the essentials of
languageaf grammar
ALBERT LE ROYBARTLETT
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SILVER, BIIRDETt AND COMPANY
EDUCATION DEPT
The Silver Series of Language Books
The Essentials
of
Language and Grammar
Albert LeRoy Bartlett, A.M.
SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY
New York . . . BOSTON . . . Chicago
1899
EDUCAT-IPIJ^PEFT., '•',
By Silver, Burdett and Company
INTRODUCTION.
If, as Bacon says, " A ^vise questioning is the half-way
towards knowledge," a wise questioner is the best guide to
that destination. Any text-book will fail of its highest ser-
vice unless the wise questioning of the teacher, his tactful
adaptation of its material to the condition of his pupils, and
his sympathetic fidelity to the methods and spirit of the
book, give it life and make it a moving influence.
I have sought to write a lesson book, illustrating, explain-
ing, and defining the grammatical facts about words, and
the fundamental principles upon which the construction of
an English sentence is based ; to add thereto such analyses of
a few selections from good American authors, as shall give to
pupils some insight into the fulness of beauty and meaning
contained in what we term good literature, and shall suggest
to teachers methods that may be used in the study of other
selections ; and to outline some plans for training the pupils
to write English easily, correctly, and gracefully.
The following simple exercises mil form a useful and
strengthening accompaniment to all language work :
1. In order to express thoughts the pwpil must have that
wherewith he may express them — a vocabulary of words in
good usage. Such a vocabulary may be made a growing
wndy ultimately^ a fuU one, by two methods :
I. By making a list of such unfamiliar words as may
ocdur in eacli chapter, studying them as the dictionary de-
fines them and illustrates their use, and then using them in
M69881
INTRODUCTION.
sentences. Some one has said that any word belongs to a man
who has used it correctly three times.
II. By the recasting of sentences : first, by substituting
synonyms for as many words as possible in the sentences ;
second, by using as many antonyms as possible. This work
should be a regular practice exercise from the beginning of
the study of language, starting, of course, with very simple
beginnings, and advancing by easy and very gradual stages
to more difficult exercises.
2. The following jplan for work in com^jposition may he
followed :
I. The writing of single sentences. The leading group
of words in a sentence is given, or suggestive words that
occur therein. This is called a skeleton sentence. About
this group of words the pupils, one after another, construct
each a sentence, giving them orally or writing them on the
board. Such sentences should be the hest thoughts of the
pupils, expressed in correct form. Criticism of these sen-
tences follows, whatever is good being noticed and whatever
is faulty being kindly corrected. When the pupils have ac-
quired grace and facility in writing sentences, then follows :
II. The construction of the paragraph. A subject is
discussed orally, then suggestive words for two or three
sentences are placed on the board, the pupils filling out these
skeletons as above. The advance work is not only in be-
coming familiar with the form of the paragraph, but in
gaining the power of arranging sentences, so that their
sequence shall be orderly and easy.
III. A further useful exercise in composition is the
INTRODUCTION.
expansion of a single sentence into a paragraph, or of a
succinct paragraph into a fuller one, and the reverse — the
contraction of a paragraph into a sentence, and of a long
paragraph into a shorter one.
lY . Last, comes the planning of a studied composition, as
is carefully outlined in Chapter L.
The illustrative sentences and selections in this book have
been ^vritten and chosen with two purposes : first — that they
shall illustrate clearly the grammatical principle that is
being discussed, and second — that they shall have literary
value and be in themselves the teachers of something. The
pupil, therefore, should be led to appreciate the lesson or the
beauty of the thought, as well as to comprehend the gram-
matical principle Avhich it illustrates.
It is only by constant practice that the power of discrim-
ination becomes keen, only by repetition that the principles
of grammatical construction become familiar, and only by
constant and careful exercise that the use of good English
becomes habitual. He who teaches the essentials of English
in accordance with the spirit of this introduction and of the
purpose with which this book has been Avritten will find that
he has taught a thousand graces in addition to that of cor-
rect speech. He will have heard and obeyed the bidding of
those strong lines of Emerson's —
Go, speed the stars of thought
On to their shining goals:
The sower scatters broad his seed,
The wheat thou strew'st be souls.
— Albert Le Koy Bartlett.
Silver Hill,
Haverhill, Massachusetts.
Digitized by tine Internet Archive
in 2008 with funding from
IVIicrosoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/det.ails/essentialsoflangOOalberich
CONTENTS.
CHAPTBB PAGE
I. The Two Parts of a Sentence .... 13
II. The Four Kinds of Sentences. Review of Sub-
ject AND Predicate. "The Sparrows," by
Celia Thaxter 16
III. Words as Parts of Speech. A Little Study of
Words 2%
IV. The Noun a Word That Names . ... 27
V. Selection FOR Literary Analysis : "The Beg-
gar," BY James Russell Lowell ... 39
VI. Common and Proper Nouns. The Franconia
Road. "The Great Stone Face," by Na-
thaniel Hawthorne 33
VII. Surnames and Christian Names. The Origin of
Surnames 36
VIII. A Story from Longfellow's " The Song of
Hiawatha" 39
IX. Review 42
X. The Writing OF Dates. "The Months." "Mar-
jorie's Almanac," by Thomas Bailey Al-
DRICH 43
XI. A Few Common Abbreviations and Contractions 49
XII. The Parts of a Letter. A Letter from Phil-
lips Brooks . . 52
XIII. Letter- Writing, with Skeleton Letters . . 66
XIV. Number : the Singular and Plural Forms of
Nouns 69
XV. The Number of Nouns, continued ... 74
XVI. Selections for Study : The Coming of the Sand-
piper ; The Sandpiper's Nest ; The Sand-
piper, by Celia Thaxter 76
XVII. The Possessive Form of Nouns .... 81
XVIII. The Paragraph 85
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XLIII.
XLIV.
XLV.
I'AGE
The Gender of Nouns . . . . .87
Review 89
The Adjective 91
The Careful Use of Adjectives ... 95
The Verb 98
The Correct Usage of Certain Verbs . . 102
The Adverb 105
The Personal Pronoun 109
The Personal Pronoun, continued . .111
Sentences for the Study of Personal Pro-
nouns 114
The Preposition 115
The Conjunction 120
The Interjection 123
Review. Extract from "Master Sky-
lark" 125
The Nominative Case 127
The Agreement of a Verb with its Subject
Nominative 132
The Possessive Case 134
The Objective Case 137
The Adverbial and Cognate Objectives :
The Subject of an Infinitive . . . 143
The Appositive Use of Nouns . . .146
Collective, Abstract, and Concrete Nouns . 148
The Parsing of a Noun 151
A Selection for Study and Memory: The
Little Brook Builds his House, from
"The Vision of Sir Launfal," by James
Russell Lowell 152
Quotations, and How to Write Them . . 156
The Titles of Books, Essays, etc. . . . 159
The Interrogative Pronoun . . . .161
The Relative Pronoun 163
CONTENTS.
CONJUNC-
CHAPTER
XLVI. The Demonstrative Pronoun ....
XLVII. The Agreement of Pronouns with Their An-
tecedents ....
XLVIII. The Declension of Pronouns
XLIX. The Parsing of a Pronoun .
L. Some Plans for Composition Work
LI. Phrases and Clauses. The Phrase
LII. Phrases and Clauses. The Clause
LIII. The Parsing of a Preposition ; of a
TioN. Interjections
LIV. A Selection for Study and Memory: "The
Chambered Nautilus," by Oliver Wen-
dell Holmes
LV, The Predicate and the Appositive Use of
Adjectives
LVI. The Comparison of Adjectives ....
LVII. The Parsing of an Adjective ....
LVIII. The Adverb
LIX. The Comparison of Adverbs ....
LX. The Use of Predicate Adjectives after Verbs
OF Sensation, etc
LXI. A Lesson for Dictionary Work and for Dis-
cussion
LXII. The Use of Capital Letters ....
LXin. The Correct Use of "Shall" and "Will,"
AND OF "Should" and "Would"
LXIV. The Simple Sentence
LXV. The Analysis of the Simple Sentence
LXVI. The Complex Sentence
LXVII. The Analysis of the Complex Sentence .
LXVIII. The Compound Sentence. Its Analysis .
LXIX. Sentences for Analysis
LXX. A Selection for Study and Memory: "The
Song of the Chattahoochee," by Sidney
Lanier
PAGE
165
167
171
173
173
178
184
190
191
194
197
202
202
205
208
210
214
217
221
223
226
228
231
233
235
10
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
LXXI. The Tense of Verbs 240
LXXII. The Tense of Verbs, continued . . .243
LXXIII. The Mode of Verbs 247
LXXIV. The Voice of Verbs 249
LXXV. Verbs as Transitive or Intransitive . . 251
LXXVI. Verb Forms. The Infinitive Form . . 254
LXXVII. Verb Forms. The Participle. . . .257
LXXVIII. Potential Verb Phrases 260
LXXIX. The Conjugation of Verbs .... 262
LXXX. The Parsing of a Verb. " Opportunity," by
Edward Rowland Sill .... 273
LXXXI. Alphabetical List of Irregular Verbs . . 275
LXXXII. A Study OF " Snow-Bound " .... 283
LXXXIII. A Study of " The Vision of Sir Launfal " . 288
LXXXIV. The Use of Punctuation Marks . . . 293
LXXXV. Selections for Dictation, Parsing, etc. . 296
LXXXVI. Business Forms and Letters .... 302
LXXXVII. Social Forms 308
Index 311
The selections from ivorhs puhlislied iy Messrs. Houghton,
Mifflin S Co. are used by the kind permissio7i of the publish-
ers and under special arrangements with them.
THE ESSENTIALS OF
LANGUAGE AND GEAMMAR
THE ESSENTIALS
OF
LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER I.
THE TWO PARTS OF A SENTENCE.
I.
1. September days
are beautiful.
2. The orchards
give us ripe fruits.
3. The garden
is bright with flowers.
4. The weeds
grow tall along the country roads.
5. The long school vacation
is over.
Here are five complete thoughts or sentences. What does
the first sentence tell us ? the second ? the third ? the fourth ?
the fifth ?
About what are we told something in the first sentence ?
What is told about it ? About what are we told something in
the second sentence ? What are we told about it ? About
wliat are we told something in the third sentence ? What is
told about it ? etc.
14 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
A comjplete thought expressed in words is a sentence.
The first division of each sentence is that about which
something is told.
The second division of each sentence is that which is told
about the fi^st part.
What is t.ie first division of each of the above sentences ?
the second division ? .
_ II.
' 1: Tlie robins
. .^2..; Yellow daisies
^ " ' 3'. The children
4. are in the schoolroom.
6. have flown away.
6. nod in the wind.
Are these complete thoughts ? In which do you find the first
division of a sentence ? In which do you find the second divi-
sion of a sentence ? Make the first a complete sentence by
telling something about the robiyis. Make the second a com-
plete sentence. Make the third a complete sentence. Make
the fourth a complete sentence by telling'who are in the school-
room. Make the fifth a complete sentence. Make the sixth a
complete sentence.
III.
1. The swallows chatter about their flight.
2. The maples will soon put on their bright colors.
. 3. The grass will grow brown.
4. The warm summer days have gone.
6. Each season brings new pleasures.
About what are you told something in the first sentence ?
What are you told about it ? About what are you told some-
THE TWO PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 15
thing in the second sentence ? What are you told about
it ? in the third sentence ? the fourth sentence ? the fifth
sentence ?
That about which something is told is the subject of a
sentence.
That which is told about the subject is the predicate of
a sentence.
Find the subject and predicate of each sentence in I^ II.,
and III.
lY.
Find subjects and predicates in the following quotation:
The wind blows, the sun shines, the birds sing loud.
The blue, blue sky is decked with fleecy, dappled cloud ;
Over earth's rejoicing fields the children dance and sing,
And the frogs pipe in chorus, " It is spring ! it is spring ! "
The grass comes, the flower laughs where lately lay the
snow ;
Over the breezy hill-top hoarsely calls the crow ;
By the flowing river the alder-catkins swing.
And the sweet song sparrow cries, "It is spring! it is
spring ! "
^ —From ** Wild Geese," by Celia Thaxter.
Y.
Write from dictation the following sentences, drawing a
horizontal line under the subject of each :
The winter lingers late in Norway.
The children wait long for the singing birds and the
flowers.
16 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The people there are very fond of the little birds.
The fathers and mothers gather the grain from the fields
in the autmnn.
The children go then into the fields and glean what is left.
The children save their grain until December.
They make then a Christmas gift for the birds.
They bind their gleanings together into a sheaf.
They erect a tall pole in front of each house.
They tie their sheaf of grain to the top of the pole.
The sparrows come from all around to eat this Christmas
feast.
CHAPTER II.
THE FOUR KINDS OF SENTENCES. REVIEW OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
I.
1. The growth of a flower is a wonderful thing.
2. A little seed lies in your hand.
3. You plant it in the ground.
4. A blade of green soon breaks through the earth.
5. The green stalk bears leaves.
6. A bud grows from the stalk.
Y. The bud opens and changes into a beautiful flower.
8. IS'otice the wild flowers.
9. Learn their names.
10. Are not the colors of flowers beautiful?
11. "What flowers do you like the best ?
12. How wonderful a flower is !
13. How gay the poppies are !
14. How beautiful even the green grass
makes the fields!
THE FOUR KINDS OF SENTENCES. . 17
In the above sentences thoughts have been expressed in
four different ways — to tell you something, to hid you do
something, to ask questions, and to express wonder or delight.
A sentence that tells or states something is a declara-
tive sentence.
A sentence that commands or requests is am. impera-
tive sentence.
A sentence that asks a question is an interrogative
sentence.
A sentence that expresses strong feeling, wonder, sur-
prise, delight, anger, contempt, etc., is an exclamatory
sentence.
What ki7id of a sentence is each of the above sentences ?
Why ? AVith what kind of a letter, small or capital, does
each sentence begin ? What mark follows each declarative
sentence ? each imperative sentence ? each interrogative
sentence ? each exclamatory sentence ?
The first letter of a sentence should he a capital letter.
A declarative or imperative sentence should he followed
hy a period (.)/ an interrogative sentence hy an interro-
gation m^ark {?) / and an exclamiatory sentence hy an
exclamation mark (/).
What is the subject of each of the first seven sentences ?
Who is told to notice the wild flowers ? What, then, is the
subject of the eighth sentence ? Who is told to learn their
names ? What, then, is the subject of the ninth sentence ?
Are not what beautiful ? What, then, is the subject of the
tenth sentence ? What flowers does who like the best ?
What is wonderful ? What are gay ? What makes the earth
18 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
beautiful ? What, then, is the subject of each of these
sentences ?
Note : The teacher should have the pupil give the com-
plete subject in each case, i.e., the growth of a flower, the
colors of flowers, even the green grass, etc. Then by simple
questions lead the pupils to give the complete predicate of
each sentence. The blackboard should be freely used in all
of these exercises. The eye is the most direct road to the
understanding of a child.
II.
Make declarative sentences, using the following sub-
jects: — The farmers ; Wild bees ; A little plant
; The little nest ; Marjorie :
and the foUomng predicates : hides in the deep,
sweet grass. sleeps in every seed. are picking
apples. build nests in hollow trees. held four
blue eggs.
Make imperative sentences bidding the children not to be
late at school ; not to frighten the birds ; to be kind to the
smaller children ; to obey their fathers and mothers ; to
speak the truth always.
Make interrogative sentences asking about the nearest
river or lake ; about birds in winter ; about school vacations ;
about the color of some flower ; about the stars.
Make exclamatory sentences about the swiftness of the
birds' flight ; about the intelligence of the dog ; about the
roaring of the wind ; about the beauty of the frost ; about
the colors of the leaves in autumn.
Note : After each sentence has been given orally, it
should be written on the board by one or more pupils, care
THE FOUR KINDS OF SENTENCES. 19
being taken that the sentences begin with capital letters, and
are followed by the proper punctuation marks. Patience and
cheerfulness will lead the children more rapidly and more
surely than any sterner agency will drive them.
III.
In the following story notice carefully each period, inter-
rogation mark, and exclamation mark. Read each sentence.
Does it begin with a capital letter ? What punctuation mark
follows it ? What kind of a sentence is it ? Why ? What
is the subject of each sentence ? the predicate ? (The teacher
may well help by questions the child who fails to find the sub-
ject or predicate. ) What title do you think we may give to
this story ?
A pair of birds came to an orchard of apple trees in
May. The trees were in blossom. How fragrant the or-
chard was ! The fields were full of flowers, the grass was
groAAang tall, and the busy bees were humming from blos-
som to blossom. The birds built a nest in one of the trees.
They sang sweetly every morning. Who told the little
birds to sing ? Perhaps the flowers told them, or the blue
sky, or the winds. They sang about a nest with five little
eggs in it. They sang about the sunshine, and the air sweet
with blossoms.
A little sick boy heard the songs of the birds, and he
was happy and forgot his pain. His father put a little card
on the robins' tree, and the card said :
A jpair of robins have hired this tree.
They pay their rent with their songs.
Do you like to hear them sing f
30 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Please do not frighten them.
Do not disturb their nest.
How cheerful their song is !
How sad their cries are when they are frightened /
Note : This story may be used for oral reproduction, and
for dictation sentences.
Write a story about " The Birds' Christmas Feast in Nor-
way," based upon the dictation exercises in Chapter I., Part V.
The following selection is for reading only :
The Sparrows.
In the far-ofP land of Norway,
Where the winter lingers late.
And long for the singing-birds and flowers
The little children wait ;
"When at last the summer ripens
And the harvest is gathered in,
And food for the bleak, drear days to come
The toiling people win ;
Through all the land the children
In the golden field remain
Till their busy little hands have gleaned
A generous sheaf of grain ;
All the stalks by the reapers forgotten
They glean to the very least,
To save till the cold December,
For the sparrows' Christmas feast.
THE POUR KINDS OF SENTENCES. 21
And then tiu'ougli the frost-locked country
There happens a wonderful thing :
The sparrows flock north, south, east, west,
For the children's offering.
Of a sudden, the day before Christmas,
The twittering crowds arrive.
And the bitter, mntry air at once
With their chirping is alive.
They perch upon roof and gable,
On porch and fence and tree ;
They flutter about the windows
And peer in curiously,
And meet the eyes of the children
Who eagerly look out
With cheeks that bloom like roses red,
And greet them with welcoming shout.
On the joyous Christmas morning,
In front of every door
A tall pole, crowned with clustering grain.
Is set the birds before.
And which are the happier, truly
It >vould be hard to tell ;
The sparrows who share in the Christmas cheer.
Or the children who love them well.
How sweet that they should remember.
With faith so full and sure,
That the children's bounty awaited them
The whole ^vide country o'er I
23 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
When this pretty story was told to me
By one who had helped to rear
The rustling grain for the merry birds
In l^orway, many a year,
I thought that our little children
Would like to know it, too,
It seems to me so beautiful,
So blessed a thing to do :
To make God's innocent creatures see
In every child a friend.
And on our faithful kindness
So fearlessly depend.
— Celia Thaxter.
[Celia Thaxter, an American poet, born in Portsmouth,
JSTew Hampshire, 1835 ; died at the Isles of Shoals, August
26, 1894]
CHAPTER III.
WORDS AS PARTS OF SPEECH.
Note : This lesson may well be used for reading and for
conversation with the class. Its object is to introduce the
parts of speech to the pupils^ leaving them to become more in-
timately and exactly acquainted with them in the lessons that
follow.
I.
The pond-lily floats quietly on the lake. Its roots live
in the mud, but its beautiful blossoms rest on the surface of
the water. Ah, how sweet its perfume is !
WORDS AS PARTS OF SPEECH.
In a sentence each word has its own service to perform.
Some words are name-words ; some are used to describe name-
words ; some are used to take the place of name-words ; some
express action ; some modify (limit the meaning of) the action-
words ; some show how one word is related to another ; some
connect words or thoughts ; some express a feeling.
1. A word that is the name of something is a noun. Such
words are pond'Hly, roots, mud, Uossoms, surface, water, per-
fume.
If you mention the objects that are in the school -room you
use nouns : books, desks, pictures, teacher, map, boys, girls.
2. A word that describes a noun or a word used instead of
a noun, is an adjective. Such words are ieautiful, sweet.
Notice the adjectives in these groups of words : good books,
small desks, beautiful pictures, large map, helpful teacher,
pleasant boys, happy girls.
Put these groups of words in sentences.
3. A word that is used in place of a noun is a pronoun.
Notice the pronouns in these groups of words : its beautiful
blossoms, its roots. In place of what noun is its used ?
4. A word that tells what a noun or pronoun does is a verb.
Such words are floats, live, rest.
Notice the verbs in these sentences : The birds are singing
in the apple-trees. A beautiful ship sailed on the broad, blue
sea. The ieachev praises the careful pupil.
What are the nouns in these sentences ? the adjectives ?
5. A word that modifies the meaning of a verb is an advert.
Such words are quietly, softly, rapidly, gladly.
Insert softly, rapidly, and gladly, in the sentences in No. 4.
24 TEE ESSENTIALS OF LANOUAQE AND GRAMMAR.
6. A word that shows how one word is related to another is
2k preposition. Such words are on, in, of.
Notice the prepositions in these groups of words : sings to
his mate, sailed on the river, the work of the pupils.
Put these groups of words in sentences.
7. A word that connects one word or thought to another is
a conjunction.
Notice the conjunctions in these groups of words : the red
a7id gold leaves of the maple ; praised him because he studied ;
played ttntil it was dark.
•Put these groups of words into sentences.
8. A word that expresses strong feeling is an interjection.
Notice the interjections in the following sentences : Ah,
how sweet its perfume is ! Oh, do not waste the golden mo-
ments ! What, are you back so soon !
See what parts of speech you can recognize in the story in
Chapter II., Part III.
II.
A LITTLE STUDY OF WORDS.
The little things called words^ which we use so freely
to express our thoughts, and which we must learn to use
very carefully and correctly, have, many of them, inter-
esting meanings of which we do not think as we use
them. We smile, perhaps, when we read of such Indian
names as Laughing Water and West Wind and Pearl
Feather; but perhaps we may not know that Margaret
means a pearl, and John means the gracious gift of God,
and Mary means a star of the sea, and Philip means a lover
of horses. The dear, old-fashioned names, Patience, Faith,
A LITTLE STUDY OF WORDS. 25
Hope, Charity, express qualities which we trust belong to
all who are so named, but every name by which we call
one another has its own meaning, and most of the meanings
are pleasant. The Indian mother who calls her little brown
daughter Minnehaha, laughing water ^ thinks perhaps of the
sweet murmur of the rippling stream, or its bright sparkle
when the sun shines on it, and her daughter's voice recalls
the music of the water or her bright eyes remind her of its
glancing lights. So the mother who first named her daugh-
ter Margaret thought of her as a precious pearl, and the
father who first named his son John, thought of him as a
gracious gift of God.
It takes but the thought of a moment to understand why
the morning-glory is so called, and we can see the day* a eye
in the daisy ; but we shall need to use the dictionary to find
that the little swaying anemone is the wind-flower^ that the
pansy is a thought, that the dandelion is the lion^s tooth, that
the cemetery is a sleeping place, or that the little squirrel,
whom we see with his bushy tail curved over his back, is
called by a name which means shadow-tail.
A large dictionary tells us all of these interesting facts
about words ; it tells us, too, how to spell them and how to
pronounce them ; what different meanings a word may have,
and much more that it is profitable for us to know. In con-
nection with all of our work in language, the dictionary
should be carefully studied. If you have a large dictionary,
it will be interesting to find in it what these words meant
originally :
school, companion, journey, handkerchief, boarder,
good-by, farewell, angel, armor, handsome.
26 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR,
Note : Helpful books in the study of the origin and
meaning of words, are :
" Short Studies from the Dictionary," Arthur Oilman.
" Rambles Among Words," William Swinton.
" Words and Their Uses," Eichard Grant White.
III.
Sentences for dictation :
1. Do not let words that do harm escape from your
lips.
2. Words that do harm are profane words, foul words,
angry words, and careless words.
3. What beautiful meanings some words have !
4. School comes from a word that means leisure.
6. Leisure for what, do you think ?
Give orally, or write, sentences containing the following
words :
1. her daughter , means
2. like the , because
thought.
3. Did you know shadow-tail ?
4. The squirrel is called because -
means a
5. Oh, here are , meaning glory-of-the-morning,
and daisies meaning , and pansies for !
What words mean the same as harm ? escape ? leisure ?
What words are the opposite in meaning of harm ? foul ?
careless ?
THE NOUN A WORD THAT NAMES. 27
A word having the same, or nearly the same, m^eaning as
another is its synonym.
A word that is the opjposite in mea/ning of another is its
antonym.
CHAPTER IV.
THE NOUN A WORD THAT NAMES.
I.
There was once a child who lived in a little hut, and in
the hut there was only a little bed and a looking-glass
Avhich hung in a dark corner. Kow, the child cared not at
all for the looking-glass, but, as soon as the first sunbeam
glided through the casement and kissed his sweet eyelids,
and the finch and the linnet waked him with their merry
morning songs, he arose, and went into the green meadow
and begged flour of the primrose, and sugar of the violet,
and butter of the buttercup ; he shook dew-drops from the
cowslip into the cup of a harebell ; he spread out a large
lime-leaf, set his breakfast upon it, and feasted daintily.
—From "The Story Without End," by F. W. Carove.
What was told you in Chapter 111. of the service that words
perform in a sentence ? How many kinds of such service did
we distinguish ? Into how many classes, then, may we divide
words ? What is a noun ?
Robin, blue-bird, sparrow, are the names of birds; lion,
dog, horse, are the names of animals ; book, picture, bell, are
the names of objects ; father, mother, sister, are the names of
relatives ; anger, love, pride, sorrow, are the names of feelings ;
John, Margaret, Mr. Winslow, are the names of people.
28 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
In the above quotation there are twenty-four nouns^ four
of which are printed in italics. Make a list of the other twenty
nouns. Why is each a noun ? Tell what each names, thus:
Corner is a part of a room, casement is a part of a window,
lime-leaf is the leaf of the lime-tree.
Note : If possible the dictionary should be consulted by the
pupils, that their definitions may be correct.
II.
Give five sentences, each containing the name of something
in the room. What is the noun in each sentence ?
Give five sentences, each containing the name of something
at home. What is the noun that you use in each sentence ?
Give five sentences, each containing the name of some per-
son. What is the noun that you use in each ?
Write three sentences, each containing the name of an
animal ; three, each containing the name of a flower ; three,
each containing the name of a feeling ; three, each contain-
ing the name of some person. Underline the nouns in these
sentences.
Note : The amount of written work may be increased or
diminished, according to the needs of the class. It is better
to have a few good sentences — sentences that have a thought
worthy of expression — than many trivial ones. From the first
the teacher should strive to obtain sentences that are the
expression of thoughts.
SELECTION FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS. 29
CHAPTER V.
SELECT/ON FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS.
The Beggar.
1. A beggar through the world am I, —
From place to place I wander by.
Fill up my pilgrim's scrip for me,
For Christ's sweet sake and charity.
2. A little of thy steadfastness,
Eounded with leafy gracefulness.
Old oak, give me, —
That the world's blasts may round me blow,
And I yield gently to and fro,
While my stout-hearted trunk below
And firm-set roots unshaken be.
3. Some of thy stern, unyielding might,
Enduring still through day and night
Kude tempest-shock and withering blight, —
That I may keep at bay
The changeful April sky of chance
And the strong tide of circumstance,—
Give me, old granite gray.
4. Some of thy pensiveness serene.
Some of thy never-dying green,
Put in this scrip of mine, —
That griefs may fall like snowflakes light,
30 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
And deck me in a robe of white,
Ready to be an angel bright, —
O sweetly mournful pine.
5. A little of thy merriment.
Of thy sparkling, light content,
Give me, my cheerful brook, —
That I may still be full of glee
And gladsomeness, where'er I be.
Though fickle fate hath prisoned me
In some neglected nook.
6. Ye have been very kind and good
To me, since I've been in the wood ;
Ye have gone nigh to fill my heart ;
But, good-by, kind friends, every one,
I've far to go ere set of sun ;
Of all good things I would have part ;
The day was high ere I could start,'
And so my journey 's scarce begun.
7. Heaven help me ! how could I forget
To beg of thee, dear violet !
Some of thy modesty,
That blossoms here as well, unseen,
As if before the world thou'st been,
O give, to strengthen me.
— James Eussell Lowell.
[James Russell Lowell, an American poet, born in Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, February 22, 1819 ; died there, August
12, 1891.]
SELECTION FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS. 31
Imagine a beautiful wood, in which there are strong oak
trees, and swaying, -green pine trees. A little brook flows
through this wood, its waters babbling and singing on their
way to the river, far away. On the banks of the stream the
modest violets are growing. A path leads through the wood,
past the oaks and pines, along the banks of the little stream,
and on until it is lost to sight. Along this path comes a pilgrim
(a traveler), with his scrip (a traveler's bag). With this pic-
ture in our minds, let us see what he begs, from whom, and
why.
In the second stanza, of whom does he beg ? What two
things does he beg of the oak ? Which of these gives strength ?
Which beauty ? Describe the oak as you picture it. When the
wind blows does it bend it down ? W^hat two things keep it
from being blown over ? Which of these especially holds it ?
Do you suppose the traveler wishes the steadfastness of the
oak to prevent him from being blown over by the wind, or does
he mean that he wishes to be steady against temptations as the
oak is steady against the wind ?
In the third stanza, of whom does he beg ? What does he
ask the granite to give him ? A blight is something that with-
ers or destroys plants. Would it destroy granite ? What is
the weather in April ? When we speak of an April day we
mean one in which there is sunshine and then showers. By
the ''changeful April sky of chance,'" may he mean good for-
tune and then bad fortune following each other as blue sky and
cloudy sky follow each other on a showery April day ? What
great body of water has tides ? Do these tides sweep in with
great force ? By the " strong tide of circumstance " may he
mean ill-success or misfortune, that it takes strength like that
of granite to bear ?
32 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
In the fourth stanza, of whom does he beg ? The pine tree
is not a noisy tree. It stands quiet and still, as a man may
when he is thinking. The pine tree is not a cheerful tree,
like the elm. It is rather a gloomy tree. Pensiveness means
gloomy thoughtfulness. Do you see why he thinks the pine
tree has pensiveness ? The pine tree is green all the year
round. Do you see why he speaks of its never-dying green ?
When the snow falls on the pine tree, it is caught by the pine
needles, and then the tree looks as if it had a white and green
robe on.
In the fifth stanza, of whom does he beg ? What does he
beg of the stream ? The brook sings and is happy, although it
is all alone in the forest. So he wishes the brook to give him
its content, its merriment, so that if he is neglected and alone
he may be full of glee and gladsomeness.
In the sixth stanza, what does he mean when he says '^ the
day was high " ? What word might he have used instead of
*^day^^?
In the seventh stanza, of whom does he beg ? Why did he
not beg of the violet before ? Why is the violet called ^^ mod-
est " ? " Modest " means here shy ; not bold.
Note : Children will appreciate the best literature if rightly
presented. They sense much more than they may be able to
express. The teacher should aim to get the pupils as interested
as possible in the poem, to make them form mental pictures
from it, and by question and answer to lead them to under-
stand it. Then there should be a final reading of it, and it
should be left to ripen in the minds of the pupils. Do not use
this poem for dictation or composition work.
COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 33
CHAPTER VI.
COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS.
I.
A name may be common to a class of objects : boy, book,
school, hill, river. These names are not the names of any par-
ticular boy, book, school, hill, or river, but each is a name com-
mon to its class of objects. If I say, ^'A hoy hrought me these
flowers," you are not told what boy. It may be any one of a
large number of boys. If I say, *' Tlie hill is beautiful" I do
not tell you what hill. It may be any one of a large number
of hills.
A noun that is the common name of a class of objects is
a cominon noun.
A noun may be the name of a particular, or individual ob-
ject. It distinguishes that object from others of the same class.
Edward Temple is the name of a particular boy ; '^ Black
Beauty^' is the name of a particular book ; the John Ward
School is the name of a particular school ; Silver Hill is the
name of a particular hill ; the Merrimack River is the name of
a particular river. If I say, '' Edward Temple brought me these
flowers," you are told what boy brought them. If I say, ^^ Sil-
ver Hill is beautiful," I tell you what hill is beautiful.
A noun that is ike name of a particulai^ object is a
proper noun.
Notice with what kind of a letter each of the proper nouns
begins.
Form a rule for the beginning of proper nouns.
3
34 THE ESESNTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Write a list of ten common nouns.
Write a list of ten geographical proper nouns ; of ten proper
nouns that are the names of persons.
II.
Make a list of ten proper nouns, and of as many common
nouns as possible, from the following description :
There is a beautiful road leading from the village of
Franconia through the valley that lies between Mount La-
fayette and Mount Cannon. It touches the borders of Echo
Lake, emerges suddenly into the plateau where the Profile
House is situated, winds past the shores of Profile Lake, and
then on and on beneath towering mountains and bare, up-
reaching ledges, the music of the winds among the trees, and
of the brooks, singing as their waters slip from stone to stone,
making melody all the way. A short distance beyond the
Profile House, and just as the dimpling waters of Profile
Lake are seen in front, as one glances up to the ribbon of
blue sky seen between the avenue of trees, he beholds, jut-
ting out from the side of Cannon Mountain, a majestic, stern
face, the first sight of which is wonderfully impressive. To
some it seems like the features of Washington, to others it
is the face of a younger man. It is the Profile, the Great
Stone Face, carved by a mightier master than man — by the
hand of I^ature herself.
The GrEEAT Stone Face.
The Great Stone Face was a work of Nature in her mood
of majestic playfulness, formed on the perpendicular side of
a mountain by some immense rocks, which had been thrown
together in such a position as, when viewed at a proper dis-
COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 35
tance, precisely to resemble the human countenance. It
seemed as if an enormous giant, or a Titan, had sculptured
his own likeness on the precipice. There was the broad arch
of the forehead, a hundred feet in height ; the nose, with
its long bridge ; and the vast lips, which, if they could have
spoken, would have rolled their thunder accents from one
end of the valley to the other. True it is, that if the spec-
tator approached too near, he lost the outline of the gigantic
visage, and could discern only a heap of ponderous and
gigantic rocks, piled in chaotic ruin one upon another. Ke-
tracing his steps, however, the wondrous features would
again be seen ; and the farther he Avithdrew from them, the
more like a himian face did they appear ; until, as it grew
dim in the distance, with the clouds and the glorified vapor
of the mountains clustering about it, the Great Stone Face
seemed positively to be alive. — Nathaniel Hawthorne.
[N^athaniel Hawthorne, a New England romancist, was
born in Salem, Massachusetts, July 4, 1804, and died in Ply-
mouth, New Hampshire, May 19, 1864.]
III.
Sentences for dictation :
1. The Great Stone Face is on the side of Mount Can-
non.
2. It is sometimes called the " Old Man of the Moun-
tain."
3. Do you not think " The Profile " a prettier name ?
4. What a stern look the face has !
5. As you ride past it, it becomes merely a ledge of rocks.
36 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Complete sentences from the following :
1. The road passes from , through .
2. It is a road ; a little flows , singing as
it slips from to .
3. A lies at the base of .
4. Should you not like to see , when is back of
it, and the clouds ?
5. How and the face is !
CHAPTER VII.
SURNAMES AND CHRISTIAN NAMES.
{Family Names and Personal Names.)
I.
The first President of the United States was George
"Washington. His father's name was Augustine Washing-
ton. His mother's name was Mary Washington. His elder
brother's name was La\\T:'ence Washington.
What was the name of this family f What is the name of
your family ? Give the names of five families-
The name common to the memhers of a family is the
fam^ily name or surname.
What was the distinguishing name of George Washington's
father ? of his mother ? of his elder brother ? of himself ?
The names given to the indimduals of a family to dis-
tinguish them are personal names, or given or Christian
names.
THE ORIGIN OF SURNAMES. 37
What is your personal or Christian name ? Give the per-
sonal names of five other pupils.
Sometimes two or more personal names are given to a per-
son. All given names except the first are called middle names.
In the name Oliver Wendell Holmes, Oliver is the personal
or Christian name, W^endell the middle name, and Holmes the
surname.
Which are personal or Christian names, which family names,
and which middle names in the following : Betty Alden, Louisa
May Alcott, John Greenleaf Whittier, Edward Everett Hale,
Thomas Bailey Aldrich, Robert Louis Stevenson, Molly Elliot
Seawell, John Eandolph, Mary Powell, John Paul Jones ?
Give your own personal name, middle name, and surname.
Give the personal names and surnames of five of your school-
mates.
All personal names, middle names, and surnames are proper
nouns. With what kind of letters should they be begun ?
Instead of the full name, the initials of one or all of the
Christian names may be used. Such initials must always be
written in capitals and followed by a period, thus : L. M. Al-
cott, John G. Whittier, E. E. Hale, T. Bailey Aldrich, M. E.
Seawell. For what does each initial in the above names stand ?
Note : Piipils should be taught to torite their first Christian
name in full,
II.
TH£ ORIGIN OF SURNAMES.
A long time ago, before the year 1000, there were no
family names or surnames, and men were distinguished only
by their personal names, Edward, Edmund, Alfred, John,
38 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR..
Robert, Harold, etc. But there were so many Edwards and
Alfreds and Roberts and others of the same personal name,
that it became convenient to describe them bj some char-
acteristic : by what they did, or where they lived, or how
they looked, and so forth. So Harold, who could run as
swift as a hare, became Harold Harefoot ; Edward, who was
a baker, became Edward Baker, while EdAvard, who was a
carpenter, became Edward Carpenter ; Edmund, who lived
by the water, became Edmund At water {At means hy)'^
Edmund, who lived by the woods, became Edmund Atwood ;
Edmund, who lived by the bridge, became Edmund Bridge ;
Alfred, who was tall, was called Alfred Longfellow, and
Alfred, who was little, was called Alfred Small ; John, who
was the son of John, became John Johnson, and John, who
was the son of William, became John Williamson. Then
these descriptive names became family names.
Such a descriptive or family name is called a surname^
because that word means a name above or in addition to the
given name. The family name was formerly called, also, a
sirname, meaning ^^V^-name, a name derived from the sire —
the father or more remote ancestor — of the family.
Sometimes a name is added to the Christian name and
surname to distinguish the person from another who has
the same names, thus : Charles Carroll of Garrollton^ John
Randolph of Eoanohe, and these additional names are called
to-names.
III.
Sentences for dictation and completion :
1. is the President of the United States.
2. The initials of mv name are — — — .
A STORY FROM " HIAWATHA:' 39
3. If I write my name in full, it is . ^
4. I have three friends named — , — , and — .
5. The name Margaret means — , and the name John
means — . '
Complete the following outline of a paragraph :
Once upon a time there lived a little lad whose
ran so swiftly that his — called him . His playmates
were a little white cat, named — , and a little black dog,
named — . They played in a little grove on — Hill, near —
— Brook. — 's mother used to call them from the door,
'" Come, — , and — , and — ." Then they would start in a
race to the house, and — always got there first, and
always came last.
Note : It is a good plan to have the pupils, one after another,
read the paragraph, completing it each after his own imagina-
tion. As soon as there is too much repetition, or the exercise
becomes dull, it should be left.
Eead the story, substituting synonyms for little, lad,
swiftly, called, playmates.
What are antonyms for little, swiftly, white, always, f/rst ?
CHAPTER VIII.
A STORY FROM LONGFELLOW'S " THE SONG OF HIAWATHA."
In the lands of the beautiful West there once lived a
lovely Indian maiden named We-no-nah. She had grown
up tall and slender like a prairie lily, and had married West-
Wind. When her little son, Hi-a-wa-tha, was born, Weno-
40 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA3I3IAR.
nah gave him to her mother, No-ko-mis, to care for, because
she knew that she should not live to care for him.
E'okomis taught the little lad many pretty stories. She
told him that when the wild flowers of the forest and the
lilies of the prairie fade and die on earth, they blossom in
the sky and make the rainbow.
Hiawatha learned the names of the birds, how they build
their nests, where they hide themselves in winter, and how
they talk together, and he used to call them " Hiawatha's
chickens." He learned, too, how the beavers build their
lodges, where the squirrels hide their acorns, why the rein-
deer runs so swiftly, and why the rabbit is so timid. He
used to talk with these animals when he met them, and he
called them " Hiawatha's brothers."
One day I-a-goo, who was an old Indian and a friend
of l^okomis, made a bow for Hiawatha from the branch of
an ash tree. The arrows he made of an oak bough, and
he tipped them with flint and winged them with feathers.
Then he said to Hiawatha, " Go into the forest where the
red deer herd together and kill for us a deer with antlers ! "
So Hiawatha went all alone into the forest, and he was
very proud because he was sent to kill a deer with his bow
and arrows. The robin and the bluebird sang to him, " Do
not shoot us, Hiawatha ! " and the squirrel chattered, '' Do
not shoot me, Hiawatha ! " and the timid rabbit sat erect
upon his haunches, at a distance, and said, " Do not shoot
me, Hiawatha ! "
But Hiawatha did not talk to them nor notice them on
this day, for he thought only of the red deer. He followed
the path which led down to the ford across the river, and
A STORY FROM ''HIAWATHA:' 41
when lie came to the ford he hid in the alder bushes and
waited for the deer to come to the river to drink. By and
by he saw two eyes looking out from the thicket, then two
nostrils, and then the antlers of a deer. And when he saw
the antlers, his heart beat fast mth excitement, but he sped
an arroAY from his bow and the deer fell dead.
Hiawatha bore the red deer home, and when lagoo and
Kokomis saw him they praised him. They made a feast
and the people of the village came and ate the flesh of the
red deer, and they called Hiawatha the Strong Heart, for
they thought he had done a very manly action. IS'okomis
was very proud of her grandson, and she made a cloak for
Hiawatha from the beautiful hide of the deer.
