STACK ANNEX IOURSE IN W. WJMURRAY. 1 HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS. A COURSE IN MANUAL TRAINING FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY W. W. MURRAY. ROCHESTER: ROCHESTER ATHENAEUM AND MECHANICS INSTITUTE. SCRANTOM, WETMORE & CO. Copyright. 1897 by the ROCHESTER ATHEN/EUM AND MECHANICS INSTITUTE ROCHESTER. DESCRIPTION OF THE DESK TOP. The desk-top was designed to meet the needs of grammar and private schools. It can be clamped to an ordinary school desk, or a shelf, and be released by a single turn of a thumb-screw. The desk-top con-i sists of a board six-i teen inches wide and twenty-four inches long, with a recess at the back, which is] fitted with blocks 1 and racks of various forms for holding the tools in their proper places. It is pro- vided with a stopi which is used for holding the wood while planing. This stop, when not in use, can be dropped down flush with the surface, and the top may then be used as a drawing board. The right hand end is fitted with a shooting-board ADJUSTING DESK TOP. 2OGG472 Manual Training Course a device for holding pieces of wood while the edges are being planed this is provided with an attach- ment which prevents the tipping of the plane, thereby insuring true work. At the right hand, and attached to the underside, is a shallow drawer, this is intended to hold the drawing instruments, sandpaper-block, sandpaper and nails. A T-square is held in place on the underside by means of rabbeted cleats and a spring. The following is a list of the tools: Measuring rule; knife, plane, chisel, try-square, marking- gauge, hammer, nail- set, brad-awl, gimlet, pliers, clamp, bench- hook, compasses, tri- angles, T-square, thumb-tacks and sandpaper-block. AT WORK AT DESK TOP. It is not necessary to provide a saw for each desk-top. A table or shelf arranged with three common mitre boxes and three saws will answer for a large class. For Grammar Schools. 5 The following tools will be required for occa- sional use: 3 10 inch back saws. i 1 8 " panel saw (i i points to the inch). 3 2^ " screw-drivers. 3 y^ " handled auger bits, i 6 " 2nd cut flat file with handle, i Washita oil stone, mounted, i Small oil can. 3 Mitre boxes 2^ inches wide inside by 2^ inches deep. MODELS FOR DESK TOP COURSE. Manual Training Course INTRODUCTION. This hand-book is not intended as a manual for self-instruction, it is simply an arrangement of facts and suggestions relating to the tools and exercises involved in this series of models, to supplement notes taken by the pupil-teacher, which, it is hoped, may be of some assistance to the teacher in her efforts to encourage habits of industry and observation. To the teacher who aims at proficiency, the knowledge of the work, the right use of tools, and acquaintance with the materials used is indispens- able, and the only way to obtain this knowledge is by practical personal experience under an in- structor. It cannot be acquired from books. The course of exercises described in this hand- book is adapted to pupils during the last two or three years in the grammar schools. Courses-, which will involve the use of fewer tools, can be arranged to suit the physical and mental capacity of children of the lower grades. Children love to construct, and this points to a practical means of conveying instruction. But work for children must be of such a nature as will lead them to feel that it is real work, not a pretense at it. The course should be a series of useful articles, hav- ing a distinct educational value. In planning this course the aim has been to design such models as would be of value from the boy's For Grammar Schools. 7 point of view; to make each model an article of use; to give practical applications of a few geometrical problems to actual work, and to afford the teacher a means of translating many perplexing problems in arithmetic and plane geometry. In the hands of a conscientious teacher, the work will extend further than the making of models; intellectual and moral results will be considered as important as mechanical skill. Drawing, in order to interest the boy, must show some tangible results, therefore, the teacher should take advantage of every opportunity to show the value of "something'' to define the form and propor- tions of the objects to be made. All work should be done from drawings. The hammer and pliers used in the desk-top work were selected with a view to introducing light metal work. NOTES AND SUGGESTIONS. Ltnnber: When ordering lumber, write dimen- sions thus: 12 pieces of dry white pine ^ in. by 2^ ins. by 15^2 ins. Specify quality, when clear lumber is wanted, as follows : free from knots, shakes or sap. When ordering lumber for the models, have the wood cut T V inch wider than the width as given under the head of rough stock, this will allow for planing. 8 Manual Training Course Nails: Nails with large flat heads are known as common nails. Nails used for fine work have small heads and are called finis/ting nails. When ordering nails, give length, number of wire and state whether common or finishing nails are wanted. See pages 69 and 71. Example. 2 Ibs. of 3^ inch finishing nails No. 18. Screws: When ordering screws, give length of screw and number of wire. Example. 2 doz. f inch screws No. 6. Screws vary in size from ^ inch No. o to 6 inch No. 30. See page 67. The term number as applied to screws and wire nails refers to the w ire gauge or the diameter of the body of the screw or nail just below the head. Sandpaper: Sandpaper is sold by the sheet or quire. No. i is the grade used in this course. For further information relating to sandpaper see page 62. Glue: Use the liquid glue. Two or three small cans will answer for a large class. Emery Cloth: To remove rust from the tools use No. oo emery cloth and machine oil. For the drawings and for marking lines on the wood, use a pencil of medium grade. It must be kept sharp. Soft pencils with blunt points should not be tolerated. Pupils should measure their wood to test dimen- sions before proceeding to work it up. For Grammar Schools. 