UC-NRLF jiii^ai 1. Vtt industrial Survey of CINCINNATI HD Vocational Section GARMENT MAKING INDUSTRIES j |I i Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce II i JANUARY, NINETEEN SEVENTEEN f! : CINCINNATI, OHIO GIFT OF I Industrial Survey I I ! CI N CI N NATI 1 | =================== | 1 ! I Vocational Section I GARMENT MAKING I INDUSTRIES I Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce CINCINNATI, OHIO \A SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE CINCINNATI CHAMBER of COMMERCE CHARLES W. LEWIS, Chairman. WM. B. CARPENTER, DALE G. EBERSOLE, FRANK P. GOODWIN, H. S. LEYMAN, J. E. McCLAIN, SIDNEY E. PRITZ, WALTER S. SCHMIDT, ROBERT T. SKINNER. DIRECTOR OF SURVEY CHARLES R. HEBBLE, Manager Civic and Industrial Department of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce. 395058 THIS report was prepared by Miss Cleo Murtland of the National Society for the Pro- motion of Industrial Education. It was submitted to the Board of Directors of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce by the Survey Committee on December 11, 1916, and on that day form- ally approved by the Board. * * .* * * s/* &\: -: ' # * *** a PREFACE THE trade of garment making should be of special interest, locally, because of the pro- portionate numbers of women engaged in the trade in Cincinnati ; and it is perhaps of some general interest, historically, because of its being one of the traditional women's occupations, that has increased and not waned in importance. It is gratifying, there- fore, to know of this definite effort, looking towards the future progress and welfare of so large a body of industrial workers. Such a descriptive analysis as the one following, which shows the advantages and drawbacks in this trade, and which sets forth the educational possibili- ties for development, ought to increase interest, and ought to help to dignify this necessary, useful and honorable trade. Hence it is a privilege to say a word by way of preface to a study which champions the cause of women workers, for whose progress too few really care; the public, in the main, being inter- ested only in the products of their labor. I Such efforts as this made by the Chamber of Com- merce is helping to develop, in Cincinnati's industrial and educational life, a spirit of co-operation. We are glad, therefore, of the opportunity to further in any way so effective a method of arousing the interest of the community in its vital problems. M. EDITH CAMPBEU, Director of the Schmidlapp Bureau. I 1 1 INTRODUCTION This vocational study of garment-making industries is the sec- ond of the kind undertaken by the Survey Committee of the Cin- cinnati Chamber of Commerce. The first was of the printing trades, the report of which was published nearly two years ago. These studies form part of the industrial survey of Cincinnati being made by the Chamber of Commerce. The credit for this piece of work should go to Miss Cleo Murt- land, who has collected the facts and prepared the report; the criti- cism should be directed at those who collaborated with her Mr. Frank P. Goodwin, Director of Civic and Vocational Service in the public schools, and the undersigned. The expense of printing this report is met by the Schmidlapp Bureau for Women and Girls, of which Miss M. Edith Campbell is the Director. Miss Murtland's services were loaned by the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education of which she is the Sec- retary in charge of Women's Work. The expense of making the study was met by contributions from garment manufacturers in Cincinnati, most of whom are now mem- bers of the Textile Sewing Trades Association of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, and from Mr. Max Senior and Miss Frances Forchheimer. So many people have assisted in so many ways that the study has become a result of truly co-operative effort. Particular refer- ence should be made also to the following, to whom the committee is deeply indebted for help of many kinds, from the collection of data to criticism of the report : Mr. Randall J. Condon, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati. Miss Mary M. Conway, Director Continuation Schools, Cin- cinnati. Miss Kathryn Nordman, Treasurer of Garment Workers' Union No. 154. The Ohio Industrial Commission. Dr. Charles A. Prosser, Secretary of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Prof. David Snedden, Ph. D., Commissioner of Education for Massachusetts. Mr. Meyer Schwartz, former General Organizer for Garment Workers' Unions. Mr. George C. Tebbenhoff, Label Agent for Garment Workers' Labor Council No. 8. Miss Charlotte M. Ullrich, Director, Household Arts Depart- ment, Cincinnati Public Schools. Mr. Jsmes A Wibon, President, Pattern Makers' League of North America. Mr. Charles H. Winslow, of the Indiana State Industrial Survey. Mrs. Helen T. Woolley, Director of the Vocational Bureau, Cincinnati Public Schools. Members of the Textile Sewing Trades Association, Cincinnati Chamber of Comerce. This report is printed with the hope that thus it may become useful not only to Cincinnatians, but to those in other cities who are interested in solving the problems of vocational instruction for girls in the public schools, and to garment manufacturers who wish to learn in what manner schools may help them and their employ- ees. The Cincinnati schools have begun to follow the recommen- dations of this report before it is published. C. R. HEBBLE, Director of the Survey. Cincinnati, December 20, 1916. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION by Charles R. Hebble, Manager of the Civic and Industrial Department, Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce. PREFACE by M. Edith Campbell, Director of the Schmidlapp Bureau for Women and Girls. CHAPTER I. Summary and Constructive Recommendations. CHAPTER II. Purpose and Method of the Study. The Public School and the Garment Worker Men's Employ- ment Standardized Women's Employments Lack Standard- ization Purpose of the Study Factors of the Industry Considered Alteration Departments Character of Data Used in Report. CHAPTER III. The Garment-Making Industries vs. The Needle Trades. Needle-Trades a Misnomer Factors Entering in Garment Manufacture Garment-Making Not a Mechanical Process Excessive Labor Turnover The Garment Industries Meet a Demand The Outlook in Cincinnati. CHAPTER IV. Some Historical Facts About the Garment In- dustries of Cincinnati. Cincinnati, One of the Oldest Centers of the Garment Trades Conditions in 1859 Chamber of Commerce Statement for 1860 - Effect of the Civil War Clothing Industries and the Yards Goods Trade Increase of Business in 1890-1900 Women's Clothing First Made 1889-1890 Developments Since 1911- Summary of History. CHAPTER V. Present Organization of the Cincinnati Garment Industries. Men's Clothing Trade Hat and Cap Industry Shirt and Overall Industry Women's Wear Industry Men's Neck- wear Straw Hat Industry The Manufacturer and the Con- tractor The Contracting System Within the Factory Con- tract Shops Outside Organization of Clothing Manufacturers Organization of Garment Workers Women's Share in Cincinnati's Occupations Women Employed Largely in Garment Manufacture Wages Paid to Garment Workers Nationality of Women Garment Workers Education of Women Garment Workers Compulsory Education Law of 1913 Age of Women Garment Workers Demand for Trained Workers Encouraging Attitude of Cincinnati Manu- facturers. CHAPTER VI. Conditions in the Garment Industries. 1. Regularity of Work and Wages. Seasonal Employment Report of Industrial Commission of Ohio on Seasonal Employment Causes of Irregularity - The Seasonal Demand Dovetailing of Occupations Divi- sion of Work in Slack Seasons Lack of Organization in Industry Employers Not Aware of Extent of Variation - 9 Variation in Wages Reported by Ohio Industrial Commission Wage-Scales Reported by Employers Wages as Reported by United States Bureau of Statistics. 2. Conditions in the Factories. General Type of Factory Welfare Work The Contract Shop Equipment : Sewing Machines and Chairs Use of Elevators by Employees Effect of Trade Upon Health and Character of Worker. CHAPTER VII. Selection and Promotion of Workers in the Gar- ment Industries. By Whom Workers Are Employed Method of Selection Workers Under 18 Proportion of Workers Who Do Not "Make Good" Shifting of Workers Training of Workers in Factories No System of Promotions What Makes an Occu- pation Worth While for the Worker What the Industry Requires of the Worker Health Should be a Primary Con- sideration Dress an Important Factor Good Eyesight Necessary General Education is Needed Personality - Temperamental Tendencies Trade and Technical Knowledge Vocational Training from the Point of View of the School, the Industry, and the Worker. CHAPTER VIII. Some Facts Regarding the Public Schools. Recent Advance of the School Attendance Age Psychological Laboratory Employment Certificate Office Placement Office Vocational Service Department Effect of New Law on Attendance Decrease in Working Certificates Occupa- tions Entered Girls Under 18 at Home Temporary In- crease of Retardation Compulsory Continuation Schools Voluntary Continuation Classes, Classes in Household Arts Classes in Salesmanship Co-operative Education. CHAPTER IX. Descriptive Analysis of the Garment Industries. Groups of Garment Industries Rank Business Organiza- tion of Factory Types of Work Occupations Common to All Branches Spreading Marking Cutting Designing -Buttonhole Making: Machine Buttonholes, Button Sewing, Examining Executive Positions: Foreman, Forewoman. The Tailoring Industries : Men's Clothing Coat Making Canvas Making Lining Making Pocket Flaps, Welts and Cuffs Seaming Shoulder Joining Sleeve Making Ma- chine Padding Taping Patch Pockets Flap Pockets - Piped Pockets Welt Pockets Faced Pockets Edg Stitching -- Hand Sewing Marking -- Canvas Basting Sleeve Setting Facing Basting - - Lining Basting - - Arm- hole Basting Finishing Buttonholes, Handmade Button Sewing Piped Buttonholes Binding -- Bullion Work - Braiding Wages Educational Requirements. Vest Processes: Vest Pockets The Front The Lining. Pants Processes : Pants Pockets The Fly The Seams - Serging Tacking. 10 Pressing : Part Pressing. Under Pressing Off-Pressing. Cloak, Suit and Skirt Industry : Style Draping The Draper The Model The Sewing Operations. Coat Making: Hand Processes Skirt Making Skirt Seam- ing Plackets Binding Tacking Hemming Finish- ing Machine Operators. Shirt Making: Collar Making Collar Setting Sleeve Making Making Fronts and Bosoms Hemming Yoke Setting Shoulder Joining Sleeve Setting Seaming Collar Bands. Overalls : All-year-round Industry Exclusively Machine Work Pockets Seams Felling Sleeve Setting Buttonholes Buttons. Women's Wear: Seaming Sleeve Making Sleeve Setting Collar Setting Hemming Felling Hemstitching Tuck- ing. Men's Neckwear: Hemming Seaming Joining. Hats and Caps. CHAPTER X What the School May Teach the Garment Workers. Basis for the Educational Program Type of Training Needed for Modern Industry - - Skill, Related Trade and Technical Knowledge, and General Vocational Knowledge as Essentials of the Vocational School Program. Skill Through Practice Garment Making versus Series of Processes Processes Denned Construction of Garments Finishing Important Factors in Learning Processes Learn- ing of Processes Not Isolated from Garment Making Spec- ialization by Means of Team- Work Specialization on Special Machine Work. Related Subjects Related Subject-matter Defined Arith- metic Art Business English Textiles Spelling. General Vocational Subjects Related Subject-matter Defined - Hygiene Industrial History Civics and Citizenship Practical Business Arithmetic Laboratory Work in Textiles Certain Phases of Art Instruction. Some Suggestions About Methods of Teaching in the Voca- tional School Methods Differ From Those Used in the Ele- mentary and High Schools Methods for Vocational Instruc- tion Not Standardized Subject-matter for Courses Should be Drawn from Work-room Practice Co-operation of Teachers Co-operation of Manufacturers. The Program Work-room Practice and Instruction In- struction in Related and General Vocational Subjects - - A Probationary Period for Testing Aptitudes and Interest - What the Probationary Period Should Do -- The Regular Vo- cational Course What It Should Do Occupations Which Pupils May Expect to Enter Conditions Under Which They Should Enter - - Larger Educational and Social Values to be Secured Through Vocational Education. 11 CHAPTER I. Summary and Constructive Recommendations. The study of the garment industries of Cincinnati shows that there is a demand for trained workers in these industries of the city. It is estimated that not over 25% of the workers already engaged in the garment industries (exclusive of cutters for whom apprentice- ship training is provided) are sufficiently trained for their work. Conservative estimate places the need for all-round trained workers at 40% of the number engaged in the industry. This margin of 15% (approximately 1200 persons) includes a large body of untrained workers, 200 or 300 of whom enter the in- dustry each year as beginners. Such beginners should have trade- preparation training which will provide for (1) general training for the trade, (2) special training for an occupation in a branch of the trade, and (3) general education of a practical nature. In this group of 1200, there is included also a large group of workers, 900 or 1,000, already employed in the industry who require training which will supplement their trade knowledge and skill already gained in the industry. Courses should be planned definitely for the purpose of increasing their general intelligence and opportunity for advancement in their occupation. This trade extension instruc- tion should be given to groups separate and- apart from the trade preparatory pupils in the night schools, and in part-time courses during the day when feasible. The analysis of the garment industries shows that there is a teachable content of sufficient importance and interest to warrant the establishment, by the public schools, of courses in factory gar- ment making. Employers and employees agree that vocational courses should provide training for garment making and that emphasis should be placed (1) upon making the entire garment exclusive of the cutting and pressing which are distinct from the making processes, and (2) upon specialization to develop normal speed and accuracy of work in one or more phases operations so-called of factory gar- ment making. With the probable exception of a tailored coat, pupils may be taught to construct the entire garment with a high degree of success as to finished product. The ability to construct the garment beginning with simple garments, and proceeding to those of more complicated construction, combined with practice on separate processes makes for a desirable grade of workmanship and efficiency on the part of the worker, and with this ability, the worker will have proportionately less difficulty in making adjust- ments which may become necessary through fluctuating demands for help. The opposite method of approach, as it has been used in the factory, tends to prevent all-round training, * and to empha- * The terms all-round training and all-round worker are used throughout this report to designate the all-round experience in terms of modern industry's concep- tion of such ability and not in terms of craftmanship. The garment industries are composed of three distinct groups of trades namely: (1) designing and cutting, (2) garment making the sewing, and (3) pressing. The ability to do a group of related processes in any one of these fields of work constitutes all-round ability of modern industry. 12 size the over-specialization which both workers and employers now consider inadequate and, except for a small proportion of workers, very undesirable. The normal speed required for factory produc- tion may be secured by supplementing garment-making by the above method with section work similar to that used in the factory. Hand-sewing and machine-sewing courses may be given in school rooms and in factories. (1) Trade-preparatory courses for young persons under eighteen years of age should be provided for in an all-day vocational school. Work-rooms, in the vocational school, should be supplied with modern factory equipment; they should be carefully arranged as to light, ventilation and space and man- aged, as far as consistent with educational principles, like a high- grade modern factory. Class-rooms for general and related courses should be provided. (2) Trade-extension courses for the workers already employed in the industry may be given in the school work- rooms as part of the work of the night schools. Dull seasons offer opportunity for short courses for workers in the trade. These may also be given in the school work-rooms, but it is essential that such courses be organized apart from the day school and with special reference to the experience and needs of the workers taking the courses. (3) Trade-extension courses may be given in the factories during dull seasons by agreement of school representa- tives with employers and employees, the school to furnish the teachers and the employers to furnish the space, equipment, and work. The number of workers trained in the all-day vocational school should not exceed the normal demand for workers. As the de- mand may fluctuate from year to year, this factor should receive constant attention from the standpoint of the workers as well as from the standpoint of the employers. This puts some limitations upon the all-day school ; but as the demand for new workers in the garment-industries in Cincinnati at present represents from 200 to 300 persons per year a much larger number than the school may expect to train for several years, the problem is not important at present and may be controlled in case it should be necessary. This problem does not arise at all in connection with the train- ing of workers already in the industry. Those who wish to in- crease their efficiency or prepare for work which requires greater ability in garment-construction, greater skill in handling fabrics, or more knowledge about the trade than they already have, may be trained in short courses in the night schools and in part-time day schools, without risk of overcrowding the ranks. Instruction in trade-subjects and work-room practice should be given by experienced trades persons who have demonstrated their ability to teach. Requirements for teachers of trade-subjects and work-room practice should be (1) a minimum of two years successful experience in the trade to be taught, (2) general educa- tion of elementary grade, or its equivalent, or high school grade, and (3) personal qualifications that make for successful teaching. Requirements for teachers of related subjects and general academic 13 subjects in the vocational school should be (1) acceptable profes- sional training and (2) knowledge of, or experience in, the trade which will enable the teachers to interpret academic subject matter in terms of the trade, and (3) personal qualifications that make for successful teaching. The product made in the work-rooms of the school should be of a commercial character which may be used in the school or dis- posed of for school purposes. Sufficient repetition necessary for the development of technique and manipulative skill should be provided for, but the type of product and fabrics used should be varied so as to make experience and trade information broad. The extent to which trained workers may be attracted into industrial occupations depends to a considerable extent upon the physical conditions of the factories, the halls and premises, and the vicinity of factory buildings. Industry will do well to make its factories clean, orderly, well-lighted, well-ventilated, and attractive. These improvements may be made without large expenditure of money or attempt at display. Then will industry attract trained workers who will bring intelligent interest into their work. The garment manufacturers and workers need to realize the necessity for studying more closely the problems of distributing work throughout the greater part of the year. Work should be distributed, or the regular product supplemented with a type that may be alternated with it, so as to utilize the time and labor of the regular employees and decrease the length of the seasons of unem- ployment. This report makes no attempt to go into this problem further than to report instances where filling-in lines were used to increase the length of seasons, and to point out the importance of the dovetailing problem. The opportunity for learning new phases of the trade after entering industry is also dependent largely upon the attitude of em- ployer and the schools. Training in any trade or profession should continue after employment begins. Industry can to some extent provide the means and the incentive for training by rotation of work and a system of promotions based on efficiency, interest in work, and ability. Rotation of work arranged with due allowance for factory demands will relieve monotony and avoid the over-spec- ialization of workers. A system of promotion based upon a care- ful classification of the operations, with earning possibilities pro- portionate to the importance of the work, will stimulate interest in the trade and create a desire for increased efficiency on the part of the workers. There is a tendency on the part of the employers in the garment industries not to employ girls under 18 years of age since legal restrictions have been placed upon their employment below that age. These girls still remain an important factor in the sewing trades, however, as Mrs. Woolley's report for working cer- tificate girls shows. It is the second largest and most stable group among those reported as applying for working certificates. It should be recognized at the outset that the girls who will be prepared for industrial employments in the vocational courses 14 planned after the recommendations of this report will not remain in school until they are 18 years of age. Hence, employment under that age becomes imperative for them even if they have to become workers in occupations less skilled than the garment industries. But if, on the other hand, they have been previously trained in a vocational school, they will take with them into the garment indus- try working ability and general intelligence about their work which will more than offset the inconvenience of special hours and work- ing paper regulations. The schools, too, have a responsibility in this matter. The full- time, uninterrupted, twelve-year course of the elementary schools and the high schools, has been over-emphasized for young people who cannot complete the high school course or continue beyond the high school. The schools will realize their largest usefulness when courses are arranged so as to encourage pupils to continue their studies after they have become workers. Such a system will pro- vide for industry a type of vocational education comparable to that which has been built up for commercial and clerical and pro- fessional occupations in the night schools. In view of the conditions outlined in the foregoing paragraphs, the Survey Committee makes the following 15 RECOMMENDATIONS. 1. That an all-day vocational school for girls be established as a part of the Cincinnati Public School System which shall provide at first for from 100 to 200 trade-preparatory pupils. 2. That those pupils preparing for the sewing trades in the in- dustrial classes of the various schools of the city be centralized in one building as a nucleus of the Girls' Vocational School ; that co-operative relations between the Girls' Vocational School and the regular elementary and high schools of the city be established so that girls wishing to prepare for a vocation may be advanced to the Girls' Vocational School by means of intelligent information and advice. 3. That this central vocational school, during the first few years, serve as a type school to work out standards for the courses to be presented and methods of teaching, in order that it serve as an experiment station for this type of education for girls in the city ; that, as in the case of the high schools, decentralization take place only as experience shows the need and the way. Experience in other cities goes to show that this method works out the strong- est and most effective scheme. 4. That conditions of admission to this all-day vocational school be (1) a minimum entrance age of 14 years, (2) completion of the seventh grade, (3) a probationary period of one month in the school to test aptitude for, and interest in, the vocation for which training is to be given ; and (4) that the vocational courses shall be open only to normal children. 5. That two full school years constitute the vocational course. 6. That the half-and-half plan of organization be used for the all-day vocational school, with half of the school day devoted to trade instruction and shop practice and half to instruction in general and related academic subjects. 7. That these vocational courses shall train young persons for occupations in the sewing trades with special reference to garment construction in the various branches of the sewing trades. That the courses include such hand-sewing and machine-sewing as are carried on in the work rooms of the garment factories and in the stores of the city. 8. That the all-day vocational courses for the first j'ear empha- size the all-round training in garment construction, that during the second year attention be given to necessary specialization. 9. That general and related academic courses be planned with special reference to occupational demands ; that these courses be placed under the direction of a competent teacher who understands and appreciates the educational value of the demands of trade. Such instruction, while essentially practical in character, when rightly presented, may be made broad in its general, ethical, and cultural values. 16 10. That general courses include instruction in the responsibil- ities of citizenship, home relationships, industrial and business relationships, ethics, co-operation, and industrial history especially in its bearing upon modern industrial conditions. 11. That the element of proper use cf time in performing tasks shall be emphasized throughout the course. To this end, it is suggested that, from the beginning of the course, a time for per- forming each piece of work be set upon the task before it is begun. The time assignment should be made to a scale which allows a greater amount of time for beginners, with a decreasing amount of time as skill and speed are acquired. Such an educational method, used to develop normal speed, should not be confused with the over-speeding and pace-setting which have been used in factories; but, together with quality of workmanship, should serve as a meas- ure of accomplishment in school work, and develop in pupil's ability for judging these factors of over-speeding and pace-setting after wage-earning has begun. 12. That work rooms for machine sewing courses and hand- sewing courses be equipped according to modern factory standards and with special reference to the physical comfort of the pupils. The distribution of light for both hand-sewing and machine-sewing is important. The majority of school work-rooms used for hand- sewing are equipped with chairs and tables which are too high for best results in work or the comfort of pupils. Tables for hand- sewing should be from 27 to 29 inches in height and chairs corre- spondingly high should be from 15 to 16 inches in height according to the stature of pupils. Few pupils under 16 years of age can work with comfort at a table of the regulation height of 30 inches and seated in chairs of the regulation height of 18 inches. A general guide in determining the height of the chair for a pupil is to have the knees as high or slightly higher than the hips when seated and the feet resting fully upon the floor. It is also suggested that the other class-rooms in the school be equipped with equal regard for the physical comfort of the pupils and preferably with- out the formal school-room furniture. 13. That the greater part of the product be made for other than personal use. Making garments for others invites necessary criticism and sets a valuation upon work which puts the emphasis upon learning and accomplishment ; where all product is made for personal use, personal adornment is over emphasized, often undesir- ably, and the work lacks proportionately in educational and ethical values. 14. That the conditions for graduation from the two-year voca- tional course consist in (1) satisfactory completion of the general course; (2) sufficient knowledge of, and skill in, the practice of the trade to enter it substantially in advance of the untrained person ; and (3) six months' satisfactory service in the industry, certificate of graduation to be withheld until evidence of such service has been given. 15. That the Placement Bureau of the public schools, in co- operation with the principal of the Girls' Vocational School, assume 17 the responsibility of securing desirable positions for graduates of the vocational school ; that they follow up and assist workers during the six months' probationary period in the industry and during as much of the latter working period as may be necessary. 16. That the schools, in co-operation with employers and em- ployees, build up a strong system of trade-extension courses in the schools and in the factories. This will require time and untiring effort upon the part of the industry as well as the schools; but when assured, it will go far to place industrial occupations on a basis comparable, in measure, to business and professional occupa- tions which have been greatly strengthened by similar methods of training. 17. That an advisory board composed of representatives of the manufacturers, the workers, and the public schools be appointed t to assist the school in standardizing courses of study and methods of instruction. 18. That civic and social organizations interested in construc- tive civil, social, and educational work aid the work of the girls' vocational school in carrying out these recommendations by helping to create a sentiment less critical and condemnatory of factory em- ployments. The garment industries do not need to present con- ditions detrimental to the health and welfare of workers. Where such conditions do exist, they may be eliminated by right standards within the factory. Society can and should exert itself to bring about right standards. Garment industries piovide, to a large num- ber of workers, a means for valuable and necessary social service, as well as means for earning a livelihood. Because of this fact society should exert its influence to bring about an evaluation of industrial work in terms of service to the community. CHAPTER II. Purpose and Method of the Study. The public schools have come to realize in recent years that a considerable number of women enter the sewing industries each year, who, under present conditions, are not receiving preparation for the work they take up. The present method of instruction used for teaching sewing in the regular schools is not meeting the need and the factory makes only incidental provision for training new workers. This is true not only of Cincinnati but of all cities in which the sewing industries are located. This study is made pri- marily, then, for the purpose of determining what methods may be drawn from the modern commercial type of sewing and garment- making to replace in the schools those that are rapidly becoming obsolete for manufacturing and commercial purposes. Men's employment in the garment industries is more practically standardized as to requirements and promotion of workers than women's. An apprenticeship system for training men for positions in the cutting, pressing, and tailoring departments still exists in the industry, though not in the same form as in the period when apprentices were indentured. The factories and, to some extent, 18 the large contract shops, provide general supervision for learners in these departments and rotation of jobs with an ascending scale of wages for each of the periods of apprenticeship. This supervision and recognition of achievement through promotion and increased wages amounts to systematic training for the job. Cutting and pressing have been standardized by this method. Tailors are still trained in the trade, though a much shorter period of apprentice- ship is used than the term in vogue in European countries in the past years. The need for training men outside the factory is less urgent at the present time than the need for training women, for whom no system of training and no recognized system of promo- tion exists. Women's employments in the industries lack standardization and provision for training. The result has been loss of time, energy, and money, discouragement to the workers through mis- directed effort, and loss to the industry through the incompetency of a large proportion of employees and heavy labor turnover. The great need in the sewing industries at the present time is for train- ing in hand-sewing and machine-sewing, and, as these are mainly women's employments, the study has been directed more particu- larly toward them. This study points out that standardization is possible, that promotion may be provided for if operations are classified and rotation of work arranged. Since no girls under 16 years of age and relatively few under 18 years of age are employed in the garment industries and since the years preceding these ages are well adapted to acquiring the necessary training and skill for this work, the school is called upon to assume some responsibility for training the workers for this, as well as for other, skilled and semi-skilled employments. The purpose of the study is therefore: 1 . To determine the extent of the need for trained workers in the garment trades in Cincinnati. 2. To determine the extent to which instruction in the gar- ment trades may be given in the schools : a. As trade preparatory courses for young persons who expect to go to work. b. As day trade-extension and part-time courses for persons employed in the factories who wish to ad- vance in the trade. c. As night trade-extension courses for trade workers. 3. To determine what elements of the trade may be taught in the school. 4. To determine what educational qualifications are desir- able for successful work in the industry. 5. To secure the co-operation of the public schools and the manufacturers and employees engaged in the garment industries of Cincinnati in establishing and conducting vocational courses for girls that will extend their general education and give a form of experience that will fit them for desirable wage-earning occupations in the industry. 