The teacher should not fail to read to the pupils the story
as Longfellow tells it in the chapter called '' Hiawatha^s Child-
hood.'^
This story should be used for a conversation lesson. No
title has been given to it. Let the pupils suggest titles and
tell why they choose each. How do birds build their nests ?
Do they all build alike ? Where did the beavers live, and how
did they build their lodges ? Why are animals afraid of man ?
Are they afraid of one another ? What do Indians think is
manly ? Do their ideas of what is manly differ from ours ?
Was it brave in Hiawatha to kill the deer ? Is it manly to go
hunting ? etc., etc.
Another story of Hiawatha, that may bo arranged in the
same way, is '^ Hiawatha's Sailing."
Note : While the story may be used for a review of all that
the pupils have learned, and for dictation sentences, the prime
42 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
purpose of its introdiiction is to get the pupils to talk freely on
subjects in which they are interested, to teach them to clothe
their thoughts in correct expression, and to introduce them to
the beauties of good literature.
CHAPTER IX.
REVIEW.
I.
Let each pupil mention one thing that he has learned since
beginning the study of Language, care being taken that no
pupil mentions what another pupil has previously given, and
that all the answers are given in complete and good sentences.
IL
What are the two parts of a sentence ? Define each. Write
upon the board from dictation. The river at the foot of the hill
sparTcles in the sunshine. Draw one horizontal line under the
subject. Draw two lines under the predicate. Write an
original sentence on the board. Draw one line under the sub-
ject and two under the predicate.
Tell the story of ''The Birds' Christmas Feast in Norway.'"
Name and define the four kinds of sentences, and write one
of each kind on the board. Draw one line under the subject,
and two under the predicate, of each. (Supply you as the sub-
ject of the imperative sentence.)
What is a noun ? Give five nouns that are the names of
objects that you can see ; five of objects that you can not see.
Give a sentence containing a noun, and mention the noun.
Who wrote '' The Beggar'' ? Of whom did the beggar ask
THE WRITING OF DATES. 43
gifts ? What did he beg of each ? What is another word for
pilgrim ? scrip ?
What is a common noun ? Give five common nouns. What
is a proper noun ? Give five proper nouns : the name of a per-
son, of a mountain, of a river, of a school, of a town. With
what kind of a letter must a proper noun begin ?
What is a surname ? Why is it called a surname 9 What
is a given or Christian name ? What are initials ? How are the
initials of a name written ? What is a to-name 9 What was the
origin of surnames 9 of to-names 9
III.
Let the pupils tell the story of Hiawatha's childhood, each
giving a single sentence of the story. Care must be taken that
the connection of the story is preserved, and, as always, that
the sentences are good sentences. Avoid too frequent use of
the pronoun.
CHAPTER X.
THE WRITING OF DATES.
I.
A full date states the place, year, month, and day. A
partial date may state the year, month, and day ; the year and
month ; the month and day ; or merely the year.
A letter or legal paper should contain the full date ; the
time of an event may be given with a partial date.
This letter is dated Concord^ Massachusetts^ April 19,
1YY6.
This will is dated Richmond, Virginia, January 12, 1894.
Benjamin Franklin was born Janua/ry 17, 1706.
44 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
He made the journey to Paris in Deceinher^ 17Y6.
Christmas Day is December 25.
A five-cent piece dated 187Y is quite a rare coin.
A date is properly written in the order and form shown in
the above sentences. In legal papers, however, the date is often
written in full, thus : Dated * the Twelfth Day of January, in
the Year One Thousand Eight Hundred and Ninety-four.
The above dates are read: April nineteenth, seventeen seven-
ty-six ; January twelfth, eighteen ninety-four ; January seven-
teenth, seventeen hundred six, etc.
Eead the following dates : October 12, 1492 ; December
22, 1620; July 4, 1TY6 ; July 4, 1804; February 3, 1842;
March 4, 1897 ; April 19, 1898.
Write the following dates ; June seventeenth, seventeen
seventy-five; August third, fourteen ninety-two; January
first, eighteen ninety-eight ; March nineteenth, seventeen
hundred nine ; IS'ovember thirteenth, eighteen ninety-seven ;
September fourteenth, eighteen seventy-three.
We date the years from the beginning of the Christian era.
A year is divided into twelve months. Instead of writing the
name of the month in full, we sometimes write an abbreviation
for it. The following are the names of the months and abbre-
viations of the names :
January, abbreviated Jan.
July, not abbreviated
February, " Feb.
August, " Aug.
March, " Mar.
September, " Sept.
April, " Apr.
October, " Oct.
May, not abbreviated
J^ovember, " ]N'ov.
June, "
December, " Dec.
THE WRITING OF DATES. 45
The naines of the months are jp^'oper nouns, and should
alioays hegin with a capital letter.
The year is divided into four seasons : spring, summer,
auticmn, and winter. These words are common nouns.
II.
Notice the use of capitals in the following verse. Explain
the description of each month :
The Months.
The new year comes with shouts and laughter ;
And see, twelve months are folloAving after.
First January, all in white.
Then February, short and bright ;
See breezy March go tearing round,
But tearful April makes no sound ;
May brings a pole with flowers crowned,
And June strews roses on the ground :
A pop ! a bang ! July comes in.
Says August, " What a fearful din ! "
September brings her golden sheaves,
October waves her pretty leaves ;
While pale i^ovember waits to see
December bring the Christmas tree.
III.
Sentences for dictation and completion :
1. is the first month of the year. It is abbrevi-
ated .
46 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
2. The shortest month of the year is . It is ab-
breviated .
3. Do you not think that is the noisiest month of
the year ?
4. What pleasant holidays there are in and !
5. I was born , , in the season of .
Complete the following paragraph :
In the month of , after showery had gone, I
went into to gather . I found , , ,
and . I heard the merry of , the rippling of
a , the soft of the wind in the and trees.
The sun , the sky was , and all nature seemed
to be beautiful and songful once more.
IV.
A POEM FOR CONVERSATION AND MEMORIZING.
Marjorie's Almanac.
Eobins in the tree-top,
Blossoms in the grass,
Green things a-growing
Everywhere you pass ;
Sudden little breezes.
Showers of silver dew.
Black bough and bent twig
Budding out anew ;
Pine tree and willow tree,
Fringed elm and larch, —
Don't you think that May-time 's
Pleasanter than March ?
A POEM FOR CONVERSATION AND MEMORIZING. 47
Apples in the orchard
Mellowing one by one,
Strawberries upturning
Soft cheeks to the sun ;
Roses faint mth sweetness,
Lilies fair of face,
Drowsy scents and murmurs
Haunting every place ;
Lengths of golden sunshine.
Moonlight bright as day, —
Don't you think that summer 's
Pleasanter than May ?
Roger in the corn-patch
Whistling negro songs ;
Pussy by the hearth-side
Romping with the tongs ;
Chestnuts in the ashes
Bursting through the rind ;
Red leaf and yellow leaf
Rustling down the wind ;
Mother " doing peaches "
All the afternoon, —
Don't you think that autumn 's
Pleasanter than June ?
Little fairy snowflakes
Dancing in the flue ;
Old Mr. Santa Claus,
What is keeping you ?
48 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Tmlight and firelight,
Shadows come and go ;
Merry chime of sleigh bells
Tinkling through the snow ;
Mother knitting stockings,
(Pussy's got the ball), —
Don't you think that winter 's
Pleasanter than all ?
— Thomas Bailey Aldrich.
[Thomas Bailey Aldrich, a poet and novelist, born in
Portsmouth, E'ew Hampshire, l^ovember 11, 1836.]
Hints for conversation : The time of the coming of the
birds. When do the robins come ? When do they go away ?
Where do they go ? When are they most musical ? What
blossoms grow in the grass ? What common weeds sometimes
make the hills and fields seem golden ? (See Lowell's '' The
Dandelion. '') Of what shape are the dewdrops ? The budding
of boughs and twigs. When do they bud ? How do they pro-
tect themselves from the cold ? What buds expand earliest ?
What is the blossom of the willow tree ? Why is the elm called
fringed f What are drowsy scents and murmurs ? When is
chestnut time ? The colors of the autumn leaves. Why fairy
snowflakes ? ♦
A FE W COMMON ABBRE VIA TIONS A ND CONTRA CTIONS. 49
CHAPTER XI.
A FEW COMMON ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS.
I.
The names of the days of the week are abbreviated as fol-
lows :
Sunday, Sun. . Wednesday, Wed.
Monday, Mon. Thursday, Thurs.
Tuesday, Tues. Friday, Fri.
Saturday, Sat.
The title Mister is always written in its abbreviated form,
Mr., and its plural. Gentlemen (Messieurs), is always written
Messrs., pronounced Messers. The title of a married woman,
Mistress, is always written Mrs., pronounced Missez, and its
plural. Mistresses (Mesdames), is represented by the form in
the parenthesis. Notice the following :
Mr. Kenneth Grahame,
Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer,
Mrs. Olive Thorne Miller,
Messrs. Thomas and Matthew Arnold,
Messrs. Little, Brown & Company.
Mesdames Stanton, Willard, and Stone.
Mesdames Wells, Gibson, Field, and Drake.
The^oUowing abbreviations are in common use :
Doctor, Dr. Keverend, Eev.
Esquire, Esq. Honorable, Hon.
President, Pres. Governor, Gov.
Professor, Prof. General, Gen.
Superintendent, Supt. Street, St.
Avenue, Ave. Company, Co.
4
50 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR,
All titles and ahhreviatioiis of titles hegin with capital
letters^ and all abbreviations are followed hy a period.
Titles indicating reverence and honor should always be
read or spoken with the preceding, thus : Rev. Edward Everett
Hale should be read the Reverend Edward Everett Hale, Hon.
John D. Long should be read the Honorable John D. Long, etc.
With titles of position joined to a person's name, the is
omitted, thus : Pres. Eliot of Harvard College, or Charles Will-
iam Eliot, President of Harvard College, etc.
Eead the following titles and names :
Rt. (Right) Rev. Phillips Brooks,
Dr. Samuel G. Howe, Rev. John Graham,
Hon. Samuel J. Tilden, Pres. William J. Tucker,
Rev. Dr. Hall, Dr. Dana,
Prof. Goodwin, Supt. Edward Brooks,
Messrs. Silver, Burdett & Company,
Mesdames Pay son, Adams, and Walton.
II.
Contraction is the shortening of a word in writing or
pronunciation by the omission of the initial or some inter-
mediate letter. ♦
The most common contractions are nH for not, following is,
are, was, were, has, have, had, could, would, should, can, do,
does, etc. ; W f or would; 've for have; 'II for tvill, and 't lor
it. Such contracted forms are properly written as if a part of
the preceding or following word. The apostrophe ( ' ) must
be written to mark the place of the letters omitted.
A FEW COMMON ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS. 51
Give the equivalent uncontracted forms of the following :
The book isn't here. The boys aren't playing. The
child wasn't well. The birds weren't able to fly. Charles
hasn't his book. The nuts haven't ripened yet. The dis-
couraged boy said he couldn't do the problems, and he
wouldn't try again. I'll help him if he'll let me. You've
tried faithfully. I'd not have given you the problem if I'd
thought that you'd find it so hard. 'Tis easy to make mis-
takes.
Note : Pupils should be given repeated drills in the correct
use of common contractions. The following forms should be
used in varied sentences, at first daily, and later with less fre-
quency, until their correct use becomes a habit :
I'm not — . Am I not — ? (Not is never contracted
with am.)
You aren't — . Aren't you — ? He isn't — . Isn't he — ?
We aren't — . Aren't we — ? They aren't — . Aren't they ?
We, you, they, weren't — . Weren't we, you, they — ?
I, he, it, wasn't — . Wasn't I, he, it — ?
I, you, we, they, haven't — . Haven't I, you, we, they — ?
He, she, it, hasn't — . Hasn't he, she, it — ?
I, you^ we, they, don't — . Don't I, you, we, they — ?
He, she, it, doesn't — . Doesn't he, she, it — ?
'd represents had or loould j should is never contracted.
11 always represents will; shall is never contracted.
Use the group of sentences beginning, ^'The book isn't
here," for dictation sentences.
52 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER XII.
THE PARTS OF A LETTER.
(A letter from the Rev. Phillips Brooks to his niece.)
CLa^qaaaX 13, \SS2.
'kajl v&XjJo^ t/o- XajJojc cl ^^MayUrb, Vruuu uaaX oxy-
curvcL j^uyrwi) cvy^ axrucL ^dAXK/rrv ixru trVL
aXajoX. [ilAAAAyC^<iyu cX A<UyO- CL ^yuMxAJL
Aixju^nAJA/Y^.^ cvno. VrUL ^AAy-^rtt aXiAi^, yuo~1<L-
ixioAO- o-^yu. exru<L cv^ cu x<it/u/run., axrucL trbt
THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 58
<!m3u>^ y\a>-^yyvl cutvtxixru. O'YVUyx^ cX n^ruiX
cUm>A., x<io- VrwaX w-rvuY]^ yxjl twxl to- ^<U>LMxrKv
cuAMo/vi t/t>- Ate. oxioyCMyruA- ^lm^-o^i, umoo- umx4
tuxi. to- cbooo-truA. ^xo^it vJp VnJb aXajjX, rix
cm3-4aXcUvv t, a/yvdL Vnjuu yxxixL to- x<iwua. cMxt
to- o-oox^ cboooJynx/b o-omA^ trbt UMoXeA..
JriMx oooAAAt 4M. lo-td oX A:Li<exiA<:iyyvt
tni/yiytiA. to- cLo- oi U.xrucUy/\>-tA^, amxL tX
Voju'YXAL njA>AAy ^YY\jaAL 'Tvcua^^ yxajaL cu IWcuyt-
oayo-u>-, o^OAA. uoaaX oo- v-^iAiAZ to- Ido-^llo-oax.
JUo- ao- i/vxio- ^m/vi 4ao>uA^ UMa>erru oxo-i^
ott VnAAJL, ayY\y^ Ajul '{y. VruL <io-L'C oAvoL
HruA. "iMayiv-aj oAx umXl oyrvcL ^^XAjJpAi/u, vaaX
cLo- oax>i ooAAxu Iyvuvyx. o-tt- JrU/OO^
54 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAM3IAR.
Our letters should represent ourselves in our neatest dress
and with our very best manners. Letters are very often kept,
and they are pictures of ourselves. We should make every
part of them neat, arrange them carefully, and put into them
our best and kindest thoughts, so that if we see them again a
long time after they were written, we need not be ashamed of
them. Dr. Brooks is writing to a very little girl. He tells
her something that will interest her about the children in
Venice, where the streets are canals, and the carriages are
boats, called gondolas^ and where the little children can swim
in the streets. Then he speaks of her vacation in the old home
in Andover, and tells her to look after the doll — which perhaps
is her own doll — when she goes into his house in Boston.
If we study this letter, we shall see that there are five parts
to it.
The first part tells where it was written, and when it was
written :
\J<UYUyQJl^, eXt<WU,
This is called the heading.
Then he greets his niece •
This is called the salutation.
THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 55
Then comes the message that he writes.
This is called the hody of the letter.
Then he signs himself
This is called the complimentary close.
And last comes the name, which is the signature.
I.
The Heading.
The heading of a letter states the place where, and the time
when, the letter is written. Study the following models :
TTUuvclb 4, i^qn.
J4<lA^MymX'C, LAd^exx. Co-., iTLcuiA.,
Qu/m. 1. i§qq.
56 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The arrangement of the heading is shown by the follow-
ing diagram :
{Place of residence or h usiness)
{City^ County^ and State)
{Mouthy doAj^ and yea/r)
When the heading is written on three lines, the indention
from the beginning of the second line to the beginning of the
third should be the same as the indention from the beginning
of the first line to the beginning of the second.
Write lieadings for letters from the following places, dating
them on the day on which you write them :
Denver, Colorado ; The Bancroft School, JS'ewport, K. I. ;
396 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Illinois ; " The Breakers," Bar
Harbor, Maine ; 49 Winslow Street, Plymouth, Mass. ; The
Manor House, Stopham, Sussex County, England; The
Holland House, J^ew York, N. Y. ; your own home ; your
own school.
II.
The second part of the letter is the address, that is, the
name and title of the person or the firm to whom the letter is
addressed, and often the residence or place of business. In
writing to relatives or to friends the address is omitted. Study
and copy the following addresses :
THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 57
III.
The third part of a letter is the salutation ; that is, the
greeting of affection or courtesy that introduces the hody of
the letter.
Study the following salutations :
JUexxA^ a-aiJixA.: ITl/i/| ciexiA.Cuyyyo-VoL:
)k)voJ\. ^'kA. : lTlyv| cUxiA, ^lAA :
58 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The title in the salutation always begins with a capital let-
ter^ thus : Dear Aunt Mary, My dear Cousin John, My dear
Uncle, My dear Friend, etc.
If we unite in proper form the heading, address, and saluta-
tion, we have the following models :
TruiAxA 4, i&qn.
THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 59
In business or formal letters, prefix the title Messrs. to the
names of firms ; Mr., Mrs., or Miss, to individuals who have no
other title, and titles of position or honor— President, General,
Professor, Honor aMe, etc. — to the names of those to whom
such titles belong.
lY.
The fourth part of a letter is the body ; that is, the message
that it conveys. If the salutation is preceded by the address,
the body follows on the same line as the salutation ; if the
salutation is not so preceded, the letter is begun on the line
below the salutation, with a proper indention. Study the
following models :
60 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
rri/v| cUxiA. nX<)4yruyu:
o-oox trix wiAt cLo/vi Q/Jx/t ^^x^L^oni/yvo- tniA
cX ^rVOyOJ-t AX<1.<L O-MmVL x<iWAAy| U>Uyrb A/O-
THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 61
Y.
The fifth part of a letter is the complimentary close, the
wording of which varies with the relation of the person who
writes to the one to whom the letter is written. To relatives
you may write : Your loving son. Your affectionate daughter,
etc. ; to friends you may write : Your loving friend. Your
sincere friend, etc.; to others you may write : Yours sincerely,
Yours respectfully. Yours truly, etc.
The complimentary close should never be abbreviated.
YI.
The last part of the letter is the signature of the writer.
This should be written very plainly, and the name should be
signed in full in letters to those who are not relatives or intimate
friends. In letters to relatives and intimate friends, however,
one often signs the first name only.
The signature to a letter should be simply the name of the
writer, without any title. The title, inclosed in brackets, may
precede the name, or the full address with the proper title
may be written at the left and slightly below the signature.
Study the following models of the complimentary close and
signature :
63 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
THE PARTS OF A LETTER. G3
\\2 UnAAA/Q/n. ^IajuX,
1. ^\yY]yQJiAAA/u omoaaAA,
yn.
The envelope should be addressed with great plainness and
neatness ; the stamp placed in. the upper right-hand corner ;
the name written across the middle of the envelope. Accord-
ing to best usage there should be no punctuation marks at the
64 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANOUAOE AND GRAMMAR.
ends of the lines, except to denote an abbreviation, and the
name of the State should be written in full.
I. [wi>-. txLuo^aAyS^ C. J^MiXe.
rrvcuy^vTx-
yiii.
Envelopes should be a very little wider than the paper.
The paper should be folded so that it will be a very little nar-
rower than the width of the envelope. If it be folded more
than once, the upper part of the letter should be the outer fold.
If paper wider than the length of the envelope is used, it should
be folded in from the right side to fit the length of the envelope,
before folding it to fit the breadth.
Practice in folding, using cheap brown paper or even news-
papers, cut to the sizes of note and letter paper, is of advantage
to pupils.
IX.
The model for the arrangement of a letter is as follows :
THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 65
{Place of residence or husiness)
{City^ CoMTity^ and State)
{Months day^ and year)
{Name of person to whom the letter is written)
{Address)
{Salutation) : {Body of the letter^ properly
paragraphed)
{Complimentary close)
{Name of writer)
Note : It will be of great advantage in teaching the proper
form in letter writing to have the pupils draw this diagram
until they become thoroughly familiar with the arrangement,
indentions, and paragraphing.
5
66 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER XIII.
LETTER-WRITING.
Fill out, first, orally, in the class, then, in writing, out of
the class, the following abstracts of letters. As great a variety
of sentiments as is possible should be obtained in the oral exer-
cise, and these abstracts may be expanded if, in the judgment
of the teacher, it is best. A personal letter usually contains
inquiries and the answers to inquiries, remembrances to others
of the family, etc. Since the nature of these varies with the
relation of the receiver of the letter to the writer, they have
been omitted in the abstracts. The teacher will decide with
the class to whom each letter is to be sent, what personal ques-
tions shall be answered, what inquiries shall be made, and
what messages sent. She will teach the pupils that when
a letter is being answered it should be looked through carefully
to see that every inquiry in it is answered, and that such
messages as it contains are properly noticed.
The school exercise mentioned in the third abstract is
a very pleasant one. Each pupil brings into the class every day
something that he has seen or heard that pleasantly interested
him. It is well if this '^sunshine diary ^^ can be kept by each
pupil in a notebook. To gather some new idea each day and
to express it well, will wonderfully broaden the intelligence of
the pupil, and develop ease and grace of expression. Such a
diary should not aim above the simple expression of simple
things ; — what the pupil notices himself about bee or bird or
flower, some word or custom or act that seems to him pleasant,
is sufficient.
LETTER-WRITINO. 67
When these letters are written out of the class, each letter
should be in full and proper form ; then folded as if for an
envelope. If not placed in an envelope, the address may be
placed on the back of the letter, which should be left blank
for this purpose. Not more than one letter should be written
each week, and it is better to write them less frequently, — once
a fortnight, — reviewing the form and varying the several parts.
The writing of the five forms below, then, would best extend
over a period of ten weeks. The practice in letter writing,
however, should be continued throughout the whole period of
the child's school life.
I.
We had such walk with teacher ! We left
school Friday at o'clock. Went by
river, through pastures, saw cows, came to
brook. It was such a pretty brook ! grew be-
side it, and . (Here describe brook.) We saw how val-
leys are made, and , and . Miss taught us
much about geography, and names of . Then we had a
little lunch. Mamma calls it a " picnic lesson."
II.
A dog has come house live. We heard
barking in field. Didn't see dog. It came to barn. Ate
out of cat's dish. Mamma found it, so weak could
hardly stand. Fed it. Lapped hand. Followed into
house. Crept under table. Father came home. Said,
" Halloo ! who's here ? " Dog came out , jumped over
hands, then sat up . Father said might stay.
Call it " Maidie," after Sir Walter Scott's dog.
68 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
III.
Delighted to get such interesting letter. Your account
of journey to made me wish . Think you will be
interested in new school exercise. We write each day
that has pleasantly interested us. Monday I saw ;
Tuesday I heard ; Wednesday I noticed ;
Thursday I found ; Friday I read . We write
nothing but pleasant . calls it a " sunshine diary."
How do like it ?
lY.
Gray, cheerless day. Your letter, however, is so
sunny . The flower that came in it, the bit of poetry
, the picture of , are like the of
the daisy; what you wrote like heart. A bunch of
is in vase on table, and if the day's eye out of doors
is , there are twenty twinkling in my .
How it is to know . Of all flowers the three I
like best are , , and . I like the because
, the because , and the
because . I send you in return
for the you sent me, and a thought with it. This is
the thought : The best kind of a letter is one that makes
us wish to answer it at once.
Y.
When we speak of traveling think going
far from home. Did hear traveling
around home ? Many things to see near home. (Here may
NUMBER : SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF NOUNS. 69
be inserted a list of local places of interest.) An old kitchen
just as it was many years ago. Fireplace big
great logs settle crane. Tin kitchen
to put before fireplace. Painted tioor. Beams in ceiling.
Bunches of herbs. Dresser with pewter ware. Old chairs.
Windows with many panes. Braided rag mat on floor.
(A quite full description of any place may be used instead
of this abstract for description of an old kitchen.)
Abstracts for letters may be arranged by the teacher and put
upon the board. Suggestive subjects are : A Visit to a Circus,
Christmas Delights, A May Party, Fourth of July in our Toicn,
Our School Home, Hie Story of the Neio Picture, A Delightful
Book, My Collection of Stamps, A Walk with the Postman.
CHAPTER XIV.
NUMBER : THE SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF NOUNS.
Wild bees get honey in the early spring from the golden
willows. The golden willows send forth a sweet perfume
when their l)lossoms open. The garden rose gives us a deli-
cious ])erfume, but gives no honey to the bees. The little
creatures love the blossoms of the raspberry in simimer.
Many bees perish during the season of honey making. A
strong swarm of bees loses about one hundred and fifty a day.
What kind of a sentence is each of these ? What words in
these sentences are nouns ? Are they common or proper
nouns ?
Does the word hees make you think of one bee or more than
one? ivilloiu? blossoms? roses? creatures? swarm?
70 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
A noun that gives the idea of one {one hee^ one willow^
one rose, etc.) is of singular number.
A noun that gives the idea of more than one ohject is of
plural number.
What nouns in the above sentences are of singular number?
of plural number ? In the story from " The Song of Hiawa-
tha/' name the nouns and state of what number each is.
1. Singular Plural
bee bees
willow willows
rose roses
creature creatures
blossom blossoms
How does the plural form differ from the singular in each
of the nouns in the above list ? In the same way form the
plural of school, teacher, hoy, girl, desk, pen, pencil, crayo7i,
hoard, street, car, house, field, tree, fruit, orchard, carriage,
horse, river, ocean.
Give orally sentences containing the plurals of these nouns.
The 2)lural of most nouns is formed hy adding s to the
singula/r.
2. Singular Plural
branch branches
circus circuses
fish fishes
box boxes
adz adzes
hero heroes
NUMBER: SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF NOUNS. 71
How does the plural differ from the singular in each of the
nouns of this list ? In the same way form the plural of stitch,
witness, dishy fox, watch, walrus, blush, volcano, potato, glass,
sash, lynx, chintz, Irush, church, crocus, lunch, radish, chorus,
motto, tomato.
The plural of nouns ending in ch, s, sh, x, z^ amd of
many ending in o not jpreceded hy a vowel^ is formed hy add-
ing es to the singular.
The vowels are a, e, i, o, u.
3. Singula/r Plural
lady ladies
body bodies
fairy fairies
fly flies
city cities
Is the final y of the singular of these nouns preceded by a
vowel ? What are the vowels ? To what letter is the final y
changed in forming the plural ? What is then added ? Write
upon the blackboard the singular of the following nouns, and
form the plural of each : colony, ally, shy, spy, factory, heauty,
lilyt butterfly, history, fancy, belfry, poppy, cherry, treaty,
geography, eddy, canopy, memory, variety, treaty.
The plural of nouns ending in y not jpreceded by a 'dowel
is formed by changing the final y to\ and adding es.
4. Eleven nouns ending in f change ftoY and add es.
These are:
Singula/r Plural
loaf loaves
leaf leaves
(2 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Singula/r
sheaf
self
beef
thief
wolf
calf
half
shelf
elf
Plural
{Form
the
plurals
of
these.)
5. Three nouns ending in fe change f to v and add s.
These are wife, hnife^ life. Form the plural of each.
6. Thirteen nouns in common use form their plurals
irregularly. These are :
Singidar
man
woman
child
brother
ox
goose
foot
tooth
louse
mouse
die
Plural
men
women
children
brothers )
brethren )
oxen
feet
teeth
lice
mice
dies )
dice S
NUMBER: SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF ^'OUNS. 73
Singular
penny
pea
Plural
pennies ]
pence )
7. Some nouns have the same form in the singular and
plural. Such nouns are deer^ sheep, trout^ cod, mackerel,
salmon.
Note: The jmpils should learn thoroughly the rules
given for the formation of the plural, and should apply
them carefully in form^ing the plurals of such nouns as have
occurred in the previous lessons, and as are given in the list
that follows. The pupils should he drilled with great care
in the spelling of hoth the singular and plural forms, should
learn the mea/nings of the words, and should use them in
sentences.
Apply the rules for the formation of the plural to the fol-
lowing nouns :
ship
torch
folio
money
colony
torpedo
negro
foot
baby
canary
enemy
halo
shoe
canoe
rush
dairy
thief
knife
strife
antelope
deer
handkerchief
gentleman
foster-child
wharf
meanness
rebus
gentlewoman
apple
monkey
mackerel
daisy
bough
fresco
grotto
piano
solo
quarto
cargo
gypsy
hoof
prize
shelf
wife
pony
zero
echo
society
74 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Sentences for dictation :
1. The poppies grew among the wheat and were bound
up in the sheaves.
2. The children of the heroes cherish the memories of
their brave deeds.
3. At the fair were dishes of beautiful tomatoes, bunches
of nice radishes, and cans of cherries.
4. The feet of the mice which were eating the peas left
tracks on the shelves.
5. Little kindnesses drive away great griefs.
Complete the following :
fairies played under tree. table
toadstool, cups acorn-cups. Six (pi. of butterfly)
drew queen's . Two (pi. of fly) in beautiful coats
were her (pi. of footman). The little (pi. of fairy) sang (pi.
of chorus) to greet her on her arrival, and (pi. of canopy) of
oak (pi. of leaf) were placed over her throne.
CHAPTER XV.
THE NUMBER OF NOUNS, Continued.
8. Some nouns that are of plural form are of singular
number : as news^ wages^ means, tidings, gallows.
Complete the following sentences by selecting the proper
forms from those in the parentheses :
Kews {has, have) come that wages {have or has) been
advanced in the coal districts.
THE NUMBER OF NOUNS. . 75
The low wages {is, are) not sufficient to keep the workers
from suffering.
The tidings of Nansen's safe return from his Arctic voyage
(was, tuere) received with great gladness.
Use each of the nouns in No. 8 as the subject of a sentence.
9. Some nouns, the names of objects consisting of more
than one part, are always of jplural number : as trousers,
breeches, scissors, t/weezers, tongs, victuals, scales, shears,
measles, pincers.
Complete these sentences by selecting the proper forms
from those in the parentheses :
The tramp's trousers {was, were) very ragged and dirty.
The gentleman's riding breeches {were, was) of brown
corduroy.
Use each of the nouns in No. 9 as the subject of a sentence.
10. Some nouns belonging to foreign languages, but in
use in English, retain the foreign form of the plural: as, in-
dex, indices / awis, axes / radius, radii / phenomenon, phe-
nomena j crisis, crises I beau, beaux ; tableau, tableaux.
11. Tlie plural of proper nouns is formed by the addition of
s or es ; this termination is sometimes added to the title and
sometimes to the name : the Drs. Smith, the Dr. Smiths ; the
Misses Blake, the Miss Blakes ; the Messrs. Griffin, the Mr.
Griffins ; the Marys and the Marthas ; the four Georges ; the
King Henrys, etc.
12. In compound nouns (a) consisting of a noun and a modi-
fying word or phrase, the noun is made plural in form, i.e.,
brothers-in-law, hangers-on, goings-f orth ; (b) consisting of parts
very closely allied, the plural sign is added at the end, i.e., hand-
76 TIi:^ ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
fuls, spoonfuls, pianofortes ; (c) a feiu have plural forma of both
parts, i.e., men-servants, women-singers, knights-templars.
13. Some nouns when preceded hy a numeral omit the plural
sign: a ten-acre lot, a three-foot rule, forty. head of cattle,
three pair of shoes.
14. The plural of figures, letters, and words and phrases,
when repetition of their use is de^ioted, is formed hy the apos-
trophe and s {'s). The i's and fs and 9's are carelessly made.
His Fs and my's and me's are heard too often. Her repeated
alas's and dear me's showed deep feeling.
Put in sentences the plurals of the following words :
Mr. Dana Miss Ames sister-in-law handful
spoonful cupful s, r; t 8, 9, 6
CHAPTER XVI.
SELECTIONS FOR STUDY.
Note: Mrs. Celia Thaxter, the author of the following selec-
tions, lived on Appledore, one of the Isles of Shoals. Here
she delighted especially in the wildness of the ocean, which
dashed often in great fury against the rocky edges of the
island ; the birds whose lives were companionship to her ;
and the little crowded patch of blossoms that she planted and
tended, and of which she has told in her delightful book,
'' An Island Garden."
I.
The Coming of the Sandpiper.
I hear the voices of the children at their play, not far
away. There are no other sounds. Suddenly from the
SELECTIONS FOR STUDY. 77
shore comes a clear cry thrice repeated, " Sweet, sweet,
sweet." And I say to my neighbor, my brother, working
also in his garden plot, "The Sandpiper — do you hear
him ? " and the glad news goes from mouth to mouth,
"The Sandpiper has come." Oh, the lovely note, again
and again repeated, " Sweet, sweet, sweet," echoing softly,
in the tide-brimmed coves where the quiet water seems to
hush itself to listen. Never so tender a cry is uttered by
any bird I know. It is the most exquisitely caressing tone
heard in the dewy stillness of morning and evening. He
has many and varied notes, and his cry of fear breaks my
heart when any evil threatens his beloved nest ; but this
tender call of " Sweet, sweet, sweet," is the most enchant-
ing sound, happy with a fullness of joy that never fails to
bring a thrill to the heart that listens. It is the voice of
love itself. — From " An Island Garden,''^
n.
The Sandpiper's I^est.
It was such a pretty nest, and in such a pretty place,
that I must tell you about it.
One lovely afternoon in May I had been wandering up
and down, through rocky gorges, by little swampy bits of
ground, and on the rocky headlands, looking for flowers,
and I had found many.
Presently I came to the edge of a little beach, where I
was startled by the sound of such terror and distress that it
went to my heart at once. In a few moments a poor little
sandpiper emerged from the bushes, dragging itself along
78 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
in such a way that, had you seen it, you would have be-
lieved that every bone in its body had been broken. Such
a dilapidated bird ! Its wings drooped, and its legs hung
as if almost lifeless. It uttered continually a shrill cry of
pain, and kept just out of reach of my hand, fluttering
hither and thither as if sore- wounded and weary. At first
I was amazed, and cried out, "Why, friend and gossip!
what is the matter ? " and then stood watching it in dis-
may. Suddenly it flashed upon me that this was only my
sandj^iper's way of concealing from me a nest. The object
was to make me follow her by pretending that she could
not fly, and so lead me away from her treasure. So I stood
perfectly still, lest I should tread upon her precious habita-
tion, and quietly observed my deceitful friend. "Dear
gossip," I called to her, " pray don't give yourself so much
unnecessary trouble! You might know I wouldn't hurt
you or your nest for the world, you most absurd of birds ! "
As if she understood me, she rose up at once, strong and
graceful, and flew off with a full, round, clear note, deli-
cious to hear.
Then I cautiously looked for the nest, and found it
quite close to my feet, near the stem of a stunted bayberry
bush. Mrs. Sandpiper had only drawn together a few bay-
berry leaves, brown and glossy, a little pale green lichen,
and a twig or two, and that was a pretty enough nest for
her. Four eggs, about as large as robins', were within, all
laid evenly with the small ends together, as is the tidy
fashion of the sandpiper family. ]^o wonder I did not see
them, for they were pale green like the lichen, with brown
spots the color of the leaves and twigs, and they seemed a
SELECTIONS FOR STUDY. 79
part of the ground, with its confusion of soft neutral tints.
I could not admire them enough, but, to relieve my little
friend's anxiety, I very soon came away, and as I came I
marveled much that so very small a head should contain
such an amount of cunning.
Subjects for conversation:
A description of the island as it is spoken of in this sketch.
What expressions tell us about the island ?
Describe the appearance of the sandpiper as Mrs. Thaxter
first saw it. Contrast that description with its appearance after
she assured it that she would do it no harm.
Do sandpipers reason ? Did he reason that she was search-
ing for his nest ? Did you ever notice any animal — a dog or
a cat — trying to deceive ?
Describe the nest and the eggs. How did the sandpiper try
to conceal its eggs ? Do any other birds try to conceal their
nests ? How ?
Make a list of ten words that are new words to you. Care-
fully look up the meaning of each in the dictionary. Use each
in a sentence.
Note : The selection may he used also for a review of such
grammatical principles as have been learned.
80 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
III.
POEM FOR MEMORY.
The Sandpiper.
Across the narrow beach we flit,
One little sandpiper and I ;
And fast I gather, bit by bit,
The scattered driftwood, bleached and dry :
The wild waves reach their hands for it.
The wild wind raves, the tide runs high,
As up and down the beach we flit —
The little sandpiper and I.
Above our heads the sullen clouds
Scud thick and swift across the sky ;
Like silent ghosts in misty shrouds
Stand out the white lighthouses high.
Almost as far as eye can reach
I see the close-reefed vessels fly.
As up arid down the beach we flit —
The little sandpiper and I.
I watch him as he skims along.
Uttering his sweet and mournful cry ;
He starts not at my fitful song.
Or flash of floating drapery.
He has no fear of any wrong.
He scans me with a fearless eye ;
Staunch friends are we, well tried and strong —
The little sandpiper and I.
THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS. 81
Comrade, where wilt thou be to-night,
When the wild storm breaks fm'iously ?
My driftwood fire will bm*n so bright —
To what warm shelter canst thou fly ?
I do not fear for thee, though wroth
The tempest rushes through the sky.
For are we not God's children both —
Thou, little sandpiper, and I ?
The subject of " The Sandpiper" may well be completed by
reading to the class another of Mrs. Thaxter^s poems, '' The
Wounded Curlew "
CHAPTER XVII.
THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS.
I.
Robert's dog is a Scotch collie named Bruce. He is the
boy's playmate. He likes to carry the children's baskets,
and in the winter he goes coasting with them. He runs,
barking in his delight, down the hill, and hauls the little
girls' sleds back to the top.
What noun tells whose dog Bruce is ? How is it spelled ?
What noun tells whose playmate he is ? How is it spelled ?
What noun tells who owns the baskets ? How is it spelled ?
What noun tells who own the sleds ? How is it spelled ?
Each of these nouns denotes the owner or possessor. How
is the spelling of Robert changed to denote that he is the pos-
sessor of something ? How is the spelling of boy changed to
denote possession ? childreii ? girls 9
6
82 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA31MAR.
Whe7i tliefoTTTh of a noun indicates ownership or posses-
sion, it is called the possessive form.
Notice how these possessive forms are made :
Singul
'or
Plural
man
man's
men
men's
lady
lady's
ladies
ladies'
ox
ox's
oxen
oxen's
story
story's
stories
stories'
Charles
Charles's
What is added to each singular noun to form the posses-
sive ? What is added to each plural noun 7iot eliding in s ?
What is added to each plural noun ending in s ?
Form in like manner the possessives of mother, sisters, fairy,
fairies, wolves, fly, Margaret, Gladys, Miss WilTcins, Use the
possessives of these nouns in the order in which they are given
in the following sentences :
Washington, when a boy, obeyed his wishes.
Richard carried his little books.
The kindness brought the coach to Cinderella.
The howling could be heard throughout the long
winter nights.
The eye is wonderful.
favorite book is " Beautiful Joe."
• vacation was spent among the White Mountains.
Ethel is reading one of stories.
Note : These sentences should be made complete orally,
and then given as dictation sentences to be written by the
pupils.
THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS. 83
The possessives of nouns are formed hy the addition of
the apostrophe and s ('«), except that plural nouns ending in
s add the apostrophe only.
The possessive termination of singular nouns ending in s or
z is pronounced ez, thus : Miss Noyes's is pronounced Miss
Noyes-ez, Mr. Brooks's is pronounced Mr. Brooks-ez, etc.
When the addition of the apostrophe and s would give a
succession of more than two s or z sounds, the apostrophe only
is added, thus: Moses', Jesus', etc.
II.
1. "Master Skylark" is the name of John Bennett's
first story.
2. Mrs. Harriet Prescott Spofford's home is on Deer
Island in the Merrimack river.
3. William Brown, Esquire's, name is written in a plain
hand on the fly leaf.
4. Blake the blacksmith's little lad has won a medal
for bravery.
5. Kipling the story-teller's books have a large sale.
6. Messrs. Dodd, Mead & Company's store is on Fifth
Avenue, Kew York.
7. Nicolay and Hay's " Life of Lincoln " is very com-
plete.
The possessive sign is added to the last of a combination
of names (1), of names amd titles (2 am,d 3), of namss and
descriptive words, designating an individual (4 amd 5), of
those forming thefrm name (6), amd of those denoting joint
ownership or authorship (7).
84 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Change the groups of words in italics in the following sen-
tences into possessive forms :
The life of Sir Philip Sydney was full of noble deeds.
This house is owned by Bev. Arthur Goodwin, D.D.
The new store of Wilson c§ Low will be opened to-
morrow.
This was the island garden of Mrs. Thaxter, the poet.
That is the office of the Governor of Massachusetts.
Cedric is the brother of GustaA)a, the little lamie girl.
III.
"While it is correct to use the possessive form of nouns that
are not the names of beings that have life, it is in better usage
to use the possessive phrase of . Thus, it is in better usage
to say " The strength of England lies largely in her navy," than
^^ England's strength lies largely in her navy"; "the color of
gold" than "gold's color"; "the puUic buildings of Wash-
ington," than "Washington's public buildings."
Change to better usage :
Boston's old streets are very crooked.
San Francisco Bay's entrance is called "The Golden
Gate."
The emerald's color is green, the ruby's color is red, and
the topaz's color is yellow.
The moon's distance from the earth is a little less than
240,000 miles.
The Journey's end; the arrow's flight; the star's bril-
liancy ; the earth's yearly journey ; the picture's beauty.
THE PARAGRAPH. 85
The expressions anybody else, somebody else, nobody else,
etc., are regarded as liaving the value of one word, and their
possessive form is made by adding 's to the word else, thus :
anybody else's, nobody else's, etc.
Sentences for dictation :
1. Flowers are more beautiful than birds on ladies'
hats.
2. The humming-bird's beauty has won him the name
of a jewel with wings.
3. Master Skylark's real name was Nick Attwood.
4. His mother's smile was more to him than the Queen
of England's favor.
