the essentials of languageaf grammar ALBERT LE ROYBARTLETT m- vM PJ<^ f ^ SILVER, BIIRDETt AND COMPANY EDUCATION DEPT The Silver Series of Language Books The Essentials of Language and Grammar Albert LeRoy Bartlett, A.M. SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY New York . . . BOSTON . . . Chicago 1899 EDUCAT-IPIJ^PEFT., '•', By Silver, Burdett and Company INTRODUCTION. If, as Bacon says, " A ^vise questioning is the half-way towards knowledge," a wise questioner is the best guide to that destination. Any text-book will fail of its highest ser- vice unless the wise questioning of the teacher, his tactful adaptation of its material to the condition of his pupils, and his sympathetic fidelity to the methods and spirit of the book, give it life and make it a moving influence. I have sought to write a lesson book, illustrating, explain- ing, and defining the grammatical facts about words, and the fundamental principles upon which the construction of an English sentence is based ; to add thereto such analyses of a few selections from good American authors, as shall give to pupils some insight into the fulness of beauty and meaning contained in what we term good literature, and shall suggest to teachers methods that may be used in the study of other selections ; and to outline some plans for training the pupils to write English easily, correctly, and gracefully. The following simple exercises mil form a useful and strengthening accompaniment to all language work : 1. In order to express thoughts the pwpil must have that wherewith he may express them — a vocabulary of words in good usage. Such a vocabulary may be made a growing wndy ultimately^ a fuU one, by two methods : I. By making a list of such unfamiliar words as may ocdur in eacli chapter, studying them as the dictionary de- fines them and illustrates their use, and then using them in M69881 INTRODUCTION. sentences. Some one has said that any word belongs to a man who has used it correctly three times. II. By the recasting of sentences : first, by substituting synonyms for as many words as possible in the sentences ; second, by using as many antonyms as possible. This work should be a regular practice exercise from the beginning of the study of language, starting, of course, with very simple beginnings, and advancing by easy and very gradual stages to more difficult exercises. 2. The following jplan for work in com^jposition may he followed : I. The writing of single sentences. The leading group of words in a sentence is given, or suggestive words that occur therein. This is called a skeleton sentence. About this group of words the pupils, one after another, construct each a sentence, giving them orally or writing them on the board. Such sentences should be the hest thoughts of the pupils, expressed in correct form. Criticism of these sen- tences follows, whatever is good being noticed and whatever is faulty being kindly corrected. When the pupils have ac- quired grace and facility in writing sentences, then follows : II. The construction of the paragraph. A subject is discussed orally, then suggestive words for two or three sentences are placed on the board, the pupils filling out these skeletons as above. The advance work is not only in be- coming familiar with the form of the paragraph, but in gaining the power of arranging sentences, so that their sequence shall be orderly and easy. III. A further useful exercise in composition is the INTRODUCTION. expansion of a single sentence into a paragraph, or of a succinct paragraph into a fuller one, and the reverse — the contraction of a paragraph into a sentence, and of a long paragraph into a shorter one. lY . Last, comes the planning of a studied composition, as is carefully outlined in Chapter L. The illustrative sentences and selections in this book have been ^vritten and chosen with two purposes : first — that they shall illustrate clearly the grammatical principle that is being discussed, and second — that they shall have literary value and be in themselves the teachers of something. The pupil, therefore, should be led to appreciate the lesson or the beauty of the thought, as well as to comprehend the gram- matical principle Avhich it illustrates. It is only by constant practice that the power of discrim- ination becomes keen, only by repetition that the principles of grammatical construction become familiar, and only by constant and careful exercise that the use of good English becomes habitual. He who teaches the essentials of English in accordance with the spirit of this introduction and of the purpose with which this book has been Avritten will find that he has taught a thousand graces in addition to that of cor- rect speech. He will have heard and obeyed the bidding of those strong lines of Emerson's — Go, speed the stars of thought On to their shining goals: The sower scatters broad his seed, The wheat thou strew'st be souls. — Albert Le Koy Bartlett. Silver Hill, Haverhill, Massachusetts. Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/det.ails/essentialsoflangOOalberich CONTENTS. CHAPTBB PAGE I. The Two Parts of a Sentence .... 13 II. The Four Kinds of Sentences. Review of Sub- ject AND Predicate. "The Sparrows," by Celia Thaxter 16 III. Words as Parts of Speech. A Little Study of Words 2% IV. The Noun a Word That Names . ... 27 V. Selection FOR Literary Analysis : "The Beg- gar," BY James Russell Lowell ... 39 VI. Common and Proper Nouns. The Franconia Road. "The Great Stone Face," by Na- thaniel Hawthorne 33 VII. Surnames and Christian Names. The Origin of Surnames 36 VIII. A Story from Longfellow's " The Song of Hiawatha" 39 IX. Review 42 X. The Writing OF Dates. "The Months." "Mar- jorie's Almanac," by Thomas Bailey Al- DRICH 43 XI. A Few Common Abbreviations and Contractions 49 XII. The Parts of a Letter. A Letter from Phil- lips Brooks . . 52 XIII. Letter- Writing, with Skeleton Letters . . 66 XIV. Number : the Singular and Plural Forms of Nouns 69 XV. The Number of Nouns, continued ... 74 XVI. Selections for Study : The Coming of the Sand- piper ; The Sandpiper's Nest ; The Sand- piper, by Celia Thaxter 76 XVII. The Possessive Form of Nouns .... 81 XVIII. The Paragraph 85 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. I'AGE The Gender of Nouns . . . . .87 Review 89 The Adjective 91 The Careful Use of Adjectives ... 95 The Verb 98 The Correct Usage of Certain Verbs . . 102 The Adverb 105 The Personal Pronoun 109 The Personal Pronoun, continued . .111 Sentences for the Study of Personal Pro- nouns 114 The Preposition 115 The Conjunction 120 The Interjection 123 Review. Extract from "Master Sky- lark" 125 The Nominative Case 127 The Agreement of a Verb with its Subject Nominative 132 The Possessive Case 134 The Objective Case 137 The Adverbial and Cognate Objectives : The Subject of an Infinitive . . . 143 The Appositive Use of Nouns . . .146 Collective, Abstract, and Concrete Nouns . 148 The Parsing of a Noun 151 A Selection for Study and Memory: The Little Brook Builds his House, from "The Vision of Sir Launfal," by James Russell Lowell 152 Quotations, and How to Write Them . . 156 The Titles of Books, Essays, etc. . . . 159 The Interrogative Pronoun . . . .161 The Relative Pronoun 163 CONTENTS. CONJUNC- CHAPTER XLVI. The Demonstrative Pronoun .... XLVII. The Agreement of Pronouns with Their An- tecedents .... XLVIII. The Declension of Pronouns XLIX. The Parsing of a Pronoun . L. Some Plans for Composition Work LI. Phrases and Clauses. The Phrase LII. Phrases and Clauses. The Clause LIII. The Parsing of a Preposition ; of a TioN. Interjections LIV. A Selection for Study and Memory: "The Chambered Nautilus," by Oliver Wen- dell Holmes LV, The Predicate and the Appositive Use of Adjectives LVI. The Comparison of Adjectives .... LVII. The Parsing of an Adjective .... LVIII. The Adverb LIX. The Comparison of Adverbs .... LX. The Use of Predicate Adjectives after Verbs OF Sensation, etc LXI. A Lesson for Dictionary Work and for Dis- cussion LXII. The Use of Capital Letters .... LXin. The Correct Use of "Shall" and "Will," AND OF "Should" and "Would" LXIV. The Simple Sentence LXV. The Analysis of the Simple Sentence LXVI. The Complex Sentence LXVII. The Analysis of the Complex Sentence . LXVIII. The Compound Sentence. Its Analysis . LXIX. Sentences for Analysis LXX. A Selection for Study and Memory: "The Song of the Chattahoochee," by Sidney Lanier PAGE 165 167 171 173 173 178 184 190 191 194 197 202 202 205 208 210 214 217 221 223 226 228 231 233 235 10 CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE LXXI. The Tense of Verbs 240 LXXII. The Tense of Verbs, continued . . .243 LXXIII. The Mode of Verbs 247 LXXIV. The Voice of Verbs 249 LXXV. Verbs as Transitive or Intransitive . . 251 LXXVI. Verb Forms. The Infinitive Form . . 254 LXXVII. Verb Forms. The Participle. . . .257 LXXVIII. Potential Verb Phrases 260 LXXIX. The Conjugation of Verbs .... 262 LXXX. The Parsing of a Verb. " Opportunity," by Edward Rowland Sill .... 273 LXXXI. Alphabetical List of Irregular Verbs . . 275 LXXXII. A Study OF " Snow-Bound " .... 283 LXXXIII. A Study of " The Vision of Sir Launfal " . 288 LXXXIV. The Use of Punctuation Marks . . . 293 LXXXV. Selections for Dictation, Parsing, etc. . 296 LXXXVI. Business Forms and Letters .... 302 LXXXVII. Social Forms 308 Index 311 The selections from ivorhs puhlislied iy Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin S Co. are used by the kind permissio7i of the publish- ers and under special arrangements with them. THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GEAMMAR THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. CHAPTER I. THE TWO PARTS OF A SENTENCE. I. 1. September days are beautiful. 2. The orchards give us ripe fruits. 3. The garden is bright with flowers. 4. The weeds grow tall along the country roads. 5. The long school vacation is over. Here are five complete thoughts or sentences. What does the first sentence tell us ? the second ? the third ? the fourth ? the fifth ? About what are we told something in the first sentence ? What is told about it ? About what are we told something in the second sentence ? What are we told about it ? About wliat are we told something in the third sentence ? What is told about it ? etc. 14 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. A comjplete thought expressed in words is a sentence. The first division of each sentence is that about which something is told. The second division of each sentence is that which is told about the fi^st part. What is t.ie first division of each of the above sentences ? the second division ? . _ II. ' 1: Tlie robins . .^2..; Yellow daisies ^ " ' 3'. The children 4. are in the schoolroom. 6. have flown away. 6. nod in the wind. Are these complete thoughts ? In which do you find the first division of a sentence ? In which do you find the second divi- sion of a sentence ? Make the first a complete sentence by telling something about the robiyis. Make the second a com- plete sentence. Make the third a complete sentence. Make the fourth a complete sentence by telling'who are in the school- room. Make the fifth a complete sentence. Make the sixth a complete sentence. III. 1. The swallows chatter about their flight. 2. The maples will soon put on their bright colors. . 3. The grass will grow brown. 4. The warm summer days have gone. 6. Each season brings new pleasures. About what are you told something in the first sentence ? What are you told about it ? About what are you told some- THE TWO PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 15 thing in the second sentence ? What are you told about it ? in the third sentence ? the fourth sentence ? the fifth sentence ? That about which something is told is the subject of a sentence. That which is told about the subject is the predicate of a sentence. Find the subject and predicate of each sentence in I^ II., and III. lY. Find subjects and predicates in the following quotation: The wind blows, the sun shines, the birds sing loud. The blue, blue sky is decked with fleecy, dappled cloud ; Over earth's rejoicing fields the children dance and sing, And the frogs pipe in chorus, " It is spring ! it is spring ! " The grass comes, the flower laughs where lately lay the snow ; Over the breezy hill-top hoarsely calls the crow ; By the flowing river the alder-catkins swing. And the sweet song sparrow cries, "It is spring! it is spring ! " ^ —From ** Wild Geese," by Celia Thaxter. Y. Write from dictation the following sentences, drawing a horizontal line under the subject of each : The winter lingers late in Norway. The children wait long for the singing birds and the flowers. 16 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. The people there are very fond of the little birds. The fathers and mothers gather the grain from the fields in the autmnn. The children go then into the fields and glean what is left. The children save their grain until December. They make then a Christmas gift for the birds. They bind their gleanings together into a sheaf. They erect a tall pole in front of each house. They tie their sheaf of grain to the top of the pole. The sparrows come from all around to eat this Christmas feast. CHAPTER II. THE FOUR KINDS OF SENTENCES. REVIEW OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. I. 1. The growth of a flower is a wonderful thing. 2. A little seed lies in your hand. 3. You plant it in the ground. 4. A blade of green soon breaks through the earth. 5. The green stalk bears leaves. 6. A bud grows from the stalk. Y. The bud opens and changes into a beautiful flower. 8. IS'otice the wild flowers. 9. Learn their names. 10. Are not the colors of flowers beautiful? 11. "What flowers do you like the best ? 12. How wonderful a flower is ! 13. How gay the poppies are ! 14. How beautiful even the green grass makes the fields! THE FOUR KINDS OF SENTENCES. . 17 In the above sentences thoughts have been expressed in four different ways — to tell you something, to hid you do something, to ask questions, and to express wonder or delight. A sentence that tells or states something is a declara- tive sentence. A sentence that commands or requests is am. impera- tive sentence. A sentence that asks a question is an interrogative sentence. A sentence that expresses strong feeling, wonder, sur- prise, delight, anger, contempt, etc., is an exclamatory sentence. What ki7id of a sentence is each of the above sentences ? Why ? AVith what kind of a letter, small or capital, does each sentence begin ? What mark follows each declarative sentence ? each imperative sentence ? each interrogative sentence ? each exclamatory sentence ? The first letter of a sentence should he a capital letter. A declarative or imperative sentence should he followed hy a period (.)/ an interrogative sentence hy an interro- gation m^ark {?) / and an exclamiatory sentence hy an exclamation mark (/). What is the subject of each of the first seven sentences ? Who is told to notice the wild flowers ? What, then, is the subject of the eighth sentence ? Who is told to learn their names ? What, then, is the subject of the ninth sentence ? Are not what beautiful ? What, then, is the subject of the tenth sentence ? What flowers does who like the best ? What is wonderful ? What are gay ? What makes the earth 18 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. beautiful ? What, then, is the subject of each of these sentences ? Note : The teacher should have the pupil give the com- plete subject in each case, i.e., the growth of a flower, the colors of flowers, even the green grass, etc. Then by simple questions lead the pupils to give the complete predicate of each sentence. The blackboard should be freely used in all of these exercises. The eye is the most direct road to the understanding of a child. II. Make declarative sentences, using the following sub- jects: — The farmers ; Wild bees ; A little plant ; The little nest ; Marjorie : and the foUomng predicates : hides in the deep, sweet grass. sleeps in every seed. are picking apples. build nests in hollow trees. held four blue eggs. Make imperative sentences bidding the children not to be late at school ; not to frighten the birds ; to be kind to the smaller children ; to obey their fathers and mothers ; to speak the truth always. Make interrogative sentences asking about the nearest river or lake ; about birds in winter ; about school vacations ; about the color of some flower ; about the stars. Make exclamatory sentences about the swiftness of the birds' flight ; about the intelligence of the dog ; about the roaring of the wind ; about the beauty of the frost ; about the colors of the leaves in autumn. Note : After each sentence has been given orally, it should be written on the board by one or more pupils, care THE FOUR KINDS OF SENTENCES. 