19 In planning for this study of the garment industries, it was realized at the outset that any scheme of training proposed as a result of the study must include consideration of ail the representa- tive garment industries of Cincinnati. This report, therefore, in- cludes the clothing and tailor-to-the-trade industries; the cloak, suit and skirt industry; the shirt industry; the overall industry; the women's wear industries ; the men's neckwear industry ; the hat and cap industry; and the straw hat industry. Such factors of the industry as may contribute to the organiza- tion of a course of study for educating and training women workers engaged in, or contemplating employment in, the garment indus- tries occupy the main part of this study. Data bearing on these and other more general but pertinent points were secured from three sources: (1) from employers engaged in the manufacture of gar- ments in factories (contracting shops are not included) through schedules and personal interviews with employers, foremen, and forewomen ; (2) from employees engaged as workers in the garment industries through individual and personal interviews; and (3) from the Industrial Commission of Ohio. Additional data were secured from Bulletins 145, 161 and 183 of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Twenty employers' schedules representing the largest firms and the bulk of the workers employed in the in- dustry were secured. One hundred and eighty-five schedules from individual employees were secured. Forms of these schedules ap- pear in Appendix A of this report. Certain data relating to the number of employees and wages from the Industrial Commission of Ohio and from publications of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics appear in the body of the text. The extent to which factory machines and methods of sewing are used in the alteration departments of the specialty and depart- ment stores and dressmaking establishments of the city present other phases for study, which, for lack of time and funds, have not been included in this report. Information about these work-rooms, which are rapidly adopting factory methods for the alteration of ready-to-wear clothing, and the extent to which they provide em- ployment for trained workers, is needed. As the work of the voca- tional school progresses, study should be directed to the analysis of these employments. Certain purely industrial data are included in the report. While the study concerned itself chiefly with the factors that contribute directly toward the need for trained employees and the education and training that may be given to prospective workers and those already engaged in the trade, such points as hours of work, seasonal fluctuations in the industry, wages, and factory conditions were of necessity considered. This report does not attempt to do more than to point out that these details need careful and constant con- sideration on the part of both the industry and the school, if work- ers are to be trained and placed in the garment-making industries. Statistical information is limited to a few topics. There is little information that may be compiled in statistical form which con- 20 tributes materially to the organization of a course of study for educating and training workers. For this reason emphasis has been placed, not upon statistics, but upon those features of the trade which contribute more directly to the educational program. CHAPTER III. The Garment-Making Industries vs. The Needle Trades. The Name '"Needle Trades", which has been used to designate the garment trades, is a misnomer since it necessarily places the emphasis upon a tool of the trade and minimizes or disregards the important technical processes which more accurately characterize a large and complex group of industries. The use of the needle or the sewing machine in the making of garments occupies the same relative importance in their production as the elementary processes of arithmetic in the accountant's work or the carpenter's tools in building a house. The simple processes of arithmetic are a means] to an end in the larger computations of life. The carpenter's tools and the garment maker's machine or needle, thread, and thimble serve a similar purpose in the construction of houses and clothing. The more acceptable descriptive name of "Garment-Making Indus- tries", which recognizes the constructive element of the trade with- out minimizing the mechanical processes, is becoming generally, applied. Three factors entering into the manufacture of garments and recognized in all branches of the industry give further reason for a descriptive name and serve also as a basis for classification. These are (1) the type of product and the complexity of its con- struction ; (2) the kind of fabric used for the product, as woolen and worsted fabrics for tailored garments, cotton and linen fabrics for shirts, plain dresses and waists, coarse cotton fabrics for over- alls and jackets, and silks and lingerie materials for fine dresses and waists; and (3) the type of machine and character of machine adjustments necessary for the various kinds of fabrics. Each branch of the industry is more or less affected by all these factors, though the point of greatest emphasis is not neces-> sarily the same in all cases. The construction of a tailored coat is presumably determined by the shape or "cut", as it is sometimes called. But cutting is only one factor in the process of construc- tion. Other factors are the proportions or features of the pattern used, the accuracy with which parts are joined, and the manner in which the cloth is held in, stretched, or allowed to lie even during the stitching process. The pattern is made by the cutter, but the accuracy in the sewing process and the manipulation of the cloth, such as holding in the material for fullness or shrinking^ or stretching it where the opposite effect is desired, or letting it lie even where a flat effect is wanted, are dependent upon the skill of the operator. The cutter allows for these details but gives to the worker only very general directions for executing them. On the other hand, the construction of simpler garments requires less manipulation of the cloth, less knowledge of fabrics, and pro- 21 portionally less judgment on the part of the worker. These exam- ples serve in general to illustrate what is meant by the inter-play of factors in garment construction. The adjustment of the machine is also an important factor in determining the nature of the work. Machines are adjusted to suit the weight, thickness, texture and elasticity of fabrics. The height of the presser foot, the number of stitches to the inch, and the regulation of the tension on the spool and the bobbin thread are so important that special machinists are employed to make the adjustments of all parts to scale. The theory that garment-making is merely a series of mechan- ical processes determined by the machine rather than by the skill and intelligence of the operator is rapidly passing and a recog- nition of the differentiation between the mechanical or finishing processes and the constructive or garment-building processes is taking its place. As the style and the quality of workmanship in the product improves, the necessity for a knowledge of garment construction increases. In those branches of the industry which make a high-grade, exclusive product, the employers select and train a group of workers for the operations which require skill, intelligence, and technical knowledge. Attention is also being given to developing workers for the constructive processes in the cheaper lines as well. The mechanical-process theory was recently tested in a con- vincing way in several cities by the establishment of temporary work-rooms for unemployed women and girls. The women, some of whom had a knowledge of ordinary home sewing and others of whom had no knowledge of sewing at all, were gathered into work-rooms during the months of unemployment. Upon the advice of manufacturers who believe that anyone who can sew may be a garment operator, they were given some training in plain sewing on foot-power machines and placed in positions in the garment trades. This experiment, though of great value in tiding workers over a difficult period and valuable in its contribution of data to employment bureaus, was, on the whole, a failure so far as training trade workers was concerned, since too few were sufficiently trained or skillful to do the work given them in the factory without in- struction in factory methods. Other and more convincing evidence of the fallacy of the one- process method is found in the excessive turnover of labor in those establishments which make little or no provision for utilizing workers in other than the one process for which they have quali- fied. Every manufacturer realizes that any considerable number of changes in the working, force of his establishment entails a loss pro- portionate to the number of persons involved and the extent to which these persons are skilled workers. Serious study is now being given to the problem of the number of employees required to keep any one operation or group of operations going efficiently. Manufacturers and managers recognize that a large part of the labor turnover among beginners is due to discouragement. Much 22 of this discouragement proceeds from inability to understand the demands of industry, lack of skill, and lack of opportunity to ac- quire it through supervision and assistance during the early months of employment. Employers recognize that those facts prove the fallacy of the idea that the machine rather than the oper- ator is responsible for the quality of the product. A few manufac- turers are studying these problems but no data are as yet available to show in any conclusive way the significance of labor turnover in cost to the factory or in discouragement and loss to the workers. Mention is made of it here because of its general bearing on this report and because it should be weighed in closer and more inti- mate study of the problems that surround the education and train- ing of workers than is possible at the present time. The garment industries have demonstrated their ability to make a product which satisfies the taste and standards of the majority of people. The increase in the quantity and variety of ready-to-wear garments and the proportionate falling off of the custom trades, particularly custom dressmaking, verify this statement. Ten years ago the workmanship on the best of the factory output was not acceptable to persons who demanded well-made garments ; styles were not greatly varied and sizes were relatively limited. The improved methods that have come with the years of effort to make clothing for all the people have brought good workmanship and skilled designers for the trade. Styles are now created that appeal to persons of conservative tastes as well as those who prefer the ultra-fashionable garments. These factors have very materially changed the character of the demand for ready-to-wear garments and increased the number of customers who purchase them. Future developments in the industry, outlined as desirable by the most progressive manufacturers, include the following import- ant requirements: (1) The integrity of the industry demands that over-cheap, under-value production be decreased ; (2) over-produc- tion, caused by lack of intelligent estimate of the demand, should be remedied by co-operation on the part of manufacturers ; (3) trained workers who can produce high-grade, even quality of out- put which the public is demanding are needed in the industry ; and (4) increased intelligence is needed on the part of the consumer concerning such matters as heavy seasonal and bargain-sale buying and the pressure which the constant demand for new styles puts upon the industry and its workers. A few manufacturers are think- ing about these problems but no concerted effort has been attempted and progress is slow. Although New York City is the center of the garment industries which supply the new and ultra-fashionable styles, those branches which make a staple product are being distributed in the larger cities and to some extent in the smaller cities. Practically all branches of the garment trades are found in Cincinnati. The clothing industry, the cloak, suit and skirt industry, the overall in- dustry and the shirt industry are the largest and the oldest. The manufacturing of women's wear of cotton, silk and lingerie fabrics 23 is just beginning to be developed in Cincinnati. In no other city is the outlook more favorable for the improvements and develop- ments required by efficient mass-production. CHAPTER IV. Some Historical Facts About the Garment Industries of Cincinnati. Cincinnati is one of the oldest centers for the manufacture of garments in the United States. As nearly as can be determined the making of clothing, became a factory industry between the years 1841 and 1851. Tailors were enumerated among the occupations in Cincinnati as early as 1841. Cist reports that 86 clothing stores employing 813 workers and that nearly 4000 females sewed for these establishments in their own homes. Cist also reports the same year 25 hat factories employing 181 persons and making a product whose annual valuation was $312,000.* The character of the work is not mentioned, but it is safe to infer that much of it was done by hand. Ten years later these industries had grown to much greater proportions. The sewing machine, invented in 1846, introduced new methods of manufacture, and greatly increased the manufacturing possibilities. For the year 1859, Cist reports five establishments engaged in the manufacture of "Cloaks, Mantillas, Etc.," which employed 240 girls, working nine months a year for spring and fall sales, and pro- ducing a value of two hundred and eighty thousand dollars. Cloth- ing is also mentioned in this report as "the largest business carried on in Cincinnati 48 wholesale establishments and 86 retail estab- lishments. It emplovs 7,080 seamstresses who use 1,016 sewing machines, besides 7,500 more who sew by hand."* Cincinnati was also for some years the largest market for ready-to-wear clothing "in the country east or west." According to Cist, it occupied this place in 1859, while for many years its only rival was New York, which is now the largest garment manufacturing center in the United States. The Annual Statement of the Chamber of Commerce of Cincin- nati for 1860 reports upon the clothing industries and comments upon the effect of the recently invented sewing machines as follows : "This important branch of Cincinnati manufacture has been in a healthy and prosperous state during the past year ; the increase in it has been quite satisfactory, and the demand for ready-made men's clothing increases with great rapidity. We find an increase of seven wholesale houses, and sixteen retail establishments during the year. In 1855 there were but 29 wholesale factories; now there are 74, showing that the trade has more than doubled the last five years. The value of clothing manufactured in this city, the past year, was $16.500,000. The demand is from all portions of the West and Southwest. There is no doubt that the introduction of the * Charles Cist, Cincinnati in 1841, pages 43 and 57. t Charles Cist, Cincinnati in 1859, page 271. 2i Sewing Machine gave this department of manufacture a great im- petus, and is one cause of the wonderful rapidity of its increase. "J The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 affected the trade seri- ously. Official reports of the Chamber of Commerce made the following statement with regard to business conditions in the in- dustry: "This branch of our industry has been greatly crippled by the disturbed state of the country, and were it not for the supply of army clothing, the business would be thoroughly prostrated. There is no doubt that the falling off is large, fully 25 per cent, but an improvement may be looked for, as clothing is a necessity and cannot be dispensed with. Not having the statistics of the exports of clothing, we are unable to give the result of the year's trade, which, however, is far from satisfactory.' 5 * Nevertheless, the proximity of Cincinnati to the Confederate States brought considerable demand for army clothing, the output of which amounted to over six million dollars. f The garment in- dustry seems to have been given over to the manufacture of army clothing during this and the two or three years preceding the close of the war. During this period the work was carried on in small work-shops, many of them in the homes and much of it was done by hand and represented the labor of women. Official records of the clothing industry are meager for the years following the war and not until 1874 is it again mentioned in the official report of the Chamber of Commerce. In the meantime, the work-shops had been organized on the factory basis. The re- port of the Chamber of Commerce for 1873-74 says of the clothing industry at this time, "In no department of manufacture and trade has more vigor been displayed. The business of manufacturing has been reduced to the most complete system. Everything has been utilized. The best cutters have been employed. The latest and best styles have been seized upon by the manufacturers, and new fields of trade have been invaded with an enthusiasm and the old trade held with a tenacity which has been beneficial alike to all concerned." Throughout their history the clothing industries have been closely connected with the yard goods trade and were for many years officially reported with the dry goods trade. All wearing apparel manufactured was called clothing and it was not until 1880 that special lines of clothing were recorded. The report of the Chamber of Commerce for this year says, "During the year, a number of new houses have been organized This has been marked in the houses for the manufacture of boys' and youths' clothing which has become a distinctive and large department of production. The demand for a superior quality of clothing .... has been equally manifest in the past year So marked has this * Annual Statement of the Commerce of Cincinnati 1861. Official Report of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, p. 21. t Annual Statement of the Commerce of Cincinnati 1862. Official Report of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, p. 19. t Annual Statement of the Commerce of Cincinnati in 1860. Official Report of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, p. 19. 25 *l become, that large quantities are now made and sold, which a few years ago could not have found customers save at a loss." An interesting feature of the clothing industry for the decade 1890-1900 is the increase in the amount of business done and the lack of a proportionate increase in profits. This is due in a large measure, as official reports point out, to the lower prices which were received for a much better grade of product than had been put out in previous years. In 1886, mention is made of the active competition between the factory and the custom industries which previous to this time had catered to wholly different classes of customers. The same report also makes the first mention of the effect of machinery. "Enterprise, a thorough knowledge of busi- ness, ample capital, and the marvelous march of labor-saving machinery have been, throughout the change and are still, making their valuable contributions to the success of this important de- partment of production in this city."* Women's clothing as a branch of the industry is reported officially for the first time in 1889-90. For the succeeding years, women's clothing is mentioned in connection with furnishing goods, the two representing approximately $5,000,000 per year.f In 1902, official reports separate men's and women's clothing as follows : "Clothing made for men factory product representing $11,951,000. For women's wear the factory product represented $2,075,000, and dressmaking additionally $583,000." J A new phase in the history of the clothing industry in Cincinnati is reported in the records of the Chamber of Commerce for 1911: "With a long established reputation for medium price goods, the trade has been going through a process of evolution. While some of the older firms have retired from the field, the tendency of those remaining has been to turn over the business to the younger generation, the elders assuming an advisory position. There has been a marked disposition to make higher-priced lines and to spec- ialize in styles. Studies have been made of localities and character- istics of the people with a view of meeting their desires in the ready-to-wear line, thus coming into more direct competition with the merchant tailors. A conservative estimate of the amount of business done in this line in 1911 is $4,500,000, Cincinnati ranking third in the United States, Chicago and New York alone leading." The effect of this reorganization of the trade is reported again for the next year as follows: "Rather unsatisfactory conditions prevail in the clothing business owing to the old-time manufac- turers not having as yet adjusted themselves to the new conditions growing out of the development of the 'book* or 'tailor-to-the-trade' * Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, 1886-87. Page 151. t Forty-second Annual Report of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, 1889-90. Page 180. t Forty-third Annual Report of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, 1890-91. Page 96. Sixty-third Annual Report of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, 1911. Page 80. 26 method. Two distinct plans of manufacturing are therefore carried out, that of manufacturing for stock, and the book business, in which each suit is made up as ordered. In the latter line reports are very optimistic, and good increases are reported, as high as 12%. There has also been a general increase in production, owing to a number of the older firms having put in book departments. In the ready- to-wear line, however, decreases are reported, as high as 12%%. A feeling of uncertainty exists as to whether the new method should be adopted, or an effort put forth to develop the old system. Prices and materials are generally higher. The eight-hour laws affecting women had a tendency to increase the cost of labor."* The history of the industry, as briefly traced in the Chamber of Commerce reports, shows a series of fluctuations due to external causes. In two reports, climatic conditions affected the sale; in the winters of 1881-82 and again in 1913 floods are mentioned as affecting trade. Tariff on wool is also mentioned as a cause for fluctuation and as far back in the history as 1880 labor disputes are mentioned. Special branches of the industry, such as shirts, overalls, and neckwear, are in no instance mentioned separately in the official reports, except as furnishings. This is unfortunate from the standpoint of the history of the trades, for there is no doubt that these industries have passed through periods of develop- ment equally interesting and illuminating. The clothing industry has been developed through all the stages of manufacture, from that of hand work, through the period of foot- power sewing machines and simpler methods of production, to the stage of electric, power-driven sewing machines, adjusted for the most accurate work, and special machines which do complicated processes. The clothing industry differs from the light-weight garment industries in that, with the exception of shirts, these branches of garment-making have to a great extent been developed as factory industries since the electric power sewing-machines have come into use. This fact probably accounts for a more marked division in the methods of production between custom tailoring and the manufacture of ready-to-wear clothing. The former still re- tains some of the methods and practices peculiar to the more prim- itive stages of production while the latter is comparatively free from the lingering remnants of hand work and its attendant con- ditions. CHAPTER V. Present Organization of the Cincinnati Garment Industries. The clothing trade includes three 'distinct lines of manufacture: (1) The tailor-to-trade product high-grade clothing made to in- dividual orders by methods which combine those used by custom tailors and those used by the factory ; (2) the clothing trade ready- to-wear clothing for men and boys, made in quantity and to stock sizes only; and (3) uniforms for trainmen, policemen, postmen, and porters, and regalia for lodges and other organizations. * Sixty- fourth Annual Report of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, 1912, Page 86. 27 The hat and cap industry is also one of the oldest of the sewing industries in Cincinnati. Cist mentions it as an important industry in 1859 and reports "7 cap manufacturers employing 160 hands and making a product of $120,000."$ For 1914, 7 hat and cap factories were reported as employing. 941 workers and producing hats and caps of about the same value as quoted for 1859. This amount, it should be noted, represents a larger output than in former years when the price per hat was considerably larger. The shirt industry and the overall industry, from the standpoint of the number of workers employed, rank next to clothing in im- portance. Seven shirt factories in December, 1913, reported 1,192 employees, or approximately one-third the number employed in the clothing trade, and five overall factories reported 912 employees. The product of these industries is practically standardized and the demand is so nearly constant that they are called all-year-round industries. Women's wear industries, making dresses, waists, kimonos, wrappers, aprons, and under muslins, are small and scattered as compared to the other garment industries, but they are reported to be growing. These industries have sprung into existence in the last ten years, hence records of the size of the industry and the value of the product are few. Men's neckwear is also manufactured extensively. Two large factories make a large amount of staple and fine neckwear. The straw hat industry is not large and is a part of the whole- sale millinery industry. Two distinct groups of manufacturers are engaged in the men's clothing industries of Cincinnati : (1) the manufacturer or the cloth- ing house and (2) the contractor. At one time the clothing house limited its part of the work to financing the industry, buying the goods, designing and cutting the garments, and selling the finished product. The contractor made the garments at contract price in a shop which he owned and operated entirely as his own business. These contracting shops still exist in Cincinnati, Newport, Coving- ton, Mt. Healthy, and other suburbs of Cincinnati, but few clothing houses now depend wholly upon them to make the product. Of the $19,887,790 worth of men's and women's clothing made in 1909, $1,543,629 were paid for contract work.* The contracting system within the factory itself is used exten- sively. Where this custom prevails, the factory provides the space and the equipment, while the contractor, acting in the capacity of foreman, contracts with the firm for the work to be done. Persons employed in work rooms managed under this arrangement are chosen by the contractor, who is the employer. In some factories, the firm reserves the right to pass judgment upon the dismissal of employees, but as a rule the contractors are wholly responsible for the employment and dismissal of employees and for the wages and piece rates paid. * United States Census Report for 1910, Vol. IX, Page 991. t Cist: Cincinnati in 1859. Page 268. 28 Employees under the contractor in the factories are paid the union scale if it is a union shop, or the scale set by the contractor if it is a non-union shop. In contract shops, except where the union rates prevail, the wages paid to workers are frequently lower than the factory scale. This is especially true in the small shop which employs girls from the neighborhood. Because they live near their places of employment and are not called upon to pay carfare or buy luncheon, or to "dress fancy", as one man expressed it, the wages paid these girls are usually less than those paid to girls who work in the downtown factories. The difference is about the equivalent of these expenses. One contractor, in speaking of this in an interview, remarked, "My girls don't make much less than they would downtown and here they are near home.'* Some of the contract shops are in the homes of the owners, and frequently in small buildings erected for the purpose on the prem- ises of the contractor. Though these contract shops are in some cases rated as factories and subject to the same regulations, they are not placarded as are the regular factories and are therefore difficult to locate. The larger contracting shops employ from twen- ty to fifty or more persons ; the smaller ones may employ not more than four or five persons. Pants and vests are made almost ex- clusively in these shops, though a few shops which make ready-to- wear coats are found. One shop seldom makes more than one type of garment, hence they are known as pants-shops, vest-shops, and coat-shops. Several of the contract shops visited are owned and operated by women. The contract shop and the manufacture of garments in the home dates back more than half a century. Cist says in his "Cin- cinnati in 1859", in discussing the effect of the recently invented sewing machine, that there were "more than 4,000 women in this city and in Covington and Newport, who worked at their own homes for these establishments." These contract shops, which are little affected by factory in- spection and regulation, constitute one of the worst features of the clothing industries. For the sake of right standards of work and working conditions, regulation of work, employment, wages, and piece rates, the industry supported by public opinion should seek to eliminate the unsanitary, uninspected, unplacarded contract shop and home workshop. An organization of clothing manufacturers has been in existence in Cincinnati for a number of years, but, as far as can be ascer- tained, it has done little active co-operative work of the sort done by Manufacturers' Associations in other cities. As a result of conferences held in connection with this study of the garment-making industries, a manufacturers* association with a membership representing the ten big branches of the indus- try has been organized. This organization, which is affiliated with the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, has appointed an advisory committee to co-operate with the public school authorities in estab- lishing the training courses for the garment workers. 20 The garment workers are organized in local unions represent- ing the various lines of work in which they are engaged. Local 99, the overall workers, has a membership of 750 men and women ; Loc- al 154, women garment workers, has a membership of 400 women; Local 188, pressers and tailors, has a membership of 200 men; Local 100, cutters, has a membership of 175 men; Local 122, gar- ment workers, has a membership of 150 men and women; Local 77, garment workers, has a membership of 125 men and women; Locals 129 and 123 each have a membership of 75 men and women; Local 151, shirt-makers, has a membership of 35 persons; and Local 91, buttonhole-makers, has a membership of 35 persons. The hat and cap, neckwear and straw sewing workers are not organized. The garment industries have been in somewhat unsettled con- dition since the strike of 1912. This strike came at the height of the season when the demand for product was heaviest. Both or- ganized labor and the manufacturers report a considerable loss in trade resulting from it. Following close upon this came the busi- ness depression due to the war in Europe, which affected the gar- ment industries in Cincinnati as in other cities. Within the past year production has increased slightly and demand for workers has increased also. The most encouraging demand from the standpoint of education and returns to the work, is in the demand for the trained all-round workers. It is toward this problem that the present study is particularly directed. Women share largely in Cincinnati's leading occupations. Ac- cording to the United States Census of 1910, Cincinnati is pre- eminently an industrial city. Shops and factories employ 44 per cent of its entire working population. In this group of industrial workers, numbering 75,852 persons, there are 16,605 women, who compose nearly one-third of all the women in gainful employment in the city. The number of men and women in the nine occupational groups adopted by the census is given in Table I. TABLE I. Number of Men and Women in Specified Occupations in Cincinnati.* OCCUPATIONAL GROUP Men Women Total Agriculture, Forestry, and Animal Husbandry Extraction of Minerals . . 1,325 100 114 1,439 100 Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits 59,247 16,605 75852 Transportation 13,739 833 14572 Trade 21,462 4,680 26442 Public Service . . 2,962 11 2973 Professional Service. . . 5,293 3,578 8871 Domestic and Personal Service 9,598 16,720 26,318 Clerical Occupations 10.541 5,565 16,106 TOTAL 124,267 48,106 172,373 Compiled from U. S. Census, Vol. IV, 1910. 80 Occupation Statistics, pp. 152-165. The largest groups of women workers engaged in manufac- turing employments are found in relatively few of the local indus- tries. The manufacture of men's and women's clothing employs the largest group. In Table II, the distribution of women workers in the industries of Cincinnati can be seen. TABLE II. Distribution of Men, Women, and Children in 16 Cincinnati Industries.! INDUSTRY Number of Es- Total Number of Numbe Earners r Wage over 16 Number tablishments Wage Earners Men Women under 16 1. Bags, paper 5 299 153 128 18 2. Boots and Shoes 3. Boxes, Cigar 4. Boxes, fancy and paper 5. Bread and Bakery . . 6 Clothing men's . . 32 8 15 187 183 7,989 222 669 1,340 5,718 4,514 109 162 1,029 1,870 3,132 107 425 296 3,654 343 6 82 15 194 7. Clothing, women's. . 8. Coffee and Spices . . . 9. Confectionery 10. Flags,banners,regalia 11. Hats and Caps 12. Hosiery and Knit Goods .... 26 8 22 8 12 6 1,325 221 771 403 260 220 444 115 322 118 102 31 481 106 401 279 145 176 40 48 6 13 13 13. Millinery 11 428 42 378 8 14. Printing, Publishing 15. Soap 280 16 3,866 491 3,070 253 . 723 225 73 13 16. Tobacco 208 2,526 937 1,584 5 TOTAL 1,027 26,748 13,271 12,600 877 These figures, which show 2,314 men and 4,495 women engaged in industries making men's and women's clothing, represent a large proportion but not the total number of persons engaged in the manufacture of wearing apparel in Cincinnati. Hats and caps, regalia, and millinery increase the totals to 2,576 men and 5,297 women. Besides these, there are 4,506 dressmakers and seam- stresses not at work in factories.* Garment-making, therefore, represents the largest source of paid employment for women in Cincinnati. From the standpoint of numbers employed, the sewing industries are of considerable importance. Garment manufacture is not only carried on within the metro- politan district of Cincinnati, which includes the city proper, Cov- ington, Newport, and Norwood, but also in a number of small suburban towns for which Cincinnati is the center. The number of establishments for the entire metropolitan district is 327 and the number of employees, 10,033. Many hundreds of workers from these towns are employed in the factories of Cincinnati and in the contract shops which contribute to these factories. * U. S. Census, 1910, Vol. IV, p. 548. At the time when the census was taken, the classification of garment-making and dress-making did not draw a very sharp line between the two, so that it is probable that many of the dressmakers returned in this group were really employed in factories or semi-factories. t Compiled from U. S. Census, 1910, Vol. IX, Manufactures, pp. 990-993. 31 It should further be noted that the number of garment-workers quoted above (2,314 men and 4,495 women) is based on the census figures for 1909. The Industrial Commission of Ohio for the year 1914 reports 2,251 men and 6,137 women employees in the garment industries of Cincinnati proper. A comparison of the figures for 1909 with those for 1914 shows marked increases in the number of women garment-makers in the city. Figures for the entire metro- politan district are not available. The importance of these industries as a source of income to the workers is also shown in the amount of money paid to the wage- earners in the clothing industries. Table III shows the relative importance of the capital invested, wages paid to workers, and value of the products of the industries in which the women of Cincinnati are engaged. TABLE III. Amount of Capital and Wages and Value of Product in Sixteen Cincinnati Industries Employing Women.* ?! ,jQ ' *1? 8, g INDUSTRY '* 5 a-s? "83 3 ' H "eii 1 .* g) a * 6 |1 H 1. Bags, paper 5 299 $129,254 $673,221 $1,038,250 2. Boots and Shoes 32 7,989 3,517,986 7,656,352 814,998,672 3 Boxes cigars 8 222 8,609 212,835 347 066 4. Boxes, fancy and paper. . . 15 699 184,858 442,245 679 170 5. Bread and Bakery. 187 1,340 723094 2,652,881 5 102 593 6. Clothing, Men's 183 5,718 2,512,386 10,211,774 16,974,928 7. Clothing, Women's 26 1,325 618,775 1,229,502 2,912,862 8. Coffee and Spice-Roasting and Grinding 8 221 91,271 1,083 406 2110024 9. Confectionery 22 771 279,006 970 132 2 029 075 10. Flags, banners, regalia 8 403 162,418 668,178 888 361 11. Hats and Caps 12 260 112,280 263,776 532,325 12. Hosiery and Knit Goods 6 220 84,479 426,362 441,745 13 Millinery 11 428 120,381 136 086 546 648 14. Printing and Publishing 280 3,866 2,479,852 8,450,749 11 519 118 15. Soap. . 16 491 193,042 1,620,682 2,352 006 16. Tobacco 208 2,526 988,422 2,363,702 4,153 232 TOTAL. . 1.027 26,748 $12,286,113 $39,061,883 $66,686,075 From Table III, we see that 209 establishments engaged in making men's and women's clothing paid wages amounting to $3,131,161 in 1909. For 1914, the State Industrial Commission of Ohio reports for 164 garment-factories the amount of wages paid as $3,541,972.39. A not inconsiderable portion of this sum repre- sents the sole income and means of support of thousands of Cin- cinnati's working women. The women garment workers of Cincinnati are mainly of native birth, or are American born of foreign parentage. The United States Census reports for 1910 give 3,806 native workers and 1,775 'Compiled from U. S. Census, 1910, Vol. IX, Manufactures, pp. 990-993 89 foreign workers employed in the garment industries. Among the men employed, those of foreign birth outnumber those of native birth, the former group being 1,367 and the latter, 1,096. Among the women employees, the case is reversed. There are 2,710 native born workers to 408 foreign-born; that is 87 per cent of the 3,118 women garment makers in the city were born in this country. In the group of 185 women workers interviewed for this report, a similar proportion of native and foreign workers was found. Eighty-three per cent of this group were native born and two-thirds of the group were born in Cincinnati. According to our reports, 123 gave Cincinnati as their birthplace ; 30, other parts of the United States, chiefly Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana; 7, Germany; 11, Russia; 5, Syria; 5, Austria-Hungary; 2, England; and 2 made no report. Twenty establishments, representing the large factories of the city, reported upon the question of nativity of workers for this study. These reports also show a strong predominance of the native-born among the workers. Among the foreign nationalities, Italians, Russians, Germans, and Hungarians, are mentioned. The workers already engaged in the industry include, therefore, a certain group who learned the trade in a foreign country. There is little doub.t that the foreign workers, especially those of middle age, have brought to the industry a large measure of skill and actual training for the work of sewing trades which they acquired a quarter of a century or more ago by the old apprentice system. This kind of trade preparation is almost wholly lacking in the training and education of the young people of today. Con- sequently, it is about these young people that the most insistent complaints of incompetency and lack of earnestness are today being heard. The education received before going to work is indicated in part by the age at which the worker left school and in part by the grade completed. Of the 185 women interviewed, only 29, or 15 per cent, had remained in school after fourteen years of age, and only 5, or 2.7 per cent, were positively reported as having remained in school after sixteen years of age. Of the ten girls who had left school at 16 or over, three had entered the industry since the compulsory school law of 1913 went into effect. There were five Syrian women who had never gone to school. According to the age of leaving school, the group was divided thus: 5 had never gone to school. 2 had left school at 11 years of age. 25 " | 12 59 " " I 13 61 " I 14 19 " " ( 15 5 " f 16 5 " f 16-19 4 made no report. 185 total. 83 The limited education and training of this group is further in- dicated by the following distribution according to the grade com- pleted : 5 had not gone to school. 2 had completed the 3rd grade. 11 " " " 4th 34 " " " 5th 54 " " " 6th 27 " " " 7th 33 " " 8th 5 had attended High School. 10 had attended foreign schools and evening schools in Cincinnati. 4 gave no report. 185 total The foregoing figures, showing that 85 per cent of the group had left school at fourteen or younger and that at least 89 per cent of them had not gone beyond the 8th grade, indicate that the girls who enter the garment trades are not to any extent those who attend high school. They represent what someone has called the "go-to-work group." Only 42 had had further education after going to work. The courses which they had pursued were as follows: 20 had taken general academic courses ; 10 had taken commercial courses ; 8 had taken cooking and sewing courses ; and 4 did not report the studies pursued. The foreign women gave as a reason for studying the desire to learn English; but the common reply to the question as to the purpose for taking the course was, "More education/* The general courses were taken in the public evening schools ; the com- mercial courses, with two exceptions, were taken in private busi- ness colleges and work in the factory was given up for a time. In two cases, the purpose was for a change of occupation. All of the women interviewed were asked their opinion of the value of an education in making a success of work in the garment trades. Of the 185 questioned, 51 said that education does not contribute to success nor does it benefit the worker; 124 replied in favor of education, giving such replies as, "Everybody needs education," "It helps in every way," "Education helps one to meet people ;" 10 gave either no reply or evasive replies. Both the negative and the positive answers show little belief in education as an asset in the trade. It seems to be considered as having a social rather than a business value. But, owing to the fact that these workers have so little education, they can scarcely be able to judge of its results. The same question put to employers and foremen brought more hopeful replies. Few employers con- sider that education has no bearing on productive work. Though they admit that they do not see any direct, specific use for the subject-matter learned in school, they declare that the need for a higher grade of general intelligence for the rank and file of their 84 workers is imperative. Ignorance, failure to understand, and in- ability to think out the problems that arise in the course of the day's work react upon the skill of the workers and inevitably upon the quality of the product. Hence education becomes a business matter for the worker as well as for the industry. The Compulsory Education Law of Ohio, adopted in 1913, made school attendance obligatory for boys until 15 years of age and for girls until 16 years of age. The minimum school requirement for boys is the ability to pass the sixth-grade test and for girls, the seventh-grade test. When the United States Census of 1900 was taken, it reported 3,577 boys and 2,626 girls under 16 years of age at work in Cincinnati. Of these, 1,826 boys and 1,557 girls were engaged in manufacturing pursuits ; and, as nearly as can be ascer- tained from these figures, 64 boys and 319 girls under 16 years of age were employed in the garment trades at that time.