9 It is not safe to test the keenness of a sharpened tool by running the finger lightly across the edge. If the edge appears white and rounded it may be regarded as dull ; if the edge is invisible when held up against the light, it is sharp. The sharpening can be done by a practical man, at small cost. Tact must be exercised in deciding the degree of accuracy to be expected from each individual pupil. Verv often what a boy of ten years can accomplish may be difficult for one of twelve. Be guided by the mental and physical powers, rather than the age. Do not insist on the repetition of the same model more than three times at the outside. The principle involved may be given in another form. Guard yourself against giving any more help than is absolutely necessary. Use technical terms. Do not say " thing"* for mark- ing-gauge nor " business " when you mean try-square. Insist on cleanliness and neatness and that each tool, when not in use, be kept in its proper place. If " chip-carving " is introduced it should be per- mitted only on such articles as have been constructed by the pupil. When the pupil's work has been " accepted " by the teacher, a neat label should be pasted on, and on this label should be stated the number of the model and its name ; the name and age of the pupil. The articles should be regarded as the property of the makers. io Manual Training Course MODEL I. A Flower Pot Stand. The first exercise involves the use of more tools than many of the other models, but it has been placed first in the series not only because it is the easiest, but for the reason that there are certain prin- ciples which lie at the foundation of manual training that should be taught at the beginning. It gives the typical use of the most important tools, and it shows the pupil the significance of accu- racy of measurement. The drawing for this model and model No. 2 may be prepared for the pupil, or by him, according to the discretion of the teacher. The teacher can simplify the work and avoid con- fusion, by giving the pupil the material necessary for the two standards only, which should be completed before giving out the pieces for the slats. Tools used: Rule, plane, try-square, compasses, knife, file, saw, hammer, nail set, and centering clamp.* Rough stock: 4 pcs.of pine ^ in. by i in. by 12^2 ins. " " 2 " " ] in. by I % in. by 6 ins. Nails: 16 nails, y 2 in. No. 20. * The centering clamp is a device for holding the standard at right angles to a line from which the curved line is struck. For Grammar Schools. 1 1 Flower Pot Stand. il F,=)l 1 2 Manual Training Course MODEL H. A Form. This is a. form upon which the strips for the curved cross-pieces in model No. 3 are bent after soaking in water and secured until dry. To find the center from which to describe the curved lines, follow the method shown in Fig. 2. Draw the line H K, Fig. 2, to equal line A B, Fig. 3. Bisect H K in L. Let LM equal C D, Fig. 3. Bisect M H and M K, and produce the bisecting lines until they meet in P. With P as a center and P M the radius, draw the curve H M K. The radius for the concave edge of the form will be the distance from G to D, Fig. 3, less than the radius P M, Fig. 2. In order to make this problem interesting and clearly understood, the teacher might have the pupil make any three points not in a straight line on the blackboard, then show how to locate the center from which to draw a circle that will pass through the three given points. This problem should be worked out on heavy paper or card-board. The figure may be cut out and used as a pattern for drawing the lines on the piece of wood intended for the pupil's model. Tools used: Knife and file. Rough stock : i piece of pine */ in. by 2^ in. by 12 in. For Grammar Schools. 14 Manual Training Course MODEL HL Frame for a Vine. This frame is made of thin basswood. The up- rights are three narrow pieces fastened together at the base with fine copper wire. The method of joining the parts at the junction of the uprights and cross-piece is termed halving, or half-lap joint, as shown in isometric view, Fig. 4. Inasmuch as this is the pupil's first lesson in draw- ing, he need not attempt to make a drawing of the completed piece, but merely draw two views of the upright as in Fig. 5. After the drawing has been completed, the pupil should be given the material necessary for the part drawn. When the upright pieces are cut out, fastened together and the lower end pointed as shown in the drawing the pupil may make the drawing for the cross-pieces as in Figs. 6 and 7. The pieces should be marked out, cut to the proper length and ends notched, but the joints must not be cut until the pieces are dry and have been removed from the form. Tools used: Try-square, knife and pliers. Rough stock : 3 pieces of basswood ^ in. by ^ in. by 20 in. " " i piece of basswood y& in. by 3/ in. by 12 in. " " i piece of basswood ^ in. by 3^ in. by 7 in. NOTE. For a description of the method of bending wood, see page 30. For Grammar Schools. F,c,.4. Detail of Upright and Cross Piece for Vine Frame tic 1 6 Manual Training Course MODEL IV. Hexagonal Back for Calendar, The hexagon is made of thin basswood and is used as a back for a small calendar. The pupil should make a drawing of this model, showing two views as in Fig. 8. To construct the hexagon, draw a circle 5 in. in diameter, set off the radius around it and join the points, as in Fig. 9. The radius of a circle goes around the circumference as a chord six times. The calendar is fastened to the hexagon with the aid of narrow ribbon. Tools used : Compasses, knife, gimlet or ^ in. bit, and plane, which is used to smooth the edges. Rough stock : i piece of basswood y% in. by $y& in. by s J /8 in. For Grammar Sc/iools. Ficj Q, 1 8 Manual Training Course MODEL V. A Bandilore. The origin of the bandilore is unknown, though some say it was invented to amuse an East Indian princess. It was brought in 1790 from Bengal to England, where it became quite fashionable under the name of Quiz. Moore says that his earliest verses were composed on the use of this toy. The bandilore consists of two discs and a hub, which are joined at the center, and having a string wound between the discs. The player takes one end of the string and allows the bandilore to fall, revolving as the string unwinds. Just before it reaches the end of the string he gives it a quick jerk upwards, and the spin it has acquired will then wind the string in the opposite direction and cause the toy to ascend. The discs are made of thin basswood and the grooved hub between them is of pine. As the circles of this exercise are marked from a pattern which leaves nothing to indicate the centres of discs, it is necessary, before the model can be com- pleted, to lay this aside and take up the next exer- cise. The discs are secured to the hub with the aid of glue and nails. The pupil should make a drawing showing a side view and section, as in Fig. 10. Tools used: Knife, rile, and hammer. Rough stock: 2 pcs.of basswood J/s in. by 4 in. by 4 in. " " i piece of pine YQ in. thick by i in. by i in. Nails: 4, ^ inch nails, No. 20. The Handle for Bandilore. Make drawing of handle, as in Fig. 11, which shows the different stages in the formation of a round. Tools used : Knife, file, and brad-awl. Rough stock:- -\ pee. of poplar y 2 in. by ^ in. by 4 ins. For Grammar Schools. D O O 2O Manual Training Course MODEL VI. A Centering Gauge. The centering-gauge is constructed for the pur- pose of locating the centers of discs in Model No. 5. The drawing should be made full size, and show two views, as in Fig. 12. The method of construct- ing the angle in the stock of the centering-gauge is shown in Fig. 13. The blade is secured to the stock by gluing and nailing with round head brass nails. Tools used. Plane, try-square, compasses, knife, file, saw, awl, and hammer. Rough stock: i piece % in. by 2^ ins. by 6 ins. " " i piece y in. by i in. by 7 ins., pine. Nails: y 2 in. No. 18, round head brass nails.