He was the oldest of the two 
 brothers. He preferred the latter of the three. Which is the 
 oldest of the two? John is the wisest of the two. 
 
 After the most straitest sect of our religion I lived a Pharisee. 
 This was the most unkindest cut of all. The rose is most fairest 
 of all flowers. The chief of the Arabian tribes is styled the sheik. 
 The chief magistrate is called the emperor. He was an abler 
 financier than a negotiator. 
 
 You cannot mix the oil and the water. The imagination is 
 necessary to the poet. The fire is a useful servant, but a hard 
 master, to a man. A pen is mightier than a sword. A lion is 
 sometimes called a king of beasts. The time and the tide wait for 
 
SYNTAX — ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 267 
 
 no man. He examined every phenomena with the eye of a phi- 
 losopher. He was much pleased wdth these good news. Bring me 
 a thimble and scissors. The grizzly bear, as well as buffalo, are 
 natives of North America. The ship displayed a red and white 
 signal, and we distinctly saw them both. The elephant has a 
 powerful and a flexible trunk, which he always carries with him on 
 a journey. I cannot buy, for I have a little money. I could buy 
 it if I chose ; for I have little money yet. The carpenter forgot to 
 bring his ten-feet pole. I counted thirteen sails of vessels lying at 
 anchor in the stream. The apple tastes sweetly. Industry and 
 Frugality are Fortune's servants : this acquires wealth, that saves 
 it. Just taste of those molasses. 
 
 I bought an Andrew's and a Stoddard's Latin Grammar, and left 
 it in the book-store. What sort of an animal is a mink? It is a 
 kind of a quadruped. We were charmed with Everett, the orator, 
 the statesman, and the diplomatist. One would think him a better 
 pupil than a teacher. At the North and South Poles the latitude 
 is 90°, and longitude from 0° to 180°. Let us honor our flag, — the 
 red, the white, and the blue. The administration of Washington 
 and establishment of the government formed an important era in 
 our history. He did not demand the principal, but interest. He 
 delivered the address clear and distinct. How do you do? I am 
 some better; my health is tolerable good. He rode past so quick I 
 scarce saw him. You do not treat me polite. The bear had not 
 been fed for two days, and he began to growl savage. How did 
 Walter perform his part? Very good. 
 
 6. Examples under Eule VI. 
 Correct^ by the rule, the following examples : — 
 
 I am going to see my friends in the country, they that we visited 
 last summer. Washington will be remembered by our posterity as 
 him w^ho was the father of his country. The Echo Song was sung 
 by Jenny Lind, she who delighted the whole country. 
 
 He is writing the life of Cromwell, — not the Protector, but he 
 who was the friend and pupil of Wolsey, and afterwards minis- 
 ter of Henry VIII. He treats me ill, — I, who would so gladly serve 
 him. 
 
268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 7. Examples under Kule VII. 
 
 Correct the following examples by the Cautions : — 
 
 On Lindens hills of blood-stained snow. It was the grand 
 Bultans palace. The nations hopes were blasted. Next Mars, 
 Piazzis orb, is seen. It is against the laws of Plutos empire. His 
 brothers offence is not his. Midst glorys glance and victorys 
 thunder-shout. The mans story was false. If of Drydens fire 
 the blaze is brighter, of Popes the heat is more regular and 
 constant. 
 
 This book is your's. I listened to it's song. The slate is hisn. 
 This map is theirn. This knife is mine, and not yourn. That 
 handkerchief is hern. These sheep are oiirn. Will you drive 
 yourn out of the pasture? Our's is a pleasant task. 
 
 I will do it for your sakes. We intend, for our parts, to follow 
 his advice. Their healths have improved. We will submit to our 
 lots. It was not worth their whiles to remain so long in port. 
 
 After a pleasant two hours sail, we went ashore to lunch. Please 
 call at Little's and Brown's book-store and get me the last Galaxy. 
 His friends opposed him going into the army. Which is the 
 neatest boot, your boot or my boot? This is a book of my friend. 
 The elephant and beaver's instinct approaches closely to reason. 
 James sister thinks too much of dress. I would like to see that 
 saucy servant of your's. That is a robin, thrush, or sparrow's nest 
 
 8. Examples under Kule VIII. 
 
 Correct the following examples by the rule: — 
 
 Who did you see yesterday? Who did he marry? They that 
 help us we should reward. He who committed the offence thou 
 ehj^uldst punish, not I, who am innocent. Who should I find but 
 my cousin? Will you let him and I sit together? I did not know 
 who to send. 
 
 Let him and I row the boat back. I can't tell who you mean. 
 Let the able-bodied men fight, and they that are feeble do guard 
 duty at home. Ye have ever been my friends, and ye only will I 
 trust. Both candidates are popular men, and it is quite doubtful 
 who the people will choose. He that made the last speech the 
 audience cheered. 
 
 9. Examples uiojer Eule IX. 
 Correct, by the Cautions , the following examples: — 
 I "?rill not take that course by no means. I did not like neither 
 
 I 
 
SYNTAX — ERROKS IN CONSTRUCTION. 269 
 
 his principles nor his practice. I cannot write no more. Nothing 
 never can justify such conduct. He will never be no better, 
 Neither he nor no one else believes the story. I never go no- 
 wheres. I am resolved not to trust him, neither now, nor any- 
 other time. No one knows neither the causes nor the effects of 
 such influences. 
 
 His expressions sounded harshly. Satin feels very smoothly. 
 Give him a soon and decisive answer. Such incidents are of seldom 
 occurrence. The then emperor issued a decree. Did he arrive 
 safely and sound? She seemed beautifully. 
 
 Know now whether this be thy son's coat, or no? Tell me 
 whether I shall do it, or no. I w^ill ascertain if it is true, or no. 
 
 He said how he believed it. She told me how that she would 
 come if she could. He remarked how time was valuable. 
 
 I will send thee far from hence to the Gentiles. George wrote a 
 description of our picnic where he mentions all of us under assumed 
 names. I never got no favors in the army. It isn't good for pear- 
 trees nor apple-trees to trim them often. He delivered the address 
 clear and distinct. 
 
 10. Examples ui^der Rule X. 
 
 Oh, unfortunate me ! why did I not heed your counsel ? Me ex- 
 cepted, they were all members of the club. Him guiding, we took 
 the forest-path in confidence. They refused to begin the contest, 
 us absent. Them assisting, the performance will be successful. 
 
 11. Examples under Rule XI. 
 Correct the following examples by the Cautions : — 
 They confess the power and wisdom and love and goodness of 
 their Creator. John and James and Henry and Charles will re- 
 turn this evening. His conduct was unkind and unjust and un- 
 merciful. 
 
 He neither came nor was sent for. We pervert the noble faculty 
 of speech when we use it to the defaming, or to disquiet our neigh- 
 bors. We hope that we shall hear from him, and that he has re- 
 turned. I always have and I always shall be of this opinion. 
 The work was executed with rapidity and promptly. It is a re- 
 gion distinguished by many charming varieties of rural scenery, 
 and which may be termed the Arcadia of Scotland. He retired 
 voluntarily, and a conqueror. 
 
 23* 
 
270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Are we not lazy in our duties, or make a Christ of them ? In 
 many pursuits we embark with pleasure and land sorrowfully. 
 
 It is a good which neither depends on the will of others nor on 
 the affluence of external fortune. Either sentences are simple or 
 compound. His fortune has not only suffered by his folly, but his 
 health. This is not merely a question of interest, but of right also. 
 
 He was not a rich man, and he is good to the poor. A man may 
 smile and smile, and he is a villain. Charles V. retired to a con- 
 vent, and chess is a fascinating game. Back to thy punishment, 
 false fugitive I and to thy speed you may add wings. Genius hews 
 out its figure from the block, and with the sleepless chisel he gives 
 it life. Neither Whigs or Tories foresaw the bad effects of the 
 passage of the bill. No one gave his opinion as modestly as he. 
 
 12. Examples under Ruxes XIII. and XIV. 
 Correct, by the Cautions, the following examples: — 
 I am engaged with my work. Mesopotamia lies among two 
 rivers. I left my book to home. Come in my house. They insist 
 on it that you are wrong. My friend has a strong prejudice to the 
 candidate. That mother is too indulgent with her child. With 
 what are you so intent? We should profit from the experience of 
 others. That boy is not careful with his books. With what does 
 he excel ? 
 
 Who you spend your evenings with is well known. Go, little 
 insect : the world is wide enough for you and I. Mankind's anti- 
 pathy for snakes is derived, some say, from Adam. Do you know 
 who you are speaking to? Gibbon was engaged with his great 
 work about twenty years. Where shall we turn, and in whom can 
 we rely? Though a young man, he presided upon the assembly 
 with much dignity. 
 
 So you must ride 
 On horseback after we. 
 But it were vain for you and I 
 In single fight our strength to try. 
 
 13. Examples under Rule XV. 
 Correct, by the Caution, the following examples: — 
 Who can write better than him? Whom does he honor more 
 than I ? I know James better than him. The lion can devour a 
 sheep as well as a wolf. He is no better speller as I. 
 
SYNTAX — SPECIAL CAUTIONS. 271 
 
 14. Examples under Eule XVI. 
 
 Unless rain comes, we shall be sure for to go. I expected to 
 have seen you yesterday. Govern your own temper, and thus teach 
 others to. As we marched through the streets, half the town, I 
 should think, came out for to see us. With a few simple words he 
 proved the previous speaker to have been mistaken. Buy the best 
 in the market, or, at least, try to. While standing by the door, I 
 saw the procession to pass round the corner. The colonel bade me 
 to deliver this message. I should have preferred to have taken an 
 outside seat. 
 
 209. Errors to be corrected by Special Cautions, 
 
 1. Caution I. — Avoid Tnigarisms. 
 
 These are low expressions which the uneducated are sure to adopt. 
 Ex. — You can't come that game. That is tip-top. Go it, boys. Keep 
 your eye peeled. I'll break your top timbers; and others without number. 
 
 2. Caution II. — Avoid all perversions; 
 
 These come sometimes from a corruption of the true word, sometimes from 
 a mistake in the sound of a word. 
 
 Ex. — Where is the place for the refuge matter? He was necessiated 
 to stay to hum. We all got into a voilent prespiration. The foilage of the 
 trees in autumn is beautiful. The causalities of that battle were fearful. 
 Them cowcumhers are not fit to eat. I disremember what you told me. 
 That depends upon your ipse dixie. 
 
 3. Caution III. — Avoid proTinciaiisms. 
 
 These are expressions confined to certain localities in the same country. 
 
 Ex. — My father is a heap better. I reckon I will never succeed. You 
 will have a right smart chance. Directly we started, it commenced to rain. 
 Well (loal), I guess that will do. 
 
 4. Caution IY. — Avoid misapplications. 
 
 These consist in using words either with a wrong meaning or in a wrong 
 connection. 
 
 Ex. — I have brought the balance of the books. This is a likely youth. 
 Fruit in a damp cellar is incident to decay. It didn't hurt me any. 
 Which of these six pencils will you take ? I will take either. We had 
 seven pear-trees, but neither of them lived. The two boys were so angry, 
 they would not speak to one another. The farmer had fewer hay than he 
 
272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 expected. He had less fruit-trees than his neighbor. If you will not go 
 to me, I shall come to you. We rode down the river in a flat-boat. The 
 teacher learned the boys arithmetic. The woodsman will fall the trees. 
 The council was setting all night. The sun is sitting in a cloud. Do you 
 love maple sugar ? I expect some of the boys broke that sled. I carried 
 my brother to school in a horse and sleigh. The river has overflown its 
 banks. The medicine has affected a cure. Where was he raised f The 
 ship laid in the harbor a whole month. I feel as though I could do 
 it. Let him do like I do. He gave a demonstration where he proved 
 two sides equal. He was averse /rom the undertaking. I diflered icith 
 him. He is independent on his father. I shall confide on your advice. 
 
 5. Caution V. — Avoid improper ellipses. 
 
 For ellipses, see 216, 3. 
 
 Ex. — It is a long road has no turning. He alienated the affection 
 of his acquaintance as well as his best friends. Solon was banished his 
 country. It is an offence which does not admit an apology. We pledge 
 our lives, fortunes, and our sacred honor. Your friends never blame 
 you for making short credits and calls. It is not so easy to get money 
 as spend it. I would rather live with honest boors than false gentlemen. 
 He never has succeeded, and never will. She placed me near the desk, 
 and James the farther end of the room. I do not know whether he has 
 been engaged by the defendant or plaintiff. I was surprised at the 
 manner he received it. His stories are as hard to swallow as Baron 
 Munchausen. 
 
 6. Caution VI. — Avoid unnecessary repetitions. 
 
 Repetitions are not ahcays censurable. The caution is intended to guard 
 against a needless repetition (1) of the same tcord or any of its derivatives ; 
 (2) of the same idea, or one nearly allied to it. 
 
 Ex. — In the formation of the different /orm.? of the verb, we should be 
 careful to use the present participle informing the progressive /orm, and 
 the passive participle in forming the passive form. Her faithfulness and 
 fidelity deserved much praise. 
 
 7. Caution YTI.— Avoid unnecessary words. 
 
 Ex.— Have you sold your house ? No ; but Mr. Jones talks of buy- 
 ing of it. He never denied bid that he was opposed to the law. This 
 line of railroad opens up a fine prospect for this section of the State. 
 The Board offer their grateful acknowledgments for the support hitherto 
 so liberally extended, and which has so greatly contributed to this satis- 
 
SYNTAX — SPECIAL CAUTIONS. 273 
 
 factory result. I meant to be present at the meeting, but which I waa 
 unable. 
 
 Have you got any good tea? (a common abuse, which should be 
 avoided.) He has got no good land for raising strawberries. 
 
 We have no ague in this here place. Stop that there noise. {This 'ere 
 and that 'ere are sometimes heard.) 
 
 I felt the chills to run all over me. 
 
 If I would keep it a secret, he said how that he would tell me. 
 
 He had ought to work. 
 
 They have more friends among us than you think /or. 
 
 And there are several other such ways of evading the law. 
 
 Bartholomew Gosnold first discovered Martha's Vineyard in 1602. 
 ^^Tcould not for a moment admit of such a plea. 
 j The committee carefully investigated into all the circumstances. 
 
 I kinder like him after all. It is a pretty smart sort of a town. 
 
 They presented the superintendent with a gold hunting-watch. 
 
 The old cat, having lost all but one of her kittens, she carried that 
 one away and hid it. 
 
