TO 
 
 LL6LSTRA 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
FLOWER- LAND: 
 
 AN 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY. 
 
 BY ROBERT FISHER, M.A. 
 
 Late Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge ; 
 Vicar of Sewerby, Yorks. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED, 
 
 Xonfcon : 
 
 BEMROSE & SONS, 23, OLD BAILEY; AND DERBY. 
 
 1889. 
 
 (UL 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 'T^HE reception given last year to " Flower-Land " 
 (Part I.), and enquiries for a Hand-book upon 
 a similar plan which should be a little more advanced, 
 cause me to hope that " Flower-Land " in its new and 
 enlarged form, may find some readers and be of use 
 to them. Part I. is revised, and illustrations have 
 been added ; Part II. is now issued for the first time. 
 
 There are many who would like to have a sound, 
 though but an elementary, knowledge of Flowering 
 Plants. This, I hope, " Flower-Land " will give them 
 in a readable form : though such readers might omit, 
 at their discretion, the portions mentioned below.* 
 
 But the book is also arranged to serve as an 
 introduction to more advanced books for those who 
 wish to enter thoroughly into the wonders and 
 delights of Flower-Land. It will save time and 
 
 * Chapters 18, 25, 30. Pages 66 to 69, 99 to 103, 108 to no, 
 116 to 119, 124 to 127, 137 to 142, 214, 215. 
 
!V PREFACE. 
 
 trouble to such readers if they will learn patiently, 
 not hurrying on too fast. If anything is worth 
 doing at all it is worth doing well. Part I. is, I 
 hope, easy for a young child to understand, and it 
 should be learned thoroughly before passing on to 
 Part II. The Appendix, so far as it belongs to the 
 chapters on Morphology, might well be left until 
 the chapters are first known. 
 
 These first lessons in Botany should also be 
 learned, as far as possible, with the plants which 
 are spoken of in the hands, not only from the book 
 and 'its pictures. The extra time, and perhaps 
 trouble, which this may cause, will be amply 
 repaid. 
 
 A word to the reader, who takes up this book 
 for the sake of others, to teach children about Plants. 
 
 Examine the plan of the book in the Table of 
 Contents, and always 'have, if possible, plants or 
 their parts to illustrate your teaching. This method 
 will, I think, interest the child, and help him to 
 remember. It will be a good plan to read the 
 chapter over beforehand you will then be able to 
 get specimens of plants you require ready for the 
 lesson ; or, if you give the instruction out of 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 doors, which is the best plan, you will be able 
 to walk where they will be most abundantly found. 
 A magnifying glass would make the lessons more 
 interesting. Try to cherish in the child an admira- 
 tion for the beauty and the wonders of plant life, 
 and a reverence for the great Creator. 
 
 R. F. 
 
 Sezverby, Yorks., 
 
 July, 1889- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE iii 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CHAPTER I. Introductory Flowering Plants i 
 
 PARTS OF A PLANT. 
 
 CHAPTER II. Flower Calyx and Corolla 4 
 
 III. Flower Stamens and Pistil 8 
 
 ,, IV. Root i2 
 
 V. Stem 16 
 
 VI. Leaves 21 
 
 VIL Fruit 26 
 
 HOW PLANTS ARE ARRANGED AND 
 NAMED. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. Classes and Natural Orders 32 
 
 ,, IX. Natural Orders Cross-Bearers and 
 
 Butterfly Plants 37 
 
 X. Natural Orders Lipped Plants and 
 
 Umbel-Bearers 41 
 
 ,, XL Genus and Species 46 
 
 CHAPTER XII. Uses of Plants 50 
 
 ON COLLECTING AND DRYING PLANTS 53 
 
VI 11 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. A General View 59 
 
 MORPHOLOGY. 
 
 ,, XIV. Stems 63 
 
 XV. Roots 70 
 
 ,, XVI. Buds and Branching 76 
 
 XVII. Leaves 83 
 
 XVIII. Different Forms of Leaves gi 
 
 ,, XIX. Leaves (Stipules, Bracts and Scales) 99 
 
 XX. Flowers 106 
 
 ,, XXI. Inflorescence 114 
 
 XXII. The Pistil and its Parts 121 
 
 XXIII. Formation of Seed 128 
 
 XXIV. Fruit 135 
 
 XXV. Different kinds of Fruit 143 
 
 XXVI. Seeds 151 
 
 ,, XXVII. Distribution of Seeds 157 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 ,,XXVIIL Cells, Vessels, and Tissues 164 
 
 ,, XXIX. Systems of Tissue 171 
 
 ,, XXX. Wood and Bark 175 
 
 XXXI. Contents of Cells and Vessels 183 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 XXXII. Absorption and Transpiration 190 
 
 XXXIII. Further changes in the Sap 195 
 
 XXXIV. Growing Plants 201 
 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 XXXV. The three Classes 207 
 
 XXXVI. From Class to Natural Order 213 
 
 APPENDIX 221 
 
 INDEX 231 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FLOWERING PLANTS. 
 
 I HEAR that you 
 would like to be a 
 Botanist, and I am 
 going to write you a 
 little book which I 
 hope will help you. 
 You -will find a good 
 many pictures in it, 
 and these will make 
 'it easier for you to 
 understand what I tell 
 you. But you must 
 not be satisfied with 
 merely looking at the 
 Fig. i. Cowslip (Primula veris}. pictures in the book. 
 'If you wish to become a good Botanist you must go and 
 find many other pictures for yourself. This will be 
 much the best plan, for first you will have all the fun 
 of looking for them, and then when you have found 
 
 2 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 them, they will be better than any pictures you have 
 ever seen. 
 
 You will know that I mean you to go and find the 
 flowers themselves, to admire them, and to see how 
 wonderfully and how differently they are made. 
 
 Now, it is a fine day, and the grass is nice and dry, 
 so let us be off upon our first excursion. 
 
 Yes, that will do very well for us to begin with. 
 You have found a daisy, or a dead nettle, or a 
 buttercup, or a dandelion, or some other common 
 flower which you know very well. What did you 
 pick it from ? Did you not notice ? 
 
 See, here is another flower. We will stay a little, 
 arid find out what it belongs to. It is quite fast, you 
 see, upon its stem, .and the stem is held fast to the 
 ground by the root. Now, we will dig it up, and 
 have the whole plant flower, and leaves, and stem, and 
 root together. 
 
 As we walk along I can now tell you what it is to 
 be a Botanist. It is to know about plants. 
 
 But many plants are very different from this one 
 we have taken up, of which the pretty flower 
 attracted you. On many kinds of plants you would 
 not find these flowers. 
 
 We will try and find some of them. Look amongst 
 the grass, or in the ditch, or on the bank-side, or on 
 the stones of an old wall, or the trunk of an old tree, 
 and see if you can find some moss. That is such a 
 plant as we are looking for; it has no true flowers. 
 
FLOWERING PLANTS. 3 
 
 But let us mark the stems of the trees or bushes 
 which are near. There is one that looks quite grey, 
 and indeed on one side it is almost covered with a 
 short, dry, greyish-coloured substance. 
 
 We will gather a small piece of it. It is a lichen. It 
 is another instance of a plant that has no true flowers. 
 
 If we were on the seashore, we should find another 
 instance in the seaweed. 
 
 Perhaps, if it is autumn, we shall see a mushroom, QY 
 a puff-ball, as we go through the fields ; or we may 
 see a heap of toad-stools by the road-side ; or a bright 
 red, or white, or yellow substance upon some piece of 
 wood which lies about. Any one of these would be a 
 fungus another kind of plant which has no true flowers. 
 
 You may also succeed in finding another example 
 in a fern ; but though they are so common in some 
 places, in others you may go far and not find one. 
 
 But our talk about Botany has been long enough 
 for you to know what it is to be a Botanist. There is 
 enough, and more than enough, in " learning about 
 plants " to give you pleasure all your life long. 
 
 To be a Botanist is to be like a traveller, going 
 from country to country, and in each finding new 
 wonders and new beauties. 
 
 The mosses, then, the lichens, the seaweeds, the 
 fungi, and the ferns, we call flowerless plants ; for they 
 have no flowers such as those you know so well. 
 
 I shall say no more to you about them for some 
 time. You will learn first about \\\z flowering plants ; 
 the flowerless plants will remain until you are older. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FLOWER CALYX AND COROLLA. 
 
 Fig. 2. Bulbous Buttercup. 
 (Ranunctihis bulbosus.} 
 
 I SHALL begin to-day 
 by telling you what a 
 "flowering plant" is. 
 " Oh ! I know that," 
 perhaps you say. "It 
 is a plant that has 
 flowers, as a buttercup, 
 a daisy, or a poppy.' 5 
 But I once went out 
 with a little girl to 
 pick some flowers, and 
 she would not have a 
 bit of groundsel ; she 
 called it a weed, and 
 not a flower. So that 
 you may not think so, 
 we will gather a few 
 flowers of different 
 kinds as we go along, 
 and see what a flower 
 really is. 
 
FLOWER CALYX AND COROLLA. 5 
 
 Pick three or four buttercups ; choose the tallest 
 you can see, and those which have smooth, round 
 stems, if you can find them. Look for them by the 
 roadside or in the meadow, and gather a few other 
 flowers as well. 
 
 Now, I will take a buttercup, a single flower, and 
 hold it by the stalk, upright What a pretty yellow 
 cup it is ! As yellow as butter, is it not ? So children 
 hold it to each other's chins, and if it shines they say 
 that they are fond of butter. Shall I try you ? But 
 there, I hold it up again. 
 
 And now I must tell you rather a long name. This 
 yellow cup is called the corolla. (Fig. 3c.) Corolla is 
 a word of a foreign language (Latin), and means 
 " little crown " or " garland. ' 
 
 Have you a cowslip, or a primrose, or a dandelion 
 in your bunch ? They have, like the buttercup, the 
 corolla yellow. But look at the daisy or, have you 
 a piece of May ? There it is white. And you have 
 another instance in the snowdrop, which you know so 
 well. Sometimes the corolla is blue, as in the forget- 
 me-not, or the speedwell, or the violet. Sometimes it 
 is red, as in the little pimpernel or the poppy. 
 
 If you look over the flowers you have gathered, 
 you will see corollas of different colours, different 
 sizes, and different shapes. 
 
 But it is time to tell you of another part of the 
 flower. Let us go back to the buttercup. There is 
 the yellow cup ; but a cup should have a saucer. Can 
 
O FLOWER-LAND 
 
 we find one ? See, I hold the buttercup so that you 
 can look at it from below. What do you see now, 
 just at the top of the stalk, and spreading out under 
 part of the corolla ? Five little whitish-yellow leaves. 
 Are they not there ? If not, we must 
 take another buttercup flower, and try 
 again. We will choose one that has 
 only just come into blossom. If it is 
 one with the round, smooth stem I 
 spoke of, you will see the saucer- 
 
 r leaves plainly enough. The larger 
 Fig. 3. Flower of J 
 
 Buttercup. yellow cup is standing in a smaller 
 (ranunculus acris.} .... .. -T-I 
 
 c corolla, k calyx, whitish-yellow saucer. The saucer 
 
 is called the calyx. (Fig. 3k.) If it is very early in 
 the year, perhaps you will not be able to find this 
 buttercup with the spreading calyx. Still the butter- 
 cup will have its calyx, though its little leaves instead 
 of being spread out will be turned back close upon 
 the stalk. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Now look for the calyx in your other flowers. You 
 will see it very plainly in the primrose, or wild rose ; 
 and ia these it will be green in colour, as it generally 
 is. And do you not remember it in the strawberry ? 
 How each strawberry is in its saucer or calyx ? (Fig. 24.) 
 
 Like the corolla, the calyx differs greatly in size 
 and shape. In the buttercup, the corolla is larger 
 than the calyx, but sometimes the calyx is larger 
 than the corolla. Though you will find both calyx 
 and corolla in most flowers, some have only a calyx 
 or a corolla, and in some the calyx very so6n falls off. 
 
FLOWER CALYX AND COROLLA. 
 
 Some flowers, too, are very small, 
 carefully you will find several, I 
 dare say, which you did not notice 
 before ; but, wherever you find 
 calyx or corolla (or both), how- 
 ever small and insignificant, you 
 have found " a flower." 
 
 There are two other parts of a 
 perfect flower, which we shall learn 
 about next time. Now, let us 
 see if we can tell which is the 
 calyx or corolla in every different 
 kind of flower we can find as we 
 go home (cf. Figs. I, 4, 22, 25). 
 
 If you look 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FLOWER STAMENS AND PISTIL. 
 
 YOU have al- 
 ready learnt 
 about two of the 
 parts of a per- 
 fect flower, the 
 calyx and the 
 corolla; the calyx 
 holding the co- 
 rolla as a saucer 
 holds a cup. The 
 other two parts 
 of a flower we 
 shall learn about 
 to-day. 
 
 I think our 
 old favourite, the 
 buttercup, will 
 suit us best : it 
 
 is common everywhere, and we shall soon find one. 
 
 Yes, here are several, so we will pick that bright one 
 
 which has just opened. 
 
 Fig. 5. Burnet-leaved Rose. 
 (Rosa spinosissima.} 
 
FLOWER STAMENS AND PISTILS. 9 
 
 How pretty it is inside the corolla. Do you see 
 this ring of little yellow things ? They are like 
 golden threads with knobs upon the ends of them. 
 If you could see them through a glass, which would 
 make them seem larger, they would be like little 
 yellow bags of dust, each placed upon a stalk, (cf. 
 Fig. 23a.) 
 
 These are called stamens. (Fig. 6.) 
 Rub them with your finger, and you will 
 see upon it the yellow dust from their 
 little bags. Both the bags and the dust 
 which they have in them are very 
 different in shape and size in different 
 kinds of flowers so also are the stalks Fig. 6. A Sta- 
 on which the bags are placed. In some men ' 
 flowers these little stalks are wanting. 
 
 As we go along, we may find a cuckoo-flower, a 
 white dead nettle, a piece of May ; or a poppy, fox- 
 glove, or wild rose. (Fig. 5.) In any of these you 
 will see the stamens very clearly. In some flowers 
 there are many of them, as in the buttercup ; but in 
 some the stamens are few, and they do not always 
 have the bright yellow colour of these we have been 
 looking at in the buttercup. 
 
 But there is one more part of the perfect flower for 
 you yet to learn, and it is in the middle of all. This is 
 called the pistil another hard name for you to 
 remember, but it is the last. Like the stamen, the 
 pistil has a kind of bag, or bags, but instead of being 
 
10 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 A" Pistil, 
 
 at the top, as in the stamens, in the pistil they are at 
 
 the bottom. (Fig. 7.) 
 
 Sometimes a stalk springs from them 
 which is divided, knobbed, or thickened at 
 the top. But with the pistils, as with the 
 stamens, there is a great difference both in 
 shape and size in different kinds of flowers. 
 Here in the buttercup you can see the 
 pistil, with its many bags, right in the 
 
 middle of the flower, and surrounded by the stamens ; 
 
 just as the stamens are inside the corolla, and the 
 
 corolla is inside the calyx. 
 
 If you have a primrose, we can find in it a good 
 
 specimen of a pistil. First I pull off the corolla; it 
 
 comes away easily enough ; and now if you look into 
 
 the calyx, you can see the knobbed top of the pistil. 
 
 Let us see more of it. Carefully tear away the calyx 
 
 from the stalk without injuring the pistil, and you see 
 
 it all the little round green bag at the bottom, and 
 
 from it the slender knobbed 
 
 stalk like a green and tender pin. 
 It is in this little bag of the 
 
 pistil that the seeds of plants are 
 
 formed ; and if you break this one 
 
 open, you will very likely find 
 
 some little green things inside it 
 
 which will gradually ripen into 
 
 seeds. So also in the pistil bags 
 
 Of an old buttercup flower. If rolla removed 
 
 stamens ; /;?, pistil. 
 
 when you get home you can get 
 
FLOWER STAMENS AND PISTILS. I I 
 
 a large white or orange lily from a garden, you will- 
 see the stamens and pistil very plainly, and the dust 
 from its stamens is very plentiful ; or you can see 
 them plainly in the foxglove, the honeysuckle, the 
 wallflower, the pimpernel, the speedwell, and many 
 others (cf. Fig. 8). 
 
 In some flowers you will find only stamens or 
 pistils, but not both ; just as in some you cannot find 
 both calyx and corolla, but only one of them. 
 
 But these are the four parts which make up a 
 perfect flower, and I dare say by this time you know 
 these four hard names quite well calyx, corolla, 
 stamens, and pistil. 
 
 We will amuse ourselves as we go home by seeing 
 how different these parts are in the different kinds of 
 flowers, and that will help you to remember them. 
 
12 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ROOTS. 
 
 Jl ^ 
 
 FOR our 
 
 walk to-day 
 we will ask 
 for a trowel 
 or an old 
 blunt knife. 
 Yes ; that 
 small trow- 
 el will do 
 very well, 
 and as we 
 go I will 
 tell you 
 what we 
 
 Fig- 9- Ipecacuanha with ringed root. Want it for. 
 
 You are learning, you know, about flowering plants. 
 You have learned something about their flowers, but 
 we have not yet talked about their other parts roots 
 and stems and leaves. To-day we are going to talk 
 about their roots ; and, as we shall want to see them 
 our trowel will be useful in digging them up. For the 
 root, as I dare say you know, is the part of the plant 
 which grows downwards into the ground. 
 
ROOTS. 13 
 
 Have you ever seen a tree which has been blown 
 down ? Then you can see its roots. How large and 
 strong they are, and how firmly they have fixed them- 
 selves in the earth so firmly that you see a great lot 
 of earth still sticking to them, and quite a large hole 
 in the ground where the tree used to stand. When 
 the wind is very high, and we see the branches of the 
 tall, strong trees bending to and fro, it is the deep, 
 strong roots which hold it in its place so firmly, and 
 make it able to resist the wind. 
 
 But the plants we shall look at will not be large 
 ones, like the trees or bushes, but the little ones that 
 we can get at easily, and carry in our hands. 
 
 We will begin with a root of common grass. Pick 
 out a single plant as well as you can, and, when you 
 have well loosened the earth all round it, you can lift 
 it gradually root and all. Now, if you shake the 
 earth from it, you will see that it has many rootlets. 
 They grow separate from each 
 other from one part of the plant 
 just under the ground ; and are 
 like long threads, some of them 
 being again divided into still finer 
 branches. Look for the common 
 groundsel, and compare its root 
 with that of the grass. In the 
 
 groundsel you can see where the 
 
 , . Fig. io. A Branch- 
 
 root begins to divide or branch, i ng Root. 
 
 and how the branches get smaller and smaller 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 until they are like little threads. Let us dig up a 
 daisy. It is the same kind of root you see, although 
 its rootlets are a little thicker and not so much 
 divided, (cf. Figs. 10, 27.) 
 
 In some plants the roots have knobs or swellings 
 in them, sometimes so close together all the way 
 down that they look like strings of beads (Fig. 9). 
 In others the branches of the root are swollen so 
 that they look like a bundle of longish bags, as in 
 the garden dahlia. But let us see what kind of a root 
 this dandelion has. Shall I dig it up for you ? It is 
 not easy to get up, its root goes so far into the 
 ground. You see I have broken it ; but here is a 
 good piece of the root, and we can see very well what 
 it is like. In some cases it may be forked, and it has 
 little threads growing from it here and there ; but it 
 has not separate rootlets from about one 
 centre, or many branchings, like those 
 we have been speaking of. You will 
 know this kind of root very well, for you 
 have often seen it in different shapes in 
 the carrot, the turnip, and the radish 
 (Fig. n). 
 
 We will look at a few more roots as 
 we go along, though I fear we shall not 
 find a specimen of each of those kinds I 
 have been telling you of. There is, 
 however, one kind that we will particu- 
 larly look for. 
 
 Can you find a wild hyacinth? If not, 
 
 
 Fig. n. Root 
 of Beet. 
 
ROOTS, 15 
 
 a snowdrop, tulip, or large lily from a garden will do as 
 well. In any of these you will find a swelling or bulb, 
 just above the root (Fig. 12). I want 
 you to remember that this bulb is 
 not the root If you notice any of 
 the plants I have just mentioned, 
 you will see the root, with its many 
 rootlets, growing downwards from 
 the bottom of the bulb. Perhaps at 
 home you have a hyacinth growing Fig. 12. A Bulb. 
 in water in a hyacinth glass, or can see one some- 
 where. If so, you can see how its roots grow very 
 well. (cf. Fig. 13). 
 
 But do you know what roots are for ? What is the 
 use of them ? Through the roots liquid food is taken, 
 up, and so passes into the plant. You will be able to 
 learn more about this when you are older. But you 
 can remember now that roots are not only meant to 
 fix plants firmly in the ground, but more especially to 
 help to feed them and make them grow. 
 
i6 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 WE shall not want 
 our trowel to-day, 
 for I shall not tell 
 you any more at 
 present about roots, 
 which grow down- 
 wards into the earth. 
 I am going to talk 
 to you about that 
 part of a plant which 
 grows above the 
 ground, and bears 
 leaves and flowers 
 it is called the stem. 
 
 There are, indeed, 
 some stems which 
 are partly or alto- 
 gether under the 
 ground. You will 
 see something of the kind in the primrose. These 
 underground stems send out roots downwards, and 
 
 Fig. 13. Saffron Crocus. 
 (Croctis sativus}. 
 
STEMS. 17 
 
 leaves and flowers upwards. In the wood anemone 
 they creep along just under the ground. 
 
 If we can find any, we will loosen the earth with a 
 stick, and with care we shall get a piece two or three 
 inches long, and have a good specimen of one of these 
 underground stems. They have a special name, and 
 you will learn more about them when you get older. 
 
 But I dare say you have planted snowdrop or tulip 
 bulbs in your garden. From the bottom of the bulb 
 the root grows downwards ; from the top of it, the 
 stem pushes its way upwards; and at last expands 
 into leaves and flowers (cf. Fig. 13). 
 
 Some day you must dig up a daffodil or blue-bell 
 (hyacinth) or snowdrop plant, and perhaps you will 
 be surprised to find how deep it is in the earth. 
 
 The next time you see an onion bed, if the onions 
 are large enough, you will see an example of a stem 
 swollen at the bottom (a bulbous stem), which is all 
 above the ground. 
 
 We will look amongst the grass for some common 
 white clover. Now, follow its stem, and see how it 
 trails along the ground. It has a creeping stem. You 
 can see it again in this other kind of clover, which has 
 little round heads of yellow flowers about as big as peas. 
 
 A plant with a little dark blue flower, common by 
 hedgesides, is such a good example of this kind of stem 
 that it is called Ground Ivy or Gill-run-along-the-ground 
 (Fig. 14). We shall be sure to find plants with 
 creeping stems. 
 3 
 
1 8 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 Can we find any with climbing stems ? The large 
 white convolvulus is one of them ; so are the hop and 
 the honeysuckle. If we see any of these, we will stop 
 and notice how they twist and climb round anything 
 to which they are near. There is a tree with some 
 ivy growing up it, and the ivy will do very well for 
 our example of a plant with a climbing stem. 
 
 The long twining arms, into which the branches of 
 some plants grow, and by which they climb, are called 
 Tendrils. You can see them very well in the Vine 
 tree, upon which grow the beautiful grapes. 
 
 Fig. 14. Ground Ivy. 
 (Nepeta (Glechoma) hederacea). 
 
 Our old favourite, the buttercup, is here in plenty. 
 It is as good an instance as we can have of the 
 common branched and upright stem. We have it in 
 a larger size in the oak, the ash, and other trees. 
 
 In the buttercup the stem is soft and juicy. Plants 
 with this kind of stem are called herbs, and their 
 stems herbaceous. 
 
 In the ash a great part of the stem is hard, and 
 plants with this kind of stem are called bushes^ or trees, 
 and their stems woody. The outside covering or skin 
 of this kind of stem is called bark. 
 
STEMS. IQ 
 
 Now, if we notice the stems or trunks of the trees, 
 we shall find some of them with rough bark, like the 
 oak or elm ; and some of them with smooth bark, 
 like the ash or beech. 
 
 The stems of herbs also are rough or smooth. 
 We will bend down this stinging nettle with my stick, 
 and look at its stem ; it is one of those stems which 
 have hairs on them. Some stems, as in the wild rose, 
 have prickles (Fig. 5) ; some, as in the hawthorn, have 
 thorns. 
 
 Then some are round, some are square, and some 
 are hollow in the middle. We will try the stems of a 
 few of the taller herbs we see, and shall very likely 
 find a hollow one. One plant with a hollow stem is 
 very common in woods and hedgerows it is two or 
 three feet high, has very divided leaves, and clusters 
 of little white flowers. But you will know an elder 
 bush if we can find one. If we cut off a branch, we 
 shall find that the middle of it is filled with a soft 
 substance called pith ; and, as country boys know very 
 well, a piece of elder with its pith cleared out makes 
 a very good popgun. 
 
 In trees like the oak, and ash, and elm, however, it 
 is not so. I expect you have often seen the stem or 
 trunk of one of them which has been cut down. 
 How solid it is, as if it had never had any pith 
 at all ! 
 
 What a great many different kinds of stems there 
 are ! You will find them very interesting when you 
 are able to know more about them. 
 
2O FL O WE R- LAND. 
 
 The use of the stems is to bear the leaves and 
 flowers. Through the stems, also, the liquid food 
 which is taken up by the roots is carried to all parts 
 of the plant, to nourish it and make it grow. 
 
 Let us take a plant stem a buttercup will do. 
 
 Now, if we cut it across and squeeze it, we shall 
 see this liquid food or juice. It is called sap. 
 
 I shall tell you a little more about how a plant lives 
 and grows when I tell you about the leaves in the 
 next chapter. 
 
LEA VES. 
 
 21 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 LEAVES. 
 
 Fig. 15. a, Spray of the Pea ; 6, a flower ; 
 <-, the stamens ; d, the fruit (pod). 
 
 TO-DAY I am 
 going to tell you 
 about leaves. 
 
 When you he- 
 ft gin to find out 
 the names of 
 plants from the 
 descriptions 
 which are given 
 of them in books 
 you will find the 
 differences be- 
 tween leaves a 
 great help to you. 
 So you must 
 
 notice both the shape and the surface of leaves, and 
 also how they grow upon the plant. 
 
 Look, for instance, at this primrose, or this dande- 
 lion plant. All the leaves grow at the very bottom of 
 the stem, just where the stem and the root join. Such 
 leaves are called root leaves. (Fig. I, p. I.) 
 
22 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 In this buttercup you see leaves growing here and 
 there upon the stem. These are 
 stem leaves. fe/~Fig. 2, p. 4.) Stem 
 leaves grow singly, in pairs in 
 rings round the stem, and in other 
 ways. Sometimes they are without 
 any stalks, and pass some way 
 
 Fig. 1 6. A simple leaf; down the Stem, 
 heart-shaped. 
 
 But you have to notice the shape 
 and surface of leaves, as well as the 
 way in which they grow upon the 
 plant. So take a buttercup, or a 
 daisy, or a dandelion leaf. You see 
 they are of one single piece. The 
 buttercup leaf is a good deal di- 
 vided, but still it is all in one piece. 
 These are called simple leaves. 
 Figs. 1 6, 17, 1 8. (cf Figs. I, 2, 9, 13.) 
 
 But if you now pick a leaf of the 
 ash tree, or the wild rose, or the 
 common clover, you will find it 
 very different. It has several 
 pieces upon its one stalk. A leaf 
 of this kind is called compound, and 
 each of its little pieces or little 
 leaves is called a leaflet. Fig. 19. 
 fc/Figs. 5, 15, 30.) 
 
 Fig. 18. Half a divided How beautifully this rose leaf is 
 but simple leaf. notched along its edges, the dande- 
 
 Fig. 17. A simple leaf. 
 
LEA VES. 
 
 more irregularly so, the butter- 
 cup more irregularly still, but the 
 edge of the daisy leaf is not 
 notched at all. 
 
 The general shape of a leaf is 
 also to be noticed. You will find 
 them egg-shaped, heart-shaped 
 (Fig. 1 6), shield-shaped, fiddle- 
 shaped, and many others. 
 
 Fig. 19. A compound 
 leaf. 
 
 As for the surface of leaves, sometimes they are 
 smooth and shiny, as in the ivy or the holly ; some- 
 times they are downy, or woolly, or rough with 
 hairs. These hairs are of many kinds, and are 
 found on other parts of a plant besides the leaves. 
 Some of them are hooked, like those of the 
 common Harriff (hair-rough). I dare say you do 
 not know the plant by its name, but perhaps you 
 have found it or its seeds hooked fast to your clothes 
 when you have been walking in a wood, or picking 
 flowers from the hedge-side. Some hairs have little 
 bags belonging to them. In one kind of rose these 
 little bags are scent-bags, so it is called sweetbriar. 
 But in the nettle they are poison-bags, and when its 
 little hairs pierce you they sting, as I dare say you 
 know very well. 
 
 Now, in the primrose the surface of the leaf is un- 
 even ; or if we can see a thistle we shall find that its 
 leaves are quite crumpled, and are also armed with 
 little spines. Can we find a holly bush? But, no 
 
24 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 doubt, you know what its leaves are like quite well, 
 and have found out when you have been decorating 
 for " Merry Christmas " that they are very prickly 
 also. 
 
 Leaves sometimes take the form of spines, as in 
 the gorse or furze, the prickly bush which grows on 
 heaths or commons, and has such beautiful yellow 
 flowers. 
 
 Sometimes, instead of growing into spines, they 
 grow out into tendrils (p. 18). You can see these leaf 
 tendrils upon the plants of the common pea, as they 
 are twined round the pea-sticks in our gardens 
 ig. 15). 
 
 You will soon become familiar with these differences 
 in the arrangement, and shape, and surface of leaves, 
 when you learn to make out the names of plants from 
 books in which they are described. But I hope you 
 can now tell me the difference between a simple leaf 
 and a compound one. 
 
 I will tell you as we go home how useful the leaves 
 are in helping the plant to grow. Do you remember 
 how the plant gets any food at all ? Yes, you are 
 quite right. Liquid food is taken up from the soil. 
 through the roots, and so passes up into the plant. 
 It is in the sap, which goes up the stem and is spread 
 out through all the leaves. 
 
 And through the leaves the plant breathes. I won- 
 der if you know what happens when you breathe. 
 
LEA VES. 
 
 You send out of your body what C 
 
 you do not want, and you take 
 
 in from the air what you do 
 
 want. Now there are dotted F j g> 2 o. Surface of a leaf 
 
 about upon the leaves a lot of 
 
 little openings or mouths. You 
 
 cannot see them without a glass 
 
 to magnify the leaves that is, 
 
 to make them appear larger 
 
 but they are there. Through 
 
 them the plant sends out what 
 
 it does not want, and takes in 
 
 fresh nourishment from the air, 
 
 Fig. 21. Another surface of 
 
 and the sap carries it away to i ea f, more highly magnified. 
 help the whole plant to grow. 
 
 You will now understand how necessary it is if 
 you have any plants in the house, not only to water 
 them at the roots. If you let them get dusty, the 
 little mouths upon their leaves get choked ; so you 
 must take them out now and then, and water them all 
 over. They will enjoy it, and benefit by it, just as 
 you enjoy your cleansing and refreshing bath. 
 
26 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FRUIT. 
 
 Do you re- 
 member my 
 telling you 
 about the pis- 
 til ? I showed 
 it to you in 
 the primrose, 
 as well as in 
 the buttercup, 
 and we saw 
 that it had a 
 little bag or 
 bags, from 
 each of which 
 grew up a 
 kind of beak. 
 In the prim- 
 b, The Fruit. rose, one bag 
 
 and a long slender beak ; in the buttercup, many 
 
 bags with short pointed beaks. 
 
 Let us look again at the pistil in the buttercup. 
 
 Fig. 22. The Wild Raspberry. (Rubus idaus.) 
 
FRUIT. 27 
 
 We will try and find one that has been some time in 
 flower. Here is one from which calyx, and corolla, 
 and stamens have fallen off, and now you can see the 
 pistil very well. It has many little bags, about 30 or 
 40 of them, rather flat, with short pointed 
 beaks. You are looking at the fruit of the 
 buttercup. 
 
 I will break off one or two of the little 
 pistil bags, and place them in your hand. 
 If you look carefully you will see that 
 they are a little swollen in the middle. 
 That is because each little bag has a seed Fig 23. Pistil 
 
 . of Buttercup 
 
 inside It. (magnified). 
 
 Now, in the buttercup, as we have seen, a > stamen - 
 the fruit is the ripened pistil a bundle of pointed 
 pistil bags containing the seed. But in other plants 
 these beaked pistil bags are very different. They are 
 found in many different shapes ; they are arranged in 
 many different ways. Sometimes they are joined with 
 the calyx and other parts of the flower ; in some plants 
 they have one seed, in others many seeds. So we 
 have different kinds of fruits. I will tell you about 
 some of them, and we will see how many different 
 kinds we can find as we go along. 
 
 If it is not too late in the year, we may come across 
 some wild strawberries. Well, the strawberry has 
 many separate pistil or seed bags, with single seeds in 
 them, like the buttercup. But they are carried further 
 apart from one another by the sweet juicy pulp which 
 you like so much to eat, and if you look at a straw- 
 
28 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 berry you will see them 
 there. (Fig. 24.) 
 
 The wild rose has the 
 same kind of dry pistil or 
 seed bags as the buttercup 
 and the strawberry ; only 
 in the wild rose they are 
 all held together and shut 
 up in the tube of the calyx, 
 which swells out so as to 
 hold them, and turns red 
 when ripe. No doubt you 
 have often seen these wild 
 rose fruits. People call 
 them hips. If it is late enough in the season I dare say 
 we shall find some of them to-day. If we do, I will 
 cut one open, and you will see the little pistil or seed 
 bags inside. 
 
 Fig. 24. Strawberry. 
 Flowers and Fruit. 
 
 Fig. 25. Apple Flower, and Fruit cut in half. 
 
 The apple is not quite the same. It has several 
 
FRUIT. 29 
 
 pistil bags, but they are enclosed in the calyx tube, 
 which swells out all round them into the soft part 
 which you like to eat. The pistil or seed bags are 
 those scaly leaves in the middle, which we call the 
 core (Fig. 25). 
 
 If we pass through a wood, we may find some 
 wild raspberries (Fig. 22). But here is another fruit 
 of the same kind, the common blackberry. You see, 
 again, a heap of separate pistil bags, as in the 
 buttercup, only in the blackberry the bags swell and 
 grow soft and pulpy. The little beak is a fine hair, 
 and often remains visible when the fruit is ripe. 
 
 Can we find a wild cherry, or a sloe, or wild damson ? 
 These are plants with only one pistil or seed bag instead 
 of many. So their fruit is like one of the pulpy bags 
 we have been looking at in the raspberry or black- 
 berry. It is so much larger that you see better how 
 it is made up. First a soft skin. How beautifully it 
 is coloured ! And you can think of the yellow 
 apricots, blue and purple plums, and bright red 
 cherries. Then the juicy pulp. In the middle the 
 hard shell we call it the stone of the fruit. Inside 
 all, the seed, or, as we say, the kernel. 
 
 If we can find a nutbush, with some fruit on it, we 
 shall have another instance of a fruit with a single 
 pistil or seed bag. But in the nut the outside skin of 
 the bag has become hard and brown. The shell 
 covers and keeps safe the seed or kernel. 
 
3 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 The fruit of the common pea or bean is another 
 good instance of a single pistil or seed bag. You 
 call it a pod (Fig. 15, d\ and inside you find the peas 
 or beans its many seeds. We may find examples in 
 the fruit of the vetch, or the gorse. 
 
 Now if we could find a poppy, or a foxglove, I 
 could show you another kind of fruit. It is a fruit of 
 many pistils or seed bags, only instead of being 
 separate, as in the buttercup, 
 they are enclosed within a skin 
 or covering. In the poppy, 
 the fruit is like a round parch- 
 ment box with a flat top to 
 it. When it is ripe, there are 
 holes at the top, out of which 
 you can shake many seeds from 
 the different divisions or bags 
 Fig. 26. Fruit of Poppy, which are inside (Fig. 26). 
 
 Sometimes fruit of this kind is not altogether dry 
 like the poppy. There is the same arrangement of 
 pistil or seed bags in an outer skin in the juicy fruit 
 you know so well the orange. I dare say you have 
 often first peeled off the rind or skin, and then 
 separated and eaten one by one the little juicy bags 
 in which you found the pips or seed. 
 
 Then there are the berries we know so well, such as 
 the fruit of the currant, grape, or gooseberry. 
 
 There are still some other kinds of fruit, and each 
 kind has its own special name, but I only want you 
 
FRUIT. 3 1 
 
 to learn now what the fruit of a plant is. It is the 
 seed vessel and its seed. So cucumbers, vegetable 
 marrows, and tomatoes, are fruits, as well as apricots, 
 plums, and grapes. 
 
 The fruit is the last part of a plant I have to tell 
 you of, so I will repeat in a few words the chief parts 
 of a plant and what they are for. 
 
 The root, stem, and leaves of a flowering plant are 
 the parts by which it grows and brings forth flowers. 
 The flowers in their turn are the parts by which it 
 brings forth its fruit with seeds. Then if you sow 
 the seeds, young plants grow up like the old parent 
 plants ; root and stem, and leaves and flower > and fruit 
 and seed again. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CLASSES AND NATURAL ORDERS. 
 
 You have already learnt some- 
 thing about the chief parts of 
 flowering plants, and about the 
 way in which they grow. I 
 must now tell you something 
 about the way in which they 
 are arranged and named. 
 
 When you begin to try and 
 find out the names of plants, 
 you will find that they are 
 arranged, first of all, into three 
 great divisions, which are called 
 classes. We shall leave one of 
 them until you are older. The 
 remaining two classes are 
 known from each other by 
 Fig. 27. Part of Foxglove several differences, but at 
 
 (Digitalis purpurea), show- _ M1 . , 
 
 ing net-veined leaves & root, present I will only tell you 
 
 about two of them. 
 
 One difference is in the way the seed begins to 
 grow. Perhaps you have sown mustard seed ; and 
 
CLASSES AND NATURAL ORDERS. 
 
 33 
 
 if you have a little garden probably some radish seed 
 as well. When the seed begins to grow it bursts 
 open, and two little leaves, just opposite to each other, 
 open out from it, and at last you see them above the 
 ground. If the mustard is sown rather thick, and 
 with very little fine earth over it, you can generally 
 see these two seed leaves as they begin to push out 
 from the seed. 
 
 You can see them 
 also in the spring- 
 time under almost any 
 common sycamore or 
 maple tree. Under 
 the tree, or near it, 
 you will generally find 
 some of its seeds, 
 which have begun to 
 grow. The two seed 
 leaves, which have 
 been shut up in their 
 little seed case, gradu- 
 ally push their way Fig. 28. Sycamore or Greater Maple. 
 OUt, and as they un- (^' p^do-platanus.) * the fruit. 
 
 roll, the baby sycamore sends out its roots into the 
 ground that it may live and grow. You should try 
 and find some of these sycamore or maple seeds in 
 different stages of growth ; from the seed just bursting, 
 until you find the empty seed case, and the young 
 plant fairly started in life, with its seed leaves 
 expanded as you can see it in the picture. Fig. 29, 
 4 
 
34 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 (cf. Fig. 28 b. the fruit or seed-case containing 
 
 seed). 
 
 These seed leaves are not always so easily 
 seen or known. They do 
 not always expand and 
 become green like those you 
 have been looking at, and 
 you must wait until you are 
 older to understand all about 
 them. But plants which begin 
 to grow with two opposite seed 
 leaves belong to one of the 
 two great classes of flowering 
 plants. 
 
 In the other class, the 
 seeds have only one seed- 
 leaf instead of two. It is 
 
 Fig. 29. Seedling of Maple. 
 
 cc its seed leaves. from this difference that these 
 
 two classes are generally named, but the name is 
 too difficult for you to learn now, though you can 
 remember what the difference is. 
 
 I will now tell you of another difference between 
 these two classes of flowering plants one which is 
 easier for you both to see and to understand so pick 
 me a leaf or two of the buttercup or dandelion. If 
 you can see a rose bush or an ash tree, one of their 
 leaves will be better still. Now hold the leaf up to 
 the light and see how beautifully its veins are 
 branched and make an irregular kind of network. 
 
CLASSES AND NATURAL ORDERS. 35 
 
 These are called net-veined leaves. As a general rule 
 plants with these net- veined leaves belong to one of the 
 two great classes of flowering plants (cf. Figs. I, 22, 27). 
 But now pick a leaf of the wild hyacinth or 
 snowdrop, or, which you are sure to find, a blade, 
 i.e., a leaf of grass. In this leaf you see that the 
 veins run more evenly side, by side, and though you 
 may find cross veins in leaves of this kind, yet they 
 never make an irregular branching network, (cf. 
 Fig. 169). Leaves of this kind are called straight- 
 veined. As a general rule plants with these straight- 
 veined leaves belong to the other of the two great 
 classes of flowering plants. There are a few 
 exceptions to this general rule, but until you learn 
 more about the other differences between the two 
 classes, and about their proper names, you can think 
 of them as the " net-veined " and " straight-veined " 
 classes. 
 
 These two classes are then divided again until you 
 have the flowering plants arranged in about one 
 hundred divisions, which are called natural orders. 
 You will learn afterwards about the way in which 
 botanists arrange these " natural orders " under divi- 
 sions, and the " divisions " under the two classes. 
 
 It is the arrangement of plants in their natural 
 orders that I want you to remember. Some of these 
 natural orders are very easy to learn about. I will 
 tell you about a few of them in my .next chapter. 
 But as they are known from one another chiefly by 
 
36 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 the shape of the flower, I will ask you, as we go home, 
 if you can remember what the parts of a flower are. 
 
 I will pick this buttercup flower. It has not 
 been open very long, and is a good specimen, so all 
 the parts of the flower are here. And now see if you 
 can tell me them by name. Yes ! Outside of all the 
 calyx, then the bright yellow corolla, then these many 
 little stamens, and the pistil in the centre (Chs. n, III). 
 
 Do you see that the corolla is made up of separate 
 parts ? Try, and you can pull them off one by one. 
 
 Each part or leaf of the corolla is called a petal. So 
 now I shall be able to tell you about some of the 
 easiest of the natural orders in which flowering plants 
 are arranged. 
 
CROSS-BEARERS AND BUTTERFLY PLANTS. 37 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CKOSS-BEARERS AND BUTTERFLY PLANTS. 
 
 Fig. 30. Bird's-foot Trefoil. 
 (Lottts cornicitlatus.) a Flower. 
 
 begin 
 
 WE will 
 to learn about 
 a few of the 
 easiest of the 
 "natural orders" 
 by looking for a 
 flower which has 
 its petals in the 
 shape of a cross. 
 The petals are 
 four in number, 
 and equal in 
 size, and so they 
 form a cross 
 with four equal 
 arms. There 
 are several little 
 plants with 
 small white 
 
 flowers which are cross-shaped, and which are com- 
 mon by the roadside or it) waste ground. One of the 
 
38 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 most common has its seeds in a little pouch, or bag, 
 somewhat heart-shaped, so it is called Sheplierd's purse. 
 Though small, its flowers are a good example of these 
 cross-shaped ones that we are looking for. 
 
 Can you see any yellow flowers in the corn-fields 
 that we pass ? There are sometimes many of them, 
 and they look very pretty just above the blades 
 of the green corn. But they are very troublesome 
 to farmers, and in some parts of England the 
 village children are employed to pull them up. 
 
 These charlock flowers show the cross-shape very 
 well. So does the wallflower not the double, but the 
 single one. Perhaps you have not seen it growing 
 wild, but you know it in our gardens 
 very well. By its side you can often 
 see another example in the single 
 stock, and you would see others in 
 the flowers of the cabbage, cauli- 
 flower, radish, or common mustard. 
 
 Plants with this kind of cross- 
 shaped flower are all put together in Fig. 31. Flower of 
 
 one of the Cross-} \ 
 
 one natural order, the natural order bearers. ^- 
 
 of the cross-bearers. There are plenty of them to be 
 found ; and though you may not find many of them 
 which you know, as yet, by their names, you will not 
 have any difficulty, I think, in knowing them by their 
 flowers (Fig. 31). 
 
 Of the second natural order that I shall tell you 
 about, the sweet pea is perhaps the best example for 
 
CROSS-BEARERS AND BUTTERFLY PLANTS. 39 
 
 you to look at. You may have some in the garden at 
 home, and you very likely know what the flower is 
 like quite well. But in a grass field, or by the road- 
 side, we are almost sure to find a little plant which 
 has flowers, smaller indeed than those of the sweet 
 pea, and different in colour, but like them in shape. 
 
 Do you remember what compound leaves are? 
 (p 22). Look for a little plant with compound leaves, 
 like clover leaves, and bright yellow flowers. They 
 grow in little heads or clusters, on some plants from 
 three to five or six of them together on one stalk. 
 (ct. Fig. 30). As in the sweet pea, the flower 
 has five petals. The one at the top you see is the 
 largest, and spread open like a flag, and so it is 
 called the standard ; the two at the sides are smaller, 
 and are called the wings ; 
 
 then the two lowest are Vllll I 
 
 . . ,. , f AUV It 
 
 joined together, except 
 
 just at one end, and are 
 
 like the keel or sharp ^ n 
 
 / ^-^/ 
 
 ridge along the bottom w( ./ 
 
 of a boat, so those two 
 leaves are called the keel. 
 So you see it is a flower 
 
 with petals of SUch pe- Fig. 32. Papilionaceous flower. 
 
 culiar and different * J - - win s s - "<*' . 
 shapes as to be called after things they are fancied to 
 be like standard, wings, and keel (Fig. 32). 
 
 But what do you think all the petals together have 
 been fancied to be like ? Perhaps you would notice it 
 
40 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 better in a larger flower, like that of the sweet pea ; 
 but all flowers with corollas of this shape have been 
 fancied to be like butterflies (cf. Fig. 30 a, and 15 b). 
 So the plants which bear them are all put together in 
 one natural order the natural order of the butterfly 
 plants. 
 
 It is worth while to take one of these flowers and 
 pull off the standard and the wings, then open 
 the keel, and inside it you will find the stamens^ ten of 
 them, nine joined together and one free (Fig. 15 c). 
 I should tell you that in some plants of this order the 
 stamens are all joined together, and in some few the 
 petals of the keel are not joined at all. 
 
 A common plant that belongs to the butterfly plants 
 is the clover. We will gather one or two of the flowers 
 when we see them either white or red clover will 
 do and notice how the standard in these flowers is 
 bent forward on each side, instead of being spread 
 open. But these corollas of the clover are small. If 
 we could find any of the prickly gorse or furze, we 
 should see a better example of the butterfly corolla. 
 Its yellow flowers are large and handsome. 
 
 One of the greatest botanists, named Linnaeus, a 
 Swede, when he was on a visit to England, and saw a 
 quantity of it in flower as he was crossing Putney 
 -Heath, fell on his knees and thanked God for making 
 anything so beautiful. 
 
LIPPED PLANTS AND UMBEL-BEARERS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 LIPPED PLANTS AND UMBEL-BEARERS. 
 
 I WONDER if you know the 
 red or white dead nettle. 
 Its stem is square, and its 
 leaves are in pairs opposite 
 to one another. Both stem 
 and leaves are something 
 like those of the stinging 
 nettle, especially in the white 
 one, which is the largest of 
 the two, and grows about a 
 foot high. 
 
 Both are common, and we 
 shall very likely see some of 
 them by the road or hedge 
 side. You need not be afraid 
 to pick them : they do not 
 sting ; and that is why they 
 
 33- Dead Nettle 
 (Lamiurti). 
 
 are called dead nettles. 
 
 I always think the white dead nettles are very 
 beautiful. Their soft white corollas are large, and 
 arranged upon the stem in handsome rings. 
 
4 2 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 But look especially at the shape of the corolla. 
 It is something like an open mouth. There are the two 
 lips, and see how prettily the four blackish stamens 
 are arranged under the upper lip which arches over 
 them. There the two lips of the corolla join and 
 form a tube, so that you look through its open mouth 
 into its throat. 
 
 Take hold of the corolla, and pull it. It easily 
 comes away from the plant, and you can see that it is 
 all of one piece or petal. Now look into the little 
 green cup or calyx out of which you have taken the 
 corolla. You will see there four little things which 
 look like seeds. They are really the four little bags 
 or seed vessels of the pistil, about which I have 
 already told you (p. 10). They will ripen into the 
 four little nuts or fruit of the plant, and in each will 
 be one seed. 
 
 The dead nettle is an example of another of those 
 natural orders in which plants are arranged, and 
 about which I am now teaching you. 
 
 All plants with square stems, opposite leaves, fruit 
 of four nuts, and flower of one petal, with two lips> 
 are placed together, and belong to the natural order 
 of the lipped plants. 
 
 Their corollas differ a good 
 deal in the length of the tube 
 or throat, and in the size and 
 shape of the lips ; and I dare 
 say we shall find some other 
 
 Fig- 34- Flower of one of 
 specimens of this natural the Lipped Plants. 
 
LIPPED PLANTS AND UMBEL-BEARERS. 43 
 
 order of lipped plants as we go along. Though you 
 may not know their names, you will, I think, be able 
 to tell which they are. (Figs. 33, 34.) 
 
 There are plants, indeed, with two-lipped flowers 
 which do not belong to this two-lipped order ; but 
 either their stems are not square, or their leaves are 
 not opposite, or their fruit is not of four nuts. 
 
 If you remember the dead nettle and its four special 
 marks as to stem, and leaves, and corolla, and fruit, 
 you will not go wrong. You will always be able 
 to tell a plant which belongs to the natural order ot 
 the lipped plants. 
 
 I must now help you to know the plants which 
 belong to another natural order the last which I shall 
 tell you about at present. 
 
 Have you ever noticed the inside of an open 
 umbrella ? You can see several straight rods. They 
 go from the little metal ring which is round the stick, 
 and support the curved rods upon which is stretched 
 the covering of the umbrella. 
 
 So in some plants, flower stalks branch off from 
 one point like those straight rods do from the stick 
 of an open umbrella. These flower stalks are not 
 always equal in length, but generally nearly so ; and 
 so is formed a head of flowers, which is both round 
 and flat, or nearly so. Such an arrangement is called 
 a Simple Umbel. But from each of these flower stalks 
 others often branch off again in the same way, and so 
 is formed a Compound Umbel. (Figs. 35, 36.) 
 
44 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 I am afraid I cannot 
 tell you an umbel- 
 bearing plant which 
 you know by name,, 
 unless perhaps you 
 have some little rabbits 
 and so have gathered 
 Fig. 35- -A Compound Umbel. kecksies for them. 
 These flowers are also called cow-parsley. 
 
 Many of the common garden plants, however, are 
 umbel-bearers, such as parsley, parsnip, carrot fennel, 
 and celery ; and these also grow wild. 
 
 But we will look 
 about to see if there 
 are any plants with 
 umbels of small white 
 or whitish flowers at 
 all like what I have 
 been tellingyou about. 
 They are common al- 
 most everywhere, and 
 you yvill not have any 
 difficulty, I think, in 
 finding some of them. 
 If we pass through 
 a wood, or any grass- 
 Fig. 36. Part of stem of an Umbel fields there is one 
 Bearer. Cow Parsnip. 
 
 (Heradetim sphondylium). umbel - bearer you 
 
 may find which you can easily tell by its stem. It is 
 a small plant, about half a foot or a foot high. It is 
 
LIPPED PLANTS AND UMBEL-BEARERS. 45 
 
 easily pulled up. Then if you look at the lower part 
 of the stem you will see that it is white and shiny, 
 and waved. 
 
 If you were to dig down carefully to the bottom 
 of the stem you would find there a little brown ball, 
 of which pigs are said to be fond, and that is why the 
 plant is called the earth or pig nut. 
 
 As some plants have flowers which at first sight 
 you may think are of this natural order of umbel- 
 bearers, be careful to examine them. All umbel- 
 bearers of this natural order have five petals, five 
 stamens, and you can see two separate ends at the top 
 of the pistil. 
 
 As we go home you shall see how many different 
 examples you can find of the four natural orders you 
 have learnt about. They are the cross-bearers, the 
 butterfly plants, the lipped plants, and the umbel- 
 bearers. With a little practice you will know them 
 quite well. 
 
4 6 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 GENUS AND SPECIES. 
 
 WE will begin to-day 
 by looking for some 
 of the butterfly plants. 
 We shall soon find the 
 little yellow Birds 
 Foot Trefoil, which, 
 I hope you now know 
 quite well. (Fig. 30). 
 Thereisgenerally some 
 of it by the roadside or 
 in a grass-field. Pick a 
 few of the flowers, and 
 also some of the red 
 or white clover : they 
 too are common. 
 Compare now the 
 bird's foot trefoil and 
 Fig. 37- The Daisy (Bellis perennis.) the clover. Although 
 
 they are both butterfly plants, and so belong, 
 as you know, to one natural order, yet there is 
 
GENUS AND SPECIES. 47 
 
 a good deal of difference between them. The 
 furze, with its large soft yellow flowers and 
 woody branches, sharp with spines, is another butter- 
 fly plant, but it shows a still greater difference. 
 Because of these differences between plants of the 
 same natural order, they are arranged in smaller 
 divisions, each of which is called a genus. I am 
 afraid this word genus sounds rather strange to you, 
 but try and remember it. It will help you to do- so, 
 if you think of it as meaning a family division. 
 
 So in the natural order of butterfly plants you 
 have the furze family, the clover family, and many 
 others. In the same way, amongst the umbel- 
 bearers there is the carrot family, the earth-nut 
 family, and many more. In like manner all the 
 natural orders are divided into families or genera, 
 which is the plural of genus. Two of the commonest 
 plants, the daisy and the dandelion will help you to 
 remember this. 
 
 Take a daisy, pull off one of its white outside 
 petals, and you will see something which looks soft 
 and downy at the end of it. It is a pistil, and the 
 white petal with its pistil is a flower, though not a 
 perfect one. But look at the middle of the daisy. 
 It is a bunch of yellow flowers. If they were mag- 
 nified, their beautiful yellow corollas would remind 
 you of the yellow crocus. Inside each of them you 
 would see the stamens and pistil. So the daisy flower 
 is made up of many little yellow flowers surrounded 
 by little white ones. Each of them is without a green 
 
48 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 calyx and without a stalk, but all are set in the top of 
 one common stalk and surrounded by some little green 
 leaves which are very much like a calyx. This kind 
 of flower is called a composite one, because it is com- 
 posed or made up of many little flowers or florets. 
 All plants which have these flowers are placed to- 
 gether in one natural order, the natural order of 
 composite plants, (cf Fig. 37, a and #.) 
 
 But now take the dandelion. Each of its yellow 
 petals has stamens and pistils, and in this case also 
 the whole flower is composed or made up of many 
 little flowers. So the dandelion and the daisy both 
 belong to the natural order of the composites. But 
 still they are clearly different from one another. 
 The difference is such that they belong to different 
 divisions of their natural order, each of which is 
 called a family or genus. 
 
 So now I can tell you that every plant has a family 
 name. We have our Browns, or Bulls, or Hunters, 
 and amongst the plants there are the Buttercups, the 
 Dead Nettles, the Clovers, the Daisies, and the Dan- 
 delions. 
 
 But you have another name, Mary or Kate, or John 
 or Robert, perhaps, and by it you are known from the 
 other members of your family. So every plant has 
 another name, and for the same purpose. So we have 
 the red clover and the white clover, the sweet violet 
 and the dog violet, the wild cherry and the bird 
 cherry, and so on. 
 
GENUS AND SPECIES. 49 
 
 This second name is called the specific name, 
 because it is the one which specifies or marks a 
 plant from differing plants of the same family. 
 
 All plants which are thus alike are called by one 
 specific name and belong to the same species. So 
 the plants in a natural order are arranged in divisions, 
 each of which is called a genus ; and the plants in a 
 genus are arranged in divisions, each of which is 
 called a species. 
 
 Our old friends the buttercups are a large family, 
 and they will give us good examples of their different 
 species. Let us go into the grassfield, and look for 
 the tall buttercup, with smooth round stems and 
 spreading calyx the common meadow buttercup. 
 Now, can we find one with the leaves of the calyx 
 turned back against the stem and with its flower 
 stalks furrowed ? Loosen the earth round it, and get 
 it up by the root, and see how it is swollen at the 
 bottom of the stem. This is another species or 
 member of the genus, and it is called the bulbous 
 buttercup. (Fig. 2.) By the roadside, by walls, 
 in shady places, we shall find still another specimen. 
 Its stalks are furrowed, but its calyx is spreading, and 
 it has runners, which creep along the ground and 
 throw out roots. This is called the creeping butter- 
 cup. Every plant, then, has a first name to tell its 
 family or genus, and a second name to tell the 
 members of the family from one another. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 THE grass by the 
 roadside reminds 
 us how useful 
 plants are to 
 mankind iorfood, 
 for no natural 
 order is more so 
 than that of the 
 grasses. The 
 wheat, the barley, 
 and the oats of 
 our cornfields all 
 belong to it, and 
 so does rice, 
 which is the chief 
 food of so many 
 millions of people in the East. But if we begin to 
 count up the plants we use for food, how many there are. 
 You can easily tell me more than a dozen, the stems, 
 or leaves, or seed vessels, or seeds of which we use as 
 
 Fig. 38 The Deadly Nightshade. 
 (Atropa belladonna.} 
 
USES OF PLANTS. 5 * 
 
 vegetables or as fruit, and there are very many more 
 which you have never seen or heard of. 
 
 But some plants are very poisonous. Perhaps you 
 have seen the bright red berries growing in the hedge- 
 banks, or in the woods, in autumn a cluster of them 
 upon one short stalk. They are the fruit of "lords 
 and ladies." But do not pick them. They may look 
 nice, but several of our wild English fruits would do 
 you great harm, and perhaps kill you, if you were to 
 eat them. One of them, with a berry like a black 
 cherry, is so poisonous that it is called the " deadly 
 nightshade " (Fig. 38). Never eat any berries or other 
 parts of plants unless you know that they are good 
 for food. 
 
 But here is the dandelion, and we may take it as an 
 instance of the use of plants in medicine. Not only 
 do plants give us food that we may live and grow, but 
 they give us medicine, to ease our pains, and make us 
 well again when we have fallen ill. Rhubarb, and 
 castor oil, and senna tea, what nasty things they are, 
 and yet so useful to do us good. And so are very 
 many of our common plants at home. 
 
 If you took one of the common stinging nettles, 
 and beat its stem against a tree, or bruised it with a 
 stick upon the ground, you would find how tough its 
 stem is. It is stringy or fibrous. Many other plants 
 are so, and from them are made several kinds of 
 matting and linen. From other plants we get our 
 cotton and many things which are used as clothing. 
 
 If oak trees are growing in the neighbourhood, we 
 
5 2 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 may find some oak apples. They are called galls, and 
 are caused first of all by a little fly, which makes a 
 hole under the skin of the oak, where it lays its eggs. 
 Some kinds of these galls are smaller, and quite 
 round and hard. You often see them with a little 
 round hole in them, which has been made by the grub 
 of the fly when it ate its way out of the little cell 
 where it was born. If we look at the wild rose 
 bushes we may find something of the same kind 
 there. They are a good size, and are covered with 
 hairs which are often coloured red. 
 
 The galls of an oak which grows in Asia Minor 
 are used for making ink. Have you ever seen, in the 
 woods, great piles of oak bark ? It is used for tan- 
 ning leather ; and there are oaks which grow in 
 France and Spain, of which the bark supplies what 
 we know as cork. 
 
 But the grasses, and the dandelion, and the nettle, 
 and the oak have reminded us of the uses of plants, 
 not only for food, or clothing, or medicine, but in very 
 many other ways. This is a very important part of 
 Botany, and you will find it full of interest. 
 
 You will notice also how different plants grow in 
 different soils ; and this kind of knowledge is useful to 
 the gardener, the farmer, and the geologist. 
 
 A. collection of dried plants is very useful to a 
 Botanist, and, if you are fond of Botany, you will 
 probably like to make one for yourself. In case you 
 should do so, I shall add a few hints in a postscript to 
 this short chapter. 
 
TO MAKE A COLLECTION OF PLANTS. 
 
 53 
 
 I hope what I have written to you has helped you 
 to spend some happy hours in " Flower-land," and to 
 make a beginning of a knowledge of plants which 
 shall be a pleasure and of use to you all your life 
 long. As you notice and admire their beauty and 
 usefulness more and more, I trust you will also grow 
 in reverence and gratitude towards God, who is our 
 Heavenly Father, and the great Creator and Preserver 
 of all things. 
 
 TO MAKE A COLLECTION OF PLANTS. 
 
 You will want a small tin to 
 carry your specimens in. In 
 the hand they would sooner be- 
 gin to wither, and would be 
 more easily crushed. Choose 
 plants with at least two well- 
 opened flowers, and with un- 
 broken leaves, and take the 
 plant with its root. Try to get 
 specimens of bud and fruit as 
 well as flower, and if you can 
 find them all on one plant so 
 much the better. 
 
 Root leaves are sometimes 
 very different from stem leaves, 
 and sometimes root leaves and calyx soon wither and 
 
 Fig. 39. Stonecrop 
 (Sedum). 
 
54 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 fall off. Try to get examples of such differences as 
 these, but if you cannot, make a note of them, so that 
 when you have dried the plants and placed them in 
 your collection you can write it down there. Note 
 also the place where you found the plant, with the 
 day of the month and year. You will often have to 
 write a note describing the kind of root a plant has, 
 as many of them are too thick to put in a collection. 
 
 When you get home you will dry your specimens 
 between sheets of thickish paper, which will absorb 
 their moisture. Then be careful how you lay them 
 out. Turn one of the leaves so as to show the under 
 side of it. Arrange the flowers so as to show as much 
 of the petals, stamens, and pistil as you can, but turn 
 one of them face downwards on the paper so as to 
 show the calyx. 
 
 With these exceptions, place the plant on the paper 
 as naturally as possible, so that you may keep before 
 your eye its natural shape and manner of growth. 
 Place plenty of paper between each plant, especially 
 between those which have much sap in them. Do not 
 put every plant in the centre of the sheet on which 
 you dry it, but try and arrange so that when 
 you have a pile of drying plants it may not bulge out 
 in the middle, but be as level as possible. Then put 
 boards above and below, and a good heavy weight 
 on the top. You should look the plants through 
 at least once a day, and change all paper that 
 has become damp. When the plants are quite dry, 
 you will place them upon sheets of rather thick paper 
 
TO MAKE A COLLECTION OF PLANTS. 55 
 
 (cartridge paper), and fasten them there with strips of 
 thin gummed paper. Keep these sheets separate till 
 thoroughly dry. They will then be ready for your 
 " Herbarium." 
 
 I have given you so many hints, because, if you be- 
 gin to collect at all, it is so much better for you to 
 begin well, and take pains from the very first. You 
 will soon be able to get some very good specimens 
 when you have practised a little, so do not be disap- 
 pointed if you find it rather difficult at first. 
 
 As you know more about plants, you will write 
 under each plant its natural order, its genus, its species, 
 and its name, with any notes you may think necessary. 
 And then arrange them under their classes and sub- 
 classes, with a corresponding index, so that you may 
 easily find any plant you may wish to look at. 
 
PART II 
 
A GENERAL VIE IV. 
 
 59 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 A GENERAL VIEW. 
 
 You have already 
 learnt something 
 about the chief 
 parts of Flower- 
 ing Plants, and 
 how they grow ; 
 and a little also 
 about the way in 
 which they are 
 classified and 
 named. But I 
 think you will 
 like to know that 
 there are other 
 
 Fig. 40. Honeysuckle. (Lonicera.) interesting things 
 
 for you to search into about them. So I will tell you 
 the branches or departments into which the science of 
 Botany is divided. 
 
 I. That which you have been learning most about, 
 the outward forms of plants and their parts, is 
 
60 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 called the Morphology * of Plants or Morphological 
 Botany. What a long word you say ! Well, you must 
 look at the bottom of the page and read how the 
 word is derived or made up and so learn what it 
 means. If you understand what the word means 
 you will more easily remember it. You should 
 always notice the derivation and meaning of 
 words whenever you can. It will help you very 
 much. So then Morphology is that part of 
 Botany which teaches about the outward " forms " 
 of plants. 
 
 2. But now take a part of a plant, the stem 
 for instance, of a buttercup or of a large garden lily, 
 and break it across. You cannot very easily make 
 out of what it is made up. Or try a leaf. Or 
 break a branch off a tree, and try and find out 
 about the different layers and substances of which 
 it is composed. Try it with an elder branch, for 
 instance, with its bark and wood and quantity 
 of pith. This part of Botany is called the 
 Anatomy-*? of Plants. To learn it thoroughly you 
 will need a powerful magnifying glass or micro- 
 scope^ but with the help of some pictures I think 
 you will be able to understand the beginning of 
 
 * From the Greek " morphe" form, shape, and "logos" a word, 
 speech, teaching. 
 
 t From the Greek "ana," up, and " temno," to cut, to cut up or 
 to dissect. Also called "Histology" from the Greek " histos" a web or 
 tissue, and " logos" word, speech, teaching. 
 
 | From the Greek " mikros? small, and '^ skopeo" I see. An 
 instrument through which you can see small things made larger. 
 
A GENERAL VIEW. 
 
 6l 
 
 this interesting part of Botany. You will look 
 forward to searching into it more thoroughly when 
 you are older. 
 
 3. So also with the next department, as to how 
 Plants live and grow, which is called the Physiology* 
 of plants. 
 
 4. Systematic Botany, or how plants are classified 
 and named, you know more about. You remember, 
 I hope, from Part I., about the Flowering and 
 Flowerless plants (Ch. I.), and the further divisions 
 of the Flower bearers into Classes, Natural Orders, 
 Genera, and Species (Chs. vm. to XL). 
 
 Let us try, for instance, with a clover plant, either 
 white or red. 
 
 Kingdom Vegetable. 
 
 Sub Kingdom - Flowering Plants. 
 
 Class Net-vtined (as to leaves). 
 
 Natural Order - Butterfly Plants. 
 
 Genus - Clover. 
 
 Species - White or Red. 
 
 But before we try to place and name plants, I 
 am going to tell you more about their parts, and 
 then you will be better able to understand the words 
 by which the different plants are described in 
 Systematic Botany. 
 
 There are three other branches or departments 
 which I shall just mention. 
 
 * From the Greek *' phusis" nature, and " logos" Teaching about 
 the nature or natural life of plants. 
 
62 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 5. Geographical Botany, which has to do with the 
 different places and countries in which plants grow, 
 owing to differences of soil and climate. 
 
 6. Fossil Botany, which is about the stony 
 remains or traces of plants which are found upon or 
 in the earth, and are called fossils, f 
 
 7. And last, a most important branch, the uses of 
 plants, or Economic Botany (Ch. XII). 
 
 So you see what a splendid variety is before you in 
 the study of Botany. You have gone out upon your 
 terrace as it were, and seen your pleasure grounds, and 
 fields, and gardens, as useful as they are enjoyable, 
 laid out before you. Let us go down and begin to 
 enjoy them. So I am going to tell you a little more 
 about the Morphology, the Anatomy, the Physiology^ 
 and the Classification of the Flowering Plants. 
 
 And as we go, be sure that you are not disheartened 
 by these long names. Have a good look at them, and 
 they will be like strange but interesting gateways, 
 through which you will enter into different depart- 
 ments of your property. Yours, for the country is 
 before you, and if you be as graceful in character as 
 the flowers are in form, and take care not to go where 
 you will do harm, you will not find many who will 
 refuse to let you search and enjoy almost as and 
 where you will. 
 
 * From the Greek ge (g pronounced hard as in get) the earth, ant 
 aphe, writing. 
 
 t From the Latin fosstfts (" fodio" I dig), dug up out of the earth. 
 
STEMS. 
 
 MORPHOLOGY. 
 
 ORGANS OF NUTRITION. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 LET us dig up a plant of our 
 old friend the meadow 
 buttercup, with its smooth 
 round stem and spreading 
 calyx (p. 5). The stem, the 
 root, and the leaves are 
 called Organs of Nutrition* 
 because they are the parts 
 by which plants live and 
 grow. But the other chief 
 parts, the flower and its fruit, 
 are called Organs of Repro- 
 duction^ because they are the 
 parts by which plants pro- 
 duce their seeds, from which 
 up young plants ; 
 and root, and leaves, 
 and flower, and fruit, and seed again. 
 
 Fig. 41. Sharp-flowered Rush. row 
 {Juncus actitijlorus.} stem 
 
 * From the Latin " nutria" I nourish, 
 t From the Latin " re" again, and " produco" I produce. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 ning to germinate. 
 
 I shall tell you first about the organs of nutrition, 
 the Stem, and Root, and Leaves. 
 
 Now if we can go into a garden and dig up one of 
 the plants which are just peeping 
 above the ground in a row of peas 
 or beans, it will be the best way of 
 beginning our second talk about 
 stems (cf. Ch. v). 
 
 Dig up a plant carefully, root 
 and all, and you will probably r 
 
 have the seed with it. You see Fi s-. 42.-Bean begin- 
 that from one part of the seed 
 the little stem has pushed its way 
 upwards till it has just appeared 
 above the surface of the soil 
 (Figs. 42 and 43). It has come 
 from a germ,* or young plant, 
 which is called the embryo^- which 
 was in the seed. Think of that. 
 Snugly packed within the skin 
 or covering of a seed is the baby 
 plant. Of course it is very small, 
 and its parts are not developed, 
 but still it is there, and alive, 
 that is ready to grow as soon Fig> 43 ._ T he same fur- 
 as its circumstances are such that ther advanced - 
 
 , TT A. plumule, r radicle. 
 
 it can do so. Here is a picture ^ seed leaves. 
 
 * Germ, origin. That from which anything springs. 
 f From the Greek " en" in, " bruo" to swell ; the first beginning or 
 origin of. 
 
STEMS. 65 
 
 of it in the seed of the common broad bean 
 (Fig. 48A). You are looking at the inside of one 
 of the halves of it. Notice particularly the little 
 thing like a bud at the point marked kn. It is 
 called the "plumule" * and is a kind of stem bud 
 or beginning, from which the stem in the plant you 
 are looking at has grown up (Fig. 43 /). So it 
 does also in all other flowering plants which are 
 grown from seed. 
 
 If when you read this it is too early in the season 
 to find a growing pea or bean in field or garden, 
 perhaps you have some little mustard or radish 
 plants just coming into sight try one of those. Or 
 if not, you will have a cornfield in your neighbour- 
 hood, with its beautiful green rows of corn just 
 appearing above the ground. It is worth a walk to 
 look at them. But when you get there you can easily 
 dig up a plant, with the seed still there ; and you can 
 notice how the stem has grown out from one part of 
 the seed where the plumule was. But now you know 
 about the beginning of the growth of the stem or 
 ascending axis, t 
 
 Now you should work through the following 
 different kinds of stems. 
 
 Some are scandent.\ These are climbing stems. 
 
 * From the Latin "plumufa" a little feather. 
 
 j* "Axis " is the straight line on which anything revolves, or may be 
 supposed to revolve, from the Greek " axon," an axle. 
 
 + From the Latin ** scando" I climb ; cf. stems of Vine, Hop, Virginia 
 Creeper, Honeysuckle, Bryony, Convolvulus. 
 
 6 
 
66 
 
 They climb either by the help of tendrils (p. 18), 
 or by aerial roots (p. 75), or by twisting 
 themselves round and round the object upon which 
 they climb. 
 
 When the stem rises and then bends down- 
 wards to the ground, it is called procumbent" ; when 
 the base of the stem lies along the ground, but 
 the top part of the stem rises erect, it is called 
 a decumbent t stem ; whilst stems which grow 
 altogether upon the ground are prostrate stems. + 
 When a prostrate stem throws out roots and forms 
 new plants along its course, it is called a creeping 
 stem. (Fig. 14, p. 18.) Sometimes long slender stems 
 are sent out which form small leaves at some distance 
 from the parent plant (Fig. 44 ), and from these 
 
 leaves, a new stem is sent on a^ain. 
 
 Fig. 44. Runner of the Strawberry (Fragaria). 
 
 a the parent plant, n the small leaves, b a new 
 
 plant, s the stolon or runner. 
 
 At these leaves 
 roots also form 
 and produce 
 new plants. 
 These long slen- 
 der stems are 
 called Runners 
 or Stolons. 
 
 Some plants 
 
 * From the Latin " procumbo," to lie down flat, to bend towards. 
 
 t From the Latin " decwnbo" to lie down. 
 
 % From the Latin " ' prosterno" to strike down, to lay flat. 
 
 II Called a Soboles (from the Latin), a shoot or young branch. Some 
 writers have used this word of lengthened Rhizomes, which you will 
 read about further on. 
 
STEMS. 67 
 
 die down every year to a short upright stem-base 
 just at the top of the root. This kind of stock or 
 stem-base has been called a crown because it is upon 
 the root like the crown is upon the king's head. 
 These stocks, however, vary a good deal in character 
 as you will find when you compare those which I 
 have mentioned ; and sometimes they remain visible 
 above the surface of the ground.* 
 
 Fig- 45- Lengthened rhizome of sand sedge (Carex arenaria}. 
 n Scaly leaves, w roots, a erect shoot with foliage leaves. 
 
 There are some stem bases or stocks which grow 
 along (horizontally) partly or altogether under 
 ground, and send up new leaves and flowers every 
 year. They are called Rhizomes^ Sometimes they 
 are thick and fleshy ; sometimes they are very much 
 
 *cf. Buttercup, Phlox, Rhubarb, Seakaie, Asparagus, Horse Radish, 
 Dahlia, Chrysanthemum, Fuchsia, Raspberry, Lavender. And cf. 
 Collar in Appendix. 
 
 f From the Greek " rizbma" a root, a stem. 
 
68 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 lengthened out and are comparatively thin.* (Fig. 45, 
 cf. Figs. 1,41.) 
 
 Search for these examples and compare them 
 together ; pull up also and compare a common nettle. 
 Get the plant well up so as to see how the young 
 nettles are beginning to grow. If you search where 
 the dead stalks of last year's nettles are, at any time 
 from January to March, you can see this very well. 
 
 Then another kind of stem-base you know already. 
 I mean a bulb, as that of the hyacinth or snowdrop 
 (p. 17). The bulb is made up of layers which 
 can be pulled off one by one. In some, each layer 
 circles round the one next inside it. These are 
 tunicated or coated bulbs.t (Fig. 46.) In others it is 
 made up of plates or scales, which 
 overlap each other like the slates 
 or tiles upon a rounded roof, and 
 these are distinguished as scaly 
 bulbs (Garden Lily). 
 
 But I have not yet told you about 
 what is called a " corm"\ Like 
 the bulb it is fleshy, but when you 
 
 Fig. 46. Bulb of a Hya- examine and compare them with 
 cinth. z The layers or 
 
 coats. one another you will soon see the 
 
 *cf. Primrose, Sweet Flag, Iris, Solomon's Seal, Wood Anemone, Lily 
 of Valley, Sand Sedge, Couch Grass, Bindweed, cfp. 66, note ||. 
 
 t cf. Onion, Snowdrop, Tulip, Hyacinth. 
 
 J From the Greek " kormos" the trunk of a tree with the boughs 
 lopped off, a log. 
 
STEMS. 69 
 
 difference. The corm is one solid mass all through. 
 
 o 
 
 If you cut it, it will be like cutting through a potato. 
 The best plan will be to do so. If you can get the 
 corm of a crocus and the bulb of a snowdrop and cut 
 them across, you will not easily forget the difference 
 between them. But the corm is sometimes spoken of 
 as a solid bulb.* 
 
 Somewhat of the same nature is a tuber.^ It is a 
 thick and fleshy mass or plant stock which produces 
 a bud, or buds, from which grows the new plant, root 
 downwards, and stem, leaves, and flowers upwards. 
 If you can dig up carefully a potato plant in full 
 growth, you will see underground stems with these 
 swellings, or tubers, upon them very plainly. We 
 commonly call them the potatoes. I dare say you 
 have noticed the buds, or " eyes " as they are called, 
 upon a potato tuber. If, in the spring, you look at 
 one which has been kept for planting, you will see the 
 buds sprouting, and stem, and leaves, and roots of the 
 new potato plant beginning to appear. 
 
 * cf. Meadow Saffron (Fig. 13, p. 16), Gladiolus, Colchicum, Crocus. 
 f From the Latin " tuber" a bump, a swelling, a knob. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 V 
 
 ROOTS. 
 
 WE now come 
 to the root or 
 descen ding 
 axis (p. 65), 
 so we must 
 not forget to 
 take with us 
 an old knife 
 or trowel. As 
 in our last 
 talk about 
 stem s, so 
 again we will 
 begin with a 
 seed which 
 has just be- 
 gun to grow. 
 
 Search for one wheat, or pea, or bean, or radish as 
 
 you did before. 
 
 But now notice that as the stem is growing 
 
 Fig. 47. Fennel (Fceniculum vulgare}. 
 c flower. 
 
 b root, 
 
ROOTS. 71 
 
 upwards, so the root is growing downwards. It 
 has grown from another part of the germ (p. 64.) 
 which is called the radicle* or 
 root -bud (Figs. 42, 43 r, and 48^). 
 Now let us see if we can find 
 the common dandelion. If we 
 can, we will dig it up with its 
 root. Have you broken it ? 
 At any rate you have enough of 
 it to see that it grows in a main 
 or chief root down into the 
 earth ; just the opposite to a 
 main upright stem, growing up- 
 wards into the air. A root, 
 which in its main or chief part 
 thus descends, is called a tap 
 root. You are familiar with it 
 in the thick and fleshy roots of 
 the carrot or turnip. You will 
 
 ... r Fig. 48. A Half a broad 
 
 remember the shape of a com- bean5 B bean beginning to 
 
 mon carrot or long radish. A grow,** the plumule, w the 
 
 i*ciciiclc. 
 
 root of that shape is called 
 fusiform^ or spindle-shaped. 
 
 The root of the turnip, you know, is rounder. 
 Perhaps we may see some in the fields, and that 
 shape is called globose or napiform ; { other words 
 such as conical, tapering, etc., are used to distinguish 
 
 * From the Latin " radix" a root. 
 
 t From the Latin "fusts " a spindle, and "forma" form or shape. 
 
 + From the Latin " napus" turnip, and "forma" form or shape. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 fus1forn?roof 
 
 varieties of this kind of root The 
 hard and woody tap root of a tree is 
 often much branched. And very often the 
 main root of a plant begins to be branched 
 so soon, and the whole root is branched so 
 much, that you cannot clearly distinguish 
 any tap root Indeed, in some plants, the 
 radicle does not grow downwards in one 
 main root at all, but breaks out from the 
 seed at once in many rootlets. You can 
 see this very well in a young wheat plant 
 whilst the seed is still attached to it You 
 will easily find one in this stage of growth 
 
 ^ y ou ^^ m tne wneat ^ e ^ when the 
 blades of wheat are just appearing 
 
 above the ground. Now let us pull up a common 
 
 plant, a buttercup, dead nettle, or bit of groundsel, 
 
 and see how its root is branched. These branches 
 
 of the root are called "fibres" and the root is "fibrous" 
 
 (Figs. I, 2, 27). These root fibres 
 
 vary very much in thickness. 
 
 They vary from the thread-like 
 
 fibres of the common grass, to 
 
 the string-like bluntish ones of 
 
 the daisy or orchis ; and to the 
 
 thick, woody, cord-like fibres, 
 
 branching and tapering down to 
 
 fine and thread-like ends, as in 
 
 the roots of trees (Fig. 50). 
 
 The finest thread-like branches 
 
 Fig. 50. A branching 
 root. 
 
ROOTS. 73 
 
 of fibres have been called fibrils, or little fibres, and if 
 you looked at them through the microscope you 
 would, in some cases, see upon them still finer 
 threads or root hairs (cf. Fig. 29 h, p. 34). 
 
 As you look at these fibrous roots you can notice 
 another difference between roots and stems. As 
 roots are different from stems in not having any 
 leaves (p. 16), so also they do not branch, like stems 
 do in any regular order. 
 
 And there is another thing to notice. Sometimes a 
 root has its fibres much enlarged into fleshy swellings 
 or tubercles * as in the garden dahlia. Do not confound 
 these tubercles or swollen root fibres with the tubers 
 or swellings of underground stems. The tubercles do 
 not break into bud as the tubers do. If you can get 
 a gardener to show you some dahlia stocks when he 
 is planting them in the spring time, you will see a 
 good example of these tubercles, and then notice how 
 the new shoots are coming from the old stem stock, 
 and none from the tubercles alone. These tubercular 
 roots are often called nodulose, i.e., knotty. f When 
 you know more plants by name you will be able to 
 find such a root in the common dropwort (Spircea 
 filipendula], and to compare with it that of the water 
 hemlock dropwort (CEnanthe crocatd}. In some 
 plants these swellings are all along the root fibres, so 
 that they look like strings of oval beads, % and if you 
 
 * From the Latin " tubtrculus" " tuber" swelling, bump, 
 t From the Latin " nodus" a knot. 
 
 \ That kind of root is called moniliform, from the Latin " 
 a necklace. 
 
74 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 can get a chemist to show you a piece of ipecacuanha 
 root, you will see an example of a ringed or annulated * 
 root. (Fig. 9, p. 12.) Do not be content with 
 looking at the picture, but try and see a piece 
 of the root itself. 
 
 But there are adventitious roots (p. 80). As for 
 instance those which grow from the leaves or stems 
 of plants. Perhaps you would not expect to find 
 roots growing from leaves ; but they do so in certain 
 ferns. And you can find plenty that grow from 
 stems. You will see them very well in the rhizomes, 
 or underground stems of the 
 bindweed, the couch grass, the 
 wood anemone and others. 
 (Figs. 41, 45). Compare also the 
 roots from bulbs and corrns 
 (Fig. 13, p. 1 6), or of tubers, as 
 those from a potato " eye " ; or 
 from the creeping stems which 
 grow upon the ground, such as 
 those of the creeping buttercup, 
 wild thyme, and the ground ivy. 
 (Fig. 14, p. 1 8.) This tendency 
 of stems to produce roots, just 
 as some roots have a ten- 
 dency to send up stems, is seen 
 very clearly when a gardener 
 Fig. 5 i.-Part ofstem of takes cuttings o f plants or 
 Watercress (Nasturtium 
 officinal*} producing roots. " layers " them. Parts of the 
 
 * From the Latin " anttu/us," a ring. 
 
ROOTS. 75 
 
 stem thus planted or layered in the ground give off 
 roots and grow into independent plants. 
 
 But sometimes roots grow from ascending stems, 
 when they are called Aerial Roots. A familiar instance 
 is the ivy, and you know how by these roots it clings 
 to the trees or walls upon which it grows. No doubt 
 we shall pass some as we go along. In the banyan 
 tree, a native of India, these aerial roots are very 
 remarkable. They grow downwards until they reach 
 the earth, where they take root thick and strong, and 
 a single tree thus makes quite a little wood of its 
 own, and may spread over several acres of ground. 
 All these are adventitious roots, and so also are those 
 branch roots which grow upon old root fibres out of 
 the ordinary course of growth. 
 
 As we go home I will just mention some plants 
 which are called Parasites and Saprophytes. The 
 former are called Parasites* because they feed upon 
 other plants, sending down their roots into the plant 
 upon which they live, and from it sucking up their 
 food. A familiar example of a parasitic plant is the 
 mistletoe. But some plants, instead of feeding upon 
 other living plants in the same way which the 
 parasites do, take up food from decaying matter, and 
 these are called Saprophytes, f You will understand 
 more about them when you know more about the 
 physiology of plants. 
 
 * From the Greek "para," beside, and " sites," food ; "parasites," 
 eating at the table of another. 
 
 tFrom the Greek " sapros" decayed, and " phutos" grown, growing 
 (upon). 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 BUDS AND BRANCHING. 
 
 Fig. 52. The Birch (Betula alba}. 
 
 to pull a bud carefully to pieces. 
 
 Now can you 
 find any buds ? 
 If you can, I 
 want you to no- 
 tice how dif- 
 ferent they are 
 in shape upon 
 the different 
 trees. Some 
 round and fat: 
 some long and 
 thin; some 
 smooth and 
 hard, as in the 
 ash ; some soft 
 to touch like 
 velvet, as in the 
 palm and willow. 
 It is worthwhile 
 We will have 
 
BUDS AND BRANCHING. 77 
 
 one of the sycamore, if we can find it. Now peel 
 off its scales, one by one, with your pocket knife ; 
 and at last you will come to a bundle of tiny 
 leaves, very beautiful, and arranged in most beautiful 
 order round the growing point in the middle of the 
 bud. I hope you have a magnifying glass, and if you 
 use it now, you will find how much it helps you. 
 Now cut a bud down the middle, and from another 
 cut off a good piece of the top. Let us examine in 
 this way, one or two different kinds of buds : the 
 larger ones, even if you have not got a magnifying 
 glass. 
 
 If we can find a horse chestnut bud for instance, 
 notwithstanding its stickiness, we will take off its 
 scales. This woolly cluster contains the baby leaves. 
 Open it out carefully, and you will see them, 
 beautifully shaped, and wrapped up snug and warm 
 in their woolly covering. Or try the buds of the 
 common lilac. You will not search long without 
 seeing the future flowers, in a most beautiful green 
 bunch or cluster. Through the glass you can even 
 see the shape of their petals. But perhaps it is too 
 late in the season for us to search amongst the buds. 
 If it is, remember that as buds are formed in the 
 autumn this will be something to do on fine days in 
 the winter and the early spring. How the future leaves 
 and flowers can all be packed away like they are in 
 the leaf and flower buds* is marvellous indeed. But 
 
 * Buds produce branches with leaves or flowers only, or with both. 
 
7 8 FLO WER-LAND. 
 
 though this is not more wonderful perhaps than the 
 germ plant of the seeds, the contents of the bud are 
 more beautiful to look at. You will find buds a 
 splendid store for exploration during the winter 
 months, and will enjoy searching out their wonderful 
 and varied beauties, especially if you are fortunate 
 enough to have a microscope. 
 
 If you pick a leafy branch of some common bush 
 or tree late in the season and notice where the new 
 buds are being formed, you will find them in what are 
 called the axils * of the leaves. What are these 
 axils ? Pick any small leafy branch and hold it up- 
 right, but so that you can look down upon it. The 
 crevice or angle into which you look between any one 
 leaf and the stem immediately above it is the axil 
 (Fig. 8 1, /), and it is in these leaf axils that all 
 lateral f buds are formed. 
 
 But since leaves vary in the order of their 
 position upon different kinds of trees, so also do 
 the branches which grow out from their axils. 
 And branches differ upon different trees, not only 
 in their position and arrangement, but also in the 
 manner in which they develop or lengthen out. 
 For sometimes they grow almost erect, as in 
 the Italian poplar ; sometimes they grow out almost 
 
 * From the Latin "axilla" an armpit. 
 
 t From the Latin " latus" a side. Buds at the ends of branches or 
 stems are called terminal, from the Latin " terminus," the end. 
 
BUDS AND BRANCHING. 79 
 
 at right angles and make a spreading tree, as in the 
 oak ; sometimes they bend more downwards to the 
 ground, as in the weeping ash or willow. Thus we 
 have a great variety in the branching and outline 
 of our trees (Fig. 52). Mark this as we walk 
 along, and notice how greatly it adds to the beauty 
 and the character of our scenery ! There is a like 
 variety on a smaller scale amongst the shrubs and 
 herbs. 
 
 You will learn the different kinds of branching, 
 and the names given to them, when you are more 
 advanced. But you should learn now that branches 
 generally grow in a regular order, according to their 
 age. That is, those which are nearest to the grow- 
 ing end of the main stem, or axis, from which 
 they spring, are generally the youngest. Their order 
 in space is generally their order in age. And this 
 order of growth is called acropetal succession* 
 
 But sometimes it is not so, for the buds may lie 
 dormant,! and their branches are then said to be 
 deferred. 
 
 And sometimes branches grow quite out of order. 
 When a tree has been cut down, or its lower branches 
 cut off, you can often see new stems shooting out from 
 the base of the old stem. Such also are those stems 
 which sometimes grow up from the roots, much to the 
 annoyance of the farmer and the gardener. You may 
 
 * From the Greek " akros" at the top ; " petalon" a leaf. Acropetal, 
 growing, developing at the highest point of the stem or axis. 
 
 t From the Latin " dormio" I sleep. 
 
80 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 find them along the hedgerows on certain elm and 
 poplar trees. If you can carefully dig up any of the 
 suckers of a plum tree in a garden, you will see how 
 they have sprung up from the roots. These stems 
 are called adventitious* because they grow out of 
 order, and appear where they might not have been 
 expected. 
 
 There is a little more which I must tell you about 
 stems, before we pass on to leaves. For instance, 
 what is the difference between a " thorn " and a 
 " prickle " ? Well, let us see if we can find a haw- 
 thorn,! or a sloe bush ; and also a bramble, or a wild 
 rose (Fig. 5, p. 8). Probably we can easily find a 
 rose or bramble growing in a hedge of white thorn. 
 Now we will take a spray of white or black thorn, and 
 carefully take off the bark from one of its thorns, and 
 from the part of the stem from which the thorn grows. 
 Now try to break the thorn off from the stem. Now 
 cut it off. You see that the thorn is a part of the wood 
 of the stem. It is a kind of stunted sharpened 
 branch. But now come to a branch of rose or 
 bramble. You can break off the prickles easily. 
 They are not modified branches, that is, they 
 have not grown out from the wood of the stem like 
 the thorns. You will understand more about this here- 
 
 * From the Latin " advenio, adventitius" that comes to, accidental, 
 additional. 
 
 f From the Saxon " hag" hag, a hedge. Hawthorn, or hedge-thorn ; 
 it is also called May-bush, or White-thorn. The Sloe has a darker 
 coloured bark, and is therefore often called Black-thorn. 
 
BUDS AND BRANCHING. 
 
 cSl 
 
 ig- 53- A thorny branch. 
 
 Hairs grow from, 
 and belong entirely 
 to the skin of plants. 
 They are found in 
 many different forms 
 clavate * or club- 
 shaped, uncinate * or 
 hooked, capitate * or 
 knobbed, etc. When 
 they are stiff and 
 sharp like a bristle, 
 they are called seta ; 
 
 after. Now you can remember 
 that tJiorns are the wood of the 
 stem, whilst prickles arc- 
 growths from the more exter- 
 nal parts of the stem, and 
 easily break off. Thorns too 
 grow in a regular order like 
 branches do ; but prickles 
 grow here and there irregularly. 
 
 Fig. 54. -Hairs on* young part of a 
 plant (magnified 100 times). l> Glandu- 
 lar hair, c e /early stages of growth. 
 
 * From the Latin " clara" a club; " unct-ts," a hook; 
 head ; "seta," a bristle. 
 
82 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 and when they are enlarged at one end, swelling out 
 and forming a kind of bag, they are called glandular 
 hairs* 
 
 Hairs grow upon other parts of plants besides 
 stems, and the surfaces upon which they grow are 
 described by various terms, according to the character 
 and quantity of the hairs which may be upon them. 
 Many of these terms are words in common use, 
 such as woolly, silky, etc. Some need a word of 
 explanation, such as pubescent^ or downy ; setose^ 
 or bristly ; toi)ientose,\ or felted. 
 
 When a surface is smooth and free from hairs, it is 
 said to be " glabrous "$ 
 
 * From the Latin " glandiila," glans, acorn-like fruit, a soft swelling, 
 or vessel more or less nut-shaped, cf. Gland, in Appendix. 
 
 f From the Latin " pubesco? to begin to have a beard ; "seta,"" a 
 bristle; and " tomentum" locks clipped off wool. Tomentose, short 
 dense, matted hairs, making a surface like felt on a woolly surface the 
 matted, curled hairs are longer. 
 
 | From the Latin, " glaber," smooth, bald, bare. 
 
LEA VES. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 LEAVES. 
 
 Now let 
 us see if we 
 can find a 
 dead nettle. 
 We shall 
 soon fi n d 
 one, either 
 white or 
 red, as we 
 go along 
 almost any 
 country 
 road. No- 
 tice the pla- 
 ces where 
 the leaves 
 grow out 
 from the 
 stem. These places are called nodes.'-' In the dead 
 
 Fig. 55. Privet (Ligustrum vtilgare). Showing 
 decussate leaves, b The fruit. 
 
 From the Latin "nodus" a knot, a bond, a connection, a joint. 
 
84 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 nettle the stem is thickened a good deal at the 
 nodes" (Fig. 33, p. 41). 
 
 It generally is so when several leaves grow out 
 from the stem at the same level, and also when the 
 leaves form a sheath round the stem, as in the pinks 
 and carnations in our gardens. Or you can see these 
 prominently thickened nodes in the stems of the 
 common grass. * Now gather the stems of some 
 herbaceous plants, and a few small branches of trees 
 or shrubs, and point out the nodes to me as we walk 
 along. Yes ! any place where a leaf grows out from 
 a stem is called a node. The parts of the stem 
 between the nodes are called internodes.\ (cf. Figs. 14, 
 p. 1 8 and 44, 45, n the nodes.) 
 
 Leaves are always formed in acropetal succession 
 (p. 79), and unless checked from any cause so they 
 grow. So the youngest leaves upon a stem or branch 
 are those which are nearest to its tip or growing point. 
 Take for instance a simple unbranched stem like that 
 of the dead nettle. As you go upwards from the 
 base of the stem the leaves are younger as you go. 
 
 Now if you notice the position of the leaves upon the 
 stems of the dead nettle, you will see that they do not 
 grow here and there irregularly, but in a certain order. 
 It is so upon other plants : and the different ways 
 in which the leaves are arranged upon the different 
 
 * The stem of a grass is called " a culm" from the Latin 
 " culmus," the stem or straw of corn. 
 
 t From the Latin " inter,' 1 '' between, and " nodus" 
 
LEA VES. 
 
 kinds of herbs and trees is called phyllotaxis.* When 
 leaves grow two or more together at the same level of 
 the stem, they are in whorls or whorled (Fig. 56). 
 Now if you look again at the leaves upon a common 
 dead nettle you will see that they are arranged in 
 pairs, each pair con- 
 sisting of two oppo- 
 site leaves. Each 
 pair grows so that its 
 two leaves are over 
 the spaces between 
 the two leaves next 
 below it. This 
 arrangement of leaves 
 is called decussate, f 
 You can find exam- 
 ples of it in the 
 privet (Fig. 55), 
 honeysuckle, horse 
 chestnut, and many 
 others. You will learn 
 more about Phyllo- 
 taxis or leaf arrange- 
 
 Fig. 56. Woodruff. (Aspemla odoi-ata}. 
 
 merit when you are showing leaves in whorls, 
 
 older. 
 
 But before we leave the position of the leaves we 
 
 * From the Greek "/////<>," a leaf, and "taxis? order, arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 t From the Latin " decusso" I cut crosswise. 
 
86 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 will notice what are called radical* or root leaves. 
 They are called so, not because they really grow from 
 the root, but because at first sight they seem as 
 though they did so. You know that they really grow 
 from the stem base or underground stem as the case 
 may be (p. 67, 73). 
 
 Compare for instance two common plants with 
 radical or root leaves : the primrose in which they 
 grow from the rhizome (cf. Fig. i), and the dan- 
 delion in which they grow from its crown. 
 (Fig. 138.) If you can find a plant of the common 
 avens,t or herb bennet at the right stage of growth 
 you will find upon it not only stem or caitline% leaves, 
 as they are called, but stem base or radical leaves 
 also. 
 
 Now let us pick a few common leaves dandelion, 
 rose, or ash tree will do very well ; and hold one up 
 towards the light, and look at the beautiful network 
 which is made by its veins. (Fig. 27 p. 32.) This 
 network or other pattern which the veins may make 
 is called the venation of the leaf. I say this network 
 or other pattern because sometimes the leaves are 
 straight veined, instead of net veined. You will 
 remember this from Part I. (p. 34). But pick a snow- 
 drop or hyacinth leaf, or a blade of grass, and com- 
 pare their venation once again with that of the ash, 
 or rose, or dandelion leaf. Do you remember what I 
 
 * From the Latin "radix," a root. 
 
 f Gen i n urbamun. 
 
 t From the Latin " caul is" a stem. 
 
LEA VES. 07 
 
 told you about this difference in the venation of 
 leaves ? Quite right. As a general rule it is one of 
 the marks of difference between two out of the three 
 great classes into which flowering plants are divided 
 (cf. Fig. 169). 
 
 But I want you to notice particularly two different 
 kinds of venation amongst the net veined leaves. 
 One kind is called palmate." Let us look for an ivy 
 leaf. Now we shall see an example of this palmate 
 
 Fig. 57. B, Leaf of Lady's Mantle (Alcketnilla vulgaris}. Show- 
 rngpal/itate venation. A, Leaf of the Beech (Fagus sylvatica). Showing 
 pinnate venation. 
 
 venation. You see that the veins separate into 
 several main branches just at the point where the}' 
 enter the broad flat part of the leaf. There is a very- 
 beautiful leaf in which you can see this kind of 
 
 From the Latin "/////#," the palm of the hand. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 venation very well. Here is a picture of it (Fig. 
 57> B) ; but I want you to try and find it, for a picture, 
 though it shows you its venation very well, does not 
 give you at all a good idea of its beauty. It has 
 been thought to be like a cloak or mantle, and the 
 plant is called from this fancied resemblance of its 
 leaves, the lady's mantle. It has small greenish 
 clustered flowers. When you see the plant on a fine 
 spring morning, with glittering drops of water on its 
 beautiful green leaves, I think you will admire it very 
 much. You will find other examples of this venation 
 in the leaves of the maple, the sycamore, or the 
 common currant. Leaves with the main veins thus 
 spread out remind you somewhat of a hand with out- 
 spread fingers. This is why this kind of venation is 
 said to be palmate, and the leaves in which it occurs 
 are called palmate veined. 
 
 You will see quite a different pattern of venation in 
 a leaf of the beech or elm ( Fig. 5 7, A). Let us pick one. 
 Here you see one main vein passing all the way up 
 the middle of the leaf, and from which branch veins 
 are given off on both sides. This is supposed to 
 remind one of the shape and arrangement in a 
 feather, with its mid rib and many feathery branches, 
 so this kind of venation is called pinnate* 
 
 Now we will pick a single leaf of the lesser 
 
 * From the Latin "pinna" a feather. 
 
LEA VES. 
 
 8 9 
 
 celandine if you can find one violet, 
 sycamore, or ivy will do and I will 
 tell you about its different parts. 
 This broader part is called the 
 lamina* or blade, whilst the leaf stalk y 
 is called the petiole^ Take off a leaf 
 carefully from the celandine, so as not 
 to tear it, and you see that the stalk 
 is widened at the lower end (Fig. 58). 
 
 But now pick a tall leafy stem of one 
 Fig. 58.! 
 Lesser Gel 
 
 (Ranunculus ficaria} begins at once from the stem. 
 
 /blade, /stalk, 
 
 sheath. is no petiole, as in the 
 have been looking at. But if you look 
 closely, and pull the blade of grass 
 downwards from the stem, you will 
 find that from the blade down to the 
 node from which the leaf arises there 
 is a portion which surrounds the stem 
 (Fig. 59). Take a tall leafy stem of 
 grass or corn, and pull the top part Fig. 59. Part of 
 
 a stem, with leaf 
 
 away from the bottom part. The top of a Grass ; a the 
 
 ... -- _ , stem, /the blade, 
 
 part will come off at one of the nodes, v the sheath, /the 
 
 and you will pull it out from the leaf 
 
 sheath of that node as you would draw a sword out of 
 
 There 
 leaves we 
 
 * From the Latin "/amuia," a plate or thin piece (of metal), a sword 
 blade. 
 
 t From the Latin " petiolus " (from pes, a foot), a little foot or stalk. 
 
 J A ligule (from the Latin ligula) is a small tongue-like growth from 
 the leaf, as in the picture, and common in grasses and petals of some 
 flowers (Fig. 89). 
 
90 FL IV ER- LAND. 
 
 its sheath, or an umbrella from its case. So that 
 there are three chief parts of a leaf for you to remem- 
 ber the lamina, or blade ; the petiole, or stalk ; and 
 the sheath. Sometimes a leaf is not only without any 
 petioles as in the grass, or without any sheath as in the 
 ivy or violet, but it has neither petiole nor sheath 
 The blade arises immediately from the node, and so 
 because it sits as it were upon the stem, such a leaf 
 is described as sessile * (Fig. 56). 
 
 * From the Latin " sessilis" sitting (sedco, I sit). 
 
DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEA VES. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEAVES. 
 
 You have already 
 learnt the difference 
 between [simple and 
 compound leaves 
 (p. 22), and we will 
 take the simple leaves 
 first. If the leaf is 
 long and narrow, like 
 a pin or needle, it is 
 called acicular, from 
 the Latin word 
 acicula, a needle. If it is 
 round like a penny, it 
 is called orbicular or 
 circular. There arc 
 manv leaves which arc 
 
 Fig. 60. A Thistle (Cardinis) with 
 
 spiny leaves. between these two 
 
 forms varying from the shape of the needle to that 
 of the penny, and these are called linear (Figs. 
 13, p. 16; 174), oblong, oval, elliptical, and 
 
9 2 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 rotundate, or nearly round, as the case may be 
 (Figs. 9, p. 12] 25, p. 28;. 
 
 Then another set of simple leaf-forms is made up 
 of those leaves which are broader at their base, with 
 a more or less pointed end. These are called from 
 various things to which they are like in shape; and 
 
 Fig. 62.- 
 Ovate. 
 
 Fig- 63. 
 Cordate. 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 Lanceolate. 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 Hastate. 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 Sagittate. 
 
 are subulate or aivl-shaped, lanceolate or lance-shaped, 
 ovate or egg-shaped, cordate or Jieart-shaped, hastate or 
 Jialbert-sJiaped, * sagittate or arrow-shaped^ as the case 
 may be. (Figs. 61 to 65). 
 
 * These words are derived from the Latin, " subula" an awl; 
 'OVUM" an egg; "cor, cordis" the heart; " hasta" a halbert ; 
 ' ' sagitta, " an arrow. 
 
DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEAVES. 93 
 
 Sometimes they are just the opposite, the 
 narrow part being at the base and the broad 
 part at the tip. Then they are called 
 obovate, obcordate, oblanceolate, or spathulate? 
 which last you can see in Fig. 66. 
 
 Some simple leaves are called reniform* 
 
 Fig/"66. from their likeness in outline to a kidney. 
 Spathulate. ,p. f x- , 
 
 When the stalk does not join the 
 blade or lamina (p. 89) at its margin, 
 but at some part of its under surface 
 within the margin, the leaf is called 
 peltate, * and these leaves are generally 
 circular. You have an example of them Reniform. 
 in the pennywort,! so called because of its rounded 
 leaves like pennies. These simple leaf forms are very 
 various, and in describing them two words are often 
 used together, as ovate lanceolate or linear oblong. 
 
 We will now notice the margins or edges of leaves. 
 A leaf is 
 
 Entire When its margin is neither fringed with hairs, 
 nor interrupted by notches or indentations 
 
 (Fig- 55, P- 83). 
 
 Emarginate When its margin has a notch in it at the 
 top or end of the blade, 
 
 * From the Latin "spat /////</," a broad flat spoon or slice; 
 ren, rents," a kidney ; " pelta," a shield 'or buckler. 
 
 f Hydrocotyle vulgaris. 
 
94 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 Acute or obtuse According as the end is pointed or 
 the contrary (cf. Figs. 1,9, p. 12; 38, p. 50). 
 
 Mucronate* When, being more or less obtuse, it ends 
 in a short, stiff, sharp projecting point (Fig.3Ojp.37X 
 
 Ciliate* When it is fringed with hairs (Fig. 5 /A, p.87). 
 
 A 
 
 /avy. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 Crenate. 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 Serrate. 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 Dentate. 
 
 Then sometimes the margin is wavy or sinuous (Fig. 
 68, and Fig. 60, p. 91) ; but it is called 
 Crenate* When it is notched in a rounded manner 
 
 (Fig. 69). 
 Serrate* When notched with sharp teeth sloping 
 
 forwards, as in a saw (Fig. 70). 
 Dentate* When the notches are upright (Fig. 71). 
 
 Sometimes the indentations of leaves are deeper, so 
 that they not only affect the margin, but also the 
 general shape of the leaf. When the portions between 
 the indentations are rounded, they are called "lobes? 
 and the leaf is " lobed" ; but if they are more pointed 
 
 * From the Latin " mucro" v, short point, a sword or dagger; 
 "ff/JfMf," the edge of the eyelids, the hairs of the eyelids ; " crena" a 
 notch ; " serra,'* a saw ; " Jens, dentis" a tooth. 
 
DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEAVES. 
 
 95 
 
 and tooth-like, then the leaf is described by the use of 
 the termination "fid?* which means divided or cleft : 
 for these leaves are described not only by the way in 
 which they are indented or divided, but also by the 
 character of their venation (p. 86). So if their vena- 
 tion is of the palmate kind they are palmately lobed 
 or palmatifid (by some called simply palmate t), 
 but if it is of the pinnate kind they are pinnately 
 lobed or pinnatifid, as the case may be. (%cf. Figs. 57, 
 p. 87 ; 4, p. 7 ; 28, p. 33 ; 72, and Figs. 73, 74.) 
 
 Fig. 72. ralmatifid. 
 
 - 73- 
 Pinnatifid. 
 
 Fig. 74. A deeply 
 divided leaf. 
 
 There are two special forms which I must tell you 
 of before we leave these divided simple leaves. In 
 one form, the end or terminal lobe is the largest, and 
 
 * From the Latin " findo" I cut or cleave. 
 
 fFrom the Latin " pal mains " (fr. " palnio "), marked with the palm 
 of the hand, resembling a hand with the fingers spread (cf. note p. 87). 
 
 I The terminations "partite" (from the Latin "/#r//0 ", I divide), 
 and "sscted" (from the Lntin " ssco" I cut, cut asunder), are used to 
 distinguish leaves with deeper and very deep indentations. Palmati or 
 pinnati partite : palmati or pinnati sected (fig. 74). The term 
 "fid" being used for those which are less deeply indented. 
 
9 6 
 
 FLOWER- LAND. 
 
 the side divisions are smaller as they are nearer the 
 base. This form of leaf is called lyrate* 
 (Fig. 75.) In the other, the end division 
 is triangular, and the side teeth become 
 smaller and have their points inclined 
 towards the base : and this form of leaf is *s^^ 
 
 / ! r* 
 
 known as runcinate* (Fig. 76.) ^"mfes 
 
 Now let us turn to compound Fig. 75. 
 
 leaves. These are either pal- L >' rate - 
 mately or pinnately compound, accord- 
 ing to the arrangement of their leaflets 
 upon the palmate or the pinnate plan 
 (p. 87). When the leaflets branch off 
 from one point at the end of the petiole 
 they are palmately compound (cf. Fig. 
 77) ; but when the leaflets branch off 
 upon either side of the lengthened petiole, 
 they are pinnately compound (Fig. 78). 
 
 A. Palmately compound leaves are 
 called ternate\ (Fig. 30, p. 37) when 
 the leaflets are three in number ; and bi 
 or tri-ternate\ when each leaflet is 
 further divided into two or three 
 leaflets, as the case may be. They 
 are called quadrinate\ if they have Fig.;;. -Digitate 
 
 (Palmately com- 
 
 four leaflets, quinate \ if they have five. pound). 
 
 * From the Latin " lyra? a harp ; " runcina? a large saw. 
 
 t From the Latin " terni," three, leaflets by threes ; in like manner 
 " quadrinatc " from " quadrini? four each ; " quinafe" from " quini? 
 five each. 
 
 From the Latin " bis? twice ; " tres? three. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 Runcinate. 
 
DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEAVES. 
 
 97 
 
 But when they have five or more leaflets they 
 are commonly called digitate* or fingered (Fig. 77), 
 
 B. Pinnately compound leaves. 
 These are called pinnate, and their 
 leaflets pinnae (Fig. 78). They are 
 impari pinnate, or pari-pinnate (un- 
 equally or equally pinnate) accord- 
 ing as there is, or is not, an odd 
 terminal leaflet (cf. Figs. 51, p. 
 74 ; 173). Sometimes the pinnate 
 division is repeated, and the pinnae 
 are themselves pinnate. The 
 bi-pinnate, or tri-pinnate, according 
 
 Fig. 78. Pin- 
 nate (Pinnately 
 compound). 
 
 leaves are then 
 
 Fig. 79. A amplexicaul, B perfoliate, C connate. 
 
 *From the Latin " digitus," a finger. 
 
 fWhen some of the pinnae are largei than others, and the pinnae 
 are not arranged in order of size the leaf is interruptedly pinnate. 
 Sometimes the terms bijugate, trijugate, etc., are used to denote the 
 number of the pairs of pinnoe. From the Latin " bis," twice ; " tres" 
 three ; and " jugum" a yoke, a pair. 
 
 8 
 
98 FL O WER-LAND. 
 
 as the pinnate division is repeated twice or thrice, 
 and the leaflets of the pinnae are pinnules^ 
 
 Now lastly, I must tell you that sessile (p. 90) leaves 
 vary a good deal in the way in which they grow at 
 their junction with the stem. They are connate* when 
 two opposite leaves are united at their bases (Fig 79, C}\ 
 perfoliate\ when the base grows out so as to extend 
 upon the other side of the stem and surround it 
 (Fig. 79, B) ; amplexicaul% when the extended base 
 does not make the leaf perfoliate, but still more or 
 less surrounds or embraces the stem (Fig. 79, A}\ 
 decurrent^ when the leaf extends down the sides 
 of the stem on which it grows, as in Scotch and other 
 thistles. And a stem which is thus leafy, or has a 
 thin membrane projecting from it, is spoken of as 
 " ivinged" 
 
 Care and perseverance in learning well these differ- 
 ent forms of leaves will save you much trouble and 
 delay in time to come.|| 
 
 * From the Latin " con" together, and " nattis^ grow, "nascer," I 
 grow. 
 
 t From the Latin "per" through, "folium"*, leaf; the stem 
 passing through the leaf. 
 
 J From the Latin " amplexor" I embrace, and " caulis" a stem. 
 
 From the Lutin "</<?," down, and " eurro," I run. 
 
 || For some other words used in describing leaves see Appendix B. 
 
STIPULES, BRACTS, AND SCALES. 
 
 99 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 STIPULES, BRACTS, AND SCALES. 
 
 BUT now I want to tell 
 you about certain expan- 
 sions which sometimes 
 grow on each side at the 
 bottom of the petiole, or 
 stalk of a leaf. They are 
 like small leaves or leaflets, 
 but they are not always 
 green in colour. Some- 
 times they are whitish or 
 brown, and perhaps this 
 is why they are called 
 " stipules"* They vary a 
 good deal in shape, but 
 are generally small, and 
 from some plants they 
 very soon fall off. Let us 
 
 The green stipules are easily seen upon willow, pea, 
 bean, and the wild pansy. (Fig. 81.) 
 
 * From the Latin "stipula," straw, husk. 
 
100 
 
 FLOWER- LAND. 
 
 When two stipules grow up 
 and round the stem so as to form 
 a sheath above the junction of 
 the leaves with the stem, you 
 have what is called an " ochrea?* 
 You can see an example of it in 
 the rhubarb, and in the polygo- 
 nums. (Fig. 82.) Do not confuse 
 this with amplexicaul leaves and 
 sheathing bracts. 
 
 These Fig. 81. Leaf of a Wil- 
 , low (Salix). k, an axil 
 leaves which bud ; s, the stipules. 
 
 Now we pass on from stipules 
 to bracts. 
 are 
 
 are connected with the flower or with 
 its stalk. They grow upon the flower- 
 stalk or close under it, just at the 
 point where it branches from the 
 plant stem. If you can remember 
 the leaf stalk and its stipules, so also 
 remember the flower stalk and its 
 bracts. You can see these leaf bracts 
 upon the peduncles of the lime ; as 
 also upon the flower-stalk of the 
 common colt's foot, one of our 
 Fig. 82. Portion earliest spring flowers, and so called 
 
 gLl7^), fr m a SU PP Sed resemblance of these 
 
 *, the leaf; v, its bracts to the colt's foot. (Fig. 175.) 
 sheath ; o, the 
 
 ochrea. Like the stipules, bracts are of other 
 
 From the Latin "ochrea" a boot, a greave. 
 
STIPULES, BRACTS, AND SCALES. IOI 
 
 colours as well as green, and they vary a good deal 
 in form. I dare say you know the plant with 
 strange looking purple or white things like long 
 clubs each more or less enclosed in a large loose 
 whitish kind of leaf. We used to call these plants 
 " lords and ladies." Let us see if we can find some 
 of them by the hedge side. If they are still young 
 and not opened out we will unwrap one or two, and 
 try to find the purple " lords " and the white " ladies." 
 They are the flowers and I will tell you more about 
 them presently. I want you to notice now the loose 
 sheath in which they stand ; it is a form of bract 
 and is called a spathe? You can see one of them 
 very well in the picture of these lords and ladies in 
 Fig. 153- 
 
 Sometimes these flower bracts are stiff and hard 
 like scales. Here is a picture of one of the flowers 
 out of the pussy cat or catkin of the common hazel. 
 (Fig. IO4A.) It has only stamens and they are 
 with a scaly bract. In the same picture at B you can 
 see some more scaly bracts which belong to those 
 flowers of the hazel which have only a pistil and no 
 stamens. About these flowers also I will tell you 
 presently. Now notice only their scaly bracts. 
 
 But sometimes these scaly flower bracts have special 
 names. For instance, look at the " flower of grass." 
 If we can find one in flower a spike of wheat or barley 
 
 * From the Latin " spatha" a broad flat thin blade, the branch of a 
 palm tree. 
 
102 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 ig. 83. A spike of Barley. 
 b spikelet. 
 
 you to understand this 
 better (Fig. 84) ; and 
 there is a picture of a 
 flower of a common grass 
 in Fig. 150, which you 
 should turn to look at. 
 
 But let us pick an um- 
 brella or umbelliferous 
 
 will do very well. Here 
 you see the stamens and 
 pistil of the flowers are en- 
 closed by scaly bracts, 
 which are called il palece?* 
 At the bottom of the spike 
 there are two bracts, in the 
 axils of which no flowers 
 are being developed ; and 
 such bracts in grasses arc 
 called "glumes"* Here is 
 a larger picture of a spike- 
 let of wheat which will help 
 
 Fig. 84. Spikelet of Wheat, dis- 
 sected and magnified : x the axis 
 of the spikelet, g the glumes, b r b 2 
 lower palea; with awn (gr), B i 
 B 2 flowers raised from the axis 
 with the upper palese (ps.), a an- 
 thers, y pistil, with large seed bag. 
 
 * Some botanists call bracts nearest to, and enclosing the flower, 
 " palese ; " and the other bracts they call " glumes," the one growing 
 opposite to the palese being a " flowering glume." The " aivn " is the 
 sharp needle-like point. 
 
STIPULES, BRACTS, AND SCALES. IO3 
 
 plant ; anthriscus or cow-parsley, or any other we 
 can see. Now look upon the flower stalk for a set 
 of bracts, all growing at the same level of the stalk, 
 just below the umbel. Such a ring of bracts is called 
 an "involucre"* (Figs. 35, 36, 80, 86, 137). 
 
 Sometimes the involucre is composed of several rings 
 of bracts close together, and arranged so that the 
 bracts overlap one another, something like the slates 
 upon the roof of a house. Let us look at such an invo- 
 lucre, for we can easily find it in some common 
 composite (p. 48) plant. Yes ! here you can see it 
 very well in the dandelion, or in the thistle, or again 
 in a common daisy (Figs. 138, 37, p. 46). 
 
 Is it too early in the season to find an acorn ? In 
 any case you know what an acorn is like very well. 
 The acorn cup is an involucre made up of scaly bracts 
 all joined together, and it is called a " cupide? In the 
 autumn you should look for the fruit of the hazel-nut 
 (Fig. IO3//), the oak (Fig. 114), the beech, the sweet 
 chestnut, and the hornbeam, and compare their cu- 
 pules. Commonly we call them "husks," but they arc 
 different forms of bracts which gradually develop, 
 forming receptacles for the fruit, and botanically are 
 called "cupules."t 
 
 Let us now turn homeward, and, as we go, I 
 
 * From the Latin " in" in, and " volvo" I wrap. Involucre, a 
 barber's towel which he cases about one's shoulders when he trims one. 
 " Involucrum," that which wraps or covers. 
 
 f Cupule, from the Latin " cttpa " (cupula), a cup. 
 
104 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 will tell you about some leaves which are still more 
 different from the common green leaves than the 
 stipules and bracts we have been speaking of. In 
 colour they vary from shades of yellow and brown to 
 grey and almost white ; and being something like 
 scales they are called leaf-scales, or simply scales. 
 They grow upon underground 
 stems, and are often very small 
 (Figs. 44, 45, p. 66, 67). You can 
 easily see them, however, in bulbs, 
 both scaly bulbs like those of the 
 lily and tunicated ones like 
 those of the onion. If we pass 
 any hyacinths, we will get one of 
 the bulbs up, if we can, and look at 
 
 Fig. 85. Hyacinth bulb. ,. , r , . , 
 
 k Stem base, w roots, z it. The scales or coats of which 
 
 scales, kn bud in axil of these bulbs are com posed, are 
 leaf scales which becomes 
 
 next year's bulb, s flower modified leaves, or leaf-scales, 
 
 stalk with buds b, /foliage 
 
 leaves. and new bulbs often grow in the 
 
 axils, just as branch buds are formed in the axils of 
 the common foliage leaves (Fig. 85). 
 
 Sometimes leaf scales grow upon aerial stems, where 
 they are most easily found upon the buds of trees. 
 Do you remember them upon the chestnut, or the 
 sycamore? (p. 77). The outer ones are smaller, but 
 they gradually increase in size until the scale covers 
 the whole length of the bud, then again they get 
 smaller and softer, until at last you come to the tiny 
 little cluster of delicate leaves, which I hope you have 
 already seen. 
 
STIPULES, BRACTS, AND SCALES. 1 05 
 
 You will find some buds without any scales at all, 
 especially upon herbaceous plants, as you would 
 do also in many trees in warmer countries, and 
 such buds are called " naked " buds. But in most of 
 our trees and shrubs the buds are covered with these 
 leaf-scales, to protect them from the winter cold. 
 What a snug little nest those delicate leaves of the 
 sycamore bud were stowed away in, so that they were 
 able to live on through the frost and cold of winter. 
 And sometimes the scales have soft hairs upon them, as 
 in many willow trees, and sometimes they, are covered 
 with a sticky substance, as we have seen in the horse- 
 chestnut. These help to keep all that is inside so 
 much the warmer. It is interesting to watch the bud 
 as it develops in the spring-time, and then notice that 
 the bud-scales generally fall off. Look at a horse- 
 chestnut, lime, or sycamore bud during the month of 
 May : you will see that the inner scales have grown 
 larger as the bud has developed, some perhaps still 
 upon the bases of the young shoots, but all soon to 
 fall off, making quite a litter on the ground beneath. 
 Those of the sycamore are beautifully tinged with 
 pink. 
 
 For the rest of the way we will look again at a few 
 of the common plants, and you shall tell me about the 
 stipules and bracts, involucres and cupules, and show 
 them to me as we go. 
 
io6 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 FLOWERS CALYX, CORROLLA, AND STAMENS. 
 
 NOW can you tell 
 me what parts of 
 a plant are called 
 the organs of nu- 
 trition ? Quite 
 right. The stem, 
 the root, and the 
 leaves. They are 
 the parts by 
 which a plant is 
 nourished, lives, 
 and grows. We 
 will pass on then 
 to the organs of 
 reproduction, the 
 flower and fruit ; 
 those parts which 
 have to do with 
 the formation and 
 protection of the 
 
 Fig. 86. Flowering Rush (Butoums vm- 
 
 bellatus}. Showing scape, involucral bracts, 
 
 and linear leaves. 
 
FLOWER CALYX, COROLLA, AND STAMENS. 1 07 
 
 seed, by which the pi ant is reproduced (p. 63). Can 
 you tell me what the stem of a leaf is called ? 
 (p. 89). Just as the stem of a leaf has a special 
 name to distinguish it from the stem of the plant, so 
 also the stalk of a flower has a special name. It is 
 called the peduncle.* The stem (caulis) of a plant, 
 the petiole of a leaf, the peduncle of a flower. But 
 when the flower stalk is radical, that is, grows up 
 from the stem base, with no leaves or only a few small 
 bracts and bearing the flower or flowers at its upper 
 end, it is called a scape.\ (Fig. 86,) 
 
 Now look for a buttercup flower, and show me its 
 different parts, telling me their names (Ch. II. and III.). 
 Yes : and the top of the flower-stalk, from which these 
 parts of the flower grow. It is often a good deal ex- 
 panded or raised, and is called the receptacle or torus.\ 
 Gather a few flowers, and pull off their parts to see 
 some different forms of the receptacle. There is a 
 picture of the buttercup flower, with calyx, corolla, and 
 stamens pulled off, in Fig. 176. (cf. Figs. 98 t, ioo) 
 
 But I will now tell you something more about 
 these parts of a flower the calyx, corolla, stamens, 
 and pistil : and first about the corolla and the 
 calyx. || In the buttercup, you see, the corolla is made 
 
 * From the Latin "/," a foot. If smaller flower stalks branch oft" 
 from the peduncle or main flower stalk they are called "pedicels" 
 from the Latin " flediculus," a little foot, stalk, or stem. 
 
 t From the Latin " scapiis" the upright stalk, the shank of a candle- 
 stick, or shaft of a pillar. 
 
 J From the Latin "torus " a couch, cf. thalamus in the Appendix. 
 
 From the Latin " corolla" a little crown or garland. 
 
 ii From the Latin "calyx" , from the Greek . " kalux, kalupto" 
 I cover. 
 
loS 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 up of several separate parts : you can pull them off 
 one by one, without tearing them. You will remem- 
 ber that these separate parts or leaflets of a corolla 
 are called petals* So that a corolla which is made up 
 of separate petals is called polypetalous.\ You have 
 already learnt about two particular kinds of poly- 
 petalous corollas : the " butter- 
 fly" flowers, which are called 
 papilionaceous J (Fig. 87 and 
 c f- P- 39)> arj d the cross bearers 
 which are called " cruciferous."^ 
 (Fig. 88.) 
 
 Fig. 87. Papilionaceous. 
 
 In describing the shape of a petal 
 you would use any of the terms which 
 would be useful, which you would use 
 in describing the shape of a leaf 
 (Ch.vi.). But I must also tell you that 
 the broad expanded part of a petal 
 is called the " limb" as distinguished 
 from the narrower and more stalk-like 
 portion which some petals have, and which is called 
 the " claw." A petal of the common pink gives you 
 a good example both of limb and claw (cf. Fig. 89.) 
 
 Fig. 8b. Cruci- 
 ferous. 
 
 * From the Greek " petalon " ; from " petao" I expand. 
 f From the Greek " polus" many, several ; and " petals." 
 
 JFrom the Latin " papilio" a butterfly. There is another name for 
 these plants. Their natural order is called " Leguminoste," because 
 their fruit is a legume (Ch. xxv.). This is the name for the whole natural 
 order of which the British plants are " papilionaceoits. " 
 
 From the Latin " crux " (crucis), a cross ; and "fero" I bear. 
 
FLOWER CALYX, COROLLA, AND STAMENS. 1 09 
 
 Fig 89. Petal of 
 
 Lychnis, n, the 
 
 claw ; p, the limb ; 
 
 /, ligules. 
 
 Some of these 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 Gamopeta- 
 lous corolla, 
 showing limb 
 and tube, sal- 
 ver shaped. 
 
 But can you find a primrose, or a 
 red or white dead nettle ? When 
 you pull off the corolla from either of 
 these you find that it is all joined 
 together in one piece. And so this kind 
 of corolla is called " gamopetalous" ' 
 
 The upper expanded 
 part is still called the 
 "limb" but the lower 
 narrowed part is called 
 the " tube " (Fig. 90). 
 gamopetalous corollas are called "labiate, 
 or lipped (Fig. 
 91). If the lips 
 are open, they are 
 called ringent+or gaping, as in 
 the dead nettle ; if the lips are 
 closed, as in the snap-dragon, 
 
 they are "personate"^ Other words 
 are used to describe gamopetalous 
 corollas, such as rotate^ or wheel- 
 shaped, when the limb is spreading 
 and the tube is short, compare speed- 
 well ( Veronica) and elder (Sambucits); 
 salver-shaped if the tube is long, as 
 in the lilac and the primrose ; 
 campanulate j \ or bell-shaped as in the 
 
 Fig.92.-Campanulate. 
 
 * From the Greek " gamos" marriage and petals. 
 f See note f on next page. 
 
 Fig. 91. Labiate corolla, 
 ringent. 
 
HO FLO WER-LAND. 
 
 hair-bell * (cf. Fig. 92) ; and other words which are 
 easy to understand, as tubular, in a single central 
 flower of the daisy ; or funnel-shaped, of which the 
 common bindweed is a good example. In the 
 dandelion you have an example of ligulate\ or strap- 
 shaped corollas (Fig. 138). 
 
 Let us look for some examples of the gamopetalous 
 and polypetalous corollas as we go along. 
 
 But we must notice also the same difference with 
 regard to the calyx. Can you find either the common 
 creeping buttercup,! or the common upright meadow 
 buttercup, with its smooth round stem ? If you can 
 you will see its calyx spreading out under the corolla ; 
 and you can pull off its separate parts or leaflets, with- 
 out tearing them, just as you can do 
 with the polypetalous corolla. 
 These leaflets of the calyx are called 
 sepals.\\ So sometimes a calyx is 
 polysepalous, as in the buttercup 
 (Fig. 93). 
 
 But sometimes you find it all in 
 
 Fig- 93- Flower of 
 
 one piece, as in the primrose or Buttercup (Ranumu- 
 
 ,v i j ,,i i ,i hts acris)'', s the ped- 
 
 the dead nettle, a calyx that is unclCj ^oletalous 
 
 gamosepalous (Fig. 87). ^"ous i x 
 
 * Capanula rotundifolia, hair-bell or hare-bell, common bell flower. 
 
 f From the Latin " labium," a lip ; " ringor" I grin ; "persona," 
 a mask or false face ; " rota,'" a wheel ; " campanula]' a bell ; " ligula" 
 a slip or tongue (of land). 
 
 % Rammculus repens. 
 
 Ranunculus acris. 
 
 || From the Latin (sepalum] " sepio," I enclose. 
 
FLOWER CALYX, COROLLA, AND STAMENS. Ill 
 
 The calyx and corolla are together called the 
 perianth * ; but the word is more particularly used 
 to signify either calyx or corolla, when a flower 
 has not got both but only one of them. 
 
 Sometimes, however, you find an extra calyx 
 close under the first one. Such a second calyx 
 is called a caliculus (little calyx) or epicalyx.f You 
 can see it in the strawberry (Fragaria), or common 
 cinquefoil } (Fig. 94): and when you 
 have an opportunity compare also 
 the flowers of the common mallow, 
 and the garden hepatica. These 
 extra calyx leaves are considered 
 to be sometimes stipules (p. 99) 
 of the sepals, sometimes involucral 
 bracts (p. 103). 
 
 Fi g 94 Flower of Did you notice that I said 
 
 both calyx and corolla are 
 really leaves : and so also are the stamens and the 
 pistil. You must therefore add another to the kinds 
 of leaves you have already learnt about. There are 
 not only foliage leaves, and scale leaves, and bract 
 leaves, but also flower or floral P leaves, those of the 
 
 * From the Greek "peri," around ; and " anthos" a flower. 
 f From the Greek " ef>i" upon, and calyx. 
 
 + Potentilla anserina, silver weed or goose grass ; P. reptans, creep- 
 ing cinquefoil ; P. tonnentilla, tormentil ; P. fragariastrnvi barren 
 strawberry are all common. 
 
 From the Latin "fas" (forts), a flower. 
 
112 FLO IVER- LAND. 
 
 calyx and corolla, the stamens and the pistil. If you 
 remember this you will not think it so strange when 
 you see a double flower in which the stamen leaves, 
 or some of them, have grown more like the leaves of 
 the corolla. 
 
 But now we can pass on to the stamens.* 
 Gather a buttercup flower again, one that is newly 
 opened, and place one or two of the stamens upon 
 the palm of your hand. The dust bags of the 
 stamens (p. 9) are made by the blades of the stamen 
 leaves being folded or curled, and each 
 dust bag is called an anther ; t and the 
 little stalk which supports it is called a 
 fi lament \ (Fig. 95). The anther is very 
 beautiful to look at under the microscope ; 
 and there are not only different shapes and 
 
 colours of anthers, but the different 
 
 , Fig.95.-A Sta- 
 
 ways in which they open as they ripen, men . a, the 
 
 so as to let out the dust which is in ^^nt.^ 
 them, are very wonderful. But more 
 wonderful is the dust itself. It is called pollen. 
 It is not only wonderful in its different shapes and 
 markings, although it is so small, but wonderful 
 for its use. The pollen has a great deal to do 
 
 * From the Greek " sfemon" the warp in the upright loom ; from 
 " histemi" I stand. 
 
 f From the Greek " aitfheros" flowering, because it belongs to the 
 flower. 
 
 + From the Latin "filum" a thread. 
 
 From the Latin "pollen" fine flour, or the dust that flies in the mill. 
 
FLOWER CALYX, COROLLA, AND STAMENS. I 13 
 
 with the formation of the seed, but I shall tell 
 you something 1 about that in a future chapter. You 
 can see the pollen grains in the opened anthers in 
 Fig. 109, a p. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 FLOWERS. THE PISTIL. 
 
 Now I am going to tell you 
 something more about the 
 pistil* Here is a picture of 
 one, and you shall tell me 
 what you know about it al- 
 ready (Fig. 97). Yes. it is 
 made of a floral leaf (or 
 leaves), which is so curled, or 
 folded, as to form a bag, the 
 upper end of the leaf being 
 sometimes lengthened out 
 above the bag, as in the 
 picture, but it is not always 
 so. Now, the floral leaf of a 
 pistil is called a carpel-leaf 
 or carpel.\ The bag which 
 Fig. 96. Hyacinth, c showing j t f orms contains one or 
 
 more little things which are 
 
 Ig - 
 
 ovules in trilocular ovary of its 
 syncarpous pistil. 
 
 * From the Latin "pistilhtm" a pestle, to pound with in a mortar. 
 f From the Greek " karpos" fruit. So called because it is connected 
 with the fruit, which you will learn more about presently. 
 
FLOWERS THE PISTIL. US 
 
 called "ovules"* or little eggs, and so it is called an 
 ovary* i.e., an egg bag (Figs. 97 <:, 96*:). We shall 
 look for these ovules, and learn more about them 
 presently. I must now tell you that the tip of the 
 carpel is called the stigma.^ (Fig. 97 a.) It is some- 
 times a simple point, or it may be knobbed or divided 
 in various ways. Then sometimes, as in the picture, 
 the stigma is removed to some distance from the ovary ; 
 the top of the carpel being more or less lengthened out 
 into a kind of pillar. This lengthened out 
 portion of the carpel is therefore called 
 the style ; J and the carpel or pistil leaf 
 has three parts, the ovary, and style, and 
 stigma (Fig. 97). 
 
 Sometimes, however, the carpel is not 
 lengthened out ; there is no style, but 
 a stigma. only the ovary and its stigma. You can 
 see such a carpel or pistil leaf if you look at a 
 buttercup flower, from which the calyx and corolla 
 have faded away, and examine one of its separate 
 pistil bags (p. 9). Each one is a carpel ; consisting 
 of an ovary and stigma, but without a style. (Fig. 
 23, p. 27.) 
 
 But now I will tell you about the different kinds of 
 pistils. 
 
 * From the Latin " ovum, " an egg. 
 
 f From the Greek " stigo" I prick ; stigma, a prick of a pointed in- 
 strument, generally a mark or spot. 
 
 From the Greek " stulos" a pillar. 
 
 There are some few flowering plants in which the ovules are not 
 enclosed in an ovary with a stigma. These plants are placed in a class 
 by themselves, and you will learn more about them in due time. 
 
I I 6 FL WE R- LAND. 
 
 First there is the simple pistil composed of a 
 single carpel leaf. You can see one in the common 
 pea or bean. If you look at one of their flowers you 
 will easily see its single carpel, folded so as to form 
 its single ovary : and you know it very well when it 
 has ripened into fruit: the pod, either of the pea or 
 bean. (Fig. 15 d, p. 21.) Then you can seethe mid rib or 
 vein of the carpel leaf very plainly along the back * or 
 ridge of the pod : and it easily splits open both along 
 the mid rib at the back, and also all along its under 
 side where the edges of the folded carpel leaf had 
 joined t to form the ovary, which has now become the 
 A. pistil of this kind then, formed of a 
 single carpel, is called a simple 
 pistil. (Fig. 98.) 
 
 But very often the pistil is composed 
 of more than one carpel. This is so, 
 you remember in the buttercup. Look 
 at it again (Fig. 23) and notice its many 
 separate carpels, each formed into a 
 separate ovary. So this kind of pistil is 
 called an apocarpous J pistil (cf. Fig. 99). 
 But besides the simple pistil of the pea 
 / torus, f ovary, or bean, with its single ovary ; and the 
 
 g style, 11 stigma, 
 
 /; ventral suture, apocarpous pistil as in the buttercup, with 
 
 * This is called the ''dorsal suture ;" from the Latin " dorsum" the 
 back ; and " sutura ; " fr. " suo," I sew ; a seam along the back. 
 
 f This is called the ventral suture, fr. the Latin "venter" the belly ; 
 and snlttra as above. (f/"Figs. 9&/>. 99). 
 
 I From the Greek " apo" apart from, and " karfos " (carpeJs) ; 
 carpels forming separate ovaries. 
 
FL O WERS THE PIS 7 7L. 
 
 its two or more separate ovaries ; there is another 
 kind of pistil. You have already 
 seen it in the flower of the 
 primrose. Do you remember it? 
 We will find a primrose flower 
 if we can, and look at its pistil as 
 we did before, " the little round 
 green bag and from it the slender 
 
 Fig. 99- Apocarpous knobbed stalk like a m-een and 
 
 pistil of Monkshood 
 
 (Aconituui napeilus}. t, tender pin " (p. 10). This pistil, 
 
 /, , ;/, b. as in Fig. 98. 
 
 like that of the buttercup, is com- 
 posed of two or more carpels ; but they have so grown 
 together as to form only one 
 ovary. This kind of pistil is 
 therefore called syncarpous* 
 (cf. Fig. 100.) Perhaps you 
 think the syncarpous pistil of 
 the primrose looks as if it was 
 composed of a single carpel 
 
 leaf, and so would have called ,,. 
 
 tig. 100. Syncarpous pis- 
 it a simple pistil like that of til of Buckthorn (RJiammis). 
 ..,.., . ,./i ovaries; /, receptacle; g, 
 
 the pea. Well, but you would style; ;/, stigma. 
 
 not say so if you were to cut off the style and stigma 
 and look at the ovary through a good magnifying 
 glass or low powered microscope ; you would then 
 see the joining of its carpels quite distinctly. 
 
 So then you have the three kinds of pistils : (i) the 
 pistil of one carpel, which is called simple ; the pistil 
 
 * From the Greek "sun," together, and "karoos " (carpels) ; carpels 
 together, forming one ovary. 
 
1 1 8 FLO WEK-LAND. 
 
 of two or more carpels which is either (2) apocarpous 
 or (3) syncarpous* 
 
 We must pass on to notice the position of the 
 pistil and its ovary (or ovaries) with regard to 
 the other parts of the flower. Sometimes it is at the 
 highest part of the flower stalk, so that the calyx, 
 corolla, and stamens are inserted upon the receptacle 
 (p. 107) below the ovary. Then 
 the ovary is said to be superior^ 
 Once more we will pick a 
 buttercup, and notice the position 
 of the floral parts upon the 
 peduncle. As you pull off calyx, 
 corolla, and stamens you see very 
 
 plainly that the ovaries are quite 
 Fig. 101. Flower of ., 
 
 Branca (corolla re- above them : they are "superior' 
 
 3, P- *7, 
 
 ;/, stigma. But sometimes the ovary is 
 
 below them, when it is said to be inferior. ,f The 
 tube of the calyx is often round the ovary in varying 
 degrees ; but you will learn more about the relative 
 positions of the floral parts or whorls J in one of the 
 chapters on classification. It is sufficient at present 
 for you to understand such plainly inferior ovaries as 
 those of the willow herb, cow-parsnip, cucumber, or 
 gooseberry, in contrast with the superior ovaries of 
 the buttercup, brassica, wallflower, primrose, or tulip. 
 
 * rf. Monomerous in the Appendix. 
 
 From the Latin ' ' superior, " higher ; " inferior" lower. 
 The floral parts bting modified leaves, ff. p. in. 
 
FLOWERS THE PISTIL. 
 
 119 
 
 But let us see what the ovaries are like inside. 
 Sometimes they are simple boxes, or bags, without 
 any partitions (Fig. 102, A B). 
 
 But sometimes they have partitions inside them 
 to divide them into compartments, or " locjili." 
 So an ovary is <: unilocular"* or multilocular* or 
 more particularly, " bilocular," * trilocidar, etc., 
 
 Fig. 102. Ovaries with tops cut off (transverse sections). A unilocu- 
 
 lar, b ventral suture, r dorsal suture, B unilocular, C chambered (but 
 
 unilocular), D multilocular (5-celled), p, the placenta. 
 
 according to the number of its compartments (Fig. 102 
 D. cf. g6c). Sometimes the partitions do not reach 
 so as to divide the ovary into separate compartments, 
 but only partly so. Such a unilocular ovary is des- 
 cribed as chambered (Fig. 102 C, 123 c). These 
 partitions are called dissepiments^ and are generally, 
 but not always, made by the carpel leaves. You will 
 know more about them in due time. 
 
 Now I want you to notice particularly the little eggs 
 or ovules (p. 115) which are inside the ovaries. So let 
 us look for a primrose, pea, or bean, or other flower that 
 
 * From the Latin " umts," one; "mtt/tus," many; " fo>," two; 
 " tres" three, and so on with the other numbers ; and " loculus " (loctis), 
 a little place, a pocket. 
 
 t From the Latin " dissepio" I separate. 
 
1 20 FL O WE K- LAND. 
 
 has a good sized pistil ; and choose one that has just 
 come into bloom. Now take off its calyx, corolla, 
 and stamens ; and when you have laid bare the pistil, 
 cut open the ovary. You will now be able to see the 
 ovule, or ovules, in it. That part within the ovary to 
 which the ovules are attached is called the placenta * 
 (Fig. IC2 p}, and the way in which the placentas 
 are arranged is called placentation* 
 
 But we will now look about for another flower with 
 a large pistil, and this time choose one from which 
 the corolla has faded away, or, as you would say, one 
 which has gone to seed. And so it has. You cut open 
 its ovary and see what once were ovules, but now 
 are seeds (Fig. 108). I have a little more to tell you 
 about flowers in general, and then I will tell you 
 something about this change of ovules into seeds. 
 
 * From Latin "placenta,'" Greek "plakous" " plax" a flat cake, 
 anything flat. See placentation in the Appendix. 
 
INCOMPLETE FLOWERS. 121 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 INCOMPLETE FLOWERS AND INFLORESCENCE 
 
 Fi^. 103. Common Hazel (Coryhis avellana}. Monre- 
 
 cious. Showing stamcniferous catkin, and pistil iferous 
 
 flowers. //, the fruit. 
 
 Now I hope you know pretty well about the -four 
 chief parts of a flower, the calyx, corolla, stamens, 
 and pistil. 
 
122 FLO WEK- L A ND. 
 
 But some flowers are incomplete. For you will 
 remember, I think, that some flowers instead of 
 having both calyx and corolla, have only one of 
 them. Well, some have neither calyx nor corolla ; 
 no perianth at all.* 
 
 They vary also with regard to their stamens and 
 pistil. You will not always find both stamens 
 and pistil in the same flower. Can we find, for 
 instance, the common hazel or nut bush ? The long 
 yellow catkins, which children call pussy cats' tails, 
 and which I expect you know very well, are com- 
 posed of stameniferous | flowers, that is, flowers 
 which have only stamens. Shake them when the) 7 
 are ripe and you see quite a little cloud of their 
 yellow pollen. In Fig. 104 A there is a picture of 
 one of the flowers from one of these catkins of the 
 hazel ; you see that it has stamens only. You can see 
 the whole catkin in Fig. 103. And now if you look 
 carefully along the branches you will see some things 
 like buds from which beautiful and delicate pink 
 points are appearing They are the tips of the pistils, 
 of the pistiliferoiis \ flowers, projecting from the 
 scales by which the flowers are surrounded. See 
 Fig. 104 B C, and again, in Fig. 103 at the top of 
 the branch marked a. 
 
 * cf. monochlamydeous in the Appendix. 
 
 t From the Latin "fero" I bear, and stamens. 
 
 J Flowers which have a pi-til only, from Latin " fero," I bear, and 
 pistil, cf, JiermapJirodite in the Appendix. 
 
INCOMPLETE FLOWERS. 
 
 123 
 
 But now compare 
 also Fig. 153 /;. b 
 is the stalk bear- 
 ing the flowers, the 
 middle ring being 
 s tameniferous 
 flowers, the lowest 
 ring the pistiliferous 
 flowers, the upper 
 ring imperfect flowers. 
 So the flowers of 
 the hazel or of the 
 arum (cuckoo pint) 
 are called monce- 
 cious* because whilst 
 the stamens and 
 
 Fig. 104. Flowers of Hazel ; A, 
 single flower from the stamtniferous 
 catkin ; s, the scale ; fa, the sta- 
 mens ; f, the filaments ; a, the an- 
 thers ; B, pistiliferous flowers en- 
 closed in bract scales, s ; with pro- 
 jecting tips of their pistils, ;/ ; c, 
 single pistiliferous flower from B, 
 surrounded by its bracts, c, with 
 tips of pistil, // (magnified). 
 
 pistil are in different flowers, both the stamen bearing- 
 flowers and the pistil bearing flowers, live as it were, 
 in one house, that is upon one plant. 
 
 But sometimes they live as it were in two houses, 
 that is upon different plants : then they are called 
 dicecious* We should have an instance of this if we 
 could find the common yew tree in bloom (Fig. 174), 
 or some willow trees, or the common hop (Fig, 105). 
 But you very likely know the difference in the 
 flowers upon the willow trees, several kinds of 
 which are commonly called palms.f If you 
 
 * From the Greek " monos" one; " dis" twice, double; and 
 " oikion" a house. 
 
 f The true Palm trees are foreigners. There is a picture of one in 
 Fig. 134- 
 
I2 4 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 have ever looked for 
 these palms or willows 
 for use upon Palm Sun- 
 day, you always like to 
 -f find those with the sta- 
 men bearing flowers. 
 F - LM Very fine are their full 
 
 rig. 105. Mowers of the Hop * 
 
 (Humnlus lupulus). A, stameni- oval catkins, bright with 
 
 ferous flower ; />, perianth ; #, sta- 
 mens ; B, pistiliferous flowers ; s, their beautiful yellow 
 stipule scale ; d, bract ; f>, perianth ; s , t - ampT1< , , hnf - harrHv IPQQ 
 /, pistil bag with two long tips or SCan DuC naicl ly JCSS 
 
 ends (") beautiful, I think, though 
 
 not so imposing, are the trees with their pistil 
 bearing flowers : smaller but bright and glossy as 
 the finest silk. 
 
 Before we pass on to the formation of seed and 
 fruit, I must tell you something about the "inflo- 
 rescence " ,* that is, the way in which flowers are 
 arranged upon their stalk or axis. 
 
 The inflorescence is called a spike when the flowers 
 are sessile (or on very short pedicels) and are 
 arranged more or less closely along the more or less 
 lengthened floral axis (p. 65), as in the common 
 plantains (Plantago). This is called a spadix f when 
 the axis is thick and fleshy, and generally with a 
 spathe (p. 101), as in the common arum (Fig. 153). 
 
 * From the Latin "/'," and " floresco " (ftoreo), I bloom. 
 
 t From the Greek " spadix" a palm branch; in which the spathe, 
 which is generally with it, is well been. 
 
INCOMPLE TE FL \VERS. 
 
 125 
 
 In the catkin or amentum* the flowers have either 
 stamens or pistil, not both in the same flower, and the 
 whole falls off together when the stamens have 
 withered or the fruit ripened, as in the willow ( Salix) 
 or the stameniferous catkins of the hazel ( Corylns ) 
 (Fig- 103). 
 
 The raceme\ has the flowers arranged along a more 
 or less lengthened floral axis, as in the spike, but they 
 have longer pedicels, all being of about the same 
 length, as in barbery (Berberis), foxglove (Digitalis), 
 currant (cf. Fig. 169). 
 
 The corymb\ differs again from the spike and the 
 raceme in having the lower 
 pedicels longer than the 
 upper ones, so that the 
 flowers form a nearly level 
 top. 
 
 r \\\z panicle% is a branched 
 or compound raceme (Fig 106). 
 Notice, too, the spike of 
 pistiliferous flowers, with 
 hardening scales as it ripens 
 into fruit and which you know 
 very well as the cone, as on 
 the pine or fir (Fig. 117) 
 or common larch. And the 
 compound spike, as in the 
 
 Fig. 106. Panicle of common 
 Oat. 
 
 * From the Latin " ametttum" a thong or loop, 
 t From the Latin " racemus" or " cory minis'* a bunch or cluster. 
 \ From the Latin "panicufa" the down upon reeds ; a loose 
 inflorescence. 
 
126 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 Fig. 107. Compound umbel with 
 umbel lules. 
 
 wheat and barley, in which secondary spikes (spikelets) 
 are arranged along the floral axis, instead of single 
 flowers (cf. Fig. 83^, p. 1 02). 
 
 The umbel* both the 
 simple umbel and the 
 compound umbel with 
 its umbellules or little 
 umbels, you have al- 
 ready learnt about 
 (p. 43). (Fig. 107.) 
 
 The capititlum \ 
 or head of flowers is 
 composed of many sessile, or almost sessile flowers, 
 placed close together upon the receptacle (p. IO/J of 
 the main stem, and the whole surrounded by an in- 
 volucre (as in the teasel, Fig. 142). Sometimes 
 the receptacle is hollowed ^out, sometimes it is raised 
 and rounded. Compare them in the dandelion 
 (Fig. 138), daisy (Fig. 37,^46), and other composite 
 flowers (p. 48). Each flower is called a floret : those 
 of the centre, as in the daisy, form the "disk" those 
 of the circumference form the "ray." 
 
 The cyme.\ Perhaps the best way to understand 
 this kind of inflorescence will be to look at a plant in 
 which the main axis or stem terminates in a flower. 
 The common mouse-ear chick weed (Cerastium) will 
 
 * From the Latin " tiinbella, " a little shadow, from " tunbra" a. shade, 
 a shadow, whence also our word " umbrella." 
 
 t From the Latin " capnt," a head. 
 
 I From the Latin " cyma" a shoot or branch, young sprouts. 
 
INCOMPLETE FLOWERS. 12? 
 
 do very well. Just below the peduncle, which is a 
 continuation of the main stem of the plant, other 
 flower-bearine stems branch off. Each of them ends 
 
 o 
 
 again in a flower. But just below that terminal flower 
 other stems branch off again, each bearing a flower 
 and branching as before. Sometimes instead of two, 
 
 o 
 
 there are three or more branches growing out under 
 the main terminal flower. All inflorescences of this 
 kind of growth are called cymose. 
 
 You will find compound and irregular inflorescences 
 which will be best described as racemose, corymbose, 
 panicled, umbellate, cymose, etc., according to the 
 inflorescence which they most resemble. There are 
 some which you will find puzzling to describe, but do 
 not be discouraged, and as you become more practised 
 and learn more about them your difficulties will 
 gradually disappear. 
 
128 
 
 FLOWER- LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 FOR M A T I O N OF SEED. 
 
 WE will begin by looking 
 for a plant in full bloom 
 and picking one of its 
 flowers. A primrose, gar- 
 den lily, or sojue other 
 flower in whiqjn we can 
 easily see the ^pistil with 
 its ovary, and' style, and 
 stigma. Is it not strange ? 
 The stigma and style have 
 a channel or passage 
 through them, something 
 like there is through the 
 stem of a piece of elder 
 where the pith is ; but 
 sometimes the channel is 
 
 Fig. 108. Flower and fruit of jt hollow as in the 
 Capsicum, a, fruit cut open length- 
 ways (longitudinal section) showing stem of a tobacco pipe, 
 seeds ; b, the same cut across (trans- 
 verse section). This channel leads into 
 
 the ovary just as that of a pipe stem does into the 
 pipe bowl. 
 
FORMATION OF SEED. 
 
 I2 9 
 
 Now in due course some of the pollen grains of the 
 stamen will be brought to the stigma of the pistil. 
 There they will stick fast, being held by a kind of 
 sticky fluid which is formed upon the stigma. Try if 
 you can see through your magnifying glass any 
 pollen grains upon an}' 
 of the stigmas of the 
 flowers which you have 
 gathered. If not, look 
 for a large flower that 
 has begun to fade, 
 and try again. In the 
 little violet even you 
 should see through a 
 good glass the little 
 mouth or opening of 
 the channel down the 
 
 Stigma and perhaps also Fig. 109. Diagram of a flower. A>, 
 , , ... calyx ; K. corolla : /. filament ; a, 
 
 some pollen sticking anther with pollen bags open sho wing 
 round it. This settling P llen P ain * { ^ ; "* the sti f ma; * 
 
 & the style ; F, the ovary ; z, the inner 
 
 of the pollen upon the covering of the ovule, S ; em, inner 
 
 bag containing the vital part of the 
 
 stigma is called polli- ovule, at E. 
 
 nation. 
 
 But it is not always so good for a flower for pollina- 
 tion to take place by its own pollen as by that of 
 another flower. Indeed this is sometimes necessary ; 
 for, as we have seen, the stamens and pistil are some- 
 times removed from one another by being in separate 
 flowers (monsecious, p. 123), or in separate plants 
 (diaecious, p. 123); and, in flowers in which stamens 
 10 
 
FLO WER- LAND. 
 
 and pistil are together, you will often find that they 
 cannot easily be pollenised by their own pollen. 
 
 Sometimes, for instance, the anthers and stigma 
 ripen or mature at different times, so that the anthers 
 may have ripened, and shed their pollen before the 
 stigma of the pistil is ready to receive it ; sometimes 
 the anthers and stigma are so placed that the pollen 
 of the flower cannot easily come in contact with it 
 own stigma; and sometimes, if it does so, it is of no 
 use there, but withers and dies away. All this will be 
 very interesting for you to search into more par- 
 ticularly hereafter. 
 
 And equally interesting are the different ways in 
 which pollination is brought about. 
 
 One of the most common ways, especially in 
 monaecious and diaecious plants, is by the wind : 
 the pollen being blown to and lodged upon the 
 stigmas. If you have many yew trees in your 
 neighbourhood, and can watch the clouds of pollen 
 dust blown from the stamen bearing flowers, you 
 will never again forget the agency of the wind in pro- 
 ducing pollination. Other common instances are the 
 hazel and Scotch fir. You may like to know that 
 plants in which pollination is brought about mainly 
 by the wind are called anemophilous* or wind lovers. 
 
 But you must often have noticed bees and other 
 insects busy in the flowers ; that is another way in 
 which pollination is very commonly brought about. 
 
 * From the Greek " anemos" wind ; and " phiho" I love. 
 
FORMATION OF SEED. 131 
 
 This is the cause, as some say the reason, of the bright 
 colours, the fragrant perfume, and the sweet honey of 
 so many of our flowers. These things attract the 
 insects, and as they move about in the flower to 
 collect the nectar,* or gather the pollen for food, the 
 pollen sticks to their limbs and bodies, and is then 
 brought into contact with the stigmas of the pistils 
 as they move from flower to flower. You have a 
 familiar instance of this in our common primroses, 
 cowslips, and oxlips. In some the style is short, and 
 
 the stigma about half way 
 down the tube of the co- 
 rolla, whilst the anthers are 
 at the top of it (Fig. 1 10 
 A) ; but in others the style 
 is long and the stigma at 
 the top of the corolla tube, 
 whilst the anthers are 
 placed half way down it 
 A (Fig. no, B). Suppose a 
 Fig. i io. FiowersofOxlip(/W;/abee enters one of the 
 
 e/atior), cf Common Primrose kindg f flowers say the 
 (P. vulgarts). J 
 
 short styled one (Fig. A), 
 
 to get the honey at the bottom of the corolla tube ; 
 as soon as it goes to one of the long styled flowers 
 (Fig. B), that part of its body which touched the 
 anthers before, and is dusted with their pollen, will 
 now touch the stigma of the pistil and leave some of 
 
 Nectar is immature honey, cf. nectary, in the Appendix. 
 
132 
 
 FLOWER- LAND. 
 
 the pollen there. The pollen of the short styled flower 
 A has been brought to the stigma of the long styled 
 one B, and the like transfer is made as the bee goes 
 on from B to A. 
 
 In Fig. in you can see a 
 picture of a flower which 
 shows another instance 
 of insect pollination, and 
 which has been interest- 
 ingly described by Dr. Prantl 
 and others. Notice how the 
 lobes of the stigma (n) in the 
 flower marked B are turned 
 down over the anthers (a) ; 
 and that the tube of the 
 corolla has many hairs in it. 
 As they all point downwards 
 they do not hinder an insect 
 from crawling down the tube ; 
 r<n but when it has got the 
 honey from the bottom of 
 thetube andwantstocomeout 
 
 Fig. in. Flowers of Anstolo- 
 
 chia. B before, C after pollina- again, the hairs then bar the 
 
 tion, r tube of perianth, 
 
 stigma, a anthers, i an insect, way. But the visit of the in- 
 
 lowest portion, ovary with ovules. sect> and j ts efforts to 
 
 are of great service to the flower in exchange for its 
 honey. Pollen which it has brought on its body from 
 some other flower of the same kind, will stick to the 
 stigma, and the lobes of the stigma will turn upwards ; 
 and some of the pollen from the anthers below 
 
FORMATION OF SEED. 133 
 
 will stick to the body of the insect as it crawls about 
 in its efforts to escape. Then presently the hairs in 
 the corolla tube wither away (Fig. 1 1 iC) and the insect 
 escapes, carrying the pollen with it, which it will leave, 
 in due course, upon the stigma of another flower. 
 These plants to which the insects are so useful, and 
 which generally have fragrant or bright coloured 
 flowers, are called entomophilous* or insect lovers. 
 
 But what takes place next to pollination ? Then 
 the pollen grain makes a very wonderful journey. If 
 you look at Fig. 112 you can see a pollen grain very 
 much magnified. You see that its outer coat is 
 very much thinner at the 
 points marked a, b, and c. 
 Now at one of those 
 points the pollen grain 
 extends or grows out into 
 a tube (Fig. 112 j), and so S| 
 travels down the channel ,,. . , ...... 
 
 rig. 112. Pollen grain of Willow 
 
 which I told you of herb (Epitobium) t much magnified. 
 
 e* outer coat ; z, inner coat. 
 
 (p. 128), through the 
 
 stigma and style into the ovary until it reaches the 
 ovule'. t (Figs. 109 and 113.) But still its journey is 
 not finished. It passes on through a channel in the 
 ovule until it reaches a certain spot inside the ovule. 
 (Fig. 109 and 113 at E.) This is called fertilisation. 
 
 * From the Greek " entoma" insects, and " phileo? I love. 
 
 t In one division of flowering plants the ovules are not enclosed in 
 ovaries ; the pollen falls at once upon the ovules. 
 
134 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 Sometimes it happens very soon after pollination, but 
 sometimes there is quite a long interval before it does 
 
 so. But when fer- 
 tilisation has taken 
 place the ovules 
 very greatly change. 
 As a general rule 
 the other parts of 
 the flower, calyx, 
 corolla, and stamens 
 
 Fig. 113. OvulTshortly after fertilisation. die away, and all 
 P, pollen tube ; i, inner covering of the the ener CT V of the 
 ovule, k ; S, inner bag containing vital part 
 
 of ovule at E, which has now become the plant is ^iven to the 
 embryo or germ of the seed ; /, funicle, see 
 
 Appendix. ovary or ovaries of 
 
 the pistil, that the ovules within may be matured as 
 seeds ; for after fertilisation the young plant or 
 embryo, with a supply of food for its first days of 
 life, is gradually formed within the ovule. In other 
 words, the ovule becomes changed into a seed, safely 
 housed within the .ovary ; and the whole gradually 
 ripens as Fruit. (Fig. 108.) 
 
FRUIT. 
 
 135 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 FRUIT. 
 
 WE will begin by 
 looking again at the 
 fruit of the buttercup 
 (Fig. 23, p. 27) or the 
 primrose. Of course 
 you can tell me what 
 the fruit is? Quite right, 
 it is the ripening pistil ; 
 the ovary and seeds of 
 the primrose, or the 
 ovaries and seed of 
 the buttercup, as the 
 case may be. It is a 
 true fruit. 
 
 (i) But sometimes 
 fruits are called pseudo- 
 Fig. 114. Oak and acorns. carps* or Spurious 
 
 fruits. Such are the apple, or the strawberry, or the 
 hips of a rose. For instance, if you take an apple 
 and cut it in half, what do you see ? After all the 
 
 * From the Greek ( 'pseudos," false (spurious), and " karpos" fruit. 
 
136 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 apples you have eaten, I expect you know what it 
 looks like very well. In the middle are the seeds, 
 enclosed in the scaly carpels ; then all round them is 
 the tube of the calyx, or top of the flower stalk, which 
 has swollen into the juicy part which in some apples 
 is so good to eat. At the top of the apple you can 
 see its dry and withered calyx (Fig. 25, p. 28). The 
 apple then is not only the ripened pistil, but some 
 other part of the flower is joined with it the ripe 
 pistil containing the seeds, that is, the true fruit, being 
 enclosed in the swollen calyx tube or top of the flower 
 stalk. That is why the apple is called a pseudocarp. 
 This joining of other parts of the flower to the ripe 
 pistil happens in many different ways. Have you 
 
 noticed in the strawberry 
 the little brownish things 
 which are upon it ? People 
 often think they are the 
 seeds ; but they are the true 
 fruits, that is, the ripened 
 ovaries containing the 
 seed ; and they are upon 
 the swollen fleshy part 
 which we like to eat ; the 
 whole making up a pseu- 
 docarp or spurious fruit 
 (Fig. 115). 
 
 Fig. 115-Strawberries. j fl ^ ^ Qf the ^ 
 
 rose, on the other hand, the true fruits are the hard, 
 hairy little things which are inside the swollen calyx 
 
FRUIT. 137 
 
 tube, or top of the flower stalk, instead of outside 
 upon a fleshy pulp, as in the strawberry. 
 
 Other pseudocarps are the acorns with their 
 cupules (Fig. 114), or the beech nuts with their husks; 
 and there are many others. 
 
 But you can now tell the difference between true 
 fruits and pseudocarps. The true fruit is simply 
 the ripened pistil, i.e., the ovary, or ovaries, with the 
 seed ; but when some other part of the flower is com- 
 bined with the pistil, the fruit is distinguished as a 
 pseudocarp. 
 
 But there are some other general differences 
 between fruits which you must notice ; and then I 
 shall be able to tell you the names by which the 
 particular kinds of fruit are called. 
 
 (2) So we will notice next the difference between 
 simple, compound, and collective fruits. 
 
 The difference between a simple and a compound 
 fruit is one which you already know. For, since fruits 
 are the ripened pistils of flowers, they are divided, 
 as pistils are, into simple, apocarpous, or syncarpous. 
 Simple, as the pea or bean (Fig. 15 d, p. 21 ) ; 
 apocarpous, as the buttercup (Fig. 23, p. 27), the 
 monkshood (Fig.' 161), the columbine, the raspberry 
 (Fig. 22, p. 26), and the blackberry ; syncarpous, as 
 in the poppy (Figs. 26, p. 30; 123*:), the cowslip, 
 and the primrose. Try and find these and other 
 examples of these different kinds of fruits, or ripened 
 pistils : and if you do not quite understand them 
 
138 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 read again about the pistil inCh. XXI. I need only 
 add that an apocarpous or syncarpous fruit, since it 
 is formed from a pistil of more than one carpel is 
 often called compound to distinguish it from a simple 
 fruit, which is formed from a pistil of one carpel 
 only. 
 
 Each of these fruits that we have been speaking 
 about is formed, as you know, from a single flower. 
 But sometimes a fruit is formed from several flowers. 
 The common fig is a well-known example of this 
 kind of fruit, and as easy as any for you to under- 
 stand. The flowers of the fig tree are very curiously 
 placed. The flower stalk is hollowed out into a 
 kind of fleshy bag or receptacle, and the flowers are 
 arranged inside it. Cut open a 
 fig whilst it is young and green, 
 Fnu\. and see if you can distinguish 
 them. In due course the 
 flowers produce their fruits, 
 and these are the little grains so 
 familiar to us in the pulp of the 
 ripened fig. So the skin of the 
 fig is part of the expanded 
 flower stalk ; (the fig is therefore a pseudocarp) 
 and inside are the collected fruits of all its many 
 flowers. So this kind of fruit is called a collective 
 fruit, to distinguish it from those fruits which are 
 formed only from a single flower (Fig. 116). 
 Other examples of collective fruits are the fir 
 cone (Fig. 117), the hop, the mulberry, and the 
 
 Fig. 116. Collective 
 fruit of Fig. Pseudo- 
 carp. Fruits enclosed 
 in hollowed peduncle. 
 
FRUIT. 
 
 139 
 
 pineapple. You will 
 study them when 
 you are older. Now 
 if we can find a 
 blackberry or wild 
 raspberry (Figs. 133, 
 22, p. 26), what kind 
 of fruit is it ? Yes ! 
 not a collective but 
 an apocarpous fruit : 
 for it is all formed 
 from a single flower, 
 and each little fruit 
 or ripened ovary of 
 which it is made up 
 is called a fruit let. * 
 
 Fig. 117. Fir branch with cones. 
 
 (3) For the next distinction between 
 fruits, we must notice the case or 
 covering in which the seed is enclosed. 
 It is called the pericarp.^ Some- 
 times the pericarp is so thickened that 
 it can be divided into three distinct 
 
 CoifecVve 8 '"fVuit la y ers : the outside one, or epicarp ;t 
 
 of Mulberry. t h e middle one, or mesocarp ;t and 
 
 the inner one, or endocarp\ (Fig. 119). The pericarp 
 
 * When you have an opportunity compare the fruit of the mulberry 
 with that of the blackberry. For in the mulberry each part or 
 division is the spurious fruit of a distinct flower : and so the whole is a 
 
 collective fruit (Figs. 118, 133). 
 
 f From the Greek "peri" around ; " epi" 
 lt endon" within; and " karpos" fruit. See ft st 
 
 upon ; "tnesos," middle; 
 s&rcocarp," in the Appendix. 
 
140 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 varies a good deal in character : 
 sometimes it is dry, but part of it is 
 often soft and juicy ; so fruits are 
 dry or succulent according to the 
 nature of their pericarp. 
 
 Now I will tell you some ex- 
 amples, and we will find as many of 
 ni e them as we can. The pericarp is 
 Fig. 119. Fruit of an dry, and hard or leathery, in the 
 
 Almond tree. Longi- . ' , , , , , 
 
 tudinal section (cut in hazel nut > buttercup, vetch, bean, 
 half lengthways)., the radish and poppy; and these are 
 
 seed, e endocarp, m 
 mesocarp, .r epicarp, all dry fruits, 
 making up p the peri- 
 carp, / the funicle. But think of the plum, apricot, 
 
 peach, or cherry. In these you 
 have the thin epicarp or outside skin, then the 
 epicarp so ft juicy part you like to eat, 
 
 which is the mesocarp ; whilst 
 
 -mesocarp the sheU of the gtone ig tht . 
 endocarp , . 
 
 hardened endocarp (Fig. 1 20) 
 These, therefore, are succulent 
 fruits ; so also are the grape, 
 the currant, and the date, in 
 which both mesocarp and 
 
 endocarp are soft and pulpy, the seed or seeds being 
 
 imbedded in them. 
 
 Be careful not to confuse the skin of the fig, or the 
 
 hip of the rose, with the pericarp of the fruit, for these 
 
 as you know, are pseudocarps, and have the fruits with 
 
 their hard dry pericarps inside them. 
 
 Fig. 1 20. Fruit of Cherry 
 (cut in half). 
 
FRUIT. 
 
 (4) And now, last of all, I want you 
 to notice how the seeds become free 
 from the ovary case, or pericarp. 
 For when the pericarp opens so as to 
 let the seed escape, the fruits are 
 called dehiscent* If the seed case 
 splits open lengthways the parts 
 into which it splits are called " valves" 
 and the dehiscence is longitudinal ; 
 compare this in the iris, monk's hood 
 (Fig. 161), pea, or wallflower (cf. Fig. Brassica (//va). k 
 
 3 the valves, 7<ydissepi- 
 
 121). And notice the little teeth with ment, s seeds, g 
 
 style, n stigma. 
 
 which the seed case sometimes opens 
 
 at the upper end, as in the primrose, cowslip, or the 
 
 chickweed. 
 
 If we can find a little pimpernel (poor man's 
 
 weather glass) with its seed ripe, we shall see that its 
 seed case opens in another 
 way ; it splits across and the 
 top comes off. This is called 
 transverse dehiscence. (cf. Fig. 
 130.) But sometimes the 
 seed case opens with little 
 holes as in the poppy : these 
 openings are called pores, and 
 the dehiscence is porous. (Fig. 
 
 \ 
 lzz 'f 
 
 opening by pores. , stigma ; Sometimes, however, the 
 
 y, the pores which open by 
 
 the removal of the valves, a. pericarp does not open to let 
 
 Fig. 122. Fruit (capsule} of 
 
 * From the Latin " dehisco" " dehiscfns" gaping, opening. 
 
I4 2 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 the seed escape ; but either gradually rots away 
 from the seed, or the seed bursts through it when 
 it begins to grow : the fruit is then called indehiscent* 
 Such are the fruits of the currant, gooseberry, cherry, 
 or hazel. 
 
 When the fruits are ripening and the days are fine, 
 take pains to find examples of these differences and 
 try and understand them well, working also through 
 the list in the next chapter of some common names 
 by which different kinds of fruit are known. 
 
 * From the Latin lt indehisco," " indehiscens," not gaping or opening. 
 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUIT. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUIT. 
 
 IN the later summer days, 
 when the fruits are 
 ripening, you will now 
 be able to work through 
 the following list of the 
 most common kinds of 
 simple and compound fruit. 
 
 I. Dry fruits (generally 
 dehiscent and many seeded}. 
 
 ( i ) The legume * or pod 
 is a simple fruit (p. 137), 
 which opens along both 
 sutures, dorsal and ventral, 
 Fig. 123. Poppy (Papaver\ S o that it splits into halves. 
 
 with syncarpous chambered 
 
 capsule at c. Sometimes the legume 
 
 is twisted. Sometimes it is jointed or narrowed 
 between the seeds, as in the bird's foot (Ornithopus). 
 It is then called a lomentum\ (Fig. 173). It does 
 
 * From the Latin " legumen " (fr. "lego" I gather), pulse, peas, beans 
 c., gathered by hand. 
 
 fFrom the Latin " lomentum," bean meal. 
 
144 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 not burst open like the legume, though it breaks or 
 separates at the joints. Common examples of the 
 legume are the pea, furze, bean, and other papilio- 
 nacese F ig. 15, p. 21). 
 
 (2) The follicle* is a fruitlet of an 
 apocarpous (compound) fruit, and formed 
 of a single carpel, which dehisces 
 along the ventral suture (Fig. 124), 
 as in the columbine, larkspur, and 
 monks' hood (Fig. 161 e). 
 
 (3) Siliqua and silicula. 
 The siliqua^ is a syncarpous 
 (compound) fruit, of two carpels 
 and with a partition (dissepi- 
 ment; between them. It dehisces 
 from the base upwards, the two 
 carpels splitting away from the 
 partition, which remains erect 
 on the top of the peduncle. 
 Examples are the wall-flower, Fig 12 6. 
 mustard and other cruciferae Sll 1 1 ^^ s hlt " 
 
 ('pier 1 2O (Draba] dehis- 
 
 cing. E, trans- 
 verse section ; 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 A Follicle. 
 
 Fig. 125 
 
 Siliqua of 
 
 Brassica. 
 
 v dissepiment 
 
 When the shape of it is short "> 
 
 s, seed. 
 
 ff. Fig. 121). an d broad, it is a silicula,% 
 
 * From the Latin "folliculus" a little bag. 
 
 fFrom the Latin " siliqua" a husk. 
 
 j From the Latin " silicula" a little husk. 
 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUIT. 
 
 145 
 
 or silicic, as in the shepherd's purse (Capsella), 
 cress, and others of the cruciferae (cf. Figs. 126, 127). 
 The fruits are sometimes lomentaceous (p. 143), as 
 in the radish (Fig. 128). 
 
 Fig. 127. Silicic of Fig. 128. Lomentaceous Fig. 129. Capsule of 
 
 Penny cress siliqua of Radish (Rapha- Autumn crocus (Col- 
 
 (Tklaspi). D, trans- nus}. /, the separate chicum auiumnale). 
 
 verse section ; v, dis- segments ; g, the style. /, the three separating 
 
 sepiment ; s, seed. carpels ; ,the valves. 
 
 (4) The capsule* is a syncarpous fruit, which may be 
 unilocular or multilocular (p. 119), when it dehisces 
 lengthways (longitudinal dehiscence), it sometimes 
 splits all the way down or nearly so (cf. Figs. 129, 
 140), or only at the top, forming notches or teeth, as 
 in the primrose, cowslip, chickweed (Cerastium) or 
 campion (Lychnis), cf. Dehiscence in the Appendix. 
 
 * From the Latin " capsula," a little chest. 
 II 
 
1 4-6 FLO WER-LAND. 
 
 When the capsule opens across the top like the lid 
 of a box, it is called a pyxidium * (transverse de- 
 hiscence p. 141). Look for the pretty little pimpernel 
 (Anagallis) for a good example of 
 the pyxidium, or you find it in the 
 fruit of the henbane (Hyoscyamus) 
 (Fig. 130). Compare also the 
 capsule of the common plantain 
 (Plantago). 
 
 Fig. 130. Pyxidium 
 
 of Henbane (Hyo- The pore capsule (Fig. 122, p. 141) 
 
 *rawf)-4thel&|tt'j 
 
 dissepiment ; s, seeds, you know very well, I expect, in 
 
 the poppy or the snapdragon (Antirrhinum}. 
 
 II. Dry and Indehiscent fruits (generally one- 
 seeded). 
 
 (1) Theac/iene"\ is a superior one-seeded simple fruit 
 or fruitlet of an apocarpous (compound) fruit, with a 
 
 ^in pericarp ; the fruit of the butter- 
 _jj cup is a good example. 
 
 The fruitlets inside the pseudocarp 
 B of the wild rose and those on the 
 
 Fig. 131. ^ Flower of outside of the pseudocarp of the 
 
 K\n(Ulmuscampestris); straw berry are also achenes. (Cf. 
 
 d, bract ; p, perianth ; * 
 
 a, stamens. , fruit caryopsis, cypsela^ samara (Fig. 
 
 (samara) ; /", achene with 
 
 m membranous margin. 131, ^ Appendix C.) 
 
 (2) The nut is truly a syncarpous (compound) fruit, 
 generally one-seeded, and, when ripe, it has a hard, 
 
 * From the Latin "pyxis" a box. 
 
 t From the Greek "#," not, and " kaino" I open. 
 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUIT. 147 
 
 scaly, or bony pericarp. Compare hazel nut, beech 
 nut,* and acorn (Figs. 103^, p. 121 ; 114, p. 135). The 
 nut often changes greatly as it is formed from the ovary 
 into fruit. The hazel, for instance, has a bilocular 
 ovary, but one cell is barren, and so the fruit is 
 unilocular (one-celled) ; and it is generally one- 
 seeded.f 
 
 Before passing on to succulent fruits we must notice 
 the schizocarp. Sometimes as a syncarpous (compound) 
 fruit ripens, the loculi develop so that each one is a 
 complete seed-box, and then they divide into separate 
 fruitlets. This kind of separating syn- 
 carpous fruit is called a schizocarp.\ 
 If the separated fruitlets are 
 only two in number, each is called 
 &mericarp% : as in the cow-parsnip 
 (Heracleum sphondylium) and 
 the other umbelliferae (Fig. 132). 
 Sometimes there are more than 
 two fruitlets, as in the common 
 Herb- Robert (Geranium Roberti- 
 
 Fig 132. iMericarp of 
 Caraway (Caruw). amtm) (cf. Fig. 141). 
 
 * In the pseudocarp of the beech (Fagus), the cupule or husk contain 
 ing the nuts is a bract-like involucre to the flowers, which has 
 remained as a cupule to their fruits, i.e., the nuts, each nut being the 
 fruit of a separate flower. fs 
 
 f You should cut across the ovaries? of the hazel, beech, or oak, and 
 tiy with your magnifying glass to see the loculi or cells. The oak has 
 a trilocular (three celled) ovary, with two ovules in each cell ; but all 
 the cells and ovules come to nothing except one cell with one ovule, 
 which becomes the acorn. ^ * t * jf I $ ^ 
 
 J From the Greek " schizo" I divide, or " meros" a part or share ; 
 and " karpos" fruit (cf. coccus, in Appendix C). 
 
I4 8 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 III. Succulent fruits (generally indehiscenf). 
 
 (i) The drupe* is a simple or syncarpous (com- 
 pound) fruit, with a fleshy mesocarp, and hard or 
 stony endocarp. You know it well, and perhaps it 
 is one of your favourite fruits, as it includes the plum, 
 the cherry (Fig. 120), the peach, the apricot, and 
 other kinds of stone fruit, as they are often called. 
 d 
 
 Here you must notice some 
 drupaceous apocarpous (com- 
 pound) fruits, such as the black- 
 berry and the raspberry : each 
 ripened ovary or fruitlet being 
 Fi g- 133- Drupaceous called a drupel or little drupe 
 
 Fruit of Blackberry. /T ^. ... 
 
 </, drupels. (FlgS. I33 22 P- 26 )- 
 
 So also the drupaceous, but syncarpous walnut. 
 Get the whole fruit, if possible, fresh off the tree, 
 and take the hard endocarp, with the seed 
 inside it, out of its green case, that is, the fleshy 
 mesocarp, with its thin skin or epicarp. Only 
 be careful, if you do not want to stain your fingers; 
 and if you taste the mesocarp, you will not, I think, 
 be inclined to taste it again ; unless, indeed, you 
 enjoy the whole fruit epicarp, mesocarp, endocarp, 
 and seed, pickled when young or tender pickled 
 walnuts. | 
 
 * From the Latin " drupcz" (from the Greek " drys," a tree, and 
 *' pipto" I fall), ripe olives, ready to fall off. 
 
 f Compare the drupaceous walnuts with the nuts of the hazel or 
 beech (p. 147). 
 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUIT. 149 
 
 (2) The berry has a thin epicarp or skin, but all the 
 rest of the pericarp is succulent, surrounding the 
 seed as the gooseberry, the currant, the grape, and 
 the cucumber. Berries are one or many seeded, and 
 one or many celled, and some have special names, 
 amongst which are the cucumbers and gourds.* 
 
 Perhaps you prefer the date (Fig. 134) to the 
 cucumber or vegetable marrow. That, too, is a berry 
 a one-seeded berry for that which is commonly 
 called a date stone is not a stone with a kernel (i.e., a 
 hard endocarp enclosing the seed), like that of the 
 plum (a drupe), but it is the kernel or seed itself 
 enclosed by its soft pericarp, and a very hard and 
 stony seed it is. 
 
 There are two other common but favourite fruits 
 which are allied to the berry the orange and the 
 lemon. In these fruits the pericarp is the well-known 
 " peel " with its pith-like inner layer. As the fruit 
 ripens the cells of the ovary become filled with the 
 sweet succulent pulp which we like to eat. You have 
 often peeled an orange, I expect, and separated and 
 eaten its juicy carpel bags. 
 
 It is worth while to cut an orange in half trans- 
 versely, z>., cut the top part off, so as to see these 
 cells of the ovary containing the seeds. 
 
 If you have an opportunity, and can get it without 
 tumbling into the water, the fruit of the yellow water 
 lily is well worth notice. Dr. Goebel has called it 
 
 * Cf. Appendix C, Berry. 
 
ISO FLO WE R- LAND. 
 
 a dehiscent berry ; the carpels separate and each 
 loculus becomes like a little berry. 
 
 But I have told you enough to occupy you 
 amongst fruits for some little time. Their varieties 
 are very many, and do not be disheartened if you 
 find some which puzzle you. Learn well now the 
 simpler kinds about which I have told you, and you 
 will understand the more puzzling fruits better as you 
 become more experienced.* 
 
 * In due time you can learn some special names which have been 
 given to some spurious and collective fruits, (cf. Appendix C.) 
 
SEEDS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 SEEDS. 
 
 IT will be on some 
 of the dry days 
 of autumn that 
 you will best be 
 able to explore 
 amongst the seeds 
 of our common 
 English plants. 
 But very many of 
 them are small; so 
 small that you 
 cannot really see 
 them well without 
 a microscope, and 
 I want you to 
 know something 
 more about seeds 
 Fig. 134. The Date Palm. before the autumn 
 
 comes. So let us try and get a grain or two of wheat, 
 a few peas or beans, one or two prunes, dates, and 
 walnuts, an apple, a Brazil nut, a common hazel nut 
 
1 5 2 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 or filbert, a pear, an orange, and a ^nutmeg ; and we 
 will grind the nutmeg partly away upon a grater. 
 Then we will talk about them in the evening, or 
 when it is a wet day, and you cannot go out. 
 
 Now as we place our little store before us, we will 
 cut open the apple (Fig. 25, p. 28), and the orange, 
 and the pear, and get out their seeds or pips as we 
 call them. And what about the seeds of the walnut, 
 prune, and date ? Yes ! the hard stony thing inside 
 the date fruit is its seed : but in the prune or dried 
 plum you have to crack the stone (the endocarp) 
 and then you can get out the seed, that is the kernel. 
 So also with the shell or pericarp of the nut and 
 the endocarp of the walnut (p. 148). And we will get 
 a little water and put a pea and bean in it that they 
 may soak a little. 
 
 Now let us take this walnut seed or kernel, and 
 peel off the thin skin which covers it. This skin, or 
 coat of the seed is called the testa* (Fig. 135 s\ and 
 varies much in different seeds. You can see by 
 looking at the seeds before us how different it is in 
 colour. In the apple it is a rich dark brown, a 
 lighter shade of brown in the prune, in the orange 
 seed it is white, in the pear black, in the common 
 mustard it is yellow. When you have an opportunity 
 of looking at some of our common wild flower 
 seeds under the microscope, you will find some of 
 
 * From the Latin " testa" a jar, a cask (the shell or covering 
 of the seed). 
 
SEEDS. 153 
 
 them with very pretty patterns ; and sometimes the 
 pattern is in colours, as in the seed of the common 
 campion (Lychnis). 
 
 So also you will find a won- 
 derful variety as to the smooth- 
 ness or roughness of the seed 
 coats. Sometimes, like those 
 of the bean or apple, they are 
 smooth to touch ; but in many 
 seeds they are rough with 
 knobs, or furrowed, or winged, 
 or tufted, or rough with 
 hairs. 
 
 And as to substance, see 
 how thin and membranous is 
 this testa or skin of the 
 walnut seed. Try that of the 
 bean. It has softened I dare 
 say in the water, and as you 
 peel off its coat you find that -,. 
 
 Fl g- I35 A t hal f f bean 
 it is thicker and more seed, kn plumule of embryo, 
 
 w its radicle, c one of the coty- 
 leathery than that of the ledons, s the testa. 
 
 walnut. These differences evidently depend upon the 
 character of the pericarp in which the seeds are 
 enclosed. When the seed remains safely in the 
 pericarp until it begins to grow, then the testa is 
 likely to be thin and tender ; but if the pericarp is 
 soft so that the seed might be easily damaged, or if 
 it dehisces and the seeds are sent out to fare as best 
 
154 
 
 FIOWER-LAND. 
 
 they may, then the testa becomes hard, or tough, or 
 hairy, &c., that it may protect the little plant inside it. 
 
 So now split some of these seeds in half. Perhaps 
 you cannot see anything very distinctly, only a whitish 
 mass ; but you know that this substance of the seed 
 is a store of food for the embryo, or little plant, which 
 is embedded in it (p. 134). If you do not quite 
 remember about the embryo, we will turn back and 
 read again about its radicle and plumule (p. 65, 71), 
 and its seed leaves, either one or two (p. 33). These 
 seed leaves are called cotyledons* Sometimes they 
 are large and fleshy, take up all the store of food into 
 themselves, and fill up the testa, as in the bean 
 (Fig. 135,) or almond (Fig. 136, C.) But in Fig. 
 
 Fig. 136. Sections of ripe seeds. A, nux vomica ; B, piper; 
 C> almond ; s t testa ; e, embryo ; w, its radicle ; c, cotyle- 
 dons. For E and /*, see note.f 
 
 136, A and B> you see pictures of seeds cut in 
 half, in which the cotyledons remain small, and the 
 whole embryo is surrounded by its food, which fills 
 up the rest of the testa, t 
 
 *From the Greek, " kotyledon," a hollow like a cup ; from " kotyle," 
 a cup. 
 
 f Cf. Appendix. Endosperm, perisperm. 
 
SEEDS. 155 
 
 We have now to notice how the substance or body 
 of the seed varies both in hardness and in shape. So 
 compare the peculiarly crumpled or folded seed of 
 the walnut with the other variously shaped but 
 smooth and even seeds which are before you. And 
 look at your nutmeg. Do you see how its substance 
 is mottled ? That is caused by a layer of the testa, 
 which grows in and out between the folded substance 
 or body of the seed. And its substance is very hard 
 also. In the pip of the apple or kernel of the nut, 
 on the other hand, it is softer. In the date seed, 
 however, whilst its testa is very fragile, its body or 
 substance is harder than in the nutmeg : so hard that 
 you may use knife or hammer upon it, and not easily 
 make much impression. Yet the little date plant 
 which it surrounds feeds and thrives upon it when the 
 date seeds are planted and begin to grow. 
 
 Will you crack the Brazil nut ? How oily this 
 seed is. You can not only taste this, but, if you 
 squeeze a bit of it hard, you will see that it is so. And 
 if you can get one whole out of its shell, and cut it to a 
 point at one end, and light it, it will burn freely. It 
 is a complete little lamp wick and oil and lamp 
 together. 
 
 Whilst it is burning, eat the wheat seed slowly. 
 Does it not remind you of flour and bread ? 
 
 Very different again is the nutmeg. Scrape or 
 grate it a little, and notice how fragrant it is ; and 
 you know that some people are fond of it as a spice 
 or flavouring. 
 
1 5 ^ FLO WE R- LAND. 
 
 So you have oil and flour and spice, all close at 
 hand. I think you will find the different ways in 
 which seeds are useful to us a very interesting part 
 of botany. 
 
 But how wonderful is the production of seed. 
 Wonderful if we think of a flower that produces but 
 a single seed, as the common nut. Wonderful if we 
 think of such a flower as the poppy, a fruit of which 
 has been found to contain up to 40,000 seeds ; 40,000 
 cases containing little poppy germs, each capable of 
 growing into root, and stem, and leaves, and flower, 
 and fruit, and 40,000 seeds again ! 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS. 
 
 157 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS. 
 
 Fig- 137. Fool's Parsley (^Ethusa cynapium), 
 with reflexed bracts. 
 
 I WONDER if 
 you can tell me 
 what all the life 
 of a plant is 
 working for ? 
 Why plants and 
 their parts are 
 found in all 
 these different 
 forms and 
 colours which 
 you have been 
 learning about ? 
 Yes, the root, 
 the stem, the 
 leaves, and all 
 their wonderful 
 variety, work 
 together that 
 
 plants may live. 
 They are the "organs of nourishment." Then the 
 
1 5 8 FLO WER-LAND. 
 
 energy of the living plants spends itself in forming 
 flowers and fruits with all their wonderful variety 
 the "organs of reproduction." So that the great 
 business of plants is to produce their seed by which 
 their kind may be kept alive upon the earth after 
 those of any particular generation are dead and gone. 
 I should like you to remember this. So notice again 
 how wonderfully the seeds are covered and protected 
 by pericarp or testa, or by both (p. 152). And then 
 on fine summer days let us search to find out some of 
 the wonderful ways in which plants take pains that 
 their seeds may ripen safely, and, when ripe, may be 
 " scattered," or " sown." 
 
 Notice, for instance, the common dandelion in full 
 bloom, how conspicuous it is, its stalk erect, and its 
 bright yellow florets all wide open. 
 
 But presently the involucre will close up around 
 its withering florets, and the flower stalk (scape, 
 p. 107) will bend downwards with the precious 
 head of fertilised ovules, so that they may become 
 seeds (p. 134) ripe and ready to be sown. Then up 
 rises its stalk again, and its involucre opens wide, 
 and the head of fruits, each with a feathery tail at- 
 tached to it,* is raised high, so that the fruits with 
 their precious seed may be scattered by the wind. 
 Have you never seen children blowing at these 
 feathery heads or " clocks " as they are called, to see 
 
 *This is called a "pappus," see Fig. 138, a, b, e. 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS. 
 
 159 
 
 in how many puffs they can blow off all the feathery 
 fruits? (Fig. 138 #.) Try one now. First notice the 
 little fruits or inferior achenes (cypselas) with their 
 feathery tails (Fig. 138 b, e), and then start them on 
 their journey through the air, and watch how admirably 
 
 Fig. 138. Dandelion (Leontodon} ; a, head of seeds ; b, head with all 
 seeds removed but one, showing reflexed involucre, pitted receptacle 
 and one fruit with pappus ; , one fruit with pappus magnified ; 
 c, receptacle with one floret left upon it ; d, floret magnified, showing 
 ovary'at base, the hairy calyx which becomes the pappus, the tubular 
 corolla with expanded limb (ligulate), the anthers of the stamens 
 being close around the style of the pistil, of which the stigma at 
 the top is notched. 
 
 the plant has produced that which will bring about 
 what is desired, that its ripe seeds should be scattered 
 
i6o 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 that the dandelion plants may spread and grow from 
 year to year. 
 
 You will find many other fruits and seeds which 
 have appendages that they may be wafted by the 
 wind. Either feathery hairs as in the 
 willow-herb, cotton grass, thistles and 
 other composite plants, clematis and 
 bulrush ; or a thin membrane, or wing, 
 as in the maple or sycamore (cf. Figs. 
 28 b t p. 33 J 139). 
 
 Sometimes the seeds are scattered 
 by what Sir John Lubbock describes 
 
 Fig. 139. Scale as " innocent artillery." That is, plants 
 
 of fruit of Scotch 
 
 out their seeds, sometimes 
 
 rir, snowing two 
 
 winged seeds. to a considerable distance, by the 
 
 contraction or expansion of the seed 
 
 case (cf. Fig. 140). There is a plant 
 
 which grows in moist places in the 
 
 north of England, called the yellow 
 
 balsam. If you touch its fruit when 
 
 it is ripe, the valves of the seed 
 
 vessel will spring off and scatter the 
 
 seeds to a considerable distance ; so Fig. ^140!* Fruit of 
 
 the plant is called " Impatiens-noli- Pa . ns y Violet ( Y iola 
 
 tricolor] ; B, ripe fruit ; 
 
 me-tangere" i.e., " I am impatient (of k, calyx ; c, fruit after 
 
 . 1X . dehiscence : p, placen- 
 
 being touched), do not touch me. tse ; j, seeds. 
 
 In the common Herb-Robert, each of the five fruitlets 
 has a long thin projection which reaches from the 
 
DIS TRIB UTION OF SEEDS. I 6 1 
 
 ovary or seed case to the top 
 (apex) of the central axis 
 or flower stalk. These rods 
 become tightly stretched when 
 the seeds, are ripe, so tightly 
 that at length they burst 
 away, and as they do so jerk 
 to a considerable distance the 
 five little fruits or carpels 
 containing the seed (Fig. 141). 
 On warm autumn days you 
 may hear the pods of many 
 of the butterfly plants bursting 
 and scattering the seeds, as 
 
 tig. 141. Fruit of Geranium- 
 
 A, before dehiscence ; B, after also the siliquas (p. 144) of the 
 
 dehiscence ; s, pedicel ;/, loculi 
 
 of the ovary which is prolonged Cruciferae (cross bearers). In 
 coTu UiL" the stork's bill, another species 
 
 dehiscence ; ;/, the stigma. o f t } ie geranium order, the 
 seeds are scattered as in the Herb-Robert. 
 
 Some seeds have a twisted rod or awn something 
 like a corkscrew. If the weather is damp, the rod 
 untwists and lengthens ; if dry, it contracts again ; and 
 so, as some think, the seed is enabled to travel some 
 little distance. Others, however, think that this 
 movement is for the purpose of forcing the seed 
 into the ground. 
 
 If you walk through a wood you will probably 
 carry out the wishes of certain kinds of plants in 
 distributing their seeds. Have you never found 
 
 12 
 
1 62 FLO WER-LA ND. 
 
 the little round balls of the harriff (hair rough) 
 clinging to your clothes ? They are its fruits, fur- 
 nished with little hooks (p. 23), so that they stick to 
 you, or to the rabbit or the dog that brushes past 
 them, and are carried off to found elsewhere a new 
 colony of harriff. Hence the common name which 
 has been given them of " cleavers." Perhaps you 
 have been troubled with the larger fruits and stronger 
 hooks of the seed vessels of the hound's tongue 
 (Cynoglossum), a plant with downy leaves and dull 
 red flowers. If you look at these fruits through the 
 microscope (with a low magnifying power), you will 
 see many of the hooks with five spreading teeth 
 curved downwards and inwards. Very formidable 
 they look, and one no longer wonders that they are 
 so difficult to get rid of from one's clothes. 
 
 In some foreign plants the hooks of the " fruits 
 are so large and strong that they are said even 
 to kill lions.. * As these hooked fruits roll about 
 over the dry plains, they sometimes become attached 
 to the lion's skin. "The wretched animal tries to 
 tear them out, and, sometimes getting them into his 
 mouth, perishes miserably." * 
 
 You can find other instances of those hooked fruits 
 in the enchanter's nightshade (circcea), and the hedge 
 parsley (torilis), 
 
 Such are some, and only some, of the ways in 
 
 * Sir John Lubbock, in "Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves." 
 
niSTKIBUTlON OF SEEDS. 
 
 163 
 
 which seeds are dispersed and sown. How marvellous 
 and full of interest it is to search and find out the 
 wonders of plants : the wonderful ways in which they 
 not only produce, but also provide for the distribution 
 of, their seeds. 
 
1 64 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 CELLS, VESSELS, AND TISSUES. 
 
 Fig. 142. Head of Teasel (Dipsacus 
 sylvestris}) with involucral bracts. 
 
 WE are now going 
 to search just a very 
 little into a branch 
 of Botany which is 
 more difficult than 
 what you have been 
 learning hitherto. So 
 far we have been 
 talking chiefly about 
 the parts of Flower- 
 ing Plants as they 
 appear to us in their 
 outward forms the 
 Morphologyof plants. 
 But now break or 
 cut a buttercup stem 
 across, or the stem 
 of a stinging nettle, 
 if you can do so 
 without being stung, 
 
CELLS, VESSELS, AND TISSUES. 165 
 
 or a branch of a shrub or tree. Look at a bit of board 
 which you know has been sawn out of the trunk of 
 some tree ; break the stalk of a dandelion ; cut an 
 apple or plum in half, or tear across one or two 
 different kinds of leaves. How different the substance 
 of these things ! Now I want to-day to tell you a 
 little about how these things, and all other parts of 
 plants, are made up. 
 
 You cannot make out very much as you look at 
 the soft, sappy substance of the buttercup stem, or 
 the hard wood, or the thin or fleshy leaves. To 
 search into them thoroughly requires a microscope ; 
 but with the use of your magnifying glass and a few 
 pictures, we shall be very well able to understand 
 something about the composition of plants and their 
 parts : the way in which they are made up the 
 Anatomy * of Plants. 
 
 We shall begin with an orange. Choose the ripest 
 you can find : partly cut, and then tear it in half. 
 Now, the pulp is made up of a lot of little juicy bags 
 or bladders. Separate a little bit of it carefully, and 
 you will easily get one or two of these little bladders 
 unbroken. They are called " cells," and cells are 
 the first or foundation substance of which plants are 
 made up. But these cells of the orange pulp are old 
 ones. Their life is over ; they are simply bags full 
 of juice a pulpy covering for the seeds and in due 
 course they would rot away. But in its young and 
 
 * From the Greek "ana" and " teinno" I cut in pieces, I separate. 
 
1 66 
 
 FLOWER-LAND, 
 
 growing state the cell contains a soft substance, alive ; 
 that is. with power of growth, which is called 
 "protoplasm" * In these plants which you are learn- 
 ing about, it has a special part called a nucleus ; its 
 skin or covering is the cell wall, and the watery fluid 
 which is found in cells is called the cell sap, about 
 which I will tell you a little more in due course. 
 
 Now, how do cells increase in number ? When 
 you learn about the flowerless plants, you will find 
 that sometimes old cells become young again, or two 
 
 Fig. 143. Various kinds of cellular tissue 
 (parenchyma}. 
 
 or more join together to form a new cell : but now 
 remember that cells increase in number by division. 
 You will learn in due course about the different ways 
 
 * From the Greek "protos," first, and "plasma," anything moulded 
 or modelled. 
 
CELLS, VESSELS, AND TISSUES. 
 
 6 7 
 
 in which they may divide ; but generally the nucleus 
 and protoplasm divide into parts, and a new cell wall 
 is formed between them, so that there are two cells 
 instead of one.* Thus the division goes on, and a 
 collection of cells is formed, which is called tissue ; 
 and so the whole plant is developed, or grows up, 
 from " cells." 
 
 The simplest form of tissue is made up of simple 
 cells. It is therefore called cellular tissue, and is of 
 two kinds according to the general shape of the cells 
 of which it is composed. If we were to get some of 
 the pith of the elder,! we should find that it was made 
 up of a lot of cells about as long as they are broad. 
 These are called " short cells," and such a tissue is 
 called "parenchyma "| (Fig. 143). 
 
 But if we carefully 
 separated the parts of 
 a stern, we should find 
 in it long and narrow 
 cells. These overlap 
 one another and so 
 form a stiff tissue, which, 
 though long and narrow, 
 is able to stand upright 
 and carry weight, as in 
 the stem of a butter- 
 cup. This kind of tissue, 
 
 Fig. 144. Cellular tissue 
 (prosenchyma}. 
 
 * cf. Cell in the Appendix. 
 
 f Try this with your magnifying glass ; also pith of dahlia. 
 
 t From the Greek "para" beside, and " encheo" to pour in. 
 
1 68 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 made up of the long cells, is called " prosenchyma"* 
 (Fig. 144). 
 
 In some parts of stems, however, you find another 
 kind of tissue. In a pile or column of cells, one 
 on the top of the other, the divisions between 
 them sometimes gradually disappear, or partly 
 so, so that there is a free passage from end to 
 end of the whole column or set of cells, and so is 
 formed a long tube or " vessel." The sides or walls of 
 these vessels differ a good deal according to the way 
 in which the original cell divisions or walls have been 
 removed or altered. I will only tell you that the 
 
 Fig. 145. Spiral vessels. Fig. 146. Pitted vessels. 
 
 most common ones are known as ringed (annular)^, or 
 spiral, or pitted, or scalariform \ according to these 
 differences in their walls (Figs. 145, 146, 147). You 
 
 * From the Greek "pros," to, and " encheo" to pour in. 
 f From the Latin " annuhis" a ring, a curled lock of hair. 
 J From the Latin " scalaris" (scala) of a ladder, and "forma," shape 
 or form. 
 
CELLS, VESSELS, AND TISSUES. 
 
 169 
 
 may perhaps find some of them for yourself out of 
 a piece of rhubarb, when next you have any rhubarb 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 147. Scalariform vessels (on the right hand). 
 
 tart for dinner. You must tear a very small piece 
 into shreds with a pin or needle, and then try what 
 you can see with your magnifying glass. Under the 
 
 microscope you would see 
 it as in the picture (Fig. 
 148). Now a tissue made 
 up of vessels is called vas- 
 cular tissue* So now you 
 know that it is of cellular 
 
 Fig ; i 4 8.-Annularvesseand tissue (parenchyma or pros- 
 spiral vessels from rhubarb, enchyma) and of vascular 
 tissue that these flowering plants and their parts 
 are made up. 
 
 Notice how the shape of cells and the spaces 
 between them t vary according to the closeness with 
 
 * From the Latin " vascuhim" (vas}, a vessel. 
 
 t These are called ''intercellular spaces," from the Latin "inter" 
 between (the cells). 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 which they are joined together in the tissue 
 
 (Figs. 143, 149)- 
 
 And notice also how cells 
 
 change as they grow old and 
 die. There are not only 
 the soft and juicy cells of 
 the yellow orange pulp, or 
 the soft and dry ones of the 
 pith of trees, but sometimes 
 they harden as they dry up 
 so as to form hard tissue* 
 
 like that of bark, or wood, or the stone of a plum 
 
 or peach (Fig. 149). 
 
 Fig. 149. Left hand shows 
 
 bark cells from horse chestnut, 
 
 right hand hard cells from stone 
 
 of damson (sclerenchyma]. 
 
 * cf. sclerenchyma, Appendix. 
 
TISSUES. 
 
 I/I 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 TISSUES. 
 
 Fig. 150. Spike of Grass 
 a, a single flower. 
 
 As we are going to 
 talk about tissues, 
 I shall begin by- 
 asking you to tell 
 me what a tissue 
 is (p. 167). 
 
 (i) So now we will 
 take a tissue of 
 the simplest form- 
 some cells joined 
 only end to end. 
 You will find ex- 
 amples in many 
 hairs. If you look 
 again at Fig. 54, 
 p. 8 1, you will see 
 some hairs magni- 
 fied, which are made 
 up of cells joined 
 only end to end. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 (2) Now suppose you have a lot of cells placed 
 together, like a single layer of eggs upon a table, and 
 which have grown together, so that they form a thin 
 sheet or skin of cells. There is just such a skin or 
 tissue of cells covering the surface of the parts of 
 plants, and enclosing the other tissues within it* It 
 is, therefore, called the epidermal > tissue, or simply 
 the epidermis t ; and it generally consists of a single 
 layer of cells, as I have described it. The outside 
 
 walls of the epidermal 
 cells are more or less 
 thickened and hardened, 
 and grow together so as 
 to form the surface skin 
 or outside wall, which is 
 called the cuticle. % You 
 can see a picture of the 
 epidermis and its cuticle 
 in Fig. 151. Try if you 
 can distinguish it in a 
 thickish leaf, or some 
 herbaceous stem ; or try 
 for it upon an onion 
 bulb. In the stems and 
 shoots of shrubs and trees, the green and tender 
 
 Fig. 151. Leaf stalk of a Begonia 
 cut across (transverse section). 
 t, epidermis ; r, cuticle (magni- 
 fied 550 times). 
 
 * Yet the stigma is not covered over, you remember (p. 128), as there 
 is a channel down it into the ovary ; and there are the little openings 
 or mouths which are found upon leaves (p. 25). 
 
 f From the Greek "<?/?'," upon, and "derma" skin. 
 
 From the Latin (cutis), " cuticula" the outermost skin. 
 
TISSUES. 173 
 
 epidermis soon breaks or bursts as the stem or shoot 
 grows larger, and is changed into, or its place is 
 taken by, the tougher, thicker, and at last hard and 
 brownish tissue, which we commonly call bark, but 
 about which I will tell you a little more in the next 
 chapter. 
 
 (3) W^ come now to an important system or 
 arrangement of tissue, which is made up of both cells 
 and vessels. You have noticed it often in the veins 
 of leaves. These so-called veins are really bundles 
 of tissue, harder than the rest of the substance or 
 tissue of the leaf, and passing from the leaf into and 
 down the branches and main stem like bundles of 
 string or cord. When all the rest of the leaf has 
 perished, these bundles of tissue often remain, and 
 form the skeleton leaves which are so delicately 
 beautiful. If you break a stem of the common 
 plantain leaf, or pull the leaf in two, you will 
 probably see these bundles of tissue projecting very 
 plainly. But you have noticed them also in the 
 fibres of nettles (p. 51) ; and now I think I can tell 
 you what this combination of cellular and vascular 
 tissue is called. Because its cellular tissue is largely 
 prosenchyma (p. 168), and the cells particularly long, 
 thickened, and tough (fibrous), it is specified by the 
 word fibro, and so the combination tissue is known 
 as fibro-vascular* 
 
 * From the Latin *' fibra, " a thread ; to mark the thread or string- 
 like character of most of the cells of the cellular tissue. For " vascular," 
 see p. 169. 
 
174 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 If you look at the 
 picture of part of a 
 stalk which has been 
 cut across in Fig. 152, 
 you will see the fibro- 
 vascular bundles or 
 tissue very plainly. 
 
 (4) All other tissues 
 of which plants are 
 made up, besides the 
 epidermal and the 
 
 fibre-vascular tissues. 
 Fig. 152. Part of leafstalk of Hellebore 
 
 (transverse section). e t epidermis ; are Spoken of generally 
 /, fibro- vascular system ; g, funda- , 
 
 mental tissue. as fundamental* tissue. 
 
 It consists largely of parenchyma (p. 167), and you can 
 find examples of it in the softer parts of leaves and 
 herbaceous stems, in the pith of elder, etc., in the 
 pulp of fruits, in the shell of the walnut, or the stone 
 of the plum or peach. 
 
 I hope you will not be disheartened at these 
 three systems or formations of tissue, with their long 
 names coming all together. Think of what the names 
 mean, that you may understand generally what the 
 tissues are. Take another general look at them in 
 Fig. 152, and I will tell you a little more particularly 
 about them when I tell you about wood and bark in 
 another chapter. 
 
 * From the Latin "fundamcntum," from " futtdo," I found, serving 
 for the foundation. 
 
WOOD AND BARK. 
 
 175 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 woo i ) 
 
 AND BARK. 
 
 I AM now going 
 to tell you a little 
 more about the 
 fibro - vascular 
 bundles ; so let 
 us look at them 
 in a buttercup 
 plant, or in a leafy 
 branch of bush or 
 tree, such as the 
 sycamore or 
 flowering currant 
 The fibro-vascular 
 bundles which 
 have grown up 
 within the main 
 stem of the herb 
 or tree, have 
 branched out with and within its branches, and you 
 can see them as they branch for the last time and 
 appear as veins in the blades of the leaves. 
 
 Fig. 153. Cuckoo pint {Arum tnacnlatitm), 
 showing spadix, spathe, and sagittate leaves. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 Fig. 154. Monocotyledonom 
 stem. 
 
 Now I want you to try and understand the two 
 most common ways in which 
 these fibro-vascular bundles 
 are arranged within the stems. 
 In monocotyledons * they pass 
 up the stem, scattered about 
 here and there in the funda- 
 mental tissue (Fig. 154). But 
 in dicotyledons * the bundles 
 are arranged in it so as to form a ring. The 
 pictures will help you to understand this better, as 
 they show you the surfaces of two stems which have 
 
 been cut across. It 
 is the ringed arrange- 
 ment which occurs in 
 most of our native 
 trees (Fig. 155). In 
 Fig. 152 you have 
 already noticed the 
 ring of fibro-vascular 
 bundles (f) surround- 
 ing and surrounded 
 by the fundamental 
 tissue. 
 
 But notice the 
 picture, Fig. 1 52, a little more closely. The bundles you 
 see are made up of a darker and a lighter part. 
 
 Fig. 155. Section of oak, several 
 years' growth. 
 
 The 
 
 * From the Greek " ntonos" one; or dis (duo), twice, double, and 
 cotyledons (cf. pp. 33 and 154). Monocotyledons, plants of which the 
 seeds have one seed-leaf ; dicotyledons, plants of which they have two. 
 
WOOD AND BARK. 
 
 177 
 
 innermost and darker part (x) is made up of tissues 
 which become hard in shrubs and trees, and form the 
 xylem* or wood. The outer and lighter parts (cb) are 
 made up of tissues which are called phloem^ or bast. 
 
 The wood and the bast do not continue to grow, 
 but between them is a set of living and growing cells, 
 called the cambium. These cambium cells form new 
 
 * From the Greek " xulon" wood. 
 
 t From the Greek " phloios" the inner bark, bast. 
 
 13 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 tissues year by year, which in their turn cease to 
 grow, and form a permanent addition to the already 
 existing wood and bast bundles, as the case may be. 
 Fig. 156 C shows you the cambium .bundles very well. 
 
 Now get a small branch of ash or elm, oak, syca- 
 more, or elder, and cut it evenly across. You can 
 easily distinguish the " pith " and the " wood," and 
 the softer part which surrounds the wood, which, I 
 dare say, you call the " bark." Peel off the bark a 
 little. How easily it comes away, and how slippery 
 the wood is where it has been taken off. It is 
 because you have pulled away the bast from the 
 wood, and the cambium cells which lie between them 
 are the growing cells, full of protoplasm, increasing 
 
 by division, and very tender. 
 
 So now you can 
 
 understand some- 
 thing about the 
 growth of wood. I 
 do not know how 
 old that little branch 
 may be you have 
 been looking at, so 
 look at Fig. 157. It 
 shows you part of 
 the surface of a four- 
 year-old branch, cut 
 
 Fig. 157. Part of a transverse section of a * 
 
 twig of the Lime, four years old. m, the evenly across. Jiach 
 pith ; x, the wood ; I, 2, 3, 4, four f , cam Kj um 
 
 annual rings; c t cambium; ph t bast; > C< 
 
 A, bast fibres ; pr, k, outer bark. h as formed new 
 
WOOD AND BARK. 
 
 179 
 
 tissue, more abundantly on its inner side for wood 
 than on its outer side for bast, and the former has 
 hardened year by year into the four rings of wood. 
 This is how it is that in the trunks of many trees you 
 can often plainly see the rings of wood as many 
 rings as there are years in the age of the tree * (cf. 
 Figs. 157, 155). 
 
 In Fig. 1 5 8 you can see 
 that there are slits or 
 openings between the 
 fibro-vascular bundles, 
 which go from the cam- 
 bium towards the pith 
 or medulla. These are 
 called medullary rays, 
 and are filled with fun- 
 
 i . / Fig. 158. Portion of a stem when cut 
 
 damental tissue (paren- across, showing surface (transverse 
 
 rhvma"! Tripv nfr-p-n section ) mi '> and surface whe.n cut 
 1 lengthwise (longitudinal section) a to 
 add greatly to the h lhe P ith ? m shows medullary rays. 
 
 beauty of the wood, as for instance in what is known 
 as silver grain. In a transverse section of a stem, 
 these medullary rays appear as rays from the pith 
 towards the bark (Fig. 157). And compare Figs. 152 
 
 * Because the new wood is added to the outside of that already 
 formed, stems of this kind of growth (dicotyledons, p. 176) have been 
 called "exogenous" The word is derived from two Greek words 
 "^-," "exo" outwards, on the outside, and " genu" old form of 
 " gignomai" to come into being. The stem increases in thickness by- 
 addition upon the outside of the wood only. When the fibre-vascular 
 bundles grow here and there amongst the fundamental tissut 
 irregularly, the plants have been called '''endogenous'" (" endonj 
 within, and "geno"}. If you cut across a cane, you can see a good 
 example of this growth ; and see Fig. 154. 
 
i8o 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 and 159, where the fibre-vascular bundles are some 
 distance apart, showing the fundamental tissue be- 
 tween them, which in an older and more woody stem 
 forms the medullary rays of Fig. 157. 
 
 There is much more that is very interesting about 
 the wood, but I must hasten on to tell you a little 
 more about the bark or cortex* 
 
 So let us go back to Fig. 157, and take up again 
 the little branch you were looking at just now. In 
 the portion you peeled off 
 from the wood you have those 
 parts of the fibro-vascular 
 bundles which are outside the 
 cambium. Can you tell me 
 what they are called ? Yes ! 
 they are called "the bast," and 
 they form the inner -or secondary 
 
 Fig. 159. Cross section of bark or cortex (Fig. 157, ph, b). 
 
 Though never hardening 
 into wood, they cease to grow, 
 take a permanent form, and 
 are more or less tough. It is 
 often very useful. I dare say 
 
 you know it very well as the bast, often from the 
 lime tree, which gardeners use for tying up their 
 plants. So, again, the bast of the hemp and flax 
 plants is so much used for making string and linen, 
 
 stem of dicotyledon at end 
 of first year. a, pith ; 
 c, woody tissue, with 
 vessels ; d, cambium cells ; 
 c, bast cells ; fg, outer 
 bark. 
 
 * From the Latin " cortex," the rind or bark. 
 
WOOD AND BARK. 
 
 181 
 
 that the name of the whole plant often means only 
 the useful bast which the plant contains. 
 
 The outer bark, or bark proper (primary cortex), 
 consists mainly of fundamental tissue (Figs. 157 pr, 
 Z 59 /) Generally, upon its outside layer, and 
 so just under the epidermis, are formed cells, with 
 walls of cork. This cork cell tissue, through 
 which water hardly penetrates, prevents nourish- 
 ment from reaching the epidermis of the young 
 
 Fig. 1 60. Transverse section of a one year's shoot 
 
 of Ailanthus (foreign), magnified 350 times. 
 r, primary cortex ; k, cork cells ; c, dead epidermis. 
 
 stem, and so towards autumn the once green 
 and living skin becomes brown, and at length it 
 withers and dies away. Its place is taken by the cork 
 tissue, which has caused its death (Figs. 160, 157 k}. 
 Often the cork tissue grows to a considerable thick- 
 
1 82 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 ness, as in certain kinds of foreign oak, and is 
 very useful when made into bungs and corks, and for 
 many other purposes. But you can tell me now 
 why the outside of the bark is so dry and dead. Yes, it 
 is because the cork cells hinder the passage of the sap, 
 and both the cork and any other tissues that may be 
 outside it become the dry, hard, outside of the bark, 
 or cortex. 
 
 Now turn to Fig. 1 56, and trace . again the wood, 
 cambium, bast (making up inner bark), and outer 
 bark ; and notice how the latter is continued into the 
 dead outside in Fig. 1 60. 
 
 In roots the fibro-vascular bundles are differently 
 arranged ; but this, and other differences of structure 
 between roots and stems, you will search out in 
 time to come. 
 
CONl^ENTS OF CELLS AND VESSELS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 CONTENTS OF CELLS AND VESSELS. 
 
 Fig. 1 6 1. Monk's Hood (Aconittim napellus}. 
 c, the root ; e, apocarpous fruit (follicles}. 
 
 BEFORE I tell you a 
 little about various sub- 
 stances which are some- 
 times found in the cells 
 and vessels, I wantyou to 
 notice certain " spaces " 
 or " cavities " which are 
 found in plants. Some- 
 times they are found 
 
 bet we e n 
 
 -i 
 
 the cells 
 you re- 
 member, 
 and are 
 then cal- 
 led"inter- 
 cellular 
 spaces" 
 (Fig. 143)- 
 
1 84 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 But you can easily see some larger cavities, or 
 air chambers. Cut across some part of a large 
 water plant, such as the leaf stalk of a water 
 lily, for instance, and look at it through your 
 magnifying glass ; or cut through the hollow stems of 
 the " kecksie," or a grass or rush, some of which you 
 can find quite easily. You will inquire hereafter how 
 these cavities are formed. 
 
 Now I am going to 
 tell you about some of 
 the substances which are 
 found sometimes in the 
 intercellular, spaces, as 
 well as in vessels or cells. 
 
 First, then, about the 
 little green bodies or 
 corpuscles, which are 
 embedded in the pro- 
 toplasm of certain cells. 
 The green matter which 
 colours them is called 
 chlorophyll, so they are 
 known by the name of 
 chlorophyll corpuscles. * 
 It is the presence of 
 
 Fig. 162. Transverse section of leaf 
 stalk of a Begonia, e, epidermis ; 
 c, cuticle ; cl, a kind of funda- 
 mental tissue, with cell walls 
 thickened ; chl, chlorophyll cor- 
 puscles in the cells ; /, paren- 
 chyma cell (magnified 550 times). 
 
 * Chlorophyll : from the Greek " chloros" green, and " phullon" 
 a leaf; because it makes the leaves green. Corpuscle : from the Latin 
 " corpusculum" a little body. These chlorophyll corpuscles are 
 portions of separated protoplasm, and are very important to the plant. 
 I will tell you more about them presently. 
 
CONTENTS OF CELLS AND VESSELS. 
 
 I8 5 
 
 these little bodies that causes the green colour of 
 so many parts of plants (Fig. 162). But about this, 
 and the presence of other colouring matter in the 
 cells of plants, you must try to learn more particularly 
 after you have read the chapters upon Physiology. 
 Meanwhile, the more you notice the exquisite colours 
 which abound in plants, the rich contrasts of flowers 
 and fruits, so pleasing in their setting of the prevailing 
 and restful green, the more, I think, you will admire 
 them. So, also, our common trees will give you many 
 a beautiful picture in the spring and early summer in 
 the colours of their fresh expanded leaves, and in the 
 autumn if you notice them as their leaves begin to 
 fade and die. 
 
 Perhaps you have never 
 seen the " starch grains " 
 which are so often found 
 in plant cells, especially 
 those of the potato tubers, 
 beans, or wheat or rice, 
 and kindred seeds (Fig. 
 163). If you take a bit 
 
 Fig. 163. -Chlorophyll corpuscles of P otato tuber > and Wel1 
 with starch grains, from a leaf SQak j t so ften, separate, 
 magnified 550 times, a, 0, c, a, e, 
 
 corpuscles of increasing age : in and wash it in water, you 
 
 the latter ones the starch fills ... 
 
 almost the whole space ; /, g, will presently have a little 
 ^S^l?rt^^S white P wder remaining. 
 
 corpuscle has been destroyed, and Look at it through your 
 only the starchy contents remain ; 
 
 b' />" show corpuscle dividing. magnifying glass. Under 
 
 the microscope you could 
 
1 86 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 see the starch granules very plainly. Sometimes the 
 shape of them is very strange (Fig. 164). These 
 starch granules make the tubers, or seeds which con- 
 tain them, very nutritious as food. Sugar is found 
 in the cell sap of the sugar cane, the beetroot, and 
 some other plants. 
 
 Fig. 164. Starch Grains. 
 
 Hard "crystals" are also found in the cells of plants. 
 Here is a picture of some of 
 them (Fig. 166), but you may 
 easily find some real ones. Take 
 a hyacinth stem, break or cut it, 
 and rub the cut part gently along 
 a glass slide ; now if you look 
 through your magnifying glass you 
 Fig. i6 5 .-Crystals in will very likely be able to see some 
 the wall of some cell o f t h e crystals like tiny needles 
 
 tissue, magnified six 
 
 hundred times. (Fig. 1 66). Crystals of this shape 
 
CONTENTS OF CELLS AND VESSELS. 
 
 I8 7 
 
 are called " raphides."* You would find crystals of 
 
 another shape in 
 stalks of rhubarb. 
 
 the 
 
 Now we will pick a 
 dandelion, and notice its 
 milky juice. It is con- 
 tained in vessels, long 
 tubes or ducts, which 
 spread thickly both in 
 root and flower stalk. Fig . , 66 ._ Crystals and Raphides . 
 Common sun's purge also 
 
 has a quantity of milky juice which is contained in 
 cells, and is white in colour as in the dandelion. But 
 do you know the greater celandine ? t It is a plant 
 with little clusters of yellow flowers, each of 
 four petals, and its seed vessel is a pod ; it grows in 
 waste places, thickets, and often about old houses. 
 Its abundant milky juice is yellow. 
 
 In some plants this kind of milky juice is very 
 valuable. Opium for instance is the milky juice 
 which is found in the capsules of a certain kind 
 of poppy, J and the milky juice of a foreign 
 plant, of the same natural order as our common 
 
 * From the Greek " raphis" a needle. 
 
 t Not the buttercup celandine (Ficaria verna), but quite a different 
 plant, the Chelidonium majus. 
 
 | Papaver somnifertttn. 
 Siphonia elastica. 
 
1 88 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 spurge, becomes, when it is dried, 
 our india rubber. 
 
 I daresay you have often noticed 
 the " gum " upon the plum or cherry 
 trees, or the "resinous " substance 
 upon the firs (Fig. 167). These 
 are formed in the cells, vessels, and 
 )w *_ inter-cellular spaces of various parts 
 ing resin ducts. o f t h e plants in which they are 
 
 produced ; as also the 
 
 oil or scent which you 
 
 find so pleasant when you 
 
 bruise a myrtle leaf, or 
 
 bend and squeeze the 
 
 rind of an orange or 
 
 lemon * (Fig. 168). 
 
 You see how much there _. 
 
 Fig. ib8. Oil cavity with drop of 
 is for you to enquire about volatile oil (0), from below the upper 
 
 surface of a leaf of Dictamnus 
 and examine, not Only (foreign), magnified 320 times. 
 
 concerning the way plants are made up, but also as to 
 the substances which they contain. 
 
 But we must pass on to the way in which plants 
 live and grow. So I shall conclude our talks upon 
 the anatomy of plants by telling you about the 
 beautiful bloom which you often see upon our choicest 
 fruits. What is the "bloom," and what is it for? 
 
 * Notice the leaves of the St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatuni), 
 which have these oil cavities ; they appear like transparent dots or spots. 
 
CONTENTS OF CELLS AND VESSELS. 189 
 
 It is a kind of wax which is in the cuticle (p. 172) 
 of many plants, and which sometimes forms a 
 covering or bloom of very minute particles upon 
 the surface of the fruit, to protect it from being 
 damaged by the rain. 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 ABSORPTION AND TRANSPIRATION. 
 
 IN the first 
 beginning of life 
 there is a mystery 
 which cannot be 
 explained ; so at 
 present you must 
 be content to 
 know that under 
 certain conditions 
 of warmth and 
 moisture the little 
 cells of a seed 
 begin to move 
 and grow, and the 
 seed is found to 
 be alive. 
 
 I think you 
 
 Fig. i6 9 .-Lily of the Valley (ConvaHaria 
 
 majalis). </, stamens with open anthers, showing will be able to 
 
 pollen; f, trilocular capsule; g, transverse 
 
 section. tell me what the 
 
ABSORPTION AND TRANSPIRATION. IQI 
 
 little plant or embryo lives upon until it has burst its 
 seed coat, and settled itself in the world to enjoy 
 plant life as its parents did before it. Yes, until its 
 plumule, becomes a stem, and its radicle a root, 
 so that it can take its own food from soil and 
 atmosphere, it feeds upon the store food with which 
 its thoughtful parent has supplied it, from endosperm, 
 or perisperm, or cotyledon store as the case may be 
 (p. 154). You can easily notice the testa of the wheat 
 or bean seed becoming more and more empty and 
 withered as the little plantlet grows. 
 
 You can see the same kind of thing also in the tuber 
 of the potato or the orchis, as the young buds grow 
 and live upon the treasured food. 
 
 So now we have come to the young plant, fairly 
 started and continuing to grow according to the 
 methods and laws of plant life, about which I am 
 going to tell you. 
 
 What then is the food of plants ? In the first place, 
 it is composed of certain gases, such as oxygen and 
 nitrogen, and of certain solids, such as sulphur and 
 iron, which are mixed up with a great deal of water 
 into liquid food. For plants take up food by their 
 roots from the earth in which they grow, and the roots 
 can only take it in a liquid form. Now let us pull 
 up some common plant and look at the thinner fibres 
 of its root ; with a magnifying glass you can some- 
 times see their root hairs (p. 73) growing from the 
 epidermal cell's ; and notice also how particles of soil 
 
I9 2 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 stick to them they are taking up from the ground 
 their liquid food. In transplanting plants, therefore, 
 you should be careful to injure as little as possible 
 the ends and finer portions of their roots. This 
 taking up *by the roots of liquid food is called 
 "absorption" 
 
 Now what becomes of this liquid food, or sap as it 
 is called ? It ascends from cell to cell, and from 
 vessel to vessel, passing through their thin walls up 
 through the stem and branches to the leaves. 1 " But 
 the plant takes in largely through the leaves some 
 more food, which it absorbs from the atmosphere. 
 Great changes take place, and the sap with new 
 matter in it passes down again through cells and 
 vessels, forming new substances as it goes, and helping 
 the plant to grow. 
 
 When you know more about chemistry, you will 
 be able to learn particularly what these changes are 
 which take place in the sap and substance of the 
 plant. I will only try and give you a general idea of 
 the means by which they are brought about. 
 
 One of them is the getting rid of some of the water 
 of the sap. This takes place by evaporation from 
 those parts of plants which are exposed to the air, 
 and is called " transpiration" \ The water, in the form 
 of vapour, is breathed out or given off into the 
 
 * cf. diffusion in the Appendix. 
 
 t From the Latin " trans ," across, and " spiro," I breathe. 
 
ABSORPTION AND TRANSPIRATION. 
 
 193 
 
 atmosphere through the thin walls of any cells where 
 
 it is not prevented by the cuticle (p. 172). 
 
 Now, if you take the 
 
 epidermis of some 
 
 common land plant, 
 
 and examine it under 
 
 the microscope, you 
 
 will find dotted here 
 
 and there upon most 
 
 parts of it, especially 
 
 upon the leaves, the 
 
 little openings, which 
 
 are called stomates or 
 
 stomata. 1 * Here is a 
 
 niH-ntv* nf rarf nf HIP Fi ' 1 7. Epidermis of leaf showing 
 
 pictured part or tne stomata (highly magn ified). f f. Figs. 
 surface of a leaf, very 20, 21, p. 25. 
 
 much magnified, which shows a few of them (Fig. 170) ; 
 but they are very numerous, and are found chiefly 
 on the under sides of leaves.f The stomate is 
 generally formed of two sausage or kidney-shaped 
 cells placed together with the hollowed (concave) 
 sides facing each other, and so having a little opening 
 between them as in Fig. 170. But the opening between 
 them varies according as the cells are more or less 
 swollen with sap ; and the stomate is also much 
 
 * From the Greek " stoma" a mouth : plural "stomata" 
 
 t Botanists have calculated that there are more than 100,000 stomata 
 upon an ordinary sized apple leaf, and more than half a million upon 
 a leaf of the common lilac. 
 
 In water plants the stomates are usually wanting in parts under water, 
 and are upon the upper surfaces of floating leaves. There are no 
 stomates upon roots. 
 
 14 
 
194 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 influenced by the light to which it is exposed, as well as 
 by the dryness or dampness of the atmosphere. 
 Through the stomates transpiration can readily take 
 place, and it is often very considerable. It has been 
 calculated that a common sunflower, 3^ feet high, 
 will give off a quart of fluid in a single day. 
 
 I dare say you have noticed the leaves drooping 
 upon transplanted plants, and that in times of heat 
 and drought some plants begin to droop much sooner 
 than others. These are caused by the transpira- 
 tion of fluid through the leaves more quickly than 
 a fresh supply can be taken up through the roots. 
 You will perhaps understand the action of the 
 
 stomata better if 
 you look at Fig. 
 J 7 1. There you 
 can see what the 
 substance or 
 thickness of a 
 beech leaf is like. 
 It is cut in two, 
 and held so that 
 you look at the 
 
 Fig. 171. Transverse section of a beech leaf cu |- ec jcre very 
 (magnified 350 times) ; co, epidermis of upper 
 
 surface; eu, epidermis of under surface; pa, much magnified, 
 parenchyma ; st>, parenchyma with cavities ; 
 
 j, a stoma. You see how the 
 
 stomate opens into a space or air cavity, and so the 
 surrounding cells of the parenchyma are open to the 
 atmosphere, and transpiration can easily take place. 
 
FURTHER CHANGES IN THE SAP. 
 
 195 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 FURTHER CHANGES IN THE SAP. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 172. Inflorescence and leaf of Dock 
 (JKumex) ; d, magnified petal. 
 
 WE will provide 
 ourselves with a 
 common pickle 
 jar, and about an 
 inch of a small 
 candle or wax- 
 taper bound on to 
 a bit of wire a 
 little longer than 
 the jar, and bend 
 the wire so that 
 you can easily 
 hold the candle 
 inside and close 
 to the bottom of 
 
 So now I will tell you a little about what takes 
 place when the plant takes in its food from the 
 atmosphere (p. 192). There is a gas in the atmos- 
 phere which is called carbonic acid gas, or carbon 
 
1 96 FLO WE R- LAND. 
 
 dioxide, and as I want you to remember it, I will 
 show you what a deadly gas it sometimes is. So we 
 will light our bit of candle. Now you shall lower it 
 down into the jar ; and I will hold the cork upon the 
 jar's mouth to close it. At first the candle burns all 
 right, but soon it grows dim and then, yes, now you see 
 it has gone out. Why is that ? The burning candle 
 has used up the good air of the atmosphere upon 
 which its flame could burn or live, and the kind of air 
 of which the jar is now full is a gas in which the 
 candle cannot burn any more. Let us take the candle 
 out, and light it, and see if this is really so. Yes, as 
 soon as you lower the candle into the jar it goes out. 
 Now you and I every moment we live are using up 
 the good air of the atmosphere, just like the burning 
 candle did in the pickle jar, and breathing out 
 instead of it the other kind of gas which will not 
 support our life any more than it would the flame of 
 the candle. 
 
 Have you ever read about the Black Hole of 
 Calcutta ? It was a small room in which one hundred 
 and forty-six British prisoners were shut up by the 
 Sepoys during the Indian Conquest. It was so small 
 that they were terribly crowded, and when the doors 
 were opened in the morning only twenty-three of all 
 the one hundred and forty-six were still alive. They 
 had been breathing in the good air, and breathing 
 out the bad gas, until the atmosphere became such 
 that it would hardly support life any longer ; so 
 almost all of them died, like the candle flame went 
 
FURTHER CHANGES IN THE SAP. 197 
 
 out just now within the pickle jar. If they had been 
 left a little longer the rest would have died also. 
 What a wonder that with so many people in the 
 world, the air does not all get spoilt, like it did in the 
 Black Hole of Calcutta. 
 
 But that bad kind of gas which is always being 
 produced by men and animals, and in some other 
 ways also, as you have seen by the burning candle, is 
 just what the plants want. Under the influence of 
 sun light they take it in, use up and live upon a part of it, 
 and give back another part of it to the atmosphere 
 again to make it pure and ready for our use. For 
 this carbonic acid gas,* so deadly to us, which the 
 plant takes in from the atmosphere, comes in contact 
 with those little green bodies which I told you are 
 found in certain cells, which are called chlorophyll 
 corpuscles (p. 184). Then, but only under the influence 
 of light, the gas and the corpuscle both become 
 changed. The gas is broken up ; part of it (oxygen 
 gas) which makes the atmosphere pure and good for 
 us to breathe again, is sent back again to do that 
 useful work. Part of it (carbon) joins with the 
 substance of the corpuscle, and so, as a general rule, 
 forms little grains of starch. This work, or process, 
 is called assimilation^ because the plant takes in 
 what it wants from the atmosphere (carbon), and 
 makes it part of itself, for the starch grains are the 
 
 * cf. Appendix, "atmosphere," " carbonic acid gas." 
 
 t From the Latin " assimilo" I make like. The act of converting 
 something into its own substance, cf. carbon in the Appendix. 
 
I9 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 great stores from which the plant builds up its 
 substance. 
 
 But whilst assimilation goes on only under the 
 influence of light, always by day and by night plants 
 are working in another way in connection with the 
 air. They are taking in the oxygen and giving off 
 carbonic acid gas, and this is known by the name of 
 respiration* What a good thing it is that plant- 
 respiration, by which the plants take up that part of 
 the air which we require to live upon and give off 
 that gas upon which we cannot live, is very small 
 compared with plant assimilation, which does the very 
 contrary ; so small that on the whole it is not notice- 
 able, and does not hinder the great and beneficial 
 work which the plants do for us by assimilation. 
 
 So if you have many flowers in your room during 
 the dark hours of night, when no assimilation is going 
 on, but respiration continues, they will help to make 
 the air impure and unhealthy for you. Indeed 
 flowers which are not green (p. 197) do not assimilate 
 at all, but they respire the carbonic acid gas ; and 
 some are particularly injurious, because of other 
 poisons which they give off. 
 
 So now by these changes the liquid food or sap 
 has become much changed from what it was when 
 first absorbed by the roots (crude sap). It has been 
 added to and altered, mainly in the leaves, and as it 
 
 *From the Latin "re," again, and " spiro, " I breathe. To breathe 
 out again, to breathe back. 
 
FURTHER CHANGES IN THE SAP. 1 99 
 
 moves away from the chlorophyll corpuscles the starch 
 grains or carbon food (p. 197) mixed up or dissolved 
 in it are carried with it. Thus, as it passes through 
 certain cells and vessels through the plant, the food 
 taken up in liquid form from the earth and in gaseous 
 form from the atmosphere all works in together ; and 
 new substances are formed or old ones added to as 
 the case may be. These further changes are called 
 by one name, " metastasis"* In this way the proto- 
 plasm of plants is nourished, and so the living cells 
 and vessels of plants increase and cause the tissues, 
 that is the plant, to grow. In this way are formed the 
 solid crystals, as well as starch and oils and other 
 things, about some of which I told you in the last 
 chapter. 
 
 In this way food is stored up in certain parts of 
 plants for future use. Easy examples of this are 
 found in tubers, tubercles, rhizomes, bulbs, and seeds. 
 They contain, as you know, stores of food ready to 
 support the growth of the young plant until by its 
 own roots and other organs it can take in fresh 
 food to supply its daily need. 
 
 -Now what I want you to remember is that plants 
 can feed upon elementary substances, which you and 
 I and animals cannot do. Carbon, for instance, is an 
 elementary substance that is chemists cannot separate 
 
 * From the Greek " me fa" over, and " stasis," a placing or setting 
 (fr : " histemi" I stand). A removal or alteration. It is also called 
 " metabolism." 
 
2OO FL WE R- LAND. 
 
 it into two different parts ; and it is necessary to life. 
 But we cannot take it alone we can only take it 
 when it is combined with other substances. We 
 must have prepared food. Now this is just what the 
 plants do for us. As we have seen, they take in the 
 carbon and assimilate or combine it into their own 
 substance. Then in this combined and prepared 
 form you and I and the animals in general can use 
 the stalks, leaves, seeds, and other parts of plants 
 as food. 
 
 How wonderful is this and of what vital importance 
 to us are the plants ! Silently, but busily, they are 
 working for us all the day long, not only purifying 
 the atmosphere for us to breathe, but also actually pre- 
 paring food for us to eat Under God's Providence, 
 through the working of the plants, we can breathe 
 and eat and live. 
 
GROWING PLANTS. 
 
 201 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV 
 
 GROWING PLANTS. 
 
 Fig- 173. Acacia. With bipinnate leaves and lomentaceous fruit. 
 
 You will now, I hope, understand a little about the 
 way in which plants live and grow. First, you will 
 remember that their food is made up of solids, liquids, 
 
2O2 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 and gases ; but the solids are dissolved, as plants can 
 only take up their food in a liquid or a gaseous form 
 absorption (p 192). Then, whilst superfluous fluid is got 
 rid of by transpiration (p. 192), carbon is obtained by 
 assimilation (p, 197), oxygen is taken in by respiration 
 (p. 198), new tissues and other substances are formed 
 by metastasis, and so the plant lives and grows.* 
 
 I want you to like this part of botany, and so I will 
 try to show you further how many interesting things 
 there are connected with it and how very useful this 
 kind of knowledge is. 
 
 Suppose, for instance, that we consider some of those 
 things without which plants cannot live; and if I 
 repeat anything that I have already told you it will 
 help you to remember it. We will take light, heat, 
 air, earthy food and water. 
 
 Would it not be terrible if our herbs and leaves 
 were all white instead of green. But that is just what 
 happens when plants grow without any light. I dare- 
 say you have noticed this in sprouts of potatoes which 
 have been kept in darkness, or in the white stems of 
 sea-kale, or the celery stem so beautifully white 
 where it was covered by the earth, whilst its top 
 which was exposed to the light is of the familiar 
 green. Without light no green chlorophyll is formed 
 and we should lose the beautiful green colouring so 
 restful to our eyes. Without light no carbon would be 
 
 * cf. parasite in the Appendix. 
 
GROWING PLANTS. 
 
 assimilated and the plants would die, and we, too, 
 should perish for want of food. 
 
 Then I expect you have noticed how long and thin 
 the white shoots of the potatoes are when they have 
 been stored in a dark place, that is because light 
 affects the rapidity of growth ; it checks it and 
 prevents the plant growing too fast. The white weak 
 potato shoots grow unhealthily and too fast for want 
 of light. This helps us to understand why plants 
 placed in a window bend towards the light, the side 
 of the stem away from the light grows faster than 
 the side which is towards it, and so the stem becomes 
 curved over upon its shortest side, that is towards the 
 light. You see that in a healthy plant just as in a 
 healthy boy or girl all the processes or movements of 
 life must go on in proper degree. 
 
 So also plants are greatly affected by changes in 
 the temperature or heat of the atmosphere. The 
 heat which will suit some will destroy others, so 
 the " flora " or flowering plant life is different in 
 countries or districts according to their heat or cold. 
 Some plants which do very well in a greenhouse, 
 or sheltered south border of your garden, will not 
 thrive in more exposed and colder places, so that 
 with the plants in frames and green-houses gardeners 
 are always careful about the heat as well as about the 
 light they give to them. You will understand that 
 this is the more necessary when you remember about 
 transpiration, and because of assimilation and re- 
 
2O4 FL WE R- LAND. 
 
 spiration you will understand why the plant needs a 
 proper supply of air. 
 
 In wild places the herbs and leaves of trees decay 
 upon the ground where they grow and so give back 
 to the earth what they took away from it by their 
 roots. But if the crops are taken away from the land 
 and nothing put into it again it gradually gets poorer 
 and poorer until at last there is not enough food in it 
 for the plants to thrive upon. This is why the 
 manuring of land is so necessary, and it requires both 
 knowledge and judgment to give the land that kind 
 of manure or food which will best suit the kind of 
 plant which we are about to grow. 
 
 Then from a knowledge of the nature of plants as to 
 their need with regard to water has grown up the 
 science of draining. 
 
 But I have said enough to show you that without 
 some knowledge of the physiology of plants, farmers 
 and gardeners and those who have to do with the 
 life and growth of plants, cannot work intelligently, 
 and can hardly expect to be successful. 
 
 We will end our talks on physiology by my telling 
 you about the length of time plants live. Some only 
 have one flowering season and then die. These are 
 called " monocarpous"* one fruiting. A few of them 
 
 From the Greek " monos" one ; or "polus" many ; and " karpos" 
 fruit. 
 
GROWING PLANTS. 205 
 
 live some years before they blossom, fruit, and 
 die. But generally these monocarpous plants spring 
 up, produce seed and die in a single year, when 
 they are called " annuals?^ as wheat : or they do 
 not come into flower and seed until the second year 
 and then die, as the turnip ; these are called 
 " biennials." } 
 
 But many plants blossom and seed continually year 
 after year and so are called polycarpous* These are 
 shrubs and trees with woody stems and herbs with 
 underground stems, such as rhizomes, bulbs, etc. 
 These are commonly called ^ perennials"^ 
 
 How long do seeds keep alive ? They vary very 
 much, but some will grow after very many years if 
 the life has not been destroyed by heat or cold or 
 other special cause. Dr. Hooker mentioned an instance 
 of an Indian bean growing after 100 years as being one 
 of the longest proved instances of seed life ; but this 
 is a very much disputed point. If, however, you are 
 ever near a place where new soil has been thrown up 
 to the surface, as in a gravel pit or railway cutting, 
 always look for any new plant, new to the neighbour- 
 hood at least, which may have sprung up from long 
 buried seed. 
 
 So now I hope you know a little about the methods 
 
 * See note * on page 204. 
 
 f From the Latin " annus," a year (annual, of one year); " fa's" 
 twice and annus (biennial, of two years) ; or "per" through, and annits 
 (perennial, through or during several years). 
 
206 FLO WE R- LAND. 
 
 and laws of plant life about which I have been telling 
 you (physiology). Telling you only a very little, but 
 enough I hope for you to be eager to know more, and 
 able also to take up one of the more advanced books 
 without being easily disheartened by its difficulties. 
 
CLASSES. 
 
 207 
 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 YOU will remem- 
 ber, I hope, that 
 the plant king- 
 dom is made up 
 of two great 
 divisions or sub- 
 kingdoms :(i) the 
 " flowering," (2) 
 the " flowerless " 
 plants (p. 10). The 
 flowerless plants, 
 fungi, and sea- 
 weeds, and lich- 
 ens, and mosses, 
 
 Fig. 174. Yew. (Taxtts baccatd). Cleaves. 
 
 c fruit with arillus/ and ferns, you 
 
 will learn about at some future time if you wish 
 to do so. I will only tell you now that the 
 flowerless plants are called Cryptogams. They are 
 so called because they have no flowers such as you 
 
2O8 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 have been learning about in " Flower-land," and so the 
 way in which they are reproduced is comparatively 
 " hidden." The flowering plants on the other hand , 
 are called Phanerogams or Phcznogams, because the 
 flowers and their parts producing seeds, from which 
 young plants grow up again, are plainly " seen."* 
 
 But I must now tell you that some of the plants I 
 have spoken of as flowerless have flower-like organs, 
 only they do not produce seed. A seed, you remem- 
 ber, is a young plant, of course very tiny and not 
 developed, but still there root, stem, and leaves in 
 their beginnings and all enclosed in a skin or covering. 
 It is the production of seeds by which the plants of 
 this sub-kingdom, which we have called Phaenogams 
 or flowering plants, are really to be distinguished and 
 separated from the plants of that other sub-kingdom 
 which we have called Cryptogams. These plants, 
 therefore, which you have been learning about 
 are most accurately called seed-bearing plants 
 or Spermaphytes\ in distinction from all other plants 
 which do not bear seeds. They reproduce them- 
 selves by spores, about which you will learn hereafter. 
 
 Now I want you particularly to notice one 
 or two things so that you may be able to 
 
 * The words are taken from the Greek. Cryptogam, the manner of 
 production, " kruptos" i.e. hidden. Phanerogam, the manner of pro- 
 duction, " phaneros" i.e. visible. 
 
 f From the Greek " sperma" a seed, and " phutos" " phuo, n to 
 bring forth, to produce. 
 
CLASSES. 2O9 
 
 distinguish from one another the three classes into 
 which Spermaphytes are divided. 
 
 i. Are there any yew trees in your neighbourhood ? 
 They are dioecious, you know (p. 123), -and I want you 
 to fmd some of the pistil bearing trees. They will be 
 in flower in April, but later in the season will be all 
 the better for you. Then you will see the little green 
 seeds, each with its greenish cup in which it is fixed 
 something like an egg in art egg cup. Gradually the 
 greenish cup thickens and becomes juicy and red. 
 It is called an " arillus" (Fig. 174). You have 
 often seen them, I dare say, and very pretty they are. 
 
 But what I want you to notice is not the cup 
 or arillus, but the seed which it partly surrounds. 
 I want you to remember that it is a seed, and not like 
 the acorn or nut, a seed enclosed in an ovary. 
 For instance, if you pick some common flower of good 
 size, primrose or poppy or hyacinth, one of which the 
 corolla has faded away, one which has " gone to seed." 
 Where is the seed ? Quite right. It is ripening 
 within the ovary ; cut open the ovary and there you 
 can see the seed. You can see the seed of the yew 
 quite well without cutting or disturbing anything. 
 The ovules of the yew were not enclosed in ovaries, 
 and when they were fertilized (p. 133), ripened as 
 uncovered or naked seeds. So plants of this habit 
 are called gymnosperms* because their seeds are 
 
 * See note * on next page. 
 15 
 
210 t . FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 uncovered and naked ; whilst plants like the primrose 
 are called angiosperms* because their seeds are 
 enclosed within an ovary. 
 
 This is one of the characteristic differences which 
 you should remember, so that you may be ab^e to 
 distinguish from one another the "classes" into which 
 spermaphytes have been divided. 
 
 2. The next difference is also connected with the 
 seed. It has to do with the number of the coty- 
 ledons of the embryo, about which I have already 
 told you (p. 154). And you know that when the 
 embryo of the seed has only one cotyledon (p. 176) 
 the plant is 'called a monocotyledon ; when it has 
 two opposite cotyledons the plant is called a dicotyle- 
 don. But when the seed has more than two cotyle- 
 dons (some of the gymnosperms have as many as 
 fifteen) the plant is called a poly 'cotyledon. 
 
 So far then we have the three classes of Phseno- 
 gams arranged as follows : 
 
 Class I. Angiosperms and Dicotyledons. 
 Class II. Angiosperms and Monocotyledons. . t 
 Class III. Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons or 
 Polycotyledons. 
 
 But these differences are not always easy for you to 
 see. So I will mention some other differences which 
 you can observe more easily. 
 
 *From the Greek " aggos" " aggcion," a vessel,, or "gumnos" 
 naked, and " sperma" seed. 
 
CLASSES. 211 
 
 3. You must notice the venation of the leaves, 
 whether they are straight-veined or net-veined leaves 
 (P- 35)- 
 
 4. So also the shape of the leaves, whether they 
 are simple or compound, whether they are entire or 
 notched. 
 
 5. Then as to the structure and manner of growth 
 of the stem. ometimes it is such as I have 
 described in chapter XXX. (Fig. 155, p. 176). This 
 kind of stem you remember has been called exogenous, 
 and so a plant with such a stem has been called 
 an exogens (p. 179). 
 
 But sometimes the fibre-vascular bundles are 
 scattered here and there amidst the fundamental 
 tissue. The stem when cut across shows no regular 
 rings, the fibre-vascular bundles growing wherever 
 within the stem they may happen to be (Fig. 154, 
 p. 176). So this kind of stem has been called endo- 
 genous ; and a plant with such a stem is called an 
 endogens (p. 179). 
 
 6. Then lastly you may notice the number of the 
 sepals, petals, and stamens of a plant whether -they 
 occur in sets of three, or four, or five, etc. 
 
 But remember that though any one of these 
 differences is generally a guide to the class to which 
 a plant belongs, it is not so always. So when you 
 examine a plant, consider as far as you can all the 
 
212 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 marks which I have mentioned, and then judge the 
 plant to belong to that class with the characteristics 
 of which it most generally agrees. If you remember 
 this, and study well the table which I now give you, 
 you will seldom fail, I think, to place a British plant 
 in its proper class. 
 
 SEEDS. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 LEAVES. STEM. 
 
 PARTS OF FLOWER. 
 
 Angiosperms and ... Net- veined ; ...Exogenous ...Four or five or mul- 
 
 Dicotyledons. in shape & tiple of five, seldom 
 
 margin vari- three or multiple of 
 
 ous. three. * 
 
 CLASS II. 
 
 Angiosperms and ... Straight- vei- ...Endogenous... Three or multiple of 
 
 Monocotyledons, ned, shape three, seldom four, 
 
 simple,mar- never five or mul- 
 
 gin entire. tiple of five. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 
 Gymnosperms and 
 Dicotyledons or 
 Polycotyledons. 
 
 The British plants which belong to this class 
 include the pines "and firs. The common juniper is 
 one of them, and so, as we have seen (p. 209) is the 
 common yew. Their leaves are simple and entire. 
 
 * Multiple : A number into which the other number can be divided 
 without any remainder. Thus, six and nine are multiples of three ; 
 en is a multiple of five. 
 
FROM CLASS TO NATURAL ORDER. 213 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 FROM CLASS TO NATURAL ORDER. 
 
 r 
 
 Fig. 175. Coltsfoot. ( Tussilago farfara). c top' of 
 flower stalk, showing reflexed involucre, receptacle 
 and florets. d single floret (magnified), of the 
 margin, ligulate. e single floret of the disk, tubular 
 (magnified.) 
 
 YOU will now b able, I think, to find out to which 
 of the three classes a plant belongs. Next you want 
 to find its " natural order'' But as there are about 
 
214 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 a hundred natural orders (British), it is not always 
 easy to find out to which of them your plant belongs. 
 
 So to help you, botanists divide the classes into 
 sub-classes and divisions, different writers doing so 
 upon different plans. You will be able to understand 
 and use these classifications if you remember what I 
 have told you in the chapters on morphology, with 
 one or two additions, which I will now give you. 
 
 So let us see if we can find a buttercup. . I want 
 you to notice the position of the ovaries relatively 
 to that of the stamens, the corollas, and the 
 calyx. You see the ovaries are superior (p. 118) 
 right at the top of the flower stalk. If you pull off 
 the stamens, petals, and -sepals, you 
 take them from the stalk below the 
 ovaries of the pistil (Fig. 176). So 
 because the other parts of the flower 
 are inserted under the pistil, a flower of 
 this kind is called " hypogynous "' 
 
 Fig. 176. Buttercup (Fig- 1 77> H )- 
 flower, calyx, corolla, 
 and stamens re- 
 moved ; / ovaries, a But often it is not so, and then the 
 stamens, s peduncle, 
 
 x receptacle. flower is either " pengynous or 
 " epigynous." It is "perigynous "* when the other floral 
 parts are inserted upon the receptacle or extended axis 
 of the flower-stalk so as to be around but not under 
 
 * From the Greek " hupo" under ; "peri" around; "*$*" upon 
 the ovary. These terms are also applied to stamens and petals to 
 describe their insertion. 
 
FROM CLASS TO NA TURAL ORDER, 
 
 215 
 
 the ovary (Fig. 177, p). Try examples of this in 
 the bramble, and common avens or herb bennet 
 
 But sometimes when the rim of the flower-stalk is 
 extended far upwards, or a calyx tube far downwards, 
 around the ovary, the calyx, corolla, and stamens, as 
 the case may be, appear as if they were inserted upon 
 the top of the ovary. In this case the ovary is 
 
 K 
 
 Fig- *77' & Hypogynous. P Perigynous. E Epigynous. a top of 
 
 stem or axis, k calyx, c corolla. s stamens, f carpels, n stigma. 
 
 sk ovule. 
 
 "inferior" (p 118), and the flower is said to be 
 " epigynous?* as in the carrot, cow-parsnip, or vege- 
 table marrow (Fig. 177 E). 
 
 The following terms are also ' used to mark the 
 various positions of the stamens. A flower is 
 
 Thalamifloral when they spring from the flower- 
 stalk below the ovary (starrrens hypogynous). 
 
 Discifloral when they are inserted upon the expan- 
 ded top or disc of the flower-stalk (stamens perigynous). 
 
 * See note * on page 214. 
 
2 1 6 FLO WER-LA ND. 
 
 Calycifloral when they are upon the calyx (stamens 
 perigynous or epigynous-). 
 
 Corollifloral or Epipetalous when they are upon the 
 corolla. 
 
 Gynandrous when they are upon the pistil.* 
 
 But sometimes these differences are difficult to 
 distinguish, and it may sometimes help you to trace 
 a plant from its class to its natural' order if you use 
 the artificial system of classification. 
 
 And now you want to know what this artificial 
 system is ? Well, the system of classification which 
 I have been hitherto telling you about is called the 
 " natural system." It is so called because plants are 
 arranged in it according to their natural similarities. 
 Other systems have been' made which are called 
 artificial. They are so called because plants are 
 grouped together in -them which are alike in some 
 special features, but which are often very unlike each 
 other in their general natural characteristics. The 
 artificial system I shall tell you of is the one which' 
 was made by the great Swedish botanist Linnaeus, 
 and so it is generally called the Linnaean system. 
 
 In this plants are grouped in twenty-four classes, the 
 spermaphytes into twenty-three of them, the twenty- 
 fourth including all the other plants. These 
 twenty-three classes are arranged according to the 
 numbers and position of the stamens. If you 
 
 * c f" gynous, androm, in the Appendix. 
 
FROM CLASS TO NATURAL ORDER. 2*7 
 
 get " Withering's Handbook to the Linnaean System," 
 I think you will find it useful. It will often help you 
 to make out a plant with which you may be puzzled, 
 as the stamens and pistil are generally easy to 
 examine. The descriptions also of the plants are 
 full. Remember, however, that the natural system 
 is the best and the most interesting, and that 
 is the one- which you must take pains to learn 
 and which you should generally use. So we leave 
 the . artificial system. For what I want you now 
 to remember is the main framework of the natural 
 system. The classes, the natural orders, the genera, 
 and the species. Then in due course with a book in 
 which plants are described, arranged, and named (a 
 flora) you will be able to take a plant and find out 
 first the class to which it belongs, then its natural order, 
 then its genus, then its species, and so you will find its 
 general description and its name. 
 
 For you remember, I hope, what I told you about 
 the names of plants. Every plant has two names, 
 one its generic or family name, the other its specific 
 or individual name, by which the members of the 
 family are distinguished from one another (Ch. XI.) 
 Now you know that in English we put the individual 
 name first, and the family name second ; we say Red 
 Clover to distinguish it from White Clover, just as we 
 say John Brown, to distinguish him from Robert Brown. 
 But the scientific names of plants are in Latin, and 
 then the family or generic name comes first, and the 
 
2 1 8 FLO WE R- LAND. 
 
 individual or specific name comes second. So instead 
 of the sweet violet its Latin name is Viola odorata 
 (violet sweet). 
 
 You should take pains to know well at least the 
 three classes (p. 212), so that you can tell to which 
 of them a plant belongs. And you should know also 
 the five natural orders, the cruciferae (p. 37), the papili' 
 onacese (leguminosse, p. 39, 108),- the labiatae (p 42), 
 the umbelliferae (p. 43, 45), the compositae (p. 48, 229). 
 You will soon know more as you practise with some 
 British Flora. 
 
 I hope also soon to offer you a little hand- 
 book, easily carried in your pocket, and useful 
 to help you in finding quickly the names of the 
 plants you meet with in your country rambles.* You 
 could afterwards notice and compare them more fully 
 with your larger flora .at home. . 
 
 I have so much enjoyed our talks and rambles, 
 that I feel to have grown quite at home with you, and 
 loath to say good-bye. You will, however, now be 
 able to take up a more advanced manual of Botany, 
 several very satisfactory ones are published. If you 
 would like to read another small book first, one which 
 I strongly advise you to read is Dr. Hooker's Botany, 
 published by Macmillan & Co., price, i/- : one of the 
 " Science Primers." Then for your advanced Guide 
 I should advise you to get "An Elementary Text Book 
 
 : Who's Who in Flower-Land.' 
 
FROM CLASS TO NATURAL ORDER. 2*9 
 
 of Botany," by Dr. K. Prantl : edited by Professor S. 
 H. Vines (published by Swan, Sonnenchein & Co.) 
 And I trust that, though apart, we shall still delight in 
 the life and growth of plants, searching out their won- 
 derful works for the benefit and enjoyment of man. 
 
 I think there is reason for my repeating my hope 
 that as we gain this greater knowledge, we shall grow 
 in reverence and gratitude towards God, Who is the 
 great Creator and Preserver of all things, and our 
 Heavenly Father. 
 
 As you are fond of flowers, read these few verses 
 which I love. It shall be our good-bye, and they will 
 help us to find high and soul-ennobling thoughts as 
 we enjoy the wonders and the beauties which abound 
 in Flower-Land. 
 
 YofJR voiceless lips, O flowers, are living preachers, 
 Each cup a pulpit, every leaf a book, . 
 Supplying to my fancy numerous teachers 
 From loneliest nook. 
 
 'Neath cloistered boughs each floral bell that swingeth, 
 And tolls its perfume on the passing air, 
 Makes Sabbath in the fields, and ever ringeth 
 A call to prayer. 
 
 Not to the dames where crumbling arch and column 
 Attest the feebleness of mortal hand, 
 But to that fane most catholic and .solemn 
 Which God hath planned; 
 
220 FLO WE R- LAND. 
 
 To that cathedral, boundless as our wonder, 
 Whose quenchless lamps the sun and moon supply 
 Its choir the winds and waves its organ thunder 
 Its dome the sky. 
 
 There, amid solitude and shade, I wander 
 Through the green aisles, and, stretched upon the sod, 
 Awed by the silence, reverently ponder 
 The ways of God. 
 
 HORACE SMITH. 
 
APPENDIX. 221 
 
 APPENDIX A. (GENERAL). 
 
 Androus. Used in composition with other words, and refers to 
 the stamens. It is from the Greek " aner," gen. cmdros, a man : 
 the stamens being spoken of as " the men." 
 
 (i.) So all the stamens of a flower together are called by one word, 
 the Andrcecium ; from andros, as above, and oikion, a house ; 
 the man's house. 
 
 (ii.) So " androus " is placed as a termination in forming words to 
 tell the number of the stamens. Thus, monandrous, diandrotts, 
 triandrous, tetrandrous , and polyandrous ; from the Greek words 
 "monos" one, alone ; % " dis" "duo," double, two; "trts" 
 " treis," three ; "tetra" from " tessares" four; " polus" many; 
 and " androus" stamens. 
 
 (iii.) Or again, after the Greek words " protos," " proteros" first, 
 before, in protandrow or proterandrous, which mean that the 
 stamens ripen or mature before the pistil" (p. 130). 
 
 Atmosphere. From the Greek " atmos, " vapour, and " sphaira" 
 sphere, meaning the air which surrounds the earth. 
 
 (i.) It is almost entirely made up of three gases, nitrogen, oxygen, 
 and carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas). Out of 100 portions 
 or volumes, about 79 would be nitrogen, and not quite 21 would 
 be oxygen, the remainder being chiefly carbon dioxide. 
 
 (ii.) Carbon dioxide or carbonic acid gas is composed of two parts 
 of oxygen and one part of carbon. 
 
222 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 (iii. ) Carbon is a solid and elementary substance, that is, chemists 
 have not found it to be a composition of other substances. You 
 can easily see it, for the black lead of a common pencil is 
 carbon. Pure crystallized carbon is very valuable, as the beau- 
 tiful diamond. Under certain conditions carbon unites with 
 oxygen gas, and so forms carbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas. 
 
 Carjbon. See Atmosphere iii. 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas. See Atmosphere ii. 
 
 Cell. Sometimes, as in the formation of pollen, the nucleus of the 
 mother cell divides into four parts, around each of which the proto- 
 plasm gathers, and a cell wall forms, so that each becomes a new 
 and perfect cell. 
 
 When the nucleus of a mother cell divides into many parts, 
 or new nuclei, each becoming surrounded by protoplasm before 
 new walls are formed, it is called free cell formation. This takes 
 place in the formation of the endosperm in the embryo bags of 
 ovules. 
 
 See chlorophyll corpuscle dividing, in Fig. 163, b, b 1 , b" ; and 
 endosperm cells which are being formed by free cell formation in 
 Fig. 113 S, p. 134. 
 
 Collar. The part at which the stem ends and the root begins! 
 
 Cortex. Used collectively of that which is outside the cambium ; 
 
 and so including (i.) the phloem or bast (secondary cortex), and 
 
 (ii.) the fundamental tissue, etc., which is outside the bast (primary 
 
 cortex). Sometimes used to mean the part outside the bast only 
 
 (primary cortex). 
 
 Dehisce nee. When a capsule splits or opens by the separation of 
 its carpels, i.e. y down the dissepiments, the dehiscence is septicidal,* 
 or splitting down the septa or dissepiments. When, however, -the 
 carpels split open down the dorsal suture, the dehiscence is called 
 
 * From the Latin "septum" the partition or dissepiment,, and 
 " ccedo" I cut. ... 
 
APPENDIX. 223 
 
 loculicidal* or splitting open down the loculi. But sometimes in a 
 multilocular capsule (p. 119) the dissepiments remain joined to the 
 axis, the outside capsule wall splitting off from them by the carpel 
 pieces or valves. This kind of dehiscence is known as septifragal^ 
 or breaking away from the septa or dissepiments. 
 
 In fruits or fruitlets of a single carpel, when it dehisces along 
 ventral or dorsal suture or both, the dehiscence is sutural. 
 
 Diffusion. If a liquid is in contact with a thicker or heavier liquid, 
 its ten'dency will be to diffuse into or mix with it. A very thin 
 skin may be between them, and yet the movement will go on. If 
 two different gases are so separated, they also pass through and 
 intermix. So different liquids and gases can pass through the 
 very thin walls of the cells and vessels of plants, and the sap 
 changes, moves, and travels. 
 
 Endosperm. This food substance is called Endosperm or Peri- 
 sperm, according to its position. 
 
 If it is in the embryo sac or inner bag of the ovule (Fig. 113 S, 
 p. 134), it is called endosperm, from the Greek "enden," within, 
 and " sperma" the seed. See Fig. 136 B, marked E; it some- 
 times fills the whole testa, Fig. 136 A, marked E. 
 
 But in Fig. 136 B is an instance of a seed with the (inner) 
 endosperm E, surrounded by the (outer) perisperm, which fills up 
 the rest of the nucellus (cf. under funicle) and is marked P. 
 
 Perisperm is from the Greek "peri," around, and " spcrma" 
 seed. Compare Figs. 113 and 136 B ; S of Fig. 113 corresponds 
 with E of Fig. 136 B ; k of Fig. 113 with P of Fig. 136 B. . 
 
 Funicle. t This is the stalk by which the ovule may be attached to 
 the placenta. (Fig. 178/). ' 
 
 The ovule is made up of one or two coats or coverings (integu- 
 ments), inside which is a cellular mass or substance called the 
 nucellus^ (Figs. 109 S, p. 129; 178 k) ; and in the nucellus is 
 
 * From the Latin " loculus" the box or pocket, and'"r<rdfc," I cut. 
 f From the Latin "septum" as on page 222, and " frango" I break. 
 j From the Latin "funzs," a cord. 
 
 Connected with "nucleus," from the Latin "m/.r,"gen. 
 a nut, the kernel ; " nucellus" a little kernel, or nucleus. 
 
224 FLOWER-LAND.. 
 
 the embryo or germ sac, a cell containing the germ (Figs. 109 e m 
 E ; 178 S, E). The integuments do not entirely cover the nucellus, 
 but at one place a narrow passage is left between them. This is 
 called the micropyle * ; and through this the pollen tube passes in 
 fertilisation, after it has come down the stigma, until it reaches the 
 embryo sac and fertilises the germ, or oosphere^ as it is called. 
 (cf. Fig. 178). 
 
 FIG. 178. Ovule shortly after fertilisation, k nucellus, with S, 
 embryo sac ; E, embryo which has begun to grow from the fertilised 
 oosphere ; a, outer, z, inner integument ; f t funicle ; n, micropyle ; 
 p, pollen tube. 
 
 Gland. A cell containing or separating from the sap, some oily or 
 other special substance, cf. glandular hairs, p. 82, 81 Fig. 54. 
 
 GynoilS. Used in composition with other words, and refers to the 
 pistil. It is from the Greek " gune" gen. gunaikos, a woman, 
 (i.) So the pistil is also called " Gyncecium," or " Gynceccecium" 
 from the Greek "gunaikos" as above, and " oikion," a house: 
 the woman's 'house, 
 (ii.) Used sometimes (as androus is) of the 'pistil carpels, ovaries, 
 
 styles, or stigmas. Digyndus, etc., see Androus ii. 
 . (iii.) So also protogynous or proterogynous, when the pistil matures 
 before the stamens, cf. Androus iii. 
 
 * From the Greek "mikros," small, and "pute," a gate, 
 t From the Greek " oon" an egg, and " spkaira," a globe or ball; 
 the egg ball. 
 
APPENDIX. 225 
 
 Hermaphrodite. Flowers which have both stamens (men, cf. 
 androus) and pistil (woman, cf. gynous) are called hermaphrodite. 
 From the Greek " hermaphrodites," an effeminate man, both man 
 and woman; from "Hermes" Mercury, and "Aphrodite," Venus. 
 A flower with only stamens or pistil, not both, is accordingly called 
 "unisexual" of one sex. Sometimes hermaphrodite flowers, as 
 well as stameniferous (p. 122), or pistiliferous (p. 122) flowers, are 
 found upon the same plant, such a plant is described as polygamous. 
 
 Mono chlamydeous. When a flower has only calyx or corolla, it 
 is called monochlamydeous, from the Greek " monos" one, and 
 "chlamys," a cloak or mantle : it has only one cloak or garment. 
 When it has two garments, calyx and corolla, it is dichlamydeous, 
 from the Greek " dis" twice, double, and " chlamys" as above. 
 When it has neither calyx nor corolla, the flower is achlamydeous, 
 from the Greek "a," not, and " chlamys" as above: it has no 
 garment. 
 
 MonomerOUS. In describing the ovary as to the number of carpels 
 of which it is made up, the Greek word " tneros" a share or part, 
 is used instead of carpel, with a Greek numeral placed before it to 
 denote the number of the carpels or parts of which the ovary is 
 made up. Thus "mono" (monos, one); "poly" (polus, many) ; 
 or more particularly, "di" (dis, duo, two); "tri" (tris, three); 
 " tetra " (tessares, four); " penta " (pente, five); and "merous" 
 (meros) ; monomerous, dimerous, etc. Thus, pistil syncarpous, 
 ovary pentamerous (5-carpelled). These words, monomerous, etc., 
 are used of other parts of a flower also. 
 
 Nectary. The word has been generally used of the cavities or 
 places on various parts of plants, where the sweet fluid is found, 
 which is called nectar, or flower honey. The nectary is properly 
 the glandular (p. 82*) portion or substance from which the 
 nectar oozes (which secretes the nectar). See nectary scale at 
 base of petals of celandine, buttercup, or grass of parnassus, also 
 the glandular nectariferous expansions or swellings (disc) on floral 
 receptacle (as in Rhamnus). The various positions of the nectaries 
 in flowers are very interesting in connection with the visits of insects 
 and the work they do in pollination (p. 129). 
 
 16 
 
226 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 Perispenn. See Endosperm. 
 
 Parasites, Saprophytes. Some flowering plants have no 
 chlorophyll, and so they cannot take in carbon by assimilation. 
 They are consequently obliged to take their carbon, which is 
 necessary to their life, combined with something else, that is, as 
 I have called it, prepared food (p. 200). When they do this from 
 other living plants, they are called parasites. If they take it from 
 the decayed remains of plants they are called saprophytes. The 
 mistletoe has green leaves and is only partly parasitic (p. 75). 
 
 Placentation means the way in which the ovules are attached or 
 placed within the ovary. This varies with the different kinds of 
 ovaries, and you will understand the different kinds of placentation 
 more easily if you remember that the ovules are usually upon the 
 margins of the carpel leaves. 
 
 (i.) So if the ovary be simply monomerous and unilocular, since 
 the ovules are upon the margins of the carpel leaf, they are just 
 inside and along each side of the ventral suture (p. 116). Their 
 placentation or attachment is therefore described as marginal or 
 sutural placentation (Fig. 102 A, p. 119). 
 
 (ii.) But now suppose the ovary is polymerous and unilocular. 
 Here the margins of the carpel leaves simply join, as in Fig. 102 
 B, / being their junction, that is the placenta. Or the carpel 
 leaves may be turned in so as to form a unilocular but chambered 
 ovary (p. 119), as in Fig. 102 C, p showing the placenta. In this 
 case, as the ovules are upon the walls or partial dissepiments of the 
 ovary, their placentation is called parietal * placentation. 
 
 (iii.) But if the ovary is polymerous and multilocular, then the 
 dissepiments reach the centre of the ovary, as in Fig. 102 D, and 
 the placentas / are upon a central column or axis. In this case, 
 because the ovules are thus upon the axis, the placentation is 
 called axile. 
 
 (iv.) If in a polynlerous multilocular ovary the dissepiments fall 
 away, the ovules are left upon the axis in a unilocular or chambered 
 ovary. Their placentation is then called free central placentation. 
 
 * From the Latin "paries" a wall. 
 
APPENDIX. 227 
 
 The same term is used when the ovules are upon a raised column 
 or projection from the receptacle into the ovary, without connection 
 with dissepiments or carpels. 
 
 Thalamus. Same as the torus or receptacle. It is from the Greek 
 " thalamos" an inner room or chamber. 
 
 Saprophyte. See Parasite. 
 
 Sarcocarp. Another term for the mesocarp when it is pulpy or 
 fleshy. From the Greek " sarx" gen. " sarkos," flesh, and 
 " karpos" fruit. 
 
 Sclerenchyma. Cellular tissue of which the walls of the cells 
 are more or less thickened and hardened. It is from the Greek 
 " skleros" hard, and " encheo" I pour in (" enchyma" tissue). 
 
 APPENDIX B. LEAVES. 
 
 Rachis. That part of the lengthened petiole or peduncle, along 
 which are arranged the leaflets of a compound leaf, or the flowers 
 of an inflorescence, as the case may be. 
 From the Greek " rachis" the backbone. 
 
 Pedatifid. Used of a palmatifid leaf {simple, p. 95), when the 
 two side divisions are again indented or cleft. 
 
 The word is derived from the Latin '' pes," " pedis" a foot ; and 
 is used from a fancied resemblarice of a leaf so divided to the foot of 
 a bird. 
 
 Pedate. (Same derivation). Used in like manner of a palmately 
 compottnd leaf when the two side leaflets are deeply lobed or cleft. 
 Sometimes the clefts are so deep that they reach into the 
 petiole, and the divisions are themselves leaflets. 
 
 Capillary. Used of a finely-divided leaf. Hair-like; from the 
 Latin " capilltts" hair. 
 
228 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 Multifid. Much divided; from the Latin " multus" much, a 
 "fid" (p. 95*)- 
 
 Phyllode. In some plants the leaf stalk becomes widened and 
 flattened, so that it looks like a blade (p. 89). Such an expanded 
 petiole is called a. phylkde; from the Greek "phullon" a leaf, 
 and " eidos" form. 
 
 Sometimes there is the Phyllode only, but sometimes the true 
 blade can be seen growing at the end of the Phyllode. 
 
 Cladophyll. This is not a leaf, like the Phyllode, but a branch, 
 widened, flattened, and leaf-like. 
 
 You can see an example of it in the Butcher's Broom (Ruscus 
 aculeatus). The small scale-like leaves, from the axils of which 
 the cladophylls grow, soon wither and fall off, so you should look 
 for them upon young stems. 
 
 The word is derived from the Greek " klados" a young branch 
 or shoot, and " phullon? a leaf. 
 
 The cladophyll is also called " cladode " (" klados " and " eidos ") 
 and " phylloclade " (" phullon" and "klados.") 
 
 Oblique or IJnsymmetrical leaves are those of which the two 
 halves are not alike or equal ; as in the elm. 
 
 APPENDIX C FRUITS. 
 
 Caryopsis. This is the name given to the fruit of the grasses. It 
 is similiar to the achene (dry, indehiscent and one seeded), but the 
 pericarp is inseparable from the seed, which is not the case 
 in the achene. 
 
 In some grasses, as in oats and barley, the paleae (p. 102) adhere 
 to the caryopsis. Derivation from the Greek " karuon" a nut, 
 and " opsis," appearance. 
 
APPENDIX. 229 
 
 Cypsela. This is an inferior achene, and you have examples of it in 
 the fruit of the compositse (Fig. 138 e, p. 159). To distinguish the 
 flowers of the compositae, cf. p. 47, 48, and remember that they 
 have an inferior ovary, and five stamens, which are joined together 
 (cf. Fig. 138 d and its note, p. 159). Cypsela is derived from the 
 Greek " kupsele" a box, a hollow vessel. 
 
 Samara. This is a dry one seeded fruit or fruitlet, similar to the 
 achene, but with a membranous margin or wing formed by the 
 extended pericarp. See the winged achene or samara of the elm 
 (Fig. 131 B, p. 146), and the winged mericarp or samara of the 
 sycamore (Fig. 28 b, p. 33). It is from the Latin " samera? the 
 seed of the elm. 
 
 COCCUS. A fruitlet of a schizocarp when they are more than two in 
 number; from the Greek " kokkos" a kernel, a berry (Fig. 
 141, p. 161). The one seeded fruitlets of the schizocarp are 
 similar to the nut or achene. With a glass that magnifies about 
 twenty times, look at transverse sections from those of some of 
 the common labiates (p. 42, 109). 
 
 But compare a coccus of the labiates or of the geranium family 
 with an achene, that of a buttercup for instance, as to their 
 dehiscence. In the geraniums you can easily see the dehiscent 
 carpel of the coccus, in contrast with the indehiscent achene. 
 
 Berry. The fruit of the cucumber, melon, and vegetable marrow 
 is somewhat different from the true berry. Part of the pericarp is 
 thicker, fleshy, and more or less hard, and the seeds do not lie 
 loose in the pulp, as in the true berry. A fruit of this kind is 
 called a " pepo." 
 
 Pome. A succulent, indehiscent syncarpous and spurious fruit such 
 as the apple or pear, cf. p. 29, 136. From the Latin "pomum," 
 an apple. 
 
 Sorosis. When the flowers of an inflorescence, by the swelling of 
 some of their parts, produce one succulent collective fruit, as the 
 pine-apple, it is called a sorosis. Another instance is the fruit of 
 
230 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 the mulberry, produced by the swelling of the perianth leaves 
 (p. 139*). 
 
 The word sorosis is derived from the Greek " soros," a heap, an 
 accumulation. 
 
 Syconus (from the Greek " sttkon" a fig) is a collective fruit, such 
 as that of the fig. (See p. 138.) 
 
INDEX. 
 
 231 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A in Composition, cf. Mono- 
 
 chlamydeous 225 
 
 Absorption 192 
 
 Acacia (plate) 201 
 
 Achene 146, 159 
 
 Achlamydeous, cf. Mono- 
 
 chlamydeous 225 
 
 Acicular ,... 91 
 
 Acorn 103, (plate) 135, 137, 147 
 
 Acropetal Succession 79, 84 
 
 Acute 94 
 
 Adventitious 74, 80 
 
 Aerial Roots , 66, 75 
 
 Ailanthus (plate) 181 
 
 Air Spaces ...169, 183, (plate) 194 
 
 Almond , fruit (plate) 140 
 
 seed (plate) 154 
 
 Amentum 125 
 
 Amplexicaul 98 
 
 Anagallis See Pimpernel 
 
 Anatomy 60, 164 to 189 
 
 Androecium See Androus i. ... 221 
 
 Androus 221 
 
 Anemone 17, 68, 74 
 
 Anemophilous 130 
 
 Angiosperms , 210 
 
 Annuals 205 
 
 Annulated 74, vessels 168 
 
 Anther 112, (plate) 129, 190 
 
 Anthriscus See Cow Parsley. 
 Apex. The tip or top end. 
 Apocarpous... pistil 116; fruit 137 
 
 Apple fruit (plate) 28, 
 
 135, 229; seed 152; leaf 193 
 
 Apricot fruit 140, 148 
 
 Arillus (plate) 207, 209 
 
 Aristolochia (plate) 132 
 
 Artificial System of Classifica- 
 tion . . 216 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Arum. See Lords and Ladies. 
 
 Asparagus 67 
 
 Assimilation 197 
 
 Atmosphere 221 
 
 Avens, Common 86, 215 
 
 Awn 102 
 
 Axil 78 
 
 Axis 65, 70 
 
 Balsam, Yellow 160 
 
 Banyan 75 
 
 Bark 18, cells of (plate) 
 
 170; I73> 1 80 to 182 
 
 Barley (plate) 102, 125, 126 
 
 Bast 177 to 1 80, 222 
 
 Bean... stipules, 99; fruit, 116, 
 137, 140, 144 ; seed, 64, 
 
 71, 153, 154, 185 
 
 Bean, Indian 205 
 
 Beak (plate) 161 
 
 Beech nut, 103, 137, 147 : 
 
 leaf (plate) 87, 194 
 
 Beet-root root (plate) 14 ; 186 
 
 Begonia, leaf-stalk (plate) 184 
 
 Berry 149, 229 
 
 Bi in Composition 97 J 
 
 Biennial 205 
 
 Bijugate 97 
 
 Bilocular 119 
 
 Bindweed rhizome, 68, 74 ; 
 
 flower, no 
 
 Birch (p)ate) 76 
 
 Bipinnate 97, (plate) 201 
 
 Bird's Foot Trefoil... (plate) 37, 
 
 39, 46 
 
 Bird's Foot 143 
 
 Biternate , 96 
 
232 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Blackberry... 29, fruit 137, 139, 
 
 (plate) 148, 215 
 
 Blackthorn 80 
 
 Bloom 188 
 
 Botany... 2, 3 ; branches of, 59 to 62 
 Bract... 100 ; involucral, 103, in 
 Bramble See Blackberry. 
 
 Branching 78 
 
 Brassica, ovary (plate) 118; 
 
 fruit (plate) 141, 144 
 
 Brazil nut 155 
 
 Bryony 65 
 
 Buds 76 
 
 Bud scales 77, 104, 105 
 
 Bulbs... .15, 17, 68, 74, 104, 199 
 
 Buckthorn (plate) 117,225 
 
 Bulrush , fruit 160 
 
 Burnet-leaved Rose (plate) 27 
 
 Butcher's Broom 228 
 
 Buttercup, Meadow, 5, (plate) 
 
 6, 49, 1 10 
 ,, Tuberous (Bulbous), (plate) 
 
 4, 6, 49 
 
 Creeping 49, 74, no 
 
 , , pistil, 27,116; ovary, 1 1 8 ; 
 
 fruit, 137, 140, 146 
 
 Caliculus in 
 
 Calycifloral 216 
 
 Calyx 6, 53, 107 
 
 Cambium 177 to 180 
 
 Campanulate 109 
 
 Capillary 227 
 
 Capitulum 126 
 
 Capsicum (plate) 128 
 
 Capsella See Shepherd's Purse. 
 
 Capsule, . .. 145 
 
 Caraway (plate) 147 
 
 Carbon 197, 199, 203, 222 
 
 Carbon Dioxide 195, 196, 198, 
 
 221, 222 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas See Car- 
 bon Dioxide. 
 
 Carpel ., 114 to 117 
 
 Carrot (plate) 99, 215 
 
 Caryopsis 228 
 
 Catkin 125 
 
 Cauline 86 
 
 Caulis, an aerial stem 107 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Celandine, Greater 187 
 
 Celandine, Lesser ...(plate) 89, 225 
 
 Celery 202 
 
 Cell, 165 ; wall, 166 ; sap, 166 ; 
 division, 167, 222 ; con- 
 tents , 183 
 
 Cellular tissue 167 
 
 Cellulose, a substance of which 
 
 the cell wall is composed. 
 Cerastium S e e Mouse-ear 
 
 Chick-weed. 
 
 Chambered Ovary 119 
 
 Charlock 38 
 
 Chelidonium See Celandine, 
 
 Greater. 
 Cherry, 29, 48 ; fruit (plate) 
 
 140, 142, 148 
 
 Chestnut, Horse 104, 105 
 
 Chestnut, Sweet , 103 
 
 Chlorophyll 184, 202 
 
 Chlorophyll Corpuscle, 184,185, 
 
 197, 199, 222 
 
 Chrysanthemum 67 
 
 Ciliate 94 
 
 Cinquefoil in 
 
 Cladode 228 
 
 Cladophyll 228 
 
 Class 32, 209 
 
 Classification 32 to 49, 61, 
 
 207 to 218 
 
 Clavate 81 
 
 Claw 108 
 
 Cleavers 162 
 
 Clematis 160 
 
 Climbing Stem 18, 65 
 
 Clover 17,40,46, 61 
 
 Coccus 229 
 
 Colchicum See Crocus, Au- 
 tumn. 
 
 Collar 222 
 
 Collecting Plants 53 
 
 Collective Fruit 138 
 
 Columbine fruit, 137, 144 
 
 Colour 131 
 
 Coltsfoot 100, (plate) 213 
 
 Composite 48, (plate) 159, 213, 229 
 
 Compound Leaf 22 
 
 Umbel 43 
 
 ,, Fruit 137, 138 
 
 Cone 125 
 
INDEX. 
 
 233 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Connate 98 
 
 Convolvulus.... 18 
 
 Cordate 92 
 
 Core : 29 
 
 Cork 52, (plate) 181 
 
 Corm 68, 74 
 
 Corolla 5, 107 
 
 Corollifloral 216 
 
 Corpuscle See Chlorophyll. 
 
 Cortex 177 to 182, 222 
 
 Corymb 125 
 
 Cotton Grass 160 
 
 Cotyledon.... 33, 54, 64, 154, 210 
 
 Couch Grass 68, 74 
 
 Cow Parsley ...44, 103; stem, 184 
 Cow Parsnip, (plate) 44 ; ovary, 
 
 118 ; fruit, 147, 215 
 Cowslip (plate) i, fruit, 137, 141, 145 
 
 Creeping Stem 17, 66 
 
 Crenate 94 
 
 Cress (fruit) 145 
 
 Crocus 69 
 
 Crocus, Autumn, 69 ; fruit 
 
 (plate) 145 
 
 Cross fertilisation 130 to 133 
 
 Crown 67 
 
 Cruciferous 37, 108 
 
 Cryptogam 2, 207 
 
 Crystal 186, 199 
 
 Cuckoo Pint See Lords and 
 
 Ladies. 
 Cucumber ...ovary, 118; fruit, 149 
 
 Culm 84 
 
 Cupule 103 
 
 Currant, flower, 125 ; fruit, 140, 
 
 142, 149 
 
 Cuticle 172 
 
 Cyme 126 
 
 Cynpglossum See H o u n d's 
 
 Tongue. 
 Cypsela 159, 229 
 
 Dahlia root, 14 ; crown, 67 ; 
 
 tubercles, 73 ; pith, 167 
 
 Daisy (plate) 46, 47, 103, 126 
 
 Damson 29; stone (plate) 170 
 
 Dandelion ...flowers, 48, no ; 
 root, 71; involucre, 103; fruit, 
 
 158 ; (plate) 159; juice, 187 
 
 PAG 
 Date. ..(plate) 151 ; fruit, 140, 
 
 149, 152, 155 
 
 Dead Nettle (plate) 41, 85, 109, no 
 Deadly Nightshade.. (plate) 50, 51 
 Deca in Composition, from the 
 
 Greek " deka, " ten. 
 Decandrous, cf. Deca and 
 
 Androus. 
 
 Deciduous, falling off, from the 
 Latin "<&"down, and "caJo" 
 
 I fall 53, 54 
 
 Decumbent 66 
 
 Decurrent 98 
 
 Decussate 85 
 
 Deferred Growth 79 
 
 Dehiscent. Dehiscence...i4i, 
 
 145, 153, 222 
 
 Dentate 94 
 
 Di in Composition 176 
 
 Diadelphous. Stamens in two 
 bundles or brotherhoods (Fig. 
 15 c) ; from the Greek "di" 
 (cf. above) and " adetyhos" 
 
 a brother 21 
 
 Diandrous, cf. Androus ii 221 
 
 Dichlamydeous, cf. Mono- 
 
 chlamydeous 225 
 
 Dicotyledon , 33, 176, 210 
 
 Dictamnus (plate) 188 
 
 Didynamous. Of four Stamens, 
 one pair being longer than 
 the other pair. From the 
 Greek " di" (cf. above), and 
 dunamiSy power. 
 
 Diffusion 223 
 
 Digitate 97 
 
 Digynous, cf. Gynous ii 224 
 
 Dimerous, cf. Monomerous ... 225 
 
 Dioecious 123 
 
 Disc 126 
 
 Discifloral 215 
 
 Dissepiment 119, 144 
 
 Dock (plate) 195 
 
 Dorsal Suture ...... 116, (plate) 119 
 
 Double Flowers H2 
 
 Draining 204 
 
 Dropwort 73 
 
 Drying Plants 54 
 
 Drupe 148 
 
 Drupel 148 
 
234 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Earthnut 45 
 
 Economic Botany 62 
 
 Elder 109, pith 167, 174 
 
 Elliptical ... 91 
 
 Elm fruit (plate) 146 
 
 Emarginate 93 
 
 Embryo 64, 134, 154, 224 
 
 Enchanter's Nightshade ...fruit 162 
 
 Endocarp 139, 170 
 
 Endogens , 211 
 
 Endogenous 179, 211 
 
 Endosperm 191, 223 
 
 Entire 93 
 
 Entomophilous 13010 133 
 
 Epicalyx in 
 
 Epicarp 139 
 
 Epidermis 172, 181 (plate), 194 
 
 Epigynous 215, 216 
 
 Epipetalous 216 
 
 Exogens 211 
 
 Exogenous 1 79, 211 
 
 Fascicle, Fascicled, Fasciculated. 
 From the Latin "Fastis," a 
 bundle of rods. In a cluster 
 or bundle. 
 
 Fertilisation 133 
 
 Fennel (plate) 70 
 
 Fibril 73 
 
 Fibrous (Fibre) 51, 72, 173 
 
 Fibro-vascular bundles 173, 175 
 
 to 1 80 
 
 Fid in Composition 95 
 
 Fig fruit (plate) 138, 140, 230 
 
 Filament 112 
 
 Fir pollen, 130; fruit, 125, 
 
 138; (plate) 139; resin 
 
 (plate) 188 ; 212 
 
 Flag 68 
 
 Flax 180 
 
 Flora 217 
 
 Floret ,48, 126, (plate) 159, 213 
 
 Flower 4 to 11,77; leaves, 
 
 ill ; double, 112 ; 118 
 
 Follicle.., 144 
 
 Food of Plants 191, 192, 201 
 
 Food Store 154, 191, 199 
 
 Fool's Parsley (plate) 157 
 
 Fossil Botany 62 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Foxglove (plate) 32, 125 
 
 Fragaria See Strawberry. 
 
 Free Cell Formation, cf. Cell .. 222 
 
 Fruit 261031; 134 to 150 
 
 Fruitlet 139 
 
 Fuchsia 67 
 
 Fundamental Tissue 174,222 
 
 Funicle 223 
 
 Funnel Shaped no 
 
 Furze See Gorse. 
 
 Fusiform 7 1 
 
 Galium See Cleavers. 
 
 Galls 52 
 
 Gamo in composition 109 
 
 Gamopetalous 109 
 
 Gamosepalous no 
 
 Gases 191, 195 to 198 
 
 Genus 461048, 217 
 
 Geographical Botany 62 
 
 Geranium (plate) 161 
 
 Germ 64, 71, 224 
 
 Germination 190 
 
 Gill-run-along-the-ground See 
 Ground Ivy. 
 
 Glabrous . 82 
 
 Gladiolus 69 
 
 Gland 82, 224 
 
 Glandular 82 
 
 Globose 71 
 
 Glume 102 
 
 Gooseberry, ovary, 118; fruit, 
 
 142, 149 
 Goosegrass See Silver Weed. 
 
 Gorse 24,40,47; fruit, 144 
 
 Gourd J49 
 
 Grape 140, 149 
 
 Grass, 50 ; stem, 89, 184 ; 
 
 flower, 101, 102, (plate) 171 
 
 Grass of Parnassus 225 
 
 Green 202 
 
 Ground Ivy 17, (plate) 18, 74 
 
 Gum 188 
 
 Gymnosperm 209 
 
 Gynandrous 216 
 
 Gynoecium. See Gynous i. ... 224 
 Gynous 224 
 
INDEX. 
 
 235 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Hairbell no 
 
 Hairs 23, (plate) 81, 171 
 
 Harriff 23; fruit, 162 
 
 Hastate 92 
 
 Hawthorn 80 
 
 Hazel, scale, 101 ; cupule, 103, 
 (plate) 121, 123; flowers, 122, 
 125 ; pollen, 130 ; nut, 29, 
 
 140, 142, 147 
 
 Heat 190, 194, 203 
 
 Hedge Parsley fruit, 162 
 
 Hellebore leafstalk (plate) 174 
 
 Hemp 1 80 
 
 Henbane fruit (plate) 146 
 
 Hepatica.., , in 
 
 Herb, Herbaceous 18 
 
 Herbarium 55 
 
 Herb Bennet, cf. Avens, Com- 
 mon. 
 Herb, Robert, fruit, 147, (plate) 161 
 
 Hermaphrodite 225 
 
 Hip 28, 135, 136. 140 
 
 Histology 60 
 
 Honeysuckle (plate) 59, 85 
 
 Hooker 205, 218 
 
 Hop, flowers, 123, (plate) 124 ; 
 
 fruit, 138 
 
 Hornbeam 103 
 
 Horse Chestnut, 77, 85 ; bark 
 
 cells (plate) 170 
 
 Horse Radish 67 
 
 Hound's Tongue 162 
 
 Hyacinth, bulb, (plate) 68, 104 ; 
 
 (plate) 114 ; crystals 186 
 Hyoscyamus See Henbane. 
 Hypericum See St. John's 
 Wort. 
 
 Hypogynous 214, 215 
 
 Impatiens See YellowBalsam. 
 
 Imparipinnate 97 
 
 Incomplete Flowers 122 
 
 Indehiscent 142 
 
 India Rubber 188 
 
 Indian Bean 205 
 
 Inferior Ovary 118 
 
 Inflorescence 124 
 
 Insects and Flowers ...131 to 133 
 
 Integument 223, 224 
 
 Intercellular spaces... 169, 183, 188 
 Internodes 84 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Involucel, the bracts or involu- 
 cre of an umbellule, cf 103, 126 
 Involucel, 103, (plate) 106, 126, 213 
 Involute, with the margins 
 
 turned in, see note 103 
 
 Ipecacuanha, (plate) 12 ; root, 
 
 14, 74 
 
 Iris 68; fruit, 141 
 
 Iron I9 1 
 
 Ivy 75 
 
 Juniper 
 
 212 
 
 Kecksie See Cow Parsley. 
 
 Keel 39 
 
 Knot Grass (plate) 100 
 
 Labiate 41 to 43, 109 
 
 Ladies' Mantle 88, (plate) 87 
 
 Lamina 89 
 
 Lanceolate 92 
 
 Larch fruit 125 
 
 Larkspur fruit 144 
 
 Lateral , 7 8 
 
 Lavender 67 
 
 Layering 74 
 
 Leaflet , 22, 96 
 
 Leaf 21 to 25, 83 to 105 ; 
 
 floral, in to 114; vena- 
 tion, 34, 95, 173 ; droop- 
 ing, 194; (plate) 194 
 
 Leaf scales 104, 105 
 
 Legume 30, 108, 143 
 
 Leguminosae See Papiliona- 
 ceous 1 08 
 
 Lemon fruit, 149 ; scent, 188 
 
 Life... 1 90 ; seeds, 205 ; plants, 205 
 
 Light 194, 202, 203 
 
 Ligulate 89, no 
 
 Ligule 89 
 
 Lilac ...bud, 77 ; flower, 109; 
 
 stomates, 193 
 
 Lily 68, 104 
 
 Lily of Valley 68, (plate) 190 
 
 Limb of Corolla 108, 109 
 
 Lime 100, 105, (plate) 178 
 
 Linear 91, (plate) 106 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Linnaeus 40, 216 
 
 Linnaean Classification 216 
 
 Lipped See Labiate. 
 
 Lobed , 94 
 
 Loculicidal Dehiscence 223 
 
 Loculus 119 
 
 Lomentum 143, 145 
 
 Lonicera See Honeysuckle. 
 
 Lords and Ladies fruit, 51; 
 
 spathe, 101 j flowers, 123, 
 
 124; (plate) 175 
 Lotus See Bird's Foot Trefoil. 
 
 Lubbock 160, 162 
 
 Lychnis... petal, 109 ; fruit, 145; 
 
 seed, 153 
 Lyrate 96 
 
 Mallow (plate) 7, in 
 
 Malva See Mallow. 
 Maple See Sycamore. 
 
 Manure .... 204 
 
 Margin 93 
 
 Marrow See Vegetable 
 
 Marrow. 
 
 May See Hawthorn. 
 Medulla See Pith. 
 
 Medullary Ray 179 
 
 Melilot fruit (plate) 116 
 
 Mericarp 147 
 
 Mesocarp 139 
 
 Metabolism 199 
 
 Metastasis 199 
 
 Micropyle 224 
 
 Mistletoe 75, 226 
 
 Monadelphous. Stamens in 
 
 one bundle See "Mono" 
 
 and " Diadelphous." 
 
 Monandrous 221 
 
 Moniliform 73 
 
 Monkshood... fruit, 137, 141, 
 
 144, (plate) 117, (plate) 183 
 
 Mono in Composition 176* 
 
 Monocarpous 204 
 
 Monochlamydeous 225 
 
 Monocotyledon ...34, 72, 176, 210 
 
 Monoecious 123 
 
 Monogynous, cf. Gynous ii. ... 224 
 Monomerous 225 
 
 PAGE 
 Monopetalous, of one petal 
 
 See " Mono " and " Petal." 
 
 Monosepalous, of one sepal 
 
 See " Mono " and " Sepal." 
 
 Morphology , 60 
 
 Mouse-ear Chick weed... flower,' 
 
 126 ; fruit, 141, 145 
 
 Mucronate 99 
 
 Mulberry fruit, 138, (plate) 
 
 139, 2 30 
 
 Multi in Composition 119* 
 
 Multifid 228 
 
 Multilocular 119 
 
 Mustard... seed, 33 ;. flower, 38 ; 
 
 fruit, 144 
 Myrtle , 188 
 
 Names of Plants 48, 217 
 
 Napiform . 7 1 
 
 Natural Order 35, 214 
 
 Natural System of Classification 
 
 32 to 36, 207 to 216, 217 
 
 Nectar 131 
 
 Nectary 225 
 
 Nettle, Stinging Si, 68, 173 
 
 Net Veined Leaves ... 35,211, 212 
 
 Nitrogen 191, 221 
 
 Node 83 
 
 Nodose, or Nodulose 73 
 
 Nucellus 223, 224 
 
 Nucleus 166 
 
 Nut 146 
 
 Nutmeg 155 
 
 Nutrition, Organs of 63 to 105 
 
 Nux Vomica fruit (plate) 1 54 
 
 Oak, galls and bark, 52 ; fruit, 
 103, (plate) 135 ; ovary, 147; 
 
 wood (plate) 176 
 
 Oat (plate) 125 
 
 Obcordate 93 
 
 Oblanceolate 93 
 
 Oblique Leaves 228 
 
 Oblong 91 
 
 Obovate 93 
 
 Obtuse 94 
 
 Ochrea 100 
 
 Oil 188, 199 
 
INDEX. 
 
 237 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Onion 68, 104 
 
 Oosphere 224 
 
 Opium 187 
 
 Orange, fruit, 30, 149, 165; 
 
 seed, 152; scent, 188 
 
 Orbicular 91 
 
 Order, Natural See Natural 
 
 Order. 
 
 Organs See Nutrition and Re- 
 production. 
 Ornithopus See Bird's Foot. 
 
 Oval 91 
 
 Ovary 115 to 119, 128 
 
 Ovate 92 
 
 Ovule. ..115, 119, 133, (plate) 
 
 134, 223, (plate) 224 
 
 Oxlip (plate) 131 
 
 Oxygen ...191, 197, 198, 221, 222 
 
 Palea 102 
 
 Palm (plate) 151 
 
 Palmate Leaf 87, 95 
 
 Palmately lobed 95 
 
 ,, Compound 96 
 
 Palmate venation 87 
 
 Palmatifid 95 
 
 Palmatipartite 95 
 
 Palmatisected 95 
 
 Panduriform, same as Fiddle - 
 
 shaped 23 
 
 Panicle 125 
 
 Pansy Violet stipules, 99; 
 
 fruit (plate) 160 
 
 Papilionaceous 39, 40, 108 
 
 Pappus 158, 159 
 
 Parasite 75, 226 
 
 Parenchyma 167 
 
 Paripinnate 97 
 
 Partite in composition 95 
 
 Pea, (plate) 21, 38, 99 ; fruit, 
 
 116, 137, 141, 144 
 
 Peach fruit, 140, 148, 170, 174 
 
 Pear seed, 152, 229 
 
 Pedate 227 
 
 Pedatifid 227 
 
 Pedicel 107 
 
 Peduncle 107 
 
 Peltate 93 
 
 Penny Cress 145 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Penny Wort 93 
 
 Penta in composition, cf. Mono- 
 
 merous 225 
 
 Pentamerous, cf. Monomerous 225 
 Pentandrous See Penta and 
 Androus. 
 
 Pepo 229 
 
 Perennial 205 
 
 Perfoliate 98 
 
 Perfume 131 
 
 Perianth ill 
 
 Pericarp 139, 153, 158 
 
 Perigynous 214 to 216 
 
 Perisperm 226 
 
 Personate 109 
 
 Petal 36, 108 
 
 Petiole 89 
 
 Petiolule, a secondary petiole. 
 
 Phanerogam 208 
 
 Phsenogam . 208 
 
 Phloem See Bast. 
 
 Phlox 67 
 
 Phylloclade 228 
 
 Phyllode 228 
 
 Phyllotaxis 85 
 
 Physiology 61, 19010 206 
 
 Pig-nut 45 
 
 Pimpernel fruit 141, 146 
 
 Pine 125, 212 
 
 Pine Apple 139, 229 
 
 Pink log 
 
 Pinnae 97 
 
 Pinnate Leaf 97 
 
 Pinnate Venation 88 
 
 Pinnatifid 95 
 
 Pinnatipartite 95 
 
 Pinnatisected 95 
 
 Pinnules 97 
 
 Piper (plate) 154 
 
 Pistil 9, 114 to 118, 128 
 
 Pistiliferous 122 
 
 Pith 19, 167, 170, 174, 179 
 
 Pitted Vessels 168 
 
 Placenta 120 
 
 Placentation 120, 226 
 
 Plantago See Plantain. 
 Plantain... 1 24, fruit, 146 ; leaf, 173 
 
 Plum fruit 140, 148, 152, 174 
 
 Plumule 65 
 
 Pluri in Composition 
 
FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pod 4, (plate) 21, 30, 116, 143 
 
 Pollen 112, 129, 131, 133 
 
 Pollination 129, 130 
 
 Poly in Composition io8f 
 
 Polyadelphous. Stamens in 
 many bundles See " Poly " 
 and " Diadelphous." 
 Polyandrous, cf. Androus ii. ... 221 
 
 Polycarpous 205 
 
 Polycotyledonous 210 
 
 Polygamous, cf. Hermaphrodite 225 
 Polygonum See Knot Grass. 
 Polymerous, cf. Monomerous... 225 
 
 Polypetalous 108 
 
 Polysepalous no 
 
 Pome 229 
 
 Poppy... fruit (plate) 30, 137, 
 140, 141, 146; (plate) 143, 
 
 seed, 156 ; juice, 187 
 
 Pore 141 
 
 Pore Capsule (plate) 30, 146 
 
 Potato... tuber, 69; roots, 74; 
 starch, 185 ; 
 shoots, 202, 203 
 Potentilla See Silver Weed. 
 
 Prantl 132, 219 
 
 Prickle 80 
 
 Primrose.. 10, 16, 68; flowers, 
 109, 1 10, 131; pistil, 117; 
 ovary, 118; fruit, 137, 141/145 
 Primula See Primrose, Cow- 
 slip, and Oxlip. 
 
 Privet ..(plate) 83, 85 
 
 Procumbent _... 66 
 
 Prosenchyma 168 
 
 Prostrate , 66 
 
 Protandrous, cf. Androus iii. ... 221 
 Proterandrous, cf. Androus iii. 221 
 Protogynous, cf. Gynous iii. .. 224 
 
 Protoplasm 166,178, 184 
 
 Pseudocarp 135 
 
 Pubescent 82 
 
 Pyxidium 146 
 
 Quadri in Composition 96 
 
 Quadrinate 96 
 
 Quinate 96 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Raceme 125 
 
 Rachis 227 
 
 Radical Leaves 21,53, 86 
 
 Radicle 71 
 
 Radish. ..38; fruit, 140, (plate) 145 
 
 Raphides 187 
 
 Raspberry, stock, 67, (plate) 26; 
 
 fruit, 29, 139, 148 
 
 Ray 126 
 
 Receptacle, 107, (plate) 117, 
 
 126, (plate) 159, 213 
 
 Reniform 93 
 
 Reproduction, Organs of ...63, 106 
 
 Resin 188 
 
 Respiration 198 
 
 Rhamnus See Buckthorn. 
 
 Rhizome 67, 74, 199 
 
 Rhubarb, crown, 67 ; stem, 100, 
 
 vessels, (plate) 169; raphides, 187 
 
 Rice 50, 185 
 
 Ringed Vessels 168 
 
 Ringent 1 09 
 
 Rings of Trees .. ; 176 to 179 
 
 Root, 12 to 14, 70 to 75 ; uses 
 
 of, 15, 24 
 
 Root-hairs (plate) 34, 73, 191 
 
 Root-leaves 21, 53, 86 
 
 Rose, 52,80; fruit, 28, 136, 
 
 140, 146 
 
 Rotate 109 
 
 Rotundate 92 
 
 Runcinate 96 
 
 Runner 66 
 
 Rush ...(plate) 63, 184 
 
 Rush, Flowering (plate) 106 
 
 Saffron Crocus (plate) 16 
 
 Saffron, Meadow 69 
 
 Sagittate 92, (plate) 175 
 
 Salver-shaped 109 
 
 Samara 146, 229 
 
 Sambucus See Elder. 
 
 Sand Sedge 68, (plate) 67 
 
 Sap 20, 24, 192, 198, 223 
 
 Saprophyte 75> 22 7 
 
 Sarcocarp 227 
 
 Scalariform , 168 
 
 Scale ...7, loi, 104, 105, 122, 
 
 (plate) 123, 124 
 
INDEX. 
 
 239 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Scandent 65 
 
 Scape 1 06, 107 
 
 Scaly Bulb 68 
 
 Scent 131 
 
 Schizocarp 147 
 
 Sclerenchyma 170, 227 
 
 Scotch Fir, 130 ; seed (plate), 
 
 160 ; resin (plate), 188 
 
 Sea Kale 67, 202 
 
 Sected in composition 95 J 
 
 Seed, 64, 70, 1 20 ; formation 
 
 of, 128 to 134 ; 151 to 156; 
 
 distribution of, 157 to 163 ; 
 
 growth of, 32, 190 ; vitality 
 
 of, 205, 208 
 
 Self Pollination 130 
 
 Self Fertilisation 1 30 
 
 Sepal no, in 
 
 Septicidal, cf. Dehiscence 222* 
 
 Septifragal, cf. Dehiscence ...223f 
 
 Septum 222* 
 
 Serrate 94 
 
 Sessile 90 
 
 SeUe 81 
 
 Setose 82 
 
 Sheath 89 
 
 Shepherd's Purse 38, 145 
 
 Silicula Silicic 144 
 
 Siliqua 144 
 
 Silver Grain 179 
 
 Silver Weed , in 
 
 Simple Leaf 22 
 
 Simple Fruit 137, 138 
 
 Simple Pistil 117 
 
 Sinuous 94 
 
 Siphonia juice, 187 
 
 Skeleton Leaf 173 
 
 Sloe See Blackthorn ,....29, 80 
 
 Snapdragon 109, 146 
 
 Snowdrop 68 
 
 Sob'oles 66, 68 
 
 Solomon's Seal 68 
 
 Sorosis 229 
 
 Spadix 124, (plate) 175 
 
 Spathe 101, 124, (plate) 175 
 
 Spathulate 93 
 
 Species 48, 49, 217 
 
 Speedwell 109 
 
 Spermaphyte 208 
 
 Spike , 102, 124, 125 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Spikelet 102, 126 
 
 Spindle-shaped Root 71 
 
 Spine 24 
 
 Spiral Vessels 168 
 
 Spurious Fruit 135 
 
 Spurge 187 
 
 St. John's Wort 188 
 
 Stamen 9, 112, 215, 216, 221 
 
 Stameniferous 122 
 
 Standard 39 
 
 Starch 185, 197, 199 
 
 Stem ...16 to 20, 63 to 69, 73, 167 
 
 Stigma 115, 128, 172 
 
 Stipule 99, in 
 
 Stock 67 
 
 Stolon 66 
 
 Stoma, Stomate, 25, I93,(plate) 194 
 
 Stone Crop (plate) 53 
 
 Stone Fruit. . . 148 ; cells, (plate) 
 
 170, 174 
 
 Stork's Bill 161 
 
 Straight-veined Leaf 35 
 
 Strawberry. ..runner (plate), 66; 
 fruit, 27, (plate) 28, in, 
 
 136, 146 
 
 Style 115, 128 
 
 Subulate 92 
 
 Succulent Fruits 140, 148 
 
 Sucker 80 
 
 Sugar 186 
 
 Sunflower (plate) 177, 194 
 
 Superior Ovary 118 
 
 Suture 116 
 
 S weetbriar 23 
 
 Sycamore... (plate) 33, 34; bud, 
 
 77, 104, 105 ; fruit, 160 
 
 Syconus 230 
 
 Syncarpous pistil, 114, 117 ; 
 
 fruit, 137 
 
 Syngynesious, "Joined to- 
 gether," from Greek " sun " 
 with, and ''genesis " "geno "179* 
 
 Systematic Botany 61 
 
 Tap root 71 
 
 Teasel 126, (plate) 164 
 
 Temperature 190, 194, 203 
 
 Tendril 18, 24, 66 
 
 Ternate 96 
 
240 
 
 FLOWER-LAND. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Testa 152 to 154, 158 
 
 Tetra in Composition See 
 
 Androus ii. 221 
 
 Tetrandrous, cf. Androus ii. ... 221 
 Tetradynamous, when of six 
 stamens, four (two pairs) are 
 longer, and two (one pair) 
 shorter. See "Tetra" and 
 "Didynamous." 
 Tetramerous, cf. Monomerous 225 
 
 Thalamifloral 215 
 
 Thalamus 107, 227 
 
 Thistle (plate) 91, 103, 160 
 
 Thlaspi See Penny Cress. 
 
 Thorn 80 
 
 Thyme 74 
 
 Tissue 167 to 174 
 
 Tomentose 82 
 
 Torilis See Hedge Parsley. 
 
 Torus 107 
 
 Transpiration , 192 
 
 Tri in Composition 96 
 
 Triandrous, cf. Androus ii. ... 221 
 
 Trigynous, cf. Gynous ii 224 
 
 Trijugate 97 
 
 Trilocular 119, (plate) 114, 190 
 
 Trimerous, cf. Monomerous ... 225 
 
 Tripartite ... 95 
 
 Tripinnate 97 
 
 Trisected 95 
 
 Triternate 97 
 
 Tube of Petal 109 
 
 Tuber 69, 73, 191, 199 
 
 Tubercle 73, 199 
 
 Tubular Corolla no 
 
 Tulip 68; ovary, 118 
 
 Tunicated Bulb 68 
 
 Turnip (plate) 10, 205 
 
 Umbel 43, 44, 126 
 
 Umbelliferous 43 to 45 
 
 Umbellule 126 
 
 Uncinate 81 
 
 Uni in Composition 119* 
 
 Unilocular ovary 119 
 
 Unisexual, cf. Hermaphrodite 225 
 Use of Plants 50 to 53, 200 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Valve 141 
 
 Vascular Tissue 169, 173 
 
 Vegetable Marrow 149, 215 
 
 Venation 34, 35, 86 to 88, 
 
 173. 175 
 
 Ventral Suture 1 16, (plate) 1 19 
 
 Veronica See Speedwell. 
 
 Vessel , 168 
 
 Vetch ..." 140 
 
 Vine See Grape 18 
 
 Violet 129 
 
 Violet, Pansy See Pansy Vio- 
 let. 
 
 Wall-flower, ovary, 118; fruit, 
 
 141, 144 
 Walnut, fruit, 148, 174 ; seed, 
 
 152, 153, 155 
 
 Water-cress (plate) 74 
 
 Water Lily fruit, 149 
 
 Wheat, 72, (plate) 102 ; flower 
 
 126; 185 
 Whitethorn See Hawthorn. 
 
 Whitlow Grass (plate) 144 
 
 Whorl 85 
 
 Willow, stipules, 99, (plate) 
 
 ioo ; flowers, 123, 125 
 Willow Herb, ovary, 118; 
 
 pollen, (plate) 133 ; fruit, 160 
 
 Wind Pollination 130 
 
 Window Plants 203 
 
 Wing 39 
 
 Winged..., 98 
 
 Wood, cells, (plate) 167, 175 to 182 
 
 Woodruff (plate) 85 
 
 Xylem See Wood. 
 
 Yellow Balsam 160 
 
 Yew, flowers, 123 ; pollen, 130, 
 
 (plate) 207, 209 
 
 Bemrose & Sons, Printers, Derby ; and 23, Old Bailey, London. 
 
BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 BRAVE MEN OF OLD. 
 
 TWELVE EASY READINGS ON THE TWELVE 
 MINOR PROPHETS. 
 
 For Bible Class and Sunday School Teachers, or for Sunday 
 Reading at home. 
 
 PAPER BOARDS Is. GD., CLOTH 2s. 
 
 " . . . They give us a succinct account of the scope and contents of 
 each book and a vivacious picture of the men and their limes."- 
 Oldham Chronicle. 
 
 "A brief description of the general scope of each prophet's writings. 
 good of its kind." Chzirch 7'zmes. 
 
 " A thoroughly valuable book, bringing together a mass of interesting 
 information . . . Plain readers of the Bible will find this volume a 
 real help, and we heartily recommend it. Fireside News. 
 
 " . . . They may be of service in whetting the appetite for 
 larger works, or in helping to a more intelligent study of these too 
 much neglected books of the Old Testament." Nonconformist. 
 
 " It professes to give a brief account of each of the minor prophets 
 with the characteristics of their works, and carries out its purpose very 
 fairly ; a good deal of information being compressed in its 120 pages, 
 and sermonising being sparingly introduced." Literary Churchman. 
 
 PREPARATION AND THANKS-GIVING 
 
 FOR HOLY COMMUNION. 
 
 Two SHORT SERVICES ARRANGED FROM THE BIBLE 
 AND BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER. 
 
 fur Communicants' Meetings or as an addition to family 
 Prayers for Communicants. 
 
 16 pages in wrapper, post free 2s. per dozen. 
 Specimen, Two Stamps. 
 
lEytracts from notices of tbe press on 
 flower lanfc, part U 
 
 " Gives in some sixty pages the main facts of the science in a very 
 simple and attractive form. It may be put into the hands of children, 
 or used as a guide by those who have to teach them, without in the first 
 instance knowing anything of the subject. It will be found excellent 
 for either purpose." Guardian. 
 
 " The aim of this little work is as simple as its method of treatment. 
 . . So far as it goes, it is the very alphabet of botanology ; we have 
 nothing but praise to accord to it." Naturalist. 
 
 " We recommend the book highly." Natural History Journal. 
 
 " This little volume is, according to the double preface, intended as 
 a guide both to those beginning to learn botany, and to those who would 
 instruct them. . . The author has avoided long scientific and Latin 
 words as carefully as possible, which makes the book quite readable for 
 the young ; and, as the subject matter is thoroughly sound, it will prove 
 useful for our little friends. . ." Literary World. 
 
 " Few books are written in such a plain manner as this, especially 
 when dealing with botany. It is one ot the easiest introductions to that 
 subject we have come across ; in fact the author has made it so simple 
 that it can be perused with advantage by all in the first stage of botany. 
 It is well written. . ." Horticultural Times. 
 
 " The various parts of the flower, root, stem and leaf are treated of in 
 an easy and popular way, the intention being to put into the hands of 
 teachers an easy method of giving instruction to children in the rudi- 
 ments of the science." Gardening World. 
 
 " The idea is a good one." Manchester Guardian. 
 
 " Science made simple and interesting ; real and substantial know- 
 ledge conveyed in an attractive manner. . . The bright and chatty 
 style of the author must make him a charming companion to the young 
 folk ; and the information given will help many to spend happy hours in 
 ' Flower Land.' . . " Fireside News. 
 
 " . . The language of the work is beautifully clear and simple, 
 and perfectly suited to the capacities of those to whom it is addressed. 
 Parents and teachers who are able to take their children for country 
 rambles will find here a capital basis provided for conversational 
 lessons in the rudiments of Botany. We like the book very much. . ." 
 Teachers? Aid. 
 
 " ' Flower Land ' is a simple introduction to the study of Botany, for 
 the use of young children, parents, and teachers. It is simply written 
 and attractive in style. . ." School Guardian. 
 
 " We like this little botany book. The simple, terse, ' taking ' style 
 in which its instructions are conveyed ought to render them palatable, 
 as well as profitable, to youthful students." Church Bells. 
 
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