5. Mrs. James's roses grow larger than Mr. Adams's.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE PARAGRAPH.
1. The male bird usually selects the place for a nest.
2. He assists the female in hatching the eggs.
3. He feeds the little ones, and teaches them to fly and
to hunt for food.
4. His plumage is usually much brighter than that of
the female.
5. The female's colors are less bright, so that she will
not be easily seen when on the nest.
When our thoughts are closely connected with one subject
we do not separate them as in the above sentences, but we
unite them closely in a paragraph, as follows :
86 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The male bird usually selects the place for a nest. He
assists the female in hatching the eggs. He feeds the little
ones, and teaches them to fly and to hunt for food. His
plumage is brighter than that of the female. Her colors are
less bright so that she may not be so easily seen when on
the nest.
A paragraph always begins on a new line, and has an inden-
tion at its beginning ; that is, a blank space at the beginning
of its first line. The diagram of a paragraph, which should
be carefully drawn by the pupils, is as follows :
Write the sentences at the beginning of Chapter I. as a
paragraph.
Arrange paragraphs from the sentences in Divisions II.,
III., and v., in Chapter I.
Fill out the following sentences and write them in para-
graphs :
I.
An Qgg wonderful thing.
has shape gives its greatest strength.
Its color, whether , , or , is always beautiful.
Its shell has a lining, tough but as silk.
And within is what may be a life clothed with beauty
and overflowing with song.
THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 87
II.
A beautiful humming-bird .
Its wings .
It found its food trumpet flowers.
Then it flew to the gay .
It alighted for a moment on a string that was stretched
about the flowers, and looked at me with a great deal of
curiosity. I wonder what it thought of me.
III.
The snow came wool.
It filled the full.
It covered , it hid .
It lay grass like light.
And made the old earth look clean and
CHAPTER XIX.
THE GENDER OF NOUNS.
1. In olden times the men sat on one side of the meeting
house, and the women on the other.
2. The children were taught to do useful work — the
girls to spin and weave, the boys to do the work of the farm
or of some trade.
3. Did you ever see the warming pans, the foot stoves,
or the spinning wheels that were used in those days ?
4. The birds were very busy this morning — the mother-
bird in watching her brood, the father-bird in getting them
food.
88 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
5. The Prince and Princess of Wales, with the Duke
and Duchess of York, were present at the celebration.
All living beings are either male or female. When a
noun is the name of a male heing^ the noun is of masculine
gender ; of a female heing, it is of feminine gender.
A noun that is the name of a living heing, hut hy its
form does not show whether male or female, is of common
gender.
A 7ioun that is the name of something that has no sex—^
is neither nfiale nor female — is of neuter gender. The
word neuter means neither.
In the above sentences what nouns of masculine gender do
you find ? of feminine gender ? of common gender ? of neuter
gender? Of what gender is hirdsf father-Mrdf mother-
Hrd f What shows the gender of the last two words ? What
is the gender of Prince f What is the feminine form that cor-
responds to it ? What is the gender of Duchess 9 What is the
masculine form that corresponds to it ?
The following are some nouns in common use, in which the
masculine and feminine forms correspond :
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
father
mother
king
queen
brother
sister
emperor
empress
son
daughter
prince
princess
uncle
aunt
duke
duchess
niece
nephew
marquis
marchioness
husband
wife
earl
countess
REVIEW.
89
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
groom
bride
lord
lady
host
hostess
beau
belle
horse
mare
manservant
maidservant
ram
ewe
he-goat
she-goat
lion
lioness
tiger
tigress
Jew
Jewess
drake
duck
Francis
Frances
gander
goose
Louis
Louisa
Of what gend
er is each of the
) following nouns ?
housewife
maiden
lover
cousin
maid
youth
blacksmith
hare
squirrel
priest
nun
women
poet
Frenchman
Italian
crow
cattle
elephant
chicken
pullet
Josephine
Paul
)^^m
teacher
family
child
author
master
mistress
poet
bachelor
pupil
CHAPTER XX.
REVIEW.
Write the complete heading, giving name of school, place,
and date. What is the abbreviation of the month ? of the
day ? How many days has this month ? Write the season of
the year. What pleasant things in this season ?
If you were to teach some one how to write a letter, what
directions would you give him ? (The teacher can aid the
90 TEE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
pupils to arrange in order the suggestions that they offer.
Training in orderly tliinhing — sequence — is invaluable. ) Write
in proper form and order on the board the several parts of a
letter, written in this school, to-day, addressed to the chair-
man of the committee for, this school, and signed by the writer.
What can you tell him of interest for the body of the letter ?
Write on the board the proper address for the envelope. Show
where the stamp should be placed. Draw on the board a
model for the arrangement of a letter. (The lines should be
drawn straight with a blackboard ruler.) What is the ''^sun-
shine diary " ?
Give each one noun and tell how to form its plural. Write
the singular and plural forms on the board. In how many dif-
ferent ways is the plural of nouns formed ? Give examples of
each. Why are scissors, tongs, scales, always plural ?
Tell the story of the sandpiper's nest.
Write a noun on the board and show how its possessive form
is made. Show how the possessive form of the singular and of
the plural is made from each of these nouns : lily, wolf, Mr.
Harris, guardsman, valley, hooh-luyer, mouse, fish, lily of the
valley, manservant.
Of what gender is each of the above nouns ? Give the cor-
responding forms, masculine or feminine, of any of the nouns
in the list in the preceding lesson.
THE ADJECTIVE. 91
CHAPTER XXI.
THE ADJECTIVE.
I.
Under a spreading chestnut tree
The village smithy stands ;
The smith, a mighty man is he,
With large and sine\7y hands,
And the muscles of his brawny arms
Are strong as iron bands.
His hair is crisp, and black, and long,
His face is like the tan;
His brow is wet with honest sweat ;
He earns whate'er he can,
And looks the whole world in the face,
For he owes not any man.
—From *'The Village Blacksmith," by
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.
Name the nouns in the above stanzas. What words describe
the first noun ? What does smithy mean ? What word de-
scribes it ? W^hat word is used to describe man in the third
line ? What kind of hands did he have ? What word describes
arms in the fifth line ? What does brawny mean ? What de-
scriptive words in the sixth line ? What are strong ? What,
then, does strong describe ? What does iron describe ? Write
on the board in a vertical column the nouns in the first stanza,
and place before each the word or words that are used to
describe it. Do the same with the nouns in the second stanza.
92 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Give a sentence using large to describe house ; using small
to describe house ; using hlach to describe something that we
burn ; something that we use in school ; using wliite to de-
scribe something that we may see in winter ; something that we
use in school ; using each of the following words to describe
something : happy, sweet, good, leautiful, light, interesting,
cross. Hue, patient, ripe, round, bright, glad. What word de-
notes a quality the opposite of happy ? sweet ? good 9 beautiful f
Put into sentences the words that denote these opposite quali-
ties.
Words that describe are adjectives,
II.
1. The twenty-third psalm is called the Shepherd
Psalm.
2. In yonder meadows the sheep are grazing.
3. These daisies were picked near the birthplace of
John a. Whittier.
4. That face looks very mischievous, thought Pan-
dora.
5. Those mountains are the Alps.
What word points out the psalm ? the meadows ? the dai-
sies ? the face ? the mountains ?
Words that designate {point out) a particular object are
III.
1. There were four pale eggs in the sandpiper's nest.
2. Some flowers have beauty but no fragrance.
3. " Then the little Hiawatha
Learned of every bird its language."
THE ADJECTIVE. 93
4. Each star in the sky is a fiery sun.
5. All living creatures should be treated kindly.
How many eggs were in the nest ? How many flowers are
spoken of ? Of how many birds did Hiawatha learn the lan-
guage ? Hoio many stars in the sky are fiery suns ? How many
animals should be treated kindly ?
Words that limit {tell how many) are adjectives.
A word that is used to descrihe, to designate^ or to limit a
pa/rtioula/r noim is a/n adjective.
Name the adjectives in the following selections, and state
whether they describe, designate, or limit, the noun which each
modifies :
1. Is there a nicer place in which to play than an old
apple orchard ? In the lightly swinging branches you find
prancing horses, and on many a mad ride they carry you.
The larger ones are steep paths leading up mountain sides.
— Ah ! it is good to get into the cool of the dear friendly
trees. And just now, more than ever, they seem friendly
to you, boys and girls ; for they are heavy with apples —
beautiful red and golden apples, that tempt you to clamber
up into the green sea of leaves above.
—From " Plants and their Children," by Mrs. Dana.
2. This flower is the most sociable of all flowers. It is
the starry innocent, the Houstonia. It is fond of dwelling
with many friends about it. And so you will find a whole
family of them living so close together that the ground is
white with their delicate beauty. In the space of a few
inches there are a thousand blossoms, and each of these lit-
94 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
tie flowers is as perfect as if the warm sun and the soft rain
and the gentle breezes nourished it alone.
3. I^ear yonder copse the village preacher's modest
mansion rose.
4. These little flowers of the air are humming-birds.
5. Twelve articles are a dozen ; twenty articles are a
score ; a hundred years are a century.
lY.
The words the, a, an, are classified properly as adjectives,
but are called articles.
Tlie is used to give definiteness (to denote a particular object)
to the noun which it modifies^ and it is called the definite article.
1. The girl had learned the names of all the common
wild flowers.
2. The boys carried the Christmas tree to the church.
Sometimes it is used to show that the genus, or class of
objects, is meant.
The song of the robin is a cheerful sound; meaning not one
robin, but robins as a gerius.
The vice of the swearer is a repulsive one; meaning not
one man who swears, but the class of men who swear.
Frequently the is used before titles :
The Duke of York ; the Eev. Lyman Abbott.
A and a7i are indefinite articles, and are used with singular
nouns only. An is used before words beginning with any
vowel sound except U, and a before all consonant sounds, and
the sound of H. Words beginning with h and accented on the
second syllable are preceded by an instead of a.
THE CAREFUL USE OF ADJECTIVES. 95
Place the proper form, a or a7i, before the following
nouns :
Apple, echo, idea, ocean, undercurrent, union, European,
utter failure, house, historical novel, history, field, good
idea, strong undercurrent, orang-outang, humble romance,
wharf, hotel, youth.
An adjecti/ve derived from a proper noun hegin^ with a
capital letter :
The American spirit; the English pride; the Spanish
soldiers ; the Mosaic law ; the Jewish religion ; Websterian
oratory ; Koman art.
YI.
Use adjectives to describe the shy, the grass, a geramium
leaf, a winter day, a suminer day / to point out some hook in
the room, some hoy in the class, something that is near you,
something that is away from you y to limit trees, rivers,
hills, seasons, men.
CHAPTER XXII.
THE CAREFUL USE OF ADJECTIVES.
{A Chapter for Conversation with the Class.)
I.
While we are learning about adjectives, we should also try
to learn to use them correctly. Some people who are careless
in their use of language use certain adjectives to describe
almost everything. They have an elegant time, the cake is
elegant, flowers are elegant, the song of the bird is elegant ;
96 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA3IMAR.
almost everything that pleases them is elega7it. But if an
excursion has given us pleasure or delight it is better
to speak of it as a pleasant or delightful time ; if the cake
pleases our taste we may say that it is delicious ; flowers are
beautiful J the song of the bird may be stveet or musical.
Lovely is another overworked adjective. Whatever draws
our love or admiration is lovely, — a mother's smile, an act of
kindness, a face that shows beauty of soul. But a dress is not
lovely but beautiful, candy is not lovely, a house is not lovely
but handsome, a tree is not lovely but beautiful or graceful.
A beautiful face is one that is pleasing to the eye, and that
shows nobility of character ; a handsome face is one the
features of which are good and well proportioned ; a pretty
face is one that has softness and delicacy, like that of a child.
Beauty means much more to us than mere prettiness.
Mountains are grand because they are of striking magni-
tude ; sunsets are often gorgeous because they are brilliant in
color ; an accident or a thunderstorm may be awful, because
it causes the feeling of awe. Can we correctly say that a
hat is awfully pretty ? that a person is dreadfully proud ?
We should avoid extravagant expressions, such as perfectly
lovely, perfectly awful, etc.
We should avoid the use of slang. We should be as careful
to have our speech clean as to have our faces or clothes clean,
and slang in our speech is like mud on our faces or garments.
II.
Discuss the differences in meaning and the correct use of
the following groups of adjectives :
Latest; Last. The boy who came latest stands last in
the line.
THi: CAREFUL USE OF ADJECTIVES, 97
Many • Much. Mcmy boys spend too much money for
trifles.
Bound / Determined. If I am not hound to help him, I
am determined to help him. {Bound means under necessity^
determined means resolved.)
Mut^cal y Common. The love of the mother and daugh-
ter is mutual. (Each gives love to, and receives it from, the
other.) •
The little pony is the common property of the two broth-
ers. (It belongs to both of them.)
Odd ; Funny. The shape of this book is odd (miusual),
and the pictures in it dcc^fwnny (causing mirth).
Mad ; Angry. The boy is not mad (insane) ; he is only
cmgry.
Prominent ; Eminent. He is a promine7it (attracting
notice) citizen, but not an eminent (highly distinguished, in
a good sense) one.
Continual • Continuous. The dropping of the water is
continual (an act constantly repeated) ; the roaring of the
torrent is cmitinuous (uninterrupted).
Liable / Likely. If you do ivrong you are liable to (sub-
ject to, exposed to) punishment.
It is likely (probable) that to-morrow will be a holiday.
Healihfid ', Healthy ; Wholesome. Healthfid (produc-
ing health) exercise and wholesome (promoting health) food
make healthy (in good health) bodies.
98 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
III.
Select proper adjectives for the blanks in the following
sentences :
1. The journey was a one ; the people were ,
the refreshments , the scenery , and the weather .
2. It was such a babe, and the love of the mother
made her face . The father's face was , but showed
no marked character.
3. The procession was • , the fireworks , but the
noise of the cannon was .
4. The boy was not to be the in his class.
6. The taunts made the man .
6. The dress of the clown was very ; his perform-
ance very .
7. Eat food ; take exercise ; and so grow into
a man.
8. He is our friend.
9. To be in a community is honorable ; to be
is not always so.
Give original sentences using correctly the adjectives in No. II.
CHAPTER XXIIl.
THE VERB.
I.
1. Barn swallows build their nests of mud.
2. The tailor bird sews leaves together for his nest.
3. Night hawks lay their eggs on the bare ground.
THE VERB. 99
4. The blue jay robs the nests of other birds.
5. The chimney swifts glue their nests to the inside of
chimneys.
What kind of a sentence is each of these ? What is the
subject of the first sentence ? the predicate ? What one |rord
in the first sentence tells the action of the barn swallows ?
What word in the second sentence tells the action of the tailor
bird ? AVhat word expresses action in the third sentence ? in
the fourth ? in the fifth ? Write these action-words on the
board. Write before each the subject — the word that shows
what acts.
A word that expresses action exerted hy the svhject of a
sentence is a verh.
AVhat is the verb in the first sentence ? the second ? the
third ? the fourth ? the fifth ?
Find the verbs in the selection on p. 15, from *'Wild
Geese/' by Celia Thaxter.
II.
1. This branch was broken from the cherry tree.
2. An oriole's nest has been hung from it.
3. The eggs have been hatched.
4. The nest has been left by the birds.
5. It has been torn by the wind.
What is the subject of each sentence ? the predicate ?
What two words in the first sentence tell the action received
by the branch ? What three words in the second sentence tell
what action has been received by the nest ? What words denote
action received in the third sentence ? in the fourth ? in the
fifth?
100 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
A word or group of luords that tells the action received hy
the subject of a sentence is a verb.
Write a list of the verbs in the preceding sentences. "Write
before each verb its subject.
Find the verbs in these sentences :
1. Washington has been praised for his truthfulness.
2. The bees are invited by the flowers to visit them.
3. The sandpiper has been lamed by a stone.
4. The stone was thrown by a careless boy.
5. The mng of the little bird has been broken.
Write a list of the verbs in these sentences, with the subject
of each before it.
III.
1. The sunshine lies on the brown barn floor.
2. The baby is sleeping in the hammock.
3. The door of the little cottage stands open.
4. A picture of Lincoln hangs on the wall.
5. An old gray cat sits on the doorstep.
What is the subject of each sentence ? the predicate ?
What words express the state of the subject in the first sen-
tence ? in the second sentence ? in the third ? the fourth ?
the fifth ?
A word or group of words that expresses the state or con-
dition of the subject of a sentence is a verb.
Write a list of the verbs in the above sentences. Write
before each verb its subject.
THE VERB. 101
Find the verbs in these sentences :
6. All kinds of trees have flowers.
Y. A little plant sleeps within each seed.
8. The leaves lie thick beneath the naked trees.
9. The brown stalks of weeds stand along the country
roads.
10. The autumn mist rests upon the meadows.
Write a list of the verbs in these sentences, with the sub-
ject of each before it.
lY.
1. The eagle is our national bird.
2. The groves were full of singing birds.
3. The name of the king of the lions was Tawny
Mane.
4. The monkeys seem very playful.
5. The flowers are very lovely, — proses and lilies and
orange blossoms.
What words in the first sentence describe the eagle ? in the
second sentence describe the groves ? in the third sentence tell
the name of the king of the lions ? in the fourth sentence de-
scribe the monkeys ? in the fifth sentence describe the flowers ?
What word in the first sentence connects the subject with
the words describing it ? in the second sentence connects the
subject with the words completing the statement about it ? in
the third sentence ? the fourth sentence ? the fifth ?
A word connecting the subject of a sentence with a word
or group of words completing the statement about it is a
verb.
Such a verb is called a copula or bond.
103 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
'^^o^h'^r^' — ' ! I . . ' ^ ^- — '■
A verb is a word expressing action given or received hy
its subject, expressing the state or condition of its subject, or
connecting its subject with a word or group of words com-
pleting the statement about it.
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE CORRECT USAGE OF CERTAIN VERBS.
Only such definitions have been given to the following verbs
as shall show the distinctions in their use which the best usage
observes. Drill in this correct usage should be begun early,
and continued until the habit of using them correctly is fixed.
Hence this lesson should be one for repetition, review, and the
arrangement of new illustrative exercises by the teacher.
I.
Teach, taught, teaching. To give instruction.
Learn, learned, learning. To obtain knowledge.
1. The best of instructors may teach us, but we ourselves
must learn our lessons.
2. Experience has taught me; I have learned to be
patient.
Sit, sat, sitting. To take a certain position.
Set, setting. To place or put ; to sink or settle down.
3. We sat on the outside of the coach ; it was pleas-
anter than sitting inside.
4. The hen sits on a dozen eggs. She is the only sit-
ting hen in the flock.
THE CORRECT USAGE OF CERTAIN VERBS. 103
5. We set the hen on a dozen of eggs, but she refused
to sit.
6. Some one has set a hot dish on this table.
Y. The boat sets low in the water. The sun was set-
ting. ^
Lie^ lay, lain, lying. To rest in a certain position.
Lay, laid, laying. To put or place.
8. The ship lies at anchor where it lay yesterday, and
where it has lain for a week.
9. The children laid the wreath on their father's grave.
Wish, wished, wishing. To desire.
Want, wanted, wa/ntiruj. To feel the need of, and there-
fore to desire.
10. The children wished to see the beautiful pictures.
11. The path was rough, and the children wanted their
stout shoes.
Get, got, getting. To obtain.
Have, had, having. To possess.
12. lie has got riches by being prudent and careful.
13. He has beautiful silks in his store.
Guess, guessed, guessing. To form a judgment without
certain knowledge.
Think, thought, thinking. To judge.
Reckon, reckoned, reckoning. To count or compute.
14. The boy has guessed the riddle.
16. The boy thinks that this is the answer.
If). The boy has reckoned the cost of the flour.
104 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Stoj)^ stoj>j)ed, stopping. To bring to a halt.
Stay, stayed, staying. To remain.
17. A coach stopped before the door of the house where
we were staying.
18. The peddler stops at many doors, but he does not
stay long at any of them.
May, might. Expresses possibility or permission.
Can, could. Expresses power or ability.
19. The travelers may see the Passion Play.
20. May we not drive in the park ?
21. Can you see the Isles of Shoals from Portsmouth ?
22. Might he not have misunderstood you ? Could he
not have misunderstood you ?
Give the reason for the choice of verbs in each of the above
sentences. Put each verb in an original sentence.
II.
Supply with the proper verbs the blanks in the following
sentences :
1. us how to use these words correctly, for we
2. The men on the deck of a boat which low
in the water,
3. The little child had quiet all day.
4. They the child on a bed of soft moss.
5. I do not need these clothes, but I them.
6. I need these garments, and therefore I them.
T. Did you any fish ? you any bait ?
8. Can you what is in this box ?
THE ADVERB. 105
9. Do you that it is raining ?
10. I that you are from the West.
11. Did you at the hotel or merely there ?
12. I think that I do the work of the higher class.
-I try? f
CHAPTER XXV.
THE ADVERB.
I.
1. " By yonder sandy cove, where, every day,
The tide flows in and out,
A lonely bird in sober brown and gray
Limps patiently about."
How does the tide flow ? How does the bird limp ?
2. A very little act of kindness may produce a great
deal of happiness.
How little an act of kindness ?
3. The Concord river flows very slowly.
How does the Concord river flow ? How slowly ?
Words that omswer the question how are adverbs. They
inodify only verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Such adverbs are adverbs of manner.
Find the adverbs (words that answer the question how) in
the following sentences :
4. Kobert of Lincoln is gayly dressed.
5. He is merrily swinging on briar and weed.
106 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
6. " Silently, slowly, stately and free.
Cities of coral under the sea
Little by little are builded."
7. The exceedingly low rate of wages causes much suf-
fering.
8. The wretchedness in the poorer parts of London is
very largely caused by intemperance.
What does each of these adverbs modify? Write a list of
the adverbs in these sentences and place after each the word
which it modifies.
II.
1. Let us do what we can to-day.
2. The Indians formerly lived in New England.
3. " I once had a sweet little doll, dears."
When shall we do what we can ? When did the Indians live
in New England ? When did I have a sweet little doll ?
Woi'ds that answer the question when are acherhs. Siwh
adverhs modify only verhs.
Such adverbs are adverhs of time.
Find the adverbs in the following sentences :
4. I will tell you to-morrow about the jewel weed.
6. Sometimes the brooksides are yellow with its quaint
blossoms.
6. Once I thought it only a common weed, but lately I
have learned to admire it.
III.
1. Here is the Old Manse.
2. There is Concord Bridge.
THE ADVERB. 107
3. Yonder is the statue of the Minute Man.
Where is the Old Manse ? Where is Concord Bridge ?
Where is the statue of the Minute Man ?
Words that answer the question where are adverbs. Such
admerhs modify only verbs.
Such adverbs are ad/verbs of place.
Find the adverbs in these sentences :
1. Here is the home of Washington.
2. Here is the home of Washington; yonder is his
tomb, and below the Potomac river flows.
3. Afar off lies the wreck of the Hesperus.
lY.
An adverb is a word tliat modifies the meam/lng of a
verb^ adjective, or other adverb.
Words that answer the question how, when, or where, are
adverbs. ,
Find the adverbs in these sentences :
1. Suddenly a peal of thunder fell upon his ears.
2. The rain fell more and more rapidly.
3. The tiny brook, which ran laughing near our home,
was quickly swollen to a raging torrent.
4. Here and there and everywhere, little streams of
water sprang into being, running this way and that, as if
seeking but not knowing the way to the larger stream.
5. The tall and very slender birches bent nearly to the
ground before the strong wind.
108 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Y.
Supply suitable adverbs for the blanks in the following
sentences :
A Quiet Scene. The clouds moved , the wind blew
, the river flowed , a boat at anchor rocked .
By supplying different adverbs make the above a wild scene.
Supply adverbs of time in the following :
The crocus blooms than the violet.
The blue-bird comes than the robin.
there have not been so many robins in my orchard
as .
we were in ^N'ew York, we are in Philadel-
phia, we shall be in Washington.
Supply adverbs of place in the following sentences :
is the first blood of the Revolutionary War
was spilled.
is the tomb of Washington.
Supply as many suitable adverbs as possible for each of the
following blanks :
The brook flows ; the bird flies ; the lamp
burns ; the drum beats ; the time passes ;
the price is cheap ; the child is clothed.
Write a paragraph, uniting in it the sentences under lY.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 109
CHAPTER XXVI.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUN.
Frank brought some beautiful wild roses to his mother.
" They grew," he said, " near the sea, and I picked them
for you while the dew was on them."
Whom does his represent ? What noun could you use in
place of his? What noun could you use in place of they?
What noun does they represent ? What noun could you use
in place of he f What noun does he represent ? Who picked
the roses ? What noun could be used in place of If For
whom did Frank pick them ? To whom is he speaking ? What
noun could be used in place of you 9 What noun does them
represent ?
Make a list of the words in the above selection that stand
for, or represent, nouns. These words are pronouns. (The
word pronoun means in place of a noun.)
A pronoun is a word that represents a noun.
In what Frank said he uses /in place of his own name, you
in place of the person to whom he is speaking, and they and
them in place of the objects of which he is speaking.
/, my, mine, me, represent the person speaking. If Mary
is speaking, they mean Mary ; if Harry is speaking, they mean
Harry ; if the teacher is speaking, they mean the teacher.
We, our, ours, us, mean a number (two or more) of persons
of whom the speaker is one. You, your, yours, thou, thy,
thine, thee, represent the person spoken to. He, his, him, her,
hers, it, its, they, their, theirs, them, represent the person or
no THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
thing spoken of. All of the pronouns in italics in this para-
graph are called personal pronouns.
A personal pronoun is one that rej^resents the. person
speaMng, the person addressed^ or the person or thing spoken of.
A personal pronoun representing the speaker is of the first
person; one representing the person addressed is of the second
person; one representing the person or thing spoken of is of
the third person.
From the following conversation make a list of the pronouns
of the first person ; then a list of those of the second person ;
then a list of those of the third person.
" Pray, who are you, beautiful creature ? " inquired
Pandora.
" I am to be called Hope ! " answered the sunshiny
figure.
" Your wings are colored like the rainbow ! " exclaimed
Pandora.
" Yes, they are like the rainbow," said Hope, " because I
am partly made of tears as well as of smiles."
" And will you stay with us," asked Epimetheus, " for-
ever and ever ? "
" As long as you need me," said Hope, " I promise never
to desert you. Again and again you shall see the glimmer
of my wings on the ceiling of your cottage."
—From " The Paradise of Children," by Hawthorne.
What personal pronoun occurs in Pandora^s first speech ?
Does it represent the speaker or the person spoken to ? Whom
does it represent ? What pronoun occurs in the answer of the
sunshiny figure ? Of what person is it ? Whose wings does
THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. Ill
Paudora say are colored like the rainbow ? Whom does your
represent ? What form of Hope does it represent ? What
form of the pronoun, then, is your 9
[The teacher, by similar questions, should make plain the
use of the other personal pronouns in the selection.]
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUN, Continued.
I.
1. My father and I are studying history together.
2. You and I will go into the woods to cut a Christmas
tree.
3. You and Edward and I are invited to visit Mount
Yernon.
Notice the order of the subjects in the above sentences. The
speaker mentions himself last, the person addressed first, when
other persons are associated.
Arrange the pronouns in the parentheses in proper order
in the following sentences :
4. (I and you) will prepare the breakfast, and then (you
and Mary) may wash the dishes while (I and Charles) catch
some trout for dinner.
5. (I and the guide) selected this place for our camp, but
(Mr. Murray and you) prefer a place nearer the lake.
6. (Mr. Murray, I, you, and the guide) are to go in two
canoes, (Mr. Murray and you) in the first one, (I and the
guide) in the second one.
112 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
II.
1. I offer myself as a soldier in this cause.
2. I myself will plead with him not to be unjust.
3. You wrong yourself by keeping company with the
vicious.
4. You yourself have done him many kindnesses.
5. He that wrongs his friend wrongs himself more.
6. He himself saw tears in the queen's eyes.
Myself, yourself, thyself, himself ^ herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves, are compound personal pronouns, used
as reflexive when the subject receives his own action, as in
sentences 1, 3, and 5 ; and as emphatic when used to make the
pronoun more prominent, as in sentences 2, 4, and 6.
III.
The pronouns thou, thy, thine, thee, and ye, are used only in
sacred writings, in addressing the Deity, in poetry, and among
the Society of Friends.
1. O Lord, open thou my lips, and my mouth shall shew
forth thy praise. — Ps. LI. v. 15.
2. But seek ye first the kingdom of God. — St. Matthew,
YL V. 15.
3. " Good-bye, sweet day, good-bye !
I have so loved thee, but I cannot hold thee.
Departing like a dream, the shadows fold thee.
Slowly thy perfect beauty fades away :
Good-bye, sweet day ! "
THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 113
IV.
1. He was a boy who loved manly games, but he did
not neglect his studies.
2. She studied her lessons with her brother.
3. Some thoughtless boy has hit the bird with a stone.
Its leg has been broken.
4. The kite would have flown high, but its tail became
entangled in the branches of a tree.
The pronoun he in its three forms (he, his, him) always
represents a male being, and is therefore of masculine gender ;
the pronoun she in its three forms (she, her, hers) always repre-
sents a female being, and is therefore of feminine gender ; the
pronoun it in its two forms (it, its) represents the lower forms
of life (animals, birds, fishes, insects) when the idea of sex is
not important, and all nouns that have no sex ; it is of neuter
gender. All other pronouns have the gender of the noun
which they represent.
Y.
1. The ship, how beautiful she is !
2. The ocean, how
" His beard of snow
Heaves with the heaving of his breast."
3. The North Wind breathes his chilling breath on all
the tender flowers.
4. The city has called her children home to celebrate
her birthday.
Is a ship masculine or feminine ? the ocean ? the North
Wind ? a city ?
8
114 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Sometimes we speak of things that have not life as if they
were persons, ^^q QdM i\\\^ personifying iham. If we think of
the thing personified as having the qualities of a woman — gen-
tleness, beauty, grace — we make it feminine. If we think of it
as having the qualities of a man — strength, power, sternness —
we make it masculine.
Why do we make ship feminine ? ocean masculine ? the
North Wind masculine ? the city feminine ?
If you were to personify each of the following nouns,
would you make it masculine or feminine, and why ?
a mountain the South Wind music the violet
the oak tree the birch tree a river a steamer
the sun the moon a star the earth
a house when the family return for Thanksgiving,
a strong wind that breaks down the trees,
a gentle wind that cools and refreshes us.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
SENTENCES FOR THE STUDY OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
In addition to the study of the pronouns in these sentences,
as of first, second, or third person ; singular or plural number ;
masculine, feminine, or neuter gender ; reflexive or emphatic,
etc., the sentences marked with a star should be used for dicta-
tion and for oral repetition, to emphasize the habit of using
correct forms.
1. I am in the wrong.
*2. It is I who am in the ^vrong. It was I who broke
the bottle.
THE PREPOSITION. 115
*3. It was he who sang so sweetly.
*4. Either you or he will be appointed to West Point.
*5. The choice lies between you and him.
6. You wrong yourselves when you seek to wrong
another.
7. They who tell lies spread nets for their own feet.
8. " Come to me, O ye children,
For I hear you at your play."
9. " In your hearts are the birds and the. sunshine,
In your thoughts the brooklets flow ;
But in mine is the wind of Autumn
And the first fall of snow."
10. " Let all the ends thou aimest at be thy country's,
thy God's, and Truth's.
11. The sun came forth from his curtain of clouds.
12. The moon has thrown her silver beams upon the
sparkling river.
*13. If you and we win this victory, then the reward
will be yours and ours, and the praise will be for you and us.
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE PREPOSITION.
I.
1. " The pine trees on the hilltops are clothed with
fadeless green ;
The brooklet in the valley sings on, although un-
seen;
116 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAM3IAR.
The deep blue sky above us smiles to the earth be-
low —
The earth all white and sparkling with the glory of
the snow ! "
What part of speech is trees f are clothed ? fadeless 9 hrooJc-
let f sings 9 blue ? smiles ? earth f white ? sparhling ?
There is in the above stanza another class of words, the rela-
tion class, called prepositions. On shows the relation in posi-
tion of the trees to the hilltops; in shows the relation in
position of the brooklet to the valley ; ahove shows the relation
in position of the sky to us ; loith shows the relation in material
of are clothed to green ; to shows the relation in direction of
smiles and earth ; toith shows the relation in material of white
and sparkling and glory ; of shows possessive relation of snow
to glory. These relation words, on, with, in, ahove, to, with,
and of, are prepositions. It will be noticed in the above ex-
amples that each preposition is followed by a noun. A pre-
position may, however, be followed by a pronoun, as in the
following sentences :
2. I saw the hilltops and the pine trees on them.
3. There is a green that lives through the cold of win-
ter. The pines are clothed with it.
4. I love the valley and the brook that sings in it.
A preposition is a word that shows the relation hetween
a noun or pronoun following it and some other word in the
sentence.
A preposition is said to govern the noun or pronoun that
follows it.
THE PREPOSITION. 117
II.
5. Dear little face, that lies in cobLirh content
Within the gracious hollo^w that God made
In every human shoulder^ where lie meant
Some tired head /<:>/• comfort should be laid I
6. Dream thy sweet dreams ujpon nvy quiet heart.
I watch thy slumber ; naught shall do thee ill.
—From "Slumber Song," by Mrs. Thaxter.
What hollow is meant ? Lay your hand upon it. What
little head is laid there ? Why is this called a slumber song 9
What word does the group of words in calm content modify.
Place this group of words after the word that you think it
modifies. What word does the group of words within the gra-
cious hollow modify ? Place it after that word. Does for com-
fort modify head or laid 9 Place it after each to see which
gives the better meaning. Does upon my quiet 'heart modify
dream or dreams 9 Place it after each to see which gives the
better thought.
What is the noun in the first group of italicized words in
the above paragraph ? What is the preposition ? What is
the word that the group modifies ? The preposition, then,
shows the relation between what two words ? Answer the
same questions about the other groups of words.
In the following selection find the prepositions and tell be-
tween what words each shows relation. (Determine first the
prepositional group of words, then the word that this preposi-
tional group modifies ; the relation is between the noun or pro-
noun in the prepositional group and the word which this group
modifies.)
118 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
A poor boy who lived in the city of Lyons, in France,
obtained the opportunity of attending without expense a
school made up mainly of boys from rich families. He went
wearing a blouse such as is often worn by the poorer classes
in France. When he entered the schoolroom his first glance
showed him that his was the only blouse there. He saw
the boys tittering, and from every side he heard their
whispers, " He has come in a blouse ! " As days went by
the master never called him by his name. When he spoke
to him, it was, "Come here, What's-your-name ! " or, " What
are you about, What's-your-name ? " Another would have
been discouraged and failed in his work, but this boy said,
" If I am to take any position in this school, I must work
twice as hard as the others." In this way he won success,
and when he became a great author he wrote a pretty little
story for children, and called it, " Little What's-his-name."
—The Story of Daudet's Youth.
" There was a ship a-sailing, a-sailing on the sea.
And, oh, it was all laden with pretty things for thee !
There were comfits in the cabin and apples in the hold ;
The sails were made of silk and the masts were made of
gold;
The four-and-twenty sailors that walked about the decks
Were four-and-twenty white mice with chains about their
necks ;
The captain was a duck with a compass on his back.
And when the ship began to sail, the captain cried,
' Quack, quack ! ' "
THE PREPOSITION. 119
III.
Supply prepositions in the blanks in the following sentences,
and then write the sentences connecting them into a paragraph :
1. There was once an oak tree a hill.
2. A squirrel had built his nest its trunk.
3. lie used to play the branches, and chatter
the leaves, and the leaves would softly whisper back
him.
lY.
I. The boy went home this morning, and he is still at
home.
After verbs of motion, go, come, arrive, etc., home is an
adverb ; therefore, it is incorrect to place a preposition before
it. After words denoting stay or rest the preposition at should
be placed before home.
Use home or at home correctly in the following blanks : to
go ; to come '; to arrive ; to remain ; to
be ; to-stay ; to bring . What is the difference
in meaning between ''^The gentleman saw Mr. Allison home,"
and '^ The gentleman saw Mr. Allison at home " ?
II. Among the pupils of the school there is much good-
natured rivalry. Between the leader of the first class and
the leader of the second class there is a strong friendship.
Among has reference to more than two ; between to two.
Use among or between correctly in the following blanks :
the nations of Europe ; England and the United
States ; North and South ; these many good books ;
Whittier's and Longfellow's poems.
120 THE ESSENTIALS OF GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE.
III. One should be very careful in stepping off the cars.
Off is a preposition in such a sentence as this, and should
not be followed by of.
Give sentences containing this use of off.
lY. The girl is like her mother in grace and gentleness,
but more like her father in her love for music and literature.
Following the adjective Wke the preposition to is commonly
not expressed but understood. The noun that follows is the
object of this preposition to.
CHAPTER XXX.
THE CONJUNCTION.
I.
1. The meadows and the river lie between the towns.
2. The blackbirds fly over the meadows and then
slowly soar down to the ground.
3. When the meadow is full of yellow cowslips it looks
as if father Sun had crumpled up sunbeams and scattered
the bits over the meadow.
I wish to make the same statement about the meadows
and the river. I have therefore joined them by and. I wish
to make two statements about the blackbirds. I join these by
and. Why do I use and in the third sentence ?
4. The river runs rapidly but quietly.
5. The brook ripples slowly and musically over the
pebbles.
THE CONJUNCTION, 121
What is the joining word in sentence No. 4 ? Why is it
used ? What is the joining word in sentence Xo. 5 ? Why is
it used ?
That part of speech that joins or connects words or grmips
of words is a conjunction.
II.
What does each of the conjunctions in the following selec-
tion connect ?
The summer came, and all the birds were dead ;
The days were like hot coals ; the very ground
Was burned to ashes ; in the orchards fed
Myriads of caterpillars, and around
The cultivated fields and garden beds
Hosts of devouring insects crawled, amd found
l^o foe to check their march till they had made
The land a desert without leaf or shade.
—From "The Birds of Killingworth," by Longfellow.
III.
Join by conjunctions the sentences of each group so that
they will make one sentence. Use the conjunction given before
each group, thus :
And. April has brought the willows. April has brought
the lilacs. April has hrought the willows and the lilacs.
1. And. We heard the roar of the ocean. We felt
the salt air in our faces.
The morning is the best time for labor. The evening is
the best time for rest.
123 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
2. Bitt. The humming-bird is very small. The hum-
ming-bird is intelligent.
The peony is tall and brilliant. The violet is modest
and fragrant.
3. If. We should never know how sweet sleep is. We
were never tired.
The robin takes our cherries. He repays us by destroy-
ing the worms.
4. Because. Ireland is the Emerald Isle. There are fre-
quent showers there.
Gold is more valuable than iron. It is less abundant.
5. Neither — nor. We should not speak evil. We
should not listen to it.
6. Either — or. Mrs. Fessenden will preside. Miss
Palmer will preside.
He is ill. He has met with an accident.
7. As. The day is for action. The night is for rest.
The lion is bold. The fox is sly.
Notice the difference of use between as as, and so
as, in the following sentences :
Thou art as good as thou art beautiful.
You are not so wise as you are witty.
When the assertion is negative, so is used instead of the
first as.
The use of like as a conjunction in such sentences as " He
uses English like an ignorant man does/" " Please speak like I
do/" etc., is not correct. As should be used, the sentences
being, ^'He speaks English as an ignorant man does," ''Do as
I do,"" etc.
THE INTERJECTION. 123
CHAPTER XXXI.
THE INTERJECTION.
I.
1. Oh, look where the lilac bush, stout and tall,
Is hiding a robin's nest !
2. Alas, the wind has torn the flag to tatters !
3. Ah, how wonderful the snow-crystals are !
4. Hurrah, hurrah, for the flag we love !
5. Halloo ! halloo ! the lost child is found.
In expressing surprise, pain,, pleasure, or any strong emo-
tion, or in seeking to attract the attention of someone, we
often use such words as ah, ohy 0, alas, hurrah, halloo. These
sounds or words are called interjections. While classed with
the parts of speech, they are not properly so included, since
they are used not to aid in the expression of a thought, but to
express a feeling.
In the sentences above. Oh expresses surprise, Alas ex-
presses grief. Ah expresses admiration. Hurrah expresses joy
and praise, and Halloo is used to attract attention.
A word or expression itsed merely to express strong emo-
tion^ or to attract attention^ is an interjection.
After an interjectimi used independently^ or after a
sentence introduced hy an interjection, an exclamation point
is used.
The interjections oh and do not differ in what they ex-
press, oh being used in ordinary prose, and usually in poetry
124 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
and in prose that is solemn or dignified. It is in good usage
to put a comma after oh, but not after when followed by
another word.
II.
What are the interjections in the following sentences ?
What feeling do you think each expresses ?
6. " Oh, then he was magnificent, all azure, gold, and
flame !
But, woe is me ! an autumn breeze from out the
northwest came.
Y. " ' Alas ! ' I said, ' no power on earth your glory can
recall !
Did you not know, dear sunflower, that pride
must have a fall ? ' "
8. " Little Scotch terrier, little dog Kags,
Looks in her face, and his funny tail wags :
' Ha, ha ! ' laughs little Gustava."
9. Teach me, O Lord, the way of thy statutes. —
Psalm CXIX. v. 33.
Sentences for completion and dictation :
1. how strong the is !
2. how sorry I am for your misfortune !
3. Let us cheer " Old Glory." ! !
4. ! ! Where are you ?
5. " , ! " came a jolly laugh.
REVIEW. 125
CHAPTER XXXII.
I.
(Master Skylark is awakened by a little bunch of flowers that
is thrown in through his window. He springs up, looks out,
and sees Master Will Shakespeare, laughing.)
"Good-morrow, sir," said Nick, and bowed. "It is
a lovely day."