 The Indians, before they declare war, they hold a solemn council. 
 
 After his defeat he was the most unhappiest man I ever saw. 
 
 More sharper than a serpent's tooth is vile ingratitude. 
 
 The diet cures more than the doctor. 
 
 One vote would decide who should be a captain. 
 
 The oxygen gas is the vital part of the atmosphere. 
 
 I can't consent by any manner of means. 
 
 A pair of pincers will do equally as well. It is equally a^ good. 
 
 The days, the hours, and the minutes dragged slowly along. 
 
 That wise and that benevolent man has gone to his rest. 
 
 By the listening to his conversation I avoided talking myself. 
 
 You have been wandering about long enough : you ought to marry 
 and settle dovm somewhere. 
 
 Common laborers are now being paid two dollars a day. 
 
 Complaints are now being made of the course of the commissioner. 
 
 San Francisco is the largest of any city west of the Eocky Mountains. 
 
 8. Caution VIII. — Avoid an improper arrangement. 
 
 Errors in syntax sometimes arise from an improper arrangement of the 
 words of a sentence. This often renders the thought obscure, ambiguous, or 
 even equivocal. 
 
 Mr. Brown needs a physician who is sick. These delicious oranges 
 came in a large wicker basket which we eat. Found, a gold watch by a 
 gentleman with steel hands. 
 
 The preposition should be placed as near to its object as possible. 
 
274 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 To let, a well-built two-story house, containing eleven rooms, a large, 
 dry cellar, and a new furnace, with a French roof. A man brought home 
 my Newfoundland dog in his shirt-sleeves. 
 
 I feel obliged to reluctantly remind you of your promise. He ought 
 to be without doubt regarded as the real inventor. After the firing ceased, 
 lie was seen to slowly and cautiously retreat. 
 
 9. Caution IX. — Avoid nsibccoming expressions. 
 
 Language is unbecoming when, in style, it is not suited to the thought to 
 be expressed. In common discourse, the ancient, poetic, or sacred style should 
 be avoided. In apostrojjhe, in addresses to the Deity, in poetic and elevated 
 composition, the familiar style is in the highest degree offensive. 
 
 Ex. — Art thou feeding the cows ? Camest thou to school late ? He 
 
 hath caught a trout. Mr. Jones liveth at No. Washington Street. 
 
 Adieu to you, fair Ehine ! O you Parnassus ! whom I now survey. 
 
 210. Miscellaneous Examples. 
 
 A new hotel is being built. — {is building.) Large supplies of these 
 goods are being thrown upon the market. How old are you ? I am going 
 on for twelve. — [in my twelfth year.) 
 
 He used to was, used to could (vulgarisms). 
 
 Turn your toes out when you walk, like I do. — {as.) 
 
 They were not fortunate in choosing a day, like we were. 
 
 James is not as tall as George. — {so tall.) 
 
 He brought home gloves and laces, and all those sort of things. 
 
 The ascent was not as difficult as they feared. 
 
 You will find these kind of apples excellent for winter use. 
 
 I had rather stay at home. — {ivould rather.) 
 
 We ainH going to have any drones in this hive. 
 
 It ainH any use for a fellow like me to try. 
 
 There is a good deal of idle capital in the country. — {great deal.) 
 
 He sent a great deal of fat cattle to Brighton. — (great number.) 
 
 Our minister is just recovering from a fsevere attackt of the gout. 
 
 They attacUed us in the night ; and we Yanks were busy enough till 
 morning, I tell you. 
 
 You mustn't go near the water, for I'm afraid you will be droumded. 
 
 Have you milked the cows, John ? I didnH yet, sir. — (I hmenH.) 
 
 It was impossible to say who it was fired by. 
 
 The pleasure of your evening's party depends very much upon who 
 you have for company. 
 
 Haven't you no idea who it was ? 
 
 I don't think no worse of him for that. 
 
SYNTAX — IMPROPER USE. 275 
 
 You could not do it justice by no description you could give. 
 I reckon we shall have a dry spell now, after so much rain. 
 
 The word reckon is generally used in the Southern States, as guess is in 
 New England, for think. 
 
 How old is your father ? I guess he is about eighty. 
 
 The number of the convicts of the State Prison is two hundred. — (in.) 
 
 I meant to have told you the meeting was postponed. 
 
 He sent us word he would have liked to have come. 
 
 They come with us into the city yesterday. — (went.) 
 
 I shall certainly come to Philadelphia this week, if I can. 
 
 I RTQ jealous that the cat catches my chickens. — (suspidov^.) 
 
 How came all these weeds among my parsnips ? I expect they grew. — 
 (suppose.) 
 
 The general will arrive in Boston about four o'clock p. M. — {at.) 
 
 He has both talent and capacity in business. — (for business.) 
 
 And the beggars and vn^etcheder poor keep themselves warm by sundry 
 recollections of summer. 
 
 Overcome with fatigue, I laid down under the first tree I came to. 
 
 He is an uneasy child ; he cannot lay still or set still a moment. 
 
 After a hen has lain a certain number of eggs, she generally wants to 
 Bet. 
 
 Lay is a transitive, lie an intransitive verb. Set is sometimes intransitive, 
 but usually transitive; sit is always intransitive. 
 
 My brother has promised to learn me to skate. — (to teach.) 
 How do you do, Mr. Brown ? Oh, I'm tolerable well. 
 I have lost the knife father give me last Christmas. 
 The robin finally alit on the branch just above me. 
 What time did you say it wasf 
 Who told you the Governor was to be present ? 
 
 I never knew before that Russian America had such a mild climate. — 
 {has.) 
 After a good night's sleep, he woke much refreshed. 
 About midnight we were suddenly awoke by the ringing of the bells. 
 All talking ceased when he begun to speak. 
 On trying to get up, he found his leg was broke. 
 I waited till noon ; but no one come. 
 
 He only done his duty. Who done it ? I done as you told me. 
 I drunk no tea or coffee for two years. They^f like tigers. 
 Iforgit his name. It is time to git up. 
 
 He meaned well. I have rode so long, I would like to walk a while. 
 They have jumped over the fence and ran away. 
 His vessel was spoke off the coast of Chili. 
 
276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Byron, while in Venice, is said to have srmm three miles. 
 
 Ask all to come : we will then see who are your friends. 
 
 Deceiving is much the same as to lie. 
 
 It is the same book what I told you about. 
 
 The company which she had taken so much trouble to select were 
 evidently not well pleased with each other. 
 
 The result of his waste and extravagance were plainly foreseen. 
 
 The influence of wealth and friends, in such cases, carry the day. 
 
 Brown and Jones both did well, but neither of them ivei^e equal to the 
 last speaker. 
 
 The wisdom and justice of his decision is now apparent. 
 
 Your letter, with the proof-sheets of the new arithmetic, wei'e received 
 last night. 
 
 Each day, each hour, bring their temptations. 
 
 His manly principles, and not his fear of the world, restrains him. 
 
 The audience wears its hats in the pit. 
 
 And far into the night the soft dip of the oar, and the gurgling pro- 
 gress of the boats, was company and gentlest lullaby. 
 
 And I think the perfume, as it steals mitigated to your nostrils out of 
 an open church door, is the reverendest smell in the world. 
 
 It was commended, I assure you, by the very sdectest circle in our 
 village. 
 
 These violations, by good writers, of the rule for comparison are not un- 
 common nowadays : they will eventually be recognized, no doubt, as lawful 
 usage. 
 
 The resort to begging, in such cases, is more universal in the south of 
 Italy than in the north. 
 
 And nature, from its seat sighing, through all its works gave signs of 
 woe.^ — (her.) 
 
 Ex.-Gov. Curtin, of Pennsylvania, delivered an eulogy. 
 
 I have seen him do it an hundred times. 
 
 I cannot give you the why's and wherefore? s: but these are the facts. 
 
 The Mussulmen believe in fate, and yet wear talismen round their necks. 
 
 Mix two spoonsful of cayenne pepper with three or four handsfvl of 
 oat-meal, and give it just before sunset. 
 
 It is the girl what lives near the depot. 
 
 I never hxive and I think I never shall see another sight like that. 
 
 Call about noon : I shall be to home at that time. 
 
 "Which is the largest city, Baltimore or New Orleans ? 
 
 I think James is the handsomest of the two. 
 
SYNTAX — PECULIAR USE. 277 
 
 III. PECtJI^IAR USE* 
 
 211. Definitions. 
 
 1. A word has a peculiar use when it varies from its 
 usual elassificatioriy meaning^ or relation in construction. 
 
 2. A ivord or an expression has an idiomatic use when, 
 with the sanction of good authority, — 
 
 (1.) In the same language, as in the English, for example, it 
 departs from its general analogies. 
 
 Ex. — ''We were told an exciting story," instead of "An exciting 
 story was told us." 
 
 (2.) In different languages, the same thought is expressed with a 
 marked and uniform diflference. 
 
 Ex, — How do you do f — English. = How goes it with youf — German. 
 = How carry you yourself? — French. 
 
 (3.) In any language, it deviates from the principles of general 
 grammar. 
 
 Ex. — In addressing a single person, we say, "How are youf^ The 
 principles of general grammar require us to say, "How art thouf^ 
 
 Remark. — All languages have their idioms, but the English abounds in 
 them. This is chiefly owing to the character of the language itself, as a 
 mixture of many others. Says Professor De Vere, " In English, all the exist- 
 ing nationalities of Europe — the Sclavonic alone excepted — meet and mingle 
 together." With the words of these nations came more or less of their pecu- 
 liar modes of expression ; and these, after having been moulded and adapted, 
 have become a part of our mother-tongue. The grammarian cannot change 
 these if he would. The growth of language, its new formations, and its decay, 
 are above and beyond his control. *' Try to alter the smallest rule of English, 
 and you will find it is physically impossible." — Max MUller. And ho would 
 not change them if he could: he must not attempt to adjust the words of an 
 idiom to his grammatical rules, and thus rob the language of some of its 
 choicest elements of life and strength. In the following section the peculi- 
 arities that often perplex the learner are arranged under appropriate heads, 
 and should be consulted in cases of difficulty. 
 
 212. Special Examples. 
 
 1. The same word may belong to diiFerent classes. 
 
 (i.) Idea-words, or those which form the substance of the language. 
 
 24 
 
278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (a.) From the same root, without change. 
 Own. — I own a horse (verb). The horse is my ovm (adj.). 
 
 The idea of peculiar ownership is its prevailing meaning. It is used with 
 possessives to render that idea emphatic. J/y house, wy own house ; mi/ com- 
 position, my own composition. 
 
 Sammer. — In the summer (noun); a summer shower (adj.); to 
 summer any one or any thing (verb). 
 
 Nearly all the common or household words of the language are thus used, 
 vrithout change, as nouns, verba, and often as adjectives. Thus, we have " good 
 iron; he will iron the thief; an iron bar; an eye; they eye him ; a cool spring ; 
 I spring ; a spring morning." In many cases, when the word does not become 
 a distinct adjective by usage, it becomes such in effect by being prefixed to a 
 noun with an intervening hyphen, as a part of a compound noun. Thus, we 
 have "eye-glass, eye-witness; dog-iooih, plural (ioy-teeth; do^'a-tongue (185, 
 W), dog's-tail gxa.s&', 6ear-skin, tear'«-footj" and others almost without limit. 
 
 {h.) From the same root, with some modification. 
 Gold. — The gold of California (noun) ; a gold watch (adj.); to gild 
 (verb); a golden opportunity (deriv. adj.) ; ^o/c?-cloth, gold- 
 dust (adj. in effect). 
 
 (c.) From differ en t roots. 
 
 Weu. — From Anglo-Saxon weaiian, to boil. — A we^/ twenty feet deep 
 (noun) ; the water began to well up (verb). From Anglo- 
 Saxon wel. — A well man (adj.) ; he does well (adv.). Thus, 
 we have bear (from A.-S. beran), to carry, bear (from A.-S. 
 bera), a quadruped, and bear (from A.-S. here), a kind of 
 barley. We have bay, brown; bay, a body of water; bay, 
 a berry; bay, a barking, to bark: — really four different 
 words. 
 
 Besides these, there are many words which are the same in orthography 
 but different in pronunciation, or are the same in pronunciation but different in 
 orthography; as, bow (bow), bow (bo), beau (bo); an'grust, ang^nst'; 
 lye, lie ; dye, die. These may belong to the same or to different classes, 
 according to their use. 
 
 Remark. — A very profitable exercise may be introduced here by requiring 
 the pupil to take any word, as form, feed, silver, fair, close, and determine 
 into what classes it falls from its various uses, either in its unchanged form or 
 by any form of derivation. Let him be required to write or give orally a 
 sentence containing each of its uses. 
 
 (2.) Complex words, or those which express idecLs, and at the 
 same time connect or limit. 
 
SYNTAX — PECULIAR USE. 279 
 
 Remark. — It should be observed that their general use is to express ideaa 
 and connections. In some cases they are mere limiting words or mere connectives. 
 
 [A.) Snbordinate connectives, having also a substantive use. 
 
 Wbo, Wbicli. (1.) Pronouns and subordinate connectives at the same 
 time. 
 
 Who, Which, (2.) also, When, Where, Why, How, and all other inter- 
 rogative words. Interrogative pronouns, or inter- 
 rogative adverbs, when used to ask a question. 
 
 Who, Which. (3.) Indefinite interrogative pronouns and subordinate 
 connectives, and the others conjunctive adverbs, when 
 the interrogative sentence is incorporated into 
 another sentence. (See 78, 4, 5.) 
 
 What. Besides the uses mentioned on page 78, it is, — 
 
 (1.) An indefinite interrogative pronoun: "He asked what 
 
 happened." 
 (2.) An adverb: "The enemy, having his country wasted, 
 what (partly) by himself and what (partly) by the soldiers, 
 findeth succor in no place." 
 For whoever, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever, see 177, 14, 15. 
 For the uses of that, see page 78. 
 
 *(j5.) Subordinate connectives, having also an adverbial use. 
 As. (1.) A part of a compound preposition. "^5 to that matter, 
 he was silent." '^ As for me and my house." 
 (2.) A subordinate connective. 
 
 (a.) Conjunctive adverb of manner: "Speak as you 
 
 think." 
 of comparison: " He is as tall 
 
 as his brother." 
 of time: " I arrived as (when) 
 
 he was taking his leave." 
 of cause or reason : ^^As (since) 
 
 you take the responsibility, 
 
 I will proceed." 
 of correspondence: "As the 
 
 door turneth on its hinges, 
 
 so doth the slothful man on 
 
 his bed." 
 of an adversative meaning:: 
 
 " Fatigued as I was, I walked 
 
 four hours." 
 