* The United States Census for 1909 reported 621 boys and 858 girls under 16 employed in all Cincinnati industries. Of these, 37 boys and 214 girls were engaged in the industries making men's and women's clothing.f For the year ending December 31st, 1914, the Industrial Com- mission of Ohio reported 61 boys and 241 girls under 18 years of age at work in the garment factories of Cincinnati. Since boys under 15 and girls under 16 no longer employed, these figures repre- sent the number of boys between 15 and 18 and the number of girls between 16 and 18 in the garment trades. It shows that the number of girls under 18 now employed is little larger than the number of girls under 16 who were employed under the old law. As the compulsory education law is thus extended so far as to with- draw from wage-earning large groups of persons who would otherwise go to work, it becomes imperative for the public school to train these young persons in such a way that their labor will have a greater value when they at length carry it into the market. The garment industries have not employed many workers under 18 years of age for several years. Before the school law of 1913 raised the attendance age, the employers had already committed themselves to the policy of employing no workers under 16 years of age; hence the problem of the young worker in the garment industry remained practically unchanged. The proportion of work- ers in the industry under 20 years of age is relatively small. Of the 185 workers interviewed for this study, only 22 were under 20 years of age. Table IV gives the age of 185 women workers who reported : * U. S. Census, 1900; Occupations, pp. 522-526. t U. S. Census, 1910; Vol. IX, Manufacturers, p. 990. This total number of 251 children under 16 is based on a representative day; the total of 234 children in Table II, p. 31, is based on average numbers. 85 TABLE IV. Age of Women Garment Workers. Age Group No. of Persons Per Cent No report 15 8 16 to 19 years 22 12 20 to 25 years 68 37 26 to 30 years 40 22 31 to 35 years 19 10 36 to 40 years 11 6 40 years and over , 10 5 Total 185 100 The figures indicate that 59 per cent of the women workers are between 20 and 30 years of age; and judging from the large groups of workers seen at work in the factories, these figures are representative for the industry. This is due in part to restrictions put upon the employment of workers under 18 years of age and in part to the demand for trained workers. These figures give striking evidence to the fact that there are very few young people in the factories as learners. The demand for trained workers is urgent. This was the opin- ion of manufacturers and organized labor alike. Some manufac- turers consider that the industry cannot continue to run satisfac- torily with less than 40 per cent of trained all-round workers. Probably not more than 25 per cent of the workers in the industry today can be classed as skilled workers. Organized labor estimates the demand for new workers in the industry in Cincinnati to be approximately three hundred per year, and favors trade-preparatory courses for prospective workers provided that the number trained does not exceed the normal demand and that the training given is thorough. This estimate of the number of workers needed in the industry is based upon the increase in the volume of business and the normal decrease in the number of workers who leave the industry each year for various reasons. An encouraging attitude on the part of the Cincinnati manufac- turers toward trained workers is rapidly developing. Up to the present time, the majority of employees in the garment trades have been men and women whose training and experience were gained under the old system of apprenticeship ; or, they had worked under trade conditions similar to the apprenticeship system which pro- vided an all-round experience that made for trade-training and the development of craftsmanship. Although many of these persons now work under the section system, they bring to their work an all-round intelligence about the single task they are performing that results in a higher grade of work than can possibly be attained by the younger generation of workers who are now learning entirely under the section system without any all-round experience. Manu- facturers who once honestly believed that the method of turning employees into section workers and keeping them at a single operation throughout their working career in the factory made for efficient training as well as increased profits, are now acknowledg- ing the weakness of this system. Factory foremen, who in most in- stances are the real manufacturers since they know most thorough- ly the problems of making marketable product, have long realized that the factory must ultimately find some more elastic method of training than the section system. In other cities, as well as Cin- cinnati, the problem of securing all-round workers in the factory is receiving considerable attention on the part of the manufacturers and others interested in the garment trades. One factory in Cincinnati is trying to provide such all-round experience and training for a limited number of its employees by placing them successively in different sections. This system has also been introduced in factories in other cities. One progressive clothing factory in Cleveland has classified and graded the opera- tions according to the complexity of the work and the skill required in handling the material and operating the machine. In this fac- tory, workers pass from one operation to another periodically until all the operations have been mastered. This method increases the range of processes commanded by each worker and develops the all-round craftsman. Training the all-round worker will not eliminate the use of the section system from the factory, though the factory employing all-round workers will probably modify the present system and offer broader experience for the employees who desire it and are capable of profiting by it. Under present conditions, the factory which employs the worker with the least skill and intelligence uses the most minute division of labor and the factory which employs the worker with the great- est skill and intelligence divides the work among fewer operatives. There is still a difference of opinion as to which method is cheaper. Some manufacturers say that the greatest sub-division produces the most and the best work, and the greatest profit. Others favor less sub-division because in their opinion it reduces the number of seconds and the cost of inspection and supervision and thus increases profits. Some sub-division of work will undoubtedly remain as specialization makes for increased output and higher grade work. CHAPTER VI. Conditions in the Garment Industries. 1. Regularity of Work and Wages. Employment is seasonal for a large proportion of garment workers. Other things being equal, the greatest fluctuation of employment in the garment industries is found in those branches in which fashion plays an important part and the least fluctuation in those whose product is less dependent upon fashion or is of a staple character. Women's cloaks and suits, dresses and waists, and men's suits represent the indus- tries most dependent upon fashion, though these make a conservative staple product as well as the ultrafashionable product. Men's working clothes, shirts and overalls, and women's house dresses and shirt-waists represent, in the main, the staple lines of garment manufacture in which the production is least variable. In the overall and shirt industries in Cincinnati, employment is practically constant for the majority of the workers. 87 In response to the question asked of the manufacturers as to the length of the working year, the twenty firms reporting gave their answers in two ways: (1) by approximations in terms of months and (2) by the numbers of employees on the payroll during the twelve months of the year. In the men's clothing industry, the slack season falls at the end of July; in the cloak, suit, and skirt industry, the busy seasons are virtu- ally the same as in the clothing industry; the neckwear industry has but one slack season, from April 1st to May 15th; the women's wear industry in Cincinnati, exclusive of cloaks and suits, make in the main a staple product, but it is also affected by seasonal fluctuations. Re- turns from the women's wear industry, mainly carried on in small fac- tories, are not as definitely stated as for the others mentioned above, but as nearly as can be determined, the slack seasons are December and July and August. The reports of the number of employees for each calendar month of the year brought nine replies from manufacturers. The fluctuation in numbers is seen in Table V. TABLE V. Monthly Fluctuation of Wage-Earners in Nine Cincinnati Garment-Making Firms in 1914. Firm Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. A 120 116 116 114 120 122 122 123 120 114 116 112 B 47 53 60 64 53 50 47 45 49 56 55 50 C 760 760 760 770 710 683 633 660 660 756 755 755 D 120 121 120 110 110 120 120 120 120 110 120 120 E 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 F 278 285 285 295 284 284 296 313 320 330 290 273 G 43 43 43 39 38 40 43 44 42 39 38 43 H 265 291 346 353 327 253 216 245 230 252 239 198 I 225 231 236 239 244 248 240 252 251 268 264 262 TOTAL 1923 1965 2031 2049 1951 1865 1782 1867 1857 1990 1942 1888 Though the minimum number of workers was employed for only two months of the year these months were not consecutive and indicate a corresponding irregularity of employment. From the figures of seven firms, reporting on the number of men and women separately, it appears that the major group of women workers was subject to a rather greater degree of fluctuation than the minor group of men workers. The comparision of men and women em- ployed during the twelve months of the year is seen in Table VI. TABLE VI. Comparative Monthly Fluctuation of Men and Women Workers in Seven Cincinnati Garment-Making Firms. Sex of Workers Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Men Women 401 1214 407 1224 402 1240 399 1258 397 1189 410 1162 403 1120 414 1164 419 1166 420 1279 402 1263 406 1241 TOTAL. . . 1615 1631 1642 1657 1586 1572 1523 1578 1585 1699 1665 1647 Similar information collected by the Industrial Commission of Ohio for the same period of time shows about the same degree of fluctua- tion as the reports made to the Chamber of Commerce. Table VII gives the figures as collected by the Commission. 38 .2 O o U gti W III 13 o O CM t* m M U H 1 ill! S H O O rH OQ CO T)J 39 t>. CO O> i/\ CO Wage Ea i-i rt & Q o Prepared by 1 if 1 8" 8| * 18 co .rHb~cococor^ OCNOOrHOlO^ lOCOCNrH 10 fc -8 *0 bt 8J|3 gSs 19 & *2 * I s 's clo trade and s and boy to the ts ar d cans neou 's aors loaks, verall imon irts eckw ats a iscell M T Cl O K Sk N H M *-8 8"* 1 g-g Sfc 81 8 S3 So' -rt O OOO :-CO 4 og*, Jt *r ber Tj< f^ CO O5 CO t>- rH rH 00 rHOOO 42 Wage reports which were secured from employers and from organized labor were necessarily general in character. Cutters, tailors, and press- ers are paid weekly rates. Operators, hand-sewers, and handfinishers are paid by the piece-rate system and their earnings therefore vary greatly. In shops which employ union workers, piece-rates and wage- scales are set by agreement. This agreement is made by a committee representing the union, the employees in the factory, and the employer. In non-union or open shops, the piece-rates and wage-scales are, as a rule, set by the contractors who are guided by the usual rates paid in the factories. Wage scales as reported by employers were as follows : Cutters,$l 5.00 to $25.00 per week; pressers, $10.00 to $15.00 per week ; operators, $6.00 to $14.00 per week; hand-sewers, $6.00 to $14.00 per week. These reports are generalizations and do not take into account the beginners who are paid $4.00 per week while learning, a period not exceeding two or three weeks. Frequently this learning period is but one week. The range of wages as reported by organized labor for union employees was as follows: Cutters, pressers, and tailors, $10.00 to $48.00 per week; operators and hand-finishers (women), $6.00 to $15.00 per week. The 185 women employees interviewed reported as follows: Hand- sewers $5.00 to $12.00 per week the majority falling within the range of $6.00 to $10.00 per week; six persons reported less than $6.00 per week, and four reported more than $1 2.00 per week. Machine operators received slightly more, the wage being from $7.00 to $12.00 per week. Twelve persons reported less than $7.00 per week, and thirteen persons reported more than $12.00 per week. Seventy-two gave no report. These reports, it should be noted, represent wage rates and not actual earnings. A report by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics on Wages and Hours of Labor in Clothing Industries for 1911 to 1913 gives detailed and accurate wages for workers in the clothing industry in a number of the most important clothing centers in the United States, one of which was Cincinnati. Table IX compiled from that Bulletin, shows the wages of workers in the clothing industries of Cincinnati. 43 co 3 S Sot -H ^ s li 5 1 3 S 1-8 M < i kJ 13 HH C CQ 55 S - I b/) co < II * 2 ?] S3 g 31 > 33 i.i s 111 .O ' ! C ; Number of Establishments O5 OO O5 CO CO co o o co Tt< T-H CM CM i-H i-H OS iO O CO CO to O5 iS : : : : :i IO -^ i-H IO t>- . . .05 . . . O5 t>- O : : :o : : : ' O i 1 O5 00 O5 00 i-H CO i 1 CO CO CM O51OIO -O i-iCMi-i -CM -(CMO -O5CO ; oo : :^S :Jo^8 : : : '^^0 'odoot^ ' ' ' CO . CM O5 rH CD TH H . r-< ^H CM 1-1 T-I oo S8 : ^ O5 O CO iO CM . . .00 . : : : s? : CO O5 CO -iOt>.00 rH CM CM CO CO CM kOCOi-HCMT-4 plied Labor Sta .44 2. Conditions in the Factories. Factory conditions are a pertinent topic for discussion in any indus- trial study intended for educational purposes. The majority of fac- tories (not contracting shops) in Cincinnati are located in large, modern fire-proof buildings which furnish good light and adequate floor space. Partitions used on the factory floors are mainly of wood. Dressing- rooms and toilets are provided for each factory in the building. Lunch- room space, as required by law, is set apart in the larger factories. Employers report difficulty in having employees use the lunch rooms. No reason is attributed other than indifference. Although the lunch- rooms meet the requirements of the law, none of those visited can be considered modern or more than barely comfortable. Contract shops in or near the residence districts do not have lunch-room space. The type of social work known as welfare work is not practiced to any extent in the Cincinnati garment factories, though in one or two instances forewomen act in this capacity. The factories in this city have given very little attention to attractive surroundings which are coming to be accepted as an essential feature of factory management. "The factory is a place for work and not recreation," as one manu- facturer expressed it. Granted that this is true, it is the belief of many persons interested in factory work employers, employees, and others that attractive surroundings, such as white, clean walls, clean windows, whole chairs, neat receptacles for work, and orderly arrangement of equipment and materials, help very much to create a wholesome and contented attitude among workers. Such an attitude is not found among those employed in the dingy, disorderly factory. In his book on "The Modern Factory," Dr. George M. Price says: "All welfare work is important in the first place as a social experiment, as an example of what can therefore and ought to be done by enlightened employers. Welfare work is an incentive to improve legal sanitary standards. Such standards give only the minimum requirements, and it is only when intelligent employers show the way and prove by example that other improvements are possible and necessary, that the legal standards are raised. Welfare work not only raises the economic, intellectual, and social standards of the workers, but it has an immense educational value in paving the way for the general improvement of the condition of the working class, and for the enlightening of the workers as to what may and can be done for them and, perhaps, by themselves."* The separate contracting shops of which Cincinnati has a large num- ber are, as has been noted, situated mainly in the residences or on the premises of the owners. Many of these buildings are light wooden affairs and adequate fire-exits are not always provided. One of the shops visited was situated on the third floor of the home of the contractor. The house was of brick but the narrow dark stairways were of wood, and no fire-escapes were provided for possible emergencies. Another frame building opened directly into the residence of the contractor and was greatly over-crowded. Another workroom was situated on the first floor of a wooden building some distance from the house and was * "The Modern Factory," by Geo. M. Price, M. D. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y., 1914, p. 294. 45 well provided with exits. The contracting shops visited were well- lighted and clean and the equipment was as modern as any found in the factories. Conditions that affect the health of the workers vary in the several factories and to some extent in the various branches of the industry. Conditions as to light, ventilation, and cleanliness are not inherent in the industry but may be changed as the industry wills or as society demands. As previously stated, the factories which are located in the modern buildings are well lighted and ventilated. Certain other conditions, inherent in the industry itself, are less readily changed, but they are not impossible to control. Dust and lint rising noticeably from the work were seen in only one factory. Air washing machinery and proper circulation of air in the factory can be made to carry off lint and dust. The power-sewing machines, except for very heavy work, run easily and are stopped with a comparatively light pressure of the foot. The pumping motion of the foot-power machine is entirely eliminated in the use of the power-machine and permits the worker's body to be more easily poised for work. This feature has very materially lessened the strain that once resulted from the use of foot-power machines. The extent to which this relieves physical fatigue and increases the efficiency of the workers may be readily determined by comparing the work of two groups of persons under similar conditions but using the foot-power machine in the one case and the motor-power machine in the other. Suitable chairs may contribute much to the comfort and efficiency of the operators. Attention is given to the height of chairs for those employed in hand-sewing but little attention has been given to the chairs used at the sewing machines. Under the best conditions, sewing necessarily requires the worker to remain in one position, hence the active person will not find it agree- able work. Persons having a tendency toward anaemia, narrow chest, spinal affections, sluggish circulation or sluggish digestion should not be encouraged to enter the garment trades as hand-sewers or operators. Right habits of sitting and regular habits of living will enable a person to work in the sewing trades without detriment to the health under right conditions, but the tendencies mentioned above may be aggravated by the sedentary work. Persons with a tendency to nervous excitement, which may be aggravated by the noise of the machines, will probably not be successful operators. Temperament as a factor in efficiency and satisfaction in work is now being considered more frequently than in the past. Reports of misfits shifted to an entirely different kind of work in the factory in which success came readily are recognized as having an important bearing upon this point, though such shifting is at present wholly incidental. Another condition seldom considered seriously in the discussion of factory industries is the use of stairways by the employees. An important factor to the workers is the length and number of flights of stairs to be climbed at the beginning of the day's work. Some factory buildings provide elevator service but assume no responsibility about its use. One building provided with passenger elevators in which 40 a number of garment factories are situated, has a sign conspicuously placed which notifies employees that the elevator is not for their use. One employer in the city provides elevator service for all workers employed above the second floor and requires them to use it. A few simple tests proved to him that climbing stairs wearied the workers at the time of the day when they should have been most comfortable. The effect of garment-making upon the personal ideals and stan- dards of the workers and upon the stimulation of their interest and intelligence are questions that constantly arise. Some of the operations in the industry call for little skill or thought on the part of the worker, but the greater part of the work requires skill and judgment. The repetition which seems monotonous to some persons is not considered so by the workers who find new problems in their work each day. This is especially true of those processes that have to do with the construc- tion of a garment. The work itself has no direct bearing upon the social standing of those engaged in the industry. The fact that groups of workers engaged in the same branch and grade of garment- work in different cities vary greatly in type and social standing bears out this statement. These factors, like conditions that surround the work- ers, are not static but changeable and flexible and may be made to take on the character which the workers and society demand for them. CHAPTER VII. Selection Requirements and Promotion of Workers in the Garment Industries. New employees are chosen by the factory manager or by the fore- man who has charge of the shop for which workers are being employed. Only the large factory has a factory manager who is responsible for the entire establishment. The smaller factory is divided into shops, each one of which is in charge of a foreman or of a contractor if the contracting system is used. The method of selecting workers in the majority of factories con- sists in holding a personal interview with the applicant and making a written record of the applicant's name, age, and address. In the personal interview such questions as, "How old are you?" "Can you run a power machine?" "Where have you worked before?" "What did you do?" "Do you live at home or board?" are asked and consti- tute the basis of the selection process in the majority of cases. The impression which the interviewer receives with regard to personal appearance, alertness, and general intelligence is, with many employers, the determining factor in selecting workers. A few employers require a written application so as to have a record of the name and residence of the employees. The last step in the hiring process is the trying-out, or probation period, which varies in length according to evidences of ability and willingness in the worker and the pressure of work in the factory. In the rush seasons, persons with little ability for the work required are frequently employed because no others can be secured; these persons as a rule are only retained during the rush season and are dismissed when the press of work is over. According to the law young persons under 18 years of age must file their working-certificates with the employer during the period of 47 employment. Those who have received their working-certificates but recently must verify their age by a written statement from the parents or from the school. The experienced worker is asked why she left her previous place of employment and the length of service; but this inquiry is not followed up systematically by consultation with with the former employer regarding this or other points which may have a bearing upon the applicant's suitability. In selecting new workers, the employer has in mind such general qualities as alertness, intelligence, neatness, good health, and reliability, and the specific ability to run a power-machine. Girls who are nervous or excitable are not employed if that fact is obvious. Similarly, the applicant for work is only vaguely informed regard- ing the employment which she is seeking to enter. Many employees enter the industry through friends or relatives already employed. Some come from other branches of the garment industries or from dressmaking establishments. Others drift in from their homes for temporary employment. Once engaged, young workers are placed in the factory with little reference to their ability or possible preference for the special work to which they are assigned, and only incidental effort is made to train them. Little instruction is given beyond showing them how to run the machine and how to do the work for one process, usually a very simple one, and after a few days they are expected to shift for them- selves. Practically no thought has been given, so far as can be determined, to grading the operations for the learner in order that she may successfully acquire the rudiments of sewing, of putting garments together, and of managing the machine. No effort has been made to standardize a series of operations in which the learner may be given instruction in rotation that will serve as training for the industry. The number of workers selected by this method and placed in the work-rooms who persevere and "make good" is variously estimated as two in five, one in six, and one in seven. Although these estimates represent the opinion of individual employers, they indicate a large turnover of labor which results in tremendous cost to the manu- facturer and a serious waste of time and a heavy burden of discourage- ment for the worker discouragement which may be far-reaching in its consequences. A tragic phase of this condition in industry is that failure is almost wholly attributed to the stupidity, carelessness, and indifference of the workers, while, until recently, employers have recognized almost no responsibility in this matter; but they are now beginning to see the possibilities of training as a solution of the prob- lem of labor turnover for the worker and for the industry. The experienced worker is, as a rule, placed in the line of work in which she has had experience or, perhaps, has specialized. Any additional instruction that the experienced worker may need for new operations which are introduced from time to time into the industry is given by forewomen ; or, if the worker is ambitious, she may instruct herself. Shifting of workers from one factory to another, or from one line of work to another has, in the past, been attributed to indifference on the part of the worker or lack of responsibility on the part of the employer for workers during the dull season. The shifting of exper- 48 ienced workers is less than popular reports would indicate. Of the 185 garment- workers interviewed for this study, only 41 had been employ- ed at any other wage-earning occupation. Of these, 7 had been employed in the dressmaking trade or in millinery; 1, in an alteration department of a department store; and 3, as sales-persons in cloak departments. Garment workers who have not been employed in any other type of work have moved about from one factory to another, but relatively few of the 185 interviewed may be called "shifters." Changes have been made because of lack of employment or a desire for more interest- ing or remunerative work. Little attempt has been made by the employers to secure and to consider the facts relating to failure on the part of workers except in individual cases. Closer study of the extent to which skill, general intelligence, knowledge of fabrics, and knowledge of garment construction are demanded for the various operations will go far to place the selection of workers upon a much more effective and less expensive basis. The training of workers in garment factories of Cincinnati is lim- ited and incidental. Promising persons are instructed from time to time and moved from one type of work to another in order to increase their usefulness or to meet an emergency in the work room ; but in no case is it systematically done or for more than a few carefully selected persons. If a worker thinks she is being "used" to fit in anywhere during dull seasons she is likely to object to being shifted, yet the all- round training which progressive workers consider necessary for the development of skill and workmanship and an assured standing in the trade is not under present conditions obtained in any other way. One factory, as noted elsewhere in this report, provides for rotation of work for a few workers. Aside from this one instance, such instruction as is given to beginners cannot be called training since it gives a minimum of attention to the worker and provides meagerly for new experiences. The provision made applies to only a few selected persons. Promotions are not frequent and such as are made are incidental or due to the initiative or insistence of the individual. Foremen and forewomen have been promoted from the ranks to executive positions involving considerable responsibility and knowledge of productive work. Promotions within the ranks are less frequent A serious obstacle in the way of promotion is wages. Piece-rates for work are so regulated as to bring weekly earnings of all workers to about the same level ; hence inducements in money return are too small to stimu- late any but the most ambitious. When demand for workers makes promotion or change of work desirable, a rate of pay equal to that already being received is offered for a week or more to allow for the learn- ing period and the possible loss in earnings during that period. The advance is in many instances too slight and the learning period allowed too short to make the change worth the risk. This condition frequently accounts for the unwillingness of the worker to change from one line of work to another which employers report. It is true in many instances that workers prefer to continue at one operation rather than make a change; but a measure of the preference is due to the risk in taking chances rather than to the physical and mental inertia with which they are credited. Some managers, and more particularly 49 some foremen in charge of the shops, believe that it makes for greater skill, a longer working career, and greater intelligence and alertness to have workers rotate from one operation to another, remaining -in each for a sufficient length of time to render service to the industry and to give to the worker real training and skill. Obviously these changes cannot be made too frequently without risk to the quality of work, the amount of output, and profitable production. What makes an occupation or the training for an occupation worth while from the standpoint of the worker? What are the points at issue for the person who is making a choice of work or training for an occupation? The following list of questions covers the important points, each of which is more or less decisive according to the personal factors involved : 1. What is the opportunity for rendering social service? 2. What will be the money return? 3. What advancement is possible if I am successful? 4. How does society rate the work of the particular occupation or of the industry? 5. Is the work interesting? Is there something new to learn as the work goes on? 6. To what extent will the work affect the health? Answering these questions is a long and serious process. A selec- tion may be made after consideration of only one point, such as the social rating of the work, or the opportunity for service, or the wage return. The first two questions are frequently uppermost where girls are making a choice. In any event, they should be answered tenta- tively if the person is young. The story of the great physician, the lawyer, the teacher, the merchant, whose early ambition was to be a street-car conductor, or a cashier, or a policeman, is familiar. The ele- ments of personal ability, the length of time available for study and training, the individual's probable power of development, and the opportunity for employment in the kind of work chosen must all be con- sidered. It is important that those attempting to assist in the process of selection should not allow personal prejudices to become confused with the essential and enduring elements of the occupation. An occupation is as good as those engaged in it help to make it. When a necessary and valuable social service is rendered, as in the garment industries, there is little room to question the social rating it deserves. Unless the effect on health of the occupation under consideration is obviously harmful, the worker is frequently disposed to ignore this question. On the other hand, the money return is often of first importance. In the garment industries the money return is not as great as it should be, but trained workers who can reduce waste, lessen the amount of "seconds" and imperfect work, and use the factory equip- ment without abusing it will eventually add the equivalent of this saving to their wages. Under present conditions the wages paid are decreased by the margin for this wastage a margin which the manu- facturer deducts as a protection against loss and as an insurance that the profits shall be kept at the level demanded for business management. 50 Advancement or promotion must be provided for, if a scheme of training the workers is to meet with success. If a school attendance is to be increased by two years or more and the earning period decreas- ed by as many years, a tangible reward in a higher entrance wage and the possibility of increasing wages through new and additional responsibilities must be possible of attainment. The industries are coming to realize that this is true and employers here and there through- out the country are providing the means to meet this need of the work- ers. A scheme of promotion calls for a careful classification of the work of the industry, the selection of workers with reference to the demand of each class or group of operations, and the placing of them, especially the younger workers, with reference to their ability and probable qualifications for advancement. Some industries may not lend them- selves to such a method, but the garment industries are sufficiently varied and rich enough in technical content to make a system of pro- motion practical and desirable. The standardization and refining of the technical aspects is a distinct contribution .to the science and art of garment-making. The garment industries make, in the main, four requirements of the workers, though these requirements are not always considered in selecting workers and, when they are considered, only in rare instances is the worker aware of them. These points are: (1) ability to run a power sewing-machine and to perform one operation acceptably; (2) knowledge of the trade so far as this single operation demands knowl- edge of the trade; (3) general intelligence which enables the worker to understand and follow simple directions; and (4) sufficient health and vigor to work the full working day and six days a week when required. The ability to perform one operation successfully is, of course, a matter of chance with the beginner. Personal qualifications count heavily when there is no experience to give evidence of ability. Knowl-' edge of the trade, except for the more important positions in the work- rooms, is hardly expected, and considered in only a very desultory way, though when such knowledge is discovered it is considered valuable and, as a rule, receives recognition. General intelligence is also readily recognized and rewarded, though incidentally. Still less attention is given to health as a factor in efficiency, though employers are not indifferent to its importance to the industry as well as to the worker. The quality of workmanship demanded for garment-making varies greatly in the different branches of the industry. The factors which tend to make for high-grade workmanship are not analyzed, though each foreman makes an effort to secure workers who have a high degree of skill for the work to be done. Selection is usually based on the trial method and if the worker makes good no further attention is given her. The grade of general intelligence required of workers is difficult to measure by any tests which are as yet devised. Several things stand out, however, as general mental qualifications which the worker should have. These are the ability to understand and carry out oral and written directions, especially the directions on the rout- ing ticket. It is highly desirable that workers should be able to com- 51 prehend and carry out more than the process of the sequence. The technical background of the trade, except for cutters, foremen, and fore- women, is almost wholly unknown to the garment- worker in the factory. Indications point to the fact that the lowest ebb in demands upon the worker has been reached. In the future, much more attention will be given to her technical equipment for productive work ; elements of skill and trade knowledge will be considered and evaluated, and types of ability will be recognized. The appreciation of these factors will bring about a more selective attitude toward workers and this will in turn conduce to greater consideration for their interests. The qualifications of workers must receive greater attention and more careful study than industry is giving to them at the present time. The school may assist very materially in this selective process and, through carefully arranged courses of instruction, develop qualities that should be developed and help to counteract tendencies which may be detrimental. Health should receive primary consideration from the school and from the industry. Employment should be preceded by a physical examination and medical care during the working period should be provided for. Tendencies which may be aggravated by sedentary work should disqualify for garment-making unless they can be suf- ficiently overcome or controlled to avoid risk to the worker. Normal health and physique, with no tendency toward anaemia, contracted chest, curvature of the spine, or similar weaknesses which may be aggravated by sitting in one position or by leaning over the work, are essential. Right habits of sitting, with the body bent from the hips and not from the waist when seated at work at the machine, greatly assist in retaining normal health. Right habits of eating, sleeping, and exercising also aid the worker to keep in good health and should have as much attention as habits of posture. These habits should be acquired by the young person while in school. Dress is also an important factor in health, physical comfort, and working efficiency. Uniforms have not been adopted for work in the factory, though it is customary among the workers to wear a large wrapper apron which covers and protects the waist and skirt. Where adequate dressing-rooms are provided, many workers change the clothing. This is to be commended as it keeps the outer clothing fresh, admits of lighter dressing in the work-rooms, and protects the person from the sudden chill caused by going into a cold atmosphere from a warm room. Dress which leaves the body free during the working hours also contributes to the health of the worker. Good eyesight is also important. Defective vision which may not be readily remedied by glasses disqualifies a person for both hand- sewing and machine-sewing. Except for fine hand- work, the processes used in factory garment- making do not require constant close attention to the needle or the minute spot upon which the needle operates, as is sometimes averred. For the machine processes, the operator must give attention to the entire piece of work, as the length of the seam or the long portion of the hem, and not to one small section except in such instances as turning corners or sewing to an edge for which the sewing must stop on the stitch