" Most beautiful, indeed ! How comes the sun ? "
" Just up, sir ; the river is afire with it now. Oh — oh ! "
Nick held his breath, and watched the light creep down
the wall, darting long bars of rosy gold through the snowy
bloom of the apple-trees, until it rested upon Master
Shakespeare's face, and made a fleeting glory there.
Then Master Shakespeare stretched himself a little in the
sun, laughing softly, and said, " It is the sweetest music in
the world — morning, spring, and God's dear sunshine; it
starteth kindness in the heart, like sap in a withered bud."
—From "Master Skylark," by John Bennett.
This is from a story of three hundred years ago. Why is
Nick called " Master Skylark "? In what month of the year do
you think this morning was ? Do you find any expressions that
are different from what we use now ? Look up the word mor-
row in the dictionary and see if the use of it here is correct.
Why does he describe the day as lovely 9 Examine in turn each
adjective, and tell what meaning or picture it presents to you.
Why may we call the sunshine dear 9 Make a list of the
126 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
adjectives in the selection, each followed by the noun which it
modifies.
Make a list of the verbs, and state of each whether it is a
verb of action, exerted or received, of state or condition, or a
copula. What is the subject of each ?
Tell about each pronoun which you find in this selection,
of what kind it is, of what person, what number, what gender,
and whom or what it represents.
Find the adverbs in the selection, tell what kind of an ad-
verb each is, and what it modifies.
Find the prepositions, and state the word that each gov-
erns, and the words that are related by it.
Find the conjunctions, and state what they connect.
What is the one interjection, and what feeling does it
represent ?
II.
Which is the longest senteiice in this selection ? Which is
the shortest, and what is its subject ? its predicate ? What
kinds of sentences do you find here ? What one kind do you
not find ? Explain the use of capital letters. What proper
names do you find ? what Christian names ? what surname ?
what title ?
III.
Out of the adjectives that are in the selection, select the one
that would best describe each of the nouns in italics in the sen-
tences below.
The shadow of a cloud that quickly passes. A flower that
has lain in the sun. A song. The cheeks of a child. The
hlossoms of a cherry tree. The blossoms of a peach tree. The
song of any song-bird. The selection itself.
THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 127
AVrite each of the list of adjectives in a sentence. The
same may be done with the lists of the other parts of speech,
if time allows.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE NOMINATIVE CASE.
I.
1. The humming bird builds his nest in the form of a
small cup.
2. He places it on a horizontal limb.
3. The nest is covered with lichens.
4. It looks like a knob on the branch.
5. The child has sharp eyes who can discover a hum-
ming-bird's nest.
What is the subject of the verb builds? places? is cov-
ered ? looks ? has ? can find ?
The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.
Name the subject nominatives in the above sentences.
II.
1. Have you ever seen a humming-bird, Harry ?
2. I once had a tame one, Miss Standish.
3. " Take heed, O youth, both brave and bright.
Battles there are for you to fight !
Stand up erect, and face them all,
Nor turning flee, nor wavering fall."
128 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
4. " O my children,
Life is sunshine, life is shadow ;
Life is checkered shade and sunshine ;
Rule by love, O Hiawatha ! "
Who is addressed in the first sentence ? in the second ? in
the third ? Who are addressed in the last selection ?
A noun or pronoun %ised merely to name a person or
thing addressed is in the nominative case hy address.
Name the nominatives hy address in the above sentences.
III.
1. The scarlet barberries have been called September's
blushes.
2. The bird is an exquisite architect ; the beaver is a
most skillful bridge-builder ; the silkworm is the most beau-
tiful weaver ; and the spider is the best net-maker.
3. The y assail mansion was the headquarters of Wash-
ington in Cambridge from July, 1775, to March, 1776. It
became the home of the poet Longfellow in 1837.
4. The Yassall mansion is called the " Craigie House."
What is the predicate in the first sentence ? Does Septem-
ber's blushes mean the same thing as barberries ? What is the
first predicate in the next sentence ? What noun means the
same thing as bird 9 In the next predicate, what noun means
the same thing as the subject ? Notice in each of the other
sentences that some noun that means the same thing as the
subject of the sentence forms a part of the predicate.
THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 129
A noun fomiin<i a part of the predicate and meaning
the same person or thing as the subject is a predicate
nomiuative.
Name the predicate nominatives in the above sentences.
IV.
1. The flowers having been killed by the frost, the gar-
den looked sad and desolate.
2. The cage Avas vacant, the squirrel having gnawed
his way out of it.
3. President Garfield having died, Vice-President Ar-
thur became his successor.
In the above sentences the flowers having been hilled by the
frost, the squirrel having gnawed his way out, President Gar-
field having died, do not express complete thoughts, nor do
they modify the statements made in the sentences. They are
independent elements, and the nouns President Garfield, squir-
rel, flowers, are each a nominative independe^it or absolute.
A noun or pronoun that stands independently of govern-
vng words in a sentence is an absolute nominative.
V.
A noun or pronoun that is the subject of a verb, that is
used as a term of address, that, forming apart of the predi-
cate, meoMS the same person or thing as the subject, or that
stands independently of any governing word, is in the nom-
inative case.
There are four kinds of nominative case : the subject nomina-
tive, the nominative by address, the predicate nominative, and
the absolute nominative.
9
130 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
YI.
Find the nominatives in the following selections, and state
what kind of a nominative each is :
1. The rain has ceased, and in my room
The simshine pours an airy flood.
2. Civility costs nothing ; but it buys everything.
3. " O gentle bees, I have come to say
That grandfather fell asleep to-day ;
So, bees, sing soft, and, bees, sing low,
As over the honey-fields you sweep
To the trees abloom and the flowers ablow ;
Sing of grandfather fast asleep ;
And ever beneath those orchard trees
Find cheer and shelter, gentle bees."
— From "Telling the Bees," by Eugene Field.
4. Oh, the love of a lad for his mother, the love of a
mother for her son — unchanged, unchanging, for right, for
wrong, through grief and shame, in joy, in peace, in ab-
sence, in sickness, and in the shadow of death !
" My boy ! " was all she said ; and then, " My boy — ^my
little boy ! "
And after a while, " Mother," said he, and took her face
between his strong, young hands, and looked into her
happy eyes, " Mother, dear, I ha' been to London town ; I
ha' been to the palace, and I ha' seen the Queen ; but,
mother," he said with a little tremble in his voice, for all he
THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 131
smiled so bravely, "I ha' never seen the place where I
Avould rather be than just where thou art, mother dear ! "
—From "Master Skylark."
(What is the subject of the first verb, ims9 Is hoy the sub-
ject nominative, or the nominative by address ?)
5. Mr. Gibson says that field mice are often the winter
tenants of sparrows' nests.
6. The fringed poly gala is a sly flower ; it offers one
shoAvy flower to him who sees it, while it hides another in
the earth.
Y. This duller blossom being hidden in the earth, the
seeds which it contains are planted there.
Note : The terms stiiject and predicate are applied to the
two divisions of a sentence ; the terms subject no7ninative, or
subject of the verb, and predicate verb, or verb, are applied to
the essential word in each.
Use the following nouns and pronouns in sentences :
As subject nominatives —
spiders they the robin the street
we autumn circus holidays
As nominatives by address —
boys Mary child I^ero
men rose river the name of the teacher
As predicate nominatives —
the Profile shadow-tail pearl weaver
exercise home Hiawatha brothers
132 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER XXXIV
THE AGREEMENT OF A VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT NOMINATIVE.
Learn the following forms :
Singular
Plural
1st person
I am
we are
^d person
you are
thou art
you are
M person
he is
they are
1st person
I was
we were
2d person
you were
thou wast
you were
3d person
he was
they were
1st person
I have
we have
2d person
you have
thou hast
you have
M person
he has
they have
1st person
I had
we had
2d person
you had
thou hadst
you had
3d person
he had
Singular
they had
1st person
I run, play,
make, etc.
study, learn.
2d person
you run, play,
make, etc.
study, learn,
-
thou runnest.
playest, stud-
iest, learnest
, makest, etc.
3d person
he runs, plays, i
makes, etc.
studies, learns.
AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH SUBJECT NOMINATIVE. 133
Plural
\st person we run, play, study, learn,
make, etc.
2d person you run, play, study, learn,
make, etc.
i^d person they run, play, study, learn,
make, etc.
It will be seen that verbs have different forms as their sub-
jects nominative differ in person and number. We say that a
verb has the same person and number that its subject has.
Hence the rule :
A verb must agree in person and number with its subject
nominative.
Supply the proper forms of the verb in the following sen-
tences :
You not at home yesterday.
We sorry not to see you.
He not going to the library.
they sick on the sea voyage ?
you not sorry that it rains ?
he not fortunate to get the position?
you not seen the collection of pictures!
The birds not learned to fly yet.
Supply subjects for the following sentences :
had seen the great T^atural Bridge.
are disappointed not to stay in San Francisco
longer.
134 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
was beautiful in California.
Has seen how the buds are protected from the
winter's cold?
State the number and person of each verb in the selections
in Chapter XXXIII., VI., thus : has ceased is a verb of the
third person, singular number, in agreement with its subject,
rain.
Write a sentence using spiders as a subject nominative ; as
a nominative by address ; as a predicate nominative ; and as
an absolute nominative : the thought being the beauty of the
spiders' webs, for one set of sentences ; the seeming cruelty of
the spider, for another set of sentences ; and, the usefulness of
spiders, for a third set of sentences.
CHAPTER XXXV.
THE POSSESSIVE CASE.
I.
1. The President's home in Washington is called the
Executive Mansion.
Who is represented as the owner of the home in this sen-
tence ? By what form of the noun is ownership expressed ?
2. We have read Holmes's poem, " Grandmother's Story
of Bunker Hill."
What is the first possessive form in this sentence ? The
second ? Do these forms represent the owner or the author 9
3. Whitney's cotton gin separates the seeds from the
cotton fibers. It was invented by Eli Whitney in 1792.
THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 135
What is the possessive form in this sentence ? Does it
represent owner, author , or inventor 9
4. The sun's warm rays start the grass to growing.
5. There is no warmth in the moon's light.
Could we say the warm rays /rom the sun ? The light /roTTi
the moon ? Do not these possessives represent source 9
6. The milliner's window was gay with a display of
ladies' hats.
What is the first possessive form in the above sentence ?
Does it denote ownership ? What is the second possessive
form in this sentence ? Does it denote the owner or describe
the kind of hats ?
7. The moon's distance from the earth is about 240,000
miles.
8. The boys enjoyed a week's vacation in the Maine
woods.
In the above sentences the possessive form moon's does not
denote possession, nor does the form tveek's denote ownership.
These forms are modifiers of the nouns distance and vacation.
In the first sentence it tells what distance, in the second sen-
tence it tells how long a vacation.
Every possessive form is a modifier of some noun. It may
express actual ownership, or some other modifying relation.
Noitn^ and pronouns haA)ing the possessive form are in
the possessive case.
State what nouns in the above sentences are in the posses-
sive case and tell what noun each modifies.
136 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
II.
Find the pronouns in the possessive case in the following
selections, state what each modifies, and what noun each repre-
sents.
1. Washington established his home at Mount Yernon.
2. Whittier thought " The Pageant " the best of his
poems of winter.
3. On balancing boughs
Birds were singing their carol, a jubilant hymn
to the Highest.
4. " O Bluebird, up in the maple tree.
Shaking your throat with such bursts of glee,
How did you happen to be so blue ?
Did you steal a bit of sky for your crest ?
And fasten blue violets into your breast ?
Tell me, I pray you, tell me true ! "
5. " In and out
The chipping sparrow, in her coat of brown,
Steals silently lest I should mark her nest."
6. The boy whose speech is true and whose conduct is
pure and honorable, has made a good beginning of life.
III.
Change to the possessive form each of the following posses-
sive phrases (write each on the board) :
The shell of an egg ; the life of a bird ; the beauty of
the nest ; the color of the clouds ; the length of the river ;
the noise of the falls ; the hut of the trapper ; the fidelity of
THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 137
the (log ; the tears of the child ; the reflection from the
water ; a vacation lasting two weeks ; a visit lasting a
month ; a sickness continuing a year ; the rewai'tl of him
who endures ; the loss of him whose house was burned.
In which of the above is the possessive form in better usage,
and in which the possessive phrase 9
Let each pupil write a sentence containing one of the above
as a possessive form, and two sentences, each containing one of
the above possessive phrases.
CHAPTER XXXVI,
THE OBJECTIVE CASE.
The Direct Object of a Verb,
1. The red-eyed vireo makes a dainty nest.
2. He chooses a slender sapling for his home.
3. He hangs a basket of birch-bark from the fork of
one of its twigs.
4. He lines this basket with white dry leaves, a bit of
wasp's nest, or some delicate woolly substance.
5. The mother-bird lays four beautiful white eggs in
this soft cradle.
What word expresses action in the first sentence ? What is
the subject of that verb ? What does the vireo make ? What,
then, is the object of the action ?
What is the subject, what is the verb, and what is the
object of the action of the verb, in the second sentence ?
138 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
in the third sentence ? in the fourth sentence ? in the fifth
sentence ?
The direct object of a verb is that noun or pronoun that
receives the action exerted by the subject.
The direct object of a "verb is in the objective case.
A noun or pronoun in the objective case is governed by the
verb of which it is the object.
What nouns in the above sentences are the direct objects of
verbs, and therefore in the objective case ?
Make complete sentences by supplying direct objects in the
following :
The Indians built . They caught for their
food. The women wove coarse . The men shot
with arrows. In the woods I saw , I heard , and I
found . The children are bringing . They will
make . They like . The rivers carry on
their waters ; they turn . The sun warms ; it
gives and .
State the subject of each of these sentences. What nouns
are in the objective case ? By what verb is each governed ?
Find the direct objects of verbs in the following sentences :
The G-reat Artist paints most beautiful pictures, and the
poor may see them as well as the rich. The brown, bare
earth is His canvas. He warms it with the rays of April's
sun, and moistens it with her gentle showers, and, lo ! green
grass clothes the hillsides ; leaves, soft and delicate as silk,
cover the dark boughs of the trees; a thousand blossoms
delight our eyes, wondrous in color, marvellous in perfume.
THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 139
varied in form. No human artist has on his palette such
pinks as the Great Artist gives to the apple blooms, such
blues as those ^vith which He paints the violets, such gold
as that with which He gilds the common dandelion and
buttercup.
II.
The Indirect Object of a Verb'.
1. Hawthorne has told us many interesting stories in
"The Wonder Book."
2. My brother sent me a photograph of the Capitol in
Washington.
3. The great prostrate trees showed the men the
strength of the hurricane.
4. Olive Thorne MiUer teaches her readers many inter-
esting facts about birds.
5. Do me this favor, — bring me a branch of holly.
6. We asked him the way to Shadow Town Ferry.
What has Hawthorne told ? What is the direct object of
has told ? To whom has Hawthorne told the stories ? May
we correctly say '^Hawthorne has told to us, etc. ? What is
the direct object of sent in the next sentence ? What preposi-
tion may we insert before me 9 In the third sentence what
preposition may we insert' before the men 9 What is the direct
object of shoioed9 What is the direct object of teaches in the
fourth sentence ? Before what word may we insert to 9 In
the next sentence what may we insert before me9 In the last
sentence what may we insert before him?
Certain verbs, tell, send, show, teach, do, bring, ask, etc.,
are generally followed by an objective noun or pronoun before
140 TEE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
which tOy for, or o/, may be inserted without changing the
meaning. Such an objective is the indirect object of the verb.
The direct object, stating what is told, sent, shown, etc.,
usually follows.
The indirect object of a verb is in the objective case.
What are the indirect objects in the following sentences ?
Y. Teach thy tongue silence.
8. And moreover, because the preacher was wise, he
still taught the people knowledge.
9. The dear God give thee safety from all perils of soul
or body.
10. So all the little animals gave him the freedom of
their city. The birds shoAved him their nests, hidden in
leafy branches, or concealed in tall tufts of grass ; the squir-
rels taught him their language ; the great eagle brought
him her two most beautiful feathers to wear in his cap.
III.
The Predicate Object.
1. The Indians made Smith a prisoner.
2. John Smith named the country New England in
1614.
3. While on board the Mayflower the Pilgrims chose
John Carver their governor.
4. Washington appointed Alexander Hamilton secre-
tary of the treasury.
5. We have called Virginia the Mother of Presidents.
Verbs meaning to make, name, appoint, choose, call, and
the like — called factitive verbs — may be followed by two
THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 141
objects : one, the direct object of the verb, naming the object
that receives the action ; the other, supplementing or complet-
ing the meaning of the verb, the predicate object.
The predicate object of a verb is in the objective case.
Name the predicate objects in the above sentences.
lY.
The Object of a Preposition.
Of all the lovely ways leading out of the small town of
Stratford, the way to Shottery was the loveliest to the
thinking of the young Shakespeares and to the heart of
their mother. The small hamlet was a short mile from
Stratford, and thither the children made constant pilgrim-
ages, traversing the little path that wound across the
meadows, now beneath the shade of stately elms through
which the sunlight flickered in shifting patterns, now by
tangled hedges where the flowers nodded a welcome and
the birds sought to detain them with their songs.
— From "Will Shakespeare's Little Lad," by Imogen Clark.
In this selection are sixteen prepositional phrases. Give
each preposition and the noun of its phrase, thus : of
waySf of town, etc.
In a prepositional phrase the noun or pronoun related by
the preposition to some other word in the sentence is the object
of the preposition.
The object of a preposition is in the objective case.
142 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Y.
A noun or pronoun that is the direct^ indirect, or pred-
icate ohject of a verh, or the object of a preposition, is in the
objective case.
A noun or pronoun in the objective case is said to he
governed by the verb or preposition of which it is the object.
Find the objectives in the following selection, state what
kind of an object each is, and by what it is governed :
When thy father was no older than thou art he found
the little beast at Snitterfield, harried by some boys who
threw sticks and stones at the small creature and lamed him
so that he could run no more, but was at the mercy of his
persecutors. It was then that thy father came upon them
at their evil work and gave them a good threshing, both
with his fists and his tongue, till they were forced to run
away, for they were both cowards at heart, as are all who
attack poor dumb things, or fight the helpless. When they
were gone, thy father searched for the little dog and found
him at last under some bushes, whither he had craAvled to
be out of harm's way. He lifted him gently in his arms,
for the thin, yellow body was covered with cuts and bruises
and one small paw dangled helpless-like. The little creature
just looked for a moment out of his sad, hunted eyes, then,
seeing only kindness in my Willy's face, he put forth his
tongue and kissed the hand that held him.
In the above quotation from ^^Will Shakespeare^s Little
Lad/^ Mistress Shakespeare tells Hamlet Shakespeare, her
grandson, the story of the little dog whom they call Silver.
THE ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE. 143
The last seutence gives you examples of the indirect object
and the predicate object. Find them, and name the direct
objects.
Write sentences containing nouns used as the direct object
of a verb, the indirect object of a verb, the predicate object j and
the object of a preposition.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
I.
THE ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE.
1. We floated two miles down that beautiful stream.
2. We camped a weeh in one of the prettiest spots on its
banks.
3. The canoe weighed tTwrtaj jpounds.
4. Our week in the Maine woods co^i forty dolla/rs.
5. Thursday we reached home.
In the above sentences the italicized words are equivalent
to prepositional phrases, a distance of two 7niles, during a week,
a weight of thirty pounds, the sum of forty dollars, on Thurs-
day ; the nouns are therefore in the objective case. The pre-
positional phrases, however, have the force of adverbs. We
therefore call these nouns, miles, week, pounds, dollars, Thurs-
day, adverbial objectives. As objectives they are governed by
prepositions that are understood, while adverbially they may
modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
Nowns of measxire (of distcmce^ time, weight, cost, value,
and the like), a/nd nouns used to denote the time of cm occur-
rence, are sometimes used adverbially. They are then ad-
verbial objectives.
144 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Find the adverbial objectives in the following sentences :
6. The storm lasted a week, and during this time we
went not a mile from the cabin.
Y. That night many a brave ship was broken by the
fury of the gale.
8. Eighteen dollars' worth of gold weighs one ounce.
^. The sun that brief December day
Kose cheerless over hills of gray.
10. All day the gusty north- wind bore
The loosening drift its breath before.
II.
THE COGNATE OBJECTIVE.
1. He dreamed a dream of life in the city, of noisy
ways and hurrying men, of crowded tenements and magni-
ficent palaces.
2. The poor man lived his life in want and the rich
man lived his life in abundance, yet trouble knocked at the
door of each.
3. Many a man unknown to fam.e lives the life and dies
the death of a hero.
The word cognate means related. When the objective
has a meaning closely related to that of the verb it is called
a cognate objective.
Such cognate objectives are to dream a dream., to live a life,
to die a death, to dance a dance, to dance a waltz, to speak a
I, etc.
THE SUBJECT OF AN INFINITIVE. 145
III.
THE SUBJECT OF AN INFINITIVE.
An infinitive is a verb form in which the verb is preceded
by to either expressed or understood.
1. I desire you to learn the habits of birds.
2. The birds wish their nests to be secure against
enemies.
What is it that I desi?'e in the first sentence ? What is the
full object of desire ? AVhat is the complete object of wish in
the second sentence ? What does the predicate adjective
secure modify ? What, then, is the subject of the infinitive
to be?
• 3. They thought me to be of English birth.
4. They judged him to be innocent of any wrong in-
tention.
What is the object of the verb thought in the third sen-
tence ? What is the subject of the verb to be ? In what case
is it ? What is the object of the verb judged in the fourth
sentence ? What infinitive is a part of that object ? What is
the subject of the infinitive ? In what case is it ?
Ths siibject of an infinitive is in the objective case.
Note : The preposition to is omitted from the infinitive
form after certain verbs — see, hear, feel, bid, make, Tcnow, and
some others — when such infinitive is preceded by a subject.
Find each infinitive in the following sentences, the subject
of the infinitive, and state the case of such subjects :
5. I heard the bells ring.
10
146 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAM3IAR.
6. We saw the blue Khine sweep along.
7. They bade us be of good courage.
8. The teacher made the boy see his mistake.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
THE AP POSITIVE USE OF NOUNS.
I.
1. Miles Standish, the Puritan Captain, sent John
Alden, his messenger, to Priscilla, the Mayflower of Ply-
mouth.
What is the subject nominative of the verb sent 9 What
group of words is used to describe that subject nominative ?
What is the noun in this group of words ?
A noun used to describe or characterize another noun or a
pronoun is in apposition to it. Thus, Captain is in ap-
position to Miles Standish.
What other nouns are used appositively in the sentence
given ?
What nouns are in apposition in the following sentences,
and to what is each in apposition ?
2. Then lagoo, the great boaster,
He the marvellous story teller,
He the traveller and the talker,
3. He the friend of old Kokoniis,
Made a bow for Hiawatha.
THE APPOSITIVE USE OF NOUNS. 147
4. This river, the Merrimack, turns more cotton spindles
than any other in the world.
5. It AYas he, the boy whom they had called coward
because he Av^ould not fight, who had risked his life to save
that of John Dean, his enemy.
6. The fault is mine, John Dean's.
II.
An appositive noun is of the sa/rae case as the noun or
pronoun to which it is in apposition.
Complete the following sentences by using appositive
nouns :
1. John Armstrong, , shoes a horse well.
2. Please record next my name, .
3. You, , may tell me the story of Hiawatha's
shooting the deer.
4. " The Barefoot Boy " was written by Whittier,
5. The governor of this State, , will be
present at the State Fair.
How can you distinguish an appositive from a predicate
nominative ?
Use each of the following nouns, first as an appositive, and
then as a predicate nominative :
The general ; housekeeper ; his Shetland pony ; the
largest city in the United States; the first public school
in America ; the most northern town in the United States ;
the first president ; the chairman of the school committee ;
my favorite book ; the smallest bird ; the largest animal.
148 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
III.
In the following selection find the appositive nouns, and
the predicate nominatives :
Many a E'ew Englander, who had passed his boyhood
and youth in obscurity, afterwards attained to a fortune
which he never could have foreseen even in his most ambi-
tious dreams. John Adams, the second President of the
United States, and the equal of crowned kings, was once a
schoolmaster and a country lawyer. Hancock, the first
signer of the Declaration of Independence, served his ap-
prenticeship with a merchant; Samuel Adams, afterwards
governor of Massachusetts, was a small tradesman and a tax-
gatherer ; General Lincoln was a farmer. General Warren
a physician, and General Knox a bookbinder. General
Nathaniel Greene, the best soldier, except Washington, in
the Kevolutionary army, was a Quaker and a blacksmith.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
COLLECTIVE, ABSTRACT, AND CONCRETE NOUNS.
I.
1. The drove of sheep belongs to the Town Fann,
2. The drove of sheep were bleating piteously.
3. The I*^ew England States is the northeastern division
of the United States.
4. The New England States are Maine, New Hampshire,
Yermont, Massachusetts, Rhod^ Island, and Connecticut.
COLLECTIVE, ABSTRACT, AND CONCRETE NOUNS. 149
5. The committee is desirous of taking the wisest action
in this matter.
6. The committee are of differing opinions as to what
the wisest action is.
A single name is sometimes used to denote a collection of
individual objects of the same kind. A drove of sheep, a hevy
or swarm of bees, a. flock of birds, a school of fish, are examples
of such collective nouns. Men acting or associated together
may form an army, senate, committee, jury, etc.
A collective iiouu is a noun^ of singular number in
form^ naming a collection of individuals of the sa/me hind,
A verb in agreement with a collective noun is of singular
numher when the noun is thought of as a single hody / it is
of plural number when the noun is thought of as a number
of individual objects.
In the first sentence we think of the drove of sheep as a
whole, in the second sentence as a number of individual sheep.
Explain the number of the verb in each sentence. Explain the
number of the verb in each of the other sentences.
Select the proper form of the verb in each of the following
sentences, and give reasons for your choice :
7. The United States {is^ are) a powerful nation.
8. The United States {madntain, maintains) the Monroe
Doctrine.
9. The United States {have, has) each its own State
government.
10. The Girls' Friendly Society {7neet, meets) on Wed-
nesday.
150 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAM 31 AR.
11. The football eleven of the Lowell High School {has^
have) arrived.
12. The football eleven {is^ are) at {its^ their) several
homes.
II.
A flower is beautiful, fragrant, delicate ; it grows, withers,
dies ; it has size, shape, color. Our idea of a flower is made
from these qualities. When we think of iron, we have in mind
not alone that it is dark in color, but that it is hard and
heavy. Our idea of snow is of something that has form and
size ; that is white, cold, opaque, and crystalline.
A concrete noun is one that presents to us the notion
of several qualities united in one object.
An abstract noun is one that names a quality.
Nouns that are names of feelings^ actions, and powers are,
also, abstract nouns.
Abstract nouns of qualities are beauty, fragrance, delicacy,
hardness, blackness, size, shape, etc.
Abstract nouns of feelings are love, anger, sorroiv, pride,
sliame, etc.
Abstract nouns of actions are groivth, motion, choice, separa-
tion, deiiial, etc.
Abstract nouns of powers are memory, sight, smell, touch,
taste, etc.
Describe some object, writing upon the board the qualities
that it has, the things that it can do if capable of action, etc.,
and then from this list of qualities and actions form abstract
nouns.
THE PARSING OF A NOUN. 151
Selection for discussion of concrete and abstract nouns :
There hung just inside my window a box of strings, and
for two or three days, no matter how many I put into it,
when I went to look the next time none could be found. I
had talked to the little girls about it and scolded the little
boys in the house, but no one knew anything about the
matter, when, one afternoon, as I Avas sitting there, a beauti-
ful bird fluttered down from the willow tree, perched on
the ANdndow-sill, winked his bright eye, and without saying
"If you j^ease," dipped his naughty little beak into the
string-box and flew off with a piece of pink twine.
— Kate Douglas Wiggin.
The above selection contains no abstract nouns. The dis-
cussion should be about the abstract nouns that are suggested
by words in this selection. Thus : string suggests length, color,
strength; beautiful suggests ieautg ; etc.
CHAPTER XL.
THE PARSING OF A NOUN.
I.
Parsing is tlie gra/mrnatical description of a word, to-
gether with a statement of its relation to other words in the
Sentence.
In parsing a noun state, in order :
I. The kind of a noun that it is.
II. Its person, number, and gender.
III. Its case, Avith the reason for it.
152 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
This (III.) includes, for the ^N^ominative Case, the state-
ment of what verb it is the subject nominative or the
predicate nominative; for the Possessive Case, what noun
it modifies ; for the Objective Case, of what verb or prepo-
sition it is the object.
If the noun is nominative by address, or nominative
absolute, it should be so stated ; and if it is an adverbial or
cognate objective, its relation should be explained.
If it is the subject of an infinitive, the infinitive should
be named.
If it is an appositive, the noun which it explains should
be named.
II.
Eeview the Cases of Nouns by parsing the nouns in the
sentences given in Chapters XXXIII., XXXV., XXXVI.,
XXXVII., XXXVIII. and XXXIX.
CHAPTER XLI.
A SELECTION FOR STUDY AND MEMORY.
I.
The little brook had had a very merry time all summer.
It had chattered and laughed ; it had played hide-and-seek
with the roots of the trees along its way ; it had sparkled
at the sun and smiled at the flowers and listened to the
songs of the birds and the whispering of the leaves and the
music of the winds; it had stolen among the mosses and
washed the long leaves of the tall bulrushes and carried
many a fairy-boat of branch and leaf adown its dimpling
A SELECTION FOB STUDY AND MEMORY. 153
waters. But when the leaves left the tall trees and hovered
near to the ground, and the little buds put on their water-
proof cloaks, and the North Wind said, " The cold is com-
ing!" the little brook rippled, ''It is time to build my
winter palace." So he threw across his home long and
slender beams of ice crystals. Then across these beams
he wove the most marvelous ceiling, all of crystal. He
imitated the leaves of the forest and the branches of the
trees ; he hung silvery mosses so that they seemed to grow
downward ; he carved beautiful fern leaves of ice ; he left
long windows like glass for the gladness of heaven to shine
through, and open doors where he might breathe the
delightful cold air of winter; he caught and bent down
the tops of the bulrushes, and hung them thick with dia-
mond drops; he imprisoned the beams of the sun and the
moon and made them light his Avinter palace. Such a
wonderful palace as it was ! Did I say that the little
brook built it ? Oh, no ! he employed the most wonderful
builder in the world — that roguish, elfin fellow. Jack Frost.
II.
Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak.
From the snow five thousand summers old ;
On open wold and hilltop bleak
It had gathered all the cold,
And it whirled it like sleet on the wanderer's cheek ;
It carried a shiver everywhere
From the unleaved boughs and the pasture bare ;
The little brook heard it and built a roof
'Neath which he could house him, winter-proof ;
154 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
All night by the white stars' frosty gleams
He groined his arches and matched his beams ;
Slender and clear were his crystal spars
As the lashes of light that trim the stars ;
He sculptured every summer delight
In his halls and chambers out of sight ;
Sometimes his tinkling waters slipt
Down through a frost-leaved forest crypt,
Long, sparkling aisles of steel-stemmed trees
Bending to counterfeit a breeze ;
Sometimes the roof no fretwork knew
But silvery mosses that downward grew ;
Sometimes it was carved in sharp relief
With quaint arabesques of ice-fern leaf ;
Sometimes it was simply smooth and clear
For the gladness of heaven to shine through, and here
He had caught the nodding bulrush-tops
And hung them thickly with diamond drops.
That crystalled the beams of moon and sun.
And made a star of every one :
l^o mortal builder's most rare device
Could match this winter-palace of ice ;
'Twas as if every image that mirrored lay
In his depths serene through the summer day,
Each fleeting shadow of earth and sky —
Lest the happy model should be lost —
Had been mimicked in fairy masonry
By the elfin builders of the frost.
—From "The Vision of Sir Launfal,"
by James Russell Lowell.
A SELECTION FOR STUDY AND MEMORY.
155
Lowell says that this picture of the little brook was
drawn from one near Watertown, which really " runs too
smftly for Frost to catch it."
III.
Words for dictionary study. Find the meaning suitable to
the idea in the selection, and write it opposite the word :
wold
unleaved
gleams
groined
arches
matched
beams
crystal
spars
lashes
trim
crypt
aisles
counterfeit
fretwork
relief
quaint
arabesques
bulrushes
device
match
serene
model
mimicked
masonry
elfin
What is the difference between tmleaved and leafless 9 Did
you notice any
interesting derivations in looking up the mean-
ings of these words ?
What is meant by snow ^2;^ thousand summers old? Are
there any mountains where the snow never melts, even in sum-
mer ? Which would give the idea that the wind stripped the
leaves from the branches, unleaved or leafless 9 Did you ever
watch the freezing of water ? How is ice formed ? What
things have you noticed imitated in the ice over a brook ? in
the frost pictures on windows ? What is the gladness of heaven 9
What are the diamond drops on the bulrushes ? A crystal of
ice, like a diamond, scatters a ray of light. What two lines in
this extract give that idea ? What did the little brook take as
the models for the decorations of his palace ? What is fairy
masonry 9 Where have you seen fairy picture-making 9 What
do we call the elfln builder of the frost ?
156 TEE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Note : Lowell^s description of June, the companion picture
to this, should be carefully read and explained to the class, and
may be made a study like this. If the story is told in pr^e
before it is read in poetry the pupils grasp the meaning and
appreciate the beauty of it more easily and fully. The appre-
ciation of beauty in young people is often like a seed planted
in the ground — the first green blades of growth appear not at
once, but long after. But the seed has not perished, and in
due time it "^ climbs to a soul in grass and flowers/^
CHAPTER XLII.
QUOTATIONS.
I.
1. a. My mother taught me how to sew.
h. Mary says, " My mother taught me how to sew."
c. Mary says that her mother taught her how to sew.
2. a. I make a pet of my horse.
h. Frank says, " I make a pet of my horse."
c. Frank says that he makes a pet of his horse.
3. a. Kindness makes all animals intelligent.
1). "Kindness makes all animals intelligent," said
Frank's brother.
c. Frank's brother said that kindness makes all ani-
mals intelligent.
4. a. Where did Longfellow live ?
h. " Where did Longfellow live ? " asked Miss Gray.
c. Miss Gray asked where Longfellow lived.
QUOTATIONS. 157
5. a. He lived in the Craigie House, in Cambridge.
h. " He lived in the Craigie House, in Cambridge,"
replied Alice.
^ c. Alice replied that he lived in the Craigie House,
in Cambridge.
What did Mary say ? (Answer in the exact words of Mary. )
What did Frank say ? What did Frank's brother say ? What
did Miss Gray ask ? What did Alice reply ?
In each of the above groups of sentences, the second sen-
tence quotes the exact words of the first, and the third sentence
quotes the thought but not the exact words of the first.
A quotation that gives the exact words of some speaker or
writer is a direct quotation.
A quotation that gives the thought hut not the exact words
of s&ms speaker or writer is an indirect quotation.
When a question is indirectly quoted it is called an in-
direct question.
The marks ( '' ") that inclose a direct quotation are called
quotation marks.
A direct quotation is usually separated from the rest of the
sentence by a comma, but quoted questions are followed by an
interrogation point, and quoted exclamations are followed by
an exclamation mark. The second quotation mark is placed
after the punctuation point that closes the quotation.
II.
Study the quotations in the following story. Explain the
use of capitals, quotation marks, and the punctuation marks
following the quotations :
158 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Once upon a time a clever barber in Germany had a pet
starling that had learned to talk. The barber had the habit
of repeating certain phrases over and over again, and the
clever bird would repeat them also. " !No man could hme
done that better," the barber would say when he had shaved
a customer ; or, " I am the best barber in Germany." When
he spoke of any plans for the future he would add, " If the
fates are willing." And he often told one story that ended
with the words, " B}^ keeping bad company." The starling
once flew away from his cage and joined some other star-
lings Avho were going to rob a farmer's grain field. But
they were all caught in a net which the farmer had set for
them. When the farmer came to take them out of the net,
he Avas astonished to hear one of the birds say, " No man
could have done that better." " Who are you ? " asked the
farmer. " I am the best barber in Germany," replied the
bird. "Then hoAv came you here?" asked the farmer.
" By keeping bad company," answered the bird. ^ " Do you
wish," said the farmer, " that I should let you go ? " " If
the fates are willing," answered the little starling.
In the following conversation notice the use of quotation
marks, and the arrangement of the several parts :
(A Highland laddie, wounded unto death, desires John
Broom, a lad who is his devoted friend, to comfort and
soothe him by reading from the Bible.)
" Is there a Bible on yon table, laddie ? Could you read
a bit to me ? "
* Note : When a quotation is divided, quotation marks are
placed around each part of the quotation.
THE TITLES OF BOOKS, ESSAYS, ETC. 159
There is little need to dwell on the bitterness of heart
with which John Broom confessed —
^" I can't read big words, McAllister."
" Did you never go to school ? " asked the Scotchman.
"I didn't learn," said the poor boy, "I played."
—From "Jackanapes," by Mrs. Ewing.
Use sentences 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and this last selection, for
dictation work.
CHAPTER XLIII.
THE TITLES OF BOOKS, ESSAYS, ETC.
1. Captain January. — Laura E. Richards.
2. Old Times in the Colonies. — Charles Carleton Coffin.
3. The King of the Golden River. — John Ruskin.
4. The Story of a Short Life. — Juliana H. Ewing.
5. Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill. — Oliver Wen-
dell Holmes.
6. An Order for a Picture. — Alice Gary.
7. A-Hunting of the Deer. — Charles Dudley Warner.
8. Strawberries. — John Burroughs.
9. The Princes in the Tower. — John E. Millais.
10. The Sisters.— Henry E. Abbey.
Here are the titles of two books, two short stories, two
poems, two essays, and two pictures, with the names of the
authors and painters. The important words of such titles (the
first word and all others except prepositions, conjunctions, and
articles) begin with capital letters.
11. " Captain January " is a delightful book.
160 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
12. Miss Duncan has read to us " The Story of a Short
Life " and " Jackanapes."
13. " Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill " is a very
spirited ballad.
14. I like "A-Hunting of the Deer," and " StraAvberries."
15. " The Princes in the Tower " represents two little
ill-fated English princes.
16. "The Sisters" represents an old-fashioned room
with a piano in it, at which one of the sisters is seated,
while the other stands near her.
When the titles of books, essays, etc., are used in sentences,
they are inclosed in quotation marks, but they are not sepa-
rated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Write from dictation the following titles :
17. Under the Lilacs. — Louisa May Alcott.
18. A Child's History of England. — Charles Dickens.
19. The Little Green Door.— Mary E. Wilkins.
20. Stories and Poems for Children. — Celia Thaxter.
21. The Song of Hiawatha. — Henry W. Longfellow.
22. We are reading " Timothy's Quest."
23. The children recited " The Sandpiper."
24. May I take " The Jungle Book " ?
25. This is an extract from "A Spray of Pine."
26. We are to write a composition on " The Bee's Visit
to the Flowers."
27. I have seen a beautiful picture called " By the
Eiverside."
28. There is a picture of two squirrels and a bird called
" A Piper and a Pair of ISTut crackers."
THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 161
CHAPTER XLIV.
THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
I.
1. "Who knows where the rose gets its color ?
2. To whom shall I send these roses ?
3. In whose garden did they grow ?
4. "Which is the surer road to success, idleness or in-
dustry ?
5. Which will you choose, the path of duty or the path
of ease ?
6. What gives the cloud its silver lining ?
Y. What have you learned of the honeybee ?
What kind of sentences are these ? Answer the first ques-
tion in a complete statement ; i.e., No one knows where the rose
gets its color. Answer the second question, substituting for
luhom, the little sick girl. Answer the third question ; the
fourth ; the fifth. Answer the sixth, substituting for what, the
sun. Answer the seventh question, substituting for what, the
industry.
Who, whose, lohom, which, what, are words used in place of
nouns. They are, then, what part of speech ? They are used
in interrogative sentences. They are, then, what kind of pro-
nouns ?
An interrogative pronoun is one used in asking
questions.
The interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which,
11
162 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
what. WhOj tvhose, whom, represent persons only ; lohich
represents persons or things, and ivhat represents anything
except persons.
Notice the interrogative pronouns in the following sen-
tences :
8. What shall I do to make this rosebush blossom ?
9. Here are red roses and white roses. Which do you
prefer ?
10. Who will carry the roses to the little sick girl ?
11. Whose rose is this that is lying on the desk ?
12. Whom do you wish to see ?
13. "JSTow who has thought out all these things?
Who planned and made them all ?
The One who counts the shining stars, and suffers
none to fall."
Write sentences containing each of the interrogative pro-
nouns.
II.
Complete the following sentences by supplying interrogative
pronouns :
1. is at the door ?
2. did you call ?
3. is this beautiful book ?
4. is the book that you are reading ?
5. is your answer to that question ?
6. do you like the better, " Master Skylark " or
" Will Shakespeare's Little Lad " ?
Answer each of the above questions. In the fifth, imagine
some question and give an answer to it.
TEE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 163
CHAPTER XLV.
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
I.
1. He who knows where the rose gets its color, knows
where the lily gets its perfume.
2. The little girl to whom I sent the roses was made
very happy by them.
3. The lady in whose garden they grew sends many
flowers to the sick.
4. The road which leads to success is industry.
6. Choose the path which duty points out.
6. Tell me what you most desire.
Y. What you have done shows great kindness.
8. The sailors that we saw are of the ship "Golden
Gate."
9. Time that is lost is never found.
What is an interrogative sentence ? Are, then, the words
who, whom, whose, which, what, in these sentences interrogative
pronouns ?
What word does the group of words, who' knows where the
rose gets its color, modify ? Does who mean the same per-
son as he? In the second sentence, what group of words
modifies girl? What word in that group means the same
person as girl? What word in the third sentence means the
same person as whose ? In the fourth sentence what group of
words modifies road? What word in that group means the
104 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
same thing as road ? What word in the fifth sentence means
the same thing as j!;fl^Zf ? What word in the eighth sentence
means the same persons as sailors? What word in the ninth
means the same thing as time ?