19 being taken that the sentences begin with capital letters, and are followed by the proper punctuation marks. Patience and cheerfulness will lead the children more rapidly and more surely than any sterner agency will drive them. III. In the following story notice carefully each period, inter- rogation mark, and exclamation mark. Read each sentence. Does it begin with a capital letter ? What punctuation mark follows it ? What kind of a sentence is it ? Why ? What is the subject of each sentence ? the predicate ? (The teacher may well help by questions the child who fails to find the sub- ject or predicate. ) What title do you think we may give to this story ? A pair of birds came to an orchard of apple trees in May. The trees were in blossom. How fragrant the or- chard was ! The fields were full of flowers, the grass was groAAang tall, and the busy bees were humming from blos- som to blossom. The birds built a nest in one of the trees. They sang sweetly every morning. Who told the little birds to sing ? Perhaps the flowers told them, or the blue sky, or the winds. They sang about a nest with five little eggs in it. They sang about the sunshine, and the air sweet with blossoms. A little sick boy heard the songs of the birds, and he was happy and forgot his pain. His father put a little card on the robins' tree, and the card said : A jpair of robins have hired this tree. They pay their rent with their songs. Do you like to hear them sing f 30 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Please do not frighten them. Do not disturb their nest. How cheerful their song is ! How sad their cries are when they are frightened / Note : This story may be used for oral reproduction, and for dictation sentences. Write a story about " The Birds' Christmas Feast in Nor- way," based upon the dictation exercises in Chapter I., Part V. The following selection is for reading only : The Sparrows. In the far-ofP land of Norway, Where the winter lingers late. And long for the singing-birds and flowers The little children wait ; "When at last the summer ripens And the harvest is gathered in, And food for the bleak, drear days to come The toiling people win ; Through all the land the children In the golden field remain Till their busy little hands have gleaned A generous sheaf of grain ; All the stalks by the reapers forgotten They glean to the very least, To save till the cold December, For the sparrows' Christmas feast. THE POUR KINDS OF SENTENCES. 21 And then tiu'ougli the frost-locked country There happens a wonderful thing : The sparrows flock north, south, east, west, For the children's offering. Of a sudden, the day before Christmas, The twittering crowds arrive. And the bitter, mntry air at once With their chirping is alive. They perch upon roof and gable, On porch and fence and tree ; They flutter about the windows And peer in curiously, And meet the eyes of the children Who eagerly look out With cheeks that bloom like roses red, And greet them with welcoming shout. On the joyous Christmas morning, In front of every door A tall pole, crowned with clustering grain. Is set the birds before. And which are the happier, truly It >vould be hard to tell ; The sparrows who share in the Christmas cheer. Or the children who love them well. How sweet that they should remember. With faith so full and sure, That the children's bounty awaited them The whole ^vide country o'er I 23 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. When this pretty story was told to me By one who had helped to rear The rustling grain for the merry birds In l^orway, many a year, I thought that our little children Would like to know it, too, It seems to me so beautiful, So blessed a thing to do : To make God's innocent creatures see In every child a friend. And on our faithful kindness So fearlessly depend. — Celia Thaxter. [Celia Thaxter, an American poet, born in Portsmouth, JSTew Hampshire, 1835 ; died at the Isles of Shoals, August 26, 1894] CHAPTER III. WORDS AS PARTS OF SPEECH. Note : This lesson may well be used for reading and for conversation with the class. Its object is to introduce the parts of speech to the pupils^ leaving them to become more in- timately and exactly acquainted with them in the lessons that follow. I. The pond-lily floats quietly on the lake. Its roots live in the mud, but its beautiful blossoms rest on the surface of the water. Ah, how sweet its perfume is ! WORDS AS PARTS OF SPEECH. In a sentence each word has its own service to perform. Some words are name-words ; some are used to describe name- words ; some are used to take the place of name-words ; some express action ; some modify (limit the meaning of) the action- words ; some show how one word is related to another ; some connect words or thoughts ; some express a feeling. 1. A word that is the name of something is a noun. Such words are pond'Hly, roots, mud, Uossoms, surface, water, per- fume. If you mention the objects that are in the school -room you use nouns : books, desks, pictures, teacher, map, boys, girls. 2. A word that describes a noun or a word used instead of a noun, is an adjective. Such words are ieautiful, sweet. Notice the adjectives in these groups of words : good books, small desks, beautiful pictures, large map, helpful teacher, pleasant boys, happy girls. Put these groups of words in sentences. 3. A word that is used in place of a noun is a pronoun. Notice the pronouns in these groups of words : its beautiful blossoms, its roots. In place of what noun is its used ? 4. A word that tells what a noun or pronoun does is a verb. Such words are floats, live, rest. Notice the verbs in these sentences : The birds are singing in the apple-trees. A beautiful ship sailed on the broad, blue sea. The ieachev praises the careful pupil. What are the nouns in these sentences ? the adjectives ? 5. A word that modifies the meaning of a verb is an advert. Such words are quietly, softly, rapidly, gladly. Insert softly, rapidly, and gladly, in the sentences in No. 4. 24 TEE ESSENTIALS OF LANOUAQE AND GRAMMAR. 6. A word that shows how one word is related to another is 2k preposition. Such words are on, in, of. Notice the prepositions in these groups of words : sings to his mate, sailed on the river, the work of the pupils. Put these groups of words in sentences. 7. A word that connects one word or thought to another is a conjunction. Notice the conjunctions in these groups of words : the red a7id gold leaves of the maple ; praised him because he studied ; played ttntil it was dark. •Put these groups of words into sentences. 8. A word that expresses strong feeling is an interjection. Notice the interjections in the following sentences : Ah, how sweet its perfume is ! Oh, do not waste the golden mo- ments ! What, are you back so soon ! See what parts of speech you can recognize in the story in Chapter II., Part III. II. A LITTLE STUDY OF WORDS. The little things called words^ which we use so freely to express our thoughts, and which we must learn to use very carefully and correctly, have, many of them, inter- esting meanings of which we do not think as we use them. We smile, perhaps, when we read of such Indian names as Laughing Water and West Wind and Pearl Feather; but perhaps we may not know that Margaret means a pearl, and John means the gracious gift of God, and Mary means a star of the sea, and Philip means a lover of horses. The dear, old-fashioned names, Patience, Faith, A LITTLE STUDY OF WORDS. 25 Hope, Charity, express qualities which we trust belong to all who are so named, but every name by which we call one another has its own meaning, and most of the meanings are pleasant. The Indian mother who calls her little brown daughter Minnehaha, laughing water ^ thinks perhaps of the sweet murmur of the rippling stream, or its bright sparkle when the sun shines on it, and her daughter's voice recalls the music of the water or her bright eyes remind her of its glancing lights. So the mother who first named her daugh- ter Margaret thought of her as a precious pearl, and the father who first named his son John, thought of him as a gracious gift of God. It takes but the thought of a moment to understand why the morning-glory is so called, and we can see the day* a eye in the daisy ; but we shall need to use the dictionary to find that the little swaying anemone is the wind-flower^ that the pansy is a thought, that the dandelion is the lion^s tooth, that the cemetery is a sleeping place, or that the little squirrel, whom we see with his bushy tail curved over his back, is called by a name which means shadow-tail. A large dictionary tells us all of these interesting facts about words ; it tells us, too, how to spell them and how to pronounce them ; what different meanings a word may have, and much more that it is profitable for us to know. In con- nection with all of our work in language, the dictionary should be carefully studied. If you have a large dictionary, it will be interesting to find in it what these words meant originally : school, companion, journey, handkerchief, boarder, good-by, farewell, angel, armor, handsome. 26 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR, Note : Helpful books in the study of the origin and meaning of words, are : " Short Studies from the Dictionary," Arthur Oilman. " Rambles Among Words," William Swinton. " Words and Their Uses," Eichard Grant White. III. Sentences for dictation : 1. Do not let words that do harm escape from your lips. 2. Words that do harm are profane words, foul words, angry words, and careless words. 3. What beautiful meanings some words have ! 4. School comes from a word that means leisure. 6. Leisure for what, do you think ? Give orally, or write, sentences containing the following words : 1. her daughter , means 2. like the , because thought. 3. Did you know shadow-tail ? 4. The squirrel is called because - means a 5. Oh, here are , meaning glory-of-the-morning, and daisies meaning , and pansies for ! What words mean the same as harm ? escape ? leisure ? What words are the opposite in meaning of harm ? foul ? careless ? THE NOUN A WORD THAT NAMES. 27 A word having the same, or nearly the same, m^eaning as another is its synonym. A word that is the opjposite in mea/ning of another is its antonym. CHAPTER IV. THE NOUN A WORD THAT NAMES. I. There was once a child who lived in a little hut, and in the hut there was only a little bed and a looking-glass Avhich hung in a dark corner. Kow, the child cared not at all for the looking-glass, but, as soon as the first sunbeam glided through the casement and kissed his sweet eyelids, and the finch and the linnet waked him with their merry morning songs, he arose, and went into the green meadow and begged flour of the primrose, and sugar of the violet, and butter of the buttercup ; he shook dew-drops from the cowslip into the cup of a harebell ; he spread out a large lime-leaf, set his breakfast upon it, and feasted daintily. —From "The Story Without End," by F. W. Carove. What was told you in Chapter 111. of the service that words perform in a sentence ? How many kinds of such service did we distinguish ? Into how many classes, then, may we divide words ? What is a noun ? Robin, blue-bird, sparrow, are the names of birds; lion, dog, horse, are the names of animals ; book, picture, bell, are the names of objects ; father, mother, sister, are the names of relatives ; anger, love, pride, sorrow, are the names of feelings ; John, Margaret, Mr. Winslow, are the names of people. 28 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. In the above quotation there are twenty-four nouns^ four of which are printed in italics. Make a list of the other twenty nouns. Why is each a noun ? Tell what each names, thus: Corner is a part of a room, casement is a part of a window, lime-leaf is the leaf of the lime-tree. Note : If possible the dictionary should be consulted by the pupils, that their definitions may be correct. II. Give five sentences, each containing the name of something in the room. What is the noun in each sentence ? Give five sentences, each containing the name of something at home. What is the noun that you use in each sentence ? Give five sentences, each containing the name of some per- son. What is the noun that you use in each ? Write three sentences, each containing the name of an animal ; three, each containing the name of a flower ; three, each containing the name of a feeling ; three, each contain- ing the name of some person. Underline the nouns in these sentences. Note : The amount of written work may be increased or diminished, according to the needs of the class. It is better to have a few good sentences — sentences that have a thought worthy of expression — than many trivial ones. From the first the teacher should strive to obtain sentences that are the expression of thoughts. SELECTION FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS. 29 CHAPTER V. SELECT/ON FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS. The Beggar. 1. A beggar through the world am I, — From place to place I wander by. Fill up my pilgrim's scrip for me, For Christ's sweet sake and charity. 2. A little of thy steadfastness, Eounded with leafy gracefulness. Old oak, give me, — That the world's blasts may round me blow, And I yield gently to and fro, While my stout-hearted trunk below And firm-set roots unshaken be. 3. Some of thy stern, unyielding might, Enduring still through day and night Kude tempest-shock and withering blight, — That I may keep at bay The changeful April sky of chance And the strong tide of circumstance,— Give me, old granite gray. 4. Some of thy pensiveness serene. Some of thy never-dying green, Put in this scrip of mine, — That griefs may fall like snowflakes light, 30 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. And deck me in a robe of white, Ready to be an angel bright, — O sweetly mournful pine. 5. A little of thy merriment. Of thy sparkling, light content, Give me, my cheerful brook, — That I may still be full of glee And gladsomeness, where'er I be. Though fickle fate hath prisoned me In some neglected nook. 6. Ye have been very kind and good To me, since I've been in the wood ; Ye have gone nigh to fill my heart ; But, good-by, kind friends, every one, I've far to go ere set of sun ; Of all good things I would have part ; The day was high ere I could start,' And so my journey 's scarce begun. 7. Heaven help me ! how could I forget To beg of thee, dear violet ! Some of thy modesty, That blossoms here as well, unseen, As if before the world thou'st been, O give, to strengthen me. — James Eussell Lowell. [James Russell Lowell, an American poet, born in Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, February 22, 1819 ; died there, August 12, 1891.] SELECTION FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS. 31 Imagine a beautiful wood, in which there are strong oak trees, and swaying, -green pine trees. A little brook flows through this wood, its waters babbling and singing on their way to the river, far away. On the banks of the stream the modest violets are growing. A path leads through the wood, past the oaks and pines, along the banks of the little stream, and on until it is lost to sight. Along this path comes a pilgrim (a traveler), with his scrip (a traveler's bag). With this pic- ture in our minds, let us see what he begs, from whom, and why. In the second stanza, of whom does he beg ? What two things does he beg of the oak ? Which of these gives strength ? Which beauty ? Describe the oak as you picture it. When the wind blows does it bend it down ? W^hat two things keep it from being blown over ? Which of these especially holds it ? Do you suppose the traveler wishes the steadfastness of the oak to prevent him from being blown over by the wind, or does he mean that he wishes to be steady against temptations as the oak is steady against the wind ? In the third stanza, of whom does he beg ? What does he ask the granite to give him ? A blight is something that with- ers or destroys plants. Would it destroy granite ? What is the weather in April ? When we speak of an April day we mean one in which there is sunshine and then showers. By the ''changeful April sky of chance,'" may he mean good for- tune and then bad fortune following each other as blue sky and cloudy sky follow each other on a showery April day ? What great body of water has tides ? Do these tides sweep in with great force ? By the " strong tide of circumstance " may he mean ill-success or misfortune, that it takes strength like that of granite to bear ? 32 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. In the fourth stanza, of whom does he beg ? The pine tree is not a noisy tree. It stands quiet and still, as a man may when he is thinking. The pine tree is not a cheerful tree, like the elm. It is rather a gloomy tree. Pensiveness means gloomy thoughtfulness. Do you see why he thinks the pine tree has pensiveness ? The pine tree is green all the year round. Do you see why he speaks of its never-dying green ? When the snow falls on the pine tree, it is caught by the pine needles, and then the tree looks as if it had a white and green robe on. In the fifth stanza, of whom does he beg ? What does he beg of the stream ? The brook sings and is happy, although it is all alone in the forest. So he wishes the brook to give him its content, its merriment, so that if he is neglected and alone he may be full of glee and gladsomeness. In the sixth stanza, what does he mean when he says '^ the day was high " ? What word might he have used instead of *^day^^? In the seventh stanza, of whom does he beg ? Why did he not beg of the violet before ? Why is the violet called ^^ mod- est " ? " Modest " means here shy ; not bold. Note : Children will appreciate the best literature if rightly presented. They sense much more than they may be able to express. The teacher should aim to get the pupils as interested as possible in the poem, to make them form mental pictures from it, and by question and answer to lead them to under- stand it. Then there should be a final reading of it, and it should be left to ripen in the minds of the pupils. Do not use this poem for dictation or composition work. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 33 CHAPTER VI. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. I. A name may be common to a class of objects : boy, book, school, hill, river. These names are not the names of any par- ticular boy, book, school, hill, or river, but each is a name com- mon to its class of objects. If I say, ^'A hoy hrought me these flowers," you are not told what boy. It may be any one of a large number of boys. If I say, *' Tlie hill is beautiful" I do not tell you what hill. It may be any one of a large number of hills. A noun that is the common name of a class of objects is a cominon noun. A noun may be the name of a particular, or individual ob- ject. It distinguishes that object from others of the same class. Edward Temple is the name of a particular boy ; '^ Black Beauty^' is the name of a particular book ; the John Ward School is the name of a particular school ; Silver Hill is the name of a particular hill ; the Merrimack River is the name of a particular river. If I say, '' Edward Temple brought me these flowers," you are told what boy brought them. If I say, ^^ Sil- ver Hill is beautiful," I tell you what hill is beautiful. A noun that is ike name of a particulai^ object is a proper noun. Notice with what kind of a letter each of the proper nouns begins. Form a rule for the beginning of proper nouns. 3 34 THE ESESNTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Write a list of ten common nouns. Write a list of ten geographical proper nouns ; of ten proper nouns that are the names of persons. II. Make a list of ten proper nouns, and of as many common nouns as possible, from the following description : There is a beautiful road leading from the village of Franconia through the valley that lies between Mount La- fayette and Mount Cannon. It touches the borders of Echo Lake, emerges suddenly into the plateau where the Profile House is situated, winds past the shores of Profile Lake, and then on and on beneath towering mountains and bare, up- reaching ledges, the music of the winds among the trees, and of the brooks, singing as their waters slip from stone to stone, making melody all the way. A short distance beyond the Profile House, and just as the dimpling waters of Profile Lake are seen in front, as one glances up to the ribbon of blue sky seen between the avenue of trees, he beholds, jut- ting out from the side of Cannon Mountain, a majestic, stern face, the first sight of which is wonderfully impressive. To some it seems like the features of Washington, to others it is the face of a younger man. It is the Profile, the Great Stone Face, carved by a mightier master than man — by the hand of I^ature herself. The GrEEAT Stone Face. The Great Stone Face was a work of Nature in her mood of majestic playfulness, formed on the perpendicular side of a mountain by some immense rocks, which had been thrown together in such a position as, when viewed at a proper dis- COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 35 tance, precisely to resemble the human countenance. It seemed as if an enormous giant, or a Titan, had sculptured his own likeness on the precipice. There was the broad arch of the forehead, a hundred feet in height ; the nose, with its long bridge ; and the vast lips, which, if they could have spoken, would have rolled their thunder accents from one end of the valley to the other. True it is, that if the spec- tator approached too near, he lost the outline of the gigantic visage, and could discern only a heap of ponderous and gigantic rocks, piled in chaotic ruin one upon another. Ke- tracing his steps, however, the wondrous features would again be seen ; and the farther he Avithdrew from them, the more like a himian face did they appear ; until, as it grew dim in the distance, with the clouds and the glorified vapor of the mountains clustering about it, the Great Stone Face seemed positively to be alive. — Nathaniel Hawthorne. [N^athaniel Hawthorne, a New England romancist, was born in Salem, Massachusetts, July 4, 1804, and died in Ply- mouth, New Hampshire, May 19, 1864.] III. Sentences for dictation : 1. The Great Stone Face is on the side of Mount Can- non. 2. It is sometimes called the " Old Man of the Moun- tain." 3. Do you not think " The Profile " a prettier name ? 4. What a stern look the face has ! 5. As you ride past it, it becomes merely a ledge of rocks. 36 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Complete sentences from the following : 1. The road passes from , through . 2. It is a road ; a little flows , singing as it slips from to . 3. A lies at the base of . 4. Should you not like to see , when is back of it, and the clouds ? 5. How and the face is ! CHAPTER VII. SURNAMES AND CHRISTIAN NAMES. {Family Names and Personal Names.) I. The first President of the United States was George "Washington. His father's name was Augustine Washing- ton. His mother's name was Mary Washington. His elder brother's name was La\\T:'ence Washington. What was the name of this family f What is the name of your family ? Give the names of five families- The name common to the memhers of a family is the fam^ily name or surname. What was the distinguishing name of George Washington's father ? of his mother ? of his elder brother ? of himself ? The names given to the indimduals of a family to dis- tinguish them are personal names, or given or Christian names. THE ORIGIN OF SURNAMES. 37 What is your personal or Christian name ? Give the per- sonal names of five other pupils. Sometimes two or more personal names are given to a per- son. All given names except the first are called middle names. In the name Oliver Wendell Holmes, Oliver is the personal or Christian name, W^endell the middle name, and Holmes the surname. Which are personal or Christian names, which family names, and which middle names in the following : Betty Alden, Louisa May Alcott, John Greenleaf Whittier, Edward Everett Hale, Thomas Bailey Aldrich, Robert Louis Stevenson, Molly Elliot Seawell, John Eandolph, Mary Powell, John Paul Jones ? Give your own personal name, middle name, and surname. Give the personal names and surnames of five of your school- mates. All personal names, middle names, and surnames are proper nouns. With what kind of letters should they be begun ? Instead of the full name, the initials of one or all of the Christian names may be used. Such initials must always be written in capitals and followed by a period, thus : L. M. Al- cott, John G. Whittier, E. E. Hale, T. Bailey Aldrich, M. E. Seawell. For what does each initial in the above names stand ? Note : Piipils should be taught to torite their first Christian name in full, II. TH£ ORIGIN OF SURNAMES. A long time ago, before the year 1000, there were no family names or surnames, and men were distinguished only by their personal names, Edward, Edmund, Alfred, John, 38 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.. Robert, Harold, etc. But there were so many Edwards and Alfreds and Roberts and others of the same personal name, that it became convenient to describe them bj some char- acteristic : by what they did, or where they lived, or how they looked, and so forth. So Harold, who could run as swift as a hare, became Harold Harefoot ; Edward, who was a baker, became Edward Baker, while EdAvard, who was a carpenter, became Edward Carpenter ; Edmund, who lived by the water, became Edmund At water {At means hy)'^ Edmund, who lived by the woods, became Edmund Atwood ; Edmund, who lived by the bridge, became Edmund Bridge ; Alfred, who was tall, was called Alfred Longfellow, and Alfred, who was little, was called Alfred Small ; John, who was the son of John, became John Johnson, and John, who was the son of William, became John Williamson. Then these descriptive names became family names. Such a descriptive or family name is called a surname^ because that word means a name above or in addition to the given name. The family name was formerly called, also, a sirname, meaning ^^V^-name, a name derived from the sire — the father or more remote ancestor — of the family. Sometimes a name is added to the Christian name and surname to distinguish the person from another who has the same names, thus : Charles Carroll of Garrollton^ John Randolph of Eoanohe, and these additional names are called to-names. III. Sentences for dictation and completion : 1. is the President of the United States. 2. The initials of mv name are — — — . A STORY FROM " HIAWATHA:' 39 3. If I write my name in full, it is . ^ 4. I have three friends named — , — , and — . 5. The name Margaret means — , and the name John means — . ' Complete the following outline of a paragraph : Once upon a time there lived a little lad whose ran so swiftly that his — called him . His playmates were a little white cat, named — , and a little black dog, named — . They played in a little grove on — Hill, near — — Brook. — 's mother used to call them from the door, '" Come, — , and — , and — ." Then they would start in a race to the house, and — always got there first, and always came last. Note : It is a good plan to have the pupils, one after another, read the paragraph, completing it each after his own imagina- tion. As soon as there is too much repetition, or the exercise becomes dull, it should be left. Eead the story, substituting synonyms for little, lad, swiftly, called, playmates. What are antonyms for little, swiftly, white, always, f/rst ? CHAPTER VIII. A STORY FROM LONGFELLOW'S " THE SONG OF HIAWATHA." In the lands of the beautiful West there once lived a lovely Indian maiden named We-no-nah. She had grown up tall and slender like a prairie lily, and had married West- Wind. When her little son, Hi-a-wa-tha, was born, Weno- 40 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA3I3IAR. nah gave him to her mother, No-ko-mis, to care for, because she knew that she should not live to care for him. E'okomis taught the little lad many pretty stories. She told him that when the wild flowers of the forest and the lilies of the prairie fade and die on earth, they blossom in the sky and make the rainbow. Hiawatha learned the names of the birds, how they build their nests, where they hide themselves in winter, and how they talk together, and he used to call them " Hiawatha's chickens." He learned, too, how the beavers build their lodges, where the squirrels hide their acorns, why the rein- deer runs so swiftly, and why the rabbit is so timid. He used to talk with these animals when he met them, and he called them " Hiawatha's brothers." One day I-a-goo, who was an old Indian and a friend of l^okomis, made a bow for Hiawatha from the branch of an ash tree. The arrows he made of an oak bough, and he tipped them with flint and winged them with feathers. Then he said to Hiawatha, " Go into the forest where the red deer herd together and kill for us a deer with antlers ! " So Hiawatha went all alone into the forest, and he was very proud because he was sent to kill a deer with his bow and arrows. The robin and the bluebird sang to him, " Do not shoot us, Hiawatha ! " and the squirrel chattered, '' Do not shoot me, Hiawatha ! " and the timid rabbit sat erect upon his haunches, at a distance, and said, " Do not shoot me, Hiawatha ! " But Hiawatha did not talk to them nor notice them on this day, for he thought only of the red deer. He followed the path which led down to the ford across the river, and A STORY FROM ''HIAWATHA:' 41 when lie came to the ford he hid in the alder bushes and waited for the deer to come to the river to drink. By and by he saw two eyes looking out from the thicket, then two nostrils, and then the antlers of a deer. And when he saw the antlers, his heart beat fast mth excitement, but he sped an arroAY from his bow and the deer fell dead. Hiawatha bore the red deer home, and when lagoo and Kokomis saw him they praised him. They made a feast and the people of the village came and ate the flesh of the red deer, and they called Hiawatha the Strong Heart, for they thought he had done a very manly action. IS'okomis was very proud of her grandson, and she made a cloak for Hiawatha from the beautiful hide of the deer. The teacher should not fail to read to the pupils the story as Longfellow tells it in the chapter called '' Hiawatha^s Child- hood.'^ This story should be used for a conversation lesson. No title has been given to it. Let the pupils suggest titles and tell why they choose each. How do birds build their nests ? Do they all build alike ? Where did the beavers live, and how did they build their lodges ? Why are animals afraid of man ? Are they afraid of one another ? What do Indians think is manly ? Do their ideas of what is manly differ from ours ? Was it brave in Hiawatha to kill the deer ? Is it manly to go hunting ? etc., etc. Another story of Hiawatha, that may bo arranged in the same way, is '^ Hiawatha's Sailing." Note : While the story may be used for a review of all that the pupils have learned, and for dictation sentences, the prime 42 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. purpose of its introdiiction is to get the pupils to talk freely on subjects in which they are interested, to teach them to clothe their thoughts in correct expression, and to introduce them to the beauties of good literature. CHAPTER IX. REVIEW. I. Let each pupil mention one thing that he has learned since beginning the study of Language, care being taken that no pupil mentions what another pupil has previously given, and that all the answers are given in complete and good sentences. IL What are the two parts of a sentence ? Define each. Write upon the board from dictation. The river at the foot of the hill sparTcles in the sunshine. Draw one horizontal line under the subject. Draw two lines under the predicate. Write an original sentence on the board. Draw one line under the sub- ject and two under the predicate. Tell the story of ''The Birds' Christmas Feast in Norway.'" Name and define the four kinds of sentences, and write one of each kind on the board. Draw one line under the subject, and two under the predicate, of each. (Supply you as the sub- ject of the imperative sentence.) What is a noun ? Give five nouns that are the names of objects that you can see ; five of objects that you can not see. Give a sentence containing a noun, and mention the noun. Who wrote '' The Beggar'' ? Of whom did the beggar ask THE WRITING OF DATES. 43 gifts ? What did he beg of each ? What is another word for pilgrim ? scrip ? What is a common noun ? Give five common nouns. What is a proper noun ? Give five proper nouns : the name of a per- son, of a mountain, of a river, of a school, of a town. With what kind of a letter must a proper noun begin ? What is a surname ? Why is it called a surname 9 What is a given or Christian name ? What are initials ? How are the initials of a name written ? What is a to-name 9 What was the origin of surnames 9 of to-names 9 III. Let the pupils tell the story of Hiawatha's childhood, each giving a single sentence of the story. Care must be taken that the connection of the story is preserved, and, as always, that the sentences are good sentences. Avoid too frequent use of the pronoun. CHAPTER X. THE WRITING OF DATES. I. A full date states the place, year, month, and day. A partial date may state the year, month, and day ; the year and month ; the month and day ; or merely the year. A letter or legal paper should contain the full date ; the time of an event may be given with a partial date. This letter is dated Concord^ Massachusetts^ April 19, 1YY6. This will is dated Richmond, Virginia, January 12, 1894. Benjamin Franklin was born Janua/ry 17, 1706. 44 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. He made the journey to Paris in Deceinher^ 17Y6. Christmas Day is December 25. A five-cent piece dated 187Y is quite a rare coin. A date is properly written in the order and form shown in the above sentences. In legal papers, however, the date is often written in full, thus : Dated * the Twelfth Day of January, in the Year One Thousand Eight Hundred and Ninety-four. The above dates are read: April nineteenth, seventeen seven- ty-six ; January twelfth, eighteen ninety-four ; January seven- teenth, seventeen hundred six, etc. Eead the following dates : October 12, 1492 ; December 22, 1620; July 4, 1TY6 ; July 4, 1804; February 3, 1842; March 4, 1897 ; April 19, 1898. Write the following dates ; June seventeenth, seventeen seventy-five; August third, fourteen ninety-two; January first, eighteen ninety-eight ; March nineteenth, seventeen hundred nine ; IS'ovember thirteenth, eighteen ninety-seven ; September fourteenth, eighteen seventy-three. We date the years from the beginning of the Christian era. A year is divided into twelve months. Instead of writing the name of the month in full, we sometimes write an abbreviation for it. The following are the names of the months and abbre- viations of the names : January, abbreviated Jan. July, not abbreviated February, " Feb. August, " Aug. March, " Mar. September, " Sept. April, " Apr. October, " Oct. May, not abbreviated J^ovember, " ]N'ov. June, " December, " Dec. THE WRITING OF DATES. 45 The naines of the months are jp^'oper nouns, and should alioays hegin with a capital letter. The year is divided into four seasons : spring, summer, auticmn, and winter. These words are common nouns. II. Notice the use of capitals in the following verse. Explain the description of each month : The Months. The new year comes with shouts and laughter ; And see, twelve months are folloAving after. First January, all in white. Then February, short and bright ; See breezy March go tearing round, But tearful April makes no sound ; May brings a pole with flowers crowned, And June strews roses on the ground : A pop ! a bang ! July comes in. Says August, " What a fearful din ! " September brings her golden sheaves, October waves her pretty leaves ; While pale i^ovember waits to see December bring the Christmas tree. III. Sentences for dictation and completion : 1. is the first month of the year. It is abbrevi- ated . 46 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 2. The shortest month of the year is . It is ab- breviated . 3. Do you not think that is the noisiest month of the year ? 4. What pleasant holidays there are in and ! 5. I was born , , in the season of . Complete the following paragraph : In the month of , after showery had gone, I went into to gather . I found , , , and . I heard the merry of , the rippling of a , the soft of the wind in the and trees. The sun , the sky was , and all nature seemed to be beautiful and songful once more. IV. A POEM FOR CONVERSATION AND MEMORIZING. Marjorie's Almanac. Eobins in the tree-top, Blossoms in the grass, Green things a-growing Everywhere you pass ; Sudden little breezes. Showers of silver dew. Black bough and bent twig Budding out anew ; Pine tree and willow tree, Fringed elm and larch, — Don't you think that May-time 's Pleasanter than March ? A POEM FOR CONVERSATION AND MEMORIZING. 47 Apples in the orchard Mellowing one by one, Strawberries upturning Soft cheeks to the sun ; Roses faint mth sweetness, Lilies fair of face, Drowsy scents and murmurs Haunting every place ; Lengths of golden sunshine. Moonlight bright as day, — Don't you think that summer 's Pleasanter than May ? Roger in the corn-patch Whistling negro songs ; Pussy by the hearth-side Romping with the tongs ; Chestnuts in the ashes Bursting through the rind ; Red leaf and yellow leaf Rustling down the wind ; Mother " doing peaches " All the afternoon, — Don't you think that autumn 's Pleasanter than June ? Little fairy snowflakes Dancing in the flue ; Old Mr. Santa Claus, What is keeping you ? 48 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Tmlight and firelight, Shadows come and go ; Merry chime of sleigh bells Tinkling through the snow ; Mother knitting stockings, (Pussy's got the ball), — Don't you think that winter 's Pleasanter than all ? — Thomas Bailey Aldrich. [Thomas Bailey Aldrich, a poet and novelist, born in Portsmouth, E'ew Hampshire, l^ovember 11, 1836.] Hints for conversation : The time of the coming of the birds. When do the robins come ? When do they go away ? Where do they go ? When are they most musical ? What blossoms grow in the grass ? What common weeds sometimes make the hills and fields seem golden ? (See Lowell's '' The Dandelion. '') Of what shape are the dewdrops ? The budding of boughs and twigs. When do they bud ? How do they pro- tect themselves from the cold ? What buds expand earliest ? What is the blossom of the willow tree ? Why is the elm called fringed f What are drowsy scents and murmurs ? When is chestnut time ? The colors of the autumn leaves. Why fairy snowflakes ? ♦ A FE W COMMON ABBRE VIA TIONS A ND CONTRA CTIONS. 49 CHAPTER XI. A FEW COMMON ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS. I. The names of the days of the week are abbreviated as fol- lows : Sunday, Sun. . Wednesday, Wed. Monday, Mon. Thursday, Thurs. Tuesday, Tues. Friday, Fri. Saturday, Sat. The title Mister is always written in its abbreviated form, Mr., and its plural. Gentlemen (Messieurs), is always written Messrs., pronounced Messers. The title of a married woman, Mistress, is always written Mrs., pronounced Missez, and its plural. Mistresses (Mesdames), is represented by the form in the parenthesis. Notice the following : Mr. Kenneth Grahame, Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer, Mrs. Olive Thorne Miller, Messrs. Thomas and Matthew Arnold, Messrs. Little, Brown & Company. Mesdames Stanton, Willard, and Stone. Mesdames Wells, Gibson, Field, and Drake. The^oUowing abbreviations are in common use : Doctor, Dr. Keverend, Eev. Esquire, Esq. Honorable, Hon. President, Pres. Governor, Gov. Professor, Prof. General, Gen. Superintendent, Supt. Street, St. Avenue, Ave. Company, Co. 4 50 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR, All titles and ahhreviatioiis of titles hegin with capital letters^ and all abbreviations are followed hy a period. Titles indicating reverence and honor should always be read or spoken with the preceding, thus : Rev. Edward Everett Hale should be read the Reverend Edward Everett Hale, Hon. John D. Long should be read the Honorable John D. Long, etc. With titles of position joined to a person's name, the is omitted, thus : Pres. Eliot of Harvard College, or Charles Will- iam Eliot, President of Harvard College, etc. Eead the following titles and names : Rt. (Right) Rev. Phillips Brooks, Dr. Samuel G. Howe, Rev. John Graham, Hon. Samuel J. Tilden, Pres. William J. Tucker, Rev. Dr. Hall, Dr. Dana, Prof. Goodwin, Supt. Edward Brooks, Messrs. Silver, Burdett & Company, Mesdames Pay son, Adams, and Walton. II. Contraction is the shortening of a word in writing or pronunciation by the omission of the initial or some inter- mediate letter. ♦ The most common contractions are nH for not, following is, are, was, were, has, have, had, could, would, should, can, do, does, etc. ; W f or would; 've for have; 'II for tvill, and 't lor it. Such contracted forms are properly written as if a part of the preceding or following word. The apostrophe ( ' ) must be written to mark the place of the letters omitted. A FEW COMMON ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS. 51 Give the equivalent uncontracted forms of the following : The book isn't here. The boys aren't playing. The child wasn't well. The birds weren't able to fly. Charles hasn't his book. The nuts haven't ripened yet. The dis- couraged boy said he couldn't do the problems, and he wouldn't try again. I'll help him if he'll let me. You've tried faithfully. I'd not have given you the problem if I'd thought that you'd find it so hard. 'Tis easy to make mis- takes. Note : Pupils should be given repeated drills in the correct use of common contractions. The following forms should be used in varied sentences, at first daily, and later with less fre- quency, until their correct use becomes a habit : I'm not — . Am I not — ? (Not is never contracted with am.) You aren't — . Aren't you — ? He isn't — . Isn't he — ? We aren't — . Aren't we — ? They aren't — . Aren't they ? We, you, they, weren't — . Weren't we, you, they — ? I, he, it, wasn't — . Wasn't I, he, it — ? I, you, we, they, haven't — . Haven't I, you, we, they — ? He, she, it, hasn't — . Hasn't he, she, it — ? I, you^ we, they, don't — . Don't I, you, we, they — ? He, she, it, doesn't — . Doesn't he, she, it — ? 'd represents had or loould j should is never contracted. 11 always represents will; shall is never contracted. Use the group of sentences beginning, ^'The book isn't here," for dictation sentences. 52 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. CHAPTER XII. THE PARTS OF A LETTER. (A letter from the Rev. Phillips Brooks to his niece.) CLa^qaaaX 13, \SS2. 'kajl v&XjJo^ t/o- XajJojc cl ^^MayUrb, Vruuu uaaX oxy- curvcL j^uyrwi) cvy^ axrucL ^dAXK/rrv ixru trVL aXajoX. [ilAAAAyC^^ y\a>-^yyvl cutvtxixru. O'YVUyx^ cX n^ruiX cUm>A., xLMxrKv cuAMo/vi t/t>- Ate. oxioyCMyruA- ^lm^-o^i, umoo- umx4 tuxi. to- cbooo-truA. ^xo^it vJp VnJb aXajjX, rix cm3-4aXcUvv t, a/yvdL Vnjuu yxxixL to- x-tA^, amxL tX Voju'YXAL njA>AAy ^YY\jaAL 'Tvcua^^ yxajaL cu IWcuyt- oayo-u>-, o^OAA. uoaaX oo- v-^iAiAZ to- Ido-^llo-oax. JUo- ao- i/vxio- ^m/vi 4ao>uA^ UMa>erru oxo-i^ ott VnAAJL, ayY\y^ Ajul '{y. VruL i ooAAxu Iyvuvyx. o-tt- JrU/OO^ 54 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAM3IAR. Our letters should represent ourselves in our neatest dress and with our very best manners. Letters are very often kept, and they are pictures of ourselves. We should make every part of them neat, arrange them carefully, and put into them our best and kindest thoughts, so that if we see them again a long time after they were written, we need not be ashamed of them. Dr. Brooks is writing to a very little girl. He tells her something that will interest her about the children in Venice, where the streets are canals, and the carriages are boats, called gondolas^ and where the little children can swim in the streets. Then he speaks of her vacation in the old home in Andover, and tells her to look after the doll — which perhaps is her own doll — when she goes into his house in Boston. If we study this letter, we shall see that there are five parts to it. The first part tells where it was written, and when it was written : \JUyrb A/O- THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 61 Y. The fifth part of a letter is the complimentary close, the wording of which varies with the relation of the person who writes to the one to whom the letter is written. To relatives you may write : Your loving son. Your affectionate daughter, etc. ; to friends you may write : Your loving friend. Your sincere friend, etc.; to others you may write : Yours sincerely, Yours respectfully. Yours truly, etc. The complimentary close should never be abbreviated. YI. The last part of the letter is the signature of the writer. This should be written very plainly, and the name should be signed in full in letters to those who are not relatives or intimate friends. In letters to relatives and intimate friends, however, one often signs the first name only. The signature to a letter should be simply the name of the writer, without any title. The title, inclosed in brackets, may precede the name, or the full address with the proper title may be written at the left and slightly below the signature. Study the following models of the complimentary close and signature : 63 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. THE PARTS OF A LETTER. G3 \\2 UnAAA/Q/n. ^IajuX, 1. ^\yY]yQJiAAA/u omoaaAA, yn. The envelope should be addressed with great plainness and neatness ; the stamp placed in. the upper right-hand corner ; the name written across the middle of the envelope. Accord- ing to best usage there should be no punctuation marks at the 64 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANOUAOE AND GRAMMAR. ends of the lines, except to denote an abbreviation, and the name of the State should be written in full. I. [wi>-. txLuo^aAyS^ C. J^MiXe. rrvcuy^vTx- yiii. Envelopes should be a very little wider than the paper. The paper should be folded so that it will be a very little nar- rower than the width of the envelope. If it be folded more than once, the upper part of the letter should be the outer fold. If paper wider than the length of the envelope is used, it should be folded in from the right side to fit the length of the envelope, before folding it to fit the breadth. Practice in folding, using cheap brown paper or even news- papers, cut to the sizes of note and letter paper, is of advantage to pupils. IX. The model for the arrangement of a letter is as follows : THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 65 {Place of residence or husiness) {City^ CoMTity^ and State) {Months day^ and year) {Name of person to whom the letter is written) {Address) {Salutation) : {Body of the letter^ properly paragraphed) {Complimentary close) {Name of writer) Note : It will be of great advantage in teaching the proper form in letter writing to have the pupils draw this diagram until they become thoroughly familiar with the arrangement, indentions, and paragraphing. 5 66 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. CHAPTER XIII. LETTER-WRITING. Fill out, first, orally, in the class, then, in writing, out of the class, the following abstracts of letters. As great a variety of sentiments as is possible should be obtained in the oral exer- cise, and these abstracts may be expanded if, in the judgment of the teacher, it is best. A personal letter usually contains inquiries and the answers to inquiries, remembrances to others of the family, etc. Since the nature of these varies with the relation of the receiver of the letter to the writer, they have been omitted in the abstracts. The teacher will decide with the class to whom each letter is to be sent, what personal ques- tions shall be answered, what inquiries shall be made, and what messages sent. She will teach the pupils that when a letter is being answered it should be looked through carefully to see that every inquiry in it is answered, and that such messages as it contains are properly noticed. The school exercise mentioned in the third abstract is a very pleasant one. Each pupil brings into the class every day something that he has seen or heard that pleasantly interested him. It is well if this '^sunshine diary ^^ can be kept by each pupil in a notebook. To gather some new idea each day and to express it well, will wonderfully broaden the intelligence of the pupil, and develop ease and grace of expression. Such a diary should not aim above the simple expression of simple things ; — what the pupil notices himself about bee or bird or flower, some word or custom or act that seems to him pleasant, is sufficient. LETTER-WRITINO. 67 When these letters are written out of the class, each letter should be in full and proper form ; then folded as if for an envelope. If not placed in an envelope, the address may be placed on the back of the letter, which should be left blank for this purpose. Not more than one letter should be written each week, and it is better to write them less frequently, — once a fortnight, — reviewing the form and varying the several parts. The writing of the five forms below, then, would best extend over a period of ten weeks. The practice in letter writing, however, should be continued throughout the whole period of the child's school life. I. We had such walk with teacher ! We left school Friday at o'clock. Went by river, through pastures, saw cows, came to brook. It was such a pretty brook ! grew be- side it, and . (Here describe brook.) We saw how val- leys are made, and , and . Miss taught us much about geography, and names of . Then we had a little lunch. Mamma calls it a " picnic lesson." II. A dog has come house live. We heard barking in field. Didn't see dog. It came to barn. Ate out of cat's dish. Mamma found it, so weak could hardly stand. Fed it. Lapped hand. Followed into house. Crept under table. Father came home. Said, " Halloo ! who's here ? " Dog came out , jumped over hands, then sat up . Father said might stay. Call it " Maidie," after Sir Walter Scott's dog. 68 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. III. Delighted to get such interesting letter. Your account of journey to made me wish . Think you will be interested in new school exercise. We write each day that has pleasantly interested us. Monday I saw ; Tuesday I heard ; Wednesday I noticed ; Thursday I found ; Friday I read . We write nothing but pleasant . calls it a " sunshine diary." How do like it ? lY. Gray, cheerless day. Your letter, however, is so sunny . The flower that came in it, the bit of poetry , the picture of , are like the of the daisy; what you wrote like heart. A bunch of is in vase on table, and if the day's eye out of doors is , there are twenty twinkling in my . How it is to know . Of all flowers the three I like best are , , and . I like the because , the because , and the because . I send you in return for the you sent me, and a thought with it. This is the thought : The best kind of a letter is one that makes us wish to answer it at once. Y. When we speak of traveling think going far from home. Did hear traveling around home ? Many things to see near home. (Here may NUMBER : SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF NOUNS. 69 be inserted a list of local places of interest.) An old kitchen just as it was many years ago. Fireplace big great logs settle crane. Tin kitchen to put before fireplace. Painted tioor. Beams in ceiling. Bunches of herbs. Dresser with pewter ware. Old chairs. Windows with many panes. Braided rag mat on floor. (A quite full description of any place may be used instead of this abstract for description of an old kitchen.) Abstracts for letters may be arranged by the teacher and put upon the board. Suggestive subjects are : A Visit to a Circus, Christmas Delights, A May Party, Fourth of July in our Toicn, Our School Home, Hie Story of the Neio Picture, A Delightful Book, My Collection of Stamps, A Walk with the Postman. CHAPTER XIV. NUMBER : THE SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF NOUNS. Wild bees get honey in the early spring from the golden willows. The golden willows send forth a sweet perfume when their l)lossoms open. The garden rose gives us a deli- cious ])erfume, but gives no honey to the bees. The little creatures love the blossoms of the raspberry in simimer. Many bees perish during the season of honey making. A strong swarm of bees loses about one hundred and fifty a day. What kind of a sentence is each of these ? What words in these sentences are nouns ? Are they common or proper nouns ? Does the word hees make you think of one bee or more than one? ivilloiu? blossoms? roses? creatures? swarm? 70 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. A noun that gives the idea of one {one hee^ one willow^ one rose, etc.) is of singular number. A noun that gives the idea of more than one ohject is of plural number. What nouns in the above sentences are of singular number? of plural number ? In the story from " The Song of Hiawa- tha/' name the nouns and state of what number each is. 1. Singular Plural bee bees willow willows rose roses creature creatures blossom blossoms How does the plural form differ from the singular in each of the nouns in the above list ? In the same way form the plural of school, teacher, hoy, girl, desk, pen, pencil, crayo7i, hoard, street, car, house, field, tree, fruit, orchard, carriage, horse, river, ocean. Give orally sentences containing the plurals of these nouns. The 2)lural of most nouns is formed hy adding s to the singula/r. 2. Singular Plural branch branches circus circuses fish fishes box boxes adz adzes hero heroes NUMBER: SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF NOUNS. 71 How does the plural differ from the singular in each of the nouns of this list ? In the same way form the plural of stitch, witness, dishy fox, watch, walrus, blush, volcano, potato, glass, sash, lynx, chintz, Irush, church, crocus, lunch, radish, chorus, motto, tomato. The plural of nouns ending in ch, s, sh, x, z^ amd of many ending in o not jpreceded hy a vowel^ is formed hy add- ing es to the singular. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u. 3. Singula/r Plural lady ladies body bodies fairy fairies fly flies city cities Is the final y of the singular of these nouns preceded by a vowel ? What are the vowels ? To what letter is the final y changed in forming the plural ? What is then added ? Write upon the blackboard the singular of the following nouns, and form the plural of each : colony, ally, shy, spy, factory, heauty, lilyt butterfly, history, fancy, belfry, poppy, cherry, treaty, geography, eddy, canopy, memory, variety, treaty. The plural of nouns ending in y not jpreceded by a 'dowel is formed by changing the final y to\ and adding es. 4. Eleven nouns ending in f change ftoY and add es. These are: Singula/r Plural loaf loaves leaf leaves (2 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Singula/r sheaf self beef thief wolf calf half shelf elf Plural {Form the plurals of these.) 5. Three nouns ending in fe change f to v and add s. These are wife, hnife^ life. Form the plural of each. 6. Thirteen nouns in common use form their plurals irregularly. These are : Singidar man woman child brother ox goose foot tooth louse mouse die Plural men women children brothers ) brethren ) oxen feet teeth lice mice dies ) dice S NUMBER: SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF ^'OUNS. 73 Singular penny pea Plural pennies ] pence ) 7. Some nouns have the same form in the singular and plural. Such nouns are deer^ sheep, trout^ cod, mackerel, salmon. Note: The jmpils should learn thoroughly the rules given for the formation of the plural, and should apply them carefully in form^ing the plurals of such nouns as have occurred in the previous lessons, and as are given in the list that follows. The pupils should he drilled with great care in the spelling of hoth the singular and plural forms, should learn the mea/nings of the words, and should use them in sentences. Apply the rules for the formation of the plural to the fol- lowing nouns : ship torch folio money colony torpedo negro foot baby canary enemy halo shoe canoe rush dairy thief knife strife antelope deer handkerchief gentleman foster-child wharf meanness rebus gentlewoman apple monkey mackerel daisy bough fresco grotto piano solo quarto cargo gypsy hoof prize shelf wife pony zero echo society 74 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Sentences for dictation : 1. The poppies grew among the wheat and were bound up in the sheaves. 2. The children of the heroes cherish the memories of their brave deeds. 3. At the fair were dishes of beautiful tomatoes, bunches of nice radishes, and cans of cherries. 4. The feet of the mice which were eating the peas left tracks on the shelves. 5. Little kindnesses drive away great griefs. Complete the following : fairies played under tree. table toadstool, cups acorn-cups. Six (pi. of butterfly) drew queen's . Two (pi. of fly) in beautiful coats were her (pi. of footman). The little (pi. of fairy) sang (pi. of chorus) to greet her on her arrival, and (pi. of canopy) of oak (pi. of leaf) were placed over her throne. CHAPTER XV. THE NUMBER OF NOUNS, Continued. 8. Some nouns that are of plural form are of singular number : as news^ wages^ means, tidings, gallows. Complete the following sentences by selecting the proper forms from those in the parentheses : Kews {has, have) come that wages {have or has) been advanced in the coal districts. THE NUMBER OF NOUNS. . 75 The low wages {is, are) not sufficient to keep the workers from suffering. The tidings of Nansen's safe return from his Arctic voyage (was, tuere) received with great gladness. Use each of the nouns in No. 8 as the subject of a sentence. 9. Some nouns, the names of objects consisting of more than one part, are always of jplural number : as trousers, breeches, scissors, t/weezers, tongs, victuals, scales, shears, measles, pincers. Complete these sentences by selecting the proper forms from those in the parentheses : The tramp's trousers {was, were) very ragged and dirty. The gentleman's riding breeches {were, was) of brown corduroy. Use each of the nouns in No. 9 as the subject of a sentence. 10. Some nouns belonging to foreign languages, but in use in English, retain the foreign form of the plural: as, in- dex, indices / awis, axes / radius, radii / phenomenon, phe- nomena j crisis, crises I beau, beaux ; tableau, tableaux. 11. Tlie plural of proper nouns is formed by the addition of s or es ; this termination is sometimes added to the title and sometimes to the name : the Drs. Smith, the Dr. Smiths ; the Misses Blake, the Miss Blakes ; the Messrs. Griffin, the Mr. Griffins ; the Marys and the Marthas ; the four Georges ; the King Henrys, etc. 12. In compound nouns (a) consisting of a noun and a modi- fying word or phrase, the noun is made plural in form, i.e., brothers-in-law, hangers-on, goings-f orth ; (b) consisting of parts very closely allied, the plural sign is added at the end, i.e., hand- 76 TIi:^ ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. fuls, spoonfuls, pianofortes ; (c) a feiu have plural forma of both parts, i.e., men-servants, women-singers, knights-templars. 13. Some nouns when preceded hy a numeral omit the plural sign: a ten-acre lot, a three-foot rule, forty. head of cattle, three pair of shoes. 14. The plural of figures, letters, and words and phrases, when repetition of their use is de^ioted, is formed hy the apos- trophe and s {'s). The i's and fs and 9's are carelessly made. His Fs and my's and me's are heard too often. Her repeated alas's and dear me's showed deep feeling. Put in sentences the plurals of the following words : Mr. Dana Miss Ames sister-in-law handful spoonful cupful s, r; t 8, 9, 6 CHAPTER XVI. SELECTIONS FOR STUDY. Note: Mrs. Celia Thaxter, the author of the following selec- tions, lived on Appledore, one of the Isles of Shoals. Here she delighted especially in the wildness of the ocean, which dashed often in great fury against the rocky edges of the island ; the birds whose lives were companionship to her ; and the little crowded patch of blossoms that she planted and tended, and of which she has told in her delightful book, '' An Island Garden." I. The Coming of the Sandpiper. I hear the voices of the children at their play, not far away. There are no other sounds. Suddenly from the SELECTIONS FOR STUDY. 77 shore comes a clear cry thrice repeated, " Sweet, sweet, sweet." And I say to my neighbor, my brother, working also in his garden plot, "The Sandpiper — do you hear him ? " and the glad news goes from mouth to mouth, "The Sandpiper has come." Oh, the lovely note, again and again repeated, " Sweet, sweet, sweet," echoing softly, in the tide-brimmed coves where the quiet water seems to hush itself to listen. Never so tender a cry is uttered by any bird I know. It is the most exquisitely caressing tone heard in the dewy stillness of morning and evening. He has many and varied notes, and his cry of fear breaks my heart when any evil threatens his beloved nest ; but this tender call of " Sweet, sweet, sweet," is the most enchant- ing sound, happy with a fullness of joy that never fails to bring a thrill to the heart that listens. It is the voice of love itself. — From " An Island Garden,''^ n. The Sandpiper's I^est. It was such a pretty nest, and in such a pretty place, that I must tell you about it. One lovely afternoon in May I had been wandering up and down, through rocky gorges, by little swampy bits of ground, and on the rocky headlands, looking for flowers, and I had found many. Presently I came to the edge of a little beach, where I was startled by the sound of such terror and distress that it went to my heart at once. In a few moments a poor little sandpiper emerged from the bushes, dragging itself along 78 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. in such a way that, had you seen it, you would have be- lieved that every bone in its body had been broken. Such a dilapidated bird ! Its wings drooped, and its legs hung as if almost lifeless. It uttered continually a shrill cry of pain, and kept just out of reach of my hand, fluttering hither and thither as if sore- wounded and weary. At first I was amazed, and cried out, "Why, friend and gossip! what is the matter ? " and then stood watching it in dis- may. Suddenly it flashed upon me that this was only my sandj^iper's way of concealing from me a nest. The object was to make me follow her by pretending that she could not fly, and so lead me away from her treasure. So I stood perfectly still, lest I should tread upon her precious habita- tion, and quietly observed my deceitful friend. "Dear gossip," I called to her, " pray don't give yourself so much unnecessary trouble! You might know I wouldn't hurt you or your nest for the world, you most absurd of birds ! " As if she understood me, she rose up at once, strong and graceful, and flew off with a full, round, clear note, deli- cious to hear. Then I cautiously looked for the nest, and found it quite close to my feet, near the stem of a stunted bayberry bush. Mrs. Sandpiper had only drawn together a few bay- berry leaves, brown and glossy, a little pale green lichen, and a twig or two, and that was a pretty enough nest for her. Four eggs, about as large as robins', were within, all laid evenly with the small ends together, as is the tidy fashion of the sandpiper family. ]^o wonder I did not see them, for they were pale green like the lichen, with brown spots the color of the leaves and twigs, and they seemed a SELECTIONS FOR STUDY. 79 part of the ground, with its confusion of soft neutral tints. I could not admire them enough, but, to relieve my little friend's anxiety, I very soon came away, and as I came I marveled much that so very small a head should contain such an amount of cunning. Subjects for conversation: A description of the island as it is spoken of in this sketch. What expressions tell us about the island ? Describe the appearance of the sandpiper as Mrs. Thaxter first saw it. Contrast that description with its appearance after she assured it that she would do it no harm. Do sandpipers reason ? Did he reason that she was search- ing for his nest ? Did you ever notice any animal — a dog or a cat — trying to deceive ? Describe the nest and the eggs. How did the sandpiper try to conceal its eggs ? Do any other birds try to conceal their nests ? How ? Make a list of ten words that are new words to you. Care- fully look up the meaning of each in the dictionary. Use each in a sentence. Note : The selection may he used also for a review of such grammatical principles as have been learned. 80 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. III. POEM FOR MEMORY. The Sandpiper. Across the narrow beach we flit, One little sandpiper and I ; And fast I gather, bit by bit, The scattered driftwood, bleached and dry : The wild waves reach their hands for it. The wild wind raves, the tide runs high, As up and down the beach we flit — The little sandpiper and I. Above our heads the sullen clouds Scud thick and swift across the sky ; Like silent ghosts in misty shrouds Stand out the white lighthouses high. Almost as far as eye can reach I see the close-reefed vessels fly. As up arid down the beach we flit — The little sandpiper and I. I watch him as he skims along. Uttering his sweet and mournful cry ; He starts not at my fitful song. Or flash of floating drapery. He has no fear of any wrong. He scans me with a fearless eye ; Staunch friends are we, well tried and strong — The little sandpiper and I. THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS. 81 Comrade, where wilt thou be to-night, When the wild storm breaks fm'iously ? My driftwood fire will bm*n so bright — To what warm shelter canst thou fly ? I do not fear for thee, though wroth The tempest rushes through the sky. For are we not God's children both — Thou, little sandpiper, and I ? The subject of " The Sandpiper" may well be completed by reading to the class another of Mrs. Thaxter^s poems, '' The Wounded Curlew " CHAPTER XVII. THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS. I. Robert's dog is a Scotch collie named Bruce. He is the boy's playmate. He likes to carry the children's baskets, and in the winter he goes coasting with them. He runs, barking in his delight, down the hill, and hauls the little girls' sleds back to the top. What noun tells whose dog Bruce is ? How is it spelled ? What noun tells whose playmate he is ? How is it spelled ? What noun tells who owns the baskets ? How is it spelled ? What noun tells who own the sleds ? How is it spelled ? Each of these nouns denotes the owner or possessor. How is the spelling of Robert changed to denote that he is the pos- sessor of something ? How is the spelling of boy changed to denote possession ? childreii ? girls 9 6 82 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA31MAR. Whe7i tliefoTTTh of a noun indicates ownership or posses- sion, it is called the possessive form. Notice how these possessive forms are made : Singul 'or Plural man man's men men's lady lady's ladies ladies' ox ox's oxen oxen's story story's stories stories' Charles Charles's What is added to each singular noun to form the posses- sive ? What is added to each plural noun 7iot eliding in s ? What is added to each plural noun ending in s ? Form in like manner the possessives of mother, sisters, fairy, fairies, wolves, fly, Margaret, Gladys, Miss WilTcins, Use the possessives of these nouns in the order in which they are given in the following sentences : Washington, when a boy, obeyed his wishes. Richard carried his little books. The kindness brought the coach to Cinderella. The howling could be heard throughout the long winter nights. The eye is wonderful. favorite book is " Beautiful Joe." • vacation was spent among the White Mountains. Ethel is reading one of stories. Note : These sentences should be made complete orally, and then given as dictation sentences to be written by the pupils. THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS. 83 The possessives of nouns are formed hy the addition of the apostrophe and s ('«), except that plural nouns ending in s add the apostrophe only. The possessive termination of singular nouns ending in s or z is pronounced ez, thus : Miss Noyes's is pronounced Miss Noyes-ez, Mr. Brooks's is pronounced Mr. Brooks-ez, etc. When the addition of the apostrophe and s would give a succession of more than two s or z sounds, the apostrophe only is added, thus: Moses', Jesus', etc. II. 1. "Master Skylark" is the name of John Bennett's first story. 2. Mrs. Harriet Prescott Spofford's home is on Deer Island in the Merrimack river. 3. William Brown, Esquire's, name is written in a plain hand on the fly leaf. 4. Blake the blacksmith's little lad has won a medal for bravery. 5. Kipling the story-teller's books have a large sale. 6. Messrs. Dodd, Mead & Company's store is on Fifth Avenue, Kew York. 7. Nicolay and Hay's " Life of Lincoln " is very com- plete. The possessive sign is added to the last of a combination of names (1), of names amd titles (2 am,d 3), of namss and descriptive words, designating an individual (4 amd 5), of those forming thefrm name (6), amd of those denoting joint ownership or authorship (7). 84 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Change the groups of words in italics in the following sen- tences into possessive forms : The life of Sir Philip Sydney was full of noble deeds. This house is owned by Bev. Arthur Goodwin, D.D. The new store of Wilson c§ Low will be opened to- morrow. This was the island garden of Mrs. Thaxter, the poet. That is the office of the Governor of Massachusetts. Cedric is the brother of GustaA)a, the little lamie girl. III. "While it is correct to use the possessive form of nouns that are not the names of beings that have life, it is in better usage to use the possessive phrase of . Thus, it is in better usage to say " The strength of England lies largely in her navy," than ^^ England's strength lies largely in her navy"; "the color of gold" than "gold's color"; "the puUic buildings of Wash- ington," than "Washington's public buildings." Change to better usage : Boston's old streets are very crooked. San Francisco Bay's entrance is called "The Golden Gate." The emerald's color is green, the ruby's color is red, and the topaz's color is yellow. The moon's distance from the earth is a little less than 240,000 miles. The Journey's end; the arrow's flight; the star's bril- liancy ; the earth's yearly journey ; the picture's beauty. THE PARAGRAPH. 85 The expressions anybody else, somebody else, nobody else, etc., are regarded as liaving the value of one word, and their possessive form is made by adding 's to the word else, thus : anybody else's, nobody else's, etc. Sentences for dictation : 1. Flowers are more beautiful than birds on ladies' hats. 2. The humming-bird's beauty has won him the name of a jewel with wings. 3. Master Skylark's real name was Nick Attwood. 4. His mother's smile was more to him than the Queen of England's favor. 5. Mrs. James's roses grow larger than Mr. Adams's. CHAPTER XVIII. THE PARAGRAPH. 1. The male bird usually selects the place for a nest. 2. He assists the female in hatching the eggs. 3. He feeds the little ones, and teaches them to fly and to hunt for food. 4. His plumage is usually much brighter than that of the female. 5. The female's colors are less bright, so that she will not be easily seen when on the nest. When our thoughts are closely connected with one subject we do not separate them as in the above sentences, but we unite them closely in a paragraph, as follows : 86 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. The male bird usually selects the place for a nest. He assists the female in hatching the eggs. He feeds the little ones, and teaches them to fly and to hunt for food. His plumage is brighter than that of the female. Her colors are less bright so that she may not be so easily seen when on the nest. A paragraph always begins on a new line, and has an inden- tion at its beginning ; that is, a blank space at the beginning of its first line. The diagram of a paragraph, which should be carefully drawn by the pupils, is as follows : Write the sentences at the beginning of Chapter I. as a paragraph. Arrange paragraphs from the sentences in Divisions II., III., and v., in Chapter I. Fill out the following sentences and write them in para- graphs : I. An Qgg wonderful thing. has shape gives its greatest strength. Its color, whether , , or , is always beautiful. Its shell has a lining, tough but as silk. And within is what may be a life clothed with beauty and overflowing with song. THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 87 II. A beautiful humming-bird . Its wings . It found its food trumpet flowers. Then it flew to the gay . It alighted for a moment on a string that was stretched about the flowers, and looked at me with a great deal of curiosity. I wonder what it thought of me. III. The snow came wool. It filled the full. It covered , it hid . It lay grass like light. And made the old earth look clean and CHAPTER XIX. THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 1. In olden times the men sat on one side of the meeting house, and the women on the other. 2. The children were taught to do useful work — the girls to spin and weave, the boys to do the work of the farm or of some trade. 3. Did you ever see the warming pans, the foot stoves, or the spinning wheels that were used in those days ? 4. The birds were very busy this morning — the mother- bird in watching her brood, the father-bird in getting them food. 88 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 5. The Prince and Princess of Wales, with the Duke and Duchess of York, were present at the celebration. All living beings are either male or female. When a noun is the name of a male heing^ the noun is of masculine gender ; of a female heing, it is of feminine gender. A noun that is the name of a living heing, hut hy its form does not show whether male or female, is of common gender. A 7ioun that is the name of something that has no sex—^ is neither nfiale nor female — is of neuter gender. The word neuter means neither. In the above sentences what nouns of masculine gender do you find ? of feminine gender ? of common gender ? of neuter gender? Of what gender is hirdsf father-Mrdf mother- Hrd f What shows the gender of the last two words ? What is the gender of Prince f What is the feminine form that cor- responds to it ? What is the gender of Duchess 9 What is the masculine form that corresponds to it ? The following are some nouns in common use, in which the masculine and feminine forms correspond : Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine father mother king queen brother sister emperor empress son daughter prince princess uncle aunt duke duchess niece nephew marquis marchioness husband wife earl countess REVIEW. 89 Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine groom bride lord lady host hostess beau belle horse mare manservant maidservant ram ewe he-goat she-goat lion lioness tiger tigress Jew Jewess drake duck Francis Frances gander goose Louis Louisa Of what gend er is each of the ) following nouns ? housewife maiden lover cousin maid youth blacksmith hare squirrel priest nun women poet Frenchman Italian crow cattle elephant chicken pullet Josephine Paul )^^m teacher family child author master mistress poet bachelor pupil CHAPTER XX. REVIEW. Write the complete heading, giving name of school, place, and date. What is the abbreviation of the month ? of the day ? How many days has this month ? Write the season of the year. What pleasant things in this season ? If you were to teach some one how to write a letter, what directions would you give him ? (The teacher can aid the 90 TEE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. pupils to arrange in order the suggestions that they offer. Training in orderly tliinhing — sequence — is invaluable. ) Write in proper form and order on the board the several parts of a letter, written in this school, to-day, addressed to the chair- man of the committee for, this school, and signed by the writer. What can you tell him of interest for the body of the letter ? Write on the board the proper address for the envelope. Show where the stamp should be placed. Draw on the board a model for the arrangement of a letter. (The lines should be drawn straight with a blackboard ruler.) What is the ''^sun- shine diary " ? Give each one noun and tell how to form its plural. Write the singular and plural forms on the board. In how many dif- ferent ways is the plural of nouns formed ? Give examples of each. Why are scissors, tongs, scales, always plural ? Tell the story of the sandpiper's nest. Write a noun on the board and show how its possessive form is made. Show how the possessive form of the singular and of the plural is made from each of these nouns : lily, wolf, Mr. Harris, guardsman, valley, hooh-luyer, mouse, fish, lily of the valley, manservant. Of what gender is each of the above nouns ? Give the cor- responding forms, masculine or feminine, of any of the nouns in the list in the preceding lesson. THE ADJECTIVE. 91 CHAPTER XXI. THE ADJECTIVE. I. Under a spreading chestnut tree The village smithy stands ; The smith, a mighty man is he, With large and sine\7y hands, And the muscles of his brawny arms Are strong as iron bands. His hair is crisp, and black, and long, His face is like the tan; His brow is wet with honest sweat ; He earns whate'er he can, And looks the whole world in the face, For he owes not any man. —From *'The Village Blacksmith," by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Name the nouns in the above stanzas. What words describe the first noun ? What does smithy mean ? What word de- scribes it ? W^hat word is used to describe man in the third line ? What kind of hands did he have ? What word describes arms in the fifth line ? What does brawny mean ? What de- scriptive words in the sixth line ? What are strong ? What, then, does strong describe ? What does iron describe ? Write on the board in a vertical column the nouns in the first stanza, and place before each the word or words that are used to describe it. Do the same with the nouns in the second stanza. 92 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Give a sentence using large to describe house ; using small to describe house ; using hlach to describe something that we burn ; something that we use in school ; using wliite to de- scribe something that we may see in winter ; something that we use in school ; using each of the following words to describe something : happy, sweet, good, leautiful, light, interesting, cross. Hue, patient, ripe, round, bright, glad. What word de- notes a quality the opposite of happy ? sweet ? good 9 beautiful f Put into sentences the words that denote these opposite quali- ties. Words that describe are adjectives, II. 1. The twenty-third psalm is called the Shepherd Psalm. 2. In yonder meadows the sheep are grazing. 3. These daisies were picked near the birthplace of John a. Whittier. 4. That face looks very mischievous, thought Pan- dora. 5. Those mountains are the Alps. What word points out the psalm ? the meadows ? the dai- sies ? the face ? the mountains ? Words that designate {point out) a particular object are III. 1. There were four pale eggs in the sandpiper's nest. 2. Some flowers have beauty but no fragrance. 3. " Then the little Hiawatha Learned of every bird its language." THE ADJECTIVE. 93 4. Each star in the sky is a fiery sun. 5. All living creatures should be treated kindly. How many eggs were in the nest ? How many flowers are spoken of ? Of how many birds did Hiawatha learn the lan- guage ? Hoio many stars in the sky are fiery suns ? How many animals should be treated kindly ? Words that limit {tell how many) are adjectives. A word that is used to descrihe, to designate^ or to limit a pa/rtioula/r noim is a/n adjective. Name the adjectives in the following selections, and state whether they describe, designate, or limit, the noun which each modifies : 1. Is there a nicer place in which to play than an old apple orchard ? In the lightly swinging branches you find prancing horses, and on many a mad ride they carry you. The larger ones are steep paths leading up mountain sides. — Ah ! it is good to get into the cool of the dear friendly trees. And just now, more than ever, they seem friendly to you, boys and girls ; for they are heavy with apples — beautiful red and golden apples, that tempt you to clamber up into the green sea of leaves above. —From " Plants and their Children," by Mrs. Dana. 2. This flower is the most sociable of all flowers. It is the starry innocent, the Houstonia. It is fond of dwelling with many friends about it. And so you will find a whole family of them living so close together that the ground is white with their delicate beauty. In the space of a few inches there are a thousand blossoms, and each of these lit- 94 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR tie flowers is as perfect as if the warm sun and the soft rain and the gentle breezes nourished it alone. 3. I^ear yonder copse the village preacher's modest mansion rose. 4. These little flowers of the air are humming-birds. 5. Twelve articles are a dozen ; twenty articles are a score ; a hundred years are a century. lY. The words the, a, an, are classified properly as adjectives, but are called articles. Tlie is used to give definiteness (to denote a particular object) to the noun which it modifies^ and it is called the definite article. 1. The girl had learned the names of all the common wild flowers. 2. The boys carried the Christmas tree to the church. Sometimes it is used to show that the genus, or class of objects, is meant. The song of the robin is a cheerful sound; meaning not one robin, but robins as a gerius. The vice of the swearer is a repulsive one; meaning not one man who swears, but the class of men who swear. Frequently the is used before titles : The Duke of York ; the Eev. Lyman Abbott. A and a7i are indefinite articles, and are used with singular nouns only. An is used before words beginning with any vowel sound except U, and a before all consonant sounds, and the sound of H. Words beginning with h and accented on the second syllable are preceded by an instead of a. THE CAREFUL USE OF ADJECTIVES. 95 Place the proper form, a or a7i, before the following nouns : Apple, echo, idea, ocean, undercurrent, union, European, utter failure, house, historical novel, history, field, good idea, strong undercurrent, orang-outang, humble romance, wharf, hotel, youth. An adjecti/ve derived from a proper noun hegin^ with a capital letter : The American spirit; the English pride; the Spanish soldiers ; the Mosaic law ; the Jewish religion ; Websterian oratory ; Koman art. YI. Use adjectives to describe the shy, the grass, a geramium leaf, a winter day, a suminer day / to point out some hook in the room, some hoy in the class, something that is near you, something that is away from you y to limit trees, rivers, hills, seasons, men. CHAPTER XXII. THE CAREFUL USE OF ADJECTIVES. {A Chapter for Conversation with the Class.) I. While we are learning about adjectives, we should also try to learn to use them correctly. Some people who are careless in their use of language use certain adjectives to describe almost everything. They have an elegant time, the cake is elegant, flowers are elegant, the song of the bird is elegant ; 96 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRA3IMAR. almost everything that pleases them is elega7it. But if an excursion has given us pleasure or delight it is better to speak of it as a pleasant or delightful time ; if the cake pleases our taste we may say that it is delicious ; flowers are beautiful J the song of the bird may be stveet or musical. Lovely is another overworked adjective. Whatever draws our love or admiration is lovely, — a mother's smile, an act of kindness, a face that shows beauty of soul. But a dress is not lovely but beautiful, candy is not lovely, a house is not lovely but handsome, a tree is not lovely but beautiful or graceful. A beautiful face is one that is pleasing to the eye, and that shows nobility of character ; a handsome face is one the features of which are good and well proportioned ; a pretty face is one that has softness and delicacy, like that of a child. Beauty means much more to us than mere prettiness. Mountains are grand because they are of striking magni- tude ; sunsets are often gorgeous because they are brilliant in color ; an accident or a thunderstorm may be awful, because it causes the feeling of awe. Can we correctly say that a hat is awfully pretty ? that a person is dreadfully proud ? We should avoid extravagant expressions, such as perfectly lovely, perfectly awful, etc. We should avoid the use of slang. We should be as careful to have our speech clean as to have our faces or clothes clean, and slang in our speech is like mud on our faces or garments. II. Discuss the differences in meaning and the correct use of the following groups of adjectives : Latest; Last. The boy who came latest stands last in the line. THi: CAREFUL USE OF ADJECTIVES, 97 Many • Much. Mcmy boys spend too much money for trifles. Bound / Determined. If I am not hound to help him, I am determined to help him. {Bound means under necessity^ determined means resolved.) Mut^cal y Common. The love of the mother and daugh- ter is mutual. (Each gives love to, and receives it from, the other.) • The little pony is the common property of the two broth- ers. (It belongs to both of them.) Odd ; Funny. The shape of this book is odd (miusual), and the pictures in it dcc^fwnny (causing mirth). Mad ; Angry. The boy is not mad (insane) ; he is only cmgry. Prominent ; Eminent. He is a promine7it (attracting notice) citizen, but not an eminent (highly distinguished, in a good sense) one. Continual • Continuous. The dropping of the water is continual (an act constantly repeated) ; the roaring of the torrent is cmitinuous (uninterrupted). Liable / Likely. If you do ivrong you are liable to (sub- ject to, exposed to) punishment. It is likely (probable) that to-morrow will be a holiday. Healihfid ', Healthy ; Wholesome. Healthfid (produc- ing health) exercise and wholesome (promoting health) food make healthy (in good health) bodies. 98 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. III. Select proper adjectives for the blanks in the following sentences : 1. The journey was a one ; the people were , the refreshments , the scenery , and the weather . 2. It was such a babe, and the love of the mother made her face . The father's face was , but showed no marked character. 3. The procession was • , the fireworks , but the noise of the cannon was . 4. The boy was not to be the in his class. 6. The taunts made the man . 6. The dress of the clown was very ; his perform- ance very . 7. Eat food ; take exercise ; and so grow into a man. 8. He is our friend. 9. To be in a community is honorable ; to be is not always so. Give original sentences using correctly the adjectives in No. II. CHAPTER XXIIl. THE VERB. I. 1. Barn swallows build their nests of mud. 2. The tailor bird sews leaves together for his nest. 3. Night hawks lay their eggs on the bare ground. THE VERB. 99 4. The blue jay robs the nests of other birds. 5. The chimney swifts glue their nests to the inside of chimneys. What kind of a sentence is each of these ? What is the subject of the first sentence ? the predicate ? What one |rord in the first sentence tells the action of the barn swallows ? What word in the second sentence tells the action of the tailor bird ? AVhat word expresses action in the third sentence ? in the fourth ? in the fifth ? Write these action-words on the board. Write before each the subject — the word that shows what acts. A word that expresses action exerted hy the svhject of a sentence is a verh. AVhat is the verb in the first sentence ? the second ? the third ? the fourth ? the fifth ? Find the verbs in the selection on p. 15, from *'Wild Geese/' by Celia Thaxter. II. 1. This branch was broken from the cherry tree. 2. An oriole's nest has been hung from it. 3. The eggs have been hatched. 4. The nest has been left by the birds. 5. It has been torn by the wind. What is the subject of each sentence ? the predicate ? What two words in the first sentence tell the action received by the branch ? What three words in the second sentence tell what action has been received by the nest ? What words denote action received in the third sentence ? in the fourth ? in the fifth? 100 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. A word or group of luords that tells the action received hy the subject of a sentence is a verb. Write a list of the verbs in the preceding sentences. "Write before each verb its subject. Find the verbs in these sentences : 1. Washington has been praised for his truthfulness. 2. The bees are invited by the flowers to visit them. 3. The sandpiper has been lamed by a stone. 4. The stone was thrown by a careless boy. 5. The mng of the little bird has been broken. Write a list of the verbs in these sentences, with the subject of each before it. III. 1. The sunshine lies on the brown barn floor. 2. The baby is sleeping in the hammock. 3. The door of the little cottage stands open. 4. A picture of Lincoln hangs on the wall. 5. An old gray cat sits on the doorstep. What is the subject of each sentence ? the predicate ? What words express the state of the subject in the first sen- tence ? in the second sentence ? in the third ? the fourth ? the fifth ? A word or group of words that expresses the state or con- dition of the subject of a sentence is a verb. Write a list of the verbs in the above sentences. Write before each verb its subject. THE VERB. 101 Find the verbs in these sentences : 6. All kinds of trees have flowers. Y. A little plant sleeps within each seed. 8. The leaves lie thick beneath the naked trees. 9. The brown stalks of weeds stand along the country roads. 10. The autumn mist rests upon the meadows. Write a list of the verbs in these sentences, with the sub- ject of each before it. lY. 1. The eagle is our national bird. 2. The groves were full of singing birds. 3. The name of the king of the lions was Tawny Mane. 4. The monkeys seem very playful. 5. The flowers are very lovely, — proses and lilies and orange blossoms. What words in the first sentence describe the eagle ? in the second sentence describe the groves ? in the third sentence tell the name of the king of the lions ? in the fourth sentence de- scribe the monkeys ? in the fifth sentence describe the flowers ? What word in the first sentence connects the subject with the words describing it ? in the second sentence connects the subject with the words completing the statement about it ? in the third sentence ? the fourth sentence ? the fifth ? A word connecting the subject of a sentence with a word or group of words completing the statement about it is a verb. Such a verb is called a copula or bond. 103 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. '^^o^h'^r^' — ' ! I . . ' ^ ^- — '■ A verb is a word expressing action given or received hy its subject, expressing the state or condition of its subject, or connecting its subject with a word or group of words com- pleting the statement about it. CHAPTER XXIV. THE CORRECT USAGE OF CERTAIN VERBS. Only such definitions have been given to the following verbs as shall show the distinctions in their use which the best usage observes. Drill in this correct usage should be begun early, and continued until the habit of using them correctly is fixed. Hence this lesson should be one for repetition, review, and the arrangement of new illustrative exercises by the teacher. I. Teach, taught, teaching. To give instruction. Learn, learned, learning. To obtain knowledge. 1. The best of instructors may teach us, but we ourselves must learn our lessons. 2. Experience has taught me; I have learned to be patient. Sit, sat, sitting. To take a certain position. Set, setting. To place or put ; to sink or settle down. 3. We sat on the outside of the coach ; it was pleas- anter than sitting inside. 4. The hen sits on a dozen eggs. She is the only sit- ting hen in the flock. THE CORRECT USAGE OF CERTAIN VERBS. 103 5. We set the hen on a dozen of eggs, but she refused to sit. 6. Some one has set a hot dish on this table. Y. The boat sets low in the water. The sun was set- ting. ^ Lie^ lay, lain, lying. To rest in a certain position. Lay, laid, laying. To put or place. 8. The ship lies at anchor where it lay yesterday, and where it has lain for a week. 9. The children laid the wreath on their father's grave. Wish, wished, wishing. To desire. Want, wanted, wa/ntiruj. To feel the need of, and there- fore to desire. 10. The children wished to see the beautiful pictures. 11. The path was rough, and the children wanted their stout shoes. Get, got, getting. To obtain. Have, had, having. To possess. 12. lie has got riches by being prudent and careful. 13. He has beautiful silks in his store. Guess, guessed, guessing. To form a judgment without certain knowledge. Think, thought, thinking. To judge. Reckon, reckoned, reckoning. To count or compute. 14. The boy has guessed the riddle. 16. The boy thinks that this is the answer. If). The boy has reckoned the cost of the flour. 104 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Stoj)^ stoj>j)ed, stopping. To bring to a halt. Stay, stayed, staying. To remain. 17. A coach stopped before the door of the house where we were staying. 18. The peddler stops at many doors, but he does not stay long at any of them. May, might. Expresses possibility or permission. Can, could. Expresses power or ability. 19. The travelers may see the Passion Play. 20. May we not drive in the park ? 21. Can you see the Isles of Shoals from Portsmouth ? 22. Might he not have misunderstood you ? Could he not have misunderstood you ? Give the reason for the choice of verbs in each of the above sentences. Put each verb in an original sentence. II. Supply with the proper verbs the blanks in the following sentences : 1. us how to use these words correctly, for we 2. The men on the deck of a boat which low in the water, 3. The little child had quiet all day. 4. They the child on a bed of soft moss. 5. I do not need these clothes, but I them. 6. I need these garments, and therefore I them. T. Did you any fish ? you any bait ? 8. Can you what is in this box ? THE ADVERB. 105 9. Do you that it is raining ? 10. I that you are from the West. 11. Did you at the hotel or merely there ? 12. I think that I do the work of the higher class. -I try? f CHAPTER XXV. THE ADVERB. I. 1. " By yonder sandy cove, where, every day, The tide flows in and out, A lonely bird in sober brown and gray Limps patiently about." How does the tide flow ? How does the bird limp ? 2. A very little act of kindness may produce a great deal of happiness. How little an act of kindness ? 3. The Concord river flows very slowly. How does the Concord river flow ? How slowly ? Words that omswer the question how are adverbs. They inodify only verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Such adverbs are adverbs of manner. Find the adverbs (words that answer the question how) in the following sentences : 4. Kobert of Lincoln is gayly dressed. 5. He is merrily swinging on briar and weed. 106 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 6. " Silently, slowly, stately and free. Cities of coral under the sea Little by little are builded." 7. The exceedingly low rate of wages causes much suf- fering. 8. The wretchedness in the poorer parts of London is very largely caused by intemperance. What does each of these adverbs modify? Write a list of the adverbs in these sentences and place after each the word which it modifies. II. 1. Let us do what we can to-day. 2. The Indians formerly lived in New England. 3. " I once had a sweet little doll, dears." When shall we do what we can ? When did the Indians live in New England ? When did I have a sweet little doll ? Woi'ds that answer the question when are acherhs. Siwh adverhs modify only verhs. Such adverbs are adverhs of time. Find the adverbs in the following sentences : 4. I will tell you to-morrow about the jewel weed. 6. Sometimes the brooksides are yellow with its quaint blossoms. 6. Once I thought it only a common weed, but lately I have learned to admire it. III. 1. Here is the Old Manse. 2. There is Concord Bridge. THE ADVERB. 107 3. Yonder is the statue of the Minute Man. Where is the Old Manse ? Where is Concord Bridge ? Where is the statue of the Minute Man ? Words that answer the question where are adverbs. Such admerhs modify only verbs. Such adverbs are ad/verbs of place. Find the adverbs in these sentences : 1. Here is the home of Washington. 2. Here is the home of Washington; yonder is his tomb, and below the Potomac river flows. 3. Afar off lies the wreck of the Hesperus. lY. An adverb is a word tliat modifies the meam/lng of a verb^ adjective, or other adverb. Words that answer the question how, when, or where, are adverbs. , Find the adverbs in these sentences : 1. Suddenly a peal of thunder fell upon his ears. 2. The rain fell more and more rapidly. 3. The tiny brook, which ran laughing near our home, was quickly swollen to a raging torrent. 4. Here and there and everywhere, little streams of water sprang into being, running this way and that, as if seeking but not knowing the way to the larger stream. 5. The tall and very slender birches bent nearly to the ground before the strong wind. 108 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Y. Supply suitable adverbs for the blanks in the following sentences : A Quiet Scene. The clouds moved , the wind blew , the river flowed , a boat at anchor rocked . By supplying different adverbs make the above a wild scene. Supply adverbs of time in the following : The crocus blooms than the violet. The blue-bird comes than the robin. there have not been so many robins in my orchard as . we were in ^N'ew York, we are in Philadel- phia, we shall be in Washington. Supply adverbs of place in the following sentences : is the first blood of the Revolutionary War was spilled. is the tomb of Washington. Supply as many suitable adverbs as possible for each of the following blanks : The brook flows ; the bird flies ; the lamp burns ; the drum beats ; the time passes ; the price is cheap ; the child is clothed. Write a paragraph, uniting in it the sentences under lY. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 109 CHAPTER XXVI. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. Frank brought some beautiful wild roses to his mother. " They grew," he said, " near the sea, and I picked them for you while the dew was on them." Whom does his represent ? What noun could you use in place of his? What noun could you use in place of they? What noun does they represent ? What noun could you use in place of he f What noun does he represent ? Who picked the roses ? What noun could be used in place of If For whom did Frank pick them ? To whom is he speaking ? What noun could be used in place of you 9 What noun does them represent ? Make a list of the words in the above selection that stand for, or represent, nouns. These words are pronouns. (The word pronoun means in place of a noun.) A pronoun is a word that represents a noun. In what Frank said he uses /in place of his own name, you in place of the person to whom he is speaking, and they and them in place of the objects of which he is speaking. /, my, mine, me, represent the person speaking. If Mary is speaking, they mean Mary ; if Harry is speaking, they mean Harry ; if the teacher is speaking, they mean the teacher. We, our, ours, us, mean a number (two or more) of persons of whom the speaker is one. You, your, yours, thou, thy, thine, thee, represent the person spoken to. He, his, him, her, hers, it, its, they, their, theirs, them, represent the person or no THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. thing spoken of. All of the pronouns in italics in this para- graph are called personal pronouns. A personal pronoun is one that rej^resents the. person speaMng, the person addressed^ or the person or thing spoken of. A personal pronoun representing the speaker is of the first person; one representing the person addressed is of the second person; one representing the person or thing spoken of is of the third person. From the following conversation make a list of the pronouns of the first person ; then a list of those of the second person ; then a list of those of the third person. " Pray, who are you, beautiful creature ? " inquired Pandora. " I am to be called Hope ! " answered the sunshiny figure. " Your wings are colored like the rainbow ! " exclaimed Pandora. " Yes, they are like the rainbow," said Hope, " because I am partly made of tears as well as of smiles." " And will you stay with us," asked Epimetheus, " for- ever and ever ? " " As long as you need me," said Hope, " I promise never to desert you. Again and again you shall see the glimmer of my wings on the ceiling of your cottage." —From " The Paradise of Children," by Hawthorne. What personal pronoun occurs in Pandora^s first speech ? Does it represent the speaker or the person spoken to ? Whom does it represent ? What pronoun occurs in the answer of the sunshiny figure ? Of what person is it ? Whose wings does THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. Ill Paudora say are colored like the rainbow ? Whom does your represent ? What form of Hope does it represent ? What form of the pronoun, then, is your 9 [The teacher, by similar questions, should make plain the use of the other personal pronouns in the selection.] CHAPTER XXVII. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN, Continued. I. 1. My father and I are studying history together. 2. You and I will go into the woods to cut a Christmas tree. 3. You and Edward and I are invited to visit Mount Yernon. Notice the order of the subjects in the above sentences. The speaker mentions himself last, the person addressed first, when other persons are associated. Arrange the pronouns in the parentheses in proper order in the following sentences : 4. (I and you) will prepare the breakfast, and then (you and Mary) may wash the dishes while (I and Charles) catch some trout for dinner. 5. (I and the guide) selected this place for our camp, but (Mr. Murray and you) prefer a place nearer the lake. 6. (Mr. Murray, I, you, and the guide) are to go in two canoes, (Mr. Murray and you) in the first one, (I and the guide) in the second one. 112 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. II. 1. I offer myself as a soldier in this cause. 2. I myself will plead with him not to be unjust. 3. You wrong yourself by keeping company with the vicious. 4. You yourself have done him many kindnesses. 5. He that wrongs his friend wrongs himself more. 6. He himself saw tears in the queen's eyes. Myself, yourself, thyself, himself ^ herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are compound personal pronouns, used as reflexive when the subject receives his own action, as in sentences 1, 3, and 5 ; and as emphatic when used to make the pronoun more prominent, as in sentences 2, 4, and 6. III. The pronouns thou, thy, thine, thee, and ye, are used only in sacred writings, in addressing the Deity, in poetry, and among the Society of Friends. 1. O Lord, open thou my lips, and my mouth shall shew forth thy praise. — Ps. LI. v. 15. 2. But seek ye first the kingdom of God. — St. Matthew, YL V. 15. 3. " Good-bye, sweet day, good-bye ! I have so loved thee, but I cannot hold thee. Departing like a dream, the shadows fold thee. Slowly thy perfect beauty fades away : Good-bye, sweet day ! " THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 113 IV. 1. He was a boy who loved manly games, but he did not neglect his studies. 2. She studied her lessons with her brother. 3. Some thoughtless boy has hit the bird with a stone. Its leg has been broken. 4. The kite would have flown high, but its tail became entangled in the branches of a tree. The pronoun he in its three forms (he, his, him) always represents a male being, and is therefore of masculine gender ; the pronoun she in its three forms (she, her, hers) always repre- sents a female being, and is therefore of feminine gender ; the pronoun it in its two forms (it, its) represents the lower forms of life (animals, birds, fishes, insects) when the idea of sex is not important, and all nouns that have no sex ; it is of neuter gender. All other pronouns have the gender of the noun which they represent. Y. 1. The ship, how beautiful she is ! 2. The ocean, how " His beard of snow Heaves with the heaving of his breast." 3. The North Wind breathes his chilling breath on all the tender flowers. 4. The city has called her children home to celebrate her birthday. Is a ship masculine or feminine ? the ocean ? the North Wind ? a city ? 8 114 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. Sometimes we speak of things that have not life as if they were persons, ^^q QdM i\\\^ personifying iham. If we think of the thing personified as having the qualities of a woman — gen- tleness, beauty, grace — we make it feminine. If we think of it as having the qualities of a man — strength, power, sternness — we make it masculine. Why do we make ship feminine ? ocean masculine ? the North Wind masculine ? the city feminine ? If you were to personify each of the following nouns, would you make it masculine or feminine, and why ? a mountain the South Wind music the violet the oak tree the birch tree a river a steamer the sun the moon a star the earth a house when the family return for Thanksgiving, a strong wind that breaks down the trees, a gentle wind that cools and refreshes us. CHAPTER XXVIII. SENTENCES FOR THE STUDY OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. In addition to the study of the pronouns in these sentences, as of first, second, or third person ; singular or plural number ; masculine, feminine, or neuter gender ; reflexive or emphatic, etc., the sentences marked with a star should be used for dicta- tion and for oral repetition, to emphasize the habit of using correct forms. 1. I am in the wrong. *2. It is I who am in the ^vrong. It was I who broke the bottle. THE PREPOSITION. 115 *3. It was he who sang so sweetly. *4. Either you or he will be appointed to West Point. *5. The choice lies between you and him. 6. You wrong yourselves when you seek to wrong another. 7. They who tell lies spread nets for their own feet. 8. " Come to me, O ye children, For I hear you at your play." 9. " In your hearts are the birds and the. sunshine, In your thoughts the brooklets flow ; But in mine is the wind of Autumn And the first fall of snow." 10. " Let all the ends thou aimest at be thy country's, thy God's, and Truth's. 11. The sun came forth from his curtain of clouds. 12. The moon has thrown her silver beams upon the sparkling river. *13. If you and we win this victory, then the reward will be yours and ours, and the praise will be for you and us. CHAPTER XXIX. THE PREPOSITION. I. 1. " The pine trees on the hilltops are clothed with fadeless green ; The brooklet in the valley sings on, although un- seen; 116 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAM3IAR. The deep blue sky above us smiles to the earth be- low — The earth all white and sparkling with the glory of the snow ! " What part of speech is trees f are clothed ? fadeless 9 hrooJc- let f sings 9 blue ? smiles ? earth f white ? sparhling ? There is in the above stanza another class of words, the rela- tion class, called prepositions. On shows the relation in posi- tion of the trees to the hilltops; in shows the relation in position of the brooklet to the valley ; ahove shows the relation in position of the sky to us ; loith shows the relation in material of are clothed to green ; to shows the relation in direction of smiles and earth ; toith shows the relation in material of white and sparkling and glory ; of shows possessive relation of snow to glory. These relation words, on, with, in, ahove, to, with, and of, are prepositions. It will be noticed in the above ex- amples that each preposition is followed by a noun. A pre- position may, however, be followed by a pronoun, as in the following sentences : 2. I saw the hilltops and the pine trees on them. 3. There is a green that lives through the cold of win- ter. The pines are clothed with it. 4. I love the valley and the brook that sings in it. A preposition is a word that shows the relation hetween a noun or pronoun following it and some other word in the sentence. A preposition is said to govern the noun or pronoun that follows it. THE PREPOSITION. 117 II. 5. Dear little face, that lies in cobLirh content Within the gracious hollo^w that God made In every human shoulder^ where lie meant Some tired head /<:>/• comfort should be laid I 6. Dream thy sweet dreams ujpon nvy quiet heart. I watch thy slumber ; naught shall do thee ill. —From "Slumber Song," by Mrs. Thaxter. What hollow is meant ? Lay your hand upon it. What little head is laid there ? Why is this called a slumber song 9 What word does the group of words in calm content modify. Place this group of words after the word that you think it modifies. What word does the group of words within the gra- cious hollow modify ? Place it after that word. Does for com- fort modify head or laid 9 Place it after each to see which gives the better meaning. Does upon my quiet 'heart modify dream or dreams 9 Place it after each to see which gives the better thought. What is the noun in the first group of italicized words in the above paragraph ? What is the preposition ? What is the word that the group modifies ? The preposition, then, shows the relation between what two words ? Answer the same questions about the other groups of words. In the following selection find the prepositions and tell be- tween what words each shows relation. (Determine first the prepositional group of words, then the word that this preposi- tional group modifies ; the relation is between the noun or pro- noun in the prepositional group and the word which this group modifies.) 118 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. A poor boy who lived in the city of Lyons, in France, obtained the opportunity of attending without expense a school made up mainly of boys from rich families. He went wearing a blouse such as is often worn by the poorer classes in France. When he entered the schoolroom his first glance showed him that his was the only blouse there. He saw the boys tittering, and from every side he heard their whispers, " He has come in a blouse ! " As days went by the master never called him by his name. When he spoke to him, it was, "Come here, What's-your-name ! " or, " What are you about, What's-your-name ? " Another would have been discouraged and failed in his work, but this boy said, " If I am to take any position in this school, I must work twice as hard as the others." In this way he won success, and when he became a great author he wrote a pretty little story for children, and called it, " Little What's-his-name." —The Story of Daudet's Youth. " There was a ship a-sailing, a-sailing on the sea. And, oh, it was all laden with pretty things for thee ! There were comfits in the cabin and apples in the hold ; The sails were made of silk and the masts were made of gold; The four-and-twenty sailors that walked about the decks Were four-and-twenty white mice with chains about their necks ; The captain was a duck with a compass on his back. And when the ship began to sail, the captain cried, ' Quack, quack ! ' " THE PREPOSITION. 119 III. Supply prepositions in the blanks in the following sentences, and then write the sentences connecting them into a paragraph : 1. There was once an oak tree a hill. 2. A squirrel had built his nest its trunk. 3. lie used to play the branches, and chatter the leaves, and the leaves would softly whisper back him. lY. I. The boy went home this morning, and he is still at home. After verbs of motion, go, come, arrive, etc., home is an adverb ; therefore, it is incorrect to place a preposition before it. After words denoting stay or rest the preposition at should be placed before home. Use home or at home correctly in the following blanks : to go ; to come '; to arrive ; to remain ; to be ; to-stay ; to bring . What is the difference in meaning between ''^The gentleman saw Mr. Allison home," and '^ The gentleman saw Mr. Allison at home " ? II. Among the pupils of the school there is much good- natured rivalry. Between the leader of the first class and the leader of the second class there is a strong friendship. Among has reference to more than two ; between to two. Use among or between correctly in the following blanks : the nations of Europe ; England and the United States ; North and South ; these many good books ; Whittier's and Longfellow's poems. 120 THE ESSENTIALS OF GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. III. One should be very careful in stepping off the cars. Off is a preposition in such a sentence as this, and should not be followed by of. Give sentences containing this use of off. lY. The girl is like her mother in grace and gentleness, but more like her father in her love for music and literature. Following the adjective Wke the preposition to is commonly not expressed but understood. The noun that follows is the object of this preposition to. CHAPTER XXX. THE CONJUNCTION. I. 1. The meadows and the river lie between the towns. 2. The blackbirds fly over the meadows and then slowly soar down to the ground. 3. When the meadow is full of yellow cowslips it looks as if father Sun had crumpled up sunbeams and scattered the bits over the meadow. I wish to make the same statement about the meadows and the river. I have therefore joined them by and. I wish to make two statements about the blackbirds. I join these by and. Why do I use and in the third sentence ? 4. The river runs rapidly but quietly. 5. The brook ripples slowly and musically over the pebbles. THE CONJUNCTION, 121 What is the joining word in sentence No. 4 ? Why is it used ? What is the joining word in sentence Xo. 5 ? Why is it used ? That part of speech that joins or connects words or grmips of words is a conjunction. II. What does each of the conjunctions in the following selec- tion connect ? The summer came, and all the birds were dead ; The days were like hot coals ; the very ground Was burned to ashes ; in the orchards fed Myriads of caterpillars, and around The cultivated fields and garden beds Hosts of devouring insects crawled, amd found l^o foe to check their march till they had made The land a desert without leaf or shade. —From "The Birds of Killingworth," by Longfellow. III. Join by conjunctions the sentences of each group so that they will make one sentence. Use the conjunction given before each group, thus : And. April has brought the willows. April has brought the lilacs. April has hrought the willows and the lilacs. 1. And. We heard the roar of the ocean. We felt the salt air in our faces. The morning is the best time for labor. The evening is the best time for rest. 123 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 2. Bitt. The humming-bird is very small. The hum- ming-bird is intelligent. The peony is tall and brilliant. The violet is modest and fragrant. 3. If. We should never know how sweet sleep is. We were never tired. The robin takes our cherries. He repays us by destroy- ing the worms. 4. Because. Ireland is the Emerald Isle. There are fre- quent showers there. Gold is more valuable than iron. It is less abundant. 5. Neither — nor. We should not speak evil. We should not listen to it. 6. Either — or. Mrs. Fessenden will preside. Miss Palmer will preside. He is ill. He has met with an accident. 7. As. The day is for action. The night is for rest. The lion is bold. The fox is sly. Notice the difference of use between as as, and so as, in the following sentences : Thou art as good as thou art beautiful. You are not so wise as you are witty. When the assertion is negative, so is used instead of the first as. The use of like as a conjunction in such sentences as " He uses English like an ignorant man does/" " Please speak like I do/" etc., is not correct. As should be used, the sentences being, ^'He speaks English as an ignorant man does," ''Do as I do,"" etc. THE INTERJECTION. 123 CHAPTER XXXI. THE INTERJECTION. I. 1. Oh, look where the lilac bush, stout and tall, Is hiding a robin's nest ! 2. Alas, the wind has torn the flag to tatters ! 3. Ah, how wonderful the snow-crystals are ! 4. Hurrah, hurrah, for the flag we love ! 5. Halloo ! halloo ! the lost child is found. In expressing surprise, pain,, pleasure, or any strong emo- tion, or in seeking to attract the attention of someone, we often use such words as ah, ohy 0, alas, hurrah, halloo. These sounds or words are called interjections. While classed with the parts of speech, they are not properly so included, since they are used not to aid in the expression of a thought, but to express a feeling. In the sentences above. Oh expresses surprise, Alas ex- presses grief. Ah expresses admiration. Hurrah expresses joy and praise, and Halloo is used to attract attention. A word or expression itsed merely to express strong emo- tion^ or to attract attention^ is an interjection. After an interjectimi used independently^ or after a sentence introduced hy an interjection, an exclamation point is used. The interjections oh and do not differ in what they ex- press, oh being used in ordinary prose, and usually in poetry 124 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. and in prose that is solemn or dignified. It is in good usage to put a comma after oh, but not after when followed by another word. II. What are the interjections in the following sentences ? What feeling do you think each expresses ? 6. " Oh, then he was magnificent, all azure, gold, and flame ! But, woe is me ! an autumn breeze from out the northwest came. Y. " ' Alas ! ' I said, ' no power on earth your glory can recall ! Did you not know, dear sunflower, that pride must have a fall ? ' " 8. " Little Scotch terrier, little dog Kags, Looks in her face, and his funny tail wags : ' Ha, ha ! ' laughs little Gustava." 9. Teach me, O Lord, the way of thy statutes. — Psalm CXIX. v. 33. Sentences for completion and dictation : 1. how strong the is ! 2. how sorry I am for your misfortune ! 3. Let us cheer " Old Glory." ! ! 4. ! ! Where are you ? 5. " , ! " came a jolly laugh. REVIEW. 125 CHAPTER XXXII. I. (Master Skylark is awakened by a little bunch of flowers that is thrown in through his window. He springs up, looks out, and sees Master Will Shakespeare, laughing.) "Good-morrow, sir," said Nick, and bowed. "It is a lovely day." " Most beautiful, indeed ! How comes the sun ? " " Just up, sir ; the river is afire with it now. Oh — oh ! " Nick held his breath, and watched the light creep down the wall, darting long bars of rosy gold through the snowy bloom of the apple-trees, until it rested upon Master Shakespeare's face, and made a fleeting glory there. Then Master Shakespeare stretched himself a little in the sun, laughing softly, and said, " It is the sweetest music in the world — morning, spring, and God's dear sunshine; it starteth kindness in the heart, like sap in a withered bud." —From "Master Skylark," by John Bennett. This is from a story of three hundred years ago. Why is Nick called " Master Skylark "? In what month of the year do you think this morning was ? Do you find any expressions that are different from what we use now ? Look up the word mor- row in the dictionary and see if the use of it here is correct. Why does he describe the day as lovely 9 Examine in turn each adjective, and tell what meaning or picture it presents to you. Why may we call the sunshine dear 9 Make a list of the 126 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. adjectives in the selection, each followed by the noun which it modifies. Make a list of the verbs, and state of each whether it is a verb of action, exerted or received, of state or condition, or a copula. What is the subject of each ? Tell about each pronoun which you find in this selection, of what kind it is, of what person, what number, what gender, and whom or what it represents. Find the adverbs in the selection, tell what kind of an ad- verb each is, and what it modifies. Find the prepositions, and state the word that each gov- erns, and the words that are related by it. Find the conjunctions, and state what they connect. What is the one interjection, and what feeling does it represent ? II. Which is the longest senteiice in this selection ? Which is the shortest, and what is its subject ? its predicate ? What kinds of sentences do you find here ? What one kind do you not find ? Explain the use of capital letters. What proper names do you find ? what Christian names ? what surname ? what title ? III. Out of the adjectives that are in the selection, select the one that would best describe each of the nouns in italics in the sen- tences below. The shadow of a cloud that quickly passes. A flower that has lain in the sun. A song. The cheeks of a child. The hlossoms of a cherry tree. The blossoms of a peach tree. The song of any song-bird. The selection itself. THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 127 AVrite each of the list of adjectives in a sentence. The same may be done with the lists of the other parts of speech, if time allows. CHAPTER XXXIII. THE NOMINATIVE CASE. I. 1. The humming bird builds his nest in the form of a small cup. 2. He places it on a horizontal limb. 3. The nest is covered with lichens. 4. It looks like a knob on the branch. 5. The child has sharp eyes who can discover a hum- ming-bird's nest. What is the subject of the verb builds? places? is cov- ered ? looks ? has ? can find ? The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. Name the subject nominatives in the above sentences. II. 1. Have you ever seen a humming-bird, Harry ? 2. I once had a tame one, Miss Standish. 3. " Take heed, O youth, both brave and bright. Battles there are for you to fight ! Stand up erect, and face them all, Nor turning flee, nor wavering fall." 128 THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 4. " O my children, Life is sunshine, life is shadow ; Life is checkered shade and sunshine ; Rule by love, O Hiawatha ! " Who is addressed in the first sentence ? in the second ? in the third ? Who are addressed in the last selection ? A noun or pronoun %ised merely to name a person or thing addressed is in the nominative case hy address. Name the nominatives hy address in the above sentences. III. 1. The scarlet barberries have been called September's blushes. 2. The bird is an exquisite architect ; the beaver is a most skillful bridge-builder ; the silkworm is the most beau- tiful weaver ; and the spider is the best net-maker. 3. The y assail mansion was the headquarters of Wash- ington in Cambridge from July, 1775, to March, 1776. It became the home of the poet Longfellow in 1837. 4. The Yassall mansion is called the " Craigie House." What is the predicate in the first sentence ? Does Septem- ber's blushes mean the same thing as barberries ? What is the first predicate in the next sentence ? What noun means the same thing as bird 9 In the next predicate, what noun means the same thing as the subject ? Notice in each of the other sentences that some noun that means the same thing as the subject of the sentence forms a part of the predicate. THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 129 A noun fomiin