Because of the extreme physical and mental adjustment 52 required by this detail work, the long seam and such stitching as does not have to be stopped on the stitch is preferred by the majority of workers to such operations as sewing on labels, taping edges, and the like. With adequate light, preferably natural light, which every factory should provide, and proper attention to the care of the eyes, the majority of the sewing processes should not injure the eyes any more than other types of work which call for the same amount of attention. General education to develop general intelligence is a self-evident need. There is a sort of intelligence which may be expressed in terms of ability to read, write, and do simple arithmetic. The amount of actual reading, writing, and arithmetical calculations required of the garment-worker is relatively small and is, in most instances, for her own benefit and protection rather than a contribution to the work itself. As piece rates are expressed in fractions and in decimals, workers should be able to compute in whole numbers, in fractions having at least two numbers in the denominator, and decimals in terms of hundredths. The routing ticket is a tag resembling a baggage tag with numbers designating each operation placed in a series of small sections. Each section is out off by the worker as she completes her work and represents the equivalent of the money due her for that particular operation. These "tickets" are turned in at the end of the day and unless she keeps a record for her personal use she has no means of check- ing up her wages for the week or for the year. Workers are not required to keep a record but they should be taught to be as businesslike in their affairs as the employers. When computation of wages is taught in the school in connection with instructions in fractions and decimals, the study should be made as concrete and as true to condi- tions as possible. How piece-rates are set, what determine the stan- dard of piece-rates, and computation of earnings in terms of work completed are elemental experiences of money economy which every person should have. General intelligence which affects the attitude toward work, ability to think beyond the task, and interest in impersonal affairs, are the expression of personal variations, which may be inherent or due to home training, environment, and education. A worker may show a high degree of intelligence, a very keen interest in phases of the industry, and give other than required attention to the conditions of the trade. The interest may be sufficiently great to make study of the trade journals the object of recreation. This person becomes the leader in the trade. Another worker may prefer reading and study of a cultural character, such as literature or history or other general academic subjects. Another may prefer physical exercises, which because of its recreational value, lends a wholesome outlook upon life and results in common sense a good name for general intelligence. Still another type of worker puts in time, finishes a given amount of work, and leaves the work-room on the tap of the bell. This worker usually shows little interest in serious work and frequently is erratic in her recreation. Other things being equal, the quality of general intelligence of workers is commensurate with education and training, though there are exceptions. When manipulative ability is inherent or has been developed through experience and training, the higher grade 53 of general intelligence very materially raises the general working efficiency. There is sufficient evidence of this in every branch of the industry to refute the opinion that general intelligence has no bearing on the working efficiency of garment workers. Personality, which expresses itself in ability to deal with people, agreeability, interest in work, in affairs of business, in social and civic matters, and in many other less tangible ways, has a great value in factory work. It is an asset rather than a requirement, however, as the operator or the hand-sewer deals usually with not more than two people the person in charge of her particular group or section and the foreman or forewoman in charge of the department. There is less contact with fellow workers in factory employments than in stores or office employment, where, especially in the former, the ability to deal agreeably with people, to interest, and to please them has a great bearing on working efficiency. Temperamental tendencies, which thus far have been almost wholly neglected in the study of industrial and commercial employments, are found in many cases to have a distinct bearing upon working abil- ity. The desire for frequent variations in work or preference for one kind of work with few variations, interest in a particular type of work, interest in the mechanical processes involved, or interest in the finished product, may be indications of temperament which, if carefully studied with reference to the person and the specific demands made by each occupation, would give valuable and practical data. This personal element in working ability is at present very largely overlooked, though the quality of the product is always influenced by it. With the growing demand in this country for superior workmanship, more attention to the personal contribution of the worker will be indispensable. Trade and technical knowledge are much more difficult to measure in terms of industries which use machine processes and subdivide the work extensively than they are in terms of a handicraft in which the worker makes the product from pattern to finished garment. Knowledge of the machine beyond the ability to operate it is not required of workers in the industry. The parts which regulate the stitch, feed, and tension are set to scale by a machinist and workers are not permitted to make even the most minor changes. The stand- ards for the work depend in large measure upon uniformity which slight changes may alter very materially. Rigid rules are necessary to keep up these standards. But when workers do not know their machines well enough to detect bad work, they do not report the machine for repairs. Persons preparing for the sewing-trades should at least know thoroughly the single-needle machines in common use and understand the principles of adjustment sufficiently to detect errors in the action and resulting imperfections in the work. Knowledge of the machine also enables the worker to avoid misusing it and this is an important item in reducing the cost of repairs and depreciation of equipment. Much can be taught the worker about the things to be avoided in the use of the machine as well as how to care for the simpler working parts. With regard to the individual worker's technical ability, there is little doubt that too much has been taken for granted and too little attention has been given to demands upon the worker. It has been 54 too hastily assumed that specialization has made technical efficiency unnecessary and the automatic character of modern industry has been over-emphasized. While it is true that specialization divides the trade and technical aspects of the garment industries and, to some extent, changes them, it is also true that considerable trade and technical background still remains, and that, moreover, there is still a vast field of undiscovered and undeveloped technical aspects which must be eventually worked out through the medium of machine processes rather than of hand work. Such factors as knowledge of fabrics, their texture and weaves, and knowledge of how to handle fabrics were once considered a part of the trade to be learned only through experience or by accident. Now their importance is being recognized by manufacturers and by workers, and, in the higher lines of the industry and in technical training courses, scientific study is being given to both factors mentioned. With the group who learn of them in the trade by using the fabrics, the necessity is equally important though the learning process is slower and the knowledge thus gained lacks much of the essential scientific background. Garment-making in factories becomes interesting and stimulating when the section system becomes systematized in terms of human values as well as in terms of trade demands. Even where repetition is a prominent factor, the processes are sufficiently varied, the skill demanded is of such a high order, and the background of information is so vitally related to fundamental human needs that the work is never wholly lacking in creative possibilities. From the point of view of the vocational school, it is important that the garment trades have a teachable content which may be given to prospective workers or to workers in the trade who wish to advance ; it is important that the kind and degree of skill required are of sufficient moment to justify a course of training; and it is important that the worker's interest, intelligence, and mental attitude toward her trade are capable of development in the right direction by educational meth- ods. From the point of view of the manufacturers, it is important that the demand for well-made, attractive, ready-to-wear clothing is vastly increasing. For instance, the making of women's wear which has lingered for so long in the hands of the housewife and the private dressmaker is being transferred with almost magical swiftness to the shops and factories. A leading silk manufacturer says that from 60 to 70 per cent of the silk yards goods now made in the country is being sold to the manufacturer, or the cutting-up trade. And this growing demand for quantity is being rapidly supplemented by the demand for quality. To keep pace with both, the manufacturer will have to recognize the demand of industry for intelligently trained workers. This need is already recognized by progressive manufacturers who are lending their aid and co-operation toward the establishment of the necessary courses of vocational training. Society esteems an occupation in a large measure according to the worker's own standard for and pride in it. Work which contributes essentially to the welfare of society must be made right for the worker. Since the industry not only tenders a valuable service to the commu- nity but also offers a wide range of technical and general subject- 55 matter to stimulate the interest and develop the intelligence of the workers, the task of placing garment-making upon a higher technical, social, and economic plane should be a relatively easy one. CHAPTER VIII. Some Facts Regarding the Public Schools.* Certain facts regarding the work of the public schools in Cincinnati have an important bearing upon a study of an industry for the purpose of determining the kind and extent of trade-preparatory courses that should be established. The provisions for school attendance, con- ditions upon which young people may go to work, methods of granting working certificates, regulation of employment, the extent of retarda- tion, and the extent to which industrial and household arts courses are provided in the schools and continuation classes are important points for consideration in planning vocational courses. These and other topics are discussed briefly in this chapter for the purpose of indicating the correlation of new courses with those established. The new child labor law went into effect in August, 1913, changed the employment age to 15 years for boys and 16 years for girls, and established the 6th grade test for boys and the 7th grade test for girls, and required working papers for boys to 16 years and for girls to 18 years of age. The certificates are issued under the direction of the superintendent of schools. The child labor law makes four provisos for the granting of working certificates. These are (1) a written pledge or promise of the employer legally to employ the child and a written agreement to return to the superintendent of schools the age and school- ing certificate within two days after the child's withdrawal or dis- missal from the service of the employer with reasons for withdrawal or dismissal; (2) the school record of the child filled out and signed by the principal in charge of the school which the child attended last; (3) documentary proof of age, such as passport, birth or baptismal certificate, or school census record of age ; and (4) a certificate from the school physician showing that the child is physically fit to be employed in any of the occupations open to young persons. The physician may refuse to sign the card, in which case no certificate may be issued ; or he may withhold his signature until remedial physical defects, such as adenoids, tonsils, or defective vision have been remedied. Co-opera- tion with the medical clinics relieves children of any expense for such treatment. Though the school record must show that the boy has completed the sixth grade and the girl the seventh, a special provision is made for young persons who are so mentally retarded that they cannot profitably complete the specified amount of school work. They may be given a special examination in the psychological laboratory of the Vocational Bureau, and if this test shows that they are below the normal in development, they may be granted the working certi- ficate provided they have complied with all the other requirements. The psychological laboratory, together with the school records, provide the means of determining for admission the type of girl who will profit by courses in vocational training and continued education. * The material of this chapter is based on a special report by the Director of the Vocational Bureau and on the Annual Report of the Cincinnati Public Schools for 1914. 56 While mental defectives, especially those who have been trained by special methods, are not necessarily destined to complete industrial failure, they are not qualified to profit by all-round vocational courses. Only those girls whose normality is established should be entered in a school which prepares for the highly skilled work of garment-making. The office which issues the Employment Certificates is virtually the one which enforces the child labor law. All reports of violations of the child labor law received from the children are at once referred to the department of factory inspection for investigation. The most important agency of enforcement, however, i? the truancy department. Unfortunately, under the law of 1913, this kind of co-operation with the truancy department is possible only for boys. No boy between 15 and 16 can drop out of school unless he actually secures a position. If he leaves a position and his certificate is returned to the office, the truant officer then hunts him up and sees to it that he either returns to school or gets another position. Since girls are allowed to drop out of school at sixteen years without the issuance of a certificate and the truant officer has no authority to see that they are either at work or in school, we have no such system of enforcement for them. The result is that the present law is being poorly enforced in the case of girls. In addition to the office which issues the Employment Certificates and the Department of Psychological and Sociological Research, the Vocation Bureau also includes a Placement office for children up to eighteen years of age. This office, which was established after four years of preparatory work by the two related departments, is engaged in finding positions for any young person of working age who applies for assistance. It began work in January, 1915, and in the following spring was placed entirely under the management of the Board of Edu- cation. The general aim of the Placement Office is to give to these boys and girls who either from choice or because of economic pressure in the home are leaving school to enter industrial and commercial life the same guidance and supervision which would have been theirs as students had they remained in school. This office makes every effort to keep the child longer in school. It seeks to stimulate the child's ambition by pointing out the wider range of opportunities open to boys and girls of more education; it confers with the child's parents and helps him to find part-time employment after school. For those chil- dren who go to work, it tries to secure a careful placement, to follow this up with care, encouragement and stimulation. Its function is that of vocational guardianship for the young worker. The Vocational Service Department of the public schools has for its purpose the coordination of the various branches and departments of school activities with the future vocational life of the pupil. It encourages the pupil to look forward to self-support and seeks to pre- pare him to regard his vocational activity also as a social activity. In general, it makes an effort to connect the study of vocational life with the study of community life and to correlate vocational informa- tion where possible with other school subjects. This department has co-operated with the Chamber of Commerce in making the series of vocational surveys, of which the present study of the Clothing Industry is a part. 57 The passage of the child labor law of 1913 put increased respon- sibilities upon the school. Of the 5,664 girls between the ages of 14 and 16 years in May, 1913, only those who had procured working certificates previous to August, 1913, were permitted to go to work. Of the 5,495 boys between the ages of 14 and 16, only those under 15 who had procured working certificates previous to August, 1913, were permitted to go to work. This increased very materially the school enrollment of bo}^ between the ages of 15 and 16 and of girls between the ages of 14 and 16. The effect of the law was most notice- able in the increase of the enrollment in the sixth grade for 1914 as compared with the enrollment for 1913 and 1912. Similarly, the enrollment of the seventh and eighth grades was increased in 1913 by the establishment of the compulsory Continuation Schools. Many pupils remained in school in order to complete the eighth grade, since they would have otherwise been compelled to attend Continuation School. The effect of these laws in increasing the enrollment of the three upper grades of the elementary schools is seen in Table X. TABLE X. Enrollment in Cincinnati Public Schools by Grades for 1910-1914.* GRADE School Year Ending June 30 Percentage of increase between 1912 and 1914 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 Kindergarten 2,353 6,337 5,121 4,984 4,779 4,227 3,550 2,868 2,163 1,356 718 472 315 2,590 6,452 5,176 5,136 4,872 4,387 3,436 2,802 2,156 1,509 788 491 398 2,678 6,700 5,217 5,240 5,059 4,756 3,929 3,057 2,273 1,573 1,037 596 463 2,980 7,124 5,455 5,396 5,195 4,895 3,926 3,227 2,518 1,755 1,094 697 564 3,050 7,058 5,521 5,423 5,230 5,006 4,336 3,270 2,697 1,872 1,112 728 685 14.0 5.3 5.9 3.5 3.4 53 10.4 7.0 18.7 19.0 7.2 22.1 47.9 First Grade Second Grade Third Grage. Fourth Grade. Fifth Grade Sixth Grade Seventh Grade Eighth Grade First Year High School Second Year High School. . . . Third Year High School Fourth Year High School. . . . Total 39,243 40,193 42,578 44,826 46,001 8.0 Corresponding to the increase of attendance above the fifth grade, the decrease in the number of working certificates granted under the new child labor law was also very marked. The number dropped from 2,450 in 1912-1913 to 1,207 in 1913-14; that is, less than half as many working certificates were issued in the latter year.J Of the 1,207 certificates, 749 were granted to girls and 458 to boys. Previous to the law of 1913, about the same number was granted to boys and girls. But the new provisions make it necessary for girls to have working papers for two years between 16 and 18 while the boys need to secure them for one year only, from 15 to 16.f * Compiled from the Annual Reports of the Cincinnati Public Schools, 1910-1914. t Annual Report, Cincinnati Public Schools, 1914, page 277. t Annual Report, Cincinnati Public Schools, 1914, page 275. 58 The positions in which this group of boys and girls was placed are shown in Table XI. TABLE XI. Summary Table of Occupations First Positions September 1, 1913, to August 31, 1914. ERRANDS BOYS GIRLS TOTAL No. % No. % No. % Business Firms 159 14 51 34.7 3.1 11.1 4 .5 163 14 51 Wagon Boys Public Service Total Errand Employment. . . FACTORIES Shoe Metal 224 39 18 5 2 1 33 48.9 8.5 3.9 1.1 .4 .2 7.2 4 82 4 53 13 20 13 45 .5 11. .5 7.1 1.7 2.7 1.7 6. 228 121 22 58 15 21 13 78 18.9 Paper Goods Candy Cigar Garter Miscellaneous Total Factory Employment. . . Department Stores Office Work 98 32 18 13 10 10 56 21 3 6.9 39 2.8 2.2 2.2 n's 230 199 60 13 168 14 15 45 30.7 26.6 8.1 1.7 22.4 1.9 2.1 6. 328 231 78 26 178 24 15 99 27.1 19.1 6.5 2.2 14.7 2.3 1.2 8.2 Groceries, Meats, Teas, etc Sewing and Tailoring . . Engraving, Printing, Binding Laundries Miscellaneous Occupations Grand Total . . 459 100. 748 100. 1,207 100. A comparison of this table of girls' and boys' occupations with the occupations of adults and children, as shown in Table II on page 31, indicates to some extent whether the new generation of wage-earners is following in the footsteps of the adult generation in its choice of occupations. The classification of the working-paper children given in Table XI does not quite cover the field of juvenile employment, since working certificates are not required by the Ohio law for boys and girls in domestic service with private families. But there is no reason to suppose that this group is of sufficient numerical importance to alter materially the relative proportions of the table. Of the working-paper children of 1914, 41.8 per cent went into factory work, including sewing and tailoring. A similar proportion of the total number of wage-earners over 10 years of age in Cincinnati, that is, 44 per cent, were in factories and workshops. Considering the women and girls alone for comparison, a greater difference is seen: 53 per cent of the working-paper girls went into factory employments, while but 34 per cent of all girls and women over 10 were represented in these occupations. The sewing and tailoring trades alone employed 22.4 per cent of the girls. These occupations, together with the department stores which employed 26.6 per cent accounted for almost JEighty-nfth Annual Report of the Cincinnati Public Schools, 1914, page 284. 59 half of the wage-earning girls. The next largest group, 11 per cent, went into the shoe factories. Judged by their stability, these occu- pations justify the partiality of the young workers for them. The Director of the Vocation Bureau found that "among the girls, the sewing trade is the most stable of the large occupations, department stores next, and shoe factories next."* The immediate effect of the new child labor law is to increase the number of girls between 16 and 18 staying at home and also to increase the number of retarded girls in the upper grades. Girls may leave school at sixteen and are allowed to stay at home without cer- tificates. This period is not necessarily one of idleness, but it removes the girls from further discipline and training, of which, as a future wage- earner, she stands so much in need and which the modern wage-earner's home, even less than a purely academic school, is not equipped to supply. The only way to meet the real needs of these girls is for the school to establish vocational courses and trade-preparatory classes. This will help to counteract the tendencies towards disorganization and purposeless waiting produced by the present restrictions on the girl wage-earner under eighteen. On the other hand, the girls who were compelled to remain in school as a result of the new law, helped to increase the amount of retardation. The Vocation Bureau found that the additional two years of age re- quired of girls did not mean an additional two grades in school, f Of the 749 girls who received their working papers in 1913-1914, 91 per cent were retarded; and of the 458 boys, 66 per cent were retarded. This means that thousands of girls leave school every year who have no interest in, or no ability for, the high school course, and inevitably no interest in the professional or technical courses to which the high school leads. Experience in the past decade has shown that great numbers of these children respond to specialized vocational education fitted to their needs. While vocational education is not a pan- acea for all educational ills, it is the cure for the "misfit" whose brain responds best to the problem that employs his hands. To meet these new conditions in Cincinnati, several special ele- mentary classes have been established for girls who have been compelled to remain in school under the new law. These classes afford an oppor- tunity to work out a differentiated course of study in the elementary schools beyond the Sixth Grade for girls who do not expect to attend the high school. J The immediate situation is a peculiarly favorable time for the initiation of pre vocational and vocational work. The girls who are forced back into the schools by the new law would prove unwilling pupils of the old regime and the school can well afford to cancel at least a part of this unwillingness by the provision of more congenial courses. Ohio was among the first of the States to pass a compulsory con- tinuation school law. This law, passed in 1910, made part-time school attendance compulsory to 15 years of age for boys and girls who had not completed the eighth grade. Children were permitted to go to work at 14 years of age provided they could meet the require- t Eighty-fifth Annual Report of the Cincinnati Public Schools, 1914, page 283. J Eighty-fifth Annual Report of the Cincinnati Public Schools, 1914, page 36. * Eighty-fifth Annual Report of the Cincinnati Public Schools, 1914, page 286. 60 ments of the child labor law, which were, for both boys and girls, ability to pass the 5th grade test, the actual securing of a position, and passing a health examination. The new law nullifies the continu- ation clause of the compulsory education law relating to girls but remains operative for boys between 15 and 16, who have not finished the eighth grade. The Compulsory Continuation Classes which were organized in 1911 operated under the legal provision that their pupils should attend not less than four hours a week, between the hours of 8 A. M. and 5 P. M. With the aim of bringing the school and the industries nearer together, classes were organized in twelve centers; the Guil- ford School received pupils from 8 A. M. to 5 P. M., eight centers received them from 4 P. M. to 5 P. M., and six centers from 1 P. M. to 5 P. M. on Saturdays. The Saturday sessions was granted to meet the need of young wage-earners known as "piece-workers," who selected this period as most convenient for their interests. In all cases, the employers and children were given the privilege of selecting the hours of attendance, some choosing an hour a day for four days, some two hours for two days, and some four successive hours of one day. Half of the time was devoted to general or commercial courses and the other half to special or industrial training. The revision of the child labor laws brought about a great de- crease in the continuation classes. The enrollment from 1911 to 1915 is shown in Table XII. TABLE XII. Enrollment in Cincinnati Continuation Schools by Years 1911-1915. Year Boys Girls Total 1911-1912.. 1227 1541 2768 1912-1913 1913-1914 1914-1915 1670 811 489 1575 778 229 3245 1589 718 With the decrease of attendance in the compulsory classes, as shown by the table, the voluntary continuation classes received more attention. The establishment of special industrial classes for girls who in- tend to leave school at the age of sixteen is a direct effort to provide for the group of girls who were formerly in the compulsory continu- ation classes. Five centers were opened with courses in home, indus- trial, and academic courses. The hours of attendance were adjusted in such a way as to leave the afternoons free. The girls were per- mitted to attend school four hours a day for six days of the week, a- total of twenty-four hours, the full time required by law. The number of girls who entered these classes was 126. During this time of adjustment, these classes have served a very definite purpose. They have been the means of dealing with a trans- itional situation and filling the need until real vocational schools can be fully established. From those classes, as well as from the grades, 61 it is expected that the girls will come who enter the garment-making courses of the vocational schools and other trade preparatory courses of these schools. Classes for instruction in household arts and other branches are conducted in any center where twenty or more women make a request for a definite line of instruction. These classes meet once a week in a two-hour session. Courses are given in plain sewing, dressmaking, millinery, cookery, dietetics, nursing, and sanitation. Lectures with discussion are given on subjects relating to child welfare and house- hold management. The aim in this work is to give to women, and to girls over sixteen who have left school, specific training in one branch, and an opportunity for the study of problems of vital interest in the home, industry, and the community. Two thousand girls and women are enrolled in these classes. A type of vocational training already developed by the Cincinnati public school system is found in the school of salesmanship organized in 1911. Thirty employers gave their endorsement to the plan and the 200 young women who wished to take the course were excused from work one-half day each week without loss of pay. A graduate of the Boston School of Salesmanship was placed in charge. Later a teacher of salesmanship was assigned to the mercantile establishments to do follow-up work with the pupils of the continuation classes and to teach salesmanship in connection with these visits. This year classes are being conducted in all stores whose officials have requested the co-operation of the public schools, in the Contin- uation School, and in one of the High Schools. Many of the High School students are working in the stores after school and on Satur- days. The enrollment in the salesmanship classes this year is 279. "In all this movement for co-operative education," says the Super- intendent of the Public Schools, "by means of which the schools and the commercial and industrial establishments are brought into closer relations for educational purposes, we need to realize that there are three parties directly involved: The employers, who desire and need more skilled and intelligent workers; the employees, whc desire and need to be better prepared for the work they are now doing, or in which they are to engage, and better prepared for positions of increased responsibility and pay; and the public, who desire and need a better service. The school authorities wish to serve both employer and em- ployee, but they occupy middle ground; they cannot serve either to the injury of the other; they must have the confidence of both. If conflicts of interest appear, they must decide always in favor of the public, whom they directly represent, and whose interests are superior to those of either employer or employee. "With this position clearly understood and accepted, I have no hesitation in sending teachers into commercial and industrial estab- lishments to perform their work under conditions most favorably for teaching the theory that is to be wrought out into practice, under real commercial and industrial conditions. "In this way we may be able to establish most effectively a more vital connection between work and study, between theory and practice, instruction and its application; and thus we shall provide educational 62 opportunity that makes for better and more intelligent workers who shall render more acceptable service to both the employer and the public. And this, I believe, is a legitimate function of public education." The establishment of garment-making courses is, logically and prac- tically, the next step in the development of co-operative education in Cincinnati. We have seen that the group of girls who enter the sewing and tailoring trades form 22 per cent of all the girls going to work. In numbers, they are only second to the group of girls who go to work in the department stores and for whom a program of vocational train- ing is already well under way. In method and in principle, the establishment of vocational courses for garment- workers accords with what has been begun in the line of vocational education. It is an organic outgrowth of present conditions in the public schools and in the local garment industry. CHAPTER IX. Descriptive Analysis of the Garment Industries. For a survey of a group of trades or industries for the purpose of vocational education, it is necessary to group or classify the various branches of the industry according to fundamental or dominating factors which affect the making of the product. The classification used for this study as indicated in the previous chapter lays emphasis upon three points which underlie trade and technical requirements for each group as well as each individual industry within the group. These are type of product, materials or fabrics used for the product, and type and adjustment of machines. There are three general " groups of garment industries in Cincin- nati, namely: (1) the clothing or tailoring industries; (2) the cotton garment industries; and (3) allied factory sewing industries. The clothing or tailoring industry is divided into three main groups: (1) tailor-to-the-trade product, which includes made-to-order suits, over- coats, top coats, and palm beach suits; (2) men's and boys' clothing, which includes the manufacture of suits, overcoats, top coats, uniforms, and trousers; and (3) cloaks, suits and skirts for women. The cotton goods garment industry is divided into two main groups: (1) those which use light weight cotton fabrics and (2) those which use heavy weight cotton fabrics. The light weight garments are (1) shirts, which include men's dress shirts, negligees, work shirts and boys' blouses; and (2) women's wear, which includes waists, house-dresses, wrappers, aprons, kimonos, and children's dresses. Heavy weight cotton garments are duck coats, overalls, jumpers, and khaki trousers. The allied factory sewing industries which make wearing apparel are the hat and cap industry, men's neckwear, and machine-sewn straw hats. The rank of the different garment industries in Cincinnati from the standpoint of the number of employees and the amount of money paid in wages to workers for the year ending December 31st, 1914, is as follows: (1) men's and boy's clothing, (2) tailors-to-the-trade, (3) cloak, suit and skirt industry, (4) shirts, (5) overalls, (6) hats and caps, (7) men's neckwear, and (8) kimonos and wrappers.* * Report of the State Industrial Commission of Ohio, December 31, 1914. 63 All garment factories use the same general type of business organization with three departments for carrying on the business: (1) the office, which includes the financial department of the firm, the bookkeeping, the factory production records, and correspondence; (2) the factory, which includes the workrooms or shops; and (3) the sales department, which includes the advertising and selling of the product. The office and sales departments offer an interesting field for vocational studies, but represent types of work wholly different from the sewing industries and are therefore not included in this report, which is concerned more particularly with the occupations of women engaged in making the product. Contracting shops seldom have more than a single workroom in which workers are engaged in machine-sewing, hand-sew- ing, and pressing. These shops have no sales department, no office, and only the simplest bookkeeping. Four distinct types of work are performed in the garment factories. These are cutting and pressing, which are almost exclusively men's employments, and hand-sewing and machine-sewing, in which women, and to some extent men as well, are employed. A few of the garment industries, such as the making of overalls, shirts, kimonos, and wrap- pers, eliminate the hand-sewing from the factory by the use of specially constructed machines for making button-holes, sewing on buttons, and tacking or staying seams; but other industries use such hand- sewing as basting, making button-holes, and hand-felling extensively. The cutting and pressing and machine-sewing are used in every fac- tory, but with modifications suited to the demands of the particular industry. Important points of difference in the garment industries which are generally acknowledged by the trade but are little known to the lay- man are the different types of mechanical ability, manipulative skill, and ability to use and control the power-sewing machines which are required for the construction of various kinds of garments. Although only partially standardized, these qualifications are so generally recog- nized by the trade that workers who are experienced in one line of gar- ment-making may not be employed in another, and change from one to the other virtually means learning a new trade. Persons skilled in tailoring work, for example, are not likely to succeed as operators in factories which make garments of cotton or silk goods. A dress or wrapper-maker does not become a shirt-maker until she acquires the skill and accuracy for shirt-making. The variations in these in- dustries are strikingly paralleled by other industries, in which methods of work and type of product are sufficiently unlike to make them separate trades, though they belong to a group commonly designated by a single name. For example, the tool-maker and the machinist belong to a group known as metal workers. Both work with iron; to some extent they use the same tools and similar methods for achieving the finished product, yet each is a distinct trade for which special training and experience are required. Thus, while the divisions of work in the various branches of the garment industry are similar and the machines used and the methods for cutting and sewing are much alike, there are differences which are of sufficient importance to characterize each of the various branches of the industry as a trade. 