These pronouns^, used in groups of words and meaning the
same person or thing as the word that the group of words
modifies, are relative pronouns. They refer or relate to the
modified word. The modified word is called the antecedent of
the relative pronoun.
In the sixth and seventh sentences we might use that which
in place of what. What, then, is both antecedent and relative ;
or we may call it a relative pronoun whose antecedent is not
expressed.
A relative pronoun is one that relates to some word
which the group of words of which the jpronoun is a part
modifies.
The relative pronouns are : who, luhose, whom, which, what,
that, and as when it occurs after such and same. Who, whose,
whom, refer to persons only ; what, that, and as, refer to
persons or things ; and which refers to things only.
II.
Notice the relative pronouns in the following sentences :
10. The boy who thinks before he speaks makes few
mistakes.
11. " Once in an ancient city whose name I no longer
remember,
Raised aloft on a column, a brazen statue of Jupiter
stood in the public square."
12. Ko man is your friend who advises you to do wrong.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. 165
13. " There is a bird, a plain brown bird,
That dwells in lands afar,
Whose wild, delicious song is heard
With evening's first white stai*."
14. We should honor men for what they are, not for
what they have.
15. They gave to the travelers such food as they had.
16. In the old wooden bridge over which we crossed
were many swallows' nests.
17. He who says what he likes shall hear what he
doesn't like. .
CHAPTER XLVI.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.
1. Here are two photographs ; this is a view of Niagara
Falls, and that is a view of the Natural Bridge in Virginia.
2. These are the tiny seeds of the poppy, and those are
the winged seeds of the maple.
3. In these are hidden splendor of buds and blossoms ;
in those the strength of a tree and the glory of its leaves.
This in the first sentence stands for the photocfraph that is
here ; that means the photograph that is there. This and that
are pronouns that point out. In the second sentence what does
these mean ? those ? In the third sentence by what words may
we replace /f/ze^e? those? What do these pronouns do ? Which
points to the nearer object, this or that? these or those?
A demonstrative pronoun is one that points to the
object to which it relates.
166 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The demonstrative pronouns are : this, and its plural, these
(pointing to something near) ; that, and its plural, those (point-
ing to something farther away).
Notice the demonstrative pronouns in the following sen-
tences. To what does each point ? Is it near or farther
away ?
4. "These are my jewels," said Cornelia, resting her
hands on the shoulders of her little sons.
5. That is the spider's palace that lies sparkling with
dewdrops.
6. " For those that wander they know not where
Are full of trouble and full of care."
Y. This is the ]N^ational Monument, 555 feet high.
8. These are Thy daily gifts, the vital air, the constant
sun, the sure foundation of the earth, the overarching sky.
Note : Remembering that the office that a word performs in
a sentence determines what part of speech it is, it is apparent
that adjectives that do not denote quality may be used as pro-
noiins, thus:
9. One sent coal to the poor woman, another flour, a
third cloth.
10. Several spoke in praise of this measure.
11. Many perished on the severe journey.
These are called adjective or indefinite pronouns.
Pronouns that limit a following noun share the quality of
the pronoun with that of the adjective, thus :
12. What books do vou like best ?
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS WITH ANTECEDENTS. 167
13. You may have what books are here.
14. These men brought provisions for the poor family.
These are called pronominal adjectives.
CHAPTER XLVII.
THE AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS.
The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun which it
represents.
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent iii gender,
number, a/ad person.
1. De Soto was buried in the waters of the Mississippi,
which he discovered in 1542. His men built boats in which
they sailed down the river to its mouth.
Name each pronoun in the above sentence ; state its ante-
cedent ; give its gender, number, and person, and the reason.
2. He that filches from me my good name,
Robs me of that which not enriches him
And makes me poor indeed.
—Shakespeare.
Give the gender, number, and person of each pronoun in
the above quotation, and state its antecedent.
II.
1. If each of the pupils did his very best, how happy
the teacher would be !
2. Every one of the children brought his little gift for
the poor.
168 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA3UIAR.
When the antecedent of a pronoun includes both the mascu-
line and feminine gender, the best usage makes the pronoun
masculine. In the first sentence each is both masculine and
feminine since the pupils are boys and girls. The awkward
form, Ms or her, and the plural form, their, are not in as good
usage as the singular masculine form his.
Explain carefully the use of his in the second sentence.
3. The contractor and his men worked day and night
to complete their task.
4. Carl and I have our lessons to learn.
5. You and Anna have done your work beautifully.
When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by
and, it is of plural number. If the antecedents are of differ-
ent persons, the pronoun is of the first person if either ante-
cedent is of the first person ; but otherwise it is of the second
person.
Explain carefully the number and person of their, our,
your.
6. l^either the silk nor the velvet has lost its brightness.
7. Either the silk or the velvet has lost its brightness.
When a pronoun has two or more antecedents, each of
singular number, connected by nor or or, it is of singular
number.
8. The committee is sitting in its new chamber.
9. The committee have gone to their homes.
When the antecedent of a pronoun is a collective noun, the
pronoun is singular if its antecedent is thought of as a single
object, and plural if it is thought of as a collection of in-
dividual objects.
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS WITH ANTECEDENTS. 169
When it is difficult to make the pronoun agree • with its
antecedents because of their being of different genders, it is
better to change the construction of the sentence so that each
noun may have its representative pronoun.
III.
1. One of the books that are most valued by me is lost.
The one of my books that is most valued by me is
lost.
Determine the antecedent and the number of that, and
state why the verb is are valued in the first sentence, and is
valued in the second.
2. The typewriter is one of the most valuable helps
that {has, have) been invented in this century.
Select correct form for the verb in the above sentence, and
give reason for your choice.
3. I who tell you this saw the occurrence.
He who tells you this saw the occurrence.
Why tell in the first sentence, and tells in the second ?
Explain the gender, number, and person of the pronouns in
the following sentences :
4. My brother and I have enjoyed our visit to England.
5. You and your sister will find many beautiful scenes
for your cameras in your tour through California.
6. If every scholar has his lesson perfectly prepared this
afternoon, we will walk to Echo Bridge.
7. The boy and his companions have filled their baskets
with chestnuts.
170 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Insert proper pronouns in the blanks in the following sen-
tences ; or, if preferable, change the construction :
8. I^either the man nor the woman has found
ticket.
9. Each in own way rose and spoke.
10. The man and his wife have brought luncheon.
(If the thing possessed belongs to them in common, the
pronoun their may be used.)
11. If any boy or girl finds the book, will please
bring it to the desk.
12. The flock of sheep hurried to grazing ground.
13. The flock of sheep had been out in rain and dust.
The whiteness of (fleece, fleeces) was turned to a dirty
gray.
14. If the manufacturer and the workman differ in
opinions, it is because have different interests in
view.
15. The pupil's father who has been promoted is much
pleased ; but the little girl's mother who has lost her pro-
motion feels very sorry.
A relative pronoun should not refer to a noun or pronoun
in the possessive case. Change the construction of the last
sentence.
Change the awkward construction of the following sen-
tence :
16. Mr. Whittier's sister's poems, to whom he alludes in
" Snow Bound " as " our youngest and our dearest," are
included in the volumes of his complete works.
THE DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 171
CHAPTER XLVm.
THE DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.
The Personal Pronouns.
FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON.
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nom. I we you, thou you, ye
Pos. v[iy,mine our, ours your, yours, thy, thine your, yours
Obj. me US you, thee you
THIRD PERSON.
Singular
Plural
Masc.
Fern.
Neu.
M. F. N.
he
she
it
they
his
her, hers
its
their, theirs
him
her
it
them
JV^om.
Pos.
Obj.
Note: The forms mine, ours, yours; thine, hers, theirs, are
independent possessives — that is, they are used without any
following noun naming the thing possessed. They are used in
the nominative and ohjective cases only.
The Comjpound Personal Pronouns,
SINGULAR.
Utp. 2d p. Sdp.M. Sdp.F. Sdp.N.
Nom. and Obj. myself yourself himself herself itself
thyself
PLURAL.
\st p. 2d p. 3d p.
Nom. and Obj. ourselves yourselves themselves
173 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The Interrogative Pronoims.
Singular and Plural Singular only
Nom. who which what
Pos. Avhose
Obj, whom which what
The Relative Pronouns.
The relative pronouns, who^ which^ what., have the same
forms as the interrogative pronouns ; and that is used with-
out change of form in the nominative and objective cases
only.
The Demonstrative Pronouns.
The demonstrative pronouns, this, that, these, and those,
are used in the nominative and objective cases only; this
and that being singular, and these and those being plural.
The Indefinite Pronouns.
The indefinite pronouns are :
Distributives : each, neither, either.
Of number and quantity : many, some, any, all, few, both,
one, none, aught, naught.
Compounds: no one, nobody, nothing, some
one, somebody, something,
any one, anybody, anything,
every one, everybody,
everything.
Comparatives : such, other.
Peciprocal Pronotm Phrases.
one another each other
Each other refers reciprocally to two persons, one another
to more than two.
SOME PLANS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. 173
CHAPTER XLIX.
THE PARSING OF A PRONOUN.
I.
In parsing a pronoun we state, in order :
I. The class — personal, interrogative, relative, demon-
strative, indefinite.
II. If personal, of what person — first, second, third;
whom it represents ; if relative, the antecedent.
III. Its person, number, and gender.
IV. Its case, with the reason for it.
n.
Eeview pronouns by parsing those that are found in Chapters
XXVI., XXVIL, XLIV., XLV., XLVI., and XLVII. .
CHAPTER L.
SOME PLANS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.
In grammar grades all composition work should be
thoroughly discussed in the class. The aim of the work
here is not to obtain originality of matter, but clearness and
beauty of expression. The class work is properly to plan
the composition, and then to discuss the thoughts that may
be written under each subdivision. The home work of the
pupil is to recall the plan and the thoughts that are to be
written under each ; to clothe the outlines of these thoughts
with suitable language correctly expressed; to capitalize,
punctuate, and paragraph correctly; and to see that the
174 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
form of the composition is according to the model, that its
whole appearance is neat, and that it is folded as the teacher
may direct. The criticism should be by the teacher to the
pupil personally, or by the class in a discussion of the best
ways of expression, paragraphing, etc. The corrected form
of a composition should always be required. This corrected
form should be in the form of a newly written copy, and
not by interlinings of the first copy. Written corrections
by a teacher are usually disregarded by the pupil.
The form of the composition. Paper of letter size (about
eight inches wide by ten inches long) should be used, and as
soon as practicable the pupils should become accustomed to
the use of unruled paper.
The title should be written one and one-half inches from
the top of the page, and so spaced that the initial and final
letters shall be at equal distances from the edges of the
sheet.
The body of the composition should be begun one inch
below the title. A margin of one inch should be left at the
left of the body of the composition, and a margin of one-
half inch at the right. The indentions of the paragraphs
should be one-half inch.
The pages should be written upon in order, and num-
bered.
The composition should be folded evenly and once only,
lengthwise of the sheet. Placing the folded sheet with the
fold at the right, beginning one and one-half inches from
the top, write the title ; below that, the name of the writer ;
and below that, the date when given to the teacher.
SOME PLANS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.
175
TITLE.
»
O
w
525
o
M
fc
IV.
1—1
3
!z;
W
O
O
o
s
%
1^
i
1
9
ll
O
fe
' tf
o
fo
H
fc
H^l
176 TEE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The Planning of the Composition. Supposing that the sub-
ject for the composition is ^^ A Country Eoad," the teacher
writes this upon the board. Then suggestions for topics are
asked of the class. As these are given, they are written, not
under the subject, but at one side. After the teacher has
drawn from the class a sufficient number of topics, the order
of their arrangement should be discussed. There should be,
also, an introduction to the subject. Perhaps we may give
such an introduction as this :
As I was once driving with m j father from Haverhill to
Hampstead, we came to a road that branched off at the
right. It looked so cool and shady, so quiet and inviting,
that my father turned the horse into it and we drove slowly
along it.
Then the plan, as arranged, may be like this :
Introduction — Where we found the road.
SOME PLANS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. 177
Time of season at which we explored it.
The trees, shrubs, flowering plants, and weeds that lay
along it.
The scattered houses along the way, and any interesting
things noticed about them.
The little animals seen along the way ; the birds.
The sunshine sifting through the trees.
The end of the road.
The little schoolhouse that was at the corner.
The delights of such a ride.
Other subjects which may be planned in the same way are .
An Old Barn.
" The barn was low and dim and old.
Broad on the floor the sunshine slept.
And through the windows and the doors,
Swift in and out the swallows swept."
A Trout Brook.
A City Street, and its Sights.
The Snowstorm.
The Schoolroom Clock, and What it Sees.
Miss Cherry-Blossom's Party.
In Mrs. Dana's " Plants and their Children/' will be found
a wealth of material that may be used in compositions on
flowers.
The Stories Told by the Tiles of an Old-Fashioned Fire-
place. (Describe what they may have seen.)
Faces that the Mirror Sees.
The Story of an Echo.
12
178 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER LI.
PHRASES AND CLAUSES.
Groujps of words may he used to perform the office of a
noun^ an. adjective^ or an adverh.
When such a group of words does not contain a subject
and a j^redicate., it is called a phrase.
When such a group of words contains a subject and a
predicate^ it is called a clause,
I.
The Phrase as a Noun.
1. To help others is the secret of happiness.
What is the secret of happiness ? What is the subject of
the verb is^ Is this subject a word or a group of words?
Does this group of words contain a subject and a predicate ?
What name do we apply to it ? Like what part of speech is it
used ?
2. The children wished to visit the Old Manse at Con-
cord.
What did the children wish ? What is the object of the
verb wished'^ Is it a word or a group of words ? What name do
we apply to it ? AYhy ? Like what part of speech is it used ?
3. It was interesting to see the scene of the Concord
fight.
What group of words means the same thing as it f How
do you know that this group of words is a phrase ? Like what
part of speech is it used ?
PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 179
A phrase used to perform the office of a nou7i is a noun
phrase.
Why may we say that each of the phrases in the above sen-
tences performs the office of a noun ?
Find the noun phrases in the following sentences. Why
do you think that each is a noun phrase ?
4. To relieve the wretched was his pride.
5. Being faithful in little duties makes us worthy of
great trusts.
6. Hygiene teaches us to keep the pores of the skin
open.
7. To watch a spider building his web is a lesson in
patience.
8. The hunter loves roaming the forests in search of
game.
9. To breathe the fragrant air of the forest is a pleasure.
II.
Hie Phrase as an Adjeetwe,
1. Contentment is a pearl of great price.
What group of words modifies ^earZ^ This phrase performs
the office of what part of speech ?
2. " All at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden daffodils."
What group of words modifies liostf This phrase performs
the office of what part of speech ?
3. The smell of clover in the fields, of blooming rye on
the hills, of the mid grape beside the woods, and of the
180 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
sweet honeysuckle and spiraea beside the house, often comes
back to him who lived, as a child, in the country.
What phrases modify smell f Find four other phrases that
are used as adjectives in the above sentence, and tell what
noun each modifies.
A phrase used to jperform the office of an adjective is an
adjective phrase.
Find the adjective phrases in the following selection, and
tell what each modifies.
The warm breath of the meadow comes up in your face ;
to your knees you are in a sea of daisies and clover ; from
your knees up you are in a sea of solar light and warmth.
ISTow you are prostrate like a swimmer, or like a surf -bather,
reaching for pebbles or shells ; then like a devotee before a
shrine, or naming his beads, your rosary strung with luscious
berries.
—From "Picking Wild Strawberries," by John Burroughs.
III.
The Phrase as an Adverb.
1. " The mistletoe hung in the castle hall,
2. The holly branch shone on the old oak wall."
What group of words tells where the mistletoe hung ? where
the holly branch shone ? What does each of these groups of
words modify ? These phrases are used as what part of speech ?
3. The trees are heavy with leaves, and the gardens full
of blossoms. The whole atmosphere is laden with perfumed
sunshine.
PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 181
What group of words modifies the adjective heavy? full?
the verb is laden f These phrases are used as what part of
speech ?
A phrase used to perform, the office of a/n adverh is am,
adverbial phrase.
Find the adverbial phrases in each of the following sen-
tences. Why do you think each an adverbial phrase ? What
does each modify ?
4. Keep your* friends by fidelity, conquer your foes by
courtesy, win all by goodness and kindness.
5. The martins came promptly on the first day of April,
and took up their quarters in the boxes that we had pre-
pared for them ; and soon all sorts of birds arrived by
thousands, and made the island alive with soimd and
motion.
6. " Can you put the lily back on the stem.
And cause it to live and grow ?
Can you mend the butterfly's broken wing
That you crushed by a hasty blow ? "
lY.
Find the phrases in the following sentences ; determine of
what kind each is ; state what word each adjective phrase or
adverbial phrase modifies.
1. It is not right to say an unkind thing.
2. To observe the habits of animals or of birds is a
most delightful study.
3. September is the month of tall weeds. They give a
rich color to the roadsides. Along the country ways there
18.2 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
grows an abundance of golden-rod and of blue and purple
asters. Here and there, like flame, appear the leaves of the
crimson sumac ; while behind the fence, or crowning the
rocks, appears the dark green of the cedars mth a still fire
of woodbine at its heart.
4. The fish all run down stream in the fall, except the
trout. By mid-October the toads and the turtles have
buried themselves in the earth. The black bear mil go
into winter quarters when the snow comes. He does not
like the looks of his big tracks in the snow. They tell
too plainly about his comings and goings.
5. " Towards the sun his hands were lifted,
Both the palms outspread against it,
And between the parted fingers
Fell the sunshine on his features,
Flecked with light his naked shoulders,
As it falls and flecks an oak tree
Through the rifted leaves and branches."
Write sentences containing the following phrases :
1. To speak the truth —
2. Sharing our pleasures with our friends —
3. Washing the dishes —
4. Playing football —
5. To travel in foreign countries —
6. — to see the bright stars at night.
Y. — to learn the habits of bees.
PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 183
8. — to avoid bad company.
9. — to be courteous to everyone.
10. — by saving little sums of money.
11. Of the sun ; of the flowers ; of the horse ; of a kind
word ; in the city ; in the country ; in Central Africa ; in
the school ; protecting his little birds ; helping the smaller
children ; guiding his boat ; finding a crow's nest ; sleeping
on a bed of fir balsam ; of clear, cool water ; of dry fire-
wood ; into the river ; between the two tents ; above the
dark woods ; through the thick branches ; along the deep,
dark stream ; on the ice.
Write a composition on A Camp in the Woods, and under-
line all the phrases that you use.
The plan for the composition may contain the following
hints : Keason for camping out ; place selected for the
camp ; pitching the tent ; spreading the boughs for the bed ;
cooking ; the sports of the day ; the occupations of the
evening ; strange sounds and sights in the forests.
Note : Phrases are sometimes named from the word which
introduces them, thus, prepositional phrase, participial phrase,
etc. Since the service that a word or group of words performs
determines the part of speech under which it is classed, it is
better to hold to this one principle (of service) in naming. We
may, however, say that the phrase is introduced by a prepo-
sition, a participle, etc., thus : Tlie child was cradled in a
manger, "/w a matiger " is an adverbial phrase of place, intro-
duced by the preposition in, and modifying the verb ^^ was
cradled"
184 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAIIMAR.
CHAPTER LII.
CLAUSES.
I.
The Clause as a Nov/n.
1. That idleness is the mother of mischief has been
proved by many examples.
Wliat has been proved ? Is the subject of lias been proved
a word or group of words ? Does this group of words contain
a subject and a predicate ? What name may we apply to it ?
Like what part of speech is it used ?
2. Philip E'olan said that he would go to sleep.
What did Philip Nolan say ? What is the object of saidf
Is it a word or group of words ? Does it contain a subject and
predicate ? Like what part of speech is it used ?
A clause used to perform the office of a noun is a noun
clause.
Find the noun clauses in the following sentences :
3. When misfortunes come is the time to test friend-
ships.
4. I saw that the little boat was in danger; that it
could escape the rocks seemed impossible ; that it would go
over the falls seemed unavoidable.
5. " Tommy thought there was no one to see him,
I^one in the road, or the fields, or the wood ;
But all the willows, and all the grasses,
And clouds and daisies could see where he stood."
CLAUSES. 185
11.
The Clause as an Adjective.
1. There cannot be a man who loves the old flag
as I do.
What group of words modifies man f This clause performs
the office of what part of speech ?
2. He read all the foreign papers that came into the
ship.
What word does the clause that came into the ship modify ?
It performs the office of what part of speech ?
3. The barn swallows Avho build in barns or covered
bridges usually line their nests with soft feathers.
What is the clause in this sentence ? What does it modify ?
Like what part of speech is it used ?
A clause used to jperforrrb the office of an adjective is an
adjective clause.
Find the adjective clauses in the following sentences ; tell
what each modifies ; give a reason for calling it a clause ; for
calling it an adjective clause :
4. I would not honor on my list of friends the man who
needlessly sets foot upon a worm.
5. Weeds that give food to neither bee nor beast fur-
nish seeds to the fall and winter birds.
^ 6. He who walks in other people's tracks makes no dis-
coveries.
7. " Dare to be true ! Nothing can need a lie ;
A fault which needs it most grows two thereby."
186 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND QRAM3IAR.
8. " He prayeth best who loveth best
All things both great and small ;
For the dear God who loveth us,
He made and loveth all."
9. " All the buttercups standing together,
All the wild roses that stood by the way.
Laughed and rustled, ' See Tommy, see Tommy ! —
Tommy played truant to-day.' "
III.
The Clause as an Adverb,
1. When the Indian paddled his canoe on the Merri-
mack, its waters turned no mill wheels.
What clause denotes time in this sentence ? the time of
what verb ? What verb does the time-clause modify ? It per-
forms the office of what part of speech ?
2. Where the great cities of Manchester, Lawrence, and
Lowell are now, there was only an unbroken solitude.
What clause denotes place in this sentence ? The clause
modifies the thought of what statement ?
3. While the winter weather is most severe the blanket
of snow protects the roots of the little plants.
4. Before the snow had ceased to fall the sun broke
through the western clouds.
What clause in each of the above sentences is an adverbial
clause ? Why may we call it an adverhial clause ?
5. If any other man was ill, Philip Nolan was the
kindest nurse in the world.
CLAUSES. 187
6. Then if anybody was sick or died, he was always
ready to read prayers.
7. If you do not know the story of Philip Nolan, you
will enjoy reading it in " The Man Without a Country."
In these three sentences the modifying clauses are condi-
tional clauses. They state under what conditions the principal
statements are true. They are adverbial clauses.
A clause used to jperform the office of an adverb is an
adverbial clause.
Find the adverbial clauses in the following sentences ; state
why they are adverbial clauses, and what each modifies :
8. In the Paradise of Children, whenever a child wanted
his dinner he found it growing on a tree, and, if he looked
at the tree in the morning, he could see the expanding blos-
som of that night's supper.
9. While this old world was in its infancy, there lived
two children named Epimetheus and Pandora.
10. Once on a time, when Pandora entered the cottage
where Epimetheus lived, she saw a great box.
11. Although she was warned not to open the box, she
did open it.
12. As she opened it, a great cloud of little beings
rushed out.
13. When they had come out, they began to annoy the
whole world, for the name of each one was Trouble.
14. " When to the flowers — so beautiful —
The Father gave a name,
Back came a little blue-eyed one
(All timidly it came)
188 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
And standing at its Father's feet,
And gazing in His face,
It said in low and trembling tones.
With sweet and gentle grace :
' Dear God, the name Thou gavest me
Alas ! I have forgot.'
Then kindly looked the Father down,
And said, ' Forget-me-not.' "
lY.
What are the clauses in the following sentences ? Of what
kind is each, and what do the adjective and adverbial clauses
modify ?
1. How Hiawatha built his light canoe is told in the
chapter entitled, " Hiawatha's Sailing."
2. The Birch Tree said, " Take my cloak, O Hiawatha ! "
and the Cedar said, " Take my boughs, O Hiawatha ! " and
the Fir Tree said, " Take my balm, O Hiawatha ! "
3. He who swims against the tide needs strong arms.
4. He who reigns within himself, and rules passions,
desires, and fears, is more than a king.
5. When the Breton sailor puts to sea, his prayer is,
'^ Keep me, my God, for my boat is so small and Thy ocean
is so wide ! "
6. But, oh, how silently yet how truly does the faint
color that is seen on the willows across the snow, speak to
me of softer skies and golden weather !
7. A weed seems never to lose its courage ; when it
cannot have the best ground, it will accept the poorest.
CLA USES. 189
8. He who speaks evil of another to you, will speak evil
of you to another.
Y.
An adjective clause introduced hy a relative jyronoun is
called a relative clause.
Find the relative clauses, their verbs, subjects nominative,
relative pronouns and antecedents, in the sentences preceding
and in the paragraph that follows :
In his own room David had gathered the treasures which
he loved best ; the rod that had been his companion in
many a joyful fishing excursion, the rifle which he had
never used to destroy life since he saw the reproachful eyes
of the wounded deer, the medal which he had won "by
honorable deportment and faithful effort," in the district
school. Above the cap that his father wore in the war he
had hung a little silken flag like that for which his father
had died. Over his desk hung a picture of his mother,
beneath which he had placed a vase that was seldom with-
out flowers, and lying on the desk, worn with use, was the
Bible which was her last gift to him. The books here were
those which were like old friends : " The Swiss Family Kob-
inson," "A Child's History of England," " The Franconia
Stories," " Henry Esmond," and " Lorna Doone."
Insert relative clauses in the following sentences :
1. The snow, which , was unbroken by any
track when morning came. '^^
2. The men, whose , broke paths through the
drifted roads.
3. The little birds, whom , sought food in the
190 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR,
sheaf of wheat the kind farmer had put outside his
door for them.
4. The well-curb, over , looked like a Chinese
roof.
5. A huge drift, , was tunneled through.
6. The sun, not seen three days, shone upon
a world of white.
When a sentence is composed of two or more clauses^ each
independent of any other, the clauses are said to be coordinate.
When a clause bears the relation of a noun, an adjective, or
an adverb to any other clause, it is said to be a subordinate
clause. The clause to which it bears such relation is said to be
principal to it.
Classify as principal or subordinate the clauses in the illus-
trative sentences in this chapter.
CHAPTER LIII.
I.
THE PARSING OF A PREPOSITION.
In parsing a preposition, state :
I. What kind of a phrase it introduces.
II. To what word it shows the relation of its object.
Parse the prepositions in Chapter XXXVI ; IV, V.
II.
THE PARSING §F A CONJUNCTION.
In parsing a conjunction, state :
I. What kind of a conjunction it is — coordinate, if it
connect words, phrases, or clauses that are coordinate (inde-
A SELECTION FOE STUDY AND MEMORY. 191
pendent of each other) ; subordinate, if it connect a subor-
dinate clause to a principal clause.
II. If coordinate, what elements it connects ; if subor-
dinate, what kind of a clause (noun, adjective, or adverbial)
it introduces, and to what it joins it.
Conjunctions occurring in pairs — both, and ; not only, hut ;
either, or; thoiiyh, yet — have the joining force of a single
word, and should be parsed together.
Parse the conjunctions in Chapter XLI.
III.
INTERJECTIONS.
Interjections, having no grammatical relations to any other
words, are simply named as interjections, and classified by the
feeling which each expresses.
CHAPTER LIV.
A SELECTION FOR STUDY AND MEMORY.
In preparation for the study of the selection given beyond
— '^ The Chambered Nautilus '* — the class may be shown, if
possible, the shells of the paper nautilus and the pearly
nautilus, or pictures of these mollusks. Then they should
learn the facts given in the following introduction. Thus they
may be led to see how the poet's fancies build upon simple
facts : that, like the painter or the sculptor, he fashions com-
mon material into something of wonderful beauty.
In the Southern seas, and especially in the Mediterranean
in the neighborhood of Messina, there is found a kind of
floating polyp or cuttle fish vnih. eight arms, two of which
192 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
are expanded into broad webs which once were thought to
be sails for the little mollusk — sails which it spread to the
breeze that it might be wafted over the " unshadowed seas."
So the poet calls this little argonaut —
" The venturous bark that flings
On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings
In gulfs enchanted."
These webbed arms are not sails; they are the hands
with which the little creature grasps his boat, or shell, when
swimming. They fashion, too, the boat, for they give the
secretion of which it is made ; they mend and repair it Avhen
any break comes in its delicate texture, soldering like skil-
ful workmen into its crevices any chance bit of shell that
comes in their way. The boat in which the nautilus rides
is very thin, like paper ; it is transparent, and so flexible
that when wet its sides may be pressed together. The little
occupant of the boat may leave it at his pleasure, since he is
attached to it only by the grasp of the two arms, but some-
times in fright — ^for the paper nautilus is very timid — he
loses his boat, and dies because bereft of it.
There is another nautilus, the pearly nautilus, whose
shell is like pearl, beautiful in texture and color. Unlike
the paper nautilus, the pearly nautilus is attached to his
shell. This shell is chambered, and in the outer chamber
lives its tenant. These chambers are air chambers, and the
nautilus has such control over them that the shell swims or
sinks at his pleasure. He lives in deep water, but sometimes
floats along the shore, his tentacles outspread, but not re-
sembling the purple sails of the paper nautilus.
A SELECTION FOR STUDY AND MEMORY. 193
After reading the poem a dictionary study should be made of
unfamiliar words. Then every line of the poem should be talked
over with the pupils, every possible picture should be presented,
and the choice of words and the beauty of expression brought
to their consciousness. They must see the change that comes
in the fourth stanza, and express in their own prose the mean-
ing of the last two stanzas. Then they should recall by mem-
ory the sequence of pictures and ideas. After this careful and
interesting work, the memorizing of the poem requires but
little effort.
The Chambered IN^autilus.
This is the ship of pearl which poets feign
Sails the unshadowed main, —
The venturous bark that flings
On the sweet summer wind its purpled mngs
In gulfs enchanted, where the Siren sings.
And coral reefs lie bare,
"Where the cold sea-maids rise to sun their streaming hair.
Its webs of living gauze no more unfurl ;
Wrecked is the ship of pearl !
And every chambered cell,
Where its dim dreaming life Avas wont to dwell.
As the frail tenant shaped his growing shell.
Before thee lies revealed, —
Its irised ceiling rent, its sunless crypt unsealed !
Year after year beheld the silent toil
That spread his lustrous coil ;
Still, as the spiral grew,
He left the past year's dwelling for the new,
13
194 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Stole with soft step its shining archway through,
Built up its idle door,
Stretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more.
Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee.
Child of the wandering sea
Cast from her lap, forlorn !
From thy dead lips a clearer note is born
Than ever Triton blew from wreathed horn !
"While on mine ear it rings.
Through the deep caves of thought I hear a voice that sings : —
Buil'd thee more stately mansions, O my soul,
As the swift seasons roll !
Leave thy low- vaulted past !
Let each new temple, nobler than the last,
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast.
Till thou at length art free.
Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea !
—Oliver Wendell Holmes.
[Oliver Wendell Holmes, an American poet, born in Cam-
bridge, Massachusotts, August 29, 1809 ; died October 7, 1894.]
CHAPTER LV.
THE PREDICATE AND THE AP POSITIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES.
I.
1. The garden is not pretty now.
2, The roses have been beautiful, the lilies have been
exquisite, the violets have been abundant ; but a severe
storm has broken the stalks and shattered the flowers.
PREDICATE AND APPOSITIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES. 195
3. The children were tired and silent, but after they
had rested they became \erj merry and sportive.
What is the predicate in the first sentence ? What adjective
forms a part of it ? What noun does that adjective modify ?
What is the relation of that noun to the predicate verb ?
Analyze the first three predicates of the second sentence in
the same way.
What is the first predicate in the third sentence ? the last
predicate in that sentence ? Analyze each to show the relations
of the adjectives to the predicate verb and to the subject nomi-
native.
An adjective forming apart of the predicate of a sentence
and modifying the subject nominative of the predicate verb
is a predicate adjective.
Such adjectives are used to complete the meaning of the
verbs isj become, appear, look, seem, sound, taste, feel, and some
others.
Find the predicate adjectives in the following sentences,
and state what noun each modifies :
4. At the approach of day the birds were very songful,
but as the sun rose higher they became more quiet.
5. The earth appeared freshened by the rain ; the grass
looked greener, the air seemed clearer, and the sound of the
bells, heard across the blossoming meadows, was more
musical.
6. The food looked coarse but it tasted delicious, and
after eating heartily of the supper that the neat housewife
had kindly prepared for us, Ave felt greatly refreshed.
196 TEE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAM3IAR.
A predicate adjective may follow an infinitive to complete
the statement about the suhject of the infmitive.
Find the predicate adjectives in the following sentences, and
state the case of the noun or pronoun which each modifies :
7. America expects every son of hers to be brave and
loyal.
8. I wish you all to be happy, to become wise, to appear
courteous, and to seem gentle.
II.
1. The man, tired and hungry, was grateful for the
food and rest that we gave him.
2. I love the house, so homelike yet so humble ; the gar"
den, so fragrant with flowers and with memories ; the dear,
familiar river, still sparkling as in the days of my happy
childhood.
3. And if my feet have trodden streets prouder than
the old country road, and I have lived in palaces more mag-
nificent than I could imagine in those older days, yet if I
could find the old content and the dear, familiar faces there,
I would gladly live once more in the little brown cottage,
and wander no farther than along the grass-grown road and
the field paths that were its neighbors.
Adjectives sometimes stand in a relation that is less close
than that of an attributive adjective. They are placed after
the nouns which they modify, are separated from them by a
comma, and are equivalent to a qualifying clause or introduc-
tory to one. This is the appositive use of adjectives.
In the three sentences that are given above, find the adjec-
THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 197
tives that are used appositively, state what each modifies, and
change the group of words in which each is found into a quali-
fying clause. What kind of a clause other than qualifying is
each ?
CHAPTER LVI.
THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
I.
1. Blanca Peak is 14,463 feet high; Mont Blanc is
15,781 feet high ; Mt. Everest is 29,002 feet high.
2. Blanca Peak is a high mountain.
3. Mont Blanc is higher than Blanca Peak.
4. Mt. Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
In this set of sentences we have made a statement in regard
to Blanca Peak — that it is a high mountain.
We compare two mountains, Mont Blanc and Blanca Peak,
and state that Mont Blanc is the higher.
We compare Mt. Everest with all the mountains of the
world, and state that it is the highest.
5. Philadelphia is a large city.
6. Chicago is a larger city than Philadelphia.
Y. New York is the largest city of the three.
In this set of sentences we state that Philadelphia is a large
city.
We compare two cities, and state that Chicago is the larger.
We compare three cities. New York, Chicago, and Phila-
delphia, and state that New York is the largest of the tliree.
We have changed the forms of the adjectives high and large
198 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
to make a comparison between two objects, and to make a com-
parison of one object with more than one other object.
The form of the adjective that we use in a simple state-
ment is the positive form ; in a comparison of one object with
one other, the comparative form ; and in a comparison of one
object with more than one other, the superlative form.
The comparison of an adjective is a change of its expression
to indicate a higher, or the highest, degree of what is denoted
by the adjective.
An adjective is of the positive degree when its form
indicates no comparison.
An adjective is of the comparative degree when it
indicates comparison of one object with one other.
An adjective is of the superlative degree when it
indicates comparison of one object with more than one other.
8. Kalph is a tall boy ; Harry is taller than Kalph ;
Fred is the tallest of the three.
9. Fred is careful ; Howard is more careful than Fred ;
Arthur is the most careful of all the boys.
Of what degree of comparison is each adjective in the pre-
ceding sentences ?
Of the following adjectives which are positive, which of the
comparative degree, and which of the superlative degree of
comparison ? Which indicate no comparison, which a com-
parison between two objects, and which a comparison between
more than two objects ?
happy more thoughtful richer
longest most industrious colder
THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 199
cold
coldest
strongest
strong
stronger
friendly
most friendly
more beautiful
sweet
sweetest
pleasanter
loveliest
Put each form in a good sentence.
Supply adjectives in these blanks ; state of what degree each
is, and why :
10. To-day is than yesterday.
11. The sun is than the moon.
12. The dog is the of all animals.
13. The Spring wore her dress.
14. The Mississippi is - — than the Amazon.
15. London is than Paris.
16. The days in winter are than the days in sum-
mer, but the nights are .
11. February is the month of the year.
18. The flowers are all gone.
II.
Regularly the comparative form of adjectives of one syllable
and of some of two syllables is made by adding the syllable -er
to the positive form ; the comparative form of most adjectives
of two syllables and of all adjectives of more than two syllables
is made by prefixing the word more ; the superlative form of
adjectives of one syllable and of some of two is made by adding
the syllable -est to the positive form ; the superlative form of
most adjectives of two syllables and of all adjectives of more
than two syllables is made by prefixing the word most to the
positive form.
300 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Write the regular comparison of the following adjectives,
and use each form correctly in a sentence :
brave
beautiful
wise
lovely
easy
mischievous
strong
polite
kind
thoughtful
rapid
swift
slow
lazy
happy
Note : Final y, when not preceded by a vowel, is changed
to i before adding -er or -est.
The following adjectives are compared irregularly. Learn
carefully their comparison:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
good
better
best
bad, ill, or evil, worse
worst
little
less
least
rtiuch
more
most
many
more
most
late
later |
latter )
latest )
last i
far
farther
farthest
old
" older 1
elder f
oldest 1 ^
eldest )
further
furthest
fore
former *
foremost ]
first i
hind
hinder
hindmost
* Older and oldest apply to persons or things ; elder and eldest to per-
sons only.
THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 201
Positive Co7)iparativ6 S^iperlative
inner inmost |
innermost )
nether nethermost
upper upmost )
uppermost )
nigh nigher nighest |
next )
outer outmost |
outermost )
top topmost
utmost )
uttermost
Study the adjectives in the following sentences. What
kind of an adjective is each ? What does it modify ? Of what
degree of comparison is it ? How is it compared ?
The patient humble bee glides over the golden butter-
cups, humming to himself as he goes, so happy is he.
Down to the flowering nettle in the mossy-sided ditch, up
into the tall elm, along the banks of the purling brooks, far
inside the deepest woods, he wanders. His nest is under the
rough grasses. The great oak may tremble in the storm, the
heavy rain deluge the little flowers, the thick grasses be
bowed, and the fierce blasts may tear the green oak leaves,
but his home remains safe. The storm passes; the air is
sweeter and richer for the rain, like verse with a rh3nne ;
there will be more honey in the flowers. Humble the bee is,
but wild — always wild, and humming to his flowers.
— Arranged from " The Pageant of Summer,"
by Richard Jeffries.
202 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR,
CHAPTER LVII.
THE PARSING OF AN ADJECTIVE.
In parsing an adjective we state, in order :
I. The class to which it belongs — descriptive, desig-
nating, or limiting.
II. Its use — attributive, predicate, or appositive.
III. Its degree of comparison — positive, comparative, or
superlative.
lY. The noun or pronoun which it modifies.
Exercises in parsing adjectives may be given upon the selec-
tions in Chapters XXI., LY., and LYI.
CHAPTER LVIIl.
THE ADVERB.
{A review and expaiisiori of Chapter XXV.)
1. Kemember now thy Creator.
2. " Often I think of the beautiful town
That is seated by the sea."
3. Always the sun is shining somewhere.
4. "Up and down the village street
The mimic army passed."
5. Many men have suffered severely in defence of their
country.
6. " Therefore be at peace henceforward.
And as brothers live together."
7. Hiawatha journeyed westward.
THE ADVERB. 203
8. When Hiawatha built his canoe, he
" Closely sewed the bark together,
Bound it closely to the framework."
In the above sentences certain words limit or modify the
meanings of the verbs. Now limits the time of the verb
remerriber ; often gives the idea of repetition to the verb think ;
always of continuance to the verb is shining ; somewhere of
place to the verb is shining ; up and down of direction to the
Yerh passed ; severely of degree to the verb have suffered j there-
fore of cause, and henceforward of time, to the verb be (see
also section IV., following) ; together of manner to the verb
live; westward of direction to the yexh journeyed ; when of
time to the verb built; closely of manner to the verb sewed,
and closely of manner to the verb bound.
Words that limit or modify the meaning of verbs are adverbs.
II.
1. The house where Whittier was bom is a very old
New England farmhouse.
2. The screech owl has quite long ear-tufts of feathers
which stand up very straight over his yellow eyes. He is
finely mottled above with brown, black, and dark orange.
What part of speech is old in the first sentence ? What
word modifies it ? What part of speech is long in the second
sentence ? What word modifies it ? What other words in that
paragraph modify adjectives ?
Words that modify the meaning of adjectives are adverbs.
III.
1. The hour-hand of a clock moves very slowly, but the
minute-hand moves quite rapidly.
204 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
2. The cold and the snow have come too soon.
3. The robins have flown far away.
Read the first sentence, omitting very and quite. What do
slowly and rapidly modify ? What part of speech is each ?
What word modifies each ? Read the second sentence, omitting
too. What does soon modify ? What word modifies soon 9
What does away modify ? What modifies away 9
Words that modify the meaning of adverhs are adverhs.
lY.
1. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the
days of my life.
2. We never looked upon a fairer sight than the glory
of the sun upon the mountain snows.
3. " Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid
Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire."
In the above sentences the adverbs surely, never, and per-
haps, modify each the sense of the complete sentence rather
than any particular word in it.
An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a
verl)^ adjective, or another advcrh, or the sense of a complete
clause or sentence.
An adverb that modifies a complete clause or sentence is
termed a modal adverb.
The adverbs Yes and No, used independently in answer to
questions, have the value of complete sentences to which they
give an affirmative or negative meaning. They are therefore
modal adverbs.
An adverb used to introduce a question is an interrogative
adverl.