280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 [b.) A relative pronoun (not strictly, but by an ellipsis) : 
 
 " Such as I have give I unto thee." 
 (c.) An index of apposition-' "The moon as satellite 
 
 attends." " They regard him as innocent." 
 
 In this last use the connective serves to join only a term (not a proposition) 
 to a superior term, and so far resembles the preposition. It must not, how- 
 ever, on this account be so called. The preposition is used to show a relation 
 between terms representing different things ; whereas the term after as denotes 
 the copacityf rank, or character in which the same thing is to be regarded. 
 This use of as is often troublesome to the learner, especially when the refer 
 ence to the antecedent term is in sense rather than in construction (sec 183, 13) 
 Sometimes it is used to limit the antecedent term to some particular view or 
 attribute of itself. "Vice considered as vice." "We shall consider man as 
 man." " Whatsoever ye do, do it heartily, as unto the Lord." The subsequent 
 term is often an adjective or a participle, and therefore cannot follow a pre- 
 position. " They regarded him as having attained the highest rank " 
 
 (3.) An adverb: "As yet (until now) I have made no new dis- 
 covery." It is an adverb when used as the first part of a 
 correlative: as — as. 
 
 Remark. — When as is used to introduce illustrative examples, it is a con- 
 junctive adverb: "A noun is the name of an object; as [is] John, Boston, 
 [or] house." Sometimes we must supply it: " The rule is as follows," — it fol- 
 lows, or as that which follows. 
 
 Alter, and many other words, such as before, since, till, until, ere, 
 except, save, for, notwithstanding, &e. (see 143, 18), are con- 
 junctive adverbs when they connect subordinate clauses ; when 
 they are followed by a noun or a pronoun as object, they are 
 prepositions. Several of them are used as mere adverbs. Thus, 
 we have, " He came after me. After I left he wrote his friend. 
 We left soon after. He has been at home since noon. I have 
 not seen him since. Since I returned, I have been ill." Most 
 of the prepositions are in some uses adverbs : thus, " over head ; 
 the rain is over', he went under ; it is under the house." 
 
 (3.) Defining or connecting words, or words used chiefly to 
 limit, unite, or show transitions. 
 
 1 and The are articles, or a division of limiting adjectives, when 
 they belong to nouns. A is a preposition when placed 
 before a participle; as, a hunting; and in composition; 
 as, aground, aloft. The is an adverb when prefixed to an 
 adverb or an adjective; as, ^'The more I see him, the 
 better I like him." 
 
SYNTAX — PECULIAR USE. 281 
 
 All, Any. (1.) (Noun.) Deprived of his all. Any not used aa a 
 noun. 
 (2.) (Adj.) All men are mortal. Any house better than 
 
 none. 
 (3. ) (Adv.) And cheeks a^^ pale. -4^^ the better, -i/iybetter. 
 Also, Besides, I^ikewise, Even, Else, are used sometimes as coordi- 
 nate conjunctions. Sometimes they are found in con- 
 nection with such conjunctions, and modify the general 
 eifect of the whole added clause. They have the force 
 of adverbs. 
 Agraln. (1.) (Adv.) I saw him again. 
 
 (2.) (Conj.) Again, this assumption is not sustained by the 
 facts in the case. 
 Alone, Only. (1.) (Adj.) I found him alone. The only lesson 
 taught. 
 (2.) (Adv.) To sit alone. I wrote only to amuse 
 myself. 
 Ay, Tea, iTay. (1.) (Adverb.) He answered nay or yea, = no or yes. 
 (2.) (Noun.) The nays will rise, and the ays will 
 
 remain seated. 
 
 (3.) (Coor. conj.) He did all that, yea, more. And 
 
 now do they thrust us out privily? nay, verily; but 
 
 let them come themselves and fetch us out. 
 
 Bnt,Save. (1.) (Coor. conj.) He is not sick, hut faint. And that 
 
 no man might buy or sell, save he that had the mark. 
 
 (2.) (Prep.) They gave him all but one. Whence all but 
 
 him had fled. 
 (3.) (Adv.) We saw him but twice. 
 Save and hut aro obviously followed by the objective in many con- 
 Btnictions, as the pronoun shows. Thus, Wordsworth says, — 
 " God save you all, save this cursed friar. 
 And all desisted, — all save him alone." 
 Yet many cases may be cited in which the pronoun is in the nominative. 
 Thus, Shakspeare says, "All the conspirators, save only he, did that they did, 
 in envy of great Cassar." " There was no stranger with us in the house, 
 »ave we tico [were]." — Bible. The question is, In what case is the noun after 
 these words ? Its form does not decide. Most recent grammarians, and both 
 Webster and Worcester, call save and but prepositions, and regard the noun 
 as in the objective. Such is the present tendency ; and it may well be regarded 
 as the settled usage. 
 Botb. (1.) (Adj.) -ffo^A methods are good. 
 
 (2.) (Correl. conj.) He is both virtuous and wise. 
 24* 
 
282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 For, To. (1.) (For, subor.-conj.) See After. 
 
 (2.) (Prep.) I will call for you. He will send to me. 
 
 Either may be supplied before the indirect object: "He bought [for] me a 
 knife." They lack the antecedent term when used before a phrase as subject. 
 "For him to deceive me is inexcusable." ''To write the same things is not 
 profitable." 
 
 Macii. (1.) (Noun.) Where much is given, much is required. 
 (2.) (Adj.) ilft^cA ado is made. 
 (3.) (Adv.) I was much pleased with the visit. 
 No. (1.) (Limiting adjective.) He had no funds. 
 (2.) [a.) (Adverb, — a modifier.) No longer. 
 
 [b.) (Adverb, independent.) "No, I never will do it." To 
 this add, as independent adverbs, yes, will, why. "Are you 
 going? Fes," = I am going. " Well, what shall we do? 
 Why, I do not know." *- 
 Now. (1.) (Noun.) Now is your time. 
 (2.) (Adverb.) Come now. 
 (3.) (Coordinate causal conjunction.) Now the serpent was 
 
 more subtle than any beast of the field. 
 (4. ) (Correlative connective. ) Now high, now low, now master 
 up, now miss. — Pope. 
 Ratber (adv.), also lief, better, best, are used with had to express 
 equal willingness or preference. Probably they were 
 originally mistaken interpretations of the abbrevia- 
 tion Fd, — i.e. I would; not / had. They are idiomatic 
 expressions, and are in good use. " I had rather speak 
 five words with my understanding." " I had as lief go 
 as not." " You had better stay." 
 So. (1.) (Adverb of manner or degree, = thus.) Do it so. The air 
 is so clear. 
 (2.) (Subordinate connective.) So he can gain his point, he is 
 
 unscrupulous as to the means. 
 (3.) (A substitute, used to avoid the repetition of an expression.) 
 I am in earnest, but he is more so, = in earnest. 
 There. (Adv.) It is opposed to Aere. " Darkness ^Aere might well 
 seem twilight here.'' — Milton. 
 (Adv. expletive.) It has no special value in this use. 
 "There is a pleasure in the pathless woods." — Byron. 
 Then. (1.) (Adv.) Of time merely. "Till then who knew the force 
 of those dire arms?" 
 
SYNTAX PECULIAR USE. 283 
 
 Of succession. " First cast out the beam out of thine own 
 
 eye, and then shalt thou see clearly," &c. 
 (2.) (Conj.) If this be so, then man has a natural freedom. 
 
 Then is used sometimes with so or now to indicate an advance in an argu- 
 ment, the speaker assuming that a previous point is established. "So, then, 
 faith Cometh by hearing." "Noic, then, be all thy weighty cares away." 
 
 Thereby (1.) (Adv.), also therewith, whereby, wherewith, therein, 
 wherein, hereby, herein, &c. "You will gain f hereby. ^^ 
 "Hereby shall I know that you are true men." "Herein 
 thou hast done foolishly." 
 (2.) (Conj. adv.) "Acquaint thyself with him, and be at 
 peace; thereby good shall come unto thee." — Bible. 
 
 It is to be regretted that these relative words, so expressive, and so com- 
 mon in the language a century ago, are passing out of use, and with them 
 such words as thither, hither, thenceforth, &c. It is difficult to supply the 
 place of whither or thither, for example. These denote direction, whereas 
 where and there denote, rather, i:>lace. 
 
 -wortb. (1.) (Noun.) "It has a real wor^A." 
 
 (2.) (Adj.) "A ring he hath of mine worth forty ducats," 
 =: of the value of. The idea of a preposition is involved 
 in the word, as in like or near. 
 (3.) (Verb.) " Woe worth the man," = Woe be to the man, 
 imper. mode, or infin. after /e^ understood. — "Let woe be 
 to the man." 
 Yet. (Adv.) Yet more. The deed was made yet darker by the 
 profession of friendship. 
 (Coor. conj.) Yet I say unto you, That even Solomon in all 
 his glory was not arrayed like one of these. — Bible. 
 
 2. Certain phrases or combinations become idiomatic, 
 and practically inseparable, when their meaning and force 
 are lost by analysis. 
 
 Remark. — To study these, as authorized forms of expression, is far more 
 useful to the student than to follow them with the tenacity of the gram- 
 marian till every word is adjusted to its proper class and rule of construction. 
 
 A noun with a noun. — We have the following combinations : — 
 (1.) €o4ir(linate; — as, brother and sister/ man and wife; Joy and 
 sorrow; vice and misery; horse and chaise; bread and milk. 
 
 [a.) These may be connected with a term — as a predicate, for 
 example— which is compatible with each separately: as, " The bro- 
 
284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ther and the sister are at home," = The brother is at home and 
 the sister is at home. 
 
 (b.) They may be united to a term which can only belong to the 
 combination as such, and yet be looked upon separately; as, "Vice 
 and misery are inseparable." 
 
 (c.) By a common and idiomatic use, they may come to be 
 regarded as one thing, and unite with a term accordingly; as, " The 
 horse and chaise is at the door." " Bread and milk is the best food 
 for children." 
 
 (2.) Subordinate; — as, David's harp; the Apostle John; an 
 or/s^er-saloon. 
 
 (a.) The possessive noun unites subordinately with the principal, 
 primarily to show that the object named by the latter is owned by 
 the person named by the former; as, John's coat. 
 
 Most of the peculiar uses of the possessives are mentioned under Rule VII. 
 (185). Observe that the two nouns denote different objects. 
 
 [b.) The noun in Apposition; — Arnold the ii^aitor ; King Henry; 
 George Washington; Ye tw^w of Athens. 
 
 For the idiomatic uses of this combination, see Rule VI. (183, 2, 3, «kc.) 
 Here the nouns denote the same object. 
 
 (c.) As an adjective; — as, A variety store ; a stone waXl; a brick 
 house. 
 
 The principles of general grammar require that when a noun becomes an 
 adjective it shall undergo some change of termination j as, "A gold-en harvest ; 
 a leather-n girdle." But in English almost any noun, without change, may 
 be used as an adjective. This use is idiomatic, and leads to a variety of con- 
 Bcquences. 
 
 First. — The adjective-noun must be placed before the other; as, "An iron 
 gate." 
 
 Secondly. — Unlike the case of apposition, it means a different thing from 
 the limited noun ; as, "A berry pie." 
 
 Thirdly. — It becomes only partially an adjective, still retaining some 
 of the characteristics of the noun. It is limited like the noun; as, "A high- 
 pressure engine" — not "a high engine," nor "a highly pressure engine." 
 
 Fourthly. — To avoid ambiguity, the hyphen is often used to unite the two 
 into a compound word. This is often the case when no such result would 
 follow ; as, "A white-oak pail, a white oak-pail." See in the Dictionary the 
 compounds of dog, bear, fire, or almost any common word. 
 
 Fifthly. — The noun thus used must be in the singidar number, even when 
 limited by an adjective signifying plurality: as, "K foot pole;" "a ten-foot 
 pole;" ^^ forty horse power," — not horses' power. This must be so even when 
 the noun otherwise is used only in the plural ; as, "A ftoice^-complaint, a spec' 
 tac/e-maker," — not " a ftowefo-complaint, a «pec<acA2«-maker.'* 
 
SYNTAX — PECULIAR USE. 285 
 
 A noun witli a verb, — 
 
 {a.) As subject. — The steak eats well. That sentence reads well. 
 
 Here the verb is used passively, to denote the capacity of the subject to 
 receive the act. In a similar way we have the progressive form; as, ''Flour 
 is selling high,*" "The house is building;"' "Efforts are making," &c. 
 
 [b.) As object. — They laid siege to the city. ThQj found fauU 
 with him. They lost sight of the object. 
 
 In such cases the objective noun has become so closely allied to the verb 
 as to form apparently a part of it. In using the passive the grammarian's 
 rule gives a feeble construction. Compare ''Sight was lost of the object" with 
 " The object was lost sight of." "He was found fault with." Here sight and 
 fault remain by idiomatic use in the objective. The language abounds with 
 similar constructions. It is deserving of notice that these rich and vigorous 
 expressions are formed from the most familiar Anglo-Saxon elements. 
 
 (c.) A double object, — a noun and an adjective; as, to lay the 
 head low, to drink the cup dry, to plough the furrow deep, to bake 
 the bread brown. 
 
 Here the adjective expresses an attribute which is imparted to the object 
 by means of the action of the verb : hence it helps to complete the meaning 
 of the verb, inasmuch as it gives a new attribute to the noun, — attribu- 
 tive object. See 187, 1 (a). 
 
 An adjective witb a verb; as, to wal^ lame, to come late, to get 
 rid of {rid, pas. part., to get one's self rid of). 
 
 Here the adjectives or participles belong to the subject, but modify the 
 action. 
 
 A preposition with a verb ; as, to act up to ; to buy in, off, out; 
 to come to (accent on to, to recover from a swoon), to bring to, to 
 come by, to go by, to go over with, to do on == don, to do off= doff, to 
 do up, to do for, to lay up, &c 
 
 Examples of this kind, in which one or two prepositions are so closely 
 united to the verb as to form a part of it, are almost innumerable. They go 
 with the verb into the passive voice, and whenever taken from the verb the 
 expression not only becomes weakened, but is often entirely changed in 
 meaning. These must be called adverbs, if taken alone. If joined to the 
 verb as an inseparable part of it, they are not to be parsed by themselves. 
 