64 Certain occupations common to all branches of the industry are sufficiently alike in their requirements to warrant a single analysis and discussion for the entire group. It should be understood, however, that the demands upon the workers in these occupations vary in the different industries according to the bulk of work handled, the re- sponsibility attached as in the cost of fabrics, and the amount of time that may be spent in planning or carrying through an operation; but the demands upon the worker in the way of general intelligence and technical skill remain essentially the same in all branches of the industry. These occupations are designing, laying, marking and cutting the cloth, machine buttonhole-making, button-sewing and examining, and the executive positions in the factory known as managers, foremen, and forewomen. Cutting is the most important work in the manufacture of garments. Patterns are designed and cut by mathematical rule, based upon simple principles of geometry. The lay-outs are planned so as to save cloth, for a fraction saved or wasted on each of the hundreds or thousands of garments made represents considerable cloth in the aggregate. Measurements for a given size and style of garment must be uniform- ly accurate, for sales depend upon the extent to which the product continues to give satisfaction. Garments are carefully planned so as to have them of good and attractive design. Cutting. There are four operations in cutting which may be done by a single worker called the cutter, or subdivided and the less re- sponsible operations given to young men assistants or apprentices to the cutter. These operations which represent four distinct occupations in all large establishments are spreading, marking, cutting and de- signing. In large establishments where cutting is done on a very large scale and the fabrics used are expensive, as in the clothing houses, the learners spend several months as helpers in the capacity of floor boy, pattern boy, and under collar cutter before being placed as learners under the spreader. As floor boy, he runs errands on the floor and is expected to become familiar with many of the details of the work; as pattern boy he is expected to become familiar with the different styles, the system of numbering used, and the methods of caring for them; as cutter of small parts, such as the under collar of the coat, he gets his first experience in the use of patterns and shears, and the handling of cloth. From this position, he is advanced to the position of learner under the spreader, and so on to the other positions in the scale as he is able to qualify. These subordinate positions are not used to any great extent in factories which make a less complicated and less expensive product. In these factories, a learner may begin his work as assistant to the spreader, for which position he may qualify later. The four main operations in cutting which are found in all branches of the garment industry are described in the following paragraphs. Spreading is placing the cloth in lays or spreads ready for the cutter. This is the first of the cutting processes and is done by the learners under the direction of the cutter. The spreader lays the cloth on the cutting table in lengths as designated by the estimates worked out by the cutter, placing one length upon the other (keeping them of equal length), until as many lays or spreads as are needed have been piled up. 65 For staple product, the lays are usually of the same cloth, but in in- dustries which make a larger variety of product, fabrics of different colors or different kinds may be spread for the same lay-out. The worker, in spreading the cloth, keeps the tension or stretch of the lengths uniform, smooths out wrinkles, lays edges together evenly, and makes the spreads of equal length. The tension of the cloth is important, since fabric stretched too much tends to shrink or take-up when made and garments become undersized, while wrinkles in the cloth tend to oversize variations. The accuracy with which each length is measured is an important factor in saving cloth, which represents one of the largest expense items of the industry. The length of a spread may vary with each garment made. They vary also in different factories. The number of garments in each spread varies also. There may be one garment to a spread, but usually there are more. The number is determined by the number of garments to be made and the space available for cutting tables. Some factories prefer the very long table so that a number of garments may be cut from one spread, and the parts of the garments may be laid so as to utilize cloth not used in cutting the preceding garment. Cloth may be very appreciably saved in this way. In laying spreads, especially a mixed spread, the worker must keep in mind such things as the right and wrong side of the cloth, so as to lay them face to face when necessary; the twill of the cloth, so as to know when they need to be reversed, and the matching of plaids, especially when they are large and must be in the same position on each side of the garment. Spreads are laid by hand in the majority of the factories, but spread- ing machines are also used. The spreading machine, or carrier, which travels back and forth over the table and spreads the cloth in lays, is used in factories when very long lays and many yards of fabric are used. The spreader must learn to know readily the kinds of fabrics he uses, their qualities that need to be considered in the cutting, such as elasticity, for the accuracy of measurements depends very largely on the amount of stretch that may be allowed in laying a spread. Ability to recognize quickly the right and wrong side of cloth demands good eyesight and close attention to such details as weave and finish. The use of stripes and plaids requires considerable planning in laying the spreads for the cutter. Although the spreader is not called upon to calculate the length of the spreads or the number to be used in a lay- out, he is expected to learn how to make the estimates if he is to qualify later as a cutter. Marking is tracing around the pattern with tailor's chalk or a pencil after the position of each part of the pattern on the cloth has been de- termined. When the edges of all the lengths of cloth or spreads have been placed in line, the marker lays the parts of the pattern on the cloth according to a diagram which has been planned and worked out by the cutter. He fits the parts edge to edge carefully and when all have been laid to the satisfaction of the cutter, who directs the work, he marks around the edge of each part with chalk or pencil. The chalk is used for woolen fabrics and dark cottons; the pencil is used for light fabrics, upon which the chalk mark does not show. 66 The cloth used for the pocket flaps, cuffs, and facings must be cut so that the grain of the cloth will run in the same line as the cloth in the body of the garment. Plaids or stripes complicate this part of the work still further. Though seemingly a small matter, this part of the work is so important that if not satisfactorily done, the appearance of the garment is marred and its marketable value materially lessened. The same principle applies to some extent in all garments, for even in cheap product the cloth must be used correctly in order to get desired results. Marking gives the young man desiring to be a cutter his first experience in the use of the entire pattern. In this work he learns the relation of one part of the garment to the other and how the patterns should be placed on the cloth for the layout. He gets further practice in recognizing the various parts of the garment in assembling the cut pieces into bundles of one or more garments each ready for the sewing department. When helpers are not employed, the marker is also responsible for reassembling the parts of the patterns and replacing them in their respective places according to the stock numbers, styles and sizes. Cutting. When spreading, making the layout, and marking have have been mastered, the worker is ready for the responsible work of cutting. He is then a full fledged mechanic, and intrusted with the responsibility of cutting the cloth after the layout has been made and the parts marked out. For this work, he uses a hand knife or an electric cutting knife. The band-saw is also used to some extent for cutting garments. In cutting the cloth, the cutter follows closely the line made by the marker. Cutting a number of layers of cloth they are laid in any number up to one hundred or more, according to the thickness of the cloth requires a steady hand and a good eye. The work requires an active person, and deftness in the use of the hands and arms. The cutter is also responsible for the accuracy of the layout, and must inspect it before any cutting is done. He is also held responsible for the use of cloth, and, in some instances, for loss due to carelessness or inefficient work. Yardage is carefully checked up, and his rating as a cutter, and value to the business, is determined by his ability to get a maximum of product from a minimum of cloth. The cutter must know the kinds of cloth, their qualities, such variations as the percentage of wool, kind and amount of adulterations used, the amounts of weighting, shrinkage, and elasticity, and the ex- .tent to which they may affect the making of the garment. He must know how to get the greatest number of garments from a given amount of cloth. For this he must figure to the width as well as the length. Designing. The designer is the head cutter who designs the styles for the season, directs the marking of the models, drafts the patterns, and grades them to sizes. He plans the first layout for economy of materia^and use of the grain or texture of the cloth in carrying out the design, and frequently makes a diagram of the lay-out for reference. He figures all the yardage and trimmings* for single garments or the number of garments in the lay-out, and estimates the amount of goods needed for carrying the season's business. He works out the speci- * Trimmings in tailoring are buttons, buckles, tape, and other finishing materials which the dressmaker calls findings. 67 fications for garments of every style and size made under his direction, and gives directions for having specifications inserted on the routing slips which accompany each piece or bundle of work. He decides what processes shall be used in making the garments and the kinds and amount of trimmings to be used for each style and size. He figures the piece rates, and sets or helps to set the piece-rates for the sewing and pressing processes. The designer is frequently the executive head of the work-rooms in clothing factories, and directs the manufacture of product which depends largely upon workmanship for the successful carrying out of designs. In those industries which make a product requiring close attention to the details of style, design, and workmanship, the designer gives practically all of his time to planning work, designing new styles, looking after the work-rooms, and directing the cutters, markers and spreaders. In other industries which make a less complicated product, and in which the designing is of less importance relatively than the cutting, because less varied, the head-cutter makes the design and does the cutting. In these factories the cutting department and sewing department are under separate supervision and frequently not closely associated. Although the young men who spread the cloth and mark it are not wholly responsible for the working out of estimates and planning lay- outs, they should have the ability to learn these things readily if they expect to qualify as cutters and designers. Educational requirements for the men in this department are therefore virtually the same. They should have sufficient knowledge of English to read and write readily; a knowledge of arithmetic through fractions and percentage for fig- uring yardage, making estimates, and pattern drafting which involves some mathematical principles. The assistants or learners who spread the cloth and mark the lay-out serve two years under a cutter, and during that time learn to apply their knowledge of arithmetic to the cutting of garments. Men become cutters after years of satisfactory service. If they enter the industry at sixteen years, they may be cut- ters at nineteen years of age. They do not become designers and heads of cutting departments, as a rule, until they have had several years' experience as cutters, and have demonstrated their ability to cut accurately and make attractive saleable models. Physically, the cutter should be active and healthy and have suf- ficient endurance to stand at his work. Good eyesight, a steady hand, good judgment and a sense of taste are necessary. The ability to observe details quickly and accurately and sufficient adaptability to have these qualities develop with experience are very essential. Buttonhole Making. Machine-made buttonholes are essentially the same for all types of garments though the machine is adjusted in each case to suit the weight of the fabric and the thread used for the buttonhole. Two types of buttonhole machines are in common use in the garment factories the Singer, which is started by a treadle, and the Reece, which is started by a hand or finger lever. On the cheaper product such as house dresses, underwear, aprons, and working shirts, the worker spaces the buttonholes as she operates the 68 machine ; but for the expensive garments such as tailored coats, the spaces are measured and marked by another person who has charge of the but- tonhole work. To make the buttonhole, the operator places the cloth under the presser so that the buttonhole will fall in the right line and at the right distance from the edge fo the garment, starts the machine which makes the number of stitches required for the buttonhole and stops auto- matically. The operator then raises the presser foot, releases the work, and inserts the cloth in position for another buttonhole. The operator is responsible for two things in this work which require constant attention: (1) buttonholes must be kept in straight alignment (unless otherwise desired), and equally distant from the edge of the garment; (2) the work must be watched while the buttonhole is being made, so that the action of the knife which cuts the buttonhole may be stopped if the thread breaks or the stitches do not fall in place properly. In careful work, especially on expensive garments, consid- erable concentration is required. For stock garments, the operator is required to know each style of garment so that she may follow the directions on the routing ticket as to number and size of buttonholes to be made. She must also know how to thread the machine and adjust the bobbin and understand the action of the machine well enough to report defective action for repairs. The operator who makes buttonholes should know how to read and write simple English and have sufficient knowledge of arithmetic to count and to keep a record for her work and her earnings. She should be able to understand both written and oral directions and fol- low them accurately. Steady nerves, good physique, good health, good eyesight, and en- durance are the essential physical qualifications. Although the making of machine buttonholes is not considered arduous, persons of excitable or nervous temperament should not be encouraged to undertake it. Both men and women operate buttonhole machines. Young persons are not, as a rule, placed at this work until after they have become accustomed to factory work. Button sewing is a machine process used extensively for factory- made garments. For this operation the worker inserts the button in a slot in the presser foot of the machine, places the work under the presser foot so that the button will be in the right position, starts the machine with a treadle, which automatically puts in the necessary stitches and stops when the operation has been completed. The operator raises the presser foot, releases the work, and places it in position for the next button. Another type of machine places the button automat- ically when the work is in position and the machine has been started, which reduces the demand upon the worker somewhat. Buttons on overalls and jackets are clamped or riveted into the garments. The operator places the garment in position in the machine and starts the machine, which drops the button, clamps it into place, and stops. For the better grades of tailor-made clothing, buttons are sewed on by hand so that stitches do not show on the wrong side. The spacing of buttons may be done with the buttonholes as a guide or by the eye measurements when the product is inexpensive 69 and the operator sufficiently skillful, or they may be spaced and marked by another person. For tailored garments, the buttonholes are usually placed by the forewoman or other responsible worker. The educational, mental, and physical qualifications are practi- cally the same as for buttonhole making, though the responsibility is not so great as there is less danger of injuring the garment. Button- sewing is done by young women, many of whom find their first employ- ment in the industry in this position. Later they may qualify as but- tonhole-makers, as the operations are sufficiently alike to make the transition easy from one occupation to the other. Examining is looking over the finished product for imperfect or unfinished work and clipping off loose ends. Every industry makes provision for this kind of work, but it varies widely according to the kind and grade of product. In the tailoring industries, examining is done constantly so that imperfect work may not pass far beyond the worker responsible for it. On cheap product, the greater part of examining is done when the product is completed. For this work the person should have a knowledge of the com- pleted garment; she should know how to detect imperfect work and the department to which it should be sent for repairs, or be able to make the necessary repairs. She should be skillful in the use of the scissors in clipping threads and have the ability to do plain hand- sewing. Bright, alert, capable girls and women are chosen for this work, as it requires intelligence and reliability. But the work itself requires little in the way of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of garment-making. The examiner sits at her work, as a rule, and tables and chairs are low so that she may work without strain. Good eye sight and skillful fingers are the essential qualifications. Examining does not fit for other positions in the factory, but for young girls it is considered a desirable place to learn about the garments and the ways of the factory. In factories which make a fine grade of product, this work is very desirable. In factories which make an inexpensive prod- uct which must be turned out rapidly, the work is slightly varied and requires less intelligent and skillful work than in the factories which make a more complicated product. The work is proportionately less desirable, except for beginners who may later hope to do more respon- sible and remunerative work. Executive Positions. Executive positions in all the branches of the garment industries are similar in character and demand; therefore, much the same type of responsibility, training, and experience are required in all of them. These executive positions are manager or superintendent, foreman, and forewoman, and rank in importance in the order named. A larger establishment may employ all four. Smaller establishments may have only the foreman and the forewoman, who acts as an assistant. The manager or superintendent has general supervision of the en- tire factory. He employs and dismisses workers and is responsible for the policy^of the factory in the employment, paying, and manage- ment of employees. The foremen are responsible to him for the use of raw materials, the quality and quantity of the output, the production methods used, and costs. 70 The manager or superintendent must know the details of the manu- facture of the product his factory makes. He must have the ability to estimate cost of materials, labor, production, and waste; the ability to arrange machinery, workroom, and stockrooms to the best advantage of the work and the greatest comfort of the workers; and the ability to administer factory discipline without friction. He is responsible for reports to the office from the different departments, and meets with members of the firm to discuss business policies. To do this work successfully, a knowledge of manufacturing pro- cesses, of business transactions, of trade conditions that affect business, and sufficient general education to enable him to keep pace with the demands of industry are essential. Men in this position, as a rule, are those who have learned the business in the factory as a worker "at a bench," a common phrase among tailors, or as a salesman of the product; or they may have had experience in both directions. There are few exceptions to this rule. There seems to be no custom as to the age at which this responsibility may be assumed, nor the amount of education, training, and experience that should be required. Initiative, the ability to plan for others, to direct and to manage people without difficulty are the personal qualifications upon which most emphasis is placed. The foreman has charge of a department or group of departments. He is responsible for the quality and quantity of product turned out in his department. Under the system in vogue in a number of fac- tories in Cincinnati, the foreman is a contractor and the department is his shop which he manages as he thinks best, though in the large factories the foreman works under supervision. As a contractor, he is manager, employer, and paymaster for his own shop. The foreman knows every detail of the work he directs, which, as in the case in the tailoring industries, he has learned as a worker in the factory. He inspects the work, plans the routing, watches the progress of the work, and checks it up as it passes through the department. To be a successful foreman he must know his trade thoroughly, and have the ability to keep informed on new methods of manufacture. An elementary education is necessary, and secondary education is desirable for men in this work. There are successful foremen who have had less education, but they have supplemented insufficient education with self-instruction and application to the work in the factory which have helped to make up deficiencies. These men strongly favor pre- paratory education. The ability to get along with people, to secure good work from the operators and to keep work moving without undue haste or friction are the most essential requirements. Foremen are men who have been successful workers in the industry and demonstrated some initiative and executive ability. It is, therefore, a position to which some men may look forward. Physically the fore- man should be healthy and have sufficient endurance to stand the work- ing hours. The position of foreman is seldom held by a man under twenty-five years of age. He receives a weekly salary which is deter- mined by the number of people he directs, the amount of business his department carries, and such personal and business qualifications as he 71 may have which the firm values. The contractor foreman pays his employees and has for his salary the amount of the contract money which remains. The forewoman is assistant to the foreman. To her the foreman delegates such work as placing and training new workers, checking up the work from time to time during the day. She is always a skilled workwoman who knows every detail of the work she directs, and passes judgment upon the work of each employee. She repairs work, turns imperfect work back for repairs, and gives directions as to the way it should be done. She gives out work to be begun, with directions as to the way it should be done, and receives finished work. An elementary education, and secondary education as well, if it is possible to secure it, ability to deal with workers, to keep work moving without confusion or delay, and to keep workers busy, are the essential qualifications. Good health, endurance and good eyesight are the most essential physical qualifications. Experienced skilled workers, having tact and the ability to carry out directions, are chosen for this work. The age at which this work may be undertaken varies from twenty- two to thirty or thirty -five years. Salaries range and are usually about half the amount paid to men workers. Like the salaries of foremen, they are determined by the amount of work to be done, the number of workers to be managed, and the number of women available for such work. Women serving in this capacity who were interviewed for this study reported salaries ranging from $12.00 to $18.00 per week. A few receive a higher salary. The Tailoring Industries. Men's Clothing. The clothing manufacturers and tailors-to-the-trade make the same type of product but use different methods of manufacture. Three important features constitute the chief points of difference: (1) in the clothing industry garments are cut in bulk to stock measures, hence there are no variations to suit individual figures ; tailors-to-the-trade cut garments separately to the measures of the person who is to wear them ; (2) machine sewing is used almost exclusively on ready-to-wear clothing ; much of the work on the tailor- to- the-trade product, especially on the coat, is done by hand; (3) ready-to-wear clothing is pressed by pressing machines, and hand pressing is not used extensively; for the tailor- to-the-trade product, much hand pressing is used though machine press- ing is also used. The three garments of a man's suit are made in separate departments or "shops" as they are called and each shop is designated by the gar- ment made; thus there are three distinct "shops" in each factory: (1) the coat shop; (2) the vest shop, and (3) the pants shop. Each of the three shops has its own set of workers who seldom work upon more than one type of garment. The division of work in each of these shops in both the lines of manu- facture is much the same, though no two workrooms use exactly the same divisions or combinations of operations. The similarity of the 72 tasks and methods of work is sufficiently great, however, to warrant a single analysis which may apply to both. It should be understood that all the processes are not necessarily used in one factory. Coat-Making. There are four groups of workers in the coat shop : (1) the cutters; (2) the machine sewers; (3) the hand sewers; (4) the pressers. Cutting has already been analyzed and appears on page 65 of this report. Machine sewing is of two types : basting and finishing. Pressing is of three types: part pressing, under pressing, and top or off pressing. The machine operations in order of their importance are canvas making; lining making; making of small parts as pockets, flaps, welts, and cuffs; seaming; shoulder- joining; sleeve-making; machine-pad- ding; taping, and edge- stitching. Operations are analyzed in order of their importance rather than in the consecutive order used in the workroom. Indeed, such a method would doubtless lead to confusion except for those familiar with the industry, as the garment passes back and forth among hand sewers, machine sewers and pressers many times while it is being made. Canvas-making is stitching together the pieces of canvas which are used to stiffen and strengthen the upper part of the fronts of a coat, and joining to the pieces of canvas a layer of cotton padding. A special machine which makes a stitch resembling a herringbone stitch is used for this operation. The work is not exacting, is readily learned, and, as a rule, is done by beginners who later take up work requiring greater skill. Lining making. The lining maker makes the pockets in the lining and joins the under-arm seams. For a description of pocket making and seaming see pages 75 and 76. Pocket flaps, welts, and cuffs are also made by beginners. The work consists of sewing the top and lining together with a plain seam and turning the parts ready for the presser. The workers who do the seaming may also stitch the edges after the parts have been turned and pressed. Seaming is sewing the part that is being used on the fronts of men's coats at the present time and joining the under-arm seam. For a plain seam the two edges of the garment are laid together and sewed with a single row of stitching. In making this seam, the worker holds in the cloth or stretches it in places to make the garment fit the body. There is no rule for this method of shaping a garment. It depends upon the style and the texture of the cloth. This work requires a knowledge of the garment and the fabric, and skill in handling the work, which is done only by experienced operators. In some factories this seam is joined by the pocket makers. Shoulder joining. The shoulder seam of a coat is not joined until after the pockets have been made, the under-arm seam joined, the canvas basted into place, the lining basted in, and the edges taped. This process is much like the joining of the under-arm seam, but is more difficult as there is a larger bulk of work to be managed. The 73 I same methods for holding in or stretching the cloth to make the shoulders of the coat fit well are used. When a welt seam is used, the operator turns the work and puts in the second row of stitching which forms the welt. Good judgment, a knowledge of fabrics, knowledge of coat making, more than the mere sewing of a seam, and skill in handling the garment, are the essential qualifications. This work is done only by the exper- ienced and skilled workers. Sleeve making. The sleeves and sleeve linings are made by the same operator. The outer or elbow seam is sewn, the work is turned, and the second row of stitching is put in. The sleeve is then turned and the inner seam is sewed. Sleeve-making requires much the same manipulation of the cloth to insure good shape and good fit as the seams of the coat. Qualifications of workers are the same as for shoulder- joining and seaming. Machine padding. The lapels and under collar of the coat are in- terlined with canvas and the interlining is tacked to the outer part of the coat with rows of invisible stitching. This process which is called padding is done on a special machine which makes a stitch resembling cat-stitch that catches into the nap of the cloth, but does not show on the right side of the garment. Padding is also done by hand, but only on expensive garments, as the work is tedious and costly. In the hand process the cloth is "worked in" so as to allow the lapel to roll or fold, but in the machine process it is allowed to lie flat and the lapel is rolled or folded in the pressing. The padding stitch is also used for felling the edge tape of a coat for which the machine or the hand- method may be used. This work is done by young women. It re- quires only a few weeks to learn to operate the machine and handle the work. It does not require so high a degree of skill or knowledge of garments as the seaming or sleeve-making. Taping is stitching a stay-tape to the edge of the garment to keep it from stretching. The back of the neck, tfie arms' eyes, and the front edges of a coat and vest are taped. The edge tape on a coat is usually sewed in with the seam when the front facing is being sewed to the coat. The edge to be taped is laid under the presser foot of the single-needle lock-stitch machine with the tape above. The garment is manipulated with the left hand and the tape with the right. For this process the edge of the garment is held and the tape stretched. The amount of cloth held in and the places where cloth is held in, and the extent to which the tape is stretched are determined by the opera- tor who is not qualified to do the work until she is sufficiently skilled to use eye measurements for it. Good judgment, good eyesight, a steady hand (for the line of stitching must be straight), and skill are the essential qualifications for taping. Experienced young women and some men are employed for this work. Pockets Patch Pocket : The simplest pocket is the patch pocket, which is a piece of cloth like the garment, shaped for appearance's sake or convenience to the user, and sewed on the outside of the gar- ment. The piece is hemmed at the top with a narrow tape inserted in the hem for strength. The patch pocket is sometimes lined, but more frequently the edges are turned in and the pocket stitched on the 74 coat with two rows of stitching which give it strength and finish. In putting the pocket on the coat, the worker lays the coat under the presser foot, places the pocket on the garment so as to match stripes or plaids, stitches around the edges and fastens the corners so as to prevent ripping. Flap Pocket: The flap pocket is more complicated than the patch pocket and, like all set-in pockets, the work requires great skill and accuracy, for the cloth must be cut to insert the pocket, and the open- ing, once spoiled, can not be mended. Hence, a mistake means the loss of the entire piece of cloth and of the time spent in having the piece replaced. In making the flap pocket, the worker places the coat under the presser foot, lays a strip of strong tailors' linen over the pocket line on the wrong side of the cloth, and on the right side of the cloth at the lower edge of the pocket line lays a facing strip of cloth like the gar- ment; over this facing strip the piece of cotton cloth which makes the pocket. These two pieces of cloth with the linen underneath are stitched in place with a plain seam, the exact length of the pocket opening. The flap, which has been made and pressed beforehand, with a strip of facing cloth on top, is stitched in the same way along the upper edge of the pocket opening. The operator then cuts the pocket opening with her scissors, taking great care to cut exactly on the cutter's chalk line the exact length of the opening required. The lower facing and pocket-piece are drawn through the pocket-opening to the wrong side. The lower facing-piece is turned over allowing the facing to extend above the seam line so as to form a binding on the lower edge of the pocket. This seam is pressed open by the fingers and the facing is stitched in the middle of the open seam on the right side. This row of stitching serves to hold the facing in place and strengthens the edge of the pocket. The lower facing piece is then sewed to the pocket piece. The facing piece on the top of the pocket is turned back, the flap turned down and pressed into place by the fingers and a row of stitch- ing placed in the seam as in the lower part. In placing the flap, the operator must match stripes or plaid or the grain of the cloth with those in the body of the coat. The pocket ends are then tacked by means of several short rows of stitching run back and forth in exactly the same line so as not to be seen. The work is then turned over to the wrong side and the pocket piece stitched around the desired size and the surplus material trimmed off. This completes the pocket ready for pressing. All pockets are made much the same way so that the processes described in this paragraph will apply more or less to the variations which follow. The piped pocket : The piped pocket is made in the same way as the flap pocket except that both the upper and the lower edges are piped. The top facing is turned down to cover the seam and fill the space taken up by the seam and is then stitched in the seam as described for the lower facing in the paragraph above. This pocket, while requir- ing practically the same work as the flap-pocket, demands a little more careful work, as the piped edges, to give the desired finish, must be very straight and even, and matched in pattern or weave with the cloth of the coat. There is no concealing flap to cover irregular edges of imperfect work. 75 The Welt Pocket: The welt pocket which is used for the vest and the breast pocket of the coat is characterized by the set-in piece or welt which is sewed to the lower edge of the pocket and conceals the opening. For this pocket, the linen stay-piece, the facings, and the pocket-cloth are used as in the other pockets. In stitching on the parts, the welt which has been previously made and pressed is sewed to the lower edge of the pocket and instead of being turned down is made to stand up so as to cover the pocket-opening. The ends of the welt pieces may be stitched down close to the garment on the outside or they may be set into a slit in the cloth. When the latter method is used, it is called inlaid welt. The faced pocket: The faced pocket is made with a facing of one to one and one-half inches in width on the outside of the coat around the pocket opening. This facing which protects and strengthens the pocket opening is used on uniforms and working clothes. The work is much the same as the piped pocket with the exception that the facing-piece is brought to the outside instead of the inside of the coat. The receptacle part of the pocket is made in various ways. Double pockets a small one inside of the larger one are sometimes used. A patented pocket, known as the Bartel pocket, named for the inventor, has a fold in the lining of the side next to the inside of the garment which prevents the outer part of the garment from stretching when the pocket is filled. Pocket-making is considered the most difficult machine-operation on a coat and the work is done only by the most skilled operators, as it is done on the single-needle sewing machine without the aid of any devices to keep the work uniform. Good judgment; good eye- sight; accuracy in making the rows of stitching, and grading the depth of seam which, if not perfectly straight, spoils the shape of the pocket opening; skill in handling the scissors and the garment, and in stopping the machine quickly, so that stitching may not be run beyond the end of the opening, are the essential requirements for this operation. Women experienced in machine-sewing and skilled in handling tailor- ed work are trained in the factory to make pockets. It requires these women from two to four months to learn to make pockets successfully. Edge stitching. The facing of a coat or vest is turned back, the seam is pressed flat with the fingers and sometimes basted, and a row of stitching called the edge stitching is put in near the edge the dis- tance varying from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch. This row of stitching serves two purposes: it strengthens the edge and holds the facing in place, and serves as a finish or trimming. This is con- sidered one of the most important operations on a coat and is done only by the most skilled workers. Good eyesight, an accurate sense of measurements and straight lines, and skill in handling the garment are necessary qualifications. Both men and women are employed for this work. Hand-sewing in the tailoring trades is basting and fine finishing. There are six main divisions of the basting which are used on the high grade product. Less basting is used on the cheaper product. The basting processes are making, canvas basting, sleeve setting, edge basting, and facing basting, lining basting, and arm-hold basting. 