THE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 205
An adverb serving as a conjunction becomes an adverbial
conj unction f for the service that a word performs determines
what part of speech it is, and any subordinate relation that it
holds may be expressed by an adjective modifying the noun
that names its service.
An adverb sometimes modifies a prepositional phrase, as in
the sentence The road goes far beyond the limits of the town.
The prepositional phrase, beyond the limits of the town, modi-
fies adverbially the verb goes. The adverb far modifies the
prepositional phrase. It will be seen that this is the use of an
adverb to modify another adverb.
There, used to introduce a sentence but not to indicate the
adverbial relation of place, is an expletive, the term meaning
that it is used merely io fill out the sentence.
CHAPTER LIX.
I.
THE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
1. The horse goes swiftly,.
The electric cars go more swiftly.
The steam cars go most swiftly.
2. The robin sings sweetly.
The bobolink sings more sweetly.
The song-sparrow sings most sweetly.
3. The boy ran fast, the man ran faster, but the horse
T2J1 fast est.
4. Mary writes often, Annie writes oftener, and Alice
writes oftenest.
206 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
5. Robert does his work well, Arthur does his work
better, and Philip does his work hest
The form of most adverbs of manner and degree may be
changed to express a higher, and the highest, degree of what
is denoted by the adverb. This is termed comparison of
adverbs.
Adverbs are compared generally by prefixing to the simple
adverb more to form the comparative degree, and most to form
the superlative degree.
Compare in this way the adverbs formed in section IV. of
the preceding lesson.
Some adverbs add to the positive -er to form the compara-
tive, and -est to form the superlative, thus : positive soon, com-
parative sooner, superlative soonest.
Compare in this way the following : fast, near, often, loud.
The following adverbs are irregular in their comparison :
Positive
Com^parative
Superlative
well
better
best
ill 1
badly f
worse
worst
near
nigh
nearer
nearest
fore
further
furthest
far
farther
farthest
late
later
latest )
last S .
(rath)
rather
Note : Rath is an old word, not now in use, meaning
quichly ; hence, rather means more qicickly, sootier.
THE PARSING OF AN ADVERB. 207
II.
THE PARSING OF AN ADVERB.
In parsing an adverb we state, in order :
I. What kind of adverb it is — time, place, cause, man-
ner, direction, etc.
II. Its degree of comparison.
III. The verb, adjective, adverb, phrase, clause, or sen-
tence, which it modifies.
Parse the adverbs in the following sentences :
1. In early summer the nests that still have eggs in
them are not, like the nests of the earlier spring days, easily
found.
2. The tall growth of the grass quite covers the nests
of the birds who build on the ground.
3. A crow rises lazily from the field, and flies heavily
into an apple tree, cawing hoarsely and dolefully in his
flight.
4. A little brown bird scolds sharply from the apple
tree, and then, all at once, with a quick flight, dives into
the hedge.
5. Presently he will be back again in the apple tree,
watching sharply the strange and unwelcome being who has
come so boldly into his domain.
6. Birds differ as much in their characteristics as men
do, but they resemble men quite closely in caution and
curiosity.
Note : When several words are used as a single adverbial
expression, as all at once in the fourth sentence, it is best to
parse them together as a phrase adverb.
208 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER LX,
THE USE OFPREDICATE ADJECTIVES AFTER VERBS OF SENSATION, ETC.
1. The rose smells sweet — not sweetly.
The modifier represents a quality of the subject noun, not
a manner of action of the predicate verb.
2. In her plain drab gown the Quakeress looked 'beauti-
ful — not beautifully.
The modifier represents a quality of the subject noun, not a
manner of action of the predicate verb ; hence we properly use
an adjective — not an adverb.
3. The music sounds distinct^ but the trumpet sounds
distinctly.
The quality of distinctness belongs in the first clause to the
music, not to the action of the verb ; in the second clause, the
quality of distinctness belongs to the action of the verb and
not to the trumpet. This difference may be seen if we use the
verb is. We may say, The music is distinct, but we cannot say.
The trumpet is distinct.
The error of using an adverb instead of a predicate adjective
in such sentences as the above is very common. A careful
analysis of the following sentences will establish a method of
deciding in such cases between the adverb and the predicate
adjective.
4. How sweet the flowers smell !
Does sweet denote a quality of the flowers, or the manner
of action ? Compare : Thefiowers are sweet. The flowers sway
gently.
o
6
7
8
9
10,
THE USE OF PREDICATE ADJECTIVES. 209
The prisoner appears innocent.
The prisoner felt glad to be released.
The flowers were arranged beautifully.
The flowers looked beautiful, as they were arranged.
His cough sounds bad.
The boy sounds his r's badly.
Give the correct forms of the following sentences :
11. The piano sounds (bad^ hadly) because it is out of tune.
12. It sounds {])ad, hadly) to hear anyone swear.
13. She feels {bad, hadly) because her mother is ill.
14. She feels {bad, hadly) because she has done wrong.
Note : Some recent authors would use had when moral
badness is implied, and hadly when the feeling arises from
something else than the moral badness of the subject. This
distinction has not, however, the authority of usage. It is
interesting to analyze such sentences as the above, noticing
whether moral badness is or is not implied.
15. An old shoe feels {easy, easily).
16. The apple in my desk feels {soft, sofUy).
17. The boy feels {soft, softly) in his desk for his pen.
18. She looked {innocent, innocently) to me.
19. She looked {innocent, innocently) at me.
Explain these sentences :
20. I gladly felt in my pocket for a coin for the poor
man, and I felt glad to help him.
21. The oaths that the organ man uttered when his
organ sounded {Ijad, hadly), sounded ij)ad, hadly).
14
210 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
22. When I heard the voice of my dear mother it
sounded {good, well) to me.
23. I knew that his health was restored because his
voice sounded so {good, well).
24. The carriage rides easy. The carriage rides easily.
Which of these last sentences would represent the feeling
to the person within the carriage ? Which would represent
the way in which it rolls over the road ?
25. As you tell the story it sounds different. As you
play the trumpet it sounds differently.
Is each of these sentences correct ? Explain.
CHAPTER LXI.
A LESSON FOR DICTIONARY WORK AND FOR DISCUSSION.
A teacher who had grown weary in correcting composi-
tions, fell asleep late one evening over her work. From
her light slumber she was aroused by the noise of voices
that sounded much as they do when they are heard over a
telephone. As the teacher's senses grew more keen, she
found that the voices came from some little beings that
seemed to be sitting on the pile of compositions and hold-
ing a discussion there. They were Familiar Words who
were discussing their wrongs.
" The children are not entirely to blame for misusing
us," said the first speaker. " They do as the big people
with whom they associate do — their fathers and mothers,
for example."
A LESSON FOE DICTIONARY WORK. 211
" But their fathers and mothers may not have been
taught how to treat us, and these children have," said a
little fellow ; " although I have reason to complain very
severely of the treatment that nearly everyone gives me.
Now my name is Of, and I am not very big, but that is no
reason why everybody should take advantage of me. I am
the most mercilessly overworked word in the dictionary.
People say that they ' consider of ' and * approve of ' and
' accept of ' and ' admit of ' all sorts of things. Then they
say ' all of us ' and ' both of them ' and ' first of all,' and
they tell about looking ' out of the window ' or cutting a
piece of bread ' off of the loaf.' "
" Pshaw ! " said the word C^?, " I am not much bigger
than you, and I do twice as much work. People ' wake up '
in the morning and ' shake up ' the bed and ' wash up ' and
' dress up ' and ' draw up ' to the table and 'eat up ' and
* drink up ' their breakfast. Then they ' jump up ' from the
table and ' hurry up ' to ' go up ' to the corner where the
street car driver ' pulls up ' and the passengers * ascend up '
the steps and ' go up ' into the front seats, and the conductor
' takes up ' their fares. All that is done before people ' get
up ' town and ' take up ' their day's work. From that time
until they ' put up ' their books and ' shut up ' their offices
I do more work than any two Avords in the book, and even
after business hours I am worked until people ' lock up '
their houses and * go up ' to bed and ' cover themselves up '
and ' shut up ' their eyes for the night. All this is not half
of what I have to ' put up ' with, and I am a good deal
* worked up ' over it."
" I do a great deal of needless work," said But. " People
212 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
say that they have no doubt ' but that ' it will rain, and
that they shouldn't wonder ' but that ' it would snow."
" What I complain of," said the word As, " is that I am
forced to associate so much with the word Equally. Only
yesterday a man said that he could see ' equally as ' well as
another man. I don't see what business Equally had in
that sentence."
" We, too, ought to be granted divorce," said a clamor
of many voices, among which could be distinguished those
of these couples : Cover Over, Enter In, From Thence, Go
Fetch, Have Got, Latter End, Continue On, Converse To-
gether, Ne\o Beginner, Old Veteran, Retmrn Bach, Rise Ujp^
Sinh Down, They Both, Try And, More Perfect, Seldom
Ever, Almost Never, Feel Badly, United Together, Over
Again, Repeat Again, and others.
When quietude had been restored, the word Rest said,
" It is much worse to be cut out of your own work. I am
ready to perform my part in the speech of the day, but
almost everybody passes me and employs my awkward
friend Balance. It is the most common thing in the world
to hear people say that they will pay the ' balance ' of the
debt or will sleep the ' balance ' of the night."
" I should like to protest," said Among, " against Mr.
Between doing my work. The idea of a man saying that he
divided an orange ' between his three children ' ! "
" It is no worse," said Fewer, " than to have people say
that there were ' less ' men in one army than in the other."
" IS'o," added More Than, " and no worse than to have
them say that there were ' over ' 100,000 men."
" My friend Liable is doing nearly all of my work," said
A LESSON FOR DICTIONARY WORK. 313
Likely. " People say a man is ' liable ' to be sick or * liable '
to be out of town, when the question of liability does not
enter the matter at all."
"That fellow Such is doing all of my work," said So,
" People say that there was never ' such ' a glorious country
as this, when they mean, of course, that there was never so
glorious a country elsewhere."
" I heard someone say," said Yery^ that she was awfully
glad that it was going to be vacation, and she was a
teach — "
At this instant a slight breeze, or possibly some other
cause, toppled the uppermost composition upon the desk,
and when the teacher had replaced it, it was evident from
the silence that the convention had adjourned.
—Adapted from "Language that Needs a Rest,"
by Willis Brooks Hawkins.
After the study and discussion of the correct use of these
words, the pupils should write sentences containing them prop-
erly used. Make a list of these words in the order in which
they occur, and number them. "Write sentences containing
•words one, two, and three, for one day ; luords two, three, and
four, for the next day ; words three, four, and five for the next
day, etc.
In this way each word will be written in three different
sentences on consecutive days, by each pupil, with the advan-
tage of dwelling upon their correct use the longer time.
314 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA31MAR.
CHAPTER LXII.
THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS.
Begin with a capital letter :
The first word of a sentence,
The first word of every line of poetry,
Every proper noun,
Every proper adjective (adjective derived from a proper
noun).
All names applied to God and to Jesus Christ,
The names of religious denominations, of political parties,
of great historical events, and of days designated for
patriotic, religious, or memorial observance.
Common nouns personified,
The names of the months.
The names of the days of the week,
The words North, South, East, and West, when meaning
sections of the country, but not when meaning points of the
compass.
Titles of honor and respect.
Titles of relationship when forming a part of the
address.
The words sir, madam, and their plurals, sirs, gentle-
men, mesdames, when used in the salutation of a letter,
The first word of a direct quotation.
The important words in the titles of books, essays, and
other literary articles.
The words I and are always ^vritten in capitals.
THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 215
Justify the use of capitals in the following selections :
1. Character is what we are ; reputation is what others
think us to be.
2. When the English Pilgrims went to Holland, they
were quiet and happy for awhile, but they were very poor ;
and when the children began to grow up, they Avere not
like English children, but talked Dutch, like the little ones
of Holland, and some grew naughty and did not wish to go
to church any more.
3. Glory to Thee, my God, this night,
For all the blessings of the light ;
Keep me, O keep me, King of kings.
Beneath Thine own almighty wings.
— Thomas Ken.
4. The church of the Episcopalians was of brown stone.
A gilded cross rose from its graceful tower, and a broad lawn
of well-kept greensward surrounded it.
5. Come, gentle Peace, and vvith your presence heal the
land o'er which the iron heel of War has trampled.
6. First April, she with mellow showers.
Opens the way for early flowers ;
Then after her comes smiling May
In a more rich and sweet array ;
Next enters June and brings us more
Gems than the two that went before ;
Then lastly July comes, and she
More wealth brings than all those three.
—Egbert Herrick.
216 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
7. The storm detained us in Portsmouth from Wednes-
day to Saturday.
8. Strive as God's saints have striven in all ages :
Press those slow steps where other feet have trod :
For us their lives adorn the sacred pages,
For them a crown of glory is with God.
Soldiers of Jesus ! blest who endure !
Stand in the battle ! The victory is sure.
9. I look hopefully forward to the time when peace
and unity shall hold sway over the whole land ; when there
shall be no North, no South, no East, no West, but one
undivided country.
10. The President of the United States, the Governor
of the Commonwealth, the Mayor of the city of Boston.
11. My dear Sir : My dear Madam : My dear Mother :
My dear Aunt Mary :
12. Will you kindly give this copy of "Will Shake-
speare's Little Lad " to my aunt, Miss Louisa Pyne ?
13. Please give my loving wishes to Aunt Louisa.
14. A German poet says, " Kindness is the golden chain
by which the world is bound together."
15. David Crockett said, " Be sure you're right — then
go ahead ! "
16. Sarah Orne Jewett wrote " Tales of S^ew England."
IT. I have been reading " At the Back of the North
Wind," by George Macdonald.
18. In support of a measure so profoundly patriotic,
party lines were swept aside, and Kepublicans and Demo-
crats voted only as loyal sons of one common country.
THE CORRECT USE OF ''SHALL'' AND ''WILL." 217
CHAPTER LXIII.
THE CORRECT USE OF "SHALL " AND " WILL." AND OF "SHOULD "
AND "WOULD."
1. I shall see the general to-morrow.
2. You will see the general to-morrow.
Each of these sentences states simply a future act — some-
thing that naturally will happen — simple futurity.
3. I will see the general to-morrow.
4. You shall see the general to-morrow.
Each of these sentences expresses a future act that will
happen because of the determination, wish, or willingness of
the speaker — distinct volition. ( Volition means an exercise
of the will.)
To express simple future action^ use shall in the Jurst per-
son and will in tJie second and third persons.
To express future action that will happen hecause of the
determination, wish, or willingness of the speaker, use will in
the first person, and shall in the second and third persons.
What do shall and will express in each of the following sen-
tences ?
5. I shall never go to that place again.
6. I will never go to that place again.
Y. If I buy " Betty Alden " I shall not keep it. I will
give it to you. You ^vi\\ read it Avith much pleasure, and
it will strengthen your interest in the early colonial history.
318 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
8. His memory is very good, and I am sure that he will
not forget his promise.
9. He shall not forget his promise, for I will remind
him of it.
10. "We shall never again behold the army marching
with unbroken ranks, but we will not forget the dead
heroes. We will cover their graves with flowers, we will
recount their deeds of heroism, we will teach the children
to love and honor them, ^o, their lives and deeds shall
not be forgotten.
Decide if simple futurity or distinct volition is to be ex-
pressed by the following sentences, and insert shall or will
accordingly.
11. I be happy to do you a kindness.
12. You be sorry if your friend goes away.
13. You not make so great a sacrifice for me; I
not allow it.
14. If you give me " Evangeline," I value it highly.
15. We always be delighted to see our friends.
n.
1. Mr. Sumner says, " I shall see the general to-
rrow."
2. Mr. Sumner says that he shall see the general to-
morrow.
3. Mr. Sumner says, " I will see the general to-mor-
row."
4. Mr. Sumner says that he mil see the general to-
morrow.
THE CORRECT USE OF ''SHALL'' AND ''WILL." 219
A direct quotation is one in which the actual words, of the
speaker are used, such words being inclosed in quotation
marks, as in the first and third sentences above.
An indirect quotation is one in which the thought, but not
the exact words of the speaker, are given, as in the second and
fourth sentences above.
In indirect quotations shall {or should) is used when the
exact words of the speaker contained shall {or should), and
will {or would) is used when the exact words of the speaker
contained will {or would).
Why are should and tvould used in the following sentences ?
5. My mother said, "I shall give you Hawthorne's
* Wonder Book ' for your Christmas gift. You will find it
very interesting."
6. My mother said that she should give me Haw-
thorne's " Wonder Book " for my Christmas gift, and that
I would find it very interesting.
7. Frank's father said to him, " I shall go to Washing-
ton during your vacation, and I will take you with me."
8. Frank's father said to him that he should go to
Washington during his vacation, and that he would take
him with him.
9. The little girl thinks that she shall not be afraid of
the animals in the cages.
What is her direct thought ? What does shall express ?
10. The little boy thinks that he will try to learn " The
Wreck of the Hesperus."
What is his direct thought ? What does will express ?
320 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
11. I am afraid that I shall not be able to go to the
seashore.
12. My father is afraid that I will not consent to go to
the seashore.
13. My father is afraid that he shall not be able to go
to the seashore.
What is the direct thought in each of the above sentences ?
Explain the use of shall and will.
Quote these thoughts indirectly after the following past
tenses :
I was afraid that ; My father was afraid that I ;
My father was afraid that he .
III.
1. Shall you see the general to-morrow? I shall see
him.
2. Will you ask him to call upon me ? I will ask him.
3. Will you please lend me your book ? I will, with
pleasure.
4. Shall you need it before to-morrow? I shall not
need it.
6. Will there be a holiday next week ? Monday will
be a holiday.
6. Shall Lester be allowed to be disobedient ? IS'o, Mr.
Eandolph, Lester shall not be allowed to be disobedient.
In asking questions use shall {or should) invariahly in the
first person^ and in the second or third person use that form
of the verb which the answer will cordain — shall {or should)
if the answer will contain shall {or should), will {or would) if
the answer will contain will {or would).
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 231
Insert the right auxiliaries in the following sentences :
7. you be at home this evening, and, if you are,
— you show me your photographs of Italian views ?
8. " I go to the feast ? " said an engineer in Hol-
land one stormy day, " or I stay to help take care of
the dykes ? " He thought a moment, then said, " Take care
of the dykes I must and ."
9. you like to hear the story of " The Paradise of
Children " ?
10. you study the harder if I take the time to tell
it to you ?
11. " I thrash the enemy to-day, or die a-trying,"
said General Houston, on the morning of the battle of San
Jacinto.
CHAPTER LXIV.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
1. The robin is our best-known bird.
2. Robins build strong, compact nests.
3. They build a frame of twigs and weed stems in the
crotch of a branch.
4. They line this with mud.
5. The birds mold this mud with their breasts.
6. The soft inner lining of the nest is formed of hair
and dry grass.
What is the subject of each of these sentences ? the predi-
cate ? What is the subject nominative of each of these sen-
tences ? the predicate verb ? How many subjects nominative
223 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
in each sentence ? How many predicate verbs ? How many
complete thoughts in each sentence ?
7. The flight and song of the robin are characteristic.
8. He flies rapidly and moves through the air in straight
lines.
What are the subjects of each sentence ? the predicates ?
What are the subjects nominative in the first sentence ? Is
each the subject of the same predicate verb ? What is the
subject nominative of the second sentence ? What are the
predicate verbs ? Has each predicate verb the same subject
nominative ?
9. Eobins and bluebirds come early in the spring and
delight us with their sweet songs.
What are the subjects nominative of this sentence ? the
predicate verbs ? Is each predicate verb the predicate verb of
the first subject nominative ? of the second subject nominative ?
A simple sentence is one containing a single sub-
ject nominative or a group of subjects nominative, and a sin-
gle predicate verb or a group of predicate verbs, and is the
expression of a single complete thought.
The expression of a single complete thought may con-
tain:
One subject nominative and its predicate verb.
Two or more subjects nominative, and one predicate verb
which is common to them.
One subject nominative, and two or more predicate verbs
of which it is the common subject nominative.
THE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 223
Two or more subjects nominative, and two or more predi-
cate verbs common to all of the subjects nominative.
The subject of a sentence is the nominative noun or pro-
noun and all of its modifiers ; the subject 7iominative of a sen-
tence is the nominative noun or pronoun alone.
The predicate of a sentence is the predicate verb with all of
its modifiers ; the predicate verb of a sentence is the verb alone
of the predicate.
Write the model sentences given, drawing a single horizon-
tal line under the subject of each sentence, and two horizontal
lines under the predicate, thus :
The robvn is our best known bird.
CHAPTER LXV.
THE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.
The analysis of a sentence consists of :
I. The separation of the sentence into its subject
and predicate.
II. The statement of what is the subject nominative,
and what are its modifiers ; and of what is the
predicate verb, and what are its modifiers.
III. The statement of the relation of the several parts
of any modifier consisting of more than one
word.
224 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Illustrative Analyses of Simjole Sentences.
1. The sweet singing of the birds quickly aroused me
from my light slumber.
The sweet singing of the hirds quickly aroused me from
TYiy light sluTnber.
Subject nominative^ singing
The
sweet
of birds
the
Predicate verh. aroused
me
quickly
from slumber
my
light
The modifiers of each word lie beyond the vertical line that
follows it. A dash beyond that line shows that there is no
further modification.
Note : The value of grapliic analysis is in its being done
with greater economy of time^ and with less fatigue and
nervous tension, than oral analysis. Furthermore, it shows to
the teacher almost at a glance whether or not the pupil under-
stands the construction of a sentence and the relation of its
several parts. If the teacher thinks it wise to have oral analyses
given, it will be found the best plan to make graphic analyses
first, and to use these as bases of the oral work. The system
THE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.
225
of graphic analysis here given is extremely simple, and a care-
ful study of the illustrative models will easily make one master
of it.
2. Mounted on Kyrat strong and fleet,
His chestnut steed with four white feet,
Roushan Beg, called Kurroglou,
Son of the road and bandit chief,
Seeking refuge and relief.
Up the mountain pathway flew.
-From "The Leap of Rouslian Beg,"
by Longfellow.
Sulj, nom., Eoushan Beg
called-Kurroglou | -
son I of road | the | -
chief
mounted
bandit I -
Kyrat
on
strong
§
Q.
(steed)
his I-
chestnut
with feet
fleet I -
steed
(see helow)
I seeking
refuge
four I -
white 1 -
relief
Pred. verb, flew | up pathway
the I -
mountain
The brace signifies that the word following it is an apposi-
tive.
15
226 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Analyze the following sentences :
3. The groves were God's first temples.
4. Honor thy father and thy mother. (What is the
subject ?)
5. How faithfully the dog guards his little master !
6. The moon and the myriad stars shone in the
heavens.
Y. How beautiful the eyes of the patient oxen are !
8. So the autumn came and passed.
9. He was not killed, but was severely injured.
10. Wonderful things are hidden away in the heart of
a little brown seed : the stalk and the leaf, and the blossoms
so gay, and the delightful fragrance.
11. " Over my shaded doorway,
Two little brown-winged birds
Have chosen to fashion their dwelling.
And utter their loving words."
CHAPTER LXVI.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
1. What you have done is the deed of a hero.
What is the first verb in this sentence ? What is its sub-
ject nominative ? What is the subject of the verb is? What
kind of a clause is What you have done 9
2. Last spring I saw a meadow that was full of cowslips.
What is the first verb in this sentence ? What is its subject
nominative ? What is the second verb in this sentence ? AVhat
is its subject nominative ? AYhat kind of a clause is that was
full of cowslips 9
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 237
Let us put a wavering line over the modifying clause of this
sentence :
Last spring I saw afield iJiat was full of cowslips.
3. I thought of the beautiful Field of the Cloth of Gold
of which I have read.
Find each verb in this sentence and its subject nominative.
Which of these verbs is in a modifying clause ? What does the
clause modify ? What kind of a clause is it ? Write the sen-
tence, drawing a wavering line over the modifying clause.
4. The Field of the Cloth of Gold was a plain in France
Avhere the king of France and the king of England met in
1520.
Find each verb in this sentence and its subject nominative.
Which of these verbs is in a modifying clause ? AVhat does it
modify ? What kind of a clause is it ? Write the sentence,
drawing a wavering line over the modifying clause.
5. If you read the history of England you will learn
the interesting story of this meeting.
What is the first verb in this sentence ? What is its subject
nominative ? What is the second verb ? What is its subject
nominative ? Which of these verbs is in a conditional or
modifying clause ? What does this conditional clause modify ?
What kind of a clause is it ? Write the sentence^ drawing a
wavering line over the modifying clause.
In each of these sentences the wavering line over the noun or
the modifying clause shows the subordinate clause ; the rest of
the sentence is the principal thought, called the principal clause.
A complex sentence is one containing a clause used
as a noun or as a modifier.
228 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER LXVIl.
THE ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES.
The following are given as models for the analysis of com-
plex sentences. They should be carefully studied :
1. What you heme done is the deed of a hero.
This is a complex sentence with a subordinate noun
clause.
Subj. nom. {sub. noun clause), What you have done | -
{analysis of noun clause)
subj. nom., you | -
pred. verb, have done | what | -
Pred. verb, is-deed | of hero | a | -
The hyphen connecting is and deed shows the predicate
relation of deed.
2. Last spring I saw a meadow that was full qf cowslips.
This is a complex sentence with a subordinate adjective
clause.
Subj. nom., I I -
Fred, verb, saw
meadow a | -
{adj. clause) that was full of
cowslips I -
spring I last [ -
{analysis of adjective clause)
subj. nom., that | -
pred. verb, was-full | of cowslips | -
3. I thought of the beautiful Field of the Cloth of Gold
where the hing of France and the king of England met
mT52a
THE ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES.
229
This is a complex sentence with a subordinate adjective
clause.
Suhj. nom., I | -
Pred. verb, thought
of field
the I -
beautiful I -
of Cloth I of Gold I -
{adj. dause) where the
king of trance and the
king of England met in
1520 I -
{analysis of adjective clause)
king of France | -
nom..
king
of England | -
2>red. verb, met
where | -
in 1520 I -
4. If you read the history of England you will learn the
interesting story of that meeting.
This is a complex sentence Avith a subordinate adverbial
(conditional) clause.
Subj. nom., you | -
Pred, verb, will learn story the | -
interesting I -
of meeting I that | -
{adverbial clause) If you read the
history of England | -
{analysis of adverbial clause)
subj. nom., you | -
yred. verb, read | history the | -
of England | -
learn-7/^-read.
230 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA3IMAR.
5. " For when the heart goes hefore, lihe a lamj)^ and
illumines the pathway^
Many things are made clear, that else lie hidden hi
darlinessP
This is a complex sentence containing a subordinate
adverbial clause and a subordinate adjective clause.
Svhj. nom., things Many | -
{adj. claused that else lie hidden in
darkness [ -
{analysis of adjective clause)
subj. nom,. that I hidden
in darkness | -
else I -
pred. verb, lie | -
(adv. clause) when the heart
goes before, like a lamp, and
illumines the pathway | -
Pred. verh, are made-clear
{analysis of adverbial clause)
subj. nom., heart
the 1 -
like 1 lamp
goes 1 before [ -
pred, verbs, P
a -
illumines | pathway | the | -
are made clQ^x-when-goe^ and illumines
For is merely an introductory word.
Use the following order in the analysis of complex sentences :
I. Find the subject nominative of each verb.
II. Determine the full clause of which each verb and
its subject nominative are a part.
III. Select the principal clause.
ly. Decide what kind of a clause each subordinate one is.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 231
Y. Analyze the principal clause, placing each sub-
ordinate clause in such relation to it as its kind (noun, ad-
jective, or adverb clause) determines ; then —
YI. Analyze each subordinate clause as if it were in
itself a sentence.
CHAPTER LXVIII.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
1. Little deeds of kindness make life pleasant; great
deeds of self-sacrifice make life noble.
With what punctuation marks may we close a complete
sentence ? How many sentences are there in the above illus-
tration ? What is the subject nominative of the first verb ?
of the second verb ? Is either of these clauses a noun clause,
or modifying clause ? Are the two statements independent
thoughts, neither modifying the other ?
2. He who sows courtesy reaps friendship ; and he who
plants kindness gathers love.
How many independent thoughts are there in the above sen-
tence ? What is the first thought ? the second ? What kind
of a sentence is the first thought in itself? the second ?
3. " The birds are glad ; the brier rose fills
The air with sweetness ; all the hills
Stretch green to June's unclouded sky."
How many independent thoughts are there in the above
selection ? What kind of a sentence is each thought ?
A compound sentence is the expression in one sen-
tence of two or more independent thoughts.
The several independent thoughts that are joined to form a
compound sentence are its elements. If tlie elements are in
232 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
themselves simple sentences the sentence is called a compound
sentence witli simple elements. If one, two, or more, of the ele-
ments are in themselves complex sentences, the sentence is called
a compound sentence xoitli one, two, or more, complex elements.
The analysis of a compound sentence consists in stating what
kind of a compound sentence it is, and what are its elements ;
and then analyzing its elements as simple or complex sentences.
The following are illustrations of the analysis of compound
sentences :
'^ There, too, the dovecote stood, with its meeh and innocent
inmates
Murmuring ever of love, while above in the variant breezes
N'umherless noisy weathercocks rattled and sang of mutation?'^
This is a compound sentence ^vith two simple elements.
I — First Element.
Suhj. nom., dovecote
The I -
with inmates
(Murmuring)
its I -
meek | -
and
innocent | -
Muraiuring
There |
too i -
Pred. verb, stood
■Second Element.
Suhj. nom., weathercocks
ever ] -
of love
rattled
Pred. verbs, and
sang
IN'umberless | -
noisy | -
above | -
the I -
variant I ■
in breezes
of mutation
Note : Too and above are really modal adverbs. See page
304.
SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 238
Me who has a thousand friends has not a friend to spare.
And he who has one enemy will meet him everywhere.
This is a compound sentence with two complex ele-
ments.
First Element.
Suhj. norn., He
{adj. clause) who has a thousand
friends I -
{analysis of adjective clause)
rt suhj. nom., who | -
^ pred. verb., has | friends | thousand | a | -
Pred. verb., has not | -
friend | a | -
to spare | -
' — Second Element.
Bubj. nom., he | {adj. clause) who has one enemy
{analysis of adjective clause)
suhj. nom., who | -
^ed. verb, has | enemy | one | -
Pred. verb, will meet
him I -
everyAvhere
CHAPTER LXIX.
SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS.
1. Gratitude is the fairest flower that springs from the
soil ; and the heart of man knoweth none more fragrant.
2. The fairest flowers may grow in the blackest soil.
3. " The days are stilled, and the long nights hushed,
And the- far sky bums like the heart of a rose ;
And the woods, with the gold of autumn flushed,
Lavish their splendors in crimson snows."
234 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
4. This meadow is the playground of the red- winged
blackbird.
5. As we stroll along he flies over our heads.
6. He calls out o-ha-lee^ and then soars slowly down to
the ground.
7. His red wings are like a soldier's epaulets.
8. " The little bird sits at his door in the sun,
Atilt like a blossom among the leaves,
And lets his illumined being o'errun
"With the deluge of summer it receives."
9. " His mate feels the eggs beneath her wings,
And the heart in her dumb breast flutters and sings ;
He sings to the wide Avorld, and she to her nest, —
In the nice ear of IN'ature which song is the best ? "
10. Many a boy values the Bible that his mother gave
him, because she gave it to him.
11. " In your hearts are the birds and the sunshine,
In your thoughts [is] the brooklet's flow."
12. As a pinch of lampblack will soil the whitest fabric,
so idle gossip will blacken the reputation of the purest man.
13. He lives long who. lives well; and time misspent is
not lived but lost.
14. " The green earth sends her- incense up
From many a mountain shrine ;
From folded leaf and dewy cup
She pours her sacred wine.
" The mists above the morning rills
Else white as wings of prayer ;
The altar curtains of the hills
Are sunset's purple air."
A SELECTION FOR STUDY AND MEMORY. 235
15. " The lettuce is to me a most interesting study. Let-
tuce is like conversation : it must be crisp and fresh, and so
sparkling that you scarcely notice the bitter in it. Lettuce,
like most talkers, is apt to run rapidly to seed. Blessed is
that sort which comes rapidly to a head, and so remains,
like a few people I know ; growing more solid, and satis-
factory, and tender at the same time."
16. There is a beautiful Indian apologue which says that
a man once said to a piece of clay, " What art thou ? " The
reply was, "I am but a lump of clay, but I was placed
beside a rose and caught its fragrance."
17. An apologue is a story that is intended to convey
the teaching of some excellent lesson.
18. This apologue teaches us that if we associate with
what is good, we shall receive some of its goodness.
CHAPTER LXX.
A SELECTION FOR STUDY AND MEMORY.
Song of the Chattahoochee.*
Out of the hills of Habersham,
Down through the valleys of Hall,
I hurry amain to reach the plain.
Run the rapid and leap the fall.
Split at the rock and together again,
Accept my bed, or narrow or wide.
And flee from folly on every side,
♦ From " Poems of Sidney Lanier." Copyright, 1884, 1891, by Mary D. Lanier, and pub-
lished by Charles Scribner^s Sons.
236 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
With a lover's pain to attain the plain,
Far from the hills of Habersham,
Far from the valleys of Hall.
All down the hills of Habersham,
All through the valleys of Hall,
The rushes cried. Abide, ahide,
The wilful waterweeds held me thrall.
The laving laurel turned my tide.
The ferns and the fondling grass said, Stay^
The dewberry dipped for to work delay.
And the little reeds sighed. Abide, abide,
Here in the hills of Habersham,
Here in the valleys of Hall.
High o'er the hills of Habersham,
Yelling the valleys of Hall,
The hickory told me manifold
Fair tales of shade, the poplar tall
Wrought me her shadowy self to hold.
The chestnut, the oak, the walnut, the pine,
Overleaning, with flickering meaning and sign,
Said, Pass not, so cold, these manifold
Deej) shades of the hills of Habersham,
These glades in the valleys of Hall.
And oft in the hills of Habersham,
And oft in the valleys of Hall,
The Avhite quartz shone, and the smooth brook-stone
Did bar me of passage with friendl}^ brawl.
And many a luminous jewel lone
A SELECTION FOR STUDY AND 3f EMORY. 237
— Crystals clear or a-cloud with mist,
Kuby, garnet, and amethyst —
Made lures with the lights of streaming stone
In the clefts of the hills of Habersham,
In the beds of the valleys of Hall.
But oh, not the hills of Habersham,
And oh, not the valleys of Hall,
Avail : I am fain for to water the plain.
Downward the voices of Duty call —
Downward, to toil and be mixed with the main ;
The dry fields burn, and the wheels are to turn,
And a myriad flowers mortally yearn.
And the lordly main from beyond the plain
Calls o'er the hills of Habersham,
Calls through the valleys of Hall.
—Sidney Lanier.
[Sidney Lanier (La-n5r'), a Southern poet, born in
Macon, Georgia, February 3, 1842; died in Lynn, IS'orth
Carolina, September 7, 1881.]
Where is the Chattahoochee river ? Where does it rise, in
what direction does it flow, and what water does it join ?
Why should Lanier sing of this river ?
For dictionary study :
amain
wilful
thrall
laving
fondling
dewberry
manifold
fair
wrought
flickering
glades
bar
brawl
luminous
a-cloud
crystals
ruby
garnet
amethyst
lures
238 TEE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
streaming clefts fain main
myriad mortally yearn lordly
Or — or is a rare expression for luhether—or.
Pain, which sometimes means anxious effort, has here the
meaning of haste.
For to work, for to water ; for was once commonly used
before the infinitive form, but is not so used now.
Order of study :
1. Read the poem for its general meaning and spirit,
carefully observing the rhythm.
2. Study the pictures that it presents.
3. Study it for its music — rhythm, rhyme, alliteration.
4. The lesson of fidelity to duty, as illustrated in the
last stanza. The beneficence of the river.
Suggestions and hints : Out of the hills, because the be-
ginnings of a river are from the many little springs and rills that
are in the mountains ; hurry, run, leap, split, express just the
movement of the river in such places ; flee from folly may mean
that he does not listen to the voices that delay him from the
distant duty.
The poplar tall leans over and her shadow falls into the
water and seems to be held within its depths ; the overleaning
chestnut, oak, walnut, and pine, cast watering shadows within
the water, their branches waving like arms that beckon and
would detain ; the smooth brook-stone made a little obstacle to
his passage, and murmured as he went on.
V^^hy friendly brawl ? How did the luminous Jewels seek to
detain him ?
Is there another kind of rhyme in any of these lines than
A SELECTION FOR STUDY AND MEMORY. 239
that of the final words — Hall, fall ; wide, side ; stay, delay,
etc.?
Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter or sound at
the beginning of two or more words in close or immediate suc-
cession ( Cent. Diet.). J'lee/rom/olly, ?^?ilful waterweeds, Zaving
/aurel, are examples. It was used in poetry before the rhyming
of final words was introduced. Study the various examples of
alliteration in this poem. Do they add to the music of the
poem ? In what four ways is this poem made musical ? Does
the rhythm (the movement) of the poem suggest the flow of a
river ?
What duties lie before the stream ? After it becomes
" mixed with the main" what becomes of its waters ?
Note : A short list of poems, essays, etc., suitable for liter-,
ary and grammatical study, and for composition work, is given
below. All of these may be found in very inexpensive editions :
Poems : Longfellow., The Building of the Ship,
The Courtship of Miles Stan-
dish,
Evangeline.
Whittier^ Selected stanzas from "The
Last Walk in Autumn,"
The Tent on the Beach,
Snow-Bound.
Lowell, The Dandelion, with which
may be read a little poem by
John Albee, " Dandelions,"
The Vision of Sir Launfal.
Ilohnes, The Living Temple.
Bryant., The Flood of Years.
240 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Essays, etc. :
Burroughs, Birds and Bees,
Strawberries,
A Spray of Pine,
A Spring Eelish.
Hawthorne, The Old Manse.
Warner, A-Hunting of the Deer.
Ilolmss, My Search for the Captain.
Thoreau, Wild Apples.
Lincoln, The Gettysburg Speech.
CHAPTER LXXI.
THE TENSE OF VERBS.
I.
1. I hear the rippling of a little hrooh expresses simple
action at \hQ present time.
2. I heard the rippling of a little hrooh expresses simple
action in past time.
3. I shall hear the rippling of a little hrooh expresses
simple action in future time.
In the above sentences the form of the verb only is changed
to show the time of the action. The tense of the verb means
the time of the action as determined by the form of the verb.
Present tense means present time, past tense means j^ast time,
and future tense means future time.
What is the tense of each verb in the following sentences ?
4. The torrents of I^orway leap down from their moun-
THE TENSE OF VERBS. 241
tain homes with plentiful cataracts, and run brief but glori-
ous races to the sea.
5. The streams of England move smoothly through
green fields and beside ancient, sleepy towns.
6. Once at sunset I came to an open space beside the
Stillwater river.
7. It was early spring, and the young leaves on the
trees were tiny.
8. On the top of a small sumac sat a veery.
9. I saw the pointed spots on his breast, the swelling of
his white throat, and the sparkle of his eyes, as he poured
out his whole heart into a long, liquid chant.
10. The slender sapling will grow into a graceful lady-
birch, and bend over the trout-hole. Other generations of
boys will come with rod and line to draw the speckled
beauties from their deep, silent haunts. And I, perhaps,
shall accompany them, for they may be my sons or grand-
sons, and I shall remember the delights of my boyhood days.
II.
1. I have heard the rippling of the little hrook expresses
action as occurring before the present time, but completed
at the present time.
2. I had heard the rippling of the little hrooh expresses
action as occurring before some past time, but completed at
that past time.
3. / shall have heard the rippling of the little hrook
represents action as occurring before some future time, but
completed at that future time.
The forms of the verb that denote completed action are
16
242 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
called perfect forms. When the form of the verb shows that
the action is complete at the present time, the verb is of pres-
ent perfect tense ; complete at some past time^ of past perfect
tense; complete at some future time, of future perfect tense.
What is the tense of each verb in the following sentences ?
4. The brook has built a roof of ice over its waters.
5. The trees have covered the earth with a blanket of
brown leaves.
6. The buds of the horse-chestnut trees have put on
their waterproof cloaks.
7. The fruit had been gathered and stored away in the
bins in the farmer's cellar.
8. The flowers had planted their seeds in the ground.
9. The woodchucks had gone to their long winter sleep.
10. Before spring comes the squirrel will have eaten his
little store of nuts, the woodchuck will have consumed his
fat and will have grown lean, and the little birds that shel-
ter themselves in the Avoods will have grown tired of the
cold and the storms.
III.
1. lam listening to the rippling of a little hrooh expresses
the action as continuing or progressing at the present time.
2. / was listening to the rippling of a little hrooh repre-
sents the action as continuing or progressing in some past
time.
3. I shall he listening to the rippling of a little hrooh
represents the action as continuing ov progressing in some
future time.
4. / have heen listening is a progressive action complete
at the present time.
THE TENSE OF VERBS. 243
5. / had been listening is a progressive action com-
plete at some past time.
6. / shall have been listening is a progressive action
complete in some futm*e time.
The forms of verbs that denote progressive action are
called jprogressiwe forms. Their tenses are named present
progressive, past progressive, future progressive, present per-
fect progressive, past perfect progressive, amd future perfect
progressive.
What is the tense of the verbs in the following sentences ?
7. We are watching the flight of a balloon.
8. The victorious troops are marching through the
streets ; their banners are flying, their drums are beating,
and the throng of onlookers is cheering their every step.
9. We had been watching a little sailboat afar out on
the waves. It had been going with great swiftness before
the \vind, when all at once the wind changed.
10. When you arise at seven the sun will have been
shining a full hour, the birds ^\ill have been singing for
three hours, and your pony will have been calling for his
master to come and give him his breakfast.
CHAPTER LXXII.
THE TENSE OF VERBS, Continued.
All statements have reference to present, past, or future
time. The form of a verb in a sentence determines the time to
which the statement has reference.