 A preposition with a preposition (coordinately) ; as, over and 
 over, by and by, through and through, &c. 
 
 These should be taken together as inseparable adverbial phrases. 
 
 A preposition with an adjective (some noun being understood) ; 
 as, in vain, at first, at large, at most, at least, on high. 
 
286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 These are to be taken as inseparable adverbial phrases. 
 
 A nonn, preposition, and noun ; as, hand to hand, hand to mouthy 
 end for end, cheek by jowl, face to face, year by year, day by day, &c. 
 
 All such expressions are adverbial, and lose their force by analysis. 
 If they are to be separated, the first may be regarded as nominative abso- 
 lute with a participle understood, or, perhaps better, governed by a prepo- 
 sition understood. " They fought hand [being] to hand," or " [with] hand 
 to hand." The second is governed by the preposition expressed. 
 
 Two or more prepositions, witboat a conjunction, — 
 
 (1.) The first used as an adverb: as, " He came out into the open 
 field. He went up to within ten feet of the enemy's works" (up, ad- 
 verb, U),prep. governing the expression ^i7Am ten feet, = space, within, 
 ^rcp. governing /ee^). 
 
 (2.) Both used as adverbs. " The rule must be lived w/) ^o." "The 
 whole subject was gone over ivith." 
 
 Two or more conjunctions; as, ''Now when these things were 
 thus ordainedj the priests went always into the first tabernacle." 
 ''Nor yet that he should offer himself often.?' 
 
 Remark. — Each connective has its use, and should always be explained. 
 
 3. The same word in the same connection may per- 
 form several functions at once. 
 
 It may stand as different parts of speech at the same time. 
 
 {a.) The adjective used as a noun maybe a noun in its regimen, 
 but an adjective in its limitations ; as, " We honor the brave." 
 "The most degenerate were abandoned." When an adjective be- 
 comes wholly a noun, it is limited as a noun. 
 
 {b.) The participle or the infinitive may have the construction of 
 the noun, but the tense and limitations of the verb, at the same 
 time; as, "His not having written the letter was the occasion of 
 much inconvenience." " To see the sun is pleasant." 
 
 (c.) All relative pronouns have both a substantive and a con- 
 nective value at the same time. What, in the example, " He re- 
 ceived what instructions were required," is at once adjective, sub- 
 stantive, and connective; i.e. it has case, it limits, and it connects. 
 (See 77, 5.) 
 
 213. Exercise— Idiomatic and Peculiar Constructions, 
 
 1. Analyze and parse the following examples: — 
 
 The learned pagans ridiculed the Jews for being a credulous 
 
SYNTAX — IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. 287 
 
 people. That the barons and freeholders derived their authority 
 from kings is wholly a mistake. It is certainly as easy to be a 
 scholar as a gamester I am not sure of there ever having been 
 such a man as Casper Hauser The boy has more excuses than can 
 be considered in the allotted hour. Six times six are thirty six. 
 He received sixty-two and a half cents for every three pounds he 
 furnished. The thought of being good ought to arouse us to action. 
 The higher one is, the farther he can see. Cursed is he that setteth 
 light by his father or his mother. The distance fell a little short 
 of twenty miles. The wind blows cold. For Jacob my servant's 
 sake, and Israel mine elect, I have even called thee by thy name. 
 To be good is to be happy. I rejoice in your success as an in- 
 structor He introduced me to the president, — an honor which I 
 shall not soon forget. They struck one another. The rain and the 
 sunshine have each its appropriate work to do. It is man's to err. 
 I am my beloved's, and my beloved is mine. There shall nothing 
 die of all that is the children's of Israel. Were you at Beecher's 
 last evening's lecture ? In Henry the Eighth's reign England and 
 Wales were completely united. This book was purchased at Little 
 and Brown's. Whom have they elected chairman ? What do you 
 call it? By the world, I Avould not care a pin if the other thtee 
 were in. For one to steal is base. To confess the truth, I was in 
 fault. Then shalt thou bring forth that man .or that woman unto 
 thy gates, and shalt stone them with stones till they shall die. He 
 was so much affected as to weep. "' 
 
 2. Parse and explain the words in italics : — 
 To affect^to be a lord in one's closet would be romantic/madness. 
 I am not aware of his ever having been a teacher. Was this owing 
 to there being twelve primary deities among the Gothic nations? 
 Wheat is worth a dollar a bushel. The whole affair is of no account 
 whatever, \A11 things whatsoever ye would that men should do to 
 you, do ye even so to themj 
 
 Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 
 Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. 
 
 Whoever may oppose, we shall press the measure vigorously. 
 Excuse me this once. 
 
 And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 
 Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight. 
 A messenger came rushing from the crowd. The fire turned the 
 cup black. The knife was ground sharp. The more I read it, the 
 
288 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 better I like it. " Who are you f" was his greeting to this strange 
 intruder. "/ will not hurt you" was the answer. Let there be 
 light. Every thing depends iipon who compose the committee. 
 We found four persons : namely, two men and two women. He is 
 both witty and wise. Parrots will talk like persons. The boy is 
 like his father. He gave some apostles, and some prophets, and 
 some evangelists, and some pastors and teachers. He bids whoever 
 thirst to come. Though he was rejected, he had the boldness even 
 to renew his application. They talked the night away. They ran 
 the train at the rate of fifty miles per hour. This is — what do you 
 call it? I know not whom to send. 
 
 They rose hut as your fathers rose. Let your communication be 
 yea, yea, and nay, nay. If they kill us, we shall but die. Give 
 thanks unto the Lord, /or he is good; for his mercy endureth for- 
 ever. The cloth is five dollars a yard. They go a begging to a 
 bankrupt's door. They are beautiful in themselves, and much more 
 so in the noble language peculiar to the great poet. Though all 
 the winds of doctrine were let loose to play upon the earth, so truth 
 be in the field, we do injuriously to misdoubt her strength. Dis- 
 course oft wants an animated no. Go, and sin no more. Not this 
 man, but Barabbas. Now Barabbas was a robber. I live as I did; 
 I think as I did; I love you as I did. There I brought her, as pity- 
 ing her hard usage. As poverty is not a crime, let us not try to 
 hide it. He enlisted as a substitute. We cannot regard results as 
 separated from causes. Such a^ were sick received fiirloughs. I 
 have no more such as this. Sunday as it was, we were compelled 
 to labor. The terms of the agreement are as follows. Rich as he 
 was, he had no power. As far as the east is from the west, so far 
 hath he removed our transgressions from us. As for your threats, 
 I pay no heed to them. As yet, nothing has been heard. The 
 government sent out a stone fleet, as it was called. As an artist, 
 his success was all that could be wished. All at once, the noise of 
 the interior ceases, and the whole of the bees about the doors re- 
 enter. 
 
 Her voice was all the blind man knew ; 
 
 But that was all in all to him. 
 
 Will you go, or stay ? It is all one to me. " For all that," re- 
 lumed the pendulum, " it is very dark here." There is no reason 
 at all for refusing him. He counted us to see if we were all pre- 
 sent. He then dismissed us all. 
 
 I tell thee what, corporal, I could tear her. — Shak. What time 
 
SYNTAX — FIGURES. 28 J) 
 
 I am afraid, I will trust in thee. We found broken glass, old 
 chairs, tattered clothing, and what not. What ! could ye not watch 
 with me one hour? I should be sorry if it entered into the imagina- 
 tion of any person whatsoever that I was preferred to all other patrons. 
 The more he exercises, the stronger he is. There is nothing at all 
 besides this manner. I will bring him word again. But even then 
 the morning cock crew loud. He was not even aware of it. It is 
 he, even he. It must be repeated again and again. What else shall 
 I give? Let the boy alone. Man shall not live by bread alone. 
 His only child was left alone. I will give it to him and him only. 
 Both the sons were present : I saw them both. How can a thing be 
 both bitter and sweet at the same time? Wherever there is sense or 
 perception, there some idea is actually produced. Now and then we 
 saw a distant sail. Now is your time. 
 
 Till then, who knew 
 The force of those dire arms? 
 They wandered here and there. — Milton. 
 
 Take that and make much of it. How much can he give f I had 
 rather be a dog and bay the moon, than such a Roman. Is the 
 peach mellow? Rather so. Yes, the ays prevailed. What is your 
 watch worth ? It is worth a hundred dollars. Woe worth the day ! 
 As yet no results are apparent. He was admonished again and 
 again, yet he would persist. Or did a sable cloud turn forth its 
 silver lining on the night ? He wears a wide-awake hat. Where is 
 the scissor {sf) grinder? How smooth Cowper's lines read/ The 
 beacon was lost sight of. The boy was laughed at. That nuisance 
 must be got rid of. Can you pump the cistern dry f How lame he 
 walks ! He struck the stone such a blow that it was crushed into a 
 thousand pieces. I will sell out my interest if you will act lap to 
 your agreement. The fainting child did not come to for nearly an 
 hour. What rule shall we go by ? He paced the ground over and 
 over. At first, I thought my labor was all in vain. We met the 
 enemy /ace to face. Let the beam be turned end for end. 
 
 FIGURES. 
 214. Definition. 
 
 1. A figure is any deviation from the grammatical or 
 ordinary form, construction, and application of a word. 
 
 25 
 
290 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 Figures are divided into three classes, — figures of 'Ety* 
 mology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. 
 
 215. Figures of Etymology. 
 
 1. A figure of Etymology is a deviation from the 
 ordinary form of a word. 
 
 2. Figures of Etymology consist either in a defect, an 
 excess, or a change in some of the elements of a word. 
 
 3. Aphseresis cuts oif a letter or syllable from the be- 
 ginning of a word ; as, Against, ^gan, for against, began. 
 
 Ex. — Around 'gan Marmion wildly stare. 
 
 4. Siyncope removes a letter'or syllable from the middle 
 of a word ; as o^er, e^er, lov^d, for over, ever, loved, 
 
 Ex. — Kind nature's bounties o'er the globe diffused. 
 
 5. Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of 
 a word ; as, tN, tho\ for the, though. 
 
 Ex. — The merrier fool o' ih^ two, yet quite as mad. 
 
 6. Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the begin- 
 ning of a word ; as, adown, enchain, for down, chain. 
 
 Ex. — And tears adown that dusky cheek have rolled. 
 
 7. Paragoge adds a letter or syllable to the end of a 
 word ; as, withouten, bounden, for without, bound. 
 
 Ex. — And taught withouten pain and strife to yield the breath. 
 
 8. Synseresis contracts two syllables into one; as, 
 thou'rt. His, for thou art, it is. 
 
 Ex. — Others you'll see, when all the toivn's afloat. 
 
 9. Diteresis separates two vowels which otherwise might 
 form a diphthong ; as, coordinate, zoology. 
 
 Ex. — We ask your cooperation in this noble enterprise. 
 
 10. Tmesis separates a compound word by inserting a 
 word between its parts ; as, to us ward, for toward us. 
 
 Ex. — On which side soever we turn. 
 
SYNTAX — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 291 
 
 216. Figures of Syntax. 
 
 1. A lignre of Syntax is a deviation from the ordi- 
 nary consh'uction of a word. 
 
 2. Figures of Syntax consist in a defect, an excess, or a 
 change in some of the elements of a sentence. 
 
 3. Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, or clause 
 which is necessary to complete the construction. 
 
 Ex. — We were absent [during] one day. 
 
 Remark. — It should be understood that the words omitted by this figure 
 as truly belong to the sentence, grammatically considered, as those which 
 are expressed. They are omitted for rhetorical eflfect, — that is, to render the 
 sentence more agreeable and forcible. 
 
 4. Ellipsis generally takes place, — 
 
 (a.) In coordinate constructions, to avoid the repetition of some 
 common part. 
 
 Ex. — There are some who write, [and who] talk, [and who] think 
 so much about vice and [about] virtue, that they have no time to prac- 
 tise either the one or the other. 
 
 {b.) In certain subordinate constructions, especially those which 
 denote comparison, for the same reason. 
 
 Ex. — Revenge is a stronger feeling than gratitude [is]. Our minds 
 are as different as our faces [are]. 
 
 (c.) In certain idiomatic constructions, — 
 
 (1.) In elements of the first class, — the subject of imperative sentences j 
 as, "Go [thou]." "Awake [ye]." The noun after adjectives or after 
 the possessive case ; as, " The violent [persons] take it by force." " This 
 book is mine;" i.e. my book. 
 
 (2.) In elements of the second class. The connective May be omitted. 
 Examples. — The to before the indirect object ; as, " He gave [to] me a 
 book." The to of the infinitive after bid, dare, let, make, hear, r^ed,feel, 
 see To or unto after like, near; as, "Like [to] his father." "Near [to] 
 the house." During, over, for, in, or on, before nouns denoting time, the 
 measure of distance, magnitude, or excess; as, " They left [on] Monday." 
 "They travelled [through] twenty miles." 
 
 The object may be omitted; as, "The leaves were scattered 
 around [us]." In such cases, the preposition is usually called an 
 adverb. 
 
292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (3.) In elements of the third class. The connective may be omitted in 
 substantive clauses in the objective; as, "My heart whispers, [that] God 
 is nigh." In adjective clauses when the relative is in the objective ; as, 
 " The paper [which] we purchased is damaged." " The house [which] 
 we went to stands on a hill." 
 
 The subject and copula in expressions like " If [it is] possible, if 
 necessary, if convenient, when agreeable, while absent," &c. 
 The whole clause between as and if, as and though. 
 Ex. — He seemed as [he would seem] if [he were] deranged. 
 
 {d.) In exclamatory sentences, in responsives, in inscriptions, and 
 titles. 
 
 Ex. — [It is] strange ! Whom did you see ? [I saw] George. [This 
 is] the New Testament. 
 
 5. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words. 
 
 Ex. — I know thee who thou art. 
 
 Note. — Pleonasm is the opposite of ellipsis, and may be said, in general, 
 to take place where ellipsis should, but does not, take place. 
 
 6. Pleonasm takes place, — 
 
 (a.) When the same idea is repeated in the same or in different 
 words. 
 
 Ex. — Verily, verily, 1 say unto you. All ye inhabitants of the world, 
 and dwellers on the earth. 
 
 [b.) When a noun is introduced into a sentence, and then im- 
 mediately represented in the same relation by a pronoun. 
 Ex. — Now Harry he had long suspected. 
 
 (c.) When a noun or any other word is repeated in the same re- 
 lation, for the purpose of modifying it. 
 