* *Escutcheon pins. For Grammar ScJiools. 21 FTq It. 22 Manual Training Course MODEL VII. A Plumb Rule. The plumb-rule is a narrow board with parallel edges having a straight line drawn through the middle, and a string carrying a metal weight attached at the upper end of the line. It is used by brick- layers, carpenters, etc., for determining a vertical. The metal weight attached to the end of a plumb- line is called a plumb-bob. Level is the term applied to surfaces that are parallel to that of still water or perpendicular to the direction of the plumb-line. The simplest form of a leveling instrument is that of a straight-edge, and plumb-rule united in the form of a letter L; they must be exactly perpendicular to each other, then, when the plumb-rule is vertical the other ruler is horizontal or level. The spirit level shows the exact level by means of a bubble of air. The plumb-rule is a very important tool, and great care should be taken to make it perfectly parallel. The plumb-bob is of lead, and the guard near the base and in front of the cord is of brass wire. Make the drawing half or three-quarter size, show- ing two views, as in Fig. 14. In drawing the parallel lines, which represent the edges of the plumb-rule, use compasses and ruler, and follow the method shown in Fig. 15. Fig. 16 shows the dimensions and shape of the wire guard. For Gramuiar Schools. Plumb Rul. 24 Manual Training Course Use heavy thread for the line. The bob should be of lead and weigh about an ounce. Tools used: Plane, marking-gauge, try-square, compasses, knife, file and pliers. Rough stock: i piece of pine y 2 in. by 2^ ins. by 15 ins. Wire: One piece of No. 19 brass spring wire 2 ins. long. MODEL VIII. A Bench Hook. The bench-hook is a tool similar to that used in the desk-top outfit. In the drawing for this model the pupil should be taught to construct the rectangle with the compasses and ruler as in Fig. 18. Make the drawing half or three quarter size, as in Fig. 17. Tools used: Plane, saw, gimlet, screw-driver and chisel. Rough stock: I piece of pine }& in. by 4 ins. by 8^ ins. " " i piece of pine ^ in. by i^ ins. by 74 ma. Screws: 4 screws ^ in., No. 6. For Grammar Schools. Bench HooK. Rq 18. 26 Manual Training Course MODEL IX. A Window Screen. The drawing of this model, which should be full size, need only show two views as in Fig-. 19. The upright pieces in this frame, as in sash, doors, blinds, and panel work are called stiles, the horizontal pieces are called rails. The method of joining the stiles and rails of this model, by cutting half the depth of the wood away from each, is termed half-lapping, or the half-lap joint. See isometric view of joint in Fig. 20. The manner of joining the stiles and rails of sash, doors, and blinds is known as the mortise and tenon joint. In marking out the lines for the joints gauge from the face side. The face sides should be " in and up" /. i\, next to the wire screen. The joints are screwed from the back with ^ inch screws, No. 5. Before inserting the screws the frame is placed in a small cleated board, and the joints drawn to- gether by means of wedges. The narrow band that covers the edges of the wire screen is mitred at the corners and fastened to the frame with ^ inch nails. Fig. 21 is an isometric view of a section of the band, showing the method of marking out lines for the mitre. Tools used: Plane, try-square, gauge, saw, chisel, gimlet, screw-driver, knife and hammer. For Grammar Schools. 27 Window Sc fl 28 Manual Training Course Rough stock: 2 pieces of pine, ^ in. by i in. by 1 1 ins. " 2 pieces of pine, ^ in. by I in. by 9 ins. 2 pieces of basswood, y& in. by y% in. by 10 ins. " 2 pieces of basswood, j/6 in. by y% in. by 8 ins. Screws: 12 screws ^ inch, No. 5. Nails: 14 nails ^ inch, No. 20. Wire screen. I piece 6S/ Q ins. by 8^ ins. MODEL X. A Key Board. This model is made ot thin basswood and round head brass nails. The drawing may be made of the separate parts as in Figs. 22 and 23, or in the case of the more apt pupils a drawing may be made of the completed piece as in Fig. 24. The curved lines of the arrow head are drawn freehand. After the arrow has been completed, a full-sized drawing of the shield should be made on a separate piece of paper, then this may be cut out and used as a pattern to mark out lines on the wood. The arrow and shield are fastened together with glue and round head brass nails. Tools used: Try-square, compasses, knife, file and hammer. Rough stock: I piece of basswood ^ in. by 3^2 in. by 4^ inches. " " i piece of basswood ^ in. by i ^ ins. by 10*^ ins. Brass Nai/s: 2 round head y 2 in. long, No. 18. 4 " " y% in. long, No. 18. For Grammar Schools. 29 Key Board. Fiej. 24-. 3 Triangle. The 45 triangle is made of the same material as model No. 14. Used for drawing purposes. To construct this triangle, draw line AC, Fig. 33. to equal EF, Fig. 32. Bisect AC in B. With B as a centre and AB as a radius describe a semi-circle. Connect DA and DC, DAC=45. Tools used: Compasses, knife, plane and bit. Rough stock: I piece of maple *<& in. by 4 ins. by 7 ins. In ordering material for the triangles it will be well to furnish a pattern, cut to the right shape, but about y& inch wider and longer than the finished model. For Grammar Schools. 39 Trionql*. 