244 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The time as expressed hy the form of the verh is tlie tense
of the verb. The word tense means time.
The tense-form of the verb also expresses the action or state
as a simple fact without reference to completeness or incom-
pleteness {indefinite) ; as complete {perfect) ; and as incom-
plete (progressive) ; thus —
Indefinite (Simple) Peefect Progressive
Pres. I listen I have listened I am listening
Past I listened I had listened I was listening
Future I shall listen I shall have listened I shall be listening
Perfect Progressive
Present I have been listening
Past I had been listening
Future I shall have been listening
Learn thoroughly the following forms
Present
Indefinite
Progressive
1st person singular
I listen
I am listening
2d
you listen
you are listening
3d
he listens
he is listening
1st " plural
we listen
we are listening
2d
you listen
you are listening
3d
they listen
they are listening
Past
1st person singular
I listened
I was listening
2d
you listened
you were listening
3d
he listened
he was listening
1st " plural
we listened
we were listening
2d
you listened
you were listening
3d
they listened
they were listening
THE TENSE OF VERBS.
245
Future
Indefinite Progressive
1st person singular
I shall listen I shall be listening
2d
you will listen you ^vill be listening
3d
he will listen he will be listening
1st " plural
we shall listen we shall be listening
2d
you will listen you will be listening
3d
they will listen they will be listening
Present
Perfect
1st person singular
I have listened
2d
you have listened
3d
he has listened
1st " plural
we have listened
2d
you have listened
3d
Past
they have listened
1st person singular
I had listened
2d
you had listened
3d
he had listened
1st " plural
we had listened
2d
you had listened
3d
Future
they had listened
1st person singular
I shall have listened
2d
you vnW have listened
3d
he will have listened
1st " plural
we shall have listened
2d
you will have listened
3d
they ^vill have listened
246 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GEAJUIAB.
Present
1st person singular
2(1
3d
1st " plural
2(1
3d
Past
1st person singular
2d
3d
1st " plural
2d
3d
Future
1st person singular
2d
3d
1st " plural
2d
3d
Perfect Pkogressive
I have been listening
you have been listening
he has been listening
we have been listening
you have been listening
they have been listening
I had been listening
you had been listening
he had been listening
\ye had been listening
you had been listening
they had been listening
I shall have been listening
you will have been listening
he will have been listening
we shall have been listening
you will have been listening
they will have been listening
Give the tense, person, and number of the following forms,
thus : / liear, present indefinite tense, first person, singular
number ; tliey had heard, past perfect tense, third person,
plural number ; you will have heen hearing, future perfect
progressive tense, second person, singular or plural number.
(1) He lives, (2) she reached, (3) they will help, (4) you
have made, (5) we had believed, (6) they will have fought,
THE MODE OF VERBS. 247
(7) the day is passing, (8) the Turks were lighting, (9) the man
will be working, (10) we have been wandering, (11) you had
been playing, (12) the tree Avill have been growing, (13) I
finish, (14) he will have finished, (15) he will have been
finishing, (10) they will cross, (17) they had been crossing,
(18) they will have crossed, (19) they crossed, (20) you write,
(21) he wrote, (22) we shall write, (28) they have written,
(24) you had written, (25) I shall have written, (26) we are
writing, (27) the girls were writing, (28) the ladies will be
writing, (29) the men will have been writing, (30) they had
been singing.
CHAPTER LXXIII.
THE MODE OF VERBS.
1. We refuse to listen to evil.
2. Shall we refuse to listen to evil ?
3. If we refuse to listen to evil we shall rebuke those
who speak it.
4. Though you speak no evil, it will harm you to listen
to those who do.
5. Go and tell those who speak evil that silence is better
than such speech.
6. Refuse to listen to evil.
The first sentence makes a statement as a fact. The second
sentence asks a direct question.
In the third sentence, If ive refuse to listen to evil expresses
not a fact but a condition. In the fourth sentence, Though you
speak no evil expresses something not as a fact, but as a sup-
position.
248 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The liftli sentence expresses two commands. The sixth
sentence expresses an exhortation.
The mode of a verh is its tnanner of expressing.
The preceding sentences illustrate the three modes : the
indicative, which is the mode of direct assertion or inter-
rogation ; the subjunctive, which is the mode of supposed or
conditional assertion; and the imperative, which is the mode
of command.
The indicative mode is the mode of direct assertion
and interrogation.
The subjunctive mode is the mode of supposed or
conditional assertion.
The imperative mode is the mode of command. (The
form of command often expresses merely a wish or an ex-
hortation.)
Of what mode is each verb in the following sentences ?
7. " The windows of the wayside inn
Grieamed red with firelight."
8. Are you so much offended that you will not speak
to me?
9. Should any man speak evil of another to you, it is
well to ask why he speaks it.
10. When opportunity knocks at your door, admit her,
lest she come not again.
11. " Do thy duty ; that is best ;
Leave unto thy Lord the rest."
12. " Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow ;
they toil not, neither do they spin."
^ 3. Would that the king were here !
THE VOICE OF VERBS, 249
14. JSliould you meet the king, be not afraid.
15. " Oh, square thyself for use ! A stone that may
Fit in the wall is not left by the way."
CHAPTER LXXIV.
THE VOICE OF VERBS.
1. The children are bringing the holly for Christmas.
2. The holly has been brought from the woods.
What is the subject nominative of the first sentence ? What
words represent the action ? AVhat word represents the doer
of the action ? What word represents the receiver of the
action ?
An analysis of this sentence is : children, the doer of the
action ; are bringing, the action ; Jiolly, the receiver of the
action. The doer of the action is the subject of the verb.
In the second sentence is holly the doer or the receiver of
the action of the verb ?
An analysis of this sentence is : holly, the receiver of the
action ; has been brought, the action.
The receiver of the action is the subject of the verb.
Analyze the following sentences in the same way :
3. All animals love and protect their little ones.
4. The tender plants within the seeds are protected by
the hard covering of the seed.
5. The birds that sing the most sweetly are most loved.
6. " Give fools their gold, and knaves their power ;
Let Fortune's bubbles rise and fall ;
Who sows a field, or trains a flower,
Or plants a tree, is more than all."
350 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAH.
The voice of a verh shows 'whether the suhject of the 'verb
exerts or receives the action of the verh.
A verh is of active voice when its suhject exerts the
action expressed hy the verh.
A verh is of passive voice when its suhject receives the
action expressed hy the verh.
In the following sentences determine of each verb whether
it is of active or passive voice, and state the reason for your
decision :
7. An oriole builds her nest each year in an elm tree
near my window. The nest is built very carefully, and hung
by strong strings from a very slender branch. The wind
swings it like a cradle. The nest is swung, too, by the
motions of the birds. Sweet little morning songs are sung
by the father and mother birds when the first rays of the
sun flush the east. The parent birds feed their little brood
with soft caterpillars, which they swallow and then disgorge
before putting them in the open beaks of the nestlings. The
old birds are very fond of cherries and mulberries, and often
the farmers' tender peas are picked by little flocks of these
beautiful birds. But in return for the cherries and peas
which are taken by them, they destroy the caterpillars
which ravage the apple trees.
VERBS AS TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE. 251
CHAPTER LXXV.
VERBS AS TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE.
1. The children bring flowers.
AVhat is the subject of this sentence ? What is the verb ?
AVhat is the object ? Who are represented as acting ? What
word states the action ? What word represents the receiver of
the action ? If I say The children bring, do I express a com-
plete thought ? Which is incomplete, the subject or the predi-
cate ? Can you think The children bring without thinking
of what they bring ?
The word tra7isitive means passing over, and a verb is
transitive when it represents an action as passing from the doer
of the act to some expressed receiver of the act. In the sen-
tence given, children is the doer of the act, and Jlotvers the
receiver of the act.
2. Honeybees love the fragrant flowers of the basswood.
3. They cannot reach the nectar in the long flower
tubes of the red clover.
Are the verbs in these sentences transitive ? Explain.
4. Flowers are brought by the children.
5. The fragrant flowers of the basswood are loved by
the bees.
6. The nectar in the long flower tubes of the red clover
cannot be reached by them.
Do sentences 4, 5, and 6 differ in meaning, or merely in
form of expression, from sentences 1, 2, and 3 ? What word
represents the doer of the act in the fourth sentence ? The
receiver of the act ? Of what voice is the verb ?
352 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Analyze the fifth sentence., stating the doer of the act, the
receiver of the act, and the voice of the verb. Analyze thus
the sixth sentence. Are the verbs in these sentences (4, 5, and
6) transitive ?
A verb is transitive when the doer cmd the receiver of
the action which the verh rejpresents, are hoth expressed.
If the verb be of active voice, the doer must be its subject
nominative, and the receiver its direct object. If the verb be
of passive voice, the doer must be the object of the preposition
by in an adverbial clause denoting agency, and the receiver
must be the subject nominative of the verb.
A verb is intransitive when either the doer or the re-
ceiver of the action which the verb represents is not expressed.
7. The hunter shot the deer.
8. The hunter shot at the deer.
Of what is deer the object in the first sentence ? Is, then,
the verb shot in this sentence transitive ? Of what is deer the
object in the second sentence ? Is, then, shot transitive in this
sentence ?
It will be seen that it is not the verb itself but the use of
the verb that determines whether it be transitive or intransi-
tive. The verb shot has a direct object in the first sentence,
and is there transitive. It has not a direct object in the sec-
ond sentence, and is there intransitive.
A verb used intransitively and followed by a preposition
in the active voice, when used in the passive voice frequently
retains the preposition with an adverbial force, thus :
9. a. The men shot at the' great moose.
b. The great moose had been shot at by the men.
VERBS AS TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE. 253
10. a. The thieves had tampered with the lock.
h. The lock had been tampered icith by the thieves.
11. a. The largest bequest in this will provides for the
maintenance of a free public hospital.
h. The maintenance of a free public hospital is pro-
vided /br by the largest bequest in this will.
Apply the definitions and principles relating to transitive
and intransitive verbs to each of the numbered sentences in
this chapter. Discuss with especial care the verbs in sentences
9, 10, 11.
12. We see, we hear, we breathe, we speak.
13. We see the far-stretching sea, we hear the music of
its waves as they break upon the shore, we breathe the cool,
salty air, and it constrains us to silence, not to speech. We
speak no word.
14. Once upon a time there dwelt by the sea a little
maid. She loved the sea. Every wave that whitened the
face of the vast sea was dear to her ; every bird that floated
over it, every sail that glided across it, brought her a thrill
of joy. She thought, " The north wind fights me ; the west
wind plays with me; the east wind sighs, and is always
ready to weep ; the south Avind loves and kisses me."
—Adapted from "The Spray Sprite," by Mrs. Thaxter.
15. The bullets of the enemy severely wounded the
brave soldier.
16. The brave soldier was severely wounded by the bul-
lets of the enemy.
17. The brave soldier was severely wounded.
254 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
18. The great blue heron spread his wings and grace-
fully flew away.
19. The oil spread over the waves and quieted their fury.
20. The Chinese fly kites of many curious designs ; birds,
flowers, dragons, all fly in the breezes that blow over that
orient land, and men and children alike take delight in the
sport.
CHAPTER LXXVI.
THE INFINITIVE FORMS.
An infinitive is a verb-forTn consisting of the prepo-
sition to followed hy the present or perfect tense form of a
verb. It has the nature of the verh and that of some other
part of speech — the noun., the adjective., or the adverh.
1. I remember the black wharves and the slips,
And the sea-tides tossing free. — Longfellow.
2. To remember our friends is one of the delights of
life.
3. I wish to remember this beautiful poem, " My Lost
Youth."
4. I am glad to have remembered the poem so well.
5. The wish to be remembered is common to all men.
6. My mother is pleased to have been remembered by
you.
The infinitive forms in these sentences are : to remember,
to have remembered, to be remembered, to have been remembered.
Like a verb, infinitive forms may have a subject, govern an
object, and be modified ; while in a sentence they perform the
office of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
THE INFINITIVE FORMS. 255
The first sentence above illustrates remember as a verb ; the
second illustrates the present active infinitive form, to remem-
her, as the subject of the verb is, and as governing the noun
friends ; the third illustrates the infinitive form, to remeinber,
as the object of a verb. Does it take any object ? The fourth
sentence illustrates the use of the perfect active infinitive iorm,
to have remembered, as an adverb, as governing an object, and
as modified by an adverb. What does it modify, what is its
object, and by what adverb is it modified ? The fifth sentence
represents the present passive infinitive form, to be remembered,
as an adjective. What does it modify ? The sixth sentence
illustrates the use of the perfect passive infinitive form, to
have been remembered, as an adverb. What does it modify ?
Note : In accordance with the best usage an adverb should
never be so placed as to separate the parts of an infinitive form.
It should be placed before the infinitive form, or directly after
the form or its object. Thus :
You hoAje had time to carefully prepare your lesson, is
incorrect, and should be, You have had time to prepare care-
fiilly your lesson.
Place correctly in each of the following infinitive phrases
the adverb that follows it :
7. To do one's duty — faithfully.
8. To observe the rights of others — carefully.
9. To have borne suffering — patiently.
10. To be told our faults — kindly.
11. To treat all people — courteously.
Use suitable adverbs in connection with the following
phrases :
256 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
12. To have fastened .
13. To have spoken .
14. To have been treated .
15. To destroy the property of others .
16. To try to improve .
Give complete sentences containing the above phrases.
Infinitive forms are classified as simple — when the pres-
ent, or root, form of the verb follows the preposition to;
and compound — when any other form of the verb follows it.
They have two tenses — present 2l\\^ present perfect^ and may
have active Sind passive voice.
The following are the infinitive forms of the verb remember :
Active Passive
I^resent
to remember to be remembered
Present Perfect
to have remembered to have been remembered
In parsing an infinitive form, state :
I. From what verb it is formed.
11. Its classification — simple or compound.
III. Its tense — present or present perfect.
lY. Its voice — active or passive.
Y. Its use — as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb — and
the word to which it is related by that use.
THE PARTICIPLE. 257
CHAPTER LXXVII.
THE PARTICIPLE.
A participle is a word formed from a verb, andpo/r-
takhig of the nature of a verb and of that of some other part
of speech.
The Participle as a Verbal Adjective.
1. The children, breaking the string, let the kite sail
away.
In this sentence breaking is formed from the verb break ; it
expresses action exerted ; it governs an object, string ; it
modifies cliildren. Breaking is a present active participle,
partaking of the nature both of the verb and adjective.
2. The plate, broken into many pieces, lay upon the
floor.
In this sentence broken is formed from the word break ; it
expresses action received ; it modifies plate. Broken is a past
passive participle, partaking of the nature both of the verb and
adjective.
Analyze in the same way the participles in the following
sentences :
3. Notice the delicate perfume borne from the blossom-
ing willows.
4. The bees, bearing honey, fly straight from the wil-
lows to the hive.
5. " Covering many a rod of ground
Lay the timber all around."
17
258 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
6. " there Avas heard
The sound of hammers, blow on blow,
Knocking away the shores and spurs."
7. The books, lying upon his desk, and the pictures,
hung upon the wall, showed the taste of a scholar and
artist.
Participles^ when placed immediately hefore the noun
which they modify^ lose the nature of the verb and retain that
of the adjective only^ thus ;
8. The breaking waves dashed high.
9. The broken plate lay on the floor.
10. The blossoming willows send forth a delicious per-
fume.
II.
The Participle as a Verbal Noun.
1. Guiding the canoes through the rapids requires quick
judgment and a firm Avrist.
In this sentence guiding is formed from the verb guide;
it governs an object, canoe ; it is the subject nominative of the
verb is. Guiding is a participle, partaking of the nature both
of the verb and noun.
2. Drilling raw recruits into trained soldiers requires
much time.
In this sentence drilling is a participle formed from the
verb drill; it governs an object, recruits ; it is the subject
nominative of requires. Drillijig is a participle, partaking of
the nature both of the verb and noun.
Analyze, in the same way, the participles in the following
sentences :
THE PARTICIPLE. 259
3. The President is desirous of establishing peace.
4. Not the fear of the punishment, but the fear of doing
wrong, should restrain us.
5. Laughing and singing frighten away sorrow.
Participles^ when preceded hy the article and followed hy
the preposition of, lose tlie nature of the verb amd hecome
nouns^ thus :
6. " I found Him in the shining of the stars,
I marked Him in the flowering of His fields."
III.
The Adverbial Force of the Pa/rticiple.
1. The brook ran rippling and purling on its way.
In this sentence rippling and purling describe the action
of the brook rather than the brook itself ; they modify ran
rather than hrooh. They have, then, an adverbial force.
2. She stood wringing her hands in her grief.
3. The children came talking and laughing.
After verbs of condition and motion the p^articiple fre-
quently qualifies tJie verb as well as the subject of the verb.
lY.
Participles are classed as simple — formed without any
auxiliary ; and compound — formed by the use of the parti-
ciples of the auxiliary verbs be and have. They have three
tenses — -present^ past, and perfect, and may have active and
passive voice.
260 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The following are the participles of the verb remember :
Active Passive
Present remembering being remembered
Past remembered
Perfect having remembered having been remembered
In parsing a participle, state :
I. From what verb it is formed.
II. Its classification — simj^le or compound.
III. Its tense — present, past, or perfect.
IV. Its voice — active or passive.
Y. Its use — as noun, adjective, or adverb, and the word
to which it is related by that use.
CHAPTER LXXVIII.
POTENTIAL VERB PHRASES.
Certain verhs^ can, could, may, might, must, should,
would, expressing power., possibility^ obligation^ or permis-
sion, are used as auxiliaries with the infinitive forms of other
verbs in verb phrases called potential verb phrases.
In these phrases the preposition to of the infinitive form is
suppressed.
While can is considered a form of present tense and could
of past tense, may of present tense and might of past tense,
must of both present and past tense, should the past tense of
shall, and would the past tense of will, the tense of the verb
phrase is not expressed by these auxiliaries.
POTENTIAL VERB PHRASES. 261
The tense of the potential verh phrase is deternmined hy the
infinitive, hy some adverb of time^ or hy its relation to tlie
rest of the sentence.
1. / ca/n see you no\o means / am able now to see you.,
the tense hfsiw^^ present.
2. / can see you to-morrow means / shall he ahle to-
inorrow to see you., the tense \yid\VL^ future.
3. / may have heard is a possibility — modification of a
simple past tense, I heard yesterday, or of a present perfect
tense, I have heard at some time before now.
If could or might be substituted in each of these sentences,
the definiteness, but not the tense, of the phrase will be changed.
Could expresses greater indefiniteness than ca7i, might than
may, should than shall, and would than will.
Determine the tense of the potential verb phrase in each
of the following sentences :
4. I may be helping you by this explanation.
5. I may help you to-morrow.
6. I may have helped you in the completion of your
task.
7. I may have helped you yesterday.
8. I might hear the roaring of the ocean if I were
nearer it.
9. I might hear the roaring of the ocean if the wind
should blow from the east.
10. I might have heard the roaring of the ocean yester-
day.
11. I might have been rich if my ships had not been
shipwrecked
262 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
12. I sat where I might hear the roaring of the waves.
13. I must be busy.
14. I must do this to-morrow.
15. I must have broken the pitcher yesterday.
16. I must have walked this road a hundred times.
17. I should tell you (ought to tell you).
18. I should tell you if it were best.
19. I should tell you to-morrow if I should be given
permission.
20. I should have told you before now (ought to have
told).
21. I should have told you yesterday if it had been per-
mitted.
CHAPTER LXXIX.
THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
The conjugation of a verb is an orderly arrangement
of its different forms to exjpress voice, mode, tense, person and
number. A verb is said to have the person and number of
its subject nominative. Conjugation includes the potential
verb phrases and the infinitive and participle verb forms.
A conij)lete verb is one that lacks no form of a
full conjugation.
A defective verb is one that is lacking in some forms
of a full conjugation.
An auxiliary verb is one that is used to assist in the
formation of the conjugation of other verbs.
The principal parts of a verb are the present (that
used with the pronoun I in the present tense, indicative
CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 263
mode), the past (that used with the pronoun I in the past
tense, indicative mode), and the present and past participles.
A regular, or weak, verb is one that forms its past
tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed to the present.
Verbs of more than one syllable change a final y to i before
adding -ed.
An irregular, or st/rong, verb is one that forms its
past tense or past participle by a change either in the
spelling or the pronunciation of the body of the word.
This class includes those verbs in which the added d has
been changed to t.
A redundant verb is one that has more than one
form for its past tense or past participle.
Note : In the modern use of English, the pronoun you is
universally used for both the singular and plural forms. The
conjugations of verbs given in this book have been made to
conform to this usage, the singular form, tliou, being placed in
brackets.
CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS.
In the conjugation of a verb, shall and will, should and
would, have and had, and the several tenses of the verb he,
are used as auxiliaries.
Shall and Will.
1.
2.
3.
Singula/r
I shall, wiU 1.
you will, shall (thou Avilt, shalt) 2.
he will, shall 3.
Plural
we shall, will
you will, shall
they will, shall
264 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Should and Would.
Singular Plural
1. I should, would 1. we should, would
2. you would, should (thou wouldst, 2. you would, should
3. he would, should shouldst) 3. they would, should
Have.
Present Tense.
1. I have
2. you have (thou hast)
3. he has
Past Tense.
1. I had
2. you had (thou hadst)
3. he had
Future Tense.
1. I shall {or will) have 1.
2. you will {or shall) have (thou 2.
wilt [or shalt] have)
3. he will {or shall) have 3.
1. we have
2. you have
3. they have
1. we had
2. you had
3. they had
we shall {or will) have
you will {or shall) have
they will {or shall) have
Be.
The forms given under the verb he are from three verbs,
he, am, and was, that once were separate verbs but of the
same meaning.
Present Tense. Past. Pres. Part. Past Part.
Prin. Parts, be, am was being been
CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 265
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense. Past Tense.
Singular Plural Singular Plural
1. I am 1. we are
2. you are 2. you are
(thou art)
3. he is
3. they are
1. I was 1. we were
2. you were 2. you were
(thou wast,
or wert)
3. he was 3. they were
Singular
I shall (or will) be
you will {or shall) be
(thou wilt [or shalt] be)
he will {or shall) be
Future Tense.
Plural
1. we shall {or will) be
2. you will {or shall) be
3. they will {or shall) be
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular Plural
I have been 1. we have been
you have been 2. you have been
(thou hast been)
he has been 3. they have been
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular Plural
1. I had been 1. we had been
2. you had been (thou hadst been) 2. you had been
3. he had been 3. they had been
266 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular Plural
1. I shall {or will) have been 1. we shall {or will) have been
2. you will {or shall) have 2. yoa will {or shall) have
been (thou wilt [or been
shalt] have been)
3. he will {or shall) have 3. they will {or shall) have
been been
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
The subjunctive mode is usually, but not always, in-
troduced by conjunctions implying condition, concession, or
purpose — if, tliougli, sinless, except, lest, that ; but these con-
junctions are not a part of the verb.
Present Tense.
Past Tense.
Singular
Plural
Singular Plural
1.
I be
1. we be
1. I were 1. we were
2.
you be
2. you be
2. you were 2. you were
(thou be)
(thou wert)
3.
he be
3. they be
3. he were 3. they Avere
Future Tense.
Singular
Plural
1.
I should {or would) be
1. we should {or would) be
2.
you would
{or should)
2. you would {or should) be
be (thou
shouldst [or
wouldst] be)
3. he would {or should) be 3. they would {or should) be
CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 267
Pkesent Perfect Tense.
Singular Plicral
1.
I have been 1. we have been
2.
you have been (thou have 2. you have been
been)
3.
he have been 3. they have been
Past Perfect Tense.
(The forms are those of the Indicative Past Perfect).
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular Plural
1. I should {or would) 1. we should {or would)
have been have been
2. you would {or should) 2. you would {or should)
have been (thou have been
wouldst [or shouldst]
have been)
3. he would {or should) 3. they would (c*/* should)
have been have been
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Singular and Plural
be
INFINITIVE FORMS.
Present Tense. Perfect Tense.
to be
to have been
PARTICIPLES.
Present.
Past. Perfect.
being
been having been
268 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Note : The verb do, in its present and past forms, is used as
an auxiliary in the active voice in simple interrogative sentences,
and in emphatic declarative and imperative sentences, thus :
INTERROGATIVE FORM OF THE INDICATIVE MODE.
Sing.
Pli
Sing.
Plu.
Sing.
Present.
Past.
1.
do I hear ?
1.
did I hear ?
2.
do you hear ?
2.
did you hear ?
(dost thou hear ?)
(didst thou hear ?)
3.
does he hear ?
3.
did he hear ?
1.
do we hear ?
1.
did we hear ?
2.
do you hear ?
2.
did you hear ?
3.
do they hear ?
3.
did they hear ?
VTIG FORM OF THE INDICATIVE MODE.
Present.
Past.
1.
I do hear
1.
I did hear
2.
you do hear
2.
you did hear
(thou dost hear)
(thou didst hear)
3.
he does hear
3.
he did hear '
1.
we do hear
1.
we did hear
2.
you do hear
2.
you did hear
3.
they do hear
3.
they did hear
TIC
1 FORM OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 3I0DE.
Present.
Past.
1.
I do hear
1.
I did hear
2.
you do hear (thou
2.
you did hear (thou
dost hear)
didst hear)
3.
he do hear
3.
He did hear
COMPLETE CONJUGATION OF A REGULAR VERB.
Present.
Plu. 1. we do hear
2. you do hear
3. they do hear
Past.
1. we did hear
2. you did hear
3. they did hear
EMPHATIC FORM OF THE IMPERATIVE MODE.
do hear
The form of the verb following the auxiliary do is
the infinitive with to suppressed.
COMPLETE CONJUGATION OF A REGULAR VERB.
Model: Love.
Present Past Pres. Part. Past Part.
Prin. Parts. love loved loving loved
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
ACTIVE VOICE.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Sing.
1.
I love
1.
I am loved
2.
you love
2.
you are loved
3.
he loves
3.
he is loved
Plu.
1.
we love
1.
Ave are loved
2.
you love
2.
you are loved
3.
they love
Past Ten
3.
8E.
they are loved
Sing.
1.
I loved
1.
I was loved
2.
you loved
2.
you were loved
3.
he loved
3.
he was loved
Plu.
1.
we loved
1.
we were loved
2.
you loved
2.
you were loved
3.
they loved
3.
they were loved
370 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Future Tense.
active voice.
Sing. 1. I shall {or will) love
2. you will {or shall) love
3. he will {or shall) love
Plu. 1. we shall {or will) love
2. you will {or shall) love
3. they will {or shall) love
1
PASSIVE VOICE.
Sing. 1.
2.
Flu.
Sing. 1.
2.
3.
Plu. 1.
2.
3.
I shall {or will) be loved
2. you will (^T' shall) be loved
3. he will {or shall) be loved
1. we shall {or will) be loved
2. you will {or shall) be loved
3. they will {or shall) be loved
Present Perfect Tense.
I have loved
you have loved
he has loved
we have loved
you have loved
they have loved
1. I have been loved
2. you have been loved
3. he has been loved
1. we have been loved
2. you have been loved
3. they have been loved
Past Perfect Tense.
I had loved
you had loved
he had loved
Ave had loved
you had loved
they had loved
1. I had been loved
2. you had been loved
3. he had been loved
1. we had been loved
2. you had been loved
3. they had been loved
COMPLETE CONJUGATION OF A REGULAR VERB. 271
Future Perfect Tense.
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.
Sing. 1. I shall {or will) have loved
2. you will {or shall) have loved
3. he will {or shall) have loved
Plu. 1. we shall {or. will) have loved
2. you will {or shall) have loved
3. they Avill {or shall) have loved
1. I shall {or will) have been loved
2. you will {or shall) have been loved
3. he will {or shall) have been loved
1. Ave shall {or will) have been loved
2. you will {or shall) have been loved
3. they Avill {or shall) have been loved
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Tense. passive voice.
1.
2. you love 2.
3. he love 3.
Plu. 1 . we love 1.
2. you love 2.
3. they love 3.
Past Tense.
Sing. 1. I loved 1.
2. you loved 2.
3. he loved 3.
Phi. 1. we loved 1.
2. you loved 2.
3. they loved
active voice.
Sing. 1. I love
I be loved
you be loved
he be loved
we be loved
you be loved
they be loved
I were loved
you were loved
he were loved
we were loved
you were loved
3. thev were loved
273 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Future Tense.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Singular
1. I should {or would)
love
2. you would {or should)
love
3. he would {or should)
love
Plural
1. we should {or would)
love
2. you would {or should)
love
3. they would (t*/* should)
love
PASSIVE VOICE.
Singular
1. I should {or would)
be loved
2. you would {or should)
be loved
3. he would {or should)
be loved
Plural
1. we should {or would)
be loved
2. you would {or should)
be loved
3. they would {or should)
be loved
Present Perfect Tense.
I, you, he ; we, you, they,
have loved
I, you, he; we, you, they
have been loved
Past Perfect Tense.
I, you, he ; we, you, they,
had loved
I, you, he; we, you, they,
had been loved
Future Perfect Tense.
I, you, he ; we, you, they,
should {or would) have
loved
I, you, he; we, you, they,
should {or would) have
been loved
THE PARSING OF A VERB. 273
IMPERATIVE MODE.
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.
love I be loved
INFINITIVE FORMS.
ACTIVE VOICE. PbESENT TeNSE. PASSIVE VOICE.
to love I to be loved
Present Perfect Tense.
to have loved | to have been loved
PARTICIPLES.
active voice. Present. passive voice.
loving I being loved
Past.
loved
Perfect.
having loved | having been loved
CHAPTER LXXX.
THE PARSING OF A VERB,
In parsing a verb we state in order :
I. Whether it is regular or irregular.
II. From what verb derived, and the principal parts.
III. Whether transitive or intransitive; if transitive,
what word represents the doer, and what the receiver, of
the action.
lY. If it have voice, whether it is of active or passive
voice.
V. Its mode, tense, person, and number.
YI. Its subject.
374 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
In the earlier exercises in parsing, the reason for each
statement should be given.
Parse the verbs in the following :
Once upon a time a mighty battle was being waged in a
plain. There was a great cloud of dust, and the sound of
shrieks and of swords striking upon swords and shields.
The king's son was being driven back, beaten. On the
edge of his line there was a coward. He did not call him-
self a coward, but he looked at the sword in his hands and
said to himself, " Of course I can do nothing with this old
dull blade. If I had the sword that the king's son has I
might do much." So, being a coward, he broke the sword
that he had, and threw the parts away. Then he stole
aAvay from the field. The king's son was pressed hard.
His sword was struck from his hand. He was wounded ;
and, retreating, he came to the place where the coward had
thrown away his sword. He snatched the broken hilt from
the sand, and, resolving to do his mightiest with this wea-
pon, he once more gave the battle cry and rushed against
the enemy. And, lo ! his courage saved the day. He drove
the enemy back, and won a noble victory.
Opportunity.
This I beheld, or dreamed it in a dream :
There spread a cloud of dust along a plain ;
And underneath the cloud, or in it, raged
A furious battle, and men yelled, and swords
Shocked upon swords and shields. A prince's banner
Wavered, then staggered backward, hemmed by foes.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 275
A crav^en hung along the battle's edge
And thought : " Had I a sword of keener steel —
That true blade that the king's son bears — but this
Blunt thing ! " He snapt and flung it from his hand,
And lowering crept away, and left the field.
Then came the king's son, wounded, sore bested,
And weaponless, and sav\^ the broken sword,
Hilt-buried in the dry and trodden sand, —
And ran and snatched it, and with battle shout
Lifted afresh, he hewed the enemy down,
And saved a great cause that heroic day.
— Edward Rowland Sill.
[Edward Rowland Sill, an American poet, born in Wind-
sor, Connecticut, 1841 ; died in Cleveland, Ohio, February
27, 1887.]
Why is this poem called " Opportunity " ? What is the
great lesson that it teaches us ?
CHAPTER LXXXI.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
When a verb has more than one irregular form for the past
tense or the past participle, the preferable form is placed first.
When a regular form of the past tense or perfect participle is
also in use, the letter R. is placed opposite the part. A star fol-
lowing the R. indicates that the regular form is tlie preferred
form ; otherwise the irregular form is the preferred one.
276 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Present.
abide
Past.
abode
Past Partici;ple.
abode
am {see be)
arise
arose
arisen
awake
be, am
awoke, B.
was
awoke, E.
been
bear
bore
bare
bore
bare
beat
j borne
( born
borne
(to bring forth)
bear
(to carry)
beat
j beaten
1 beat
begin
behold
began
beheld
begun
beheld
bend
bent
bent
bereave
bereft, K.^
bereft, E.^
beseech
bet
besought
bet, R.
besought
bet, E.
bid
j bade
Ibid
j bidden
(bid
bind
bound
bound
bite
bit
bitten
' bit
bleed
bled
bled
bless
blest, E. *
blest, E. -"-
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
breed
bred
bred
bring
build
brought
built, E.
brought
built, E.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 277
Present.
Pad.
Past Participle.
burn
burnt, E *
burnt, E. ^
burst
burst
burst
buy
bought
bought
can
could
cast
cast
c^st
catch
caught
caught
chide
chid
j chidden
(chid
choose
chose
chosen
cleave
cleft
1 clove
cleft, E.
( cloven
(to split)
cling
clung
clung
clothe
clad, E. *
clad, E. *
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
creep
crept
crept
crow
crew, E. *
crowed
cut
cut
cut
dare
durst, E. *
dared
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug, E.
dug, E.
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
dream
dreamt, E. *
dreamt, E. *
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
dwell
dwelt, E.
dwelt, E.
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
378 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Present.
feed
Past.
fed
Past Participle.
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
find
fought
found
fought
found
flee
fled
fled
fling
fly
flung
flew
flung
flown
forget
forsake
forgot
forsook
j forgotten
( forgot
forsaken
freeze
froze
frozen
get
gild
gird
got
gilt, K. *
girt, K.
(got
1 gotten
gilt,R.*
girt, E.
give
go
grind
gave
went
ground
given
gone
ground
grow
hang
have
grew
hung, R.
had
grown
hung, E.
had
hear
heard
heard
heave
hove, E. *
hove, E. *
hew
hewed
hewn, E. *
hide
hid
j hidden
(hid
hit
hit
hit
hold
hurt
held
hurt
held
hurt
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 379
Present
Past
Past Participle.
keep
kept
kept
kneel
knelt, K.
knelt, R.
knit
knit, K. *
knit, R. *
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
leap
leapt, R. *
leapt, R. *
learn
learnt, E. *
learnt, R. *
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie (to recline)
lay
lain
lose .
lost
lost
make
made
made
may
might
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
mow
mowed
mown, R *
pass
past, R *
past, R.*
pay
paid
paid
pen (to inclose)
pent, R.*
pent, R *
put
put
put
quit
quit, R.
quit, R.
rap
rapt, R.*
rapt, R *
read
read
read
rend
rent
rent
rid
rid
rid
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
280 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Present.
Past.
Past Participle.
rise
rose
risen
rive
rived
riven, K.*
run
ran
run
saw
sawed
sawn, R*
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
shake
shook
shaken
shall
should
shear
sheared
shorn, E.*
shed
shed
shed
shine
shone
shone
shoe
shod
shod
shoot
shot
shot
shOAV
showed
shown, R.
shrink
j shrank
1 shrunk
j shrunk
( shrunken
shut
shut
shut
sing
( sang
1 sung
sung
sink
sank
sunk
sunk
sunken
sit
sat
sat
slay
slew
slain
sleep
slept
slept
slide
slid
j slid
slidden
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 281
Present.
Pad.
Past Participle.
sling
slung
slung
slink
slunk
slunk
slip
slipt, R.*
slipt, R *
slit
slit, R.
slit, R.
smell
smelt, R.*
smelt, R.*
smite
smote
smitten
sow
sowed
sown, R.*
speak
spoke
spoken
speed
sped
sped
spend
spent
spent
spill
spilt, R.*
spilt, R.*
spin
spun
spun
spit
(spit
I spat
spit
split
split
split
spoil
spoilt, R.*
spoilt, R.*
spread
spread
spread
spring
sprang
sprung
stand
stood
stood
stave
stove, R."^
stove, R.*
stay
staid, R.*
staid, R *
steal
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stung
stung
stride
strode
stridden
strike
struck
j struck
( stricken
string
strung
strung
strive
strove
striven
282 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Present.
Past.
Past Pa/rticijple.
swear
swore
sworn
sweat
sweat, K.
sweat, R.*
sweep
swept
swept
swell
swelled
swollen, R.*
swim
j swam
( swum
swum
swing
swung
swung
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
thrive
throve, R.
thriven, R.
throw
threw
thrown
thrust
thrust
thrust
tread
trod
j trod
( trodden
wake
woke, R.*
woke, R.*
wear
wore
worn
weave
wove
woven
weep
wept
wept
wet
wet, E*
wet, R.*
whet
whet, R *
whet, R.*
will
would
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
work
wrought, R.*
wrought, R.*
wring
wrung
Avrung
write
wrote
written
A STUDY OF ''SNOW-BOUND.'' 283
CHAPTER LXXXII.
A STUDY OF "SNOW-BOUND."
" Snow-Bound " is a poem which school children always
read with pleasure. It is a picture of the thoughts, the
reforms, the scenes of a Kew England that lies almost dimly
behind us. It is rich in reflections on life and change, and
in expressions of faith and hope — reflections and expressions
which John Bright said are unexcelled in any poem in the
English language.
The class should first read the poem through for the
story. This reading is not made critical, but references are
looked up and such explanations are given as are needed to
make the meaning of the lines clear to the pupil. It is the
second and critical reading that should be used to bring
out the full meaning of the poem, to develop insight and to
uncover riches that the first reading fails to disclose. To
this reading should be given all the riches of information,
all the thoughts and suggestions that the poem may inspire.
And then may be made a full analysis like the following —
and when we have so analyzed it the poem is ours :
Title, " Snow-Bound."
Mottoes, Extracts from Cornelius Agrippa's Occult
Philosophy, and from Emerson's " The Snow
Storm."
Description of the snow storm, lines 1-115,
The signs of its coming, lines 1-18,
The falling of the snow, lines 31-46,
284 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The appearance of the unbroken snow, lines 47-65,
The digging of the path, lines 6Y-80,
The solitude made by the snow storm, lines 97-115.
The building of the fire, lines 116-142,
A picture — The moon shining upon the snow, lines
143-154,
A picture — The hearth.
Eetrospective and reflective, lines 175-211.
The fireside amusements.
Stories told by the father, lines 224-255,
Stories told by the mother, lines 256-305,
Stories told by the uncle, lines 333-349,
Stories told by the aunt, lines 360-365,
Stories told by the schoolmaster, lines 446-447.
Portraits :
The father, lines 66-7, and from his stories.
The mother, from her stories.
The uncle, lines 307-349.
The aunt, lines 350-377.
The elder sister, lines 378-385.
The younger sister, lines 393-397. '
The schoolmaster, lines 438-485.
The guest, lines 510-562.
Reminiscent and reflective, lines 400-437.
Reflective, lines 485-509.
Reflective, lines 563-589.
The close of the evening, lines 590-613.
The night, lines 614-628.
The breaking of the roads, lines 629-656.
A STUDY OF " SNOW-BOUNDr 285
Snow-bound no longer, lines 656-714.
Keflective, lines 715-759.
The allusions :
"A Chinese roof," line 62.
" Pisa's leaning miracle," line 65.
" Aladdin's wondrous cave," line 77.
" Egypt's Amun," line 90.
" The chief of Gambia's golden shore," line 215.
" Dame Mercy Warren," line 219.
" St. Fran9ois's hemlock trees," line 229.
" Cocheco town," line 259.
" Painful Sewell's tome," line 286.
" Chalkley's Journal," line 289.
"The child of Abraham," line 305.
" Apollonius of old," line 320.
" Hermes," line 322.
" Surrey's hiUs," line 331.
" White of Selbourne," line 332.
"Pindus born Aracthus," line 475. (Why is Araxes
^VTong ?)
" Dread Olympus," line 478.
" Petruchio's Kate," line 536.
" Sienna's saint," line 537.
" Calvin's creed," line 669.
" Ell wood's meek, drab-skirted, muse," line 683.
" The heathen nine," line 684.
" Ypsilanti's Mainote Greeks," line 697.
" Flemish pictures," line 746.
After such careful reading, the poem may be used in
286 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAM3fAR.
composition work. While the poem suggests many sub-
jects, it is better to base the written work upon very few
themes, and to treat each of these with much care. A few
subjects, with suggestions for their treatment, are given
herewith :
A New England Snow Storm.
In preparation for writing on this subject we need to
read and discuss not only the description of the storm in
this poem, but
Emerson's " The Snow Storm," in full.
Parts of Lowell's essay, "A Good Word for
Winter,"
" The Pageant," by Whittier,
and " The Frost Spirit," by Whittier.
Plan :
The signs of the coming storm,
The beginning of the storm.
The beauty of the snowflakes,
A picture of the earth clothed with snow.
Its forms of grace,
Its fantastic shapes.
The footprints of the wind in the snow,
The tracks of little animals,
The snow that falls damp from windless skies.
The storm that is driven by the north wind.
The beauty of Nature in her snowy garments,
A walk through a snow-robed forest.
Snow as a blanket over the earth.
What resemblance do you find between the concluding
lines of the second division descriptive of the fall of the snow
A STUDY OF '' SNOW-BOUND." 287
and the lines quoted from Emerson's "The Snow Storm"?
What differences ? Which is the more accurate ? Which is
the more vigorous ? How long did the falling of the snow
last ? Compare Emerson's description of the masonry of the
north wind with Whittier's description of the marvellous
shapes wrought by the snow. Whittier wrote to a friend in
1885 : " I think ' The Pageant ' is the best snow picture I have
ever made, a good deal more artistic than 'Snow-Bound.'"
Why?