 Ex. — That great God whom you see me daily worship ; — * — * — 
 
 that God who created the heavens and the earth ; * — * — this God 
 
 who has done all these great things — * — * — this great God, the Creator 
 of worlds, of angels, and men, is your Father and Friend. 
 
 7. Enallage is a change of one part of speech for 
 another, or some modification of a word for another. 
 
 Ex. — They fall successive [ly], and successive [ly] rise. TTe, Alexan- 
 der, Emperor of Russia. 
 
 Here the plural number is used for the singular. 
 
 I 
 
SYNTAX — FIGUBES OF KHETORIC. 293 
 
 8. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words. 
 Ex. — While its song rolls the woods along. 
 
 217. Figures of Rhetoric. 
 
 1. A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordi- 
 nary application of a word ; it is commonly called a trope, 
 
 2. Metaphor gives to an object the appropriate name 
 of another object, on account of a resemblance between 
 them. 
 
 Ex. — Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear. 
 
 3. Stimile is a formal comparison introduced by likej as, 
 or so. 
 
 Ex. — He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. 
 
 4. An Allegory is a continued metaphor, forming a 
 kind of parable or fable. 
 
 For examples, see Pilgrim's Progress. See, also, the Eightieth Psalm. 
 
 5. Personification attributes to inanimate objects some 
 of the qualities of living beings. 
 
 Ex. — The sky saddens with the gathered stornio 
 
 6. Metonymy is a change of name. 
 
 Ex. — "You will address the chair;" i.e. the president. 
 
 7. Vision represents imaginary objects as real and pre- 
 sent to the senses. 
 
 Ex. — ^See lofty Lebanon his head advance ; 
 
 See nodding forests on the mountains dance. 
 
 8. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or the 
 whole for a part, as a sail for a s/iip, a roof for a houses 
 the head for the person. 
 
 Ex. — "I was ordered to call all hands" {hands for crew). 
 
 9. Irony is the use of a word for its opposite. 
 
 Ex. — " He was as virtuous as Nero ;" i.e. as vile as Nero. 
 T 25* 
 
294 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 10. Antithesijs is the placing of contrary or opposite 
 objects in contrast. 
 
 Ex. — Immortal, though no more , though fallen, great. 
 
 11. Hyperbole magnifies or diminishes an object be- 
 yond the truth. 
 
 Ex. — Rivers of water run down mine eyes, because they keep not 
 thy law. 
 
 12. Exclamation is used to express some strong emo- 
 tion of the mind. 
 
 Ex. — Oh the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the know- 
 ledge of God ! 
 
 13. Interrogation is used to express a strong affirma- 
 tion under the form of a question. 
 
 Ex. — Hath he said it, and will he not do it ? 
 
 14. Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to 
 
 address some other person or thing. 
 
 Ex. — Death is swallowed up in victory. O death, where is thy sting r 
 O grave, where is thy victory? 
 
 15. Climax is a series of members in a sentence each 
 rising in importance above the preceding. 
 
 Ex. — What hope is there remaining of liberty, if whatever is their 
 pleasure it is lawful for them to do , if whatever it is lawful for them to 
 do they are able to do; if what they are able to do they dare to do; if 
 what they dare to do they really execute ; and if what they execute is 
 noway offensive to you ? 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 218. Definitions and Distinctions. 
 
 1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written composi- 
 *iion by means of points. 
 
 2. Points are used to separate either entire sentences, or the ele- 
 ments of sentences. 
 
 Remark. — Let it be uuderstood that an element may be either a loord, a 
 phraae, or a clause. 
 
SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 295 
 
 3. A point should not be used, — 
 
 (a.) To separate the parts of a simple element. 
 
 [b.) To separate two united elements when arranged gram^ 
 matically and closely joined. 
 
 (c.) To separate two united elements simply because, in the 
 utterance, a pause should be made. 
 
 Points are used to mark the sense, rather than the pauses. It is true that 
 a pause should generally bo made where there is a point; but it is not 
 equally true that a point should be placed wherever there is a pause. 
 
 4. A point is required, — 
 
 (1.) Always at the end of a full sentence. 
 
 (2.) Always between the members of a loose sentence. 
 
 (3.) Generally between two elements of a sentence, — 
 
 (a.) When several similar elements come together. 
 
 (h.) When an element is loosely connected. 
 
 (c.) When more closely connected, but transposed. 
 
 (d.) When closely connected, but greatly extended in 
 length. 
 
 (e.) When some important word is omitted. 
 
 (/.) When, in any case, the meaning would be obscure or 
 ambiguous without a point. 
 
 As an example of the effect of pointing, see the change of meaning in the 
 following words : — 
 
 James Johnson says he has written beautifully. James, Johnson says he 
 has written beautifully. " James Johnson," says he, " has written beauti- 
 fully." James Johnson says he has written " beautifully." 
 
 5. The principal punctuation marks are the cornma ( , ), the semi- 
 colon ( ; ), the colon {:), the dash ( — ), the parenthesis ( ), the 
 period ( . ), the interrogation point (? ), and the exclamation point ( I ). 
 
 POINTS USED WITHIN A SENTENCE. 
 
 219. General Uses of the Comma. 
 
 1. The comma is used principally in separating the 
 elements of simple or complex sentences. 
 
 2. As the comma interrupts, in some measure, the union of two 
 elements, it should never be employed to break the connection 
 when one necessarily restricts the meaning of the other. 
 
296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. When an element to be pointed off stands at the beginning or 
 the end of a sentence, one comma only is used; but when it stands 
 within the sentence, two commas are usually employed. 
 
 Ex. — In fact, the people are the dupes of demagogues. The people, 
 in fact, are the dupes of demagogues. 
 
 4. The comma is often used to mark the omission of a word, 
 especially that of the verb in closely connected clauses. 
 
 Ex. — Semiramis built Babylon; Dido, Carthage; and Eomulus, 
 Borne. 
 
 5. The comma may be used to separate, — 
 
 (a.) Coordinate elements. 
 (6.) A principal from a subordinate element, 
 (c.) TvfO principal elements. 
 
 [d.) An independent or a parenthetic element from the rest of the 
 sentence. 
 
 220. Coordinate Elements. 
 
 1. All coordinate elements may be divided into, — 
 
 [a.) coordinate pairs, or couplets, consisting of two coordinate 
 terms. 
 
 (b.) Coordinate series, consisting of three or more coordinate 
 terms. 
 
 Thus, "Nouns and pronouns" is a couplet; "Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, 
 and participles" is a coordinate series. In the following example we have a 
 series of couplets, or compound terms: — "But, whether ingenious or dull, 
 learned or ignorant, cloicnish or polite, every innocent man, without excep- 
 tion, has as good a right to liberty as to life." — Beattie. 
 
 2. The pointing of couplets depends chiefly upon the closeness 
 of the connection. 
 
 As a general rule, two elements are most closely connected when correla- 
 tives are used, except when used for contrast or emphasis ; less closely con- 
 aected when a single conjunction is employed ; and least of all whdii none is 
 used; as, "He was both virtuous and wise;" "He was virtuous and wise;" 
 " He was virtuous, wise." 
 
 3. The terms of a coordinate couplet, as a general rule, 
 should not be separated. 
 
 Ex. — Hope and fear, pleasure and pain, diversify our lives. Virtue 
 or vice predominates in every man and vjoman. 
 
PUNCTUATION — COOEDINATE ELEMENTS. 297 
 
 4. The terms of a coordinate couplet should be sepa- 
 rated, — 
 
 [a.) When the conjunction is omitted. 
 {b.) When the terms are identical or eqniTalent. 
 (c.) When the terms are contrasted or emphatically distin- 
 grnished. 
 
 {d.) When either term is limited by an element not applicable 
 to the other, or is more extendeil than the other. 
 
 (e.) When both are limited, and thus considerably extended. 
 
 Ex. — (a.) The siveetest, wildest land on earth. (6.) Bise, rise, ye wild 
 tempests Verily, verily, I say unto you. We sailed into an inlet, or 
 hay, (c.) 'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too. The fellow was 
 mcked, not weak, (d.) Undue susceptibility, and the preponderance 
 of mere feeling over thoughtfulness, may mislead us. (e.) Integrity 
 of understanding, and nicety of discernment, were not allotted in a less 
 proportion to Dryden than to Pope. 
 
 Contrasted words, having a common dependence, and not emphatically 
 distinguished, should not be separated; as, "He led an easy but useless life." 
 Not so with contrasted phrases; as, "It was not the result of a hasty, but 
 of a deliberate, judgment." 
 
 5. The terms of a coordinate series,- whether simple, 
 complex, or compound, should be separated by the 
 comma. 
 
 Ex. — In pronouncing the words lilies, roses, tulips, pinks, jonquils, we 
 see the things themselves, and seem to taste their beauty and sweet- 
 ness. The good man is alive to all the sympathies, the sanctions, and 
 the loves of social existence. Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand 
 and my heart to this vote. 
 
 Castles and villas, titles, vassals, land, 
 Coaches and curricles, and fours-in-hand. 
 
 6. The final term of a couplet or a series is generally not sepa- 
 rated from the term grammatically dependent upon it, except, — 
 
 (a.) When the conjunction is omitted. 
 {b.) When the terms are considerably complex, 
 (c.) When the meaning is made clearer by the point. (See 222, 
 2,b.) 
 
 Ex. — Capture, demolish, and burn their cities, (a.) Capture, demolish, 
 hum, their cities. (6.) Ingratitude for favors, undue regard for self, and 
 forgetfulness of others, are marks of a weak and sordid mind. 
 
298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 By some, yet erroneously, the last noun of a compound subject is sepa- 
 rated from the verb, even when the conjunction is used; as, ^'Horner, Virgil, 
 and Horace, were the most renowned of the ancient poets." 
 
 7. When the terms of a couplet or a series consist of coordinate 
 clauses, whether the propositions themselves are principal or sub- 
 ordinate, a comma should separate them, except as in 227, 1, a, b, 7. 
 
 Ex. — That their poetry is almost uniformly mourn ful, and that their 
 views of nature were dark and dreary, will be allowed by all who admit 
 the authenticity of Ossian. I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat. 
 
 221. Exercise. 
 
 1. Explain (220, 3) why the following couplets are not sepa- 
 rated : — 
 
 Peter and John went up together into the temple at the hour 
 of prayer. His bitter and scoffing speech had inflicted keener 
 wounds than his ambition. The powers of their mind seem to be 
 parched up and withered by the public gaze. In his letters and 
 conversation he alluded to the greatest potentates. He acted 
 neither wisely nor prudently. Either you or I must go. 
 
 2. Explain the pu?ictuaiion of the following syllables (220, 4, a, 
 b, c, &c.) : — 
 
 Liberal, not lavish, is nature's hand. We often commend, as 
 well as censure, imprudently. He can eat, and sleep too. None, 
 but thou, can aid us. For Christ sent me not to baptize, but to 
 preach the gospel. Public charities, and benevolent associations, 
 for the gratuitous relief of every species of distress, are peculiar 
 to Christianity. Powerful friends, and first-rate connections, often 
 assist a man's rise, and contribute to his promotion. Illustrious 
 men have often lived unrewarded, and died unlamented. Blow, 
 blow, thou winter wind. Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky. A 
 comma is a point, or mark. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was 
 dead. The deaf, the blind, the lame, and the palsied were there. 
 Decrepit age, and vigorous life, and blooming youth, and helpless 
 infancy poured forth to gather round her tomb. She plans, pro- 
 vides, expatiates, triumphs therS. The rich and the poor, the high 
 and the low, the learned and the unlearned, have access alike to 
 this fountain of peace. The air, the earth, the water, teem with 
 delighted existence. Children climb the green mound of the ram- 
 part, and ivy holds together the half-demolished buttress. 
 
PUNCTUATION — ELEMENTS. 299 
 
 When riseth Lacedaemon's hardihood, 
 When Thebes Epaminondas rears again, 
 When Athens' children are with arts endued, 
 When Grecian mothers shall give birth to men^ 
 Then thou may'st be restored ;— but not till then. 
 
 Blessing, honor, glory, might. 
 
 Are the Conqueror's native right; 
 
 Thrones and powers before him fall, — 
 
 Lamb of God, and Lord of all I 
 
 222. Principal and Subordinate Elements. 
 
 1. A subordinate element generally is not separated 
 from the principal element to which it belongs when used 
 restrictively, or when the connection is close. 
 
 Ex. — He that hath no rule over his oivn spirit is like a city that is broken 
 down. The kings of the earth set themselves. The precise period when 
 the discovery was made is not known. 
 
 2. The adjective element should be pointed off in the following 
 cases : — 
 
 {a.) When an adjective clause, either full, or in its equivalent 
 abridged form, is exiolanatory (l77, 12, b; 183, 3, Eem.). 
 
 Ex. — We venerate the name of Washington, who was styled the father 
 of his country. Passion is like a whirlwind, prostrating indiscriminately 
 whatever comes in its way. 
 
 In this case, two commas (219, 3) are used when the clause comes within 
 the sentence before the predicate. 
 
 {b ) When the antecedent is a coordinate series (220, 1), even a 
 restrictive clause is pointed off, to show that the relative belongs 
 equally to each of its terms. 
 
 Ex. — The oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, which unite to form the 
 atmosphere, are mingled in unequal proportions. 
 
 (c.) The noun in apposition may be considered as derived from 
 an adjective clause containing a predicate noun, and is always to 
 be pointed off when it is explanatory (i83, 3). 
 
 Ex. — Moses, the servant of the Lord, died there in the land of Moab. 
 I have killed the king, my husband. 
 
 (d.) A noun in apposition, when used restrictively, or when with 
 
300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 a personal pronoun or another noun it forms a close combination, 
 is not pointed ofP. 
 
 Ex. — King John, General Gates. Ye winds. Gladding brothers. 
 
 Yet, when two closely combined names are inverted, the comma is used, 
 as, " Lincoln, Levi ;" " Harrison, William Henry." 
 
 (e.) A noun in apposition, if modified by phrases or clauses, is 
 usually pointed oflf. 
 
 Ex. — Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe. 
 
 (/.) A noun in apposition, or an adjective or participial phrase 
 equivalent to a subordinate clause, when employed to introduce a 
 sentence, is pointed off. 
 
 Ex. — A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope. Cradled in the 
 camp. Napoleon was the darling of his army. 
 
 3. The objective element, being closely connected to the verb on 
 which it depends, unless transposed, should not be pointed off. 
 
 Ex. — The ox knoweth his owner. They long to see that day. I know 
 not what we can do. The impending storm which threatened us, we all 
 escaped. 
 
 {a.) Though, as a general rule, inverted and loosely connected 
 phrases or clauses should not intervene between the object and its 
 governing verb, when such cases do occur, commas should separate 
 them from the verb and its object. 
 
 Ex. — He wishes, in fine, to join his companions. He has bought, a^ 
 J am told, a large tract of uncultivated land. 
 
 [b.) When an objective clause is a direct quotation, and is sepa- 
 rated by the principal clause, the latter should be pointed off by 
 two commas ; otherwise, by one. 
 
 Ex. — "For all that," said the pendulum, "it is very dark here." 
 I say unto all. Watch. 
 
 (c.) The double object of a copulative verb should not be sepa- 
 rated when the first has the emphasis, or when they are equally 
 emphatic. 
 
 Ex. — They called him John. They called Miles a carpenter. 
 
 But when the emphasis falls strongly on the second, it should be 
 pointed off; as, "And they called Barnabas, Jupiter; and Paul, Mer- 
 curiua." 
 
 4. The adverbial element is often more loosely connected than 
 either the adjective or the objective, and is, consequently, more fre- 
 
PUNCTUATION — ELEMENTS. 301: 
 
 quently pointed off on account of its transposition; yet, when 
 arranged in its natural order, or when closely connected, it should 
 not be pointed off. 
 
 Ex. — Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth; and let not thine heart be 
 glad when he stumbleth. On the summit of the mountain the air is cool and 
 refreshing. The child was treated kindly. 
 
 (a.) All loosely connected adverbial expressions, whether words, 
 phrases, or clauses, and especially such adverbial and conjunctive 
 words and phrases as again, now, then, however, therefore, too, besides, 
 farther, once more, in fine, in general, on the contrary, without doubt, 
 as it seems to me, and the like, should be pointed off (227, and 220, 3). 
 
 Ex. — On the contrary, the truth lies here. 
 
 (b.) Phrases and clauses which in the natural order would be 
 so closely connected as to need no point, are usually pointed off 
 when inverted, and always when the meaning would be doubtful 
 without a point. 
 
 Ex. — But to Ossian, thou lookest in vain. When thou goest, thy steps 
 shall not be straitened. 
 
 In the case of inverted phrases which commence a sentence, the point is 
 often omitted ,• as, " On the third day Burke rose." — Macaulay. 
 
 (c.) Adverbial clauses, especially when long, and always if loosely 
 connected, are pointed off, wherever placed. 
 
 These are generally such as denote condition, picj'pose, concession, cause, 
 time, or place. 
 
 Ex. — Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish. 
 
 (d.) When a subordinate element is connected by means of 
 correlatives, it is closely united, and, therefore, not generally 
 pointed off, especially when than or as, so — that, or such — that, 
 are used ; but is used more or less by way of contrast in all other 
 cases, and, hence, pointed off. 
 
 Ex. — Never take more food than is conducive to health. Though thou 
 be sought for, yet shalt thou never be found again. Though deep, yet 
 clear. 
 
 223. Exercise. 
 
 In the following examples, point out the principal and the subordi- 
 nate elements; and show why the comyna is or is not used, according to 
 222, 1, 2, 3, 4. 
 
 He that covereth his sins shall not prosper ; but whoso confesseth 
 
 2G 
 
302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 and forsaketh them shall have mercy. The wicked flee when no 
 man pursueth. Some have wondered how it happens that those 
 who have shone conspicuously at the bar should have been eclipsed 
 in the senate. He had faults unknown to all but his most intimate 
 friends (2, «, ft, c). Men of strong minds, who think for themselves, 
 should not be discouraged on finding occasionally that some of 
 their best ideas have been anticipated by former writers. There 
 are many good-natured fellows who have paid the forfeit of their 
 lives to their love of bantering and raillery. The oranges, lemons, 
 and figs which grow in the northern range of the Southern States 
 are of an inferior quality. No thought can be just, of which good 
 sense is not the groundwork. I, therefore, the prisoner of the 
 Lord, beseech you. Thus saith the Lord, your Eedeemer, the Holy 
 One of Israel, I am the Lord your God. General Howe commanded 
 the British forces. Otis, James A. ye laurels ! He called the 
 name of that place Bethel. Daniel Webster, the great American 
 statesman, died at Marshfield. I at first believed that all these 
 objects existed within me. And cried, " I've caught you then at 
 last." "My dear Edward," said he, "this is truly kind." For- 
 tunately for him, a little below this place was an island. The be- 
 ginning of strife is as when one letteth out water. If one burden 
 can be borne, so can another and another. I am willing, for the 
 general satisfaction, to assign my reasons. 
 
 224. The Principal Elements. 
 
 1. Except when the complex subject is very long, no 
 comma is required between it and the predicate. 
 
 Ex. — He who masters his passions conquers his greatest enemy. 
 
 2. It can scarcely be called an exception to this rule that a point 
 should be placed before the predicate when preceded by a phrase 
 pointed off by 222, 4, a. 
 
 Ex. — The most delicious fruits, generally speaking, are found in 
 tropical climates. 
 
 So, by 220, 6, a, a comma should be placed before the predicate; as, 
 "Patience, meekness, humility, are among the noblest Christian virtues." 
 
 When the logical subject ends with a verb, or when without a comma the 
 meaning might be doubtful, a comma should be placed before the predicate 
 as, " Whatever is, is right." 
 
PUNCTUATION — PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 303 
 
 3. When the attribute is a clause, a comma should be placed be- 
 tween it and the copula. 
 
 Ex. — The reason is, that the proposition itself is preposterous. 
 
 225. Exercise. 
 
 Show by 224, 1, 2, 8, 4, w)iy the comma is used or omitted in the fol- 
 lowing examples : — 
 
 The fate of a brave people was to be decided. Each of the nego- 
 tiators had what the other wanted. Some, from a diseased fancy, 
 cannot confine themselves to a single spot. All these mistaken 
 pursuers of good, sooner or later, are the prey of excessive ennui. 
 Industry, frugality, economy, are essential to thrift. The want of 
 fuel, of water, and of forage, compelled the party to retreat. He 
 who has learned to obey, may hope to govern. He that seeketh, 
 findeth. The truth is, that the whole of the surface of these beau- 
 tiful plains is clad throughout the season of verdure with every 
 imaginable variety of color. The question is, " Where shall we go?" 
 
 226. Independent and Parenthetic Expressions. 
 
 1. Independent expressions should be separated 
 from the rest of the sentence by a comma. 
 
 Ex. — Yet once more, O ye laurels! Gad, a troop shall overcome 
 him. This said, he formed thee, Adam, thee, Oman! To confess the 
 truth, I was in error. Generally speaking, little can be done after the 
 first month. Saying, Lord, Lord, open unto us. 
 
 [a.) When a direct address is expressive of strong feeling, the 
 exclamation point is used. 
 
 Ex. — O Desdemona ! Desdemona i dead ! 
 
 [b.) Interjections in many cases require no pause, but, when 
 pointed off" at all, are separated by the comma, if not emphatic; 
 otherwise, by the exclamation point. 
 
 Ex. — Oh, sing to me of heaven ! Lo, here is Christ ! Oh, what a 
 situation I am placed in ! 
 
 (c.) Expressions used parenthetically should be pointed off by 
 the comma. 
 
 Ex. — Thou knowest, come what may, that the light of truth cannot be 
 put out. 
 
304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 227. The Semicolon and Colon. 
 
 1, The semicolon is used to separate the j)arts of a sen- 
 tence which are loosely connected. 
 
 Ex. — Make a proper use of your time ; for the loss of it can never be 
 regained. 
 
 [a.) Coordinate principal clauses are separated by the semi- 
 colon when the conjunction is omitted, or when the connection is 
 not close. 
 
 Ex. — Life is short ; art is long. A clownish air is but a small de- 
 fect ; yet it is enough to make a man disagreeable. 
 
 (b.) Subordinate parts, when extended, if they form a coordi- 
 nate series either at the beginning or end of a sentence, are sepa- 
 rated by the semicolon, when not so closely connected as to require 
 a comma. 
 
 Ex. — Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her opera- 
 tions ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge 
 will always be progressive ; and that all future generations will continue 
 to make discoveries of which we have not the slightest idea. 
 
 (c.) The semicolon should be placed before as, used to introduce 
 an example. See the use of as, in (/), below. 
 
 {d.) The semicolon is used before namely, viz., to wit, when the 
 subdivisions of a preceding term are introduced in a formal way; 
 otherwise, the comma or comma and dash are used. 
 
 Ex. — Pronouns are divided into three classes; namely, Personal, 
 Relative, and Interrogative. 
 
 Less formally, thus: — "Into three classes, — Personal, Relative, and 
 Interrogative." 
 
 [e.) The colon is now but little used, except before examples fol- 
 lowing the expressions as follows, the following examples, in these 
 words, &G. 
 
 Ex. — Perform the following exercises : He used these words : Mr. 
 President: &c. 
 
 (/.) It is also used to separate the terms of a proportion. 
 Ex.— A : B : : C : D. 
 
PUNCTUATION — DASH — PARENTHESIS. 305 
 
 228. Exercise. 
 
 Insert the comma, the semicolon, and the colon, where they are re- 
 quired in the following examples: — 
 
 Never value yourself upon your fortune for this is the sign of a 
 weak mind. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dry den but Dry- 
 den certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. The great tendency 
 and purpose of poetry is to carry the mind above and beyond the 
 beaten dusty weary walks of ordinary life to lift it into a purer ele- 
 ment and to breathe into it more profound and generous emotion 
 Write on your slates the following example Mary and John will go 
 Endeavor to excel much may be accomplished by perseverance. 
 He has two coats namely a black one and a gray one. The noun 
 is the name of an object as Boston paper » 
 
 229. The Dash and Parenthesis. 
 
 1. The dash is used where there is a significant pause, 
 an unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sen- 
 tence is left unfinished. 
 
 Ex. — He sometimes counsel takes, and sometimes — snuff. But I 
 must first . 
 
 2. The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis. 
 Ex. — The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the 
 
 town in which they had been so wretched. 
 
 3. The dash, or comma and dash, may be placed before the parts 
 which resume a whole, or before a construction which is resumed. 
 
 Ex. — There are three persons, — i\\Q first, the second, and the third. 
 You speak like a boy, — like a boy who thinks the old gnarled oak can 
 be twisted as easily as the young sapling. 
 
 4. The parenthesis is used to enclose a part of a sen- 
 tence not necessary to the construction, but in some way 
 explanatory of the meaning of the sentence. 
 
 Ex. — Consider (and may the consideration sink deep into your 
 hearts !) the fatal consequences of a wicked life. 
 
 5. The parenthesis should be, — 
 
 Used when an incidental clause or expression is so disconnected 
 U 26^s 
 
306 ENGLISH GHAMMAR. 
 
 as to admit of its being dropped without affecting the construction 
 or the sense of the main sentence. 
 
 Ex. — Mathematics (see Davies's Bourdon) is the science of quantity. 
 
 FoUowed by whatever punctuation mark the interrupted parts 
 would require if the parenthesis were removed. 
 
 Ex. — To others do (the law is not severe) 
 
 What to thyself thou wishest to be done.. 
 
 If we exercise right principles (and we cannot have them unless we 
 exercise them), they must be perpetually on the increase. 
 
 In the first example no point would be required ; in the second, a comma 
 would be inserted. This seems better than to place the required point before 
 each curve, as some do, especially as the expression in parentheses often re- 
 quires at the end a different point of its own. (See 6, below, and example.) 
 
 Kbmark. — Many parenthetical expressions occur which are to be pointed 
 off by commas. They are usually connected with the construction or the 
 sense so as, in some measure, to be a part of the sentence. Expressions like 
 said he, in my opinion, were formerly included in parentheses, but now are 
 pointed off by commas. 
 
 6. The part within the parentheses should be punctuated as if it 
 were an independent expression. 
 
 Ex. — An axiom (who denies it ?) is a self-evident proposition. 
 
 230. Exercise. 
 
 Insert the dash and the parenthesis where they are required in the 
 following examples : — 
 
 Horror burst the bands of sleep ; but my feelings words are too 
 weak, too powerless to express them. The Egyptian style of archi- 
 tecture se^Dr. Pocock, not his discourses^but his prints was appa- 
 rently the mother of the Greek. While mey wished to please, and 
 why should they not wish it, they disdained honorable means. If 
 thou art he, so much respected once but, oh, how fallen ! how de^ 
 graded ! The atmosphere is composed of three parts oxygen, nitro- 
 gen, and carbonic acid gas. Greece, Carthage, Eome, where are 
 they? 
 
 POINTS USED AT THE CLOSE OF A SENTENCE. 
 231. The Period. 
 
 1. The period is used at the close of a declarative or 
 an imperative sentence. 
 
PUNCTUATION — INTERROGATION POINT. 307 
 
 Ex. — Knowledge is not only pleasant, but useful and honorable. 
 Know thyself. 
 
 2. The period is used after abbreviations. 
 
 Ex. — The age of MSS. is, in some instances, known by dates inserted 
 in them. I was invited to meet Mr. and Mrs. Clifford. 
 
 3. The period is placed after any word, heading, title, or other 
 expression used independently and alone. 
 
 Ex. — Exercise. The Period. H. Cowperthwait and Company. 
 
 4. The period is used after letters or figures used in enumerating 
 the parts of discourse. 
 
 Ex.— V. XII. ; 1. 2. 
 
 In arithmetic it is used as a decimal point, or to mark periods in the roots : 
 thus, 5.375 ) 87642. 
 
 232. Exercise. 
 
 Insert the period where it is required in the following examples. — 
 Truth is the basis of every virtue It is the voice of reason Let 
 its precepts be religiously obeyed Never transgress its limits 
 Abhor a falsehood 1 would say to the people, You cannot, with- 
 out guilt and disgrace, stop where you are The oration was de- 
 livered by J L Thompson, Esq The event occurred B c 1001 To 
 E H Dana Jun Esq the well-known author of " Two Years before 
 the Mast," the community are greatly indebted But the seasons 
 are not alike in all countries of the same region, for the reasons 
 already given See Chap VI ^ 2 T[ 4 p 330 See 257, 4 Little and 
 Brown's store A new thing under the sun Kipe apples for sale 
 Chapter XX Sec X Part I 
 
 233. Interrogation and Exclamation Points. 
 
 1. An interrogation point is used at the close of an 
 interrogative, and an exclamation point at the close of 
 an exclamatory sentence. 
 
 Ex. — Who comes there ? How unsearchable are his ways ! 
 
 2. When an interrogative sentence is used as a subordinate 
 clause, — 
 
308 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 (1.) The interrogation point is employed when the clause Is 
 quoted directly. 
 
 Ex. — He said, " Why do you weep ?" 
 
 (2.) The interrogation point is not employed when the clause is 
 quoted indirectly. 
 
 Ex. — He asked me why I wept. 
 
 3. An exclamation point is often used within a sentence, after an 
 exclamatory expression or an interjection. 
 
 Ex.— O Jove supreme I whom men and gods revere ! Oh I let soft 
 pity touch the mind 1 
 
 2M. Exercises. 
 
 Insert interrogation and exclamation points where tJiey are required 
 in the following examples : — 
 
 Daughter of Faith awake arise illume the dread unknown the 
 chaos of the tomb Whither shall I turn Wretch that I am To 
 what place shall I betake myself O Pascal thou wert pure in 
 heart in this world, and now thou art in full sight of God Apostles 
 of liberty what millions attest the authenticity of your mission 
 Bid she fall like Lucifer never to hope again To purchase heaven 
 has gold the power Who shall separate us from the love of Christ 
 What kill thy friend who lent thee money, for asking thee for it 
 The secret I implore : out with it speak discover utter 
 
 Punctuate correctly in all respects the following examples: — 
 
 What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite 
 in faculties in form and moving how express and admirable in 
 action how like an angel in apprehension how like a God The air 
 was mild as summer all snow was off the ground and the skylarks 
 were singing aloud by the way I saw not one at Keswick perhaps 
 because the place abounds in birds of prey. Dr H Marsh F R S &c 
 Bishop of Peterborough b 1757 d 1839 As the pupil is often obliged 
 to bend all his faculties to the task before him and tears sometimes 
 fell on the page he is studying so it is in the school of God's provi- 
 dence there are hard lessons in it 
 
MARKS USED IN WRITING. 309 
 
 235. Other Marks used in Writing. 
 
 1. Brackets ( [ ] ) are used when a word or a phrase is 
 introduced into the language of another for explanation 
 or correction. 
 
 Ex. — He [the teacher] thus explained the difficulty. Neither of the 
 boys were [was] in attendance. 
 
 2. The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used to denote either the pos- 
 sessive case, or the omission of a letter. 
 
 Ex. — John's. O'er. 
 
 3. The Quotation Marhs ( " " ) are used to include a 
 passage taken verbatim from some other author. 
 
 Ex. — He said, " I relinquish my claim." 
 
 4. The Asterisk ( *), the Obelish (f), the Double Dagger 
 (J), and the Parallels (||) are used to refer to notes in the 
 margin or at the bottom of the page. Sometimes the 
 Section (§) and the Paragraph (f ) are thus used. Also, 
 small letters or figures which refer to notes at the foot of 
 the page. 
 
 5. The Caret (a) is used in writing to show that some 
 letter, word, or phrase has been omitted. 
 
 on 
 
 Ex. — The pencil lies the table. 
 A 
 
 6. The Hyphen (-) is used to separate the parts of a 
 compound word. 
 
 Ex. — Book-binder. 
 
 When placed at the end of a line, it shows that the 
 word is divided^ the remaining part being carried to the 
 next line. 
 
 7. The Ellipsis (***), ( ) is used to denote the 
 
 omission" of certain letters or words. 
 
 Ex.— C'^*^ll. K g. 
 
 8. The Brace ("-v— ') connects a number of words with 
 one common term. 
 
310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 9. The Index {j^^) points to some remarkable passage. 
 
 10. The Section (§) also denotes the divisions of a 
 treatise. 
 
 11. A Paragraph (^f) also denotes the beginning of a 
 new subject. 
 
 12. The vowel-marks are the Diaeresis ( •• ), placed over 
 the second of two vowels which are separated ; the Long 
 sound (-), placed over a long vowel; the Breve or Short 
 sound (--), placed over a short vowel ; and accents, Grave 
 (^), Acute ('), and Circumflex (a). 
 
 The best practical exercises on all these marks and points will be given by 
 the teacher. Let the pupil be required to construct sentences requiring the 
 use of them; or, let the teacher read from some book any passage which de- 
 mands their use, and let the class be required to insert them in their proper 
 places. 
 
 236. Exercise. 
 
 Punctuate properly the following examples, and insert the capitals: — 
 what was csesar that stood upon the bank of the rubicon a 
 traitor bringing war and pestilence into the heart of that country 
 no wonder that he paused no wonder if his imagination wrought 
 upon by his conscience he had beheld blood instead of water and 
 heard groans instead of murmurs no wonder if some gorgon horror 
 had turned him into stone upon the spot but no he cried the die 
 is cast he plunged he crossed and rome was free no more hiowles. 
 
 what sort of eyes can you have got said he 
 why very good ones friend as you may see 
 yes i perceive the clearness of the ball 
 pray let me ask you can you read at all 
 
SYNTAX — QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 
 
 311 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 
 
 What is Syntax ? What does the 
 word mean? What is a sentence? 
 What is the subject? The predicate? 
 When does a sentence express an in- 
 definite thought ? A definite thought ? 
 What is a modifier? What are the 
 elements of a sentence ? What is Syn- 
 thesis? Analysis? Into -what three 
 parts is Syntax naturally divided ? 
 
 What is a declarative sentence ? An 
 interrogative? An imperative? An 
 exclamatory? A mixed? What is a 
 simple sentence ? A complex ? A 
 compound ? What is a proposition ? 
 When is a proposition a sentence ? An 
 element of a sentence ? What is the 
 principal proposition ? The subordi- 
 nate ? How are entire sentences united 
 into paragraphs ? 
 
 What are the principal elements of 
 a sentence ? The subordinate ? When 
 are elements coordinate? Explain 
 governs and limits when applied to the 
 elements? How are coordinate ele- 
 ments connected? What joins a sub- 
 ordinate to a principal element? 
 
 When is an element substantive, ad- 
 jective, or adverbial? 
 
 Define an element of the first class. 
 Of the second class. Of the third 
 class. Define a simple element. A 
 complex. A compound. The gram- 
 matical subject. 
 
 How many elements must the sim- 
 plest sentence have? In what three 
 ways may the logical subject be 
 formed by using elements of the first 
 class ? Illustrate each. In what three 
 ways may the logical predicate be 
 formed ? Illustrate each. 
 
 "What is discourse? Direct? Indi- 
 rect? How are substantive clauses 
 divided? : 
 
 What are the elements of a com- 
 pound sentence? How may a com- 
 pound sentence be contracted ? Illus- 
 trate by examples. How may a com- 
 plex sentence be contracted ? A sub- 
 ordinate clause? When is the subject 
 dropped? Name the two classes of 
 abridged propositions. 
 
 When is a sentence transformed? 
 AVhat are equivalents ? In what three 
 
 ways may the form of a sentence bo 
 changed? 
 
 What three uses of a word are re- 
 cognized? Define a rule of syntax. 
 Repeat the rules for the regular use 
 of words. 
 
 What is the rule for the subject? 
 When is a noun in the nominative 
 absolute? In the objective absolute? 
 
 Repeat Rule II. What is the rule for 
 the attribute in abridged propositions ? 
 
 Repeat the rules for the pronoun and 
 antecedent. What is said of the use 
 of it? Of the erroneous use of they? 
 Of things personified ? Of the position 
 of the pronouns ? Of their construc- 
 tion ? When is the relative restrictive ? 
 When explanatory? 
 
 What are the rules for the agreement 
 of the verb with its subject? Repeat 
 the observations and cautions under 
 this rule. 
 
 Give the rules for the adjective as 
 modifier and predicate. When should 
 the article be omitted? inserted? re- 
 peated ? not be repeated ? 
 
 Give the rule for the noun in appo- 
 sition. Distinguish the three cases of 
 apposition. 
 
 What is the rule for the noun in the 
 possessive? What is the possessive 
 used to denote? 
 
 Give the rules for the object. 
 
 W^hat is Rule IX. ? Repeat the ob- 
 servations and cautions under the rule. 
 
 Repeat Rule X. Mention the five 
 cases in which the noun is independent. 
 What is Rule XL? Repeat the ob- 
 servations and cautions under the rule. 
 
 Repeat the three rules for coordi- 
 nate constructions. 
 
 What is the rule for the preposition ? 
 
 Give Rule XIV. When is the pre- 
 position omitted? 
 
 What is the rule for subordinate 
 connectives ? Give the observations 
 and cautions under the rule. 
 
 Give the rules for the infinitive. 
 What is Rule XVII.? Repeat the 
 observations under this rule. 
 
 Repeat the Special Cautions. 
 
 When has a word a peculiar use? 
 An idiomatic use? 
 
312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 237. Definitions. 
 
 1. Prosody treats of quantity, of accent, and of tha 
 laws of versification. 
 
 By quantity, in Prosody, is meant the time taken in pronouncing a syllable ; 
 and by accent, the stress of voice laid upon it. 
 
 2. Versification is the art of composing poetic verse. 
 
 3. Verse is a succession of accented and unaccented 
 syllables, constituting a line of ^poetry. 
 
 The nature of the difference between verse and prose will be seen at once 
 by comparing the two. 
 
 If any mdn love the w6rld, the love of the Father is not in him. 
 
 Then sh6ok the hills with thtinder riven ! 
 Then rtished the steads to battle driven ! 
 
 In the last example, it will be noticed, the accent occurs regularly on 
 every other syllable ; while in the first there is no such regularity of recur- 
 rence This regular recurrence of accented syllables is called metre. 
 
 4. Poetry is imaginative composition in metrical or 
 rhythmical language. 
 
 5. Poetry is expressed either in Rhyme or Blank Verse, 
 
 6. Rhyme is the correspondence of sound in the last 
 syllables of two or more lines. 
 
 7. A true and perfect rhyme requires that the syllables 
 he accented; that the sound of the vowel and of the letters 
 following the vowel be the same ; and that the sound of 
 the letters preceding the vowel be different. 
 
 Thus, hold rhymes with cold, sold, fold; weary, with dreary; view, with 
 you ; but / does not form a true rhyme with high or eye, because the sound of 
 the syllables is identical ; oion and none are imperfect rhyme, because the vowel- 
 sound is different,* so, also, beneath and breath, cease and ease, angel and tell, 
 merrily and silly, are faulty rhymes. 
 
 8. An accented syllable standing alone at the end of a 
 
PROSODY — DIFFERENT KINDS OF POETRY. 31 (i 
 
 line forms a single rhyme; an accented syllable followed 
 by an unaccented one forms a double rhyme; an accented 
 syllable followed by two unaccented ones forms a tri])le 
 rhyme, 
 
 Ex. — Man, began; burning, turning ; dependency, ascendency. 
 
 9. Syllables in the middle of a line sometimes rhyme 
 with those at the end. 
 
 Ex. — Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and 
 weary. 
 
 10. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. 
 
 Ex. — There is a nobler glory, which survives 
 Until our being fades, and, solacing 
 All human care, accompanies its change. — Shelley. 
 
 Greek and Latin poetry is in blank verse. It was, however, but little 
 employed in European languages, except in dramatic composition, until 
 " Paradise Lost" appeared. 
 
 238. Different Kinds of Poetry. 
 
 1. The different kinds of Poetry are Epicj Dramatic, 
 JjyriG, Elegiac, Didactic, Pastoral, Satirical, The Ballad, 
 The Sonnet, The Epigram, The Epitaph. 
 
 2. An Epic poem is a narration of national or mytho- 
 logical events of momentous interest, and usually cele- 
 brates the actions of distinguished men, or heroes. 
 
 Ex.— The " Iliad" and " Odyssey" of Homer. The " Paradise Lost" 
 of Milton. The "^neid" of Virgil. The "Jerusalem Delivered" of 
 Tasso. 
 
 3. A Oramatic poem is a picture of human life adapted 
 to representation on the stage. It is divided into Tragedy 
 and Comedy. 
 
 Ex. — Shakspeare's Plays. 
 
 4. A Liyric poem is an ode or song set to music, and, in 
 modern times, an expression of the individual emotions 
 of the poet. 
 
 27 
 
314 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. — Anacreon, Pindar, Sappho, and Horace were ancient lyric poets. 
 Collins's "Ode to the Passions," and "Alexander's Feast" of Dry den, are 
 well-known examples in English poetry. 
 
 5. An Elegy is a poem on some mournful theme, ex- 
 pressive of sorrow. 
 
 Ex. — Gray's " Elegy written in a Country Church- Yard" is the best 
 instance in our language. 
 
 6. Didactic poetry inculcates truths in science or 
 morals. 
 
 Ex. — Lucretius, among the Latin poets ; Pope's " Essay on Man." 
 
 7. A Pastoral poem has for its subject nature, agri- 
 cultural pursuits, or rural life. 
 
 Ex. — The Idyls of Theocritus ; the Eclogues and Bucolics of Virgil. 
 
 8. A Siatire is a poem in which vice and folly are 
 
 exposed with severity. 
 
 Ex. — The Satires of Juvenal and Horace, and of Dryden, Pope, and 
 Byron. 
 
 9. A Ballad is a short relation, in simple but forcible 
 rhyme, of some brave exploit, national event, pathetic 
 love-tale, or rustic adventure. 
 
 Ex. — The literature of Spain, England, and Scotland abounds in 
 ballads. 
 
 10. A Sonnet is a short poem usually complete in four- 
 teen lines. 
 
 Ex. — The Sonnets of Petrarch, Tasso, Spenser, Shakspeare, Milton, 
 and Wordsworth, are the best known. 
 
 11. An Epigrani is a brief poem of a witty or humor- 
 ous character. 
 
 12. An £pitapli is a short poem in praise of the virtues 
 
 of a departed friend. 
 
 Ex. — Underneath this stone doth lie 
 As much virtue as could die ; 
 Which when alive did vigor give 
 To as much beauty as could live. — Ben Jonson. 
 
PEOSODY — POETIC FEET. 315 
 
 230. Poetic Feet. 
 
 1. The lines of poetry are divided by accent into small 
 parts, called ^oe^ic/ee^. 
 
 2. A Foot is a certain number of syllables — usually two 
 or three — forming a part of a line in poetry. 
 
 3. In English, an accented syllable is considered long; and an 
 unaccented, short. 
 
 4. A straight line ( - ) over a syllable shows that it is long, or 
 accented ; a curved line (^), that it is short, or unaccented. 
 
 5. The principal feet in English are the iambus, the 
 ti'ochee, the ana^cest, and the dactyl, 
 
 6. The Iambus consists of a short and a long syllable. 
 Ex. — Invite, dSvote, bSmgn. 
 
 7. The Trochee consists of a long and a short syllable. 
 
 Ex. — Grateful, grievoiis. 
 
 8. The Anapsest consists of two short syllables and 
 one long one. 
 
 Ex. — Tncdmplete, cdnd^cend. 
 
 9. The Dactyl consists of one long syllable and two 
 short ones. 
 
 Ex. — Positive, loneliness. 
 
 10. Besides the kinds of feet mentioned above, four others some- 
 times occur, — the pyrrhic and the spondee, the amphibrach and the 
 tribrach. The pyrrhic consists of two short, and the spondee of two 
 long syllables; as, "m the {vale);" "vain man." The amphibrach 
 has three syllables, of which the first and third are short, the second 
 is long; as, *' contentment." The tribrach consists of three short 
 syllables ; as, " [innii)merdble." 
 
 11. These last four feet are seldom found in English poetry. 
 They sometimes mingle with other feet, and give thereby a pleasing 
 variety. 
 
 Ex. — Fr6m peak | t6 peak | th6 rat-ltllng crags ] among. 
 
 Leaps the \ live thiln-\d&rl not | fr5m one | 16ne cloud. 
 
 Remark. — Here, in the second line, the first foot is a trochee, and the 
 second is a spondee. They occur in a single verse of an Iambic poem. 
 
316 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 12. The character of the different kinds of feet is seen at a 
 glance in the table which follows : — 
 
 Feet of two syllables are the 
 
 lambns first short, second long ^ — 
 
 Trochee first long, second short — ^ 
 
 Npondee both loiig _ ._ 
 
 Pyrrhic both short >^ w 
 
 Feet of three syllables are the 
 
 Dactyl one long and two short _ w s^ 
 
 Anapsest two short and one long -~^ ^ — 
 
 Amphibrach . . . first short, second long, third short . ^ — ^ 
 
 Tribrach three short wws^ 
 
 240. Different Kinds of Terse. 
 
 1. The different kinds of verse receive their names from 
 the kind of feet of which they are formed. Thus, there 
 are the iambiCj the trochaic^ the anapaestic, and the dactylic 
 verse. 
 
 2. Verse is also named according to the number of feet 
 in each line. Monometer is a line of one foot; dimeter, 
 of two feet; trimeter, of three feet; tetrameter, of four 
 feet; pentameter, of five feet; hexameter, of six feet; 
 heptameter, of seven feet ; odometer, of eight feet. 
 
 3. When a syllable is wanting, the line is said to be catalectlc ; 
 when the measure is full, the line is acataiectic ; when there is a 
 redundant syllable, it is called hypermeter, or hypercatalectic. 
 
 4. {Scanning is the dividing of a verse into the feet 
 which compose it. 
 
 5. A Couplet is the combination of two lines which 
 usually rhyme together. A Triplet consists of three such 
 lines. 
 
 6. A Sitanza is the combination of several lines form- 
 ing a division of a poem or song. 
 
PEOSODY — IAMBIC VERSE. 317 
 
 241. Iambic Terse. 
 
 1. Iambic of one foot, — monometer: — 
 
 They go 
 To sow. 
 
 2. Iambic of two feet, — dimeter: — 
 
 To me I the rose 
 No longer glows. 
 
 3. Iambic of three feet, — trimeter: — 
 
 No roy- 1 al pomp | adorns 
 This King of righteousness. 
 
 4. Iambic of four feet, — tetrameter: — 
 
 And cold-jer still | the winds | did blow, 
 And darker hours of night came on. 
 
 5. Iambic of five feet,— pentameter : — 
 
 6n rift- led rocks, | the drag-jon's late | abodes, 
 The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods. 
 
 6. Iambic of six feet, — hexameter: — 
 
 His heart | is sad, | his hope | is gone, | his light | is passed; 
 He sits and mourns in silent grief the lingering day. 
 
 7. Iambic of seven feet, — heptameter: — 
 
 The lof-lty hill, | the hum-jble lawn, | with count- 'less 
 
 beati- | ties shine ; 
 The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power 
 
 divine. 
 
 8. Iambic of eight feet, — octometer: — 
 
 In the spring a fuller crimson comes upon the robin's breast ; 
 In the.spring the wanton lapwing gets himself another nest. 
 
 9. Iambic of five feet is called Heroic verse ; that of six 
 feet is called Alexandrine. 
 
 10. In the Long Metre stanza each line has four iambic 
 
 feet. 
 
 Through every age, eternal God, 
 Thou art our rest, our safe abode ; 
 High was thy throne ere heaven was made, 
 Or earth, thy humble footstool, laid. 
 27* 
 
318 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ill llio Sliort Metre stanza the first, second, and 
 fourth lines contain three iambic feet, the third four. 
 
 Sweet is the time of spring, 
 
 When nature's charms appear; 
 The birds with ceaseless pleasure sing, 
 
 And hail the opening year. 
 
 An iambic of seven feet is commonly divided into two 
 lines, — the first containing four feet, the second three. 
 This is called the Common Metre stanza. 
 
 The lofty hill, the humble lawn, 
 
 With countless beauties shine; 
 The silent grove, the solemn shade. 
 
 Proclaim thy power divine. 
 
 11. Each species of iambic verse may have one addi- 
 tional short syllable, thus : — 
 
 (a.) Ee lent- ling. 
 
 {b.) Upon I a moun-|tain. 
 
 (c.) When on | her Ma-jker's bo-|som. 
 
 [d.) First this | large par- j eel brings [ you ti-| dings. 
 
 (e.) Each sub- [stance of | a grief | hath twen-jty shad-|ows. 
 
 (/.) Thine eye | Jove's light- ining seems, | thy voice | his dread-] 
 
 fill thun-|der. 
 [g.) How gay-|ly o-|ver fell | and fen | yon sports- j man light j 
 is dash- ling I 
 
 242. Trochaic Terse. 
 
 1. Trochaic of one foot : — 
 
 Changing, 
 Eanging. 
 
 2. Trochaic of two feet: — 
 
 Fancy | viewing, 
 Joys ensuing. 
 
 3. Trochaic of three feet : — 
 
 Go where 1 glory | waits thee, 
 But when fame elates thee. 
 
PROSODY — ANAP^STIC VERSE. 319 
 
 4. Trochaic of four feet : — 
 
 'Twas the | hour when ] rites tin- [holy 
 Called each Paynim voice to prayer. 
 
 5. Trochaic of five feet: — 
 
 All that I walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, 
 All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 
 
 6. Trochaic of six feet: — 
 
 On a I mountrdn, | stretched be-lneath a | hoary | willow, 
 Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 
 
 7. In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the odd 
 syllables; in iambic, on the even. 
 
 8. Trochaic verse may take an additional long sylla- 
 ble; as, — 
 
 [a.) Where we 1 may 
 
 Think and pray. 
 (h.) And at | morn they | play, 
 
 In the foaming spray, 
 (c.) Heaving | upward | to the | light. 
 [d.) Wherefore | thus my | weary | spirit \ woo? 
 [e.) Eeared'mid | fauns and | fairies, | knew he | no com- [ peers. 
 (/.) Casting | down their | golden | crowns a- 1 round the | glassy 
 I sea. 
 
 243. Anapaestic Terse. 
 
 1. Anapoestic of one foot: — 
 
 But in vain 
 They complain. 
 
 2. Anapcestic of two feet: — • 
 
 Where the sun [ loves to pause 
 With so fond a delay. 
 
 3. Anapcestic of three feet:^- 
 
 From the cen- 1 tre all round | to the sea, 
 I am lord of the fowl and the brute. 
 
 4. Anapcestic of four feet: — 
 
 O, young I Lochmvar | is come out | of the west ! 
 Through all | the wide bor- 1 der his steed | was the best. 
 
320 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 5. In anapaestic verse, the accent falls on every third 
 syllable. The first foot of an anapaestic verse may be an 
 iambus; as, — 
 
 And mor-Itals the sweets | of forget- j fulness prove. 
 
 244. DactyKc Terse. 
 
 1. Dactylic of one foot : — 
 
 Cheerfully, 
 Fearfully. 
 
 2. Dactylic of two feet: — 
 
 Father all | glorious, 
 
 O'er all victorious. • 
 
 3. Dactylic of three feet: — 
 
 Wearing a- 1 way in his | youthf ulness, 
 Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness. 
 
 4. Dactylic of four feet: — 
 
 Shame and dis- j honor sit | by his grave | ever, 
 Blessings shall hallow it never, oh, never I 
 
 5. Few poems are perfectly regular in their feet. Dac- 
 tylic verse is very irregular; the final short syllables are 
 often omitted, as in the last example. The different kinds 
 of feet are often mingled in the same verse, thus : — 
 
 1 come, I I come; ] ye have called | me long; 
 
 I come I o'er the moun-Jtains with light | and song. 
 
 245. Poetic Pauses. 
 
 1. Besides the pauses required by the sense or gram- 
 matical construction of verse, two pauses — the final and 
 the ccesural — may also occur. 
 
 2. The final pause occurs at the end of each line,, 
 whether the sense requires it or not. 
 
 The csesural pause is a natural suspension of the voice, 
 which occurs in the line itself, and is readily perceived 
 
 i 
 
PEOSODY — POETIC LICENSE. 321 
 
 when the verse is well read. It is found in long lines, 
 and generally, but not always, about the middle of the 
 line. 
 
 Ex. — The earth grew silent | when thy voice departed ; 
 The home too lonely | whence thy step had fled : 
 What was there left for her, | the faithful-hearted? 
 
 Remark. — The skill of the poet is shown in making these pauses occu» 
 where the thought requires them. 
 
 246. Poetic License. 
 
 1. Poetic Liicense is the indulgence in a peculiar use 
 of language granted to poets by common consent. 
 
 This freedom from a strict compliance with the usage of prose writers is 
 rendered necessary by the requirements of quantity, accent, rhythm, and 
 harmony. 
 
 2. Many of the deviations from the ordinary use and 
 construction of w^ords have been already considered in the 
 articles on Figures of Etymology, Syntax, and Rhetoric. 
 (See 215, 216, 217.) 
 
 3. Besides these, the poets make use of — 
 
 (1.) Antiquated words and phrases; as, yclep'd, mote, SOOthf 
 trow, welkin, yon, whilom, ope, fount, erst, eke, ween, wight, hight. 
 Ex. — For well I ween 
 
 He saved the realm, who saved the queen. 
 
 (2.) Componnd epithets ; 2i^, new-spangled, gray-hooded, flowery- 
 hirtled, violet-embroidered, diver-shafted. 
 
 Ex. — Had ta'en their supper on the savory herh 
 Of knot-grass dew-besprent, 
 (3.) Foreig^n idioms. 
 
 Ex. — He knew to sing and build the lofty rhyme. 
 Long were to tell what I have seen. 
 
 (4.) Of an unnsnal and inverted arrang-ement of WOrds. 
 {a.) The subject follows the verb. 
 Ex. — Come I to speak in Caesar'R fnnoral. 
 
322 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 {b.) The object is put before the verb. 
 
 Ex. — These delights if thou canst give. 
 (c. ) The adjective is placed after the noun. 
 
 Ex. — And Twilight gray 
 
 Had in her sober livery all things clad. 
 
 247. Exercise. 
 
 1. Scan the following, and tell what kind of verse it is: — 
 Art is long, and time is fleeting, 
 
 And our hearts, though stout and brave, 
 Still, like muffled drums, are beating 
 
 Funeral marches to the grave. — Longfellow. 
 
 From Greenland's icy mountains. 
 
 From India's coral strand ; 
 Where Afric's sunny fountains 
 
 Roll down their golden sand ; 
 From many an ancient river. 
 
 From many a palmy plain. 
 They call us to deliver 
 
 Their land from error's chain. — Heber. 
 
 Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heaven first-born, 
 Or of the Eternal co-eternal beam ! 
 May I express thee unblamed? since God is light, 
 And never but in unapproach6d light 
 Dwelt from eternity, dwelt then in thee, 
 Bright effluence of bright essence increate ! 
 Or hear'st thou rather, pure ethereal stream. 
 Whose fountain who shall tell? — Milton. 
 
 Ye nymphs of Solyma? begin the song; 
 
 To heavenly themes sublimer strains belong. 
 
 The mossy fountains and the sylvan shades. 
 
 The dreams of Pindus and th' Aonian maids. 
 
 Delight no more ! — O thou my voice inspire, 
 
 Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire ! — Pope. 
 
 Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! 
 
 Confusion on thy banners wait! 
 Though fanned by conquest's crimson wing. 
 
 They mock the air with idle state. — Gray. 
 
PrwOSODY — EXERCISES IN SCANNING. 323 
 
 Earth may hide — waves engulf— fire consume us, 
 
 But they shall not to slavery doom us. 
 
 If they rule, it shall be o'er our ashes and graves. 
 
 But we've smote them already with fire on the waves ; 
 
 And new triumphs on land are before us. 
 
 To the charge! — Heaven's banner is o'er us ! — Campbell. 
 
 Hail to the chief who in triumph advances I 
 Honored and blest be the ever-green pine ! 
 Long may the tree in his banner that glances 
 Flourish, the shelter and grace of our line ! 
 
 Heaven send it happy dew. 
 
 Earth lend it sap anew, 
 Gayly to bourgeon, and broadly to grow, 
 
 While every highland glen 
 
 Sends our shout back again, 
 Eoderigh Vich Alpine Dhu, ho ! ieroe ! — Scott. 
 
 The night-winds come and go, mother, upon the meadow grass. 
 And the happy stars above them seem to brighten as they pass ; 
 There will not be a drop of rain the whole of the livelong day. 
 And I'm to be Queen o' the May, mother, I'm to be Queen o' the 
 May. — Tennyson. 
 
 Then read from the treasured volume 
 
 The poem of thy choice. 
 And lend to the rhyme of the poet 
 
 The beauty of thy voice. 
 And the night shall be filled with music, 
 
 And the cares that infest the day 
 Shall fold their tents, like the Arabs, 
 
 And as silently steal away. — Longfellow. 
 
 Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 
 
 Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime, — 
 
 Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, 
 Now melt into softness, now madden to crime? 
 
 Tis the land of the East ! — 'tis the clime of the Sun ! — • 
 
 Can he smile on such deeds as his children have done? 
 
 Byron, 
 
 THE END. 
 
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