4O Manual Training Course MODEL XVI. A T-Square. The T-square is constructed of the same material as the triangles. The stock is ^ in. by i^ ins. by 6 ins. and the blade is y& in. by i^ ins. by 16 ins. The blade is secured to the stock with the aid of glue and round head brass nails. Tools used: Plane, try-square, gauge, saw, chisel, file, y in. bit, and hammer. Rough stock: i piece of maple ^ in. by \y 2 ins. by \6}/2 ins. " " i piece of maple ^ in. by \y 2 ins. by 6^ ins. Nails: 5, ^ in. brass nails, No. 18. For Grammar Schools, 42 Manual Training Course MODEL XVII. Fancy Box. This model is made of thin basswood. The lines are drawn freehand. The pupil should make a draw- ing showing a view of the side of the box as in Fig. 34, and a section showing position of the bottom as in Fig. 35. An isometric view is shown in Fig. 36. The bottom of the box is made of the same ma- terial as the sides, and is fastened to its place with the aid of four narrow strips of paper and glue. The corners are held together with " baby" ribbon. Tools used: Knife and gimlet. Rough stock: 4 pieces of basswood ^ in. by 4 ins. by 4j^$ ins. " i piece of basswood y& in. by 3^ ins. by 3^ ins. Ribbon: 2^3 yards. For Grammar Schools. 43 Fiq. 34. Ficj 35. 44 Manual Training Coiirse MODEL XVffl. A Sun-Dial. The dial consists of a piece of thin basswood cut out in the form of an octagon ; this is stiffened by means of a cleat fastened to the back. The dial is held to the proper angle by the triangular piece a y Fig. 37. The circumference of the circle on the face of the dial is divided into twenty-four equal parts, numbered from one to twelve, twice over, as in Fig. 38. In the centre is a fixed straight post called a style, which must be perpendicular to the face of the dial. The accuracy of the dial depends on this, and on its being placed so that the style points in the same direction as the earth's axis. This may be brought about by fixing the dial so that the angle between the horizontal line BC, Fig. 37, and the style just equals the latitude of the place. This can be done by finding the latitude on a map, then deducting this from the number of degrees in a right angle gives the angle for the piece a, Fig. 37. The angle may be constructed with the aid of a protractor. The lines for the triangular piece a, Fig. 37, should be drawn on the wood as in Fig. 40. The method of constructing the octagon is shown in Fig. 39. After the model is finished it may be fixed in position. The base must be horizontal, and the dial placed, with the aid of a compass, so that the style points due north. For Grammar Schools. 45 Fig ,33 Fig. ,38 46 Manual Training Course Another method of finding the proper angle, and fixing the dial in position, is to drill a small hole through the plate, close to the style, and then, on a clear night, the dial is so placed that by looking through this hole the north star is brought into line with the style. " With warning hand I mark time's rapid flight From life's glad morning to the solemn night ; Yet, through the dear God's love. I also show There's light above me by the shade below." j. G. w. Sun-dials are now seldom met with, though in some parts of Europe we may still occasionally see one fixed to the south side of an old church or stand- ing as an ornament in the garden, but at one time were much more common, and before clocks were invented were almost the only means of measuring time with any approach to accuracy. The instru- ment has been in use from the earliest times. The Hebrews were acquainted with it at least seven cen- turies before the Christian era. In the book of Isaiah we find mention of the sun-dial, "Behold I will bring again the shadow of the degrees, which is gone down in the sun-dial of Ahaz, ten degrees backward. So the sun returned ten degrees, by which degrees it was gone down " ISAIAH xxxviii : 8. In England down as late as the seventeenth cen- tury no mathematical treatises were so common as those on dialling. The dial, of course, labors under the disadvantage of not being of any use in cloudy weather or after sunset. For Grammar Schools. 47 It registers only the hours of sunshine, and hence in very early times it was customary to calculate the hours of night from some prominent star. Arago tells us that the Abbot of Cluny consulted the stars when he wished to know the time for midnight pray- ers ; at other times a monk remained awake, and in order to measure the lapse of time, repeated certain psalms, having learnt by experiment how many he could say in an hour. There was also a kind of water clock called Clepsydra (watcr-stealer), which was a vase filled with water with a small opening in the bottom through which the water dripped drop by drop into a vessel beneath, which was thus said to steal the water. The side of the vase was divided into spaces by lines, and the height of the water in it marked the time. Instruments like our hour-glasses were also used, in which the time was measured by the running out of sand. King Alfred, the Great, is said to have marked time by the gradual burning down of candles col- ored in rings. Tools used: Compasses, knife, plane, try-square, file, brad-awl, gimlet and hammer. Rough stock: i piece of basswood % in. by 7 ins. by 7 ins. " " i piece of pine ^ in. by 5^ ins. by 5^5 ins. 3 pieces of pine ^ in. by i in. by 7*/2 ins. Nails: 1 / 2 inch, No. 20, and ^ inch, No. 18. 4 8 Manual Training Course HALF-ROUND FILE. SOCKET FIRMER CHISEL. TANG FIRMER CHISEL. For Grammar Schools. 49 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS. Measuring Role. The rule is a straight piece of wood, twelve inches long, and graduated to eighths and sixteenths. It serves as a guide in drawing straight lines, and measuring off short distances. The English foot (in use in the United States) contains 12 inches and is equal to 30.48 centimeters. It seems to have lengthened since the time of Henry VII. The feet in use in different countries before the introduction of the metric system, varied from 9 to 21 inches. The standard is kept at Washington and was copied from the English standard which is kept at London. In teaching pupils the use of the rule in measuring' and marking off tlieir work, be careful to impress them, that in any undertaking, preparation is an important factor in arriving at accuracy to refrain from guessing and all guess work. Lowell has told us, that " Folks that worked thorough was the folks that thiiv, But bad work follers ye ez long's ye live. Ye can't get rid on't just as sure as sin, Its allers askin' to be done agin." 50 Manual Training Course Planes. The plane is a tool for smoothing, truing and fin- ishing woodwork. The essential parts of a plane are a stock or frame of wood -or metal, having a smooth, concave or convex sole or face, and a throat in which is placed a steel cutter called the cutter or bit. Various devices are used to keep the cutter in position in the stock, the most simple being a wedge oi wood. Planes are made in a great variety of shapes and sizes, and range in size from 3 to 30 inches in length. Nearly all are distinguished by names having refer- ence to the 'particular kind of work for which they are designed, as the smoot king-plane, jack-plane, fore- plane, jointer-plane, block-plane and a great variety of planes for forming mouldings, etc. The Japanese planes are small with no handles. The planes are shorter, lighter, and the stock shal- lower than ours, being generally not more than one inch deep. To plane a piece of wood they lay it on the ground, squat down, "hold it fast with their toes, and work the plane by drawing it with both hands toward them. Some of their tools appear to be mere children's toys; for instance they have a smoothing plane two and one-half inches long, one inch broad, and half an inch thick. Block Plane. This tool is used chiefly for pilaning across the ends of boards, or of blocks (across the grain) and in For Grammar Schools. 51 fitting close joints. On small work, if the wood is soft and straight grained, the block-plane may be used as a smoothing-plane for planing with the grain. The pitch of the cutter is less than in ordinary bench planes, and the cutter is used with the bevel uppermost at the cutting edge, to further aid in cut- ting across the grain of the wood. The cutter is clamped in place by means of the lever which is attached to cap. The pressure exerted by this lever is regulated by turning the slotted screw, near lower end of cap. To release cap and cutter move lever to the right. The lever, when in position to hold the cutter to its place, should be parallel with side of plane. It sometimes happens in replacing cutter and cap, that difficulty is experienced in bringing the lever back to its proper position. This is usually because the tooth on inner end of lower lever has not found its place in the groove on underside of cutter. The thickness of shaving is regulated by means of the thumb-screw and lever beneath the upper end 52 Manual Training Course of cutter. Turning the thumb-screw to the left forces the cutter down, turning to the right draws it up. The long lever, immediately beneath the cutter, is for adjusting the cutter sidewise, to set the cutting edge parallel with the sole or face of plane. The opening in the sole of plane is called the throat. The width of the throat is regulated by aid of the eccentric plate under the brass knob. By moving the eccentric plate to the right or to the left the throat can be closed or opened as coarse or fine work may require. A single turn of the knob will loosen or fasten the plate. For ordinary work the throat should be about T V of an inch wide. For cross- grained wood, the space should be as small as will permit of free passage for shavings. If throat of plane becomes clogged, take it apart, never attempt to remove chips or shavings by pushing them out. Try Square. The try-square consists of a thin blade of steel with parallel edges, fitted and riveted in and at right angles to the stock. The stock is generally a piece of rosewood or cast-iron shorter than the blade. The size of squares are reckoned by the length in inches of the blade. The most important point in the construction of a square is the right angle between the stock and blade. Try-squares are very frequently ruined by For Grammar Schools. 53 using them to drive tacks, or brads, and by dropping, which "knocks them out of square." To test a square let the broad side of the blade rest on the plane surface of a board, and the stock against a perfectly straight edge. Draw a fine line across the board and along the outer edge of the blade. The square is then reversed, the stock is placed as before, and t,he edge of blade is placed close to the line previously made. Another line is then drawn along the edge of blade as before. If this line is perfectly parallel with that made first, the square is true. The try-square is used for describing right angles, and testing the truth of work. The square was re- garded in ancient times as the sign of perfection. In giving the application and uses, of the square, the teacher might depict the beauty of truth in every relation in life, (i) at home, (2) in school, (3) in business. Show how embarrassment and loss are caused 1>y hastiness and carelessness of truth. Compasses. Is an instrument for describing circles, or for measuring figures, distances between two points, etc. Also called dividers. Knife, The pocket knife is a very important tool and one of the first to be placed in the hands of a beginner. It is, therefore, important to select one of the best quality, and it should have two blades. 54 Manual Training Course The knife, which requires a stiff edge, must be held when sharpening on an oilstone at an angle of 20 or 25. Should the blade be laid flat on the stone the edge is made too thin, and consequently the edge will appear brittle or become dull very quickly. The joints should be oiled occasionally, as they are liable to become rough and hollow, thereby caus- ing the points of the blades to protrude. File. A steel instrument for smoothing surfaces, and having raised cutting edges (teeth) made by the in- dentions of a chisel. Files are mentioned in I Samuel, xiii : 21, 1093 B. C. " They had a file for the mattocks, and for the coulters, and for the forks, and for the axes, and to sharpen the goads." Files are graded by shape, 'size, and by fineness of cut. The shape or stvle of file is distinguished by cer- tain technical names, as, for instance, flat, round, half- round, three-square, &c. The terms single cut, double cut, and rasp have ref- erence to the character of the teeth. The terms rough, coarse, bastard, 2nd cut and smooth have reference only to the coarseness of the teeth. The rough and coarse are adapted to files used upon soft metals, as lead, pewter, &c., and, to some extent, upon wood. For Grammar Schools. 55 Files having two courses of chisel cuts crossing each other are called double cut. The length of files is always measured exclusively of their tang. The file selected for the desk top outfit is known as a double cut, half round. The approximate number qf cuts in an inch of file varies from 56, in the 4 inch rough, to 216 cuts in the 4 inch superfine. The Back Saw. This saw is used for cutting across the fibres, and only for light, fine work. To stiffen the blade, its upper edge is enclosed in an iron back. The handle is of apple-wood. The size of saw teeth is expressed by the number of points teeth points contained in an inch. Cross-Cut Saw. The cross-cut saw is designed for cutting across the fibres, and in order to prevent pinching or bind- ing, it divides each fibre in two places at once, leaving a path or "kerf" for the blade to run in and the ma- terial to fall out through. If you undertook to divide a board in two cross- wise by successive knife-cuts, you would soon find the necessity for having a groove at least as wide as the thickness of the blade; and this could be accom- plished only by severing each fibre twice; making 56 Manual Training Course two parallel cuts between which the material was removed to leave the kerf. Every other tooth of the cross-cut saw is beveled to right and to left so as to help make the right hand or the left hand score. The filing should be so accurate that a needle could be slid along the groove left between or formed by the beveled tooth edges. It is the outside edge of each tooth that does the cutting. Rip-Saw. The rip-saw is used for cutting in the direction of the length of the fibres. The angle of the teeth is more acute than that of the cross-cut saw, and filed straight across, or when filing the file is held at right angles to the blade. The teeth of the rip-saw are like a series of narrow chisels, and if we should attempt to use it as a cross-cut saw to cut across a thin board it would tear and destroy the wood. History of the Saw. Saws of the bronze age have been discovered in Germany and Denmark. The metal was cast thin, and probably was notched on the edge by chipping and grinding. Saws of the stone age were made by setting flakes of flint in wooden handles and securing with mineral pitch. The saw is a very old device, as old as a knife with a ragged edge. The ancient Egyptian blade was of bronze, at- For Grammar Schools. 57 tached to the handles by leathern thongs and was single handed. Some of the blades, however, are set into the handles with tangs, like our case-knives. Japanese saws are shaped like butchers' cleavers. The handle is flattish, as if whittled out of a piece of inch board ; the shank of the saw is driven into the handle, and the whole is secured by being wrapped with fine split cane. The metal of the saw is about the substance of our saws, but the teeth are nar- rower, giving more of them to an inch and much longer. The teeth are pointed toward the handle. When a Japanese wants to rip a plank, he places it across anything which will elevate the end a few inches, then stands on the wood and cuts by seizing the cleaver-looking saw in both hands, and pulling it toward him, working it by short, quick, up-strokes. Formerly the larger portion of our saws came from Sheffield, England, but Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cincinnati and other places make them of the best quality and from American steel of American iron. Making a saw involves the following processes ; 1. Cutting out the blade from the sheet. 2. Toothing with a press and appropriately formed dies. 3. Hardening by plunging while heated in an oil bath. In this state the metal is extremely brittle. 4. Tempering and straightening ; the latter is effected by hammering on an anvil or by compress- ing several blades, while hot, between two dies worked by a hydraulic press. 58 Manual Training Course 5. Grinding and polishing with emery-powder. 6. Filing and setting the teeth. 7. Reheating to restore the elasticity lost in tem- pering. 8. Removing the scale by immersion, first in dilute acid, and afterwards in alkali to remove the acid. 9. The handle is attached and the blade tested. Brad Awl. The simplest form of boring tool is the awl. It consists of a piece of small steel rod, with one end fastened in a wooden handle, and the other doubly beveled to a sharp edge. The use of the awl is to prepare holes for the admission of nails and screws. Its greatest drawback is the ease with which the awl may be broken. When holes are to be bored with the brad-awl, the edge should be placed across the grain of the wood. Hammer. A tool for driving nails, beating metal and the like. The hammer selected for the desk top is known as a riveting hammer. It is used by both metal and wood workers for light work. Tools of metal, of which the hammer was among the first, must have been in use for many centuries. Tubal Cain, the descendant in the sixth generation For Grammar Schools. 59 from Cain, was an "artificer in brass and iron"; cop- per, probably, rather than brass. Brass and bronze are not distinguished from each other by name, either in Greek or Latin. The first form was perhaps a stone fastened to a handle, many such are found in the relics of the stone age, before man had learned the use of metal. In the Bible we read of hammers for nails, forg- ing, and for breaking stone. Modern hammers are of many shapes and kinds. The parts are the handle and head. The latter has an eye, face, peen, or claw. Nail Set. The nail-set, or punch as it is sometimes called, is simply a piece of tapering steel, used with the hammer to drive the heads of nails below the surface of the wood they are in. To avoid slipping, the point is made hollow. Nail-sets with hollow points are the best. Several sizes are made to suit the various nails. Chisel. An edged tool for cutting wood. It is operated by striking its upper end with a mallet or by press- ure. Mr. Burton, an Englishman, found at Thebes, and deposited in the British Museum, a carpenter's basket and a kit of tools which have survived their owner some thirty centuries. 60 Manual Training Course Chisels of early Egypt were of bronze, the handles of tamarisk. In some cases the blades were attached by thongs to the handles. The knife must be regarded as the primary tool, and the chisel as a strong knife sharpened and pre- sented endwise. The chisels and gouges of the Tahitians when first discovered were of bone, generally that of a man's arm between the wrist and elbow. The bone tools disappeared in a few years after the advent of the white man. The chisel used in this course is y% inch wide and known as a tang firmer chisel and should be used only for fine work. The handle is made of apple- wood. Carpenters use other, and heavier chisels, one kind is known as the socket firmer, and the other as a mortise chisel. The socket-firmer is employed in all kinds of carpenter work. The mortise Chisel is made much heavier than the socket firmer, and is used in connection with the mallet for making mortises. Marking Gauge. The gauge is a tool for marking on the work lines parallel to the edge. The gauge consists of two pieces of wood, the stem or beam and the stock or head with a thumb-screw in the latter, which when tightened, holds the head firmly in any desired posi- For Grammar Schools. 61 tion on the beam. The spur is a piece of steel wire fitted in the beam, the cutting or marking end being filed to a wedge, the side farthest from the head should be straight, and as nearly as possible parallel to the side of the head. The inner side of the spur should be slightly rounded. When both sides of the spur are filed straight across or parallel to side of the head, the tendency of the gauge is to run off or make poor lines. With a properly filed and adjusted spur the gauge should act easily and make clean lines. The spur should only project sufficiently to produce a line clear enough to work by, otherwise it will not be suitable for accurate work. Pliers. A small pair of pinchers with jaws flat on the inner side (called flat jawed pliers), which are "file cut" to enable them to take fast hold of small pieces of metal to be filed, bent, etc. The knife-like edges on one side are intended for cutting wire, or a narrow strip of thin metal. Pliers with peculiarly shaped or proportioned jaws are called round-nosed pliers, long-nosed pliers, cutting pliers, etc. Gimlet. The gimlet of the Greeks had the cross-head or handle of the style now in common use. The earliest specimens found, are of the hollow pod style, with- 62 Manual Training Course out the screw point, and it demanded a large ex- penditure of muscle. In course of time the screw point was added. The twisted or spiral form of gimlet is an Ameri- can invention. The screw point serves to give a hold at first, and gradually to draw the tool deeper into the work. In boring holes with the gimlet near the edge or in thin wood, it is best to use very little pressure, and to give a quick movement to the handle. " Crowding " the gimlet is very likely to split the work. Clamp. A device for temporarily holding the parts of a piece of work while being operated upon. Also for holding glued joints while the glue is hardening. The style of clamp used in desk top outfit is made of malleable iron and is quite strong. Sandpaper. This is a stout paper coated with hot glue and then sprinkled with sharp sand of different degrees of fineness. The different grades are designated as ooo, oo, o, ^, i, i^, 2, 2^/2, and 3. The latter num- ber is very coarse. Glasspaper is fine kind of sandpaper made of powdered glass. For Grammar Schools. 63 NOTES ON WOODS USED IN DESK TOP COURSE, White Pine. This is the most useful and indispensable tree of the American forests, affording a timber of greatest value for many uses, as for finishing, interior work, doors, sash, blinds, clapboards, shingles, and is used in pattern making because of the comparatively small degree to which it shrinks and swells owing to changes in the atmosphere. It is found from Newfoundland to the Winnipeg River, southward through the northern states and along the Allegheny Mountains to Georgia. Its finest growth is in the region of the great lakes. The wood is soft, light, compact, and easily worked. It contains very little resin. The tall, straight trunks of the pine extend up- wards perhaps a hundred feet to a limb, thence sky- ward, with a crown of dark evergreen foliage, graceful and majestic. Basswood (Lime, Linden). Basswood is found throughout a wide range of the United States and Europe, and has many vari- eties. In some localities it is called linden, and lime- tree. It grows to a magnificent size, bearing smooth, heart-shaped leaves, and having fragrant flowers 64 Manual Training Course which are favorites with the bees. The foliage is dense, and in Europe it is used very extensively for ornamental planting. In Russia the inner bark of the basswood is made into textile fabrics, cordage, and the like. The wood is yellowish-white, soft and light, but moderately close-grained and tough. It is used in cabinet work and for the panels of carriages. Tulip Tree (Poplar, White Wood), This wood is quite variable in weight, usually light, soft, stiff, but not strong, of fine texture and yellowish color; the wood shrinks considerably, but seasons without much injury, works and stands well. In some localities it is used for siding, for panelling and finishing lumber in house, car and ship building, for side-boards and panels of wagons and carriages : also in the manufacture of furniture, implements, and machinery, for pump-logs, and almost every kind of common wooden ware, boxes, drawers, etc. An ideal wood for the carver and toyman. It grows to a large size, and is found from New England to Missouri and southward to Florida. The cucumber tree resembles and is often con- founded with tulip wood in the markets. The Ash, The ash is a rapid grower, and is found in almost all our broad-leaved forests. The wood is heavy, hard, For Grammar Schools. 65 strong, stiff, quite tough, not durable in contact with soil, straight-grained, rough on the split surface, and coarse in texture. Takes a good finish. In carpentry ash is used for finishing lumber, used in shipbuilding, in the construction of cars, wagons, carriages, etc. ; in the manufacture of farm imple- ments, machinery and furniture of all kinds, and also for barrels, baskets, oars, and ball-bats. The* wood of second-growth white ash has, per- haps, no equal for lightness, elasticity and strength. The black ash grows chiefly in swamps through- out the eastern, northern, and north-western states. The wood is not so valuable as that of the white ash. Cherry, The lumber furnishing cherry of this country, wild black cherry, is a medium sized tree scattered through many of the broad-leaved woods of the west- ern slope of the Alleghenies, and is also found from Michigan to Florida and west to Texas. In a rich soil it grows rapidly and forms one of the most valued of our native woods. It almost equals mahogany, which it in some degree resembles when darkened by age. It is chiefly used for finishing lumber for buildings, cars, and boats, also for furniture. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture, color reddish brown. It works and stands well, takes a good polish, and is much esteemed for its beauty. 66 Manual Training Course Black Walnut. Walnut wood is heavy, hard, strong-, of coarse texture ; the sapwood is whitish, the heartwood choco- late-brown. It works and stands well, takes a good polish, is quite handsome, and has been for a long time the favorite cabinet-wood in this country. Wal- nut, formerly used even for fencing and railroad ties, has become scarce and too costly for ordinary pur- poses, and is to-day used largely as a veneer, for inside finish and cabinet work ; also in turnery, for gunstocks, etc. Black walnut is a large tree, with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and was formerly quite abundant throughout the Allegheny region, occurring from New England to Texas and from Michigan to Florida. Maple. Wood heavy, strong, stiff, and tough, of fine text- ure, frequently wavy-grained, this giving rise to "curly" and "blister" figure; not durable in the ground or otherwise exposed. Maple is creamy white, with shades of brown in the heart, wears smoothly and takes a fine polish. The wood is used for ceiling, flooring, pannelling, and other finishing- lumber in house, ship, and car construction; it is used for the keels of boats and ships, in the manu- facture of implements and machinery, and for furni- ture. Maple is also used for shoe lasts and other form-blocks, for shoe-pegs, for piano actions, school apparatus, for wood type in show-bill printing, tool For Grammar Schools. 67 handles, in wood carving and turnery. The maples are medium-sized trees and of fairly rapid growth. The sugar-maple is sometimes called hard-maple and rock-maple. The silver maple is often called soft-maple. The wood of this tree is lighter, softer and inferior to hard-maple. HISTORY OF WOOD SCREWS. According to " Tomlinson's Cyclopedia " volume IV, 1852, "the blanks for (wood) screws were for- merly forged by the nail makers, they being nearly the same as the countersunk clout nails, except that the ends are not pointed. The blanks were next made out of round rolled iron cut to the required lengths, the heads being formed by pinching them while red-hot between a pair of dies, and the threads were cut by means of a file." The screws referred to in the foregoing were doubtless blunt-pointed, but gimlet-pointed screws were undoubtedly made as early as 1755. "Gimlet-Pointed Wood Screws. Mechanics of adult age can easily remember when gimlet-pointed screws came into use, within the last thirty years, superseding the blunt pointed ones before used, and the former have been considered a modern inven- tion. But we have seen this morning a half dozen .screws with excellent gimlet points which were taken 68 Manual Training Course from an old piano and bear unmistakable evidences of age and of having been made before screws were made by machinery. The piano is inscribed 'Jacobus Kirckman, Fecit, Londini, 1755' and the screws are doubtless of that date. The most curious point in the case is that after such screws as these had once been made mechanics should have gone on using square pointed screws for nearly a century. ( Worcester Gazette?) " The earliest known pub- lic exhibit of gimlet-pointed wood screws in this country was that on a sample card of wood screws made by Japy Freres, Beaucourt, France, imported by Messrs. Fish, Grinnell & Co., for the late Jonathan Congdon, Esq., hardware merchant, of Pro- vidence, R.I. These screws may have been produced in France upon American machinery, which was sent in 1835 from Poughkeepsie, BLUNT POINTED . T T T , SCREW. N. \ ., to Japy rreres. GIMLET-POINTED SCREW. In United States patent No. 154, of March 30,. 1837, granted Sloat (of Ramapo, New York), and Springsteen (of Poughkeepsie, New York), for a For Grammar ScJwols. 69 wood screw threading machine, are the following words : " So that the screw may be made a gradual taper or all the way of a size, or give it an acute taper at the point, making what we call ' gimlet points ' or any other shape desired." It may, therefore, be conclusively stated that gim 1 - let-pointed screws are extremely old, and that the inventor of them has never as yet been named, although many special forms of gimlet points for screws have been invented and patented in the United States and elsewhere during the past sixty years. NAILS. In the beginning of the nineteenth century nails were ordinarily manufactured by hand forging, usually by women and children. Nail machinery originated and developed chiefly in the United States. This was a natural result of the universal use of wood for buildings. In the old hand-working days some of the nail- makers became, through constant practice, very expert at the trade. It is on record that a workman in Smethwick, England, made in two weeks 40800 nails. To accomplish this wonderful feat he had to heat his nail iron 42836 times, to weld together large numbers of short bits of iron and to strike each nail 25 blows. /o Manual Training Course Steel wire nails which have taken the place of cut nails are a French invention. They have great hold- ing power, though they are light and smooth. The old English term " penny," as applied to nails, is understood to mean a certain number of pounds to the thousand nails, as, for example, "six penny" means 6 pounds to the thousand nails ; " ten penny " means 10 pounds to the thousand nails. The term " penny " when used to mark the size of nails is sup- posed to be a corruption of the word " pound." For Grammar Schools. EC h-> J5 9C 00 -4 a Ol if* B9 <* H-> i v cc C^ -' l i ^"i i c fi :5 -^ QC oc 55 *- rx c; ?c O ic ic v. 5: *- in -,c i I- 1 - O SK *- 5C-I35 i' -I35 i'trf-iC i< Ii *- -< -.-_:_ " J2 r- C.^3^1. |g8S8SSfc8881SSS ee ~f Ws iK 1582 ' O ^J O5 ; i5JC_ii gSfeS^Sre iS S S_w_S S5r28g5SSS 3S SKSSSgt;sss n S tgsggSSSSSsao ^'jr S-n-3- = Ot ex O OO I OS O"^- . M O;SK*-M ; _;::: ,*.--.- ii 2 G 3 TI 00 ffi O *a 3 S O CONTENTS. Description of the Desk Top, 3-5 Introduction, ... 6-7 Awl, - 58 Ash, - 64 Basswood, - - - - 63 Back Saw, 55 Black Walnut, - 66 Cherry, - - - - 65 Chisel. - 59 " Tang and Socket Firmer, 48 Clamp, - - - - - 62 Compasses, - - - -53 Cross-cut Saw, - 55 Emery Cloth, File, ' - - - 48 Files, - 54 Gimlet, '- - - - 61 Glasspaper, 62 Glue, 8 Hammer, - - 58 Knife, - - 53 Lead Pencil, 8 Lumber, How to order, - 7 Marking Gauge, - - 60 Maple, - - - - 66 Measuring Rule, 49 Nail Set, - 59 Nails, How to order, - 8 " Number per Pound, - 71 Nails, - 69 Planes, ... - 50 Plane, Description of the Block, - 50-52 Pliers, 61 Pine, - - - 63 Poplar, - - - - - 64 Rip Saw, - - - 56 Rust (see Emery Cloth), - 8 Sandpaper, - 62 .... 8 Screws, How to order, - 8 Screw, History of the, - 67-69 Saw, History of the, - 56-58 Try Square, - - - - 52 Model I. Flower Pot Stand, II. A Form, III. A Frame for a Vine, - IV. Hexagonal Back for a Calendar, V. Bandilore, VI. Centering Gauge, - VII. Plumb- Rule, VIII. Bench Hook, IX. Window Screen, X. Key Board, .... XI. Nail Box, - XII. Winding Strips, XIII. Wall Bracket, XIV. 30 and 60 Triangle, XV. 45 Triangle, XVI. T- Square, .... XVII. A Fancy Box, - XVIII. Sun Dial, 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 037 276 3