76 Marking is the simplest form of basting and is done by beginners. Two parts are laid together, and a row of loose basting stitches of double thread is run into the marked seams and the marked pockets, collar, or lapels. The thread is cut between the two piles of cloth and the ends that remain are used as guides for the depth and position of seams. This work does not require any knowledge of fabrics or the garment. The ability to handle a needle and scissors deftly are the chief requirements. Canvas basting is basting the padded canvas about the shoulders and arms' eyes of the fronts of the coat. Long basting stitches are used and rows of stitches are run back and forth so as to hold the canvas in place until it is attached to the coat permanently by the sewing in of the sleeves and joining of the shoulder seams. This work represents the second grade of basting and is usually done by young women who have learned basting as markers. The closeness of basting stitches and the amount of basting done on the canvas is determined by the quality of the coat. Very little basting is done on the cheap grades of clothing. Only a limited knowledge of sewing and garment-making is required for this work. Sleeve setting is basting the sleeve into the arms' eye of the gar- ment so that it will hang properly. The worker, guided by notches in the sleeve and the body of the garment, bastes the sleeve in place, stretching the cloth or holding it in and distributing gathers so that the sleeve will fit properly. This operation is considered by tailors to be the most important in determining the appearance of the coat and the most difficult to have done uniformly well. As in other processes when cloth must be manipulated to shape the garment, this process varies with each garment made and each fabric used. Accuracy, skill in handling the garment and the fabric, good eye- sight, and good judgment are essential qualifications. Women of twenty years of age or over who have had experience in sewing are trained in the factory for this work. Facing basting. The facing of a coat is stitched at the edge and turned back on the underside of the fronts. When this seam is turned, a row of plain basting is run along the edge so as to catch the seam and hold it firmly in place. The worker then lays the coat on the table and bastes the facing of the coat to the front by rows of basting which hold the facing in loosely, and the outer part of the coat flat. This is done so that the facing may be slightly shrunken when pressed, and thus make the fronts of the coat fall toward the body when worn. The extent to which cloth should be held in is determined largely by the shrinking qualities of the cloth, hence the worker who does the basting must know the fabric he is handling. He must also be a skill- ful hand-sewer. This operation is done by tailors, usually men, and as the quality of the work affects the appearance of the coat materially, it is not entrusted to any but experienced workers. Lining basting is tacking the lining to the seams and inner edges of the front facing ready for the finishers. The worker lays the coat on the table with the seams upward, places the lining on the coat, 77 seam to seam, and tacks the lining in place along each seam and then bastes the edge of each front to the front facing. The lining is also basted at the shoulders and about the arms' eyes to hold it in place. Care must be taken to have the parts fit together accurately for a lining wrongly put in may throw a garment out of shape. The men who do this work are tailors who know the garment they are making, understand sewing, and know fabrics. Armhole basting, frequently called "hitching," consists in basting around the arm's eye to catch together the outer coat, the padding, and the lining. To do this work, the b aster lays the coat over her left hand with the right side of the coat out, and with the hand works the cloth over the canvas toward the arm's eye and bastes the edges together. The lining is left slightly loose, but the outside of the coat is stretched toward the arm's eye so that there will be no surplus material to fall in wrinkles when the coat is worn. Finishing is fine hand sewing, such as felling linings and collars, and tacking collars, for which the hemstitch, slip-stitch and blind- stitch are used. The lining at the bottom of the sleeves around the arm's eye and at the shoulders is felled with fine, closely set stitches. The lining at the bottom of the coat is slip-stitched to the hem. The under-collar is felled at the neck line by hand and the top collar is felled around the edges with stitches so small and closely set that they can not be seen. Collar tacking is also done by hand. The worker puts together two turned edges of the collar and the lapel of the coat so that they fit together in perfect line and runs her needle back and forth so as to catch the two edges together closely and firmly with stitches set so closely together and so evenly that the seam seems to have been sewed and turned. This is the most difficult of all the hand processes done on the garment. With the exception of collar tacking which requires the highest degree of skill, requirements for hand-sewing are practically the same for all processes. The work is divided into operations for convenience, speed, and a maximum of work from the most highly skilled workers. Good eyesight, good health, endurance, and steady nerves are the necessary physical requirements. Persons having a tendency toward narrow chest, anaemia, curvature of the spine, or nervousness should not be encouraged to do hand-sewing of this kind. Buttonholes (hand-made) on coats and vests. The buttonhole is cut by the tailor or foreman who is responsible for the placing of the buttonholes, which, in addition to their usefulness, form part of the design of the garment. He cuts the buttonhole to exact size by means of a buttonhole punch. The worker overcasts the buttonhole if nec- essary and works it by hand, using the regular buttonhole stitch which on tailored clothes is made over a guimpe thread to strengthen the edge. She begins at the end farthest from the edge of the garment, sets the stitches at equal depth, and far enough apart for the pearls to fall close together at the edge of the buttonhole. This is skilled handwork of the highest order. Good eyesight, good judgment, accuracy in eye-measurements, and skill are the necessary requirements for this work. 78 Button-sewing. Buttons are sewed on tailored coats and vests by hand, as the stitches should not be seen on the wrong side of the garment. The position of buttons is determined by the buttonholes. Buttons on coats and vests are sewed on with a shank of thread. The worker places the button, puts in the stitches which hold it to the gar- ment, catching only the outer part and interlining, and holds the but- ton away from the garment so as to allow a space between. When enough stitches have been inserted, the thread from the needle is wrap- ped around the stitches so as to form a shank. Tailors report that this process, though seemingly simple, is one with which there is the most difficulty. Buttons must be spaced accurately and placed in straight lines. The slightest deviation either way spoils the appear- ance of the garment. Good judgment, good eyesight, accuracy, and skill in hand-sewing are necessary for this work. The piped buttonhole is made in much the same way as the piped pocket. The worker sews the cloth to the line for the buttonhole on the right side of the garment, cuts the buttonhole of exact length, draws the piping through to the wrong side of the garment and stitches the piping in the seam line, so that the stitching, which furnishes and reinforces the buttonhole, is not visible, and tacks the ends. These buttonholes, which are used on conductor's and postman's uniforms and cloaks and suits, require much the same workmanship as the pockets. It is probably a little more exacting, as starting and stopping the machine for short lengths of sewing is more difficult for many workers than for the longer work. Binding is a specialized process which is used extensively in the tailoring industries, and for women's wear. It consists of stitching a bias binding to the edge of parts of the garment which are exposed when the garment is completed. The binding serves as a finish to the edge, and prevents it from fraying or pulling out. For this process, the worker places the edge of the cloth under the presser foot as for a plain seam, and inserts the bias strip of cloth in the binding attachment, which folds it over the edge of the cloth during the stitching process. This work is done on a single needle machine, and is not, strictly speaking, a constructive process, though the manipualtion of the fabric during the binding process may, if care is not exercised, change the shape of the edge which is being bound and so affect the garment. Bias or shaped edges, which are easily misshapen, require special care. Requirements for this work are practically the same as for plain seaming. Bullion work is a specialized form of hand embroidery used on uni- forms and regalia. It consists of sewing to the garment in the form of letters, insignia or other designs, gold or silver colored bullion. The emblems are made in the garment or on a separate piece and sewed on the garment. For the work, the piece to be decorated is placed in an embroidery frame which stands in front of the worker like a table, the design is carefully laid out, and the bullion cut in suita- ble lengths for the design. The bullion which is made like a tiny spiral spring is lifted on the point of the needle, slipped back on the thread and sewed to the fabric. Row after row is sewed to the cloth 79 in much the same way that embroidery stitches are placed. The worker gauges the length of the bullion to be used, the slope, and the spacing of the stitches. This work requires close attention; hence, good eyesight is impor- tant. The ability to gauge measurements by eye is also important. Braiding is also used extensively on uniforms. Plain single-needle stitching and two-needle stitching are used, and, to a limited extent, the special braiding machine. Designs are made free-hand, and, when complicated, considerable skill is required to execute them. This work, which is limited to relatively few, requires special train- ing, and experience in the handling of the work, operating the machine, and executing the design. Training for it is given almost exclusively in the factory. Wages for the majority of workers in the clothing and tailor- to-the-trade industries are paid by piece rates per single or dozen operations. Thus wages vary for the different operations and for the various grades of work. The amount of work available day after day also affects wages. Machine-sewing is done almost exclusively as piece work, but a number of all-round skilled workers are employed steadily who are paid a weekly wage. The contract shops also use the piece-work system to some extent, but a number of shops use the week-rate and deduct at time rates for absence or lay-offs. Educational requirements for machine workers are much the saem for all operations. An elementary school education or the equivalent is coming to be considered a minimum requirement. This is partly due to the compulsory school law and the elimination of children under sixteen from factory employments, but it is also due to a growing belief that general intelligence contributes to working efficiency. Few workers in the garment industries keep account of their work or their earnings. It is not required, so they do not do it. This lack of information on their parts amounts to a handicap. Technical knowledge of garment-making is required for the majority of the machine processes, and practical knowledge of fabric is indis- pensible. Health requirements are in a sense more important than education and skill since without health the most skilled workers may not succeed. Physical vigor, a strong straight back, good eyesight, steady nerves, an accurate sense of measurements and color, and correct habits of sitting and standing are most essential. The ability to work six days each week under normal conditions requires regular habits of sleep, meals, and recreation. Vest Processes. The vest is less complicated than a coat and requires less tailoring and shaping. Unlike the coat, the vest is frequently made through- out by one person, though, in the large factories, and, to some extent in the smaller shops, the work is sectionized. The pockets are given to one operator; the linings, to another; and the front facing and fin- ishing to another. The processes are pocket making, front making, lining and back making, buttonhole making, and sewing on buttons. 80 Vest pockets, both in the lining and the outer garment, are made like those described under the coat. Practically all vest pockets are welt pockets as described on page 76 of this report. The front: After the pockets have been made the operator stays the front edge of the vest with an edge tape in the same manner as the edge of the coat is stayed. The canvas interlining is then put in, and the facing piece sewed on and turned in, in the same manner as the edge of the coat. After the edge has been pressed, it is stitched for finish and strength. The lining of the vest is macle and sewed to the vest at the under arm seams and shoulders. The seams are short and there is less shap- ing of the garment at the under arm seams than there is on a coat; hence the work is proportionally simple. Hand-finishing on vests consists of hemming down the lining at the shoulders and under-arm seams, and fronts. Pants Processes. \JV*^ From the standpoint of tailoring and fine workmanship, the pants are the simplest of the three garments which make up the suit. They are not lined and stiffening and padding are not used, which greatly simplifies the work. The processes in pants making are as follows: Pocket-making, making of flies, putting on the bands, seaming, serging, tacking belt-straps, buttonholes, button-sewing, and hemming; all of these are machine processes, except hemming. Pants pockets are made in much the same way as the pockets in the coat. The piped pocket is the one most generally used. The hip-pocket may be the piped or flap pocket. The front pockets, when made along the side seam of the trousers, are faced with cloth like the garment. When cut diagonally across the front piece of the trousers, they are made in much the same way as the piped pocket. The coin and watch pockets are set in with the belt. There is no material difference in the skill required to make these pockets and the pockets of the coat and vest, though coat pockets are considered most important. The fly, or the placket of the trousers, is faced and a button-hole piece stitched on the one side, and an extension piece for the buttons is stitched on the other side of the opening. The operator who makes the fly or placket makes and faces the buttonhole side, sets in the but- tonhole strip, and sets on the button extension. When this is completed the band across the top is sewed on, the pocket inserted, and a second row of stitching is put in for finish and durability. This work requires considerable skill, for the operator inserts the pocket with the belt and is obliged to keep the garment in shape while the work is being done. The seams of the trousers are uncovered and the edges are serged as described under special machine processes. When the parts have been serged, the worker who is called the seamer, sews up the seams in the trousers. This work is frequently done by the person who makes and puts on the flies. Seaming on trousers requires much less skill than seaming on coats, for there is practically no manipulation of the cloth required that will affect the shape of the trousers. 81 Serging. Serging is a special process which covers the edge of the goods with a loose overcasting stitching. A gauge is used on the machine to guide the cloth and regulate the depth of the serging stitch. This process is used on the raw edges of the trousers to give finish to the seams and prevent the goods from fraying. It is a mechanical process which may be learned in a very short time at the machine. The amount of skill required varies with the cloth. Cloth that frays is the most difficult to handle. Tacking. Tacking by machine is a process somewhat like the button- holing which is used to stay parts whe*re there may be strain. For this process, the worker places the garment under the presser foot, starts the machine with the lever. The length of the bar and the number of stitches are placed automatically by the machine which stops when the operation is completed. This tacking is used for fastening the ends of pockets, belt straps, and any other parts of coats, vests, and trousers that need special strengthening. The operator must know how to lay the work so that the bar will fall in the right position, and how to release the work when the operation is completed ; other- wise it is a mechanical process. Pressing. Pressing is a very important part of the manufacture of tailored garments. The work is done almost exclusively by men who are designated as part-pressers, under-pressers. and top or off-pressers, according to the type of pressing they do. The work is done by means of a hand iron called the tailor's goose, and the pressing machine which operates by hydraulic pressure. The iron is frequently swung on a crane, which eliminates lifting, so constructed as to add extra pressure by use of a foot lever. The pressing machine is also operated by means of a foot lever. The most modern pressing appliances eliminate much of the lifting and the use of the weight of the body in using the hand iron or machine, but in the majority of the factories additional pressure is produced by throwing the weight of the body on the foot lever or the iron during the presssing process. No system of apprenticeship exists in pressing, but the jobs are graded and a scale of wages used corresponding to the skill necessary for the work, and workers must qualify for the work in the order men- tioned. Workers begin as part pressers usually without preparation, and press flat pieces as belts, cuffs, and pocketflaps. Later, as he qualifies as part presser, he may press undercollars and from this he progresses to such work as seam pressing, pocket pressing, and collar shaping. Part pressing and under-pressing are done on the wrong side of the garment, and so carry with them less responsibility than off pressing which is done on the right side of the garment after it is completed. Part pressing consists in pressing the small parts that are made separately and put on the garment as tabs, pocket-flaps, patch-pockets, and collars, and is usually done with a lighter iron than is used on the garment. This is the simplest sort of pressing, and is done by young men who wish to become pressers. Under pressing is pressing the coat after it has been put together ready for the sleeves to be set. This work consists in pressing all the 82 seams, the pockets, and the facing, and shaping the garment with the iron when shaping is necessary or desired. Very little of the under- pressing is flat work; hence, the shape of the garment depends upon the presser, his skill in handling the iron, his knowledge of the garment, and judgment in shaping it. A hand iron and a shaped cushion or board are used for this work. On the higher grade of product the parts of the garment and the garment go to the under presser a num- ber of times during the process of making. Off pressing is pressing the garment after it is finished, and out of the sewer's hands. It consists in giving the finishing touches with the iron to every part of the coat. Special attention is given the collar, to the lapels, and to the fronts of the coat, which are pressed and shaped to give the desired effect. In high-grade products, this off pressing can be trusted only to the most skilled and reponsible workers who can be relied upon to put the finishing touches on the garment. In the making of cheap clothing, where less attention is given to the tailoring and the under pressing, off pressing is given more attention than under pressing, as it is relied upon to give the shape to the garment which is ordinarily done by the under pressing. The pressing machine, which presses a large part of the garment at once, is used for coat fronts, vest, and trousers. Pressers must be able to gauge the heat of the iron, for over- heating "cooks" the fabric and limits the wearing qualities. They must know fabrics and their shrinking qualities so as to shrink them where necessary or avoid shrinking, and the amount of steam to be used. Under pressers and off pressers must know how the finished garment should look, both as to shape and finish, and do the pressing so as to preserve the essential features of a well-tailored garment. The Cloak, Suit and Skirt Industry. The cloak, suit, and skirt industry is also a tailoring industry, though the advent of soft-draped garments has brought into the work some elements of dressmaking. Less tailoring by which the tailor means the shaping of the garment by the way the cloth is worked in or shaped in the sewing processes is done on women's garments than upon men's, and tailoring has been noticeably less since the soft coats have been in vogue. Style is a most important factor in the manufacture of women's clothing. The prevailing styles for a season are prepared for the wholesale market six to ten months before they appear in the retail market. These are carefully studied by the designers for the retail market and each factory makes sample garments suited to the trade to which it caters. But this does not wholly satisfy the trade. Variety is demanded and many manufacturers cater to this demand so as to encourage constant buying. Thus this industry is to a greater extent than the men's clothing industry obliged to add new models constantly. Manufacturers say that the greatest need in this industry at the present time is for designers who can create, not merely copy, fashions for American women. Few designers in the industry at the present time have creative ability, but copy designs which they gather at the advance fashion shows and from fashion magazines. Considerable interest has been shown among Cincinnati manufacturers engaged 83 in this industry in urging a definite movement among manufacturers to establish an American school of fashion, which shall influence style and train men and women for creative work in the designing of gar- ments. This subject was discussed at the convention of Cloak, Suit, and Skirt Manufacturers' Association in Cincinnati, in April, 1915. Coats and skirts are made in separate shops, each of which has its corps of workers, the majority of whom must be skilled coat workers or skirt workers. Work is sectionized as in other lines of manufacture and subdivisions vary among factories in much the same way as in the factories which make men's clothing. Designing garments requires a knowledge of (1) the structure of a garment, for the position of seams is an important element in design; (2) the decorations to be used, for stitqhing, braids, bands, and fancy trimmings help to make design; (3) the textures of fabrics, for effects are soft and clinging, or straight and severe according to the texture of the fabric used; and (4) colors and color harmony and the effect of texture on color. Draping is an important feature in the manufacture of women's clothing. Each shop has an expert worker known as a draper, who puts each garment on a dress form several times during the process of making, to see that the parts are put together properly and that the garment hangs well. She detects such things as variations in the alignment of seams and the causes for them, unequal stretching or holding in of the fabric in sewing, which affects the shape of the garment. She is also responsible for the accuracy of measurements and duplication of designs. The draper is usually a woman who has worked in the trade for some time and demonstrated some initiative, good judgment, and the ability to make the garment she drapes. The draper frequently has some talent for designing, for the things upon which she passes judg- ment are a part of the design of the garment, and, if she is bright, ambitious, and observant, there is opportunity to make constructive suggestions ability which very materially increases interest in the work and the earning capacity of the individual. The model is an unique employe of the cloak, suit, and skirt in- dustry. She is a person whose figure corresponds in measurements and proportions to one of the stock or model sizes used for making ready- to-wear coats and suits. One or more persons are employed to act as models for each size the factory produces. These are commonly sizes 36, 38, and 40. The models are used for two types of work: they try on the finished or nearly finished suits which the draper examines; they also serve as manikins to display the suits at ex- hibits of garments and to customers who wish to purchase clothing. The requirements for this work are wholly physical and personal. A perfectly proportioned figure, good style, and good taste are the essential features. The model is a saleswoman in a sense, for her skill and tact in showing the garments are important factors in making the sale. This work has become so essential to the sale of women's wear that manufacturers have been trying to make the position desirable 84 from a social and business standpoint as well as from the standpoint of wages, which are high as compared with other positions in the industry. Women working in this capacity are in a position to study costume design and salesmanship, either one of which would require study and initiative and thus tend to vitalize the work. As it is, it requires a healthy, normal, attractive person, but offers little in the content of the work itself for personal development. The sewing operations used in making women's garments are done in the same way as in making men's coats. Fabrics of lighter weight and looser texture than are used for men's clothing are fre- quently used and the handling of the work in the sewing processes is somewhat different. Coats are made by one group of workers and skirts by another; hence, there are coat shops and skirt shops. In each of these shops there are three groups of workers : machine sewers, hand sewers, and pressers. Cutting is usually done in one depart- ment as described on page 67 of this report. Coat-Making. The machine processes in coat making are seaming, pocket-making, trimming, sleeve-making, lining making, and edge-stitching. With the exception of trimming, these processes are the same as for men's clothing, though, as has already been noted, pockets are less used and there are more numerous variations in the position of seams and the ways they are made. Trimming is sewing on of tabs, yokes, and trimmings of various sorts, which is done before the garment is put together and is for the most part what is called flat work which requires no shaping, stretching or holding in of the cloth. For an analysis of coat processes, enumerated at the beginning, or in this para- graph, see pages 73 to 80, inclusive, under men's- clothing. The hand processes on coats are chiefly fine hand finishing, as bast- ing is not used for making women's coats as extensively as for men's coats. The operations are lining, felling, button-sewing, buttonhole making, sewing on snappers or hooks and eyes, tacking ends and tacking on trimmings. The sewing on of fur is also used in this industry. These processes are described under the men's clothing industry, and are not sufficiently unlike those in the manufacture of women's clothing to warrant separate discussion. Skirt making. Machine processes in skirt making are divided into trimming, seaming, hemming, placket making, binding, and draping. Trimming is the same as flat work described under coat making. Skirt seaming differs very materially from waist seaming. Seams are much longer, and a much larger bulk of work is to be handled. Seams must be straight, and of equal depth throughout the entire length of the skirt so that when the garment is pressed the seam will fall in the line desired. For this work, the operator must be able to swing the work through the machine without stopping the power or shifting the work. Although no data are available upon this point, employers are of the opinion that this operation requires a somewhat different habit of work than waist- seaming. The fact that waist makers rarely succeed as skirt makers, without considerable practice and experience, or at other work which involves the long seam, gives some evidence that this is true. 85 Plackets. The placket used almost exclusively on ready-to-wear garments is the bound placket a straight strip sewed to the two edges of the opening and hemmed down by machine. This is a simple operation which demands very little knowledge of the garment, though it does require ability to handle fabrics skillfully. Binding is described on page 79 of this report, and draping on page 84. For a description of the hemming processes, see below. Hand sewing processes on skirts are such finishing as sewing on snappers, hooks and eyes; tacking and hemming. Snappers, hooks and eyes, and buttons are sewed on by hand. Tacking is fastening and putting in a few stitches at places where extra strength is necessary, and fastening draperies. Hemming. The hems on tailor-made skirts are usually basted in and pressed only with the light iron. The hem is not measured for uniformity except by the eye as the worker sews in the basting stitches. Fine hand hemming is used to some extent on the plackets and on the waist bands of skirts. Finishing tailored skirts does not require such fine hand sewing as coats or dresses of silk, chiffon, or net. Machine Operators in the cloak, suit, and skirt industry are for the most part women, experienced in tailoring work. A few workers, experienced in dressmaking, are employed. Many of them have had some preliminary training in sewing at home, or in a tailor's shop in the home neighborhood. Others have learned in the factory under the direction of a forewoman or foreman. A number of persons who have worked as assistants in dressmakers' establishments drift into the factories or find their way into them in answer to advertisements which ask for workers who have had experience in dressmaking. Shirt Making. Shirts. From the standpoint of numbers of workers employed, the shirt industry ranks third among the garment industries of Cin- cinnati. The product of this industry is confined wholly to the ready- to-wear negligee shirts, dress shirts, and working shirts. Custom shirts are made also, but the work is done in small shops which are not rated as factories. Nearly 1200 persons, according to the report of the State Indus- trial Commission of Ohio, were employed in the industry in 1914; 84 of these were men and 1109, women. These figures represent the number of employees for the week of greatest employment, and in- clude, therefore, those who do not have constant employment. Shirt making is almost exclusively machine work, though in cus- tom shops such hand work as hand-embroidered initials, eyelets, and hand-made buttonholes are used. This work is limited, however, and workers employed for it are very few in number. The majority of the employees are engaged as cutters and machine-operators. The cutting is done by men and the sewing almost exclusively by women. The grades of product vary considerably. Working shirts are made of coarse gingham, chambray, and shirtings. Negligees are made of madras, shirtings, cotton, silk, and mercerized materials, all of which the shirt operator is called upon to handle as the market demands. Dress-shirts are made of fine lingerie materials that require a high grade of skill and ability for successful work. 86 The work on shirts is subdivided according to processes, as in the other branches of the garment industries. The neck bands, sleeves, cuffs, collar, and body of the shirts are made simultaneously by three or four groups of workers, and the parts, when finished, are assembled by other groups of workers who "set" the collars and sleeves and join the underarm and sleeve seams. Much of the work on the shirt is done before the seams of the garment are joined, so that the work may lie flat on the machine. The fronts are made, the pocket stitched in place, and yoke sewed to to the back before the shoulder seam is joined. Following this opera- tion is the setting of the sleeve, which is done before the seam of the sleeve and the body of the shirt is joined, in one continuous seam. The operations in the making of a shirt are making neck-bands, cuffs, and collars; making sleeves; making bosoms or fronts; hemming; yoking; joining shoulders; putting in sleeves; felling sides (underarm and sleeve seams); putting on cuffs; putting on collar or neck bands; making buttonholes; sewing on buttons; and examining. The constructive and the finishing processes vary less in the shirt industry than in the clothing industry. Shirts are more simply made, and the shaping of the garment is less dependent upon the operator than coats, waists, or dresses. Collar-making demands very exact work, but as much of it is done by means of a specially constructed guide which regulates the depth of the seam on the collar having the rounded corner, as well as the one having the square corner, the work may be readily learned and, after a few weeks' practice, becomes somewhat automatic in the hands of the skillful worker. Cuffs and collar bands are made by the same method. In some factories the seams of the collars and cuffs are pressed to depth ready for the stitching by means of specially constructed machines which turn and press the seam by an operation which resembles the automatic die used for cutting. When this method is used, the top, under part, and interlining are pressed together in one operation. When made by this method, the one row of stitching on the right side of the collar serves to hold the parts together and to finish the edge. When the seam is used, two rows of stitching are used: By the first method the operator takes the under part of the collar from the parts which have been pressed together, turns it, and lays the two parts back to back with the seams turned in, lays it under the presser foot and puts in one row of stitches the required distance from the edge. When square corners are used on the collar, she locks the corners so that they will be caught and held in place by the stitch- ing. By the second method, the operator places the parts of the col- lar or cuff together face to face, sews a plain seam, turns it, folds cor- ners, if square corners are used, and puts in a row of stitching on the right side for strength and finish. Setting the collar into the collar band requires greater skill and knowledge of the collar or garment than making the collar. The col- lar is set into the band at uniform depth and stitched into place by a single row of stitching. It is placed in position in the band and held without a guide; the accuracy of the work, therefore, depends largely 87 upon the skill of the worker. Since slight irregularities in this opera- tion destroy the shape of the collar, it is important that this work be done carefully. Sleeve making. Shirt sleeves are made in one piece or in two pieces. When two pieces are used, the parts are joined by a plain, flat felled seam which is usually made on the two-needle machine. The making of the placket is the principal part of sleeve making. The under edge of the placket is hemmed, and on the upper edge a shaped placket piece is stitched. This placket piece is sometimes put on by means of a two-needle banding machine and the point at the top of the placket turned and finished by another worker. The common method is to sew the placket strip to the sleeve, fold the piece into position, and stitch it flat, and stay the top with a row of stitching. The placket is made before the sleeve is joined, so the work is flat under the presser foot. This work, though frequently given to beginners, is rather difficult- It requires close attention to the processes, accuracy in measurements, which are made without a guide or tape measure, and ability to stop the machine on the stitch in finishing the top, for stitches running beyond the edge make imperfect work. Making fronts and bosoms. This work varies according to the style of the garment. The fronts of working shirts are finished with a facing and a pleat. Dress shirts may have tucked or pleated bosoms, which are set into the front of the shirt. Negligee shirts may have the plain pleat and facing or a fancy set-in bosom. The plain front is made by putting an extension facing on one side of the front opening for the buttons, and sewing on a strip to resemble a box pleat in which the buttonholes are made. The button strip is sewed on with a plain seam, turned and stitched on the right side. The pleat strip is sewed on with a plain seam, turned over to the right side, stitched to the shirt to resemble a pleat and the bottom stayed on much the same way as the placket of the sleeve. On the cheaper product, this strip is sometimes sewed on by the two-needle banding machine. When this method is used, a second operator finishes the bottom and stays the bottoms of the front. When bosoms are made separately, as the tucked bosom or the set-in silk bosom, the front maker may set the bosom or it may be done by another operator. The bosom is sewed to the front on a two- needle flat-bed machine, and the bottom is finished with a narrow facing or strip which covers the seam. Hemming. The bottom of the shirt is hemmed through a presser foot hemmer, and the gussets set in during the hemming process. As the bottom of the shirt is shaped, this process requires consid- erable skill. The operator inserts the edge of the garment in the hemmer, and manipulates the garment during the hemming process, so as to keep the hem uniform. As the hem is being made the operator folds the gusset and inserts it in the hemmer, so that it will be stitched in place at the side seams of the shirt. This operation requires a rather high degree of manipulative ability and constant attention to the work. No method has been devised 88 for this process which eliminates the worker's responsibility for the success of the work. Too much cloth fed into the hemmer clogs the hem; too little causes it to fray out. Yoke Setting. Yoke setting is stitching the two parts of the yoke to the back of the shirt. The operator lays one part of the yoke under the presser foot, lays the back of the shirt on the yoke, and lays the other part of the yoke on top of the back with the edges all turned in the same direction, stitches a plain seam across, joining the three parts together and distributing the gathers in proper position. She may or may not turn the parts of the yoke into position after the seam has been stitched, and runs an extra row of stitching along the seam near the edge for finish and strength. This operation is sometimes done on a special machine which makes and scatters the gathers automatically. For this work, the operator needs to know how to lay the parts together, where the gathers should come, the amount to be gathered in, and how to distribute the gathers. She must also know how to handle the cloth and the machine and how to keep the parts adjusted, so that the gar- ment is kept in shape. Shoulder joining. Shoulder joining is a relatively simple process. It consists of joining the fronts of the shirt to the back with a flat-fell seam. The worker inserts the front between the two parts of the yoke at the shoulder, matches stripes when necessary, and stitches the parts together on a two-needle machine which turns the cloth in as it is passed under the presser foot This worker should how to hold the parts of the garment together as they pass under the machine so as to make seams of uniform depth and to keep the edges turned in so that they will not fray. This operation requires more knowledge of the garment but less manipulative ability than hemming or sleeve making; hence it is not entrusted to beginners until they have demonstrated their ability to sew and handle work with some degree of success. Sleeve setting. Sleeve setting in shirt making, as in every branch of the garment industries, is considered an important and difficult process as the appearance and comfort of the garment depend so much upon it. In shirt making the work is done on a flat-bed two-needle machine which turns in the edges of the cloth and puts in the two rows of stitching in one operation. For this work, the operator takes the shirt after the yoke has been set on and shoulder seams stitched, lays it over the top edge of the sleeve, lapping the two parts just enough for the seam and the turn-in, inserts the edges in the attachments which turn in the edges of the cloth, and guides the two parts under the needle during the stitching process. As the armhole of the shirt is nearly straight and the top of the sleeve is somewhat sloped, the two edges do not feed in evenly, hence, the process requires considerable manipulative skill and judgment, as too much cloth fed in pleats and too little frays out. It requires also a little higher degree of intelli- gence than such operations as collar-making and shoulder-seaming, as the degree of skill required varies with the different kinds of material handled and the process may never become sufficiently mechanical to be done without judgment and thought on the part of the worker. Seaming or Joining. For convenience and speed in producing factory-made garments as many operations as possible are completed while the garment or part of it may be laid flat on the machine for 89 stitching. In shirt-making, the yoke and front facing are put on, the shoulder seamed, and the sleeves set in before the underarm seam is sewn or joined. Joining on shirts is done