The Whittier Home.
What lines in the poem give us any suggestions about
the house or its surroundings ? lines 55-65, 81, 120 et seq.,
590 et seq., 615, 635.
What passages tell us of the home habits ? the reading ?
Situation of the house, its history, description, plan of
the house and the kitchen, the guests that have been within
its walls, etc., etc.
The Portraits.
Compare the characters of the father and mother.
Compare the portraits of the two sisters.
What member of the family group is not sketched ?
Compare the vivid portrait of the schoolmaster with
the one described in Goldsmith's "Deserted Village. "
Harriet Livermore and Lady Hester Stanhope.
See " Gleanings from the Merrimack Yalley,
Sheaf Number One," by Kebecca I. Davis,
and Kinglake's " Eothen."
Does the main interest of this poem lie in the description
of the storm, or of those who were snow-bound ?
What does the poem teach us of the religious faith of the
author ?
288 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER LXXXIII.
A STUDY OF "THE VISION OF SIR LAUNFAL"
Order of study :
I. The story of how the poem was written.
It was written by James Russell Lowell in the freshness
of the new year, 1848, and in a state of mental activity and
exaltation so exuberant that the poem was created within
forty-eight hours, the poet scarcely eating or sleeping during
that time. It was published in December of that year and
met with immediate favor.
See, in " Letters of James Russell Lowell," page 148, his
letter to C. F. Briggs, containing the poet's own appreciation
of this poem.
II. While the poem has as its theme a subject borrowed
from the Arthurian legends, its story is not based upon any
old tale; it is the poet's own invention, "a picture of
mediaeval knightly quest set in a frame of ISTew England
scenery." It is well, however, to study somewhat the story
of " The Holy Grail " before reading Lowell's poem. The
following books are of value to one who wishes to make a
study of the Arthurian legend :
Tennyson : His Art, etc. — Stopford A. Brooke.
The Arthurian Epic. — S. Humphreys Gurteen.
Essays on Tennyson's " Idylls of the King." — H. Little-
dale.
The Holy Grail, and Sir Galahad. — Tennyson.
A STUDY OF ''THE VISION OF SIR LAUNFAL^ 289
III. The reading of the poem for the story, with such
explanations merely as shall make the story and text clear.
IV. The analysis, as in " Snow-Bomid " — the pupils
making the summary.
Such a summary is the following :
Picture — An organist improvising a theme, which at
first is vague and indistinct, but which gradually acquires
plan and purpose, lines 1-8.
Our blinded and downcast eyes prevent our seeing the
nearness of heaven, lines 9-12.
The voices of Nature to man, lines 13-20.
Earth, material things, demand a price before they
become ours ; but the beauty of Nature, the gifts of heaven,
spiritual things, are ours for the asking, lines 21-32.
The bounteous delights of June, and the high-tide of
the year, lines 32-79.
Its influence on the heart of man, and on Sir Launfal,
lines 80-95.
Sir Launfal declares his quest, lines 96-105.
He sleeps and there comes to him a vision, lines 105-108.
The droAvsy warmth of summer besieges in vain the
chilly, churlish castle that
'^ — alone in the landscape lay
Like an outpost of winter, dull and gr&y,"
lines 109-120.
Summer compared to a besieging army, lines 121-127.
19
290 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA3IMAR.
Sir Launfal goes forth on his quest, lines 128-139.
Contrast between the brightness of the season and the
gloom of the castle, lines 140-146.
At the gate Sir Launfal meets a leper who is repulsive
to him, but he gives him gold from a sense of duty, and the
leper declines the gift, lines 147-159.
The teaching of the leper, lines 160-1 Y3.
Description of winter and the building of the little
brook's house, lines 1Y4-210.
The joy and laughter within the hall, lines 211-225.
Sir Launfal, shelterless, is driven away from his own
porch, lines 226-239.
The bleakness of winter, lines 240-249.
Sir Launfal, turned away from his earldom, does not
bemoan his loss, for he has learned wisdom and patience
through suffering, lines 250-257.
In the cold he muses on the scenes of the past, lines
258-272.
From this reverie he is roused by the begging of the
leper, lines 273-279.
He recognizes in the beggar the image of Christ, and
gives to him in the name of Christ, lines 280-287.
The leper recognizes in him the same knight who threw
gold so haughtily to him before, but the spirit of his giving
now turns the mouldy crust to wheaten bread, and the
water to red wine, lines '288-301.
A STUDY OF ''THE VISION OF SIR LAUNFAL." 291
Then Sir Launfal sees the leper transformed to Christ
himself, lines 302-309.
The second lesson of the leper, lines 310-327.
Sir Launfal knows that the Holy Grail, the gift that
makes men see the glories of the spiritual kingdom, may be
found in his own castle, lines 328-329.
That mail stronger than steel — the armor of pure pur-
pose, unselfish charity, and sympathy — must be his who
v^rould find the Holy Grail, lines 330-334.
The castle gate is thrown open, and the wanderer is wel-
comed, lines 335-336.
Summer's long siege is over, and where gloom reigned
before, there she " lingers and smiles the whole year round,"
lines 337-347.
y. study for their exquisite descriptions of nature, and
memorize, the preludes of the first and second parts.
The first prelude is a fit symbol for the fresh life, the
youth and strength, of the young knight. IS'ot yet has
experience, like the summer of the year, ripened the heart
into mellowness. Youth is self-confident; it gives from
what it has, not from what it is. It is not introspective ;
the passing sight, the surface show, attract or repel. It is
a joy and delight in what it is ; it is radiant, glomng. Its
quest lies before it, far in the future ; the treasure of life
is to be found in some far-off time, some distant land. It
may throw a crust to the beggar, but it has with him no
common experiences in suffering to cause it to give sym-
pathy with its alms.
292 THE ESJSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
The teacher should dwell upon the poet's choice of
language. Every word fits exquisitely, and fairly overflows
with meaning. Read the description of June in "Under
the Willows," and notice the difference of treatment ; or,
rather, how infinite are the riches of this month when a
poet discloses them to us.
In the prelude to the second part, we are introduced to
winter — the old age of the year; the clod no longer feels
the stir of might ; blossom and tree no longer clothe the
earth with their varied and brilliant hues. The snow that
hides all bespeaks purity and peace. Yet winter has its ac-
tivities. The season of youthful confidence of Sir Launfal
is over ; the rime of winter is in his hair, the badge of the
poor and suffering he wears deep in his soul. IN'ot all his
search has brought him the Holy Grail, but confidence has
been replaced by content, pride has yielded to patient humil
ity. He sees no longer in the wretched leper the beggar in
need of food, but the brother, as all men are brothers, the
image of Him who died on the tree.
So the gift that without the giver was bare, becomes now,
when given aright, the bread and the wine that satisfy the
suffering soul ; nay, more, it makes Christ himself look out
of the eyes of the one fed. And the voice that was calmer
than silence says :
" The holy supper is kept indeed
In whatso we share with another's need :
Who gives himself with his alms feeds three —
Himself, his hungering brother, and Me."
THE USE OF PUNCTUATION MARKS. 293
In the " Vision of Sir Launfal," the poet's delight in
Nature is exuberantly visible. It covers the simple story
with such a rich growth of vine and bloom that the theme
is almost lost to sight ; we reach down through a mass
of summer blooms, or our hands are filled with the crystal
jewels of winter, when Ave search for the lessons of the
j)oem.
In the work with the class the poem is not for compo-
sition work. Its value is for developing insight and spir-
ituality ; for the teaching of the highest morals ; and for
impressing upon pupils, in their most impressible years, what
the poet does for us ; for his genius does what the crafts-
man's art does for the diamond — ^it takes the plain facts, the
simple truths, and so glorifies them that they gleam and
flash with a beauty and a light that is both fascinating and
elusive.
CHAPTER LXXXIV.
THE USE OF PUNCTUATION MARKS.
The Period. A period is used :
I. At the end of every sentence that is not interrog-
ative or exclamatory.
II. After an abbreviation.
III. Before a decimal fraction.
The Com/ma. A comma is used :
I. To indicate the smallest interruptions in continuity
of thouglit or grammatical construction, the marking of
which contributes to clearness {Cent. Diet).
394 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
II. To separate the names of persons from titles or
abbreviations of titles following.
III. In writing numbers, to separate the periods — thou-
sands from hundreds, millions from thousands, etc.
The Semicolon. A semicolon is used :
To mark a division in a sentence too distinct or inde-
pendent to be marked by a comma.
The Colon. A colon is used :
I. After the salutation in a letter.
II. After an introductory word or clause followed by
a statement of particulars, or by illustrations of its meaning.
III. After a clause introductory to the quotation of a
long sentence, a number of short sentences, or a separate
paragraph.
The Interrogation Point. — The interrogation point is used:
After every complete direct question.
The Exclamation Point. — The exclamation point is used :
I. After an interjection used independently.
II. After a sentence beginning with an interjection.
III. After a sentence that is purely exclamatory, or that,
being an invocation or command, denotes deep feeling or
great earnestness.
The Apostrophe. — The apostrophe is used :
I. To mark the omission of a letter at the beginning,
within, and, sometimes, at the end of a word.
II. To denote the possessive case.
III. Before s in forming the plural of a letter or a figure.
THE USE OF PUNCTUATION MARKS. 295
Quotation Mai^ks. — Quotation marks are used :
I. To inclose a direct quotation.
A quotation within a quotation has single quotation
marks, and if there be a quotation within this inner quota-
tion it has the double marks.
II. Commonly the titles of books, essays, etc., when
used in sentences, are inclosed by quotation marks ; but some-
times they are printed in italics instead of being so inclosed.
The Parenthesis am.d the Bracket. — A parenthesis is used :
I. To inclose an explanatory or qualifying clause, sen-
tence, or paragraph, inserted in another sentence without
being grammatically connected with it {^Cent. Diet.).
A bracket is used :
II. To inclose a word, phrase, clause, or sentence, in-
serted within a sentence or paragraph, but not explaining or
qualifying the context. Its use is mainly to inclose correc-
tions, missing words, or some added statement that does not
affect the meaning of the sentence or paragraph.
The Dash. — The dash is used :
I. To mark a sudden transition or break of continuity
in a sentence, more marked than that indicated by a comma
{Cent. Diet.).
II. To inclose a parenthetical clause that is more closely
related to the sentence than parentheses would indicate.
III. To mark omissions.
A dash should rarely be used after another punctuation
point.
296 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER LXXXV.
SELECTIONS FOR DICTATION, PARSING, ANALYSIS, ETC.
1. Duty and to-day are ours.
2. I pray Thee, God, that I may be beautiful within. —
Plato.
3. Thou must be true thyself if thou the truth would
teach.
4. The prayer of Seneca's pilot was : " O Neptune, you
may save me if you will ; you may sink me if you will.
But whether you save me or sink me, I must keep my
rudder true."
5. Idle gossip is like a pinch of lampblack: there is
apparently no limit to the blackening that it may do.
6. It is sometimes discouraging to tell the truth only
to discover that you are not believed. But Time reveals
truth as well as falsehood.
7. "The King
Sent to him, saying, 'Arise and help us there ! ' "
8. " Along the roadside, like the flowers of gold
The tawny Incas for their gardens wrought,
Heavy with sunshine droops the goldenrod."
9. To the far woods he wandered, listening.
And heard the birds their little stories sing
In notes whose rise and fall seemed liquid speech.
— George Eliot.
10. A ray of light may give glory to the most common
thing — a pool of water, a brown bare bough, a grain of
SELECTIONS FOR DICTATION, PARSING, ETC. 297
dust : so love may give glory to the most common action.
And there is this difference between the service that we
perform from the sense of obligation and the service that
we perform from the impulse of love — that the first is
dull and sombre, and the second is sun-illumined and
glorious.
11. The life of a river, like that of a human being, con-
sists in the union of soul and body, the water and the banks.
They act and react upon each other. The stream makes and
moulds the shore ; hollowing out a bay here, and building a
long point there ; alluring the little bushes close to its side,
and bending the tall, slim trees over its current ; sweeping
a rocky ledge clean of everything but moss, and sending a
still lagoon full of white arrowheads and rosy knot-weed far
back into the meadow. The shore guides and controls the
stream ; noAV detaining and now advancing it ; now bending
it in a hundred sinuous curves, and now speeding it straight
as a wild bee on its homeward stretch; here hiding the
water in a deep cleft overhung with green branches, and
there spreading it out, like a mirror framed in daisies, to re-
flect the sky and the clouds ; sometimes breaking it with
sudden turns and unexpected falls into a foam of musical
laughter, sometimes soothing it into a sleepy motion like the
flow of a dream.
—From " Little Rivers," by Henry Van Dyke.
12. Kich gift of God ! a year of time 1
What pomp of rise and shut of day,
What hues wherewith our northern clime
Makes autumn's drooping woodlands gay.
298 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
What airs outblown from ferny dells,
And clover blooms and sweetbrier smells,
What songs of brooks and birds, what fruits and flowers,
Green woods, and moonlit snows, have in its round been
ours !
And I will trust that He who heeds
The life that hides in mead and wold.
Who hangs yon alder's crimson beads,
And stains these mosses green and gold,
Will still, as He hath done, incline
His gracious care to me and mine ;
Grant what we ask aright, from wrong debar,
And, as the earth grows dark, make brighter every star !
—Stanzas VI. and XXVI., from " The Last Walk in Autumn,"
by John Greenleaf WmTTiER.
13. The last hour of light touches the birds as it touches
as. When they sing in the morning, it is with the happi-
ness of the earth; but as the shadows fall heavily about
them, and the helplessness of the night comes on, their
voices seem to be lifted up like the loftier poetry of the
human spirit, with S3riiipathy for realities and mysteries past
all understanding.
A great choir was hymning now. On the tops of the
sweet old honeysuckles, the catbirds; robins in the low
boughs of maples ; on the high. limb of the elm, the silvery-
throated lark, who had stopped as he passed from meadow
to meadow ; on a fence rail of the distant wheat-field, the
quail — and many another.
— From "A Kentucky Cardinal," by James Lane Allen.
SELECTIONS FOR DICTATION, PARSING, ETC. 399
14. Near Cambridge Coininoii stands an old elm, bearing
at its base a stone with the inscription, " Under this tree
Washington first took command of the American Army,
July 3, 1775." Upon the one-hundredth anniversary of this
day, the citizens of Cambridge held a celebration there, and
Lowell, the poet, read a poem, " Under the Old Elm," of
which the following is a part :
"Words pass as wind, but where great deeds were done
A power abides transfused from sire to son :
The boy feels deeper meanings thrill his ear,
That tingling through his pulse lifelong shall run,
With sure impulsion to keep honor clear.
When, pointing down, his father whispers, " Here,
Where we stand, stood he, the purely Great,
Whose soul no siren passion could unsphere,
Then nameless, now a power mixed with fate."
15. For full two hours the procession of boats, borne on
the current, steered silently down the St. Lawrence. The
stars were visible, but the night was moonless and suffi-
ciently dark. The general was in one of the foremost boats,
and near him sat a young midshipman, John Eobinson,
afterwards professor of natural philosophy in the University
of Edinburgh. He used to tell in his later life how Wolfe,
with a low voice, repeated Gray's " Elegy in a Country
Churchyard " to the officers about him. Probably it was to
relieve the intense strain of his thoughts. Among the rest
was the verse which his own fate was soon to illustrate :
" The paths of glory lead but to the grave."
300 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
" Gentlemen," he said, as his recital ended, " I would rather
have written those lines than take Quebec." None were
there to tell him th«,t the hero is greater than the poet.
—Francis Parkman.
16. November woods are bare and still ;
November daj^s are clear and bright ;
Each noon burns up the morning's chill ;
The morning's snow is gone by night ;
Each day my steps grow slow, grow light,
As through the woods I reverent creep.
Watching all things " lie down to sleep."
I never knew before what beds.
Fragrant to smell and soft to touch.
The forest sifts, and shapes, and spreads;
I never knew before how much
Of human sound there is in such
Low tones as through the forest sweep,
When all wild things "lie down to sleep."
Each day I find new coverlids
Tucked in, and more sweet eyes shut tight ;
Sometimes the ^dewless mother bids
Her ferns kneel down full in my sight ;
I hear their chorus of " good night " ;
And half I smile and half I weep,
Listening while they " lie down to sleep."
November days are bare and still ;
November days are bright and good ;
Life's noon burns up life's morning chill ;
Life's night rests feet which long have stood ;
SELECTIONS FOR DICTATION, PARSING, ETC. 301
Some warm, soft bed in field or wood
The mother will not fail to keep
Where we can " lay us down to sleep."
—"Down to Sleep," by H. H.
17. The torrents of Norway leap down from their moun-
tain homes with plentiful cataracts, and run brief but
glorious races to the sea. The streams of England move
smoothly through green fields and beside ancient, sleepy
towns. The Scotch rivers brawl through the open moor-
land and flash along steep Highland glens. The rivers of
the Alps are born in icy caves, from which they issue forth
with furious, turbid waters ; but when their anger has been
forgotten in the slumber of some blue lake, they flow down
more softly to see the vineyards of Italy and France, the
gray castles of Germany, and the verdant meadows of Hol-
land. The Delaware and the Hudson and the Connecticut
are the children of the Adirondacks and the White Mountains,
cradled among the forests of spruce and hemlock, playing
through a wild woodland youth, gathering strength from
numberless tributaries, to bear their great burdens of lumber
and to turn the wheels of many mills, issuing from hills to
water a thousand farms, and descending, at last, beside new
cities to the ancient sea. —From "Little Rivers."
18. After a day of cloud and wind and rain
Sometimes the setting sun breaks out again.
And, touching all the darksome woods with light,
Smiles on the fields, until they laugh and sing.
Then like a ruby from the horizon's ring
Drops down into the night. —Longfellow.
302 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
19. A long way down that limpid water, chill and
bright as an iceberg, went my little self that day on man's
choice errand — destruction. All the little fish seemed to
know that I was one who had taken out God's certificate,
and meant to have the value of it ; every one of them was
aware that we desolate more than replenish the earth. For
a cow might come and look into the water, and put her
yellow lips down; a kingfisher, like a blue arrow, might
shoot through the dark alleys over the channel, or sit on a
dipping withy-bough with his beak sunk into his breast
feathers ; even an otter might float down the stream, liken-
ing himself to a log of wood, with his flat head flush to the
water top, and his oily eyes peering quietly ; and yet no panic
would seize other life, as it does when a sample of man comes.
— From " Lorna Doone," by R. D. Blackmore.
20. Close to my heart I fold each lovely thing
The sweet day yields ; and, not disconsolate,
"With the calm patience of the woods I wait
For leaf and blossom when God gives us Spring !
— ^From " A Day," by Whittier.
CHAPTER LXXXVI.
SOME COMMON BUSINESS FORMS AND LETTERS.
The best way to impress upon pupils the correct forms
used in business transactions, is to procure the printed forms
used by business houses and place them before the class for
study and for copying.
SOME COMMON BUSINESS FORMS AND LETTERS. 303
* These would include bill-heads, blank receipts, telegram
blanks, and such forms as are used in business Avith banks
and are properly connected with the subjects of arithmetic
and bookkeeping. A few forms are given below.
I.
BILLS AND BILL-HEADS.
The form of a bill-head varies somewhat, according to
the taste of the firm using it. Three forms are given below :
1.
F. C. Wilson & Company,
Dealers in Groceries, Fruits, and Comfits
55 Merrimack Street
Kiverton, Mass., February 23, 1899.
Sold to Mr. Richard Eand,
1 bbl. Flour
5 gals. Kerosene
3 lbs. Coffee
2 lbs. Tea
4 lbs. Kuts
1 doz. Oranges
3 lbs. Candies Cob. .50 1 50 11 12
1898
Dec.
18
Dec.
23
Dec.
29
1899
Jan.
14
20
$
c.
$
5
25
15
Y5
40
1
20
Y5
1
50
13
52
40
40
50
1
50
11
Received Payment,
F. C. Wilson & Co.,
by A. F. W.
304 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
2.
Riverton, Mass., March 1, 1899.
Mr. Frank Howard
Bought of Brooks Bros.
Dealers in Dry Goods, Oarpets, etc.
Here follow the items
arranged as in the Mil
j[>receding.
3.
Riverton, Mass., April 8, 1899.
Mr. Charles F. Clarke
To James A. Hale, Bookseller, Dr.
Here follow the items
arranged as before.
II.
RENT RECEIPT.
cJlDtvettotif (ylbadd,, B. \ i8g ^
SleceiveJ nf €<W<^W. 3^n^v<xmA
^ 4^^^^ g)nl.Ur, jot
cJoent of
iTUt
\^^Y\y
Sn<Ling^^MA}^_i8g9_
^(^tzeet fat ^^ 3montfi
15.
vlcuooo^ hjlAMyA..
SOME COMMON BUSINESS FORMS AND LETTERS. 305
III.
Note : Every business letter should be carefully dated,
aud should contain the full address of the sender and of the
firm or individual to whom it is sent. It should be concisely
written, but should state so clearly and fully the subject mat-
ter as to allow of no mistake concerning its meaning. The
model business letter has three characteristics — clearness, con-
ciseness, and courtesy.
1.
An Order.
427 Washington Street, Kiverton, Mass.,
August 1, 1899.
Messrs. Littl?], Brown & Company,
254 Washington Street, Boston, Mass.
My dear Sirs : Please send me by the American Express,
with bill by mail :
4 "Will Shakespeare's Little Lad," Clarke.
6 " Lullaby Land," Field.
5 " Border Wars of Kew England," Drake.
5 " The Golden Age," Grahame.
4 " A Little Girl in Old Kew York," Douglas.
Yours very truly,
William Duncan.
20
306 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
2.
A Reply.
Little, Brown & Company,
Booksellers and Stationers,
254 "Washington Street,
Boston, Mass., August 2, 1899.
Mk. William Duncan,
427 Washington St., Riverton, Mass.
My dear Sir : We this day send you books by American
Express, agreeable to your kind order of January 21st.
We have not in stock the " Lullaby Land," but will send it
immediately on receipt from the publishers, to whom our
order for it has been sent. We inclose bill for books
forwarded.
Yery truly yours,
Little, Brown & Company,
by A. C. F.
3.
An Order.
"Hillside Cottage,"
Littleton, New Hampshire,
December 15, 1898.
Messrs. Harper & Brothers,
New York, E". Y.
My dear Sirs: Please find inclosed check for $9, for
which send the following publications for one year to the
addresses given :
1 " Harper's Monthly Magazine " to the
ReV. Arthur Raymond,
Elk Rapids, Antrim Co., Michigan.
SOME COMMON BUSINESS FORMS AND LETTERS. 807
1 " Harper's Weekly " to
Mr. Kalph Gardiner,
Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.
1 " Harper's Kound Table " to
Master Frank Madison,
Jefferson, New Hampshire.
Please send receipted bill with each, and discontinue
when the subscription expires.
Yery truly yours,
Lewis Percival.
4.
Advertisement.
Wanted : A young man of good education, trustworthy,
and without any careless habits, as clerk in a grocery store.
Address with references and in own handwriting.
The Cleveland Grocery Co.,
731 Broad Street, Cleveland, Ohio.
5.
A Reply.
Rockport, Ohio,
August 26, 1899.
The Cleveland Grocery Co.,
Y31 Broad Street, Cleveland, Ohio.
My dear Sirs : In answer to your advertisement in the
Cleveland Daily Journal of August 25, I respectfully make
application for the position. I am nineteen years old, tall,
strong, and of good health. I am a graduate of the business
department of the Rockport High School, have no bad hab-
its, and am desirous of securing a position where advance-
308 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
ment will be possible. I refer you, by their permission, to
the Rev. Robert Young, pastor of the Congregational
Church ; Mr. Edwin Shores, principal of the High School ;
and Mr. Willis Mathews, postmaster, for such inquiries as
you may desire to make about me.
Respectfully yours,
Francis Lowell.
6.
An Advertisement.
Wanted : A young man, eighteen years old, strong, and
of no bad habits, a graduate of an excellent grammar school,
desires employment in some manufactory. References fur-
nished. Address
Clinton R. Floyd, 34 Everett St., Riverton, Mass.
CHAPTER LXXXVII.
A FEW SOCIAL FORMS.
Under "Social Forms" may be grouped all formal let-
ters and notes, invitations, acceptances, regrets, excuses,
letters of introduction, etc.
1.
An Invitation.
Mr. and Mrs. Chester Rollins request the pleasure of
Mr. Sydney Merrill's company for Thursday evening,
November 3d, at eight o'clock.
" The Laurels,"
43 Chestnut Lane,
October 2nh.
A FEW SOCIAL FORMS. 309
2.
An Acceptance.
Mr. Sydney Merrill accepts with pleasure the invitation
of Mr. and Mrs. Chester KoUins for Thui*sday evening,
November 3d.
118 Woodland Terrace,
October 29th.
3.
Regrets.
Mr. Sydney Merrill regrets that a previous engagement
for the same evening prevents his acceptance of the kind
invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Chester EoUins for Thursday
evening, November 3d.
118 Woodland Terrace,
October 28th.
4.
An Excuse for Absence.
Will Miss Prince kindly excuse the absence of Henry on
Thursday morning, April 3d, as he was too ill to attend
school.
(Mrs.) Julia A. Harlow.
2(> Marion Street,
Friday morning, April 4th.
5.
A Request for Dismissal.
Will Miss Sherman kindly dismiss Frances from school
at 10.30 on Friday morning, April 3d, in order that she may
accompany her mother to Cambridge.
John Russell.
81 Hancock Street,
Thursday, April 2d.
310 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND ORAMMAIi.
A Letter of Introduction.
36 Winthrop Place,
Riverton, Massachusetts,
June 1, 1898.
Mr. Edward Dana,
37 East Fifty-third Street,
]!^ew York.
My dear Sir : I take pleasure in introducing to you the
bearer of this letter, Mr. Clement Alden, who is to enter
business in your city. He is a young man of excellent
character, of superior education, and of refined bearing.
As he is without acquaintances in New York, such advice,
assistance, or personal interest as you may be able to give
him will be warmly appreciated by him and by me. I am,
with kind remembrances.
Yours sincerely,
Edwin Millward.
The little harque has reached its port,
The anchor^ s dropped, the sail isftcrled;
Its tenants o'er the changeful sea
Swift seeh the wider world.
What hear they forth f Fullness, we trust,
Of grace and graciousness of speech :
What freight of Wisdom it convoyed,
Or Love, helongs to each.
—A. L. B.
INDEX.
The Roman Numerals Refer to Chapters, the Arabic to Pages.
A and an, articles, 94.
Abbreviations, a few common,
xi.
how to read, 50.
how to write, 50.
of days of week, 49.
of names of month, 44.
of titles, 49, 50.
Abstract nouns, defined, 150.
Active voice, defined, 250.
of infinitives, 256.
of participles, 259.
of verbs, 250.
Address, Nominative case by,
128.
Adjectives, xxi.
Appositive, Iv., 196.
as pronouns, 166.
Careful use of certain, xxii.
Choice of, 96-98.
Comparison of, Ivi.
Regular, 199.
Irregular, 200, 201.
Classes of, 92, 93.
Clauses as, 185.
defined, 92, 93.
Descriptive, 92.
Designating, 92.
Exercises in use of, 95, 98.
Limiting, 93.
Modifiers of, 203.
Parsing of, Ivii.
Predicate, Iv., Ix., 195.
after verbs of sensation,
etc., Ix.
Pronominal, 167.
Adjectives, List of, compared
irregularly, 200, 201.
Phrases as, 179, 180.
Adverbial clauses, 186, 187.
conjunctions, 205.
objective, 143.
phrase, 180, 181.
Adverbs, xxv., Ivii.
Classes of, 203, 205.
Clauses as, 186, 187.
Comparison of, lix.
Regular, 206.
Irregular, 206.
defined, 107, 204.
List of, compared irregu-
larly, 206.
Modal, 204.
Modifiers of, 204.
modify prepositional
phrase, 205.
Parsing of, 207.
Phrase, 207.
Phrases as, 180, 181.
Position of, with infini-
tives, 255.
Agreement of verb with subject
nominative, 133.
Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 48.
Alliteration, defined, 239.
Alphabetical list of irregular
verbs, Ixxxi.
Analysis
of complex sentences, Ixvii.
of compound " 232-233.
of simple sentences, Ixv.
Sentences for, Ixix.
812
INDEX.
Antecedents
Cognate objectives, 144.
of different genders, 168.
Collective nouns, 149.
of different numbers, 168.
defined, 149.
of different persons, 168.
Verb in agreement with, 149.
of pronouns, defined, 167.
as antecedent of pronoun,
two or more, 168.
168.
Antonyms, 27.
Colon, The use of, 294.
Anybody else's, etc. , 85.
Comma, The use of, 293.
Apostrophe, 294.
Common gender, 88.
Apposition, defined, 146.
Common noun, defined, 33.
Appositive use of adjectives, 196.
Comparison
of nouns, xxxviii.
of adjectives, Ivi.
Articles, 94.
of adverbs, lix-
definite, 94.
defined, 198.
indefinite, 94.
Comparative degree, defined, 198.
As— as, so— as, 122.
Complete verb, defined, 262.
Auxiliary verbs, 263.
Complex sentences, Ixvi.
defined, 262.
Analysis of, Ixvii.
Conjugation of, 263-267.
Order of, 230-231.
defined, 227.
Be, as an auxiliary verb, 264.
Complimentary close of letters,
Conjugation of, 264r-267.
61.
Bracket, The, 295.
Composition work, Plans for, 1.
Business Forms, Ixxxvi.
Model for, 175, 176.
Outlines for, 177.
Case,
Subjects for, 177.
Nominative, xxxiii.
Compound personal pronouns,
Objective, xxxvi.
112.
of nouns in apposition, 147.
Compound sentence, Ixviii.
Possessive, xxxv.
Analysis of, 232-233.
Chambered Nautilus, The, 193.
Order of, 232.
Christian names, vii., 36.
defined, 231.
Clauses, li.-lii.
Concrete nouns, defined, 150.
as adjectives, 185.
Conjugation, Ixxix.
as adverbs, 186, 187.
defined, 262.
Coordinate, 190.
of am or be, 264-267.
defined, 178.
of auxiliary verb, 263.
as nouns, 184.
Emphatic form of, 268.
Principal, 190.
Interrogative form of, 268.
Relative, 189.
Progressive form of, 244-
Subordinate, 190.
246.
INDEX.
313
of shall and will, 263.
Exclamatory sentence, defined,
of should and would, 264.
17.
of have, 264.
Expletive, 205.
of a regular verb {love)^ 269.
Extracts from
Conjunctions, xxx.
A Day — John G. Whittier,
Adverbial, 205.
302.
Exercises for the use of, 121,
The Great Stone Face-
122.
Nathaniel Hawthorne, 34.
defined, 121.
An Island Garden— Celia
Parsing of, 190.
Thaxter, 76.
Contractions, 50.
A Kentucky Cardinal —
Common, 51.
James Lane Allen, 208.
Exercises in the correct use
The Last Walk in Autumn
of, 51.
—John G. Whittier, 208.
Copula, 101.
Lorna Doone— R. D. Black-
more, 302.
Dash, The, 295.
Master Skylark — John Ben-
Dates, The writing of, 43-45.
nett, 125.
Daudet's Youth, The Story of,
The Pageant of Summer —
118.
Richard Jeffries, 20 L
Days of week, Abbreviations of,
The Paradise of Children-
49.
Nathaniel Hawthorne,
Declarative sentence, defined,
110.
17.
The Sandpiper's Nest— Celia
Declension of pronouns, xlviii.
Thaxter, 77.
Defective verbs, defined, 262.
Slumber Song— Celia Thax-
Definite article, The, 94.
ter, 117.
Demonstrative pronouns, xlvi.
Story of Daudet's Youth, 118.
defined, 165.
Telling the Bees— Eugene
Description , The F r a n c o n i a
Field, 130.
Road, 34.
Under the Old Elm — James
*'A Country Road," 176.
Russell Lowell, 299.
Descriptive adjectives, 92.
The Vision of Sir Launfal —
Designating adjectives, 92.
James Russell Lowell,
Dictionary work, Ixi., 237, 238.
xli., 153, 154.
Direct quotations, 157.
Wild Geese— Celia Thaxter,
defined, 157.
15.
how written, 157.
Will Shakespeare's Little
Lad— Imogen Clarke, 142.
Each other, 172.
The Village Blacksmith—
Envelope, how addressed, 63.
H. W. Longfellow, 91.
314
INDEX.
Factitive verbs, 140.
Infinitive forms, Simple, 256.
Feminine gender, 88.
Tenses of, 256.
First division of a sentence, 14.
Voices of, 256.
Five parts of a letter, xii.
Interjection, The, xxi.
Franconia Eoad, The, 34.
defined, 128.
Future perfect tense, 241.
how treated, 191.
Future tense, 240.
What it expresses, 123.
Interrogation point, use of,
Gender, xix.
294.
Common, 88.
Interrogative form of the verb,
Feminine, 88.
268.
Forms of, of certain nouns.
Conjugation of, 268.
88, 89.
Interrogative pronouns, xliv.
Masculine, 88.
defined, 161.
Neuter, 88.
Interrogative sentence, defined.
of nouns, xix.
17.
of pronouns, 118.
Irregular comparison
Government of nouns and pro-
of adjectives, 200, 201.
nouns, 142.
of adverbs, 206.
Irregular verbs,
Have, as an auxiliary verb, 268.
defined, 263.
Conjugation of, 264.
List of, 275.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 35.
Hiawatha, Story from, 89.
Lanier, Sidney, 287.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 194.
Letter, A
from Phillips Brooks, 52.
Imperative mode, 248.
-Writing, 66.
sentence, defined, 17.
Letters, 67-69.
Indefinite articles, 94.
Abstracts for, 63.
Indefinite forms of the verb,
Address of, 56.
244.
Body of, 59.
Independent possessives, 171.
Complimentary close of, 61.
Indicative mode, 189.
Heading of, 55.
Indirect quotation, defined, 157.
how folded, 64.
should and ivould in, 219.
Model for arrangement of,
Infinitive forms. The, Ixxvi.
65.
Compound, 256.
The Parts of, xii.
defined, 254.
Salutation of, 57.
omit to after certain verbs,
Signature to, 61.
260.
Subjects for body of, 67-
Parsing of, 256.
69.
INDEX.
315
Like, 122.
Number, xiv.
Lowell, James Russell, 30.
Plural, defined, 70.
how formed, 70-76.
Marjorie's Almanac — T. B.
Ald-
Singular, defined, 70.
rich, 30.
Memory, Poems for (see Poems).
Objective case, xxxvi., 142.
Model forms for
adverbial, 143.
analyses of sentences
, see
Predicate, 140.
Ixv., Ixvii., Ixviii.
direct object of verb, 137.
compositions, 175, 176.
of preposition, 141.
letters, 65.
indirect object of verb,
Mode of verbs, Ixxiii.
139.
defined, 248.
Cognate, 144.
Imperative, 248.
subject of infinitive forms.
Indicative, 248.
145.
Subjunctive, 248.
One another, when to use,
Modifiei-s
172.
of adjectives, 203.
Opportunity— E. R. Sill, 274.
of adverbs, 204.
of clauses, 204.
Paragraph,
of nouns, 92, 93.
Model for, 86.
of sentences, 204.
Sentences to be grouped in,
of prepositions, 205.
86, 87.
of verbs, 203.
Parenthesis, The, 295.
Months, The, 45.
Parsing (see under several parts
Abbreviations for the names
of speech).
of, 44.
Participles, Ixxvii.
Active, 259.
No, modal adverb, 204.
Adverbial force of, 259.
Nouns, 23, 27, 28.
Compound, 259.
Classes of, vi.
defined, 257.
Abstract, 150.
Parsing of, 260.
Collective, 148, 149.
Passive, 259.
Common, 33.
Simple, 259.
Concrete, 150.
as verbal adjectives, 257.
Proper, 33.
as verbal nouns, 258.
Appositive use of, xxxviii.
Parts of a sentence. Two, i.,
Parsing of, xl.
13, 14.
defined, 23.
Passive voice. 250,
(See, also, under Case,
Gen-
Past perfect tense, 242.
der, Number, and Person.)
Past tense, 240.
316
mDEX.
Period, The use of, 293.
Possessive case, xxxv., 134.
Person, 110.
form of nouns, xvii.
Personal Pronouns (see Pro-
of pronouns, 135, 136.
noun).
Independent, 171.
Personification, defined, 114.
phrase, when preferred, 84.
Phrase, The, li.
Potential verb phrases, Ixxxiii.
Adjective, 179, 180.
Predicate
Adverb, 180, 181.
of a sentence, 15, 223.
defined, 178.
verb, 223.
Noun, 178, 179.
Predicate adjectives, Iv.
Participial, 183.
after verbs of sensation, Ix.
Possessive, 84.
defined, 195.
when preferred, 84.
Predicate nominative, 131, 223.
Prepositional, 183.
Predicate object, 140.
Plural number, 70.
Prepositional phrase, 183.
of nouns, xiv., xv.
Prepositions, xxix.
how formed, 70-76.
Careful use of, 119, 120.
Poems :
defined, 116.
The Beggar — James Russell
Object of, 141.
Lowell, 29.
Parsing of, 190.
Down to Sleep— H. H.,
Present perfect tense, 241.
300.
Present tense, 240.
The Chambered Nautilus —
Principal clause, 190.
Oliver Wendell Holmes,
Principal parts of a verb, 262.
191-194
Progressive forms of a verb, 244.
Marjorie's Almanac —
Pronouns,
Thomas Bailey Aldrich,
Antecedents of, 167.
30.
Adjective, 166.
The Months, 45. .
Compound personal, 171.
Opportunity — Edward Row-
Declension of, xlviii.
land Sill, 274.
defined, 109.
The Sandpiper— Celia Thax-
Demonstrative, 172.
ter, 80.
Interrogative, 172.
The Sparrows — Celia Thax-
Indefinite, 172.
ter, 20.
Classified list of, 172.
The Song of the Chattahoo-
Independent possessive, 171.
chee — Sidney Lanier, Ixx.
Personal, xxvi., xxvii., xlvii.
Positive degree
Compound, 112, 171.
of adjectives, 198.
Relative, 163-164.
of adverbs, 205, 206.
Reciprocal pronoun phrases,
defined, 198.
172.
INDEX.
817
Pronouns,
Sentences, Simple, Ixiv.
Parsing of, xlix.
Two parts of, 13, 14.
Sentences for the study of.
defined, 222.
xxviii.
Shall and icill, The correct use
Proper nouns, 33.
of, Ixii., 219-220.
Punctuation marks. The use of,
Should and would. The correct
Ixxxiv.
use of, 219-220.
•
in indirect quotations, 219.
Signature to letter, 61.
Quotation marks, 157, 160,
295.
Sill, Edward Rowland, 275.
Quotations, xlvi.
Simple sentence, Ixiv.
defined, 157.
Simple tenses, 244.
Direct, 157.
Singular number (see Number).
Divided, 158.
" Snow-Bound," AStudyof, 283.
How to write, 157.
Social Forms, 308.
Indirect, 157.
"Song of the Chattahoochee,
The," 235.
Reciprocal pronoun phrases
,172.
Somebody else's, etc., 85.
t t rn ml H c\r\
Redundant verbs, defined,
263.
"Sparrows, The," 20.
Regular comparison
Strong verbs, 263.
Subject,
distinguished from subject
of adjectives, 199.
of adverbs, 206.
Regular verbs, 263.
Conjugation of, 269.
Relative pronouns, xlv.
nominative, 131, 223.
nominative, 223.
of a sentence, 15.
defined, 164.
of infinitive, 145.
Subjunctive mode, defined, 248.
Conjugation of, 266.
Selections for study and
mem-
Signs of, 266.
ory (see Poems anc
l Ex-
Subordinate Clause, 190.
tracts).
Subjects
Semicolon, The use of, 294.
for compositions, 176-177.
Sentences,
for letter-writing, 67-69.
Analyses of, 228-235.
Superlative degree, defined, 198.
Complex, Ixvi.
of adjectives, 198.
Compound, Ixviii.
of adverbs, 206.
Declarative, 17.
how formed, 199.
Exclamatory, 17.
Surnames, vii.
Imperative, 17.
defined, 36.
Interrogative, 17.
Origin of, 37.
Kinds of, ii., 17.
Synonyms, 27.
318
INDEX.
Tense, Ixxi,, Ixxii.
Verbs,
Future, 240.
Emphatic forms of, 268.
Future perfect, 241.
Factitive, 140.
Past, 240.
followed by preposition
Past perfect, 241.
with adverbial force, 252.
Present, 240.
Intransitive, 252.
Present perfect, 241.
Irregular, 263, 275. ^
defined, 244-246.
ITodes of, 248.
Conjugations of, 244.
Parsing of, Ixxx.
Thaxter, Celia, 22, 76.
Person and number of, 133.
The, article, 94.
Progressive forms of, 242.
There, expletive, 205.
Eedundant, 263.
Titles of books, essays, etc. , how
Eegular, 263.
written, xliii.
followed by indirect object.
To-naraes, 38.
139.
Transitive verbs, 252.
of sensation followed by
Two parts of a sentence, i., 13, 14.
predicate adjectives, 208.
Transitive, 252.
Verb phrases, Potential, Ixxviii.
Tenses of (see Tense).
Verbs, xxiii.
Voices of (see Voice).
Agreement with subject
Vision of Sir Launfal, The,
nominative, 132.
Ixxxiii.
with collective noun,
Voice, Ixxiv.
149.
defined, 250.
Auxiliary
Active, 250.
defined, 262.
Passive, 250.
List of, 263.
Conjugation of, 263-
Weak verbs, 263.
264.
Words as parts of speech, iii..
Conjugation of, 269.
22.
Complete, defined, 262.
Little Study of, A, 24.
Correct use of certain, xxiv.
Defective, defined, 262,
Yes, modal adverb, 204.
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