on a two-needle cylinder- bed sewing machine, which closes the body and the sleeve in a single flat-fell seam. For this work, the operator lays the two edges to be joined over each other, lapping them about a half inch, and inserts the two edges into the double feller attached to the presser foot, through which the seam passes to have the edges turned in, guides the work so as to keep the turn-in even, and slips the body and sleeve over the cylinder extending out in front of the presser foot as the seam is sewn. This operation is simple or difficult according to the kind of cloth used, firm cotton cloth being rather easy to handle and the silk and light-weight madras requiring considerable skill for successful work. The garment is only slightly shaped, so the sewing of this seam has less effect on the shape of the garment than the same seam in shirt- waists, coats, and dresses. Collar bands. Putting on the collar band is considered by many operators the most difficult operation in shirt making. In this opera- tion the worker sews the collar band to the shirt with a plain seam or with one row of stitching when the lower edges of the band made by another operator have been turned in ready to be put on the shirt. As the seam must be of uniform depth, and the curved part of the neck of the shirt stitched or held in during the process, the work demands considerable skill and judgment. The distance from the center part of the shoulder seam must also be the same on both sides of the shirt to insure the right set of the finished garment. This worker needs to know how the finished shirt should look and how to correct imperfect or uneven work, such as unequal spacing of seams or seams of too great depth. Depth of seams is sometimes regulated by a gauge which relieves the worker of part of the responsi- bility in this operation. The operations described above constitute the major operations in shirt making other than cutting, examining, making buttonholes, and sewing on buttons. These latter operations are discussed for all the industries on pages 67 to 70, inclusive, of this report. The Overall Industry. Cincinnati is one of the largest centers for the manufacture of over- alls in the United States. For the year ending December 31st, 1914, five factories were reported and 929 employees. Since this time, the number of workers has increased one factory alone reporting 535 employees. Further indication of growth and demand for workers is shown in the increased capacity for output and workers in one of the largest factories which is doubling its plant. The overall industry is an all-the-y ear- round industry for 90% of the employees. This statement, made by the manufacturers of over- alls, is verified by organized labor. A proportion of the workers take a vacation voluntarily during the summer of one week or more but work is steady for those who wish it. This industry is also virtually standardized for the entire country. Garments vary somewhat in different factories, but the operations are standardized and the piece rates for the operations are also stand- 90 ardized, the scale for them worked out and agreed upon by manufac- turers and organized labor each year and published for use throughout the United States. Booklets containing the piece rates are available for the workers who may in this way keep themselves informed about standard piece rates for all operations and check up earnings. The workers in this industry are more strongly organized than in any other branch of the garment industries. It is estimated that they are virtually 100 per cent organized in Cincinnati. Manufacturers of overalls are also organized nationally. Local manufacturers of overalls also belong to the garment manufacturers association of Cincinnati which includes representatives from every branch of the garment industries. All work on overalls is done on machine. The cloth is spread for the cutter by machine, cutting is done by means of the electric cutting machine, all making operations are done by machine, and the pressing is also done by machine. As in other branches of the garment industries cutting occupies an important place and is sufficiently simi- lar in all branches to be treated in a general way. This has been done in the preceding pages of this report. The sewing processes used for overalls are for the most part done on specially constructed machines. Where the single-needle lock- stitch machine is used, the machines are usually of a heavier type than those used for lighter fabrics and the adjustment of machines is made to suit the weight and thickness of the fabric. Felling is used extensively and is done on the two-needle cylinder machine and the two-needle flat bed machine. Buttons or snappers are clamped into the garment by machine. Buttonholes are made by the machine process commonly used in all garment factories. The processes used in the manufacture of overalls and jackets are pocket making, side seaming, felling, hemming, sleeve setting, buttonholes, tacking and clamping on buttons and snappers. Sewing Processes Denned. Pockets : Two types of pockets are used, the patch pocket and the set-in pocket. When the patch pocket is used, the patch is hemmed on the two-needle flat bed machine which puts in two row's of stitching in one operation. The pocket is then placed in position on the garment and sewed in place also on the two-needle machine. The use of the two-needle machine simplifies the process and the fabric which is firm is readily handled by this method. Patch pockets are used on jackets, as well as on overalls. The method described in the foregoing pages of this report, is used for the set-in pocket except that overalls do not demand as careful and exact work as do tailored coats or trousers. Seams are made almost exclusively on the two-needle machine which makes a flat fell. The side seams are made on the two-needle flat bed machine. The work may be laid flat under the presser foot and the inner or joining seams on the legs of the trousers and the sleeves of the jacket are stitched on the two-needle cylinder machine over which the operator pushes the garment while the seam or fell is being made. These operations differ from the same operations in other lines of garment work only in the weight of the fabric and the demand upon the skill and ability of the worker in handling it. This feature 91 is important, however, and it should not be assumed that a person who is successful in felling light fabrics will succeed in felling heavy fabrics or that the reverse is true. The texture and weight of the cloth are important in this as in all branches of the garment work. Sleeve Setting is a special machine process. When the sleeve is set after the under arm and shoulder seams have been sewed, it is done on a machine called a sleever. For this operation the worker places the sleeve in position in the armhole of the garment and lays the two parts together, over a cylinder and under the presser foot. This machine sews from side to side instead of from left to right as the seam is sewed and the cording or cornering of the seam is made. Sleeve setting is also done by means of the two-needle flat fell machine. This operation is more difficult than the usual flat fell seam- ing on account of the shaped edges to be run into the felling attach- ment. The cloth used is firm, however, and except for the weight is more easily managed for this process than the light soft fabrics and for other garments. Buttonholes are all machine made by the method described on page 91 . A method similar to buttonhole making is used for tacking and making eyelets. This process is also described elsewhere in the report (page 82) . Buttons used on overalls are clamped into the cloth by machine. For this process, the worker places the edge of the garment under the clamp and with a treadle starts the machine which automatically drops the button in place and places the clamps into position on the wrong side of the cloth. As the button and clamp come together the machine presses the hilt or stem of the button through the cloth and clamps or rivets the two together. When the operation is com- pleted the machine stops automatically. Although this operation is largely automatic the worker spaces the buttons and determines the alignment. This requires good judg- ment and the ability to measure by eye accurately. Women's Wear. The name "Women's Wear" applies to a large group of garment industries which make both outer apparel and undergarments. The most important of these are the wrapper and kimono industry, the dress and waist industry, the manufacture of undermuslins and lin- gerie, and tailored garments or the cloak, suit, and skirt industry. With the exception of the latter, these industries are scattered in Cincinnati and employ relatively few workers. They are engaged almost exclusively in what is called the "filling in" trade, which supple- ments but does not supply the product for the stores of Cincinnati and the neighboring towns in Kentucky and Ohio. These industries have come into existence in Cincinnati within the last ten or twelve years. The cloak, suit and skirt industry, on the other hand, is an old established industry dating back to 1841, or earlier, according to official records. This branch of the industry, which for many years has supplied a large local, southern, and western trade, has already been described in this report as a branch of the tailoring industry, with which it is more closely identified. The kimono and wrapper industry has grown rapidly in the past year. According to the report of the Industrial Commission of Ohio 92 for the year ending December 31st, 1914, two factories were employ- ing 44 workers. Six months later one factory alone was employing more than 40 workers. This industry is less affected by change in style than dresses and waists and is practically an all-year-around industry for the majority of the employees. The dress and waist industry is a small one and so scattered that the factories have been classified with the miscellaneous group in the report of the Industrial Commission of Ohio for the year ending Decem- ber 31st, 1914. This miscellaneous group also includes the undermuslin industry, lingerie, and children's clothing. Two factories are making cotton and linen semi- tailored dresses, and silk and voile dresses such as retail for $2.50 to $15.00 each. The women's wear industries use the same general divisions of factory organizations as are used in all other lines of the garment indus- tries, with the exception that all pressing which is light pressing or iron- ing is not used as extensively as in the clothing industry, for example, and is therefore relatively less important. Cutting is perhaps lighter work in this group of garment industries than in the clothing industry, as fabrics are lighter and the work some- what less exacting because of the simplicity of the garments and lower cost of fabrics ; but the process is essentially the same in all the garment industries. Descriptions of the operations and requirements for work- ers in the cutting department have been described on page 67 of this report. Sewing processes in the women's wear industries are much the same in all lines except for the type of garment construction, differences in the fabrics, and methods of handling them. These have also been discussed in a previous chapter of this report. The sewing processes are those that contribute to the construction of the garments and those that are used in finishing the garments. There are also certain special processes which are used for the purpose of decoration or for finishing. Roughly classified for this group of industries the garment construction processes are: Seaming, shoulder joining, sleeve making, sleeve setting, collar setting, joining waist, and skirt and skirt seaming and hemming; the finishing processes are felling, binding, tacking, banding, sewing on hooks and eyes, snappers, and buttons, and making buttonholes. The special processes most commonly used are hemstitching and tucking. Seaming, sometimes called joining, is sewing the parts of the waist together with a plain seam, a French seam, or a felled seam, according to the type or style of garment and the fabric used. For this operation the worker places the pieces of fabric to be joined under the presser-foot, or inserts the edges in the hemmer if a felled seam is used, and stitches the seam of uniform depth, holding in or stretching the fabric during the stitching process if necessary. Waist seams are short and the manipulation of the cloth in making this seam is relatively simple as the machine need not be stopped on the stitch as for some other parts ; but the worker must know the parts of the garment and how they should be put together in order to do this work successfully. A little stretching of the fabric in the wrong place or an unnecessary holding in of the fabric may destroy the shape of the garment. Skirt seams are long and the greater amount of fabric to be handled makes the skirt seaming more difficult for some workers. 93 Skirt seams should be stitched without stopping the machine. To do this successfully depends upon muscular habits which call into play the back as well as the arms. A waist seamer does not readily become a skirt seamer because she has acquired muscular habits adapted to short work and does not handle the larger pieces successfully. Except on cheap product this process is not assigned to an operator until she has demonstrated her ability to use the sewing machine skill- fully and to understand the parts of the garment and methods of putting them together. On the cheaper garments the over-lock stitch is frequently used as it eliminates one stitching and covers the seam with stitching resembling a crocheted edge which forms a finish. When this method is used, the operator must also know how to use the interlock machine which is more complicated than the single needle lock-stitch machine used for the other methods of seaming. Shoulder joining is also seaming. The same methods may be used for this seam as for the underarm seam or they may be joined by a two- needle machine in a flat-felled seam as described under skirt making. Although a simpler process in some respects than making the underarm seam this is an important one, especially when lingerie, silk or crepe de chine fabrics are used, for the shape of both the neck and the arm size of the garment have to be kept to size in this process. For this reason this process is also given to experienced workers. Sleeve-making may include trimming and seaming. When trim- ming is used it is sewed to the sleeve before the seams are joined. The same general principles apply to seaming sleeves as to seaming the waist. The worker must know how to put the parts together so that the sleeve when in the garment will hang properly. One of the parts of the sleeve shifted slightly out of position or stretched makes considerable difference on the fore or "drape" of the sleeve. This operation is not very difficult when firm fabrics are used, but when soft thin fabrics are used it requires considerable manipulative skill, technical knowledge of the process and the fabric, and judgment. The importance of this process in a factory depends therefore upon the grade of product made and the kind of fabrics used. Sleeve setting in all branches of the garment industries requires the highest degree of skill in garment construction. Although sleeves are set without basting in many of the garments, the seams must be of uniform depth, gathers scattered evenly, and in the same position in both sleeves. This calls for exact and careful work, knowledge of the garment, good judgment, and a high degree of skill in handling the work in the stitching process, which, because it must be sewed on a curve and so may not be laid flat under the presser foot, is difficult to manage. Sleeve setting is done only by the most skilled and experienced workers in the factory, and except on cheap product is not assigned to an operator until she has demonstrated her ability to do other seaming successfully. Collar setting is sewing the collar to the neck line of the garment by a plain seam or with a bias facing or binding to cover the seam. For this work the operator places the middle of the collar to the middle of the garment and the ends equidistant from the edges so that the collar appears alike on both sides of the garment. In this process, the opera- 94 tor must know the exact amount of stretching or holding in of the fabric necessary, for both the collar and the neck are as a rule somewhat curved or shaped and may easily be stretched out of shape in the sewing process. The requirements for this process are practically the same as for sleeve setting. Hemming is done with the aid of a hemmer attachment which regu- lates the depth of the hem and helps to regulate the amount of cloth turned in along the edge to be stitched. This process is simple or diffi- cult according to the depth of the hem, the shape of the edge to be hemmed, and the kind of fabric used. The very narrow hem, made to one-eighth of an inch or less in width, requires more careful and skillful manipulation of the work, as a rule, than the quarter-inch, half-inch, or wider hem. The shape of the edge to be hemmed presents the most difficult problem. The straight edge lengthwise of the fabric is the simplest hem. as the fabric stretches less along the warp threads and thus may be fed into the hemmer uniformly without much difficulty. The straight edge on the width of the fabric requires slightly more skill in handling as all fabrics stretch to some extent along the woof threads of the width. The bias edge is more difficult to handle as it stretches readily. The amount to be fed in, the position of the cloth on the machine during the hemming process, and the amount of fabric to be turned in for the hem, present problems for the worker very different from the straight hem. The shaped edge, as the bottom of the skirt, waist, or edge of a shaped collar, is also difficult to handle; and as the edge may be straight, bias or curved at different points, the making of the hem presents all the problems involved in the hems just described plus the problem of fitting an edge to a line of shorter length after the principle of concentric circles. For this part, the worker must know where to lay the pleats or hold in the cloth so that the hem when finished and pressed will have a straight line along the edge and also a straight line of stitching equidistant at all points from the lower edge of the hem. As there is no rule or guide to determine these things, the worker must learn by experience how to handle the garment in making the hem stitching in proper line along the edge of the hem. It is also necessary for her to know the fabrics she uses and the way the texture or grain of the cloth should lie in the hem. The kind of fabric to be hemmed is also an important factor in this process. Firm fabrics with some dress- ing are more easily handled than soft, thin, or flimsy fabrics. Hemming, although similar in all lines of garment making, differs in the various lines of garment work and requires therefore a knowledge of the garment or garments made. This operation requires a high degree of manipulative skill, knowledge of fabrics, and knowledge of the use and adjustment of the hemmer. Felling is a process frequently used for seaming. The fell is made by means of a hemmer attachment which turns in the edges of the cloth and sews two pieces together in a seam, with a single row of stitching. This seam has replaced the standard French seam which requires two rows of stitching and turning by hand. The flat fell is made by means of the two-needle machine with a double hemmer attachment which turns in the edges of the fabric and regulates the width of the seam. 95 For the standing fell the operator places together the two pieces to be joined with the edges pointing in the same direction. The operator places the edge of one piece slightly beyond the edge of the other piece, inserts the two together in the hemmer and completes the operation as for hemming. The operator who fells seams uses a combined knowledge of seaming and garment construction necessary for successful seaming and hem- ming. For the flat felled seam, the* operator places together the two edges to be joined with the edges pointing in opposite directions and lapped sufficiently to allow for the seam and the turn on the two edges. The two-needle flat fell seam is used most extensively on straight or nearly straight seams and the two pieces of cloth demand about the same manipulation. When the two-needle flat fell is used for shaped seams as in setting the shirt sleeve which has a slightly curved edge the opera- tor has the double problem of guiding the cloth through the attach- ment and equalizing the feed so that the seam appears flat and uniformly finished on both sides of the garment. This operation like all others described for this group of industries varies according to the type of garment made and the kinds of fabric used. Binding, tacking, sewing on buttons, and making buttonholes have been described in the earlier pages of this report. Sewing on snappers and hooks and eyes is done by hand or by a machine resembling the button-sewing machine, for which requirements are practically the same. Hemstitching is a special machine process which requires little or no knowledge of garment construction. It is used for finishing and for decorative purposes. For this work the operator places under the presser-foot the part to be hemstitched and guides the work under the presser-foot during the stitching process. She must keep her work in line, and hold it firm so as to keep the fabric from puckering during the stitching process. She is required to do this work with the fabric in any position and must be able to handle the goods lengthwise, crosswise, bias and shaped. Added to the problems of handling the different kinds of fabric which involves the same problems as hemming is the responsibility for the operation of the complex machine. Two plungers which pierce the hole in the cloth, two needles, two tensions and four threads must be watched and kept in working condition or reported to be put in condition. This work is so distinctly a special process and the demand for it during the past three or four years for all types of women's and children's garments for both summer and winter wear has made it very desirable work for the person who is willing to specialize in one line of work. It is not readily mastered by the young person, especially in the branches of the industry which use the finer fabrics. Tucking is also a special operation. Two forms of tucking are com- monly used, one known as strip tucking and the other as garment tuck- ing Strip tucking is done on lengths of goods before the garment is cut. These lengths vary but tucks are figured to the hundred yards and piece rates are set per hundred yards of tucking. This work requires much the same knowledge of fabrics and manipulative skill as hemstitching, and, to some extent, ability similar to that used for hemming, as the guiding of the cloth over the arm, which folds the cloth, and under the 96 presser foot and guide is done somewhat as hemming is done. Like hemstitching, it is also done by experienced operators who have special- ized in the work. Men's Neckwear. Cincinnati has two factories engaged in the manufacture of men's cravats. From the standpoint of numbers employed this industry is small. It represents, however, a high grade of machine sewing work, and for a small group of workers having the requisite skill it furnishes desirable employment. Some of the work for this industry is done in the homes of the workers and in convents in the surrounding districts of Cincinnati. No contract shops in the residential districts were found. The work on neckwear is light, lighter than in any other branch of the industry and the operations less complicated. The fabrics used are silk, cotton, silk and cotton, and silk and linen mixtures which require careful handling. Specially constructed light weight machines are used; the double thread lock-stitch machine and the single thread chain stitch machine are the ones in most common use. However, attachments and guides are also used. A special machine which sews or joins the long seam of the cravat from the right side and attaches with it the cotton interlining which is used, is found in some factories. Where this machine is used the turning of the cravat and inserting and tacking of the interlining is eliminated. The main operations of neckwear manufacture are designing and cutting, hemming, joining of pieces, inserting and interlining, stitching the back, and pressing. Designing and cutting, as in all branches of the garment industries, represents the highest grade of the work, and involves much the same problems of style and taste. Joining the pieces in a plain seam and stitching the back along the neck line are simple processes which are not sufficiently unlike these operations in other lines to need special description. These operations, though few and relatively simple, are varied by the materials that are used and the different styles made. String, straight- bat-wing, bias-bat-wing, Windsor, straight-four-in-hand, bias-four-in- hand, ready-made bows, and four-in-hand and puff ties represent the main types of cravats. Each of these is made in innumerable grades of the fabrics mentioned above, no two of which may be handled in exactly the same way. Hemming the cravat, especially when it is cut on the bias, is the most difficult operation. For this work the operator inserts the edge of the cravat in the proper foot hemmer which turns a very narrow hem and guides the fabric as the hem is being stitched. Guiding the bias edge which stretches and frays in any but the most skilled hands, and turning the corners, is difficult and exacting work. As fabrics used vary greatly in texture the demands upon the worker vary constantly. Seaming is sewing the edges of the tie together so as to form a tube. For this work the operator stretches the tie to a given measurement so that when it is turned it will be the right length. As all ties are made to standard neck measures and turning reduces the length of the tie the amount of stretching must be of the right proportion; hence the work requires accuracy and considerable judgment for the materials used vary in weave and stretching qualities, the extent of which must be learned by experience. Joining or making the short-seam is plain stitching and it is very simple work. Inserting the interlining is putting in the canton flannel interlining with a long steel rod which has a pointed end to hold the interlining as it passes through the tie. When this has been done an operator puts in two rows of stitching across the back of the tie to hold the interlining and the label. These processes are very simple and may be learned in a few days after the operator has learned to control the machine. CHAPTER X. What The School May Teach Garment Workers.* The foregoing study of the garment industries and the analysis contained in this chapter give in some detail the division of work in the garment industries and show their relation to each other for the purpose of indicating the type of training that may be given (1) to workers who may become all-round workers in terms of modern industry's conception of all-round ability, and (2) to those workers who may become specialists in one, or at most two or three operations, in any one of the several branches of the industry. It is too thoroughly recognized by industry, and by laymen as well, I trust, that being a garment worker in one branch or specialty of the industry constitutes for that person a trade and a life time may be spent in acquiring all the skills and all the knowledge necessary for that work, to make it essential to do more than indicate here that this study does not seek to promulgate a plan to train garment "tinkers" which would be the inevitable result if pupils were expected to run the entire gamut of the garment industries with no specialization whatever. Specialization is as essential in industry as it is in teaching or in business. That there are narrowing phases of the work is recognized. Comparison with teaching, for example, will show many analogies in breadth of work and in narrowness, in variety and in monotony. Industry does not by any means have a monoply on narrow specialization of work and monotony of labor. The plan recommended for Cincinnati is what has been called the half-and-half plan (see page 16) which provides for one-half of the school day in the workshop and the other half in instruction in related trade and technical subjects and general vocational information which is necessary for the intelligent, successful worker. The extreme of speciali- zation would not require so long a course. The fullest usefulness of this longer course is questioned by some advocates of vocational education. It remains for the school in co-operation with industry to demonstrate the advantages of this plan and of the shorter course with part-time instruction in the school for persons at work in the industry. The latter will require some adjustment in hours of work for the younger employees which industry is not making at the present time. In the interim between present conditions and the new adjustment the schools may use with profit their present opportunities in finding out what to teach, how to give the instruction, and how to relate it with industry. * This report and the accompanying suggestions for educating and training the workers is based upon modern industry and not upon the craftsman's work. The attempt to compare two wholly different conditions of work and widely different products which give little basis for comparison is the cause of much erroneous thinking and confusion in discussion. The reader is urged to keep this distinction in mind in reading this analysis. 98 The educational program f for a group of pupils being trained for occupations in the garment trades should provide for the acquisition of 1. Skill t through practice in the construction and finishing of gar- ments for the purpose of developing a normal rate of output and tech- nique of work. 2. Related trade and technical knowledge that contributes to intelligent application of the principles of garment making, of computa- tions where these are needed of such principles of art as apply to the garments in hand, of qualities and textures of fabrics, and uses of fabrics, business English, spelling trade vocabulary of words and trade phrases. 3. General vocational knowledge that applies in the practice of the trade such as the history of the trade, business relationship between employees and employers, labor laws under which workers in the garment trades are employed, including comparisons of the laws affecting workers in other occupations, factory regulations as to fire exits, stairways, lunchrooms, dressing rooms, hygiene, especially the hygiene of the industry. Skill Through Practice as a Factor in Educating and Training Garment Workers. The practice element in a course of training for a productive occupation is that part of the instruction which aims to develop in the pupils manipulative skill in the use of the sewing machine and in the management of the fabrics used. It is essential that productive capacity be a positive factor in the training and to make it so regulation shop equipment must be provided, the product must be of the type made and sold in the local establishments, and the rate of output must closely approximate the normal rate of the commercial establish- ment. Garment making, contrary to popular opinion, is not a jumble of unrelated processes in which the machine plays the most important role. Much of the work is dependent, upon the skill and judgment of the worker and less upon the type of the machine than in the machin- ist industries, for example. There are distinct phases of the work which are sufficiently defined in all work room practice in the industry to warrant their acceptance as a basis for that phase of training which aims to develop skill and productivity. These are (1) the performance of processes which are as fundamental to garment making as multi- plication tables are to certain arithmetical computations; (2) the methods of constructing garments which bear the same relation to garment making that the making of joints bears to the making of a chair; and (3) methods of finishing which contribute to the completed appearance of the garment. These phases of the work are constantly confused partly because they overlap and partly because of the pre- f Attention is called to the fact that the garment trades are composed of three distinct groups of trades: (1) designing and cutting, (2) garment making, the sewing, and (3) pressing. In some branches of the industry designing is made a separate division. This report and the accompanying plan for training workers for the industry is concerned with the second group the sewing occupations. J These three divisions of the school program are parallel and coordinate to each other. The order in the outline is, therefore, not significant. 99 conceived notion that the execution of a process is the determining factor in garment making. This study analyzes them separately and indicates briefly their intermingling and interdependence in work room practice. Reduced to lowest terms the processes are: Seams, hems, facings, and bindings, including the variety of ways these may be made, and a number of types of stitching* on regulation sewing machines the so-called "plain stitchers" and on machines constructed for special types of stitching. The seams in common use in the garment industries are the plain seam, the flat felled seam, the welt seam, and the hemmed seamf which is used extensively in the factory trades to take the place of the French seam. It is not necessary in this study to define these processes except where differences are marked as in the case of the hemmed seam noted above. It is essential, however, to indicate the elements in these, the doing of which contributes to the acquisition of skill. The defi- nition of any one of these processes for example covers but a small part of the elements involved in the doing. Knowing how to make seams by no means insures that applying them to any work will become a mere application of a generalized ability. This ability to be useful must be carried over and used in building up other special abilities. The way the thing is done is but one of four distinct phases in its application. These four phases are (1) the method for doing the thing in hand for which the definition is the description; (2) the direction of the threads in the part of the fabric to be used for the process; (3) the kind of fabric, its texture, weight, and weave; and (4) the adjustment of the machine for the pro- cess in hand and the type of fabric to be used. The method for each process is the first step in the learning, and the teacher eliminates all others from the work during this period by providing fabric which is strong and firm, and with threads running in the direction which gives least difficulty to the worker. With this process learned so that its name recalls it to mind as readily as 7 times 9 recalls 63 to the person who has learned this fact the other phases of the work follow as indicated below. In an ascending order the problems that fall under (2) above are enumerated, the first presenting the fewest difficulties to the worker and the last the greatest number of difficulties. These apply in the making of all seams, hems, facings, and bindings. They apply also to stitching used for finishing where the edges of the fabric are not used but to a lesser degree. * Stitching is a term used in the trade to indicate plain work, and, although done in some instances upon machines designed for special types of work, it is not specialized work in the sense that the making of buttonholes by machine, hemstitch- ing, tucking, and sewing on buttons are specialized work. For this reason it should not be confused with special machine work indicated in this and other reports. See Bulletins 145, 147, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. t The hemmed seam is made by placing the edges of the two pieces to be joined so that one edge extends beyond the other by a quarter of an inch or more according to the depth of seam desired, and hemming the wide edge over and cover- ing the narrow edge with a single row of stitching. This seam when finished has much the same appearance as the French seam. 100 (1) In sewing together two straight .edges each of which is along the length of the fabric the stretch of the two pieces is equal and the edges stretch relatively little because they follow the warp threads which are the strong threads of the fabric. (2) In sewing together a straight edge one of which is along the length of the fabric and the other the width of the fabric the stretch is unequal, the width-wise edge stretches more than the lengthwise because it follows the woof threads which are less strong than the warp threads. (3) In sewing together two straight edges each of which is along the width of the fabric, the stretch is equal, and both pieces tend to stretch as they are being sewed because they follow the woof threads of the fabrics. (4) In sewing together a bias edge and a straight lengthwise edge the stretch is unequal. The lengthwise edge tends not to stretch, the bias stretches very readily as the threads along the bias lie at right angles to each other with the open side of the angle to edge so that they spread apart at the slighest touch. (5) In sewing together a bias edge and a straight width wise edge the stretch is unequal. The width wise edge tends to stretch some- what, the bias edge stretches readily. The maximum of stretch is secured on an edge along the true bias for the reasons given in (4). (6) In sewing two bias edges the stretch is equal and the amount of stretch may be very great. (7) In sewing a shaped edge (slightly bias called garment bias, circular on the convex, or on the concave edge) and a straight length- wise edge the stretch of the two edges is unequal. The shaped edge stretches readily, though less than the bias, and the lengthwise edge tends to remain firm. A shaped edge stretches readily but less than true bias. (8) In sewing a shaped edge to a straight widthwise edge the stretch is unequal though both edges may stretch. The straight edge will be stretched less than the shaped edge. (9) In sewing a shaped edge to a shaped edge of the same shape the stretch is equal but both pieces may stretch considerably. (10) In sewing two shaped edges of different shapings the stretch will be unequal. The stretch of the one nearest to the straight edge of the fabric will be less than that of the one more nearly bias or circular. The worker may be asked to handle these processes without stretch- ing the fabrics in which case the worker must learn how to prevent stretching when the pieces are being handled and as the stitching is being done. It may be necessary to stretch one or both pieces in order to shape the part in which case the worker must learn how much to stretch the edges and where to stretch them. Still another problem is holding in the fabric. Here again there is no rule and no standard- ization of machines to care for this problem in more than an approxi- mate degree. These problems are very real and important ones in garment construction wherever "shaping" is used to produce a well- shaped garment. The variety of fabrics further complicates these problems for the worker. The weave, texture, and finish vary greatly in fabrics of one textile fibre and even in those which pass under the same commercial name. The ability to handle one type of fabric successfully does not 101 insure the ability to handle others. It is because of this limitless variety in fabrics and the long practice necessary for facility in using them that workers do not shift from making muslin undergarments, for example, to the making of woolen dresses. New skills have to be acquired when a change is made.* There is no exact method for determining the extent of the stretch of fabric or to measure the variations that occur. That these are definite problems in learning the processes used in garment making is a fact. That generalizations may be made by each worker through experiment and practice which develops judgment that closely approximates exact knowledge is also true. The adjustment of the machine for these processes for the various kinds of fabrics is done by skilled machinists who adjust the parts to scale. The sewer's knowledge of this part of the work is largely a mat- ter of knowledge of satisfactory or unsatisfactory work which she secures from the machine. When not satisfactory she reports the machine for repairs. It is just as important that the sewer should know her machine as it is that the machinist should know adjustments. Definite instruction in the care of the machine should be a part of the course, but it should necessarily approach the matter from the oppo- site point of view to that used in training a machinist who builds or repairs machines. Process are not taught apart from the making of garments either in the factory or in the school. This fact accounts in pert for the exist- ing confusion of performance of processes and the construction of gar- ments. The processes are used for the purpose of constructing gar- ments, but garment construction is more than a series of processes. It is the putting together of the parts which when combined consti- tute a garment. To be an acceptable garment the parts must be put together in the right relation to each other. Any variation from this right relation tends to destroy the shape of the garment. This in turn is serious in proportion to the extent of the deviation and the type of garment. The shape of the garment is determined in part by the "cut" or design and in part by the degree of accuracy with which the parts of the garment are put together. The first part is determined by the designer and the cutter, and the second by the worker at the sewing machine.! The construction of garments is more than assem- bling of parts though there are some elements of assembling in garment making. A worker may construct the body of the waist, another may make the collar, another worker may put all these parts together. She assembles them, and, like the man who in assembling the parts of a machine must understand the construction of the machine, the worker who assembles the parts of the dress must understand the construc- tion of the dress. As processes are learned one by one they are applied to the making of garments, first, with the emphasis upon the method of the process and the right manipulation of fabrics, and second, with the emphasis upon the constructive part of the work. The garments for the earlier part of the course should be simple in design, and made of fabrics * Chapter IX., page 64. Important Points of Difference. t Pressing also helps to determine the shape of a garment. That phase of the work is discussed in the text under the title "Pressing." 102 which inexperienced workers find least difficult to use. Cotton fabrics and linen of medium weight, firm weave, and with little or no dressing or finish are easiest to use successfully. Firm, medium or light weight woolen fabrics probably rank next. Silk is considered difficult for the beginner because handling destroys the lustre. Very thin fabrics of any textile fibre are difficult to manage. Very heavy fabrics, fabrics of loose weave, and those having a deep pile are also difficult to manage. Care in the selection of fabrics is important throughout the courses. The application of processes to the making of garments for the purpose of developing accurate work in the performance of processes and knowledge of garment construction should work in an ascending scale. That is, simple processes, plain garments of simple construc- tion, and fine medium weight fabrics should be used at first and should lead to more difficult processes, more complicated garments, and a wider range of fabrics. Alternating with the instruction and practice, which are intended to develop standards of work and knowledge of garment construction, and following them at the latter part of the course (the second third or the second half of the course) definite provision should be made for intensified specialization upon the various parts of garment work to develop a high grade of skill and a desirable rate of output. } Objections may be raised because the scheme proposed here does not seem to follow closely the established practice of the industry. It is because the experiences of the workers in the industry are not so arranged as to show their relationship to each other, or as so to utilize experience, ability and information gained in one type of work in others (though the industry frequently demands such shifts of the workers) that the school needs to do it. It may be that industry should supply this training, but it is undoubtedly the business of the public to prove that training for the industry may be given which will benefit the worker and give a return to the employer. So long as training is given by the school the temptation to exploit the workers is lessened and the school's opportunity for developing the pupils' preparation for intelligent service and good citizenship is increased. The possibility and probability of study and further education after employment has begun is materially strengthened. Specialization is an established factor in the industry and must be recognized in the training, otherwise a gap between school training and working experience will result and misfits will be an inevitable result. Thus far this discussion has considered an all-round training in the practical side of garment making, but not without indicating division of work and a type of practice which is the first step in specialization. Specialization in garment making including process work should be provided throughout the course by the team-work plan* in which a number of pupils share this work on different parts of garments in quantity and assemble the finished parts for the completed garments. This work may be begun early in the course after the first two or three * Team-work is a term used to designate division of labor on any special type of garment. The circuit of work may be distributed among many workers or among a few. The extent of sub-division depends upon the type of work and the factory organization. t Discussion of the place of the special machine work, such as buttonhole making, is included in the scheduling of the work. See page 91. 103 months of "sampling" or probationary work. Other specialization such as the making of buttonholes, tucking, hemstitching, and gather- ing on special machines should also be provided, but these should follow specialized processes which are standardized by the specially constructed machines, rather than precede the work in processes and garment construction, and the team-work specialization in garment making. So long as garment construction remains an important part of the garment industries this phase of training should be emphasized. That it will continue to be important is dependent upon the inventor's ability to supply machines which can manage automatically the ele- ments which the worker now supplies in the way of manipulative skill combined with judgment learned through instruction and experi- ence. The extent to which a systematized course of instruction based upon an all-round training with carefully planned specializa- tion in the technique of industrial processes will exceed the incidental method of the factory in return to the worker and profit to the employer, will require more than a season or a year to demonstrate. That it is the duty of education to make the test is essential if a democratic pro- gram is to be adopted. Related Subjects in the School Program. Related trade and technical subjects are those which contribute to intelligent knowledge of and practice in the trade. Instruction in these subjects should parallel the practice in the work room. This calls for careful selection of subject matter, intelligent correlation of instruction, and thoughtful co-operation of teachers. It is pointed out in the preceding chapters that all teachers must understand the trades for which the pupils are being trained. This is particularly necessary for those teachers who give the instruction in the theoret- ical aspects of the work if this phase of the training is to be kept above the level of mere telling about the industry. When considered for a single process or an occupation in the nar- rowest sense, the trade and technical knowledge required of a worker seems quite limited. When considered for a group of occupations, it is considerable. That the necessary subject matter is limited to a minimum is not a fair estimate of the work or of its possibilities in satisfaction to the worker. It is hoped, therefore, that the prospective teacher in reading this study with a view to planning the school pro- gram will see in the outline f possibilities which are not indicated in detail. This has been done purposely, for a program to be effective must be made up of local up-to-date matter. The related subjects briefly indicated are: t In this outline of related subject matter it is assumed that all pupils have entered the vocational school equipped with an elementary education and that they will readily apply these abilities to the related and general vocational subjects. Where this training and ability are lacking and elementary school subjects are introduced into the course for the purpose of making up deficiencies it should be so noted and these courses should not be confused with the vocational courses. It is also assumed that home-making courses which are sometimes included in the voca- tional trade course as general educational subject matter have been given in the elementary school. The scheme outlined here is for a strictly vocational school. See Report on Vocational Terminology. Bulletin U. S. Bureau of Education. 104 1. Arithmetical computations applied to the problems of the work room. These include the use of the fundamental processes, involving numbers of four or five places, decimals to thousandths, and fractions of one and two figures in the denominator. a. These principles are applied in linear and square measure in inches and fractions of inches in the sewing operations. For example, seams are made an eighth, a quarter, three-eighths, or a half inch deep. Hems are made from an eighth or a quar- ter to three or four inches in depth with the varying depths between these measures. Seams are eighteen inches, forty inches, more or less in length, not a half yard, or a yard and one-eighth. Similar applications apply to square measure. The sample workers who plan and make sample or model garments, and designers and cutters use yards and fractions of yards as well as the lesser measurements in making estimates and figuring yardage. Judgment with regard to the accuracy of measure- ments and the ability to estimate the smaller measures accurately without a tape measure or gauge should be made an impor- ant practical application of this part of the arithmetical work. b. These principles are also applied in the computation of piece rates which are frequently expressed in fractions of cents and in some instances in decimals to a tenth of a cent, and in dozens and fractions of dozens. These computations are not required as a part of the occupation except as the worker uses them to check up her work and account for the amount of money in her envelope. It is a part of her working knowledge which she uses in her part of the business relationship of paid employee. c. These principles are also applied to the making of estimates for lots of garments, and in figuring yardage. This, however, is work for a very few of the workers in the industry and only for those having ability to deal with the more abstract aspects of the work room practice. d. Exercises in arithmetic should be correlated with the work room problems. Costs, quantities of materials, time estimates, value of labor, and the like may be drawn from the regular work room practice from day to day and from business establishments. To these essential work room calculations may be added dis- cussion of and some exercise in savings, club or lodge dues, and the budget. Advanced pupils in these courses should know how to read and understand the specifications for garments and understand how to figure yardage. 2. Art as applied to garment making. It is doubtful if the average worker in the garment industries has opportunity to apply art prin- ciples in executing the various tasks that make up the series of opera- tions in the making of a garment. For the designer, however, princi- ples of art including line, color, and color harmony are essential. Such art training as may be given to garment workers in this course will function as general vocational information rather than related tech- nical knowledge. A few pupils may show an interest in and a talent for garment design. These pupils should be encouraged to make the most of their talent, and special courses should be planned for them 105 where numbers justify the expenditure of time and money. It is essential that art instruction for garment workers should be taught by a teacher who understands factory garment making so that designs and lines in the garments will be practical from the machine sewing standpoint. There are fundamental differences between these indus- tries and custom dressmaking, for example, which the teacher of art needs to understand. 3. Textile study for garment workers is closely related to construc- tion of garments which involves methods of handling the fabrics to secure desired results. Textures, weaves, qualities, costs, and widths of the fabrics used in the manufacture of the types of clothing made n Cincinnati should be included in this study. Instruction should begin with fabrics in use, their qualities, widths, prices, shrinking, fading, adulterations. The instruction should be correlated with work room practice so as to make the textile study a definite part of the trade work. Methods of manufacturing cloth and other technical aspects of textile study should follow and not precede these more prac- tical aspects of the subject. 4. Business English such as the girl needs in making application for a position in person and in writing, in discussing her work with the forewoman, and in reporting her work, is essential. An important item in all work room practice is the ability to read, understand, and carry out written directions. It is equally important to understand, remember, and carry out verbal directions. Ability to take directions which involve two, three, or more factors is valuable for persons who work under supervision. The person who can comprehend and execute but one direction at a time has much less value as a worker than the one who can comprehend and execute a number of directions suc- cessfully. Exercises of this kind may be made thoroughly practical and develop a definitely useful quality in the prospective worker. 5. Spelling is also important. Since many of the terms used in the trade are likely to be unfamiliar to the beginner, a trade vocabulary which includes names, terms, and descriptive phrases should be learned. Like all other related subjects this work should be correlated with work room practice so that the meanings and uses of the words may be fully understood. General Vocational Subjects That May Be Included. General vocational knowledge includes knowledge of subjects that function in the work room experience but do not directly affect the work on the product. Among the subjects that may be included under this head are: 1. The hygiene of the trade. Habits of posture for the person who sits at her work, care of the eyes, care in the use of the machine to avoid accident are important items for all workers. Instruction in personal hygiene is frequently necessary also. Exercises which help to counteract bad posture which results from remaining in one posi- tion should also be introduced. Eyes should be examined. Serious tendencies in posture and in eyesight should disqualify prospective workers. 2. The history of the industry and elementary industrial history give a social background for the work which is helpful and stimulating to 106 many workers. This report gives considerable of the history of the trade in Cincinnati and indicates sources of information. Govern- ment reports furnish other sources of information about the garment industries. General industrial history may also furnish much perti- nent material if it is selected and interpreted from the social standpoint rather than chronologically. 3. Civics and citizenship. The labor laws under which garment workers are employed, hours of labor, business and industrial relation- ships as they affect the workers and the employers, employers' liabil- ity, employees' insurance, factory regulations with regard to fire exits, regular exits, lunchrooms, dressing rooms, child labor laws of the State, national child labor legislation, what citizenship means, women's citizenship duties, and business ethics, form the main topics for this course. These should be presented with the existing codes for the city, the State, and the nation (if any are national) as a basis. Dis- cussion rather than formal instruction should be the method of developing an interest in and intelligence about these vital topics. 4. Art applied to the problems of the garment industries may be included in this phase of instruction. When made a part of the course, art instruction should be correlated with the work room practice so as to make it function in the trade work as far as possible. 5. General business arithmetic such as is needed in ordinary business affairs may be included here as a general vocational subject. 6. Laboratory study of textiles may also be included with the general vocational subjects. The extent to which this instruction may be of value should be determined by the response of the pupils. It frequently fails to show results when given to immature pupils who lack the nec- essary back ground. In all these general vocational courses there may be some over- lapping with the related subject matter, and clear cut plans may be difficult to formulate. The distinction should be borne in mind and pointed out by careful designations wherever it is necessary to make distinctions clear. This plan will make for good instruction on the part of the teachers and clear thinking on the part of pupils. Some Suggestions About Methods of Teaching in the Vocational School. Methods of teaching in a vocational school differ from those used in the elementary and secondary schools in so far as subjects and practice differ. The principles of vocational pedagogy have not yet been worked out sufficiently to be standardized. It rests with future practice and careful, unbiased study to evolve acceptable and flexible methods of teaching vocational subjects. They must be as good as those used in the trade, as flexible as the changes which the evolution of trade indicates, and as consistent with the best educational interests of the pupils as can be attained. To attempt merely to reconcile the present pedagogical methods of the regular schools to vocational instruction would defeat the purpose of the vocational school and put into dis- repute methods which are valuable in the graded and high schools. The interest, ability, and inclination of the pupils are the points of departure, and the demands of the vocation are the goal. It is possible 107 to combine these so as not to mould the pupils to meet the demands of industry blindly, but to make the industry serve in the training of the future worker* in such a way as to make them partners in work and not mere slaves to machines. The following paragraphs give suggestions which are the result of a number of years' experience in teaching, in observation in voca- tional schools, and close study of the best factory methods and prac- tice. They are not complete. The subject would require much more time and much more space than can be given in this report, and a great deal more information about industry than is available at this time. Subject matter for the courses given in a vocational school must be drawn largely from work room practice. In so far as books may be used as references and to suggest how to select and to find subject matter, and to assist in formulating methods, they are valuable. If used as textbooks are ordinarily used, for regular assignments with the text as the basis of the course, they are likely to prove a hindrance rather than a help. The most satisfactory way to plan the courses and the daily lesson is to secure the main part of the data from the work room problems and relate subject matter to them. Carefully planned courses may be related to each other so as to take care of the continuity and general purpose of the courses which will prevent super- ficial instruction and careless selection of problems. Pupils frequently report their problems and seek for ways of solving them, but the teacher of related subjects will find it necessary to make frequent visits to the work rooms to secure problems and to follow up the application of class room instruction with individual pupils. In like manner the trade teacher may visit the class room during recitations to find out what practical applications to the work room problems are being made. A half hour a day spent regularly in study in the work rooms will net a large amount of subject matter for the teacher provided she understands and values what she observes. Related subject matter should be taught from the point of view of work room practice. As far as possible the tools, materials, and methods used in the class room should conform to those used in the trade. For example, the tape measure js the instrument for making measurements in sewing. To attempt to teach measurements in the related sub- jects by use of the ruler is wasteful of the pupils' time and effort, for, although the results are the same in each, the use of the tools is very different, and both physical and mental readjustments are necessary when applications are to be made. The teacher is frequently tempted to formalize the subject matter for the purpose of making it uniform, to take short cuts so as to save time, and to use formal "sets" of illustrative material. Where these limitations are made the instruction quickly lapses into the ordinary class room procedure and fails to interest the pupils who are quick to detect the difference between real problems and those which are merely cloaked in work room language. Since their interest is in the concrete rather than in abstract subject matter, the results of teaching are materially lessened. General vocational subjects should also be taught with reference to the pupils' interest and their future vocations. At first thought this may seem to be narrow and to have a tendency to hedge the pupils 108 into an over-specialized course. This result will not follow if the teacher keeps in mind that all instruction to function in learning and in use for the pupils must begin with the pupils' interests and abilitites. For example, industrial history for some pupils may begin with the modern sewing machine as the immediate point of interest and travel back over the inventions and changes that the years have brought and so out into other phases of industrial history and the history of the trade they are studying. It is fairly safe to say that pupils who become interested in industrial history by this approach would probably not see any reality in it if presented chronologically. The teacher who is a student of the subjects she is teaching will find phases of the work that are not discussed in the foregoing para- graphs. To cover them completely would mean a thoroughly stand- ardized industry, which the garment making industries are not, though they are approaching standardization, and a thorough understanding of the underlying principles and theory of teaching in vocational schools, which the advocates of vocational education do not have at the present time, though they are working earnestly and thought- fully toward that end. Co-operation of teachers is a very essential factor in instruction which seeks to relate courses closely. It means a willingness on the part of each teacher to make her subject clear to the other, and it frequently means a careful working out of the main theories of each so that they agree. For example, the trade teacher gives as part of her course the making of tucks, the teacher of arithmetic teaches how to compute the amount of material required for tucks; and the teacher of art teaches space regulations for tucks and how to use tucks for decoration. Without co-operation in such matters there could well be unnecessary overlapping of instruction and serious differences in underlying theories. There are few subjects taught in the vocational school which do not offer some common meeting ground. This report* cannot enter deeply into discussion of these points, but it does wish to indicate with some emphasis the necessity for the discussion of common problems among teachers in the vocational school for the pur- pose of making desirable co-operation an accepted practice. The manufacturers in Cincinnati have indicated a willingness to co- operate with the schools by allowing some of their expert foremen and forewomen to assist in getting instruction along special lines started in the school and to allow the vocational teachers to visit the factories for the purpose of learning new methods and checking up the old ones. Hence there should be little difficulty in planning courses for the several groups into which the pupils will gradually be divided. The study of aptitudes and abilities must ever be a part of the teachers' work if the vocational school is to avoid the fallacy of thinking that all pupils are alike and may be trained in the same way and by some saving grace make the necessary adjustments to social and to working conditions when they leave the school. The Program. Work room practice and instruction. Three hours daily (one- half of the school day) in work room practice uninterrupted by instruction in related or general subjects is essential to establish the nec- 109 essary habits of work and a thoughtful attitude toward work. Flit- ting' from one thing to another tends toward divided attention with resulting low standards of work and thoughtful study. Necessary variation may be introduced in the work which will counteract tend- encies toward fatigue or flagging interest. Experience indicates that interest is greater where the one longer period of work is used than it is where a number of short periods make up the day's work. Instruction in related subjects and general vocational subjects. Three hours daily (one-half of the school day) may be used for this part of the school work. Instruction in these subjects may alternate by class periods of forty-five minutes each or alternate by days. Short intensive courses given daily for a stated period may also be given. The intensive course has some advantages over the longer course in some subjects. Arithmetic related to work room practice may be given in this way. Certain phases of business English may also be presented in a short course. Other courses may be planned in a simi- lar way and alternated by terms or quarter terms. It has been found in some instances that some subjects presented in short, intensive courses secure a better response and more effective attention from the pupils and thus yield larger returns in information and in learning ability than the longer courses in which relationships between topics and between subjects are less sharply defined. The method used may be determined by work room practice and the extent to which subjects need to be correlated with it. Prolonging courses for the pur- pose of filling up the program should be sedulously avoided. A probationary period of one or two months for all pupils should precede permanent admission to the vocational school. The pupils should be made to understand the purpose of the probationary period so as to make the best use of the time. During the period a round of practical work should be provided that will give the pupils an oppor- tunity to make the necessary physical and mental adjustments which the new environment requires and to get a point of view a mental set or attitude toward the work. Work room instruction during this period should include: 1. Instruction in the use and control of the power driven sewing machine. How to start it, how to stop it, and how to control its speed. 2. How to thread the head of the machine, and to wind and thread the bobbin. 3. How to guide straight work in the machine. 4. Beginning instruction in simple processes such as the plain seam, straight hems of varying widths applied to simple garments of inexpen- sive , firm, and medium weight fabrics. Variety may be introduced in this work through the use of different kinds and colors of fabric. Sleazy and thick fabrics should be avoided during this trying-out period. The probationary period need not necessarily be a fixed period. Pupils who can qualify readily should be allowed to proceed to the regular work as soon as the requirements have been met. The maxi- mum allowance of time for probationary work should be of sufficient length, however, to allow those who work less rapidly than others to complete the probationary work satisfactorily. Pupils who cannot demonstrate ability to undertake some of the garment making work in two months will, with rare exceptions, show tendencies which indicate that the work is not suited to them. 110 The probationary period should disclose some inabilities as well as abilities. In the use of the power sewing machine signs of nervousness and fear, if persistent, should disqualify that person for the work. Tendencies toward lack of muscular control in managing the work may also be detected. Deficiencies in sight adjustments, though the eyes may have been tested by the ordinary methods, may also be discovered. The use of the power sewing machine does not require a fixation of the eyes upon the needle as is sometimes supposed, but grosser visual adjustments are sometimes difficult for certain pupils. Ability to learn how to use a power sewing machine should show itself in this period. Probable interest in and an ability to do garment work should also begin to show itself. There should also be some indication of the probable extent to which the pupils' ability to give intelligent thought to the work and to other school subjects may be aroused and developed by the concrete tasks of the work room and the related subject matter made practical through its applications to real problems. This shifting period should give both pupils and teachers a basis for the work of the vocational course. The regular vocational course should seek definitely (1) to teach methods for the processes used and their application to the garment, (2) to develop ability in garment construction, and when this ability is lacking, to substitute training in special operations or finishing operations for which there is demand. To this end the garments made should be selected with care and with reference to their usefulness and marketable possibilities as well as for the types of processes and the amount of construction involved. A method must be followed in planning the practical course so that it will not become merely a series of garments unrelated as to under- lying principles of garment making and sequence in practice. It is suggested that some such method as the following be used: first, se- select the garments to be made with reference to processes to be taught and the garment construction to be used; second, determine the pro- cesses to be used; third, note the reasons for using the processes selected; fourth, state briefly the methods for presenting the work. Successive garments in the list will require an additional item, namely, the processes and construction repeated and reasons for the repetition, including note of new factors that may occur in applying them to another garment. This relationship of work and product should be followed through- out with the mere doing of single processes giving way to the larger phases of garment construction as skill and capacity for independent work are gained by the pupils. Such careful working out of the details of the practical work will tend to make the development of the pupils the objective rather than the finished product. With some stand- ards for judging, the educational value of any type of product, whether for commercial or personal use, will serve as a check upon the selection of work throughout the course. Details as to the arrangement of the courses in the related trade and technical subjects and in the general vocational subjects have been noted briefly. When the half-and-half plan is used the matter of arranging these courses becomes a question of making the schedule. Ill Arrangement depends, therefore, upon the extent to which long courses or short courses are to be used and whether the alternating or daily plan of recitation is to be used. The course in the Cincinnati School, as has already been pointed out, must make provisions for instruction for a variety of the garment industries. Cotton house dresses for women and children, shirts, over- alls, neckwear, women's dresses, suits, and coats, hats and caps, and a variety of men's and boys' clothing are among the chief branches of the industry which will look to the school for trained workers. These types of work can be run in succession to some extent, but the school will doubtless find it advantageous to run several of them parallel to each other. Courses may begin with cotton fabrics, but in a city where the manu- facture of clothing forms an important branch of the industry in which the workers will be employed, work on woolen fabrics should be introduced early in the course so that there may be time to acquire the necessary skill in working with the heavier fabrics. Hats and caps are small and may be handled readily by inexperienced workers. The construction is, of course, different from that of a coat or a vest, but the fabrics are the same and similar processes are used to some extent, so that knowledge of woolen and worsted fabrics may be gained and ability to handle them may be acquired in this work, and to some extent this knowledge may be applied in the clothing work. House dresses, aprons, kimonos, and plain underwear may pre- cede instruction in making shirts which require very accurate work. Neckwear may be introduced as a special type of work for those pupils who show ability to handle the finer fabrics successfully. The regular vocational course should discover and develop the abilities of the pupils along the lines of work for which they are best suited. Some pupils will show a wider range of ability than others. These may be trained to do a group of operations, but for one, not all, of the garment industries. Other pupils will show little range of abil- ity. These may be trained for more specialized work such as button- hole making, button sewing, tacking, hem-stitching or straw hat sew- ing. The workers who show ability in handling cotton goods and in doing accurate work may be trained to be shirt makers or workers on cotton waists and dresses. Those who show ability to handle woolen fabrics successfully may be taught to make caps and hats if small work is preferred, or they may be taught to make the parts of coats, or vests, or trousers. Those who show the ability to handle silk fabrics may be trained to make silk shirts or men's cravats, or work on silk dresses and waists for which there is some opportunity in Cincinnati. Pupils who prefer less exacting and fine work may be taught to make overalls and working jackets. In every instance men - tioned above with the exception of the specialized processes which are done on machines built for one operation only, pupils may be trained for one operation or a number of operations. Where a group of operations center about the making of one part of a garment and one machine the group of operations should be taught. These factors change from year to year, and they differ somewhat in the various factories. 119 Desirable grouping of operations, especially in the types of work such as coat making which is always carried on by a group of people who are specialists in the making of parts, may be ascertained as the course is developed. A certificate for work completed satisfactorily should be granted. Completion of the school and six months' satisfactory service as an employee in the occupation for which preparation has been given should constitute the qualification for certification.* When shorter courses than the regular two-year course are given special certification should be devised to meet their requirements. The school's responsibility for the pupils after they have become employed workers is being worked out in Cincinnati by approved methods. The work of the Placement office of the Vocational Bureau and its relation to the Public School system is discussed in Chapter VIII of this report. Training such as this study recommends should enable the workers to enter one of the various branches of the garment industry of the city considerably in advance of the untrained workers. With the interest and co-operation of the manufacturers of the city assured this result seems certain. That these workers will be able to give more intelli- gent interest and attention to their work and greater skill and efficiency in workmanship is certain. It is not to be expected, however, that workers of eighteen years or younger may take positions of larger responsibility when they enter the workrooms, but a number of them, native abilities being good, will have the type of initiative and the qualifications which make advancement possible. With abilities realized it is possible for these pupils to develop the understanding vision which is necessary for advancement to the larger responsibility of the higher positions as opportunity, experience, and maturity make it possible. Skill and good workmanship, important as they are in the vocational program, do not constitute the only objective of the school. The larger educational and social values of education which function in good citizenship, social ideals, and intelligent use of leisure must be present throughout the course. The concrete material from which these values may be developed may be found in every subject and every situation included in the course. The extent to which they may be discovered and used lies with the teacher. The success of the school in this broad social sense may be safely forecast as being commensurate with the extent to which vocational aims and the responsibility to be assumed in the vocation are made the honest and frank objective of the course. * See Recommendations 14, Chapter I, page 17. 113 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. &1 NOV 1 5 19G2 I IJQ ^vJ^ , ,. ;| 'V DITT^O 1 O SENT ON ILL nil o 7 IQQL MAR 2^ 65-iuPN JUL UP .r /-* OCObTPS trY *\ y. C. BM!\K.L.L.i 1 UD | >ocs DEPP fV \/ % 2 [ 97P pro PIR wn\/ 27 *7fi liuu 4 ^ 107Q %|UN lo l'3 nrn o o 1Q7CI UC.U ^ I>7f3 iUx, v< MAR ] 1 Bl Q LD 21A-60m-4,'64 (E4555slO)476B General Library University of California Berkeley 25681 JJ95058 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY