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 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, | 
 
 IN THREE BOO. 
 THE NEW SCIENCE 
 
 CONSTRUCTIVE PRINCIPLES 
 
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 THE ENGLISH LANGUAi 
 
 BY J 
 
 
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AN 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 IN THREE BOOKS. 
 
 DEVELOPING 
 
 THE NEW SCIENCE, 
 
 MADE UP OF TH08E 
 
 r.QNSTTftyiJiyft tfJJMpIPLES 
 
 WHICH FORM A SURE GUIDE IN USING 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 
 
 BUT WHICH ARE NOT FOUND IN THE OLD THEORY OP 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Is it not far better to teach true, important principles, than /«&<?, 
 unimportant ones? 
 
 BY JAMES BROWN, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "THE EXEGESIS OP THE TRUE WAT 07 ANALYZING WORDS, AND CON- 
 STRUCTIONS OF DIFFICULT RESOLUTION," "THE FIR8T, AND THE SECOND 
 BOUND IN THE LADDER OF EDUCATION," AND "THE APPEAL FROM 
 THE OLD THEORY OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, TO THE TRUE CON- 
 STRUCTIVE GENIUS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE." 
 
 BOOK a I. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY JOHN T. LANGE, 24 S. SECOND ST. 
 
 1849. 
 
 * 
 
B3UCA2iQ14Jfcft. 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, by 
 
 JAMES BROWN, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Eastern District of 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 tdJU^^^' £y*A**-p 
 
JU-u 
 PREFACE. 
 
 L. of**, 
 
 No stream can rise higher than its source. A writer upon 
 the subject of grammar cannot avoid showing, in the very 
 construction of his periods, his qualifications, or his want of 
 qualifications, to form a grammar for the language in which 
 he writes his book. 
 
 If he who attempts to form a guide to a certain science, 
 violates the principles of the science in the construction of 
 his guide, what confidence can be placed in his rule ? If 
 they who have undertaken to improve the old British system 
 of English grammar, as presented by L. Murray ■, have vio- 
 lated the very principles of English grammar, in almost 
 every sentence which they have formed, what confidence can 
 be reposed in their overgrown pretensions ? 
 
 And, as the author of a grammar evinces, in the very con- 
 struction of his sentences, ability, or a want of ability, to 
 form a grammar, so he who recommends the book, shows, 
 in the construction of his periods, a qualification, or a want 
 of qualification, to judge of its merits. 
 
 Recommendations, as means for securing the sale, and 
 adoption of a work, have lost much of their former efficacy. 
 Whether the people have become better qualified to judge 
 for themselves; or whether they have been jaded out by 
 constant eulogy upon the same subject, may be decided by 
 the pertinacity with which grammar menders have pursued 
 them for almost thirty years. That a desire for grammar 
 making has long been rampant in this country, is obvious 
 from the countless number of books on the subject of gram- 
 mar mending. 
 
 For years it has been pretended by the many who wish 
 to figure upon title pages, that Murray is in rags ! He has 
 been almost the only subject of their compassion for a long 
 time ! Grammar menders surround him in shoals. Some 
 have darned his stockings, — some have new-heeled them, — 
 others, new-toed them ! They have continued in this way 
 
 \ 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 forty years, — indeed, till they have made Murray a perfect 
 show ! ! Every stitch which is taken in coat, or vest, hose, 
 or pants, is submitted to all distinguished seamsters, and 
 seamstresses, far, and near. And, in due time, and form, 
 these come forward in praise of the masterly manner in 
 which Murray has been mended! I He has been mended 
 up so neatly, and thoroughly, by Mr. Greenleaf, by Mr. Kirk- 
 ham, by Mr. Izigersoll, by Mr. Comly, or by the Rev. Dr. 
 Somebody, that he is not only tidy enough to go into our 
 common schools, and academies, but even into our colleges ! 
 Thus Murray, in his patched habiliments, has been hawked 
 from place to place, for years, under the various names of 
 the numerous menders of his wardrobe ! In some instances, 
 he is called Greenleaf, in some Kirkham, in some Goold 
 Brown, and, within a few months, this learned, and meek 
 old Quaker has appeared under the titular cognomen of the 
 Reverend Doctor Bullions ! 
 
 Conscious of an unwillingness in the people to give any 
 more encouragement to grammar mending, Mr. Bullions 
 attempts to beguile them, in a few siceet-toned periods, to 
 smile upon his book. And, was it not for the numerous in- 
 terruptions produced by his grammatical obliquities, his 
 warbling would equal that of the glades themselves. His 
 manner, as exhibited in his Preface, is admirably well cal- 
 culated to produce an assuagement of irritated feeling. 
 Ulysses, and Orpheus did escape the music of the Sirens. — 
 But there has been no Ohte to forewarn our literati — hence, 
 I believe, not one has passed the fatal coast alive ! But I 
 feel it my duty to do to the unlettered, what Oirce did to 
 Ulysses. I shall attempt to caution them, not only against 
 the bewitching notes of the author himself, but against all 
 the sweet harmony which is made by the large choir that 
 chants the merits of his patch-work. 
 
 The following is the first sentence of the Preface : 
 " A knowledge of English Grammar is very properly considered 
 an indispensable part of an English education; and is now taught, 
 as such, in all our Academies and Common Schools." 
 
 I shall speak of but one of the several errors which mar 
 this sentence. 
 
 1. What is very properly considered an indispensable part 
 of an English education ? 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 Knowledge. Very well. 
 
 2. What is now taught, " as such," in all our Academies, 
 and Common Schools? 
 
 Knowledge! 
 
 3. But knowledge is taught as what ? 
 
 Knowledge is taught as an indispensable part of an Eng- 
 lish education \ 
 
 4. John, do you attend school now ? 
 " Yes, sir." 
 
 5. What are you studying ? 
 " The English brandies." 
 
 6. Are you more fond of one branch than another ? 
 "I think knowledge is a very interesting branch !" 
 
 The Murray mender who speaks of teaching knowledge, 
 deserves a patch, or two himself ! 
 
 The learned author's sentence comprises thirty words. But 
 the following, which expresses all that he intends, contains 
 but nineteen words 1 
 
 English Grammar is now taught in all our Academies, and 
 Common Schools, as an indispensable branch of English 
 Htudies. 
 
 This sentence promises little support to the high reputa- 
 tion which the author's admirers have endeavoured to give 
 him, and his work. But although these gentlemen speak in 
 an unusual strain of panegyric ; yet their own periods are so 
 often, and badly marred by gross solecisms, that their opin- 
 ions will not only not induce the people to think highly of 
 the Doctor, and his book, but will compel them to think less 
 highly of his friends ! 
 
 I cannot believe that Dr. Bullions is capable of using the 
 English Language with propriety — much less do I believe 
 that he is capable of writing an English Grammar having 
 the rare merits which these gentlemen have ascribed to his 
 book. 
 
 Mr. Bullions would be considered culpably ignorant of tho 
 English Language even did he make no pretensions to skill 
 in Grammar. 
 
 I find the following sentence in his English Grammar : 
 
 "These terms are generally derived from the Greek, or Latin, 
 probably because these Languages being now dead, and their words 
 
 a2 
 
Tl PREFACE. 
 
 consequently not liable to change, are considered, for this reason, a 
 better source than any other, for words of this description." (Page 
 202.) 
 
 The mono, for this reason, is nothing but a repetition of 
 the long clause, " because tliese languages being now dead, 
 and their words consequently, not liable to change." 
 
 Where does Mr. Bullions find authority for the use of the 
 syllabane, a these languages ! ?" 
 
 What languages are " these languages ?" 
 
 Why, the Latin, or Greek ! ! ! I saw Stephen or John 
 when they were returning from school ! ! ! 
 
 Nor is this all. 
 
 " Are considered a better source for words." 
 
 Do we say source for, or source of? 
 
 I understand the source for this mischief! Is this 
 English ? 
 
 This sentence is replete with errors — but I shall not at- 
 tempt to expose any more of them. 
 
 The sentence which stands in juxtaposition with this, reads 
 as follows — 
 
 "The convenience and utility of such terms, are universally 
 acknowledged, and they are preferred to other equivalent terms 
 in common use in the language, because having no other meaning 
 nor use than what belong;? to them as technical terms, whenever 
 they are used, every person who understands the science knows 
 precisely what is meant." 
 
 I do not intend to exhaust the subject of error in this 
 sentence. This is not the place for me to dilate upon the 
 obliquities of those who are endeavouring to heal the exter- 
 nal sores which are the legitimate result of carious bones, 
 and vitiated blood. Although I do not intend to do any 
 thing with the spungy thought, and the rugged surface of 
 this sentence ; yet I may be allowed to ask whence the au- 
 thority for the use of nor, and than ! f I saw no other man 
 than John ! 
 
 Does not every school-boy know that where than is pro- 
 perly used, it is placed after some word of the comparative 
 degree ? 
 
 1. "I who am less than the least of all saints." 
 
 2. Is one man better by nature than another ? 
 
 3. Bullion's Grammar is worse than Goold Brown's. 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 " Because having no other meaning nor use titan what be- 
 longs to them as technicals \" 
 
 Because having neither meaning, nor use except what be- 
 longs to them as technicals. 
 
 Under page 114, Mr. Bullions has made a Rule to justify 
 the use of tJian after other ! 
 
 " Rule XXII. The comparative degree and the pronoun other 
 require than after them ; as, Greater than I ; No other than he. 
 
 The part of this rule, which relates to than, has no basis 
 in the genius of the English language. The instance, given 
 by Mr. Bullions, in exemplification of this part of the ltule, 
 is not English. 
 
 Grammar, says Mr. Bullions, is both a science and an 
 art. 
 
 "As an art, grammar teaches the right method of applying 
 these principles to a particular language, so as thereby to express 
 our thoughts in a correct, and proper, manner, according to esta- 
 blished usage." 
 
 This sentence is certainly a curiosity. Short as it is, it 
 comprises seventeen redundant words. The sentence has 
 thirty-three words — and every idea which is expressed by the 
 thirty-three, is expressed by the following sixteen : 
 
 "As an art, it (grammar) teaches the right method of 
 applying these principles to a particular language." 
 
 "So as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct, and proper 
 manner, according to established usage!" 
 
 The syllabane, the right method of applying these princi- 
 ples to language, exhausts the subject of accuracy. 
 
 " So as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and proper 
 manner." 
 
 What is gained by the use of proper ? Do not correct, 
 and proper mean the same thing ! ? And as grammar is 
 established usage with reference to language, what good re- 
 sults from the use of the syllabane, "according to established 
 usage T* 
 
 The sentence is substantially this — 
 
 As an art, grammar teaches the right method of apply- 
 ing the principles of grammar to a particular language, so 
 as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and proper 
 manner, according to the establislied principles of gram- 
 mar ! ! 
 
VHl PREFACE. 
 
 I will now repeat the sentence, upon parts of which, I 
 have already made a few reflections : 
 
 " The convenience and utility of such terms are universally ac- 
 knowledged, and they are preferred co other equivalent terms in 
 common use in the language, becaiut having no other meaning nor 
 use than what belongs to them as technical terms, whenever they 
 are used, every person who understands the science, knows pre- 
 cisely what is meant." (Fifty-four words.) 
 
 Ten of the words which belong to this sentence, express 
 ideas that have a direct connection with the first period in 
 this chapter. The chapter is commenced with the follow- 
 ing sentence. 
 
 " GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE." 
 "Every science, and every art has its particular nomenclature, 
 or vocabulary of technical terms, which are employed for the pur- 
 pose of expressing technically its leading materials, facts, princi- 
 ples, divisions, &c."— (Twenty-nine words.) 
 
 The legitimate commencement of this sentence, is made 
 the inceptive part of the third period in the chapter : 
 
 The convenience and utility of technical terms, are wiiver- 
 salh/ acknowledged : every science and every art has its par- 
 ticular nomenclature which is employed in expressing its 
 leading materials, facts, principles, divisions, &c. (Twenty- 
 nine words.) 
 
 Having incorporated the ten words which have no connec- 
 tion with the third sentence, with the author's first period, it 
 may be well to give his second sentence : 
 
 2. " These terms are generally derived from the Greek or Latin, 
 probably, because ihese languages being now dead, and their words 
 consequently not liable to change, are considered, for this reason, a 
 better source than any other for words of this description." (Forty- 
 one words.) 
 
 " These terms are generally derived from the Greek or Latin ; 
 probably because the words of a dead language are less liable to 
 change than those of a living one." — (Twenty-nine words.) 
 
 3. " And they are preferred to equivalent terms in common use, 
 because, being purely technical in meaning, every person who un- 
 derstands the science, understands them." (Twenty-four words — ■ 
 instead of Fifty-four.) 
 
 Mr. Bullions says that technical terms are generally de- 
 rived from the Greek, or Latin because these languages are 
 dead ! 
 
 T cannot conceive that the death of a language, would in- 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 ducc any nation to make it the source of technical terms. 
 Nor can I understand in what way the death of a language, 
 can exert any influence over the mutability, or immutability 
 of technicals. 
 
 Under page 203, Mr. Bullions gives a fair specimen of 
 his reasoning powers. 
 
 " They (certain authors) are actually urging us to abandon such 
 terms in grammar, as noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, &c, and to use 
 in their stead, such words as name, substitute, describer, asserter, and 
 the like, because, as is alleged, they possess more of the character 
 of English words, — that is, they propose to abandon the peculiar 
 and appropriate technical terms of the science, and to employ words 
 in a great measure disqualified for this purpose, by the very fact 
 of their being already used for other purposes." 
 
 Is substitute a more common word than subject ? Yet Mr. 
 Bullions uses the word, subject, as a technical in grammar ! 
 Under page 86, he says — 
 
 " The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of. In English it is al- 
 ways the nominative to the verb." 
 
 "The subject or nominative, the verb, and the object, may each 
 be attended by other words, called adjuncts." 
 
 And is not object a word in very common use ? Is adjunct 
 even generally employed as a technical I ? 
 
 Is article*, word which is restricted to a technical use ! ? 
 Is there a word in the English language that is less tedi- 
 nical than article ? 
 
 Yet, under page 7, Mr. Bullions employs this as a tech- 
 nical word, which (to use his own language) is in a great 
 measure disqualified for this purpose, by the very fact of its 
 being already used for other purposes 1 1 
 
 Have not the words, present, perfect , imperfect, future, in- 
 dicative, potential, conjunction, &c. &c, been disqualified 
 by the very fact that they are used fyr other purposes ! ? 
 
 John is present. Is is a verb of the present tense ! In- 
 deed, present cannot be applied to the tense of is, because it 
 may be applied to John ! 
 
 Yet under page 30, I find the following — 
 
 "The Present tense has three distinct forms." 
 
 Under the same page, I find the word, auxiliary, used 
 technically. 
 
 Still as auxiliary is a word which is generally applied 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 untechnicalli/, it is not a fit technical term — hence Mr. Bul- 
 lions has done wrong to use it as such ! ! 
 
 Under the same page, I find Mr. Bullions uses the word. 
 simple, as a technical ! ! 
 
 If the un technical application of a word, disqualifies it for 
 a technical term, why does Mr. Bullions use the words, first, 
 second, third, and even person as technicals ! ? 
 John, give me the first book." 
 
 1. John, & noun of the second pc 
 
 /so II 
 
 2. Me, a pronoun of the first person ! 
 
 3. Book, a noun of the third person ! 
 
 By the by, is not a book a singular person ? 
 
 Does not Mr. Bullions use the word, singular, and the 
 word, number too, technically ! ? 0, this book on grammar, 
 that is chanted as No. 1 by so many of the learned of our 
 country, is indeed a singular book ! ! 
 
 Under page 203, I find the following — 
 
 "When we use the word noun every one knows that we speak of 
 a class of words so denominated in grammar." 
 
 Ah ! Is the word, noun, the name of a class of words ! ? 
 Why, under page 9, the word, noun, is defined to be the 
 name of a thing I Is a thing a class of wOrds ! f 
 
 A noun, the name of a class of words ! and yet the fol- 
 lowing is presented as its definition : 
 
 "A noun is the name of a thing ; as John, London" 
 
 John is neither a thing, nor a class of words — and if Lon- 
 don is a thing, it is a singular thing that this great city, 
 should be presented as a class of words ! / 
 
 The old theory has no class names for words — in this re- 
 spect it is destructively defective. 
 
 A noun is a class of words. John is a noun — hence John is 
 a class, of words ! Mr. Bullions ! Mr. Bullions ! Mr. Bullions ! 
 
 Why Mr. Bullions has attempted to advocate the use of 
 terms in grammar, that are purely technical, I do not know. 
 From all that I am able to learn, however, he wishes to put 
 certain writers upon grammar out of his way ! But as the 
 old nomenclature is any thing but technical y Mr. Bullions 
 has shown little wisdom in objecting to the terms which 
 other writers wish to introduce, upon the ground that they 
 are without technical character. 
 
I'KKl'ACK. XI 
 
 I agree, however, with Mr. Bullions that nomenclatures 
 should be purely technical Still I use the old terms which 
 are not at all technical. 
 
 Under page 16, I find the following — 
 
 II. "Of the Case of Nouns." 
 " Case is the state or condition of a noun with respect to the 
 other words in a sentence." 
 
 (As case is a very common word, why does Mr. Bullions 
 use it as a technical term in grammar T) 
 
 "Nouns have three cases, viz. the Nominative, Possessive, and 
 Objective." 
 
 " The nominative case expresses that of which something is said 
 or declared;" as, Go thou to school, John. 
 
 The- word, school, which Mr. Bullions himself parses in 
 the objective case, is the only word in this sentence, which 
 illustrates this definition of the nominative case ! ! 
 
 The nominative case expresses that of which something is 
 said or declared ! 
 
 John is spoken to, not of! Hence John cannot **> in the 
 nominative case by virtue of Mr. Bullions' definition of tnis 
 case ! Nothing is said of the person denoted by tfwu. Hence 
 this pronoun is not in the nominative case ! ! Nothing is said 
 to the school. But something is said of it — the school is 
 spoken of. Hence the word, school, is in the nominative 
 case — and, I presume, governed by the preposition to ! ! Mr. 
 Bullions himself says that the school is spoken of And as 
 the school is spoken of, something must be said of it — it is 
 impossible to speak of a thing without saying something 
 of it! 
 
 But it may be inquired, How I know that Mr. Bullions 
 says that the school is spoken of? 
 
 Under page 9, he says — 
 
 " The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of." 
 
 Mr. Bullions parses school as a noun of the third person. 
 And in this he declares that the school is spoken of 
 
 Case, says Mr. Bullions, is state, or condition. The nomi- 
 native case of a noun, then, is the nominative condition of it ! 
 Hence it follows that it is not the noun which expresses that 
 of which something is said ; but it is the nominative condi- 
 tvm which expresses it ! ! 
 
Xll PREFACE. 
 
 "The nominative case (condition) expresses that of which some- 
 thing is said ; as, the sun shines." 
 
 Does the word, sun, express what is spoken of here ? T 
 understand it so. And, if I am right, the word, sun, accord- 
 ing to Mr. Bullions, is the very case of the word sun! 
 
 What ! What patching ! 
 
 The word, sun, then, is the state, or condition of the word, 
 sun, lt in respect to the other words in the sentence ! !" 
 
 I regret to find the names of gentlemen of whom I have 
 hitherto thought well, appended to these books w r hich are 
 called by their authors, improvements on Murray. 
 
 In the preceding sentence, /is in the nominative case to 
 regret only. But Mr. Bullions says that /is in the nomina- 
 tive case to every word in the sentence except I! ! 
 
 Case, says he, is the state or condition of a noun in respect 
 to the other words in a sentence ! ! 
 
 But how is / in the nominative case ? Does / denote 
 u that of which something is said ?" Certainly. /, then, 
 denotes that which is spoken of! Hence / is of the third 
 person ! ! 
 
 " The nominative case expresses that of which something is said 
 or declared." 
 
 The third person is the person of which something is said ! ! 
 Something is said of the person expressed by I- — hence /is 
 of the third person ! ! 
 
 2. The Possessive Case. 
 
 "The possessive case denotes that to which something be- 
 longs;" as, 
 
 1. John has a book ! 
 
 2. This is the book of John ! 
 
 John in both instances, denotes the person to whom the 
 book belongs — hence John is in the possessive case ! ! ! 
 3. The Objective Case. 
 
 " The objective case denotes the object of some action or re- 
 lation;" as, 
 
 1. The rock was smitten by Moses ! 
 
 2. The apple was picked by him ! 
 
 3. John is by the table ! I 
 
 Does not rock denote that on which the action terminated ? 
 
 Does not apple denote that which was acted upon. And 
 
 is not that which is acted upon, the object of an action ? And 
 
PREFACE. Xlll 
 
 is not John as near to the table as the table is to John ? Is 
 not John, then, as much the object of this local relation as 
 is the table ! ! t 
 
 Let me now ask- 
 
 Has Mr. Bullions accomplished the object which induced 
 him to come forth ? Hear, hear ! His object was to cor- 
 rect what is erroneous, to retrench what is superfluous, to 
 compress what is prolix, to elucidate what is obscure, to 
 
 DETERMINE what is left DOUBTFUL, to SUPPLY what is DE- 
 FECTIVE, in Murray's Grammar ! ! ! 
 
 Alas ! Would Mr. Bullions accomplish his object, let him 
 compare his own book with that of Mr. Murray. As the 
 foibles of one man become virtues when compared with the 
 crimes of another, so the faults in Murray will become per- 
 fections when compared with the gross obliquities in Bul- 
 lions. 
 
 Children who are taken from Murray to Bullions, will find 
 a sorrow rising up in their hearts, deadening their primary 
 hopes. They will look upon this other Murray as did the 
 Jews of old upon the second temple — as nothing at all in 
 comparison with tlie first I 
 
 They who wish to learn the extent of Mr. Bullions' quali- 
 fications to mend Mr. Murray's Grammar, are referred to 
 my Appeal, in which I attempt to do justice to Murray, 
 and to his unfeeling, and unskilful patchers ! 
 
 Before I close this Preface, I deem it a duty to notice a 
 work compiled by Mr. Goold Brown, a teacher in the city of 
 New York. As I have discussed the merits of his compilation 
 in my Appeal, I shall say but little of them in this place. 
 And I regret that what little I do .say here, must be against 
 his work. I feel confident, however, that all who give a 
 moment's attention to the concluding paragraph of his long 
 preface, will come to the conclusion that little can be said 
 in favour of his "finished Labours V The sentence reads 
 as follows : 
 
 " Having undertaken and prosecuted this work with a hope of 
 facilitating the study of the English Language, and thus promot- 
 ing the improvement of the young, the author now presents his 
 finished labours to the candour and discernment of those to whom 
 is committed the important business of instruction." 
 
 The author says that he presents his finished labours now 
 B 
 
XIV PREFACE. 
 
 because he undertook, and prosecuted this work with a hope 
 of facilitating the study of the English Language ! ! Why- 
 does the author present his finished labours at this particular 
 time ? Let him answer the question : H Because I undertook 
 and prosecuted the work with a. hope of facilitating the study 
 of the English Language ?" 
 
 Had not the author "finished his labours," I would sug- 
 gest the following amendment : 
 
 Having completed the tvork which the author undertook, and pro- 
 secuted with a hope of facilitating the study of the English Lan- 
 guage, he now presents it to the candour and discernment of those 
 to whom is committed the important business of instruction. 
 
 Although I cannot give my .sanction to this sentence as a 
 paragon of grammatical exellence, I freely admit that it 
 abounds in rare things ! For instance, — the period sepa- 
 rates the means, or instrument from the process in which it 
 is employed : 
 
 V Having undertaken, and prosecuted this work with a hope of 
 facilitating the study of the English Language, and thus promot- 
 ing the improvement of the young." 
 
 The improvement of the young is the thing which the 
 compiler wishes to accomplish; and the facilitating the study 
 of -he English language is the mgans by which he is to ac- 
 complish this object. Yet in the arrangement of the parts 
 of this interesting sentence, the means is mentioned before 
 the object in whose accomplishment the means is employed ! ! 
 After this the object to be accomplished by the means, is 
 most beautifully dragged into connection with the means 
 through the agency of the adverb, thus ! Perhaps the ideas 
 which I wish to express will be better understood by repeat- 
 ing the clause : 
 
 "Having undertaken, and prosecuted this work with a hope of 
 facilitating the study of the English language, and tlius promoting 
 the improvement of the young." 
 
 A man who makes no pretensions to any thing extraordi- 
 nary in the form of grammatical knowledge, would probably 
 arrange the parts of this clause as follows : 
 
 Having undertaken, and prosecuted this work with a hope 
 of promoting the improvement of the young by f:>cUit<tJivg 
 the study of the English language. 
 
rSF.FACE. XT 
 
 In the concluding part of the period, the compiler speaks 
 of presenting his books to candour. 
 
 '• ine author now presents his finished labours to the candour and 
 discernment of those to whom is committed the important business 
 of instruction." 
 
 Is it possible that in a country where almost every man 
 reads almost every thing, individuals can be found, who speak 
 of presenting books to candour! I ! ! I 
 
 If we can present books to a man's candottr, why can we 
 not present them to his honesty ? 
 
 Sir, — I present this book to your honesty ! I 
 
 Having exposed a few of the icarts, corns, and cancers 
 which pervade this verbal body, by taking off & part of the 
 full Rhetorical dress in which this queen of sentences is so 
 tastefully attired, I will beg the pardon of her learned pa- 
 rent for raising this riot in her royal palace ! And to do all 
 I can to appease him, I will place his last-born in juxtaposi- 
 tion with my last innovations upon a few of its limbs : 
 
 " Having undertaken and prosecuted this work with a hope of 
 facilitating the study of the English language, and thus promoting 
 the improvement of the young, the author now presents his finished 
 labours to the candour, and discernment of those to whom is com- 
 mitted the important business of instruction.'' — [46 words.] 
 
 Having completed the work which the author undertook with the 
 hope of promoting the improvement of the young by facilitating the 
 study of English grammar, he now presents it to the candid and 
 discerning teacher. — [3G words.] 
 
 I have not made this sentence the subject of comment to 
 expose all of its various errors in grammar. I have in- 
 troduced it to show a want of logical skill, a destitution of 
 sound reason, which render its author totally incompetent, 
 to make a useful book on any subject. 
 
 Under another page of the preface, he says : 
 
 " Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, 
 various attempts have been made to overthrow that system of in- 
 struction, which long use has rendered venerable, and which long 
 experience has shown to be useful." 
 
 " Such attempts have generally met the reception they de- 
 served." " Their history will give no encouragement to future 
 innovators." 
 
 If the fate of present innovators on false theories, has a 
 tendency to discourage future lovers of truth, how must that 
 
XVI PREFACE. 
 
 of the present compilers of these theories, dissuade future 
 aspirants to authorship, from extending the labour of their 
 instruction beyond the school room ! 
 
 I hope that my innovation upon the old theory of English 
 Grammar, will not give my namesake so much offence that 
 he will attempt to avenge himself by producing a cessation 
 in the public patronage of my labours. Should it provoke 
 him to take such a course, my system might be as badly off 
 as were the Grecian ships which, by a calm in the wind, 
 ordered by the miffed Diana, were immovably fixed while 
 bound for Troy ! 
 
 " Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, 
 various attempts have been made to overthrow that system of in- 
 struction, which long use has rendered venerable, and which long 
 experience has shown to be useful" 
 
 Should Mr. Goold Brown's knowledge of English Gram- 
 mar, as exhibited in this sentence, be taken as the standard 
 by which to judge of the usefulness of the old " system of 
 instruction/' he would find little to sustain him in the posi- 
 tion which he here takes. 
 
 "Rage for speculation," is neither sense, nor English. 
 Pope says — 
 
 u The rage of thirst, the rage of hunger, the rage o/pain, 
 the rage of a, fever." 
 
 Cowley says, — 
 
 " The rage of a tempest." 
 
 Webster says, — 
 
 " The rage for money." 
 
 That is, a rage to procure money. 
 
 But does Mr. Goold Brown intend to say that these in- 
 novators were in a rage to procure speculation ! ? What ! is 
 speculation an article of traffic that it may be purchased, 
 and sold like knives, and forks ? Where is speculation to 
 be had — at whose store, shop, or stand, may this article be 
 procured ! ? 
 
 The word, rage, as used by my namesake, is intended to 
 show the quality of the act of speculation. This learned 
 compiler meant to say that they conducted their speculations 
 with extreme eagerness. This, he would have said, had he 
 used in instead of for : 
 
 Amidst this rage in speculation. 
 
PREFACE. XVll 
 
 But, in place of in, the compiler employs for — hence in- 
 stead of presenting these detestable innovators in the act of 
 speculation, he gives them a strong wish to procure specula- 
 tion ! ! 
 
 1. Amidst this rage/w money. (To procure money.) 
 
 2. Amidst this rage far speculation. 
 
 3. Amidst this rage in speculation. 
 
 The rage felt by these men, was carried into their specu- 
 lation — hence the rage was in the speculations. 
 
 It should not be forgotten that Mr. Goold Brown has 
 grown gray in teaching by the very system which enables him 
 to use for for in ! 
 
 " Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely 
 practical." 
 
 Practical is an adjective belonging to the noun, subject. 
 That Mr. Goold Brown can parse this word as well as Mr. 
 James Brown, is admitted without hesitation. But, that a 
 capacity to say that practical is an adjective, belonging to sub- 
 ject, does not show a capacity to use practical with propriety, 
 is obvious from the erroneous application which Mr. Goold 
 Brown has here made of this word. A subject, as such, has 
 not the property which is denoted by the word, practical. 
 Can it be said with propriety, this subject will be applied to 
 practice ? Has any one ever heard the expression, — the sub- 
 ject of the present discussion, has been applied to practice I ? 
 When a thing is said to be practical, it cannot be taken in 
 the character of a subject of discussion. It must be taken 
 in another character, and by another name. Thus it may 
 be predicated of knowledge, as such, that it is practical. 
 But because knowledge, as knowledge, may be said to be 
 practical, does it follow that knowledge, as a subject of dis- 
 cussion, can be said to be practical I ? 
 
 Was it not for subjecting myself to the charge of being 
 pragmatical, I would propose to this Murray mender, who 
 says that he has taken the liberty to think for himself, the 
 substitution of system for subject! 
 
 Amidst this rage in speculation on a system purely prac- 
 tical. 
 
 I have been somewhat amused with the reason which Mr. 
 Goold Brown says, induced him to write an English Gram- 
 mar. He gives it in the following words : 
 
XVlll HtEFACE. 
 
 " For as Lord Bacon observes : * The number of ill-written books 
 is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, but by writing others 
 ■which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious.' " 
 
 Now, I have no hesitation in saying that, from the count- 
 less number of gross errors in the principles, style, and me- 
 thods of Mr. Goold Brown's book, it has swallowed down all 
 the spurious Grammars which preceded it. 
 
 It is said by many that the serpent, to use Lord Bacon's 
 appellation, by Dr. Bullions, is an offspring from the Fi- 
 nished Labours of Goold Brown. And, although the man- 
 ner of this derivation may be enveloped in a little mystery, 
 Mr. G. B.'s serpent does seem to bear a parental relation to 
 Dr. Bullions' ! If Mr. G. B.'s serpent is viviparous, and 
 the source of Dr. Bullions', which Mr. G. B. himself alleges, 
 the Doctor is not so culpable as the numerous gross errors 
 in his book seem to indicate. But if Mr. G. B.'s serpent is 
 oviparous, and the origin of Dr. Bui-lions', Mr. G. B. should 
 have the credit of laying the eggs, and Dr. B. the praise of 
 hatching them. Be this as it may, however, I frequently 
 open these animals in the progress of my Appeal. And, if 
 the pupil wishes to behold their frantic throes, to see the 
 deadly poison which they have in their horny cells for him, 
 and to witness the pus of error, generated in the ulcers which 
 these two Murray menders have added to Murray's sores, 
 he will read that work with interest. 
 
NOTICE. 
 
 Should this book fall into the hands of a grammarian 
 who has read my Appeal, he will be surprised to find that 
 I here use the very technicals which I there condemn. 
 And, lest the use of Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Preposition, 
 Conjunction, Adjective, Adverb, and Interjection, in this work, 
 should lead him to think me fickle, I will here say that my 
 present opinion of these technicals is identical with that 
 given of them in the Appeal. 
 
 After a careful examination of the old theory, I felt sure 
 that teachers would be glad to substitute the true system for 
 it. But on proposing this system for adoption, I found them 
 as loath to leave their prison house of error as was the old 
 inmate of the Bastile, his cell of darkness. Hence, although 
 the old structure is utterly demolished, and its fragments 
 strewed from the commencement to the end of my Appeal, 
 thousands still sing pcans in honour of Murray! But, 
 while I regret a want of success in my attempt to persuade 
 the world to allow the old theory of English Grammar to 
 decay, and drop out of the memory of men, I rejoice in the 
 hope that I may yet persuade the world to accept of a sub- 
 stitute which, though slightly marred by the use of noun, 
 verb, &c, is formed upon the true constructive principles of 
 the English Language.* 
 
 * Of the three books -which constitute the neir system, Book II. 
 only, is a substitute for the old theory. Book L, as well as Book 
 III., is entirely original. 
 
 xix 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 [Gram-ma, a letter.] 
 
 LESSON I. 
 GENERAL VIEW OP THE SUBJECT. 
 
 A LANGUAGE. 
 A Language is a set of names, words, or signs, con- 
 structed from sounds, and letters. 
 
 EP-E-OL-O-GY. 
 Epeology is the science of words, the science of speech. 
 \Epea, words, and logos, doctrine, science.] 
 DIVISION OP EPEOLOGY. 
 
 Epeology is divided into two parts ; namely, 
 
 1. Ep-e-di-col-o-gy, and 
 
 2. GRAM-MAR. - 
 
 1. Epedicology is that part of Epeology, which respects 
 the meaning of words in their isolated, or detached state. 
 [Ep-os, a word, dei-ko, to show, to signify, and logos, doc- 
 trine.] (Epedicology is taught by a Dictionary?) 
 
 2. Grammar is that part of Epeology, which respects 
 the characteristics, and functions of sounds, and letters as the 
 elements of words, and the characteristics, forms, positions, 
 and functions of words and monos, as the elements of sen- 
 tences. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 English Grammar is that part of English Epeology, 
 which respects the characteristics, and functions of sounds, 
 and letters, as the elements of English words, and the charac- 
 teristics, forms, positions, and functions, of words, and monos, 
 as the elements of English sentences. 
 
Z PHONOLOGY. 
 
 DIVISION OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 English Grammar is divided into four grand divisions, 
 viz. : — 
 
 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, and 
 
 2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. 
 
 questions. 
 
 1 . What is a Language ? 
 
 2. What is Ep-e-ol-o-gy ? 
 
 [Ep-e-ol-o-gy is made from ep-ca, words, and logos, doc- 
 trine, and means the whole science of words, speech, lan- 
 guage.] 
 
 3. Into how many parts is ep-e-ol-o-gy divided ? 
 
 4. What is Grammar ? 
 
 5. What is Ep-e-di-col-o-gy 9 
 
 [Epedicology is made from ep-os, a word, deiko to show, 
 to signify, and logos, doctrine, principle, and signifies the 
 part of epeology, which respects the meaning of words as 
 individuals.] 
 
 6. What is English Grammar ? 
 
 7. By what means is epedicology taught ? 
 
 8. Into how many grand parts is English Grammar divided? 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 [Orthoe, accurate, correct, and grapho, to icrite.] 
 
 LESSON I. 
 Orthography is the first grand division of grammar, 
 and respects the characteristics, and functions of articulate 
 Bounds, and literal characters, as the elements of words. 
 
 SUBDIVISION OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Orthography is naturally subdivided into, 
 
 1. Phonology, and 
 
 2. Alphaohgy, 
 
PHONOLOGY. S 
 
 Part I. — Phonology. 
 [Pho-ne t a voice, a sound, and logos, doctrine, principle.] 
 Phonology is the first part of orthography, and re* 
 spects the characteristics, and functions of articulate sounds, 
 as the elements of vocal words. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What part of Grammar is Orthography 9 
 
 2. What does orthography respect ? 
 
 3. What are the elements of the word, orthography 9 
 
 4. What is the meaniugof orthos? 
 6. What is the meaning of gripho 9 
 
 6. In what way is orthography subdivided ? 
 
 7. What is the meaning of pho-ne9 
 
 8. What is the meaning of logos as used in the word, phono- 
 logy 9 
 
 9. What is Phonology 9 
 
 10. What does phonology respect ? 
 
 LESSON II. 
 1. Sound. 
 A sound is the effect of an impression, made on the organs 
 of hearing by a vibration of air. Or, a sound is a noise. 
 produced by a vibration of air. 
 
 2. The human voice. 
 The human voice is the sound which, by the agency of a 
 human being, is derived from the air that is on its passage 
 from his lungs. 
 
 3. The formation of the human voice. 
 The human voice informed by agitating the air, or breath, 
 on its passage from the lungs through the uind-pipe of the 
 neck, and the glottis of the larynx. 
 
 [The larynx is the upper part of the wind-pipe ; and the small 
 aperture in the centre of the top part of the wind-pipe, is called 
 the glottis."] 
 
 4. Articuhitc sounds. 
 
 Articulate sounds are those which the organs of articula- 
 tion make out of the different voices that aro produced 
 mainly, if not entirety, by the fjloiti*. 
 
4 PHONOLOGY. 
 
 The organs of articulation are the instruments with which 
 the glottical sounds are fitted for speech by a modification, 
 called articulation. These organs are the teeth, throat, lips, 
 the shell, and different conformations of the mouth, the nose, 
 •palate, and the tongue. 
 
 [As the glottis does not fit sounds for speech, it is not an organ 
 of articulation : articulation is the fitting of sounds for speech. ] 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is sound? 
 
 2. What is the human voice ? 
 
 3. How is the human voice formed ? 
 
 4. What is the larynx ? 
 
 5. In what part of the larynx, is the glottis ? 
 
 6. What is the glottis ? 
 
 7. What are articulate sounds ? 
 
 8. Of what sounds are articulate sounds formed ? 
 
 9. By what means are the glottical voices formed into articu- 
 late sounds ? 
 
 10. The organs of articulation, are what? 
 
 11. Why is not the glottis an organ of articulation ? 
 
 [Although the word, articulation, is made from articulus, a joint, 
 in Phonology, or Grammar, it conveys no allusion to joints. In 
 Grammar, articulation signifies the act of fitting sounds for speech. 
 Hence an organ which does not directly fit sounds for speech, is 
 not an organ of articulation. The glottis may fit sounds for 
 music; but not for speech.] 
 
 12. Will you give me the name of each organ which aids in fit- 
 ting, or rather making, sounds, for speech ? 
 
 LESSON III. 
 DIVISION OP ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 
 
 Articulate sounds (speech sounds) are divided into, 
 
 1. Vowels, and 
 
 2. Consonants. 
 
PHONOLOGY. 
 
 1. VOWKL 
 
 In Phonology, a vowel is an articulate sound which is a 
 trunk element in vocal words. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. As a trunk can stand without branches, so a vowel can stand 
 without consonants. 
 
 2. And, as where there are branches, the trunk is the founda- 
 tion, or base, in the entire framework of the tree, so where there 
 are consonants, the vowel becomes the foundation, or base, of the 
 entire framework of the syllable, or word. 
 
 3. As, without a trunk, there can be no tree, so without a vowel, 
 there can be no entire word. 
 
 4. As a trunk alone, can constitute an entiro tree, so a vowel 
 alone, can form an entire syllable, or word, 
 
 5. As vowels, and consonants are the elements of vocal words, 
 and, as these elements hold different framework ranks in these 
 words, they should be distinguished, or defined, upon the basis of 
 their respective ranks. 
 
 0. The question should not be — what is this, or that, sound in 
 respect to the manner in -which it is formed by the speech organs — 
 but it should be, — what is this, or that, sound in respect to the 
 particular rank which it holds in the vocal word of which it is an 
 element. 
 
 Of irliat sounds, and hy rchat organs, are vowels formed ? 
 
 The air with which the lungs are supplied by the windpipe, is 
 sent out from the lungs through the glottis of the larynx. The 
 expulsion of this air by the agency of the diaphragm, and inter- 
 costal muscles, puts it into an agitated btate which may produce 
 a very imperfect sound even before it reaches the glottis. But 
 whether this pulmonary air is mere breath, or partial sound, when 
 it reaches the larynx, on arriving at this part of the windpipe, 
 it is subjected to the action of the glottis itself, which, although 
 its greatest diameter is but one-tenth part of. an inch, is capable 
 of assuming more than sixty diameters. Each diameter gives the 
 pulmonary air, or partial primary sound as the case may be, a 
 distinct tone. Hence out of the one primary current of air, or 
 imperfect sound, the glottis forms many voices. But, although 
 the glottis produces many sounds by its sixty different diameters, 
 not one of them is a vowel. These ylottical sounds pass from their 
 seat of formation into the mouth ; and, on their passage out of this 
 place, they are converted into vowels, mainly, if not entirely, by 
 the different conformations, or apertures of this orgaa. 
 
 1* 
 
PHONOLOGY. 
 
 2. CONSONANT. 
 
 In Phonology, a consonant is an articulate sound which 
 is a mere branch element in vocal words. 
 
 Of what sounds, and by xohat organs, are consonants 
 formed ? 
 
 1. As the vowels are made out of the glottical sounds, by certain 
 conformations of the mouth, so the consonants are made out of the 
 vowels by the agency of the teeth, nose, palate, lips, throat, and the 
 tongue. 
 
 2. And, as every vowel partakes more, or less of the particular 
 glottical sound out of which it is formed, so each consonant par- 
 takes to a greater, or less degree, of the particular vowel out of 
 which it is formed. 
 
 Classification of consonants. 
 Consonants are divided into six classes, viz. : 
 
 1. Dental consonants, {Teeth?) 
 
 2. Guttural consonants, ( Throat.) 
 
 3. Labial consonants, (Lips.) 
 
 4. Palatal consonants, (Palate.) 
 
 5. Nasal consonants, (Nose,) and, 
 
 6. Lingual consonants, (Tongue.) 
 
 When a consonant is made principally with the teeth, it 
 is called a dental. But when it is made principally with 
 the throat, it is called a throatal, or a guttural. 
 
 5. SYLLABLE. 
 
 In Phonology, a syllable is any quantity of articulate 
 sound, which can be taken alone. 
 
 1. As every tree must have a trunk, so every word must have a 
 voivel. 
 
 2. As branches cannot constitute a tree, so consonants cannot con- 
 stitute a word. 
 
 3. As the branches adhere to the trunk, or to one another, so 
 consonants adhere to the voivel, or to one another. 
 
 6. VOCAL WORDS. 
 
 A vocal word is articulate sound, comprising one, or more 
 
PHONOLOGY. 
 
 syllables, employed by common consent as the name, the 
 sign, of an idea. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. Into what are articulate sounds divided? 
 
 2. What is a vowel ! 
 
 3. Can a trunk stand without a branch ? 
 
 4. Can a voted exist without a consonant ? 
 
 5. Can you have a vowel in a word, or syllable, without a con- 
 sonant ? 
 
 G. What becomes the foundation, ©r base of the word, where 
 there are consonants? 
 
 7. Can a trunk without branches form a complete tree ? 
 
 8. Can a vowel without consonants form a complete syllable, or 
 word? 
 
 9. Why should a vowel be defined in respect to its rank in the 
 word of which it is an element ? 
 
 10. Out of what sounds are vowels formed ? 
 
 11. By what organs are the vowels formed? 
 
 12. What puts the air which is ejected from the lungs, into an 
 agitated state ? 
 
 13. How many diameters has the glottis? 
 
 14. Is perfect sound produced before the air arrives at the 
 glottis ? 
 
 19t What is a consonant ? 
 
 10. Why is the syllabane, in phonology, used ? 
 
 [Because, in Alphaology, a letter also is a consonant.] 
 
 17. Out of what sounds, and by what organs, are consonants 
 formed ? 
 
 1 8. Does each vowel partake of the nature of the glottical sound 
 out of which it is formed? 
 
 19. Does each consonant partake of the vowel out of which it 
 is made. 
 
 20. Into how many classes are consonants divided ? 
 
 21. In this classification, are the consonants named in referenc 
 to the organs by which they are principally formed ? 
 
 22. When a consonant is made principally by the palate, what 
 is it called ? 
 
 23. What is a syllable ? 
 
 24. What is the foundation sound of a syllable called ? 
 
 25. What is a vocal word ? 
 
8 PHONOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 1. The Sounds of Speech. 
 
 The sounds of speech, are the various voices, or element- 
 ary noises which are heard in speaking words. • 
 
 The voeai word, bat, is made up of three elementary 
 voices, or noises; and these elementary noises are the sounds 
 of this vocal word. 
 
 The printed word, bat, is made up of three alphabetical 
 characters, or marks ; and these marks are the letters of 
 this printed word. 
 
 [Here is the printed word — Bat.'] 
 
 1. The first elementary mark in this printed word, is b. 
 
 2. The second elementary mark in this printed word, 
 is a. 
 
 3. The third elementary mark in this printed word, is t. 
 
 [The word, elements, means tiie parts which make up a whole 
 thing. Thus the threads iu cloth, are the elements, or the ele- 
 mentary parts of the clcth.] 
 
 Having shown you the elementary parts of the printed 
 word, bat, I will now undertake to show you the elementary 
 parts of the vocal word, bat. [ Vocalj voice, noise, spoken f 
 not written, not formed of letters.] 
 
 The spoken word, bat, is made up of three elementary 
 voices, or noises; and these elementary noises are the ele- 
 mentary sounds of this vocal word. What word ? [bat.] 
 
 1. Theirs* voice, or noise in the vocal word, bat, is the 
 elementary sound wkieh is heard in the mere beginning of 
 this voice word. [That sound which is heard before the 
 lips are separated.'] 
 
 [The child should be drilled on this sound.] 
 
 2. The second sound in the vocal word, bat, is that voice, 
 or noise, which is heard in the mere beginning of the vocal 
 word, axe. 
 
 [Here explain the sound, and drill the child upon it.] 
 
 3. The third sound in the vocal word, Ixtt, is the voice, 
 or noise, which merely begins the voccd word, top. 
 
 [Here illustrate, and drill.} 
 
PHONOLOGY. 
 
 THE PHONESCOPE. 
 
 [Pho-ne, a voice, and sko-pe-o, to view.] 
 The phonescope is a diagram which exhibits the thirty- 
 eight elementary sounds that are the elements of English 
 vocal words, by the means of thirty-eight speech souiulers. 
 [See page 10.] 
 
 Sjxech Sounder. 
 
 A speech sounder is an object, the first part of whose 
 vocal name, is one of the elementary sounds of English 
 vocal words. Hence, the utterance of the mere beginning 
 of the name of each speech sounder in the Phonescope, will 
 give the thirty-eight elementary sounds in vocal words. 
 
 The names of the thirty-eight speech sounders which form 
 the Phonescope. 
 
 Acorn. 
 
 Arm. 
 
 Awl. 
 
 Axe. 
 
 Bat. 
 
 Cap. 
 
 Circle. 
 
 Dog. 
 
 Elephant. 
 
 Emew. 
 
 Fork. 
 
 Gi-raff. 
 
 Gun. 
 
 Hat. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Eye. 
 
 Key. 
 
 Jug. 
 
 Lion. 
 
 Mortar. 
 
 Net. 
 
 O-celot. 
 
 Ox. 
 
 Tomb. 
 
 Organ. 
 
 Pen. 
 
 Quail. 
 
 Rabbit. 
 
 Stove. 
 
 Top. 
 
 Ewe. [u] 
 
 Urn. 
 
 Puss. 
 
 Vane. 
 
 Wagon. 
 
 Fox. 
 
 
 
 Yoke. 
 
 Zebra. 
 
 THE SYNPHONESCOPE. 
 [5yn, together, phone, a sound, and skopcOy to view. ] 
 The synphonescope is the junction of two, or more of the 
 speech sounders in the formation of a vocal syllable. 
 
THE PHOMESCOPE 
 
I'liUNOlAMjV. 
 
 VOC.iL SYLLABLES. 
 
 11 
 
 a! syllable is any quantity of articulate sound, which 
 iken alone. 
 
 Division of Vocal Syllables. 
 syllables are divided into, 
 
 1. MonotJiongs, and 
 
 2. Diphthongs. 
 
 vocal naonothong is a vocal syllable which comprises 
 
 vowel sound. 
 
 vocal diphthong is a vocal syllable which comprises 
 
 I sounds that are so thoroughly mixed one with the 
 
 t the two may be taken as one. 
 
 'tree vowel sounds never so thoroughly mix, that 
 
 i can be taien as one % there is no triphthong in the 
 
 VOCAL WORDS. 
 
 A vocal word is articulate sound, employed by common 
 consent as the sign of an idea. 
 
 Division of Vocal Words, 
 
 In reference to the number of vocal syllables which they r&> 
 
 spectivety contain. 
 
 Vocal words are divided into, 
 
 1. Mon ©syllables, [Mon-os, one. J 
 % /^syllables, [Dis, two.] 
 3. ZV/syllaMcs, [Trcs, three.] 
 4 /^syllables, [Poly, many.] 
 
 1. A vocal word which has but one syllable, is a mono- 
 syllabi*'. 
 
 2. A vocal word which has but two syllables, is a dissyl- 
 laWe. 
 
 3. A vocal word which has but three syllables, is a tri- 
 syllable. 
 
 ■1. A vocal word which has four, or more syllables, is a 
 polysyllabic. 
 
12 PHONOLOGY. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 [Alpha, a letter, and logos, doctrine, principle.] 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 Alphaology is the second part of Orthography, and re- 
 spects the characteristics, &nd functions of letters as the ele- 
 ments of literal words 
 
 1. Letters. 
 
 Letters are the elementary parts of literal words, and, in 
 general, the representatives of the articulate sounds in vocal 
 ones. 
 
 2. A pair of Letters. 
 
 A pair of letters is a couple of letters which, though they 
 generally differ in form, and always in size, bear the same 
 name, and represent the same sounds; as, A a, Bb, S s. 
 
 3. A set of Letters. 
 
 A set of letters is that number of pairs, which belongs to 
 a particular language. 
 
 4. An Alphabet. 
 
 An alphabet is an entire set of letters. 
 
 The English alphabet has twenty-six letters only. 
 
 5. Capital Letters. 
 
 A capital letter is the larger one of the pair, and is em- 
 ployed for prominence in appearance, eminence in the sub- 
 ject, importance in the idea ; or for mere distinction between 
 an individual, and a class name. 
 
 6. Small Letters. 
 
 A small letter is the smaller letter of the pair, and is used 
 in the body of the matter. 
 
 7. Italic Letters. 
 
 Italic letters are those which have an oblique, or winding 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 13 
 
 form, and are used to denote emphasis, importance, antithe- 
 sis, &c. 
 
 [They are called Italic in reference to Italy, the country that 
 first used them.] 
 
 8. Roman Letters. 
 
 Roman letters are those tin-antique letters which have an 
 upright form. 
 
 [They are denominated Roman, because they were first used in 
 Rome.] 
 
 9. Old English Letters. 
 
 Old English Letters are those that have an antique com- 
 plex form, and which were primarily used in the English 
 language. 
 
 ALPHASCOPE. 
 
 Roman. 
 
 Italic. 
 
 Cap. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 £ 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 P 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 T 
 
 U 
 
 V 
 
 W 
 
 X 
 
 Y 
 
 Z 
 
 Small 
 
 Cap. 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 D 
 
 e 
 
 E 
 
 f 
 
 F 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 h 
 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
 j 
 
 k 
 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 n 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 q 
 
 Q 
 
 r 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 t 
 
 T 
 
 u 
 
 U 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 y 
 
 Y 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 Old English. 
 
 mall. 
 
 Cap. 
 
 SmalL 
 
 a 
 
 & 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 on 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 30 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 H 
 
 e 
 
 f 
 
 Sf 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 m 
 
 ( 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 & 
 
 3 
 
 < 
 
 k 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 3L 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 ^tt 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 N 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 <&, 
 
 q 
 
 r 
 
 lx 
 
 r 
 
 9 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 t 
 
 & 
 
 t 
 
 U 
 
 a 
 
 {? 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 m 
 
 to 
 
 z 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 y 
 
 3T 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 % 
 
 t 
 
 I 
 
14 ALPIIAOLOGY. 
 
 Letters are also divided into, 
 
 1. Printed letters : Y y, S s, R r. 
 
 2. Written letters: ^/ y, £? <i, 0& v. 
 
 Letters are further divided into, 
 
 1. Plain, and 
 
 2. Ornamental. 
 
 1 . A plain letter is one which is perfectly simple in its 
 structure ; as, A a, S s, V v. 
 
 2. An ornamental letter is one which has something that 
 serves as a mere ornament; as, A "y s&. 
 
 Typographical Divisions of Letters. 
 
 1 . Diamond letters : a ■, b b, c <,. 
 
 2. Pearl letters : w w, y >-, h h. 
 
 3. Agate : h b, e e, m m. 
 
 4. Nonpareil : a a, B b, c o. 
 
 5. Minion: A a, B b, C c. 
 
 6. Brevier: A a, B b, C c. 
 
 7. Bourgeoise : A a, W w, M m. 
 
 8. Zo/i</ Primer: A a, W w, M m. 
 
 9. Small Pica: A a, W W, M m. 
 
 10. Pica : A a ? B b, C c. 
 
 11. English: A a, B b, C C. 
 
 12. Nonpareil Gothic: A B C D. 
 
 13. Nonpareil Antique: WMBK. 
 
 14. Minion hair line: A a, B b, W -w. 
 
 15. Brevier Black, or OZd English : ©$ to, fll a. 
 
 16. Bourgeoise condensed : W K M H. 
 
 17. -Zyow# Primer Grecian: A B u 11. 
 
 18. Brevier Tuscan, open: A IB IK W a 
 
 There are many other typographical classifications of let- 
 ters. 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 15 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 Division of Letters upon the basis of tlie character of the 
 sounds which they represent. 
 
 Letters are divided into, 
 
 1. Letter vowels, and 
 
 2. Lettei' consonants. 
 
 A letter vowel is a character which represents a vowel 
 sound, a trunk element in vocal words. 
 
 2. Letter Consonant. 
 
 A h'tter consonant is a character which represents a conso- 
 nant sound, a branch element in vocal words. 
 
 [A consonant sound is one which cannot be perfectly formed 
 except it is made upon some vowel sound as its base.] 
 
 The letter vowels are a, e, i, o } u — w, y. 
 The letter consonmits are b, c, d } f y y h,j, Jc, l } m^^p, q f 
 r, *, t, v, w, x, y, z. 
 
 W } and Y. 
 
 When w, and y precede another vowel in the same sylla- 
 ble, they are consonants ; as, wind, wife — you, year. In 
 other places these letters are vowels. 
 
 QUE8TIONS. 
 
 1. What is alphaology? 
 
 2. What does alphaology respect ? 
 
 3. What are the elements of the word, alphaology? 
 
 4. What is the meaning of alpha? 
 
 5. What is the meaning of logos in this case ? 
 
 6. What are letters ? 
 
 7. Are letters the representatives of sounds in all cases ? 
 
 [Where the letter is silent, it is not the representative of articu- 
 late sound ; as, h, in Aour, rhetoric] 
 
 [The letter which is employed to change the sound of another 
 letter, is not the representative of a sound ; as, pine, c — face, e.~] 
 
 8. What is a pair of letters ? 
 
16 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 [A pair comprises "but two of any thing.] 
 
 9. What is a set of letters ? 
 
 [A set implies a number of things which are used together. A 
 set comprises more than two.] 
 
 10. What is an alphabet ? 
 
 11. What is Siset? 
 
 [The things which can be used together.] 
 
 12. How many letters has the English alphabet? 
 
 13. How many elementary sounds has the English language ? 
 
 14. What are capital letters ? 
 
 15. What are small letters? 
 
 16. What are Italic letters ? 
 
 17. What are Roman letters ? 
 
 18. What are Old English letters? 
 
 19. What are the names of the respective letters in the English 
 alphabet ? 
 
 20. How are letters divided in respect to the character of the 
 sounds which they represent ? 
 
 21. What is a letter vowel? 
 
 22. What is a letter consonant ? 
 
 23. What is the name of that sound which cannot be perfectly 
 made except it is formed on a vowel sound as its base ? 
 
 24. Which are the letter vowels ? 
 
 25. Which are the letter consonants ? 
 
 26. Are w, and y letter vowels ? 
 
 27. Are w, and y letter consonants ? 
 
 28. Where are w, and y vowels, and where consonants f 
 
 29. What are s, t, m, a, o, and e ? 
 
 LESSON III. 
 Subdivision of the Letter Consonants. 
 
 Letter consonants are divided into, 
 
 1. Letter Mutes, and 
 
 2. Letter Semivowels. 
 
 1. A letter mute is a letter consonant which represents a 
 consonant sound that cannot possibly be made without a 
 vowel sound ; as, b* 
 
 * Care will enable one to see that the sound which b represents, cannot be made 
 ■without making considerable of the vcnoel sound which c represents. 
 
AUMIAOLOGY. 17 
 
 2. A letter semivowel is a letter consonant which repre- 
 sents a small degree of vowel sound ; as, v.* 
 
 The letter mutes are b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard. 
 
 The letter semivowels are /, h, j, l } m, n t r, s } v, x, z, and 
 c and g soft. 
 
 Subdivision of the Letter Semivowels into, 
 
 1. Letter liquids, and 
 
 2. Letter solids. 
 
 1. A letter liquid is a fetter semivowel which represents a 
 sound that readily unites with the sounds represented by 
 other letter semivowels ; as, I, m, n, r. 
 
 2. A letter solid is a letter semivowel which represents a 
 sound that does not readily unite with the sounds represented 
 by other letter semivowels ; but, like a solid, it remains un- 
 mixed, or, by itself j as, /, h, j, s, v, x, z. 
 
 The letter liquids are I, m, n, r. 
 
 The letter solids are /, h, j, s, v, x, z, and c and g soft. 
 
 Subdivision of the Letter Consonants 
 
 Upon the basis of the principal organs employed in forming 
 the consonant sounds which the letter consonants repre- 
 sent, into, 
 
 1. Palatals, 
 
 2. Labials, 
 
 3. Dentals, 
 
 4. Gutturals, 
 
 5. Nasals, and 
 
 6. Linguals. 
 
 1. Letter Palatals. 
 
 A letter palatal is a letter consonant which represents a 
 consonant sound that is formed mainly by the palate. 
 The letter palatals are, y, and soft g. 
 
 2. Letter Labials. 
 
 A letter labial is a letter consonant which represents a 
 
 * Cfose attention will enable one to see that the sound which v represent*, has a 
 little vowel sound. 
 
 2* 
 
18 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 consonant sound that is made mainly, if not entirely, by the 
 lips. 
 
 The letter labials are b, p, f, v. 
 
 3. Letter Dentals. 
 A letter dental is a letter consonant which represents a 
 consonant sound that is formed mainly by the teeth. 
 The letter dentals are d, s } t, z. 
 
 4. Letter Gutturals. 
 A letter guttural is a letter consonant which represents a 
 consonant sound that is principally made by the throat. 
 The letter gutturals are k } q, c, and g hard. 
 
 5. Letter Nasals. 
 A letter nasal. is a letter consonant which represents a con- 
 sonant sound that is made mainly by the aid of the nose. 
 The letter nasals are m, and n. 
 
 6. Letter Linguals. 
 A letter lingual is a letter consonant which represents a 
 consonant sound that is made mainly by the aid of the tongue. 
 The letter linguals are I, and r. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. Into what two classes are letter consonants subdivided? 
 
 2. "What is a letter mute ? 
 
 3. What is a letter semivowel ? 
 
 4. What is a letter liquid ? 
 6. What is a letter solid? 
 
 6. What four letter semivowels are liquids ? 
 
 7. Why are these letters called liquids f 
 
 8. What is a letter palatal ? 
 
 9. What letter consonants are palatals ? 
 
 10. What is a letter labial? 
 
 11. Which letter consonants are labials? 
 
 12. What is a letter dental ? 
 
 13. Which letter consonants are dentals ? 
 
 14. What is a letter guttural ? 
 
 15. Which letter consonants are gutturals? 
 
 16. What is a letter nasal? 
 
 17. Which letter consonants are nasals ? 
 
 18. What is a letter lingual ? 
 
 19. Which letter consonants are Unguals ? 
 
ALniAOLOGY. 19 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 THE SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 
 
 Observations. — It may be proper to remark that the sounds 
 of the letters vary, as they are differently associated, and that the 
 pronunciation of these associations depends upon the position of 
 the accent. It may also be observed here, that, to pronounce 
 accurately, great attention must be paid to the vowels -which are 
 not accented. " There is scarcely any thing which more distin- 
 guishes a person of a poor education, from a person of a good one, 
 than the pronunciation of the unaccented vowels. When vowels are 
 under the accent, the best speakers, and the lowest of the people, 
 with very few exceptions, pronounce them in the same manner ; 
 but the unaccented vowels in the mouths of the former, have a dis- 
 tinct, open, specific sound, while the latter often totally sink them, 
 or change them into some other sound." 
 
 SOUNDS OF THE SIMPLE LETTERS. 
 
 The sounds of letters are the thirty-eight elementary 
 voices of which vocal words are formed. 
 
 1. A. 
 
 1. A represents the long smooth vowel sound which is 
 heard in the first part of u-corn. 
 
 As the same idea may be expressed by several different words, so the some 
 sound may be represented by several different letters. The long smooth vowel 
 sound which is represented by a, is not unfrequcntly represented by several other 
 letters. 
 
 In Aaron, this sound is represented by aa ; in safl, it is represented by ai; in 
 gaol, by ao ; in gauge, by au ; in day, by ay ; in steak, by ea ; in e'er, by e'e ; in 
 veil, by et ; in prey, by ey ; and, in acorn, by a. 
 
 This variety in the representative of the same sound, renders spelling very 
 difficult. Difficult, however, as it is to spell with accuracy, no grammarian lias 
 even attempted to render the child much aid. Why this branch of Grammar has 
 been so long neglected, 1 do not know. Nor am I sure that any thing which I 
 can do, will be of much service to the pupil. Still I shall give a few rules, and 
 make a few remarks in the next edition of this work, which I hope the pupil will 
 find beneficial. i 
 
 2. A represents the long rough vowel sound which is 
 heard in the mere beginning of arm. 
 
 3. A represents the long bass vowel sound which is 
 heard in owl. 
 
 4. A represents the short sharp vowel sound which is 
 heard in the first syllable of axe, addition. 
 
 5. A represents the vowel sound of short u, which is 
 heard in the second syllable of woman, mustard, offal. 
 
 6. A represents the vowel sound of short broad o, which 
 is heard in what. 
 
20 ALrllAOLOGY. 
 
 7. A represents the vowel sound of short e, which is 
 heard in the first syllable of many. 
 
 8. In general, unaccented a, in the termination, age, in 
 words of two syllables, represents the vowel sound of short 
 i, as in cabbage, village, couraye. [Cabbige, vWh'ge, course.] 
 
 2. B. 
 
 1. B represents the labial consonant sound which is heard 
 in the mere beginning of oat. 
 
 [B after m, and before t, in the same syllable, is silent ; 
 as, lamo, de&t. In subtile, meaning fine, b is not silent, but 
 in subtle, cunning, b is silent.] 
 
 3.C 
 
 1. C before a, I, o, r, t, and u, represents the hard con- 
 sonant k sound which is heard in can, clad, cordiction, curb, 
 fact. 
 
 2. When c closes a syllable, it represents the hard h sound 
 which is heard in ac-cession, ac-quired, ac-eented, jtfac-cid. 
 
 3. C before e,i, and y, represents the soft hissing conso- 
 nant s sound which is heard in ce, ci, cy. [se, si, sy.~\ 
 
 4. In discern, suffice, sacrifice, &c, c represents the z sound. 
 
 5. When the accent is on the preceding syllable, c, before 
 ea, eou, ia, ie, and io, represents the consonant sound of sh, 
 which is heard in ocean, cetaceous, special, efficient, gracious. 
 
 6. In Czar, victuals, corpuscle, muscle, indictf, czarina, in- 
 dictment, c is perfectly silent. 
 
 [The sounds of ch are given under page 45. 3 
 
 4. D. 
 
 1. D represents the obtuse dental consonant sound which 
 is heard in the mere beginning of efog. 
 
 2. When ed follows a sharp consonant sound, the e is sup- 
 pressed, and d represents the sound of t, as in facea 7 , lacea 7 , 
 raceo 7 , stuffea 7 , trippea 7 , nippea 7 , passca 7 . 
 
 3. When the accent is on the preceding syllable, d gen- 
 erally sounds like g before eou, ia, ie, and io, as in hideous, 
 tedious, soldier, Indian. [SoL/ier, Indian, &c] 
 
 4. In some words d before u, represents the sound of j: 
 eo?«cation, verc/urc, arduous. 
 
ALPHAOLOUY. 21 
 
 5. E. 
 
 1. E represents the long open vowel sound which is heard 
 in the first part of c-mew. 
 
 2. E represents the short vowel sound which is heard in 
 the mere beginning of elephant. - 
 
 3. ^represents the obscure vowel sound which is heard 
 in open, able, garden. 
 
 4. E final, unless it has its long open vowel sound, is 
 silent, as in rage, stage, age, ore, pore, eve, ice, mice. 
 
 [In me, the, he, be, she, and we, the final e represents the 
 long open vowel sound which is heard in e-mew.] 
 
 5. In the terminations, ere, gre, and tre, the final e repre- 
 sents the short vowel sound of u, as in acre, meagre, centre, 
 &c. [acwr, meagwr, centwr.] 
 
 6. In Greek, as well as in Latin, words, the final e re- 
 presents its long vowel sound, as in Pe-nel-o-pe, simi-le, epit- 
 o-me. 
 
 7. The final silent e renders the preceding vowel sound 
 long, as in fame, cane, pole, pine. [Without the final e — 
 /am, can, pol, pin.] 
 
 [Ea is treated of under page 44.] 
 
 6. F. 
 
 1. F, except in of where/ sounds like v, represents the 
 consonant labial sound which is heard in the first part of /or, 
 /an, and in the last part of staff, off. 
 
 7. a. 
 
 1. G, before a, I, o, r, and u, represents the hard guttural 
 consonant sound which is heard in the first part of garble, 
 </arb, <7ame, </lad, #love, goblet, </rave, OTade, orand, autter, 
 gunner, onard. 
 
 2. G, before e, i, and y, represents the soft palatal conso- 
 nant sound which is heard in gentle, gem, gin, ginger, giraff, 
 emgy, o-ynarchy, o^innick, gyro. 
 
 3. G, in get, give, gewgaw, gizzard, gittern, girth, gig, 
 gide, giddy, &c, represents the hard guttural consonant 
 sound which is heard in gunner, go. 
 
 4. When g terminates a syllable it represents the hard 
 guttural sound, as in \og, fqa, tuy, \ng, fog-gy. 
 
22 ALPIIAOLOGY. 
 
 5. In all additional syllables, g represents the hard sound, 
 as in fog-fly, hog-gy, hog-gler. 
 
 6. G retains its hard sound before e, i, and y in nearly 
 all individual names, as in Crethsemane, 6rilboa, Gilbert. 
 
 (Exceptions: — George, Geoffry, E^ypt.) 
 
 7. In the following class names, y has its hard sound : 
 Anger, finder, ^eese, give, gift, girdle, </izzard, &c. 
 
 8. When two gcj come together, both have the hard sound, 
 as in swagger, hragger, stagger, bracing. 
 
 (Exceptions : — Exaggerate, exaggeration.) 
 
 9. G, before m, and n is silent, as in phlegm, apothegm, 
 gnaw, resign, gnome, gneiss, gnat, gnomon. [When g is silent, 
 it generally renders the preceding vowel sound long.] 
 
 8. H. 
 
 1. H represents the aspirate consonant sound which is 
 heard in the first part of hat, here, hot. 
 
 2. In heir, herb, honest, honour, hospital, hostler, hour, 
 humble, humour, h is perfectly silent. 
 
 3. H, final, is silent after a vowel letter; as ah, oh, Sarah, 
 Nineve/L 
 
 4. After r, h is silent y as, rheum, rhetoric. 
 
 9. I. 
 
 1. /represents the long vowel sound which is heard in 
 pine, i-hex, pint, and fight. 
 
 2. I has its long vowel sound in monosyllables which end 
 in e, as in pine, fine. 
 
 3. I, under the accent before another vowel letter, with 
 which it does not coalesce, has its long vowel sound, as in 
 pi-ous. 
 
 4. /, at the end of Latin words, has its long vowel sound, 
 as in literati, magi, genii. 
 
 5. /represents the short vowel sound which is heard in 
 pin, in, and Jin. 
 
 6. In general, i has its short vowel sound in mono- 
 syllables which have not a final e, as pin, Jin. 
 
 7. In words of two, or more syllables, % is not generally 
 rendered long by the final e, as doctrine, masculme, feminine, 
 discipline, projectile. [Doctrin, masculin, feminm, disci- 
 plin, project/ 1 ] 
 
ALPIIAOLOGY. 23 
 
 8. When i in words of two, or more syllables, is followed 
 by a consonant letter of the same syllable, it generally has 
 its short vowel sound, as in fiddler, piV/dler, piVfgeon, Pi/idar, 
 and picture. 
 
 9. When i is the only, or the last, vowel letter in an un- 
 accented syllable, it generally has the sound of long e } as in 
 o-ri-ent, injuri-ous, abstemi-ous, ordi-nary, ordi-nal, vari- 
 ance, vari-egate, op-tim-i-ty, ep-i-cure. [Ore-en t, in-jure- 
 ous, abste-me-ous, orde-nary, orde-nal, vare-ous, vare-egate, 
 optime-ty, ep-e-cure.] 
 
 10. I, in words of foreign modern languages, has the 
 bmg open e vowel sound, as in Divan, Porto Rico, machine, 
 magazine, bombazine. [Devan, Porto Ileco, machene, maga- 
 zine, bombazene.] 
 
 11. In some words, /has the vowel sound of sJiort u, as in 
 first, third. [Fwrst, thwrd.] 
 
 12. la is a two letter diphthong, as in christian, filial, 
 poniard. 
 
 13. la is a two letter monothong, and represents the sound 
 of short i, as in marriage, carriage, parliament. [Marine, 
 cariV/e, parliment.] 
 
 10. J. 
 
 1. J represents the soft consonant guttural sound which is 
 heard in the first part of jug, June, John, James. 
 
 2. In hallelujah, j has the sound of y. [Halleluyah.] 
 
 3. J always begins a word, or a syllable, and is always 
 followed by a vowel letter, as in joy, jest, jilt, injure. 
 
 11. K. 
 
 1. 7T represents the hard consonant guttural sound which 
 is heard in key. 
 
 2. K is used where c would be soft. 
 
 3. Before *, k is perfectly silent, as in /cnave, know. 
 
 4. if is doubled in no words except Habafc&uk, Okkak, 
 and SuMertop. 
 
 5. C before k, doubles the k sound, and shortens that of 
 the preceding vowel letter, as in wic&ed, cackle, coc&le. 
 
 12. L. 
 
 1. L represents the soft liquid consonant sound which is 
 heard in the first part of lion, /aw, lute. 
 
 2. L is silent in afais, half, and in a few other words. 
 
24 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 13 M. 
 
 1. M represents the obtuse nasal consonant sound which 
 is heard in the first part of mortar, and map. 
 
 2. In comptroller, m represents the sound of n — controller. 
 
 14. N. 
 
 1. i\ r represents the ringing nasal consonant sound which 
 is heard in mangle, singing, twinkling. 
 
 2. N represents the unringing nasal consonant sound 
 which is heard in net, banner, and nun. 
 
 3. N final, preceded by m, is silent, as in hymn, column, 
 solemn. 
 
 4. In columnar, and columnarian, n is not silent. 
 
 15. 0. 
 
 1. represents the long smooth vowel sound which is 
 heard in o-celot, o-possum, co-lumbo, note, veto, do-minion, 
 devotion, do-tard, no, gnomon. 
 
 2. When o is the only, or the last, letter in the syllable, 
 it generally has its long vowel sound, as in o-rient, Porto 
 Rico, e-mo-tion, devo-tion, o-pen, o-val, bra-vo, duo-deci-mo, 
 o-celot, veto. 
 
 3. represents the shortish slender nasal vowel sound 
 which is heard in tomb, prove, move, who, whom, to, unto, 
 and do. 
 
 4. Where o is followed by a final consonant in the same 
 syllable, it generally has its broadish short vowel sound, as 
 in on, op-por-tunity, object, odd, off, offdX, qp-eration, oph- 
 thal-mic. \_Only, and some others, are exceptions.] 
 
 5. represents the broad long guttural vowel sound 
 which is heard in north, organ, and nor. 
 
 6. In many words, o has the sound of short u, as in son, 
 above, love, dove, attorney, gallon, dragon, dost, person, one. 
 
 [Snn, abnve, lnve, du\e, attorney, gallnn, dragnn, dnst, 
 persnn, nwn.] 
 
 7. In bacon, and a few others, o has the sound of kn — 
 ba-&?i. 
 
 8. represents the shortish broad guttural vowel sound 
 which is heard in ox, not, hot, torrid, got. 
 
 16. P. 
 
 1. P represents the labial consonant sound which is heard 
 in the first part of pen, and in the last part of sup. 
 
ALPUAOLOGY. 25 
 
 2. P is silent in psychology, psora, pshaw, pseudology, 
 pseudography, pseudo, psalter, psalmography, ptisan, ptole- 
 maic, ptyalism, ptysmagogue, corps, receipt, psalms, &c. 
 
 [ForpA, see page 50.] 
 
 17. Q. 
 
 1. Q represents the guttural consonant sound which is 
 heard in the first part of gnail, jueen, quarter, and in the 
 second part of request. 
 
 2. Q is always followed by u. 
 
 3. Q has a soft sound at the commencement of a word, or 
 a syllable, as in juick, juill, in-juire. 
 
 [Exceptions : — liquor, conguer, &c] 
 
 4. Q has the hard h sound at the end of a word, as in 
 risgue, antique, oblique. 
 
 18. R. 
 
 1. R represents the smooth lingual consonant sound which 
 is heard in proud, far, dark, park, harrow, barber. 
 
 2. R represents the rough Ungual consonant sound which 
 is heard in rabbit, rose, roam, round. 
 
 19. S. 
 
 1. S represents the sharp hissing dental consonant sound 
 which is heard in sister, master, fus. 
 
 2. At the beginning of words, s has its sharp consonant 
 sound, as in son, sir, slide, store, saint. 
 
 3. S generally has its sharp consonant sound except at 
 the end of words where it is preceded by a vowel letter, as 
 in sister, stepts, smiths, Cyprus, cliffs, theirs. 
 
 Beds, bags, &c, &c, are exceptions. 
 
 4. S represents the fiat dental consonant z sound which 
 is heard in besom, nasal, dismal, his, was, trees, eyes. 
 
 5. In this, thus, us, yes, thus, rebus, surplus, &c., s has 
 its sharp sound. 
 
 6. S has the sound of sh, as in sure. 
 
 7. £ has the sound of zh, as in pleasure, measure. 
 
 8. S has the z sound before ion, provided a vowel letter 
 goes before, as in intrusion. 
 
 9. tf has its sharp sound before ion, provided a consonant 
 letter precedes, as in conversion. 
 
 10. S has the z sound before c silent, as in amuse. 
 
 8 
 
26 ALPIIAOLOGY. 
 
 . 
 
 11. S has the z sound before final #, as in rosy, posy. 
 
 12. JS has the z sound in bosom, desire, wisdom, &c. 
 
 13. In isle, island, demesne, and viscount, s is silent. 
 
 20. T. 
 
 1. T represents the dental consonant sound which is heard 
 in top, temper, take, and put. 
 
 2. When the accent precedes, t, before u, has the sound 
 of teh, as in nature, guttural, impetuous. 
 
 8. Immediately after the accented syllable, t generally 
 has the sound of tch, as in courteous, righteousness. 
 
 4. Immediately after the accented syllable, and an s, t has 
 the sound of tch before ia, and io, as in fustian, baStian, 
 fust?*anist. 
 
 5. Where there is no s before t, t before ia immediately 
 after the accented syllable, has the sound of sh, as in peni- 
 tential, penitentiary, influential. 
 
 6. T generally has the sound of sh where it follows the 
 accented syllables, and precedes i followed by another vowel 
 letter, as in creation, indignation, irnpatiVnt, cautious. 
 
 7. T is often silent, as in thistle, rustle, whistle, often. 
 
 21. U. 
 
 1. Z7 represents the long slender vowel sound which is 
 beard in you, tube, juvenile. 
 
 2, When u constitutes an entire syllable, it has its long 
 slender sound, as in ?i-nicorn, u-nion. 
 
 o. When u terminates a syllable, it generally has its long 
 sound, as in cu-bic, pu-iitan, pu-rist, pu-rifying, pu-gil, fu-zee, 
 fru-gal. 
 
 4. In syllables which have the final e, u generally has its 
 long sound, as in tube, cube, flute ? ac-cute. 
 
 5. When u follows either r, or rh, it has the sound of oo, 
 as in rule, rude, rhubarb. 
 
 \Uy in pugh, is pronounced pooh.] 
 
 U. ?7 represents the shortish obtuse vowel sound which is 
 heard in full, bushel, bashful, careful, dreadful. 
 
 7. U represents the short sharp vowel sound which is 
 heard in just, tub, butter, must, trust. 
 
 8. In general, u has its short sharp sound before a conso- 
 nant letter of the same syllable, as \mt, jm? *' r -e, must, pur- 
 
ALPUAOLOGY. 27 
 
 chase, purl, push, pus-zle, p^-ty, rus-ty, mus-ty, ruu-agato, 
 rund-let, run, fun, r?/.st, ruMer, rus-tle, rus-tic. 
 
 9. In many cases where u follows r, it has the sound of 
 oo, as in ride, rude. 
 
 10. In bury, and its compounds, u has the sound of short 
 g — and i n busy, and its compounds, u has the sound of short t. 
 
 11. In a two letter diphthong, u has the sound of w, as 
 in persuade, quarter, queenly, quell, inquiry, quiet, languid, 
 obloquy. 
 
 22. V. 
 
 1. V represents the labial consonant sound which is heard 
 in the first part of tain, ealue, and in the second part of loue, 
 aboyc, and do ye. 
 
 23. W. 
 
 1. IT represents the consonant sound which somewhat re- 
 sembles that of quick oo, and is heard in wo, water, would, 
 wind. 
 
 2. W, as a simple letter, rarely, if ever, represents a vowel 
 sound, and, as a part of a compound letter, the sound of 
 which it is the representative, is rarely distinguishable from 
 that represented by the other part of the compound letter. 
 But, where the sound of which w is the representative, is 
 heard by itself, it is believed by grammarians in general, to 
 be that which u, in the same situation, would represent 
 
 3. Wh is pronounced hw, as in who, when. 
 
 4. When w is followed by r, it is silent, as in writing, 
 wrest, wrench, wrath. 
 
 5. Wis sometimes silent before h, and after a, as in wAolc, 
 w^oop, sword, answer. 
 
 24. X. 
 
 1. X represents the sharp ks consonant sound which is 
 heard in ox, axe, exile, ex-foliate. 
 
 2. When x ends an accented syllable, it has its sharp 
 sound, as in ex-ternal, ex-cellent. 
 
 3. When an accented syllable whieh follows x, begins 
 with a consonant letter, x has its sharp sound, as in extra- 
 vagant. 
 
 4. X represents the flat <jz consonant sound which is 
 heard in the first part of exist, exotic, exude. 
 
28 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 5. X represents the obtuse eh consonant sound which is 
 heard in ex-tancy, ex-tance, ex-siccative, ex-script, ex-suf- 
 flation. 
 
 [The sound of x is represented by chs, as in huchs — by hs, 
 as in boo/a — by cc in the middle of a word where e, or i fol- 
 lows, as in accept, accident — and by ct before w», as in action, 
 prediction.] 
 
 6. When the following syllable commences with a vowel 
 letter, x, in an unaccented syllable, generally has its gz 
 sound, as in exitial, exitious, exert. [e/72-ish-yal, eyz-ish-yus, 
 e^z-ert.] 
 
 7. X represents the hard consonant sound of eh, which is 
 heard in the first part of exigent, exiccate, extant, extatical. 
 
 8. X represents the consonant sound of eg, which is heard 
 in ex-in-a-nite, cx-imious, ex-ilement. 
 
 9. In individual names, derived from the Greek, x, at the 
 beginning of a syllable, has the sound of z, as in Xenophon, 
 JTanthus, Xantippe, Xerxes. 
 
 25. Y. 
 
 1. Y represents the consonant sound which somewhat re- 
 sembles the vowel sound of ee } and is heard in youth, Tbrk, 
 ye, yes, year, and yoke. 
 
 2. Y represents the long open vowel sound of i, which is 
 heard in cry, thyme, cy-cle, cy-clopean, cypress-tree, cyon. 
 
 3. ^represents the short i vowel sound which is heard 
 in system, symptom, cynic, cymbal, cystotomy. 
 
 4. In a few instances, y represents the vowel sound of 
 long e, as in cynanthropy, synecdoche, cylindroid, cymatium. 
 [Se-nan-thro-pe, se-nec-do-ke, se-lin-droid, se-ma-she-um.] 
 
 5. At the end of monosyllables, and a few other words, y 
 has the sound of long i } as, in cry, dry, apply, crying, dry- 
 ing, denying. 
 
 6. At the end of other words, however, y generally has 
 the sound of obscure e, as in body, mercy, holy, liberty, glo- 
 riously, thankfully. 
 
 7. The compound letters, ay, cy, oy, have the sounds of ai, 
 ei } and oi. 
 
 8. In general, y either begins, or ends a word, as in yet, 
 duty, yesterday. 
 
 9. In a few words of Greek origin, and in a few English 
 ones in which the i sound is doubled in forming the deriva- 
 
ALrilAOLOGY. 29 
 
 tivc with ing, y is neither inceptive, nor final, but meilial, 
 as in dying, frying. 
 
 [The inceptive y is a consonant letter, and the final one is 
 a vowel letter.] 
 
 26. Z. 
 
 1. Z represents the flat consonant sound of s, which is 
 heard iu zebra, zenith, breeze, freeze, froze, frozen. 
 
 2. Z can neither precede, nor follow another consonant let- 
 ter; but it may precede, or follow a vowel letter, as in zeal, 
 froze. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. How many sounds has A? 
 
 2. How many sounds has B ? 
 
 3. How many sounds has C ? 
 
 4. Will you give all the sounds of A ? 
 
 5. How many sounds has D ? 
 
 6. How many sounds has £ ? 
 
 7. Can you sound E ? 
 
 8. How many sounds has F ? 
 
 9. How many sounds has Q ? 
 
 10. How many sounds has H ? 
 
 11. Will you give the sounds of G and H ? 
 
 12. How many sounds has I ? 
 
 13. Will you sound I? 
 
 14. How many sounds has J ? 
 
 15. Sound J. 
 
 16. What is the sound of K? 
 
 17. What is the sound of L ? 
 
 18. Sound M. 
 
 1 9. How many sounds has N ? 
 
 20. Sound N. 
 
 21. How many sounds has 0? 
 
 22. How many sounds has P ? 
 
 23. How many sounds has Q ? 
 
 24. How many sounds has R ? 
 
 25. How many sounds has S ? 
 
 26. How many sounds has T ? 
 
 27. How many sounds has U ? 
 
 28. How many sounds has W ? 
 
 29. How many sounds has N ? 
 
 30. How many sounds has X ? 
 
 31. How many sounds has Y? 
 
 32. How many sounds has Z ? 
 
 33. Is the sound of C hard in circle f 
 
 34. Will you give tho seven sounds of A ? 
 
 35. Will you sound B? 
 
 3' 
 
30 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 36. Will you sound C ? 
 
 37. Will you sound D ? 
 
 38. Will you sound E ? 
 
 39. Will you sound F ? 
 
 40. Will you sound G ? 
 
 41. Will you sound H? 
 
 LESSON V. 
 The combination of Letter Vowels. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 It is said that the English alphabet has only twenty-six letters. 
 But perhaps a close examination will demonstrate that this alpha- 
 bet has more than one hundred letters ! 
 
 1. A letter is the first principle or least part of a word. — Mur- 
 ray. 
 
 2. A letter is a character used in printing, or writing to repre- 
 sent an articulate sound. — Goold Brown. 
 
 This definition as well as that given by Murray, makes each 
 combination of literal characters, a distinct letter. And the truth 
 is that each combination of letters, employed to represent an ele- 
 mentary sound in vocal words, is a letter. The compound cha- 
 racter, ph, which is used to represent the articulate sound that is 
 heard in the inceptive part of the vocal word, /ork, is as clearly a 
 letter of the English Language as is /. Ph is a compound letter ; 
 but/ is a simple one. Nor is this all ; for each character, whether 
 simple, or compound, which represents two, three, or four different 
 articulate sounds, is virtually two, three, or four, distinct letters. 
 A in a-corn is not identical with a in awl. Nor is a in axe, identi- 
 cal with a in arm. True, each a is the same in form — but neither 
 two are identical as the representatives of articulate sounds. From 
 this view of the subject, it is clear that the English Language 
 comprises more letters than elementary sounds. 
 
 Division of Letter Vowels. 
 Letter vowels are divided into, 
 
 1. Simple, and 
 
 2. Compound. 
 
 1. A simple letter vowel is a single letter which represents 
 a vowel sound ; as, i 9 o. 
 
ALPIIAOLOGY. 
 
 31 
 
 2. A compound letter vowel is a letter which is made up 
 of two, or more simple letter vowels ; as, ae, oi. 
 
 3. A compound letter consonant is a letter which is made 
 up of two, or three simple letter consonants, as, bb y gth. 
 
 1. Simple 
 
 2. Compound 
 
 3. Ompmtnd 
 
 TER VOWELS. 
 
 Letter Vowels. 
 
 Letter Consonants. 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 bb 
 
 e 
 
 aa au 
 
 ch 
 
 i 
 
 ac aw 
 
 ck 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 ai ay 
 ao aye* 
 
 ct, [due*.] 
 dd 
 
 w 
 
 ■ 
 
 ff 
 
 y[7] 
 
 ea eu 
 eau ew 
 
 ? 
 
 
 ee ewe 
 
 gn, |>*aw.] 
 
 
 ei ey 
 
 ght 
 
 
 eo eye 
 
 gth 
 
 
 eou 
 
 kn, [know.] 
 
 
 i 
 
 11 
 
 
 ia iew 
 
 nn 
 
 
 ie io 
 
 ph 
 
 
 ieu iou 
 
 rr 
 
 
 
 
 rh 
 
 
 oa oo 
 
 86 
 
 
 oe ou 
 
 sh 
 
 
 oei ow 
 
 tt 
 
 
 oi oy 
 
 tch, [lateA.] 
 
 
 17 
 
 th 
 
 
 ua uo 
 
 wh 
 
 
 ue uy 
 
 wr 
 
 
 ui uoy [39.] 
 
 zz [25.] 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. How are the letter vowels divided ? 
 
 2. What is a simple letter vowel ? 
 
 3. What is a compound letter vowel ? 
 
 4. How many simple letter vowels are there ? 
 
 5. How many compound letter vowels are there ? 
 
 6. What is a letter consonant ? 
 
 7. How many compound letter consonants are there ? 
 
 * Aye : (alway.) 
 
32 ALPIIAOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 SUBDIVISION OF THE COMPOUND LETTER VOWELS. 
 
 The compound letter vowels are divided into, 
 
 1. Letter Monothongs, and 
 
 2. Letter Diphthongs* 
 
 1. A Letter monothong is a combination of two, or three 
 simple vowel letters, which represents a vocal monothong, — 
 a vowel sound that can he represented by some one simple 
 voicel letter. 
 
 2. A Letter diphthong is a combination of two, or three 
 simple vowel letters, which represents a vocal diphthong, two 
 rowel sounds which are so thoroughly mixed that both can 
 be taken as one. 
 
 1. Subdvvlswn of the Letter monothongs. 
 
 Letter monothongs are subdivided into, 
 
 1. Ttoo letter monot7tongs, and 
 
 2. Three letter monothongs. 
 
 1, A Two letter monothong, 
 
 Is a combination of two simple vowel letters, which re- 
 presents a vocal monothong, — a vowel sound that can be re- 
 presented by some one simple vowel letter; as, oa in boat, 
 coat, loaf. 
 
 [Here the sound which is represented by oa t can be 
 clearly expressed by the long open o.] 
 
 2. A Three letter monotJwng, 
 
 Is a combination of three simple letter vowels, which re- 
 presents a vocal monothong, — a vowel sound that can be 
 represented by some one simple vowel letter; as, eau in 
 beauty, iew in view, and ieu in lieu. (B«ety, vu, lu.) 
 
 [These, eau, ieu, and iew, aye the only three letter mono- 
 thongs in the language.] 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 33 
 
 II. Subdivision of the Letter Diphthongs. 
 
 Letter diphthongs are subdivided into, 
 
 1. Two letter diphthongs, 
 
 2. Three Utter diphthongs. 
 
 1. A Two letter Diphthong , 
 
 Is a combination of two vowel letters, in which each 
 represents its own part of the vocal diphthong; as, oi, in 
 votce ; ou in found. 
 
 [These, oi, and ou, are generally two letter diphthongs.] 
 
 2. A Three letter Diphthong, 
 
 Is a combination of three vowel letters, which represents 
 a vocal diphthong ; as, uoy in buoy. 
 
 Under page 11, vocal vowels are divided into monothongs, 
 and diphthongs. 
 
 1. A vocal monothong is made up of one vowel sound 
 which can be clearly represented by some one simple vowel 
 letter. 
 
 2. A vocal diphthong is made up of two vowel sounds so 
 thoroughly mixed that both can be taken as one. 
 
 [On the following page, I have commenced a tabular view of the 
 various sounds of the compound vowel letters.] 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1 . How are the compound vowel letters subdivided ? 
 
 2. What is a letter monothong ? 
 
 3. What is a letter diphthong? 
 
 4. How are letter monothongs subdivided ? 
 
 5. What is a two letter monothong ? 
 
 6. What is a three letter monothong ? 
 
 7. How are the letter diphthongs subdivided ? 
 
 8. What is a two letter diphthong ? 
 
 9. What is a three letter diphthong ? 
 
 10. Are there many letter diphthongs? 
 
 11. What is a vocal diphthong? 
 
 12. What is a vocal monothong? 
 
 13. What is a two letter diphthong? 
 
34 
 
 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 THE SOUNDS OF LETTER MONOTHONGS, AND LETTER 
 DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 Letter 
 Monothongs. 
 
 Cam a-corn : Aaron. 
 An is equalled by -J a in axe : Isaac. 
 ( a in arm : baa. 
 
 Ae is equalled 
 
 Al is equalled 
 
 Ao is equalled 
 
 An is equalled 
 
 Aw is equalled 
 
 Ay is equalled 
 
 *t 
 
 e in e-mew : asnignia. 
 
 e in elephant, pen : aphasresis. 
 
 h 
 
 a m 
 a in 
 e in 
 * in 
 
 u in 
 
 a-corn : sa/1, hail. 
 axe : plaid, [plaa 7 .] 
 pen, said, [sed.] 
 pin : certain, 
 urn : Britain, [uu.] 
 
 by { a in a-corn : gaol, [jale.] 
 
 all : cause. 
 
 axe : aunt. 
 
 o-celot : hautboy, [hoboy.] 
 
 organ : launsel. [lonsel.] 
 
 a-corn: gauge, [gage.] 
 
 all: drau?. 
 
 by 
 
 a m 
 a in 
 o in 
 o in 
 a in 
 
 by { a in 
 
 (a 
 byje 
 
 day, pay. 
 pen : says, [ses.] 
 e-mew : quay, [key.] 
 
 m a-corn 
 e in 
 e in 
 
 J5a is equalled by 
 
 e in e-mew : car, near. 
 e in pen : head, [hed.] 
 a in a-corn : steak, [stake.] 
 a in arm : heart, [hart.] 
 u in zirn : pageant, [junt.] 
 
 Eau is equalled 
 Ec is equalled 
 
 
 in c-celot : beau, [bo.] 
 
 in u-nicorn : beauty, [buty.] 
 
 in e-mew : tree, see, feel, 
 in a-corn : e'er, ne'er. 
 
Letter 
 Monotfiongt. 
 
 Ei is equalled by 
 
 Eo is equalled by 
 
 ALPiiAOLoar. 35 
 
 a in a-corn : v«1, re*gn. 
 e in e-mew : receit. 
 i in i-bex : height, slight. 
 i in indian : foreign, surfeit. 
 e in pew : nonpareil. 
 
 e in e-mew : people. 
 
 e in pen : feof, leopard. 
 
 o in o-celot : yeoman. 
 
 o in organ : George. 
 
 u in urn : sturgeon. [ jwn.] 
 
 A is equalled by j " ! n **5T£ £3* 
 
 n J ( o in tomb : rheumatic. 
 
 f o in o-celot : sew. [so.] 
 Ew is equalled by I u in w-nicorn : e?cer. 
 
 ^ o in tomb : screw, [scroo.] 
 
 [These monothongs, eu, and ew 
 are often diphthongs.] 
 
 f a in tt-corn : prey, [pra.] 
 Ey is equalled by < e in e-mew : money, [mon-e.] 
 (^ i in i-bex : eye. 
 
 h is equalled by \ i ! n ***" : P' e J * 
 1 ' lea e-mew : reltef. 
 
 leu is equalled by { u in w-nicorn : adiew. [adw.] 
 
 Jew is equalled by { u in w-nicorn : view. [vw. J 
 
 0« is equalled by j ° . in ^f ^ : ^ 
 1 ; ( o m all : broad. 
 
 r o in o-eelot : doe, foe. 
 
 Oe is equalled by J ° ! n tomb : c f<*> shoe - 
 
 * J A e in e-mew : foetus. 
 
 ^ e in pen : foetid. 
 
 [0* is a two letter diphthong.] 
 
 f o in tomb : too, fool. 
 Oo is equalled by -! o in o-celot : floor, door. 
 (^ u in um : blood, flood. 
 
36 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 Ou is equalled by 
 
 a in all : ought, bought, 
 o in o-celot : dough, though, 
 o in organ : ought, thought. 
 ^ o in tomb : soup, you, could. 
 
 [Ou is generally a two letter diphthong.] 
 
 Ow is equalled by { o in o-celot : know, [kno.] 
 
 [In general, ow is a two letter diphthong.] 
 
 [ Oy is a two letter diphthong.] 
 
 (a in arm : guard, 
 a in axe -.guarantee. 
 e in pen : victuals. 
 u in M-nicorn : manttiamaker. 
 
 Be is equalled by \ " ! n "- nicOTn : , U "* 
 
 ^ •'(em pen : guest, league. 
 
 C i in i-bex : guide, guise. 
 XJi is equalled by •< i in pra : circuit. 
 (_ u in w-nieorn : suit. 
 
 Uy is equalled by f \ ! n * box ! Hf P»f3 . n 
 1 ^ ( e in e-mew : plaguy, [plag-e. J 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 LETTER DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 Ay is equalled by { a in arm, and e in c-mew : ay. 
 Oi is equalled by { o in organ, and e in e-mew : toil. 
 
 1. [In some cases where oi is not accented, it is a two 
 letter monothong where it represents the sound of t in pin : 
 avoidupois, connoisseur, choir, tortois. 
 
 2. [Where oi is divided by a want of union in the two 
 vowel sounds, it surrenders its compound character ; as in 
 sto-ic.] 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 37 
 
 On is equalled by { o in organ, and u in pass : rownd, fo?md, 
 sownd, wownd, ozmce, thou. 
 
 [On is a two letter lnonothong also.] 
 
 Ow is equalled by { o in organ, and u in pwss : toicn, now, 
 
 how, power, [town, nou, ho?/, power.] 
 
 (Ow is a two letter monotbong also, where it has the 
 sound of o in o-celot : know, Owe, [kno, OJ] 
 
 5. Oy is a two letter diphthong, and represents the same 
 vocal diphthong which is expressed by oi. 
 JJoy is equalled by { o in tomb, and e in emew; huoy. 
 
 [jBooc] 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. By what single letter is the monothong, aa, equalled? 
 
 2. How many sounds has aa ? 
 
 8. In what word does aa have the sound of a in a-corn ? 
 
 4. In what word does aa have the sound of a in axe ? 
 
 6. In what word does aa have the sound of a in arm ? 
 
 6. By what single letter is the monothong, ce, equalled ? 
 
 7. In what word does ce. have the sound of e in e-mew ? 
 
 8. In what word does m have the sound of e in pen ? 
 
 9. By what single letters is the monothong, at, equalled? 
 
 10. In what word does ai have the sound of a in a-corn? 
 
 11. In what word does ai have the sound of a in axe ? 
 
 12. In what word does ai have the sound of e in pen ? 
 18. In what word does ai have the sound of i in pm ? 
 
 14. In what word does ai have the sound of u in wrn ? 
 
 15. By what single letter is the monothong, ao, equalled ? 
 
 16. In what word does ao have the sound of a in a-corn? 
 
 17. By what single letters is the monothong, au, equalled? 
 
 18. In what word does au have the sound of a in awl ? 
 
 19. In what word does au have the sound of a in axe ? 
 
 20. In what word does au have the sound of o in o-celot? 
 
 21. In what word does au have the sound of o in organ ? 
 
 22. In what word does au have the sound of a in a-corn ? 
 
 23. By what single letter is the monothong, au, equalled ? 
 
 24. In what word does au have the sound of a in all ? 
 
 25. By what single letter is the monothong, ay, equalled ? 
 
 26. In what word does ay have the Bound of a in a-corn ? 
 
 27. In what word does ay have the sound of e in pen ? 
 
 28. In what word does ay have the sound of e in e-mew ? 
 
 29. By what single letters is the monothong, ea, equalled ? 
 
 30. In what word docs ea have the sound of e in e-mew? 
 
 31. In what word does ea have the sound of e in pen ? 
 
 32. In what word does ea have the sound of a in a-corn ? 
 
 4 
 
38 ALPHAOLOOY. 
 
 33. In what word does ea have the sound of a in axe? 
 
 34. In what word does ea have the sound of u in wra? 
 
 35. By what single letters is the three letter monothong, eau y 
 equalled ? 
 
 36. In what word does eau have the sound of o in ocelot ? 
 
 37. In what word does eau have the sound of u in w-nicorn ? 
 
 38. By what single letters is the two letter monothong, ee, 
 equalled ? 
 
 39. In what word does ee have the sound of e in e-mew ? 
 
 40. In what word does ee have the sound of a in a-corn ? 
 
 41. By what single letters is the monothong, ei, equalled? 
 
 42. In what word does ei have the sound of a in a-corn ? 
 
 43. In what word does ei have the sound of e in c-mew ? 
 
 44. In what word does ei have the sound of i in i-bex ? 
 
 45. In what word does ei have the sound of i in ihdian ? 
 
 46. In what word does ei have the sound of e in pen ? 
 
 47. By what single letters is the monothong, eo, equalled ? 
 
 48. In what word does eo have the sound of e in e-mew ? 
 
 49. In what word does eo have the sound of e in pen ? 
 60. In what word does eo have the sound of o in o-celot? 
 
 51. In what word does eo have the sound of o in organ? 
 
 52. In what word does eo have the sound of u in urn ? 
 
 53. By what single letters is the monothong, eu, equalled ? 
 
 54. In what word does eu have the sound of u in w-nicorn? 
 
 55. In what word does eu have the sound of o in tomb ? 
 
 56. By what single letters is the monothong, ew, equalled ? 
 
 57. In what word does eu have the sound of o in o-celot ? 
 
 58. In what word does eu have the sound of u in w-nicorn ? 
 
 59. In what word does eu have the sound of o in tomb ? 
 
 60. Is eu ever a diphthong? 
 
 61. Is ew ever a diphthong? 
 
 62. Is eu a two, or a three letter diphthong? 
 
 63. By what single letters is the monothong, ey, equalled? 
 
 64. In what word does ey have the sound of a in a-corn ? 
 
 65. In what word does ey have the sound of e in e-mew ? 
 
 66. In what word does ey have the sound of i in i-bex ? 
 
 67. By what single letters is the two letter monothong, ie, 
 equalled ? 
 
 68. In what word does ie have the sound of i in z-bex ? 
 
 69. In what word does ie have the sound of e in e-mew ? 
 
 70. By what single letter is the three letter monothong, ieu, 
 equalled ? 
 
 71. In what word does ieu have the sound of u in w-nicorn? 
 
 72. By what single letter is the three letter monothong, iew, 
 equalled ? 
 
 73. In what word does iew have the sound of u in w-nicorn ? 
 
 74. By what single letters is the two letter monothong, on, 
 equalled ? 
 
 75. In what word does oa have the sound of o in o-celot ? 
 
 76. In what word does oa have the sound of a in awl ? 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 39 
 
 77. By what single letters is the monothong «, equalled ? 
 
 78. In what word does ce have the sound of o in o-celot ? 
 
 79. In what word does oe have the sound of o in tomb ? 
 
 80. In what word does 02 have the sound of e in «-mew ? 
 
 81. In what word does os have the sound of e in p«i? 
 
 82. By what single letters is the monothong, oo, equalled ? 
 
 83. In what word has oo the sound of o in tomb? 
 
 84. In what word has oo the sound of o in o-celot? 
 
 85. In what word has oo the sound of u in urn ? 
 
 86. By what single letters is the monothong, ou, equalled ? 
 
 87. In what word has ou the sound of u in urn ? 
 
 88. In what word has ou the sound of a in all ? 
 
 89. In what word has ou the sound of o in o-celot? 
 
 90. In what word has ou the sound of o in organ? 
 
 91. In what word has ou the sound of o in tomb ? 
 
 92. Is ou generally a two letter diphthong ? 
 
 93. By what single letter is the monothong, ow, equalled ? 
 
 94. What is ow in general ? 
 
 95. What is oy ? 
 
 96. By what single letters is the monothong, ua, equalled ? 
 
 97. In what word does ua have the sound of a in arm : 
 
 98. In what word does ua have the sound of a in axe ? 
 
 99. In what word does ua have the sound of e in pen ? 
 
 100. In what word does ua have the sound of u in u-nicorn ? 
 
 101. By what single letters is the monothong, ue, equalled? 
 
 102. In what word is ue equalled by u in u-nicorn? 
 
 103. In what word is ue equalled by e in pen ? 
 
 104. In what word does ui have the sound of i in i-bex? 
 
 105. In what word does ui have the sound of i in pin ? 
 
 106. In what word does ui have the sound of u in u-nicorn ? 
 
 107. In what word does uy have the sound of i in i-bex ? 
 
 108. In what word does uy have the sound of e in pen ? 
 
 109. In what instance is ay a two letter diphthong ? 
 
 110. What is oi in toil? 
 
 111. What is ay in ay ? 
 
 112. What is oi where oi represents the sound of l in pin? 
 
 113. What is oi in connoisseur t 
 
 1 14. Where does oi surrender its compound character ? 
 
 115. Is oi taken together in stoic ? 
 
 116. What is ou in round? 
 
 117. Is ou ever a monothong? 
 
 118. What is ow in town, down, $c. ? 
 
 119. Where is ow a two letter monothong? 
 
 120. What is oy? 
 
 121. What is uoy in buoy ? [Booe.] 
 
40 ALPIIAOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 If, as is contended under page 30, every combination of 
 letters, which represents articulate sound, is a distinct letter, 
 the English alphabet contains fifty -nine distinct letters. 
 There are thirty-nine combinations of the vowel letters, 
 and twenty of the consonant letters. 
 
 And if, as is contended under page 30, each alphabeti- 
 cal character, whether simple, or compound, is as many dis- 
 tinct letters as it represents different sounds, the simple 
 characters amount to about seventy-two different letters, and 
 the compound ones, to about one hundred and sixty-two. 
 
 But it may be said that, as one man cannot become two 
 men by following two different vocations, so one alphabeti- 
 cal character cannot become two letters by representing two 
 distinct sounds. It is obvious that D. may become two 
 mechanics by following two mechanical branches of busi- 
 ness. If he makes shoes, he is a shoemaker ; and, if he 
 makes machines, he is a machinist. As a member of the 
 great human family, D. is only one. But, as a maker, as a 
 producer, he is two. So also as a component part of a 
 twenty-six letter alphabet, a is only one ; but as the repre- 
 sentative of articulate sounds, a is eight. If a represents a 
 long sound in one word, and a short sound in another word, 
 the one character becomes two representatives : it is a long 
 sound representative, and a short sound representative. 
 Here, however, it may be said that the number of letters in 
 a language, should be decided, not by the number of differ- 
 ent articulate sounds which each character is employed to 
 represent, but by the peculiar construction of each character. 
 Hence a is but one letter, because it has a uniform figure ! 
 True, a in a-corn, has the same shape with a in oil. But, 
 as the science of Grammar professes to treat of letters as the 
 representatives of articulate sounds, would it not be absurd 
 indeed to reject, to disregard, the sounds which letters repre- 
 sent, in an attempt to decide the number of letters of a cer- 
 tain language ? If the different characters of letters, are 
 decided by the nature of the sounds which they represent, 
 should not the number of letters be determined by the num- 
 ber of different sounds which they express ? 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 41 
 
 A JUST VIEW OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 
 
 Maple 
 
 Letters. 
 
 Words in which the same 
 character is different letters. 
 
 1. a acorn. 
 
 2. a arm. [.4A.] 
 
 3. a all. 
 
 4. a what, [whot] o. 
 
 6. a woman, [woman.] u. 
 
 6. a axe. 
 
 7. a many, [men-y.] e. 
 
 8. a village, [villige.] i. 
 
 1. b oat 
 
 1. e 
 
 2. e 
 
 3. e 
 
 4. e 
 
 cat [&at] k. 
 cider. [«der.] t. 
 discern, [diszern.] z. 
 ocean. [o*Aan.] o. 
 
 dog. 
 
 faceo\ [fastf.] t. 
 solrfier. [solyier.] y. 
 education, [education.]/. 
 
 e-mew. 
 
 elephant. 
 
 open. 
 
 acre, [acur.] w. 
 
 /ork. 
 of. [ov 
 
 •] 
 
 yun. 
 
 yiraffe. [/iraf.]/. 
 
 1. h Aat. 
 
 1. i i-bex. 
 
 2. i pin. 
 
 3. i orient [ore-en.] e. 
 
 4. i flirt [Hurt.] u. 
 
 i. j y^g. 
 
 2. j hallelujah, [yah.] y. 
 
 1. k Aey. 
 
 1. 1 ft on. 
 
 1. m mortar. 
 
 2. m comptroller, [controller] n. 
 
 Compound Words in which the same 
 Letter combination is different 
 
 rowels. letters. 
 
 1. aa .4aron. 
 
 2. aa Isaac. 
 8. aa baa. 
 
 1. ae paean, [pe-an.] e. 
 
 2. ae et caetera. [et cetera.] e. 
 
 1. ai bail. 
 
 2. ai fountain, [fountin.] i. 
 
 3. ai said, [sed.] e. 
 
 4. ai Britain. [Britun.] u. 
 
 1. ao gaol, [jail.] at. 
 
 1. aa 
 
 2. an 
 
 3. an 
 
 cause. 
 
 aunt, [ant.] a. 
 
 gauge, [gage.] a. 
 
 1. aw batrl. [ball.] a. 
 
 [8es.] e. 
 day. [da.] a. 
 
 says 
 
 1. ay 
 
 2. ay 
 
 3. ay quay, [key.] e. 
 
 1. aye [aye.1 as. 
 
 1. ea fear, [feer.] ee. 
 
 2. ea health, [helth.] e. 
 
 3. ea steak, [stake.] a. 
 
 4. ea heart [hart] a. 
 
 6. ea vengeance. [vengance.]a. 
 
 1. eau bean, [bo.] o. 
 
 2. eau beauty, [baty.] u. 
 
 1. ee sheep. 
 
 1. ei 
 
 2. ei 
 
 3. ei 
 
 4. ei 
 
 5. ei 
 
 1. eo 
 
 2. eo 
 
 3. eo 
 
 4. eo 
 
 6. eo 
 
 4* 
 
 reign, [rane.] a. 
 deceit, [decete.] e. 
 height, [hite.] i. 
 foreign, [form.] i. 
 nonpareil, [nonparel.] e. 
 
 people. [pcple.J e. 
 feoffment, [feffment] e. 
 yeoman, [yoman.] o. 
 leopard, [lepard.] e. 
 feod. [fade.] u.. 
 
42 
 
 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 Simple Words in which the same 
 
 Letters. character is different letters. 
 
 1. n wet. 
 
 2. n think. 
 
 1. o ocelot. 
 
 2. o tomb, [toom.] oo. 
 8. o odd. 
 
 4. o organ. 
 
 6. o son. [sun.] u. 
 
 6. o bacon, [ba&n.] kn. 
 
 7. o not. 
 
 1. p j?en. 
 
 1. q ouail. 
 
 2. q risque. [ris&.] k. 
 
 1. r rabbit. 
 
 2. r massacre, [massacer.] er. 
 
 3. r far. 
 
 1. s stove. 
 
 2. s nasal, [nazal.] z. 
 
 3. s sure. [sAure.] sh. 
 
 1. t tfop. 
 
 2. t nature. [nateAure.] tch. 
 
 1. vl wnicorn. 
 
 2. u pwss. 
 
 3. u busy, [biz-y.] h. 
 
 4. u ruminate, [roommate. J oo 
 
 1. v vane. 
 
 1. 
 
 wind. 
 
 1. x ox. [o&s.] Jcs. 
 
 2. x exstasy. [ecstasy.] eh. 
 
 3. x ex-inanite. [eyzinanite.]ey, 
 
 4. x .Zenophon. [Zenophon.] z. 
 6. x extatical. [eAstatical.] ek. 
 
 1. y Fork. 
 
 2. y cry. [crt.] i. 
 
 3. y system, [system.] i. 
 
 4. y mercy, [merce.] e. 
 
 1. z zebra. 
 
 Compound Words in which the same 
 Letter combination is different 
 
 vowels. letters. 
 
 6. eo Georgic. [Gorgic] o. 
 
 7. eo surgeon, [surjwn.] u. 
 
 8. eo galleon, [galloon.] oo. 
 
 1. eou duteows. [dutews.] eu. 
 1. eu fewd. [fade.] u. 
 
 1. ew crew, [croo.] oo. 
 
 2. ew new. [nw.] u. 
 
 3. ew sew. [sow.] o. 
 
 1. ewe ewe. [w.] u. 
 
 1. ey prey, [pray.] a. 
 
 2. ey galley, [galle.] e. 
 
 1. eye eye. [i.] i. 
 
 1. ia poniard, [ponyard.] ya. 
 
 2. ia diamond, i. 
 
 3. ia parliament, [parliment.]*. 
 
 1. ie grieve, [greve.] e. 
 
 2. ie die. [di.] i. 
 
 3. ie friend, [frend.] e. 
 
 4. ie variegate, [vary egate.]y«. 
 
 5. ie thirtieth, [thirte-eth. ] e-e. 
 
 6. ie brazier, [braze-ywr.] yu. 
 
 1. ieu lieu. [1m.] u. 
 
 2. ieu lieutenant, [leutenant.] ev. 
 
 1. iew view?, [vw.] u. 
 
 1. io marchioness, [oness.] u. 
 
 2. io cushion, [cushin.] i. 
 
 3. io omission. [oniissAwn.] shu. 
 
 4. io million, minion. 
 
 5. io question. [que8tshuii.]tshii. 
 5. io question, [questytin.] yu. 
 
 1. iou precious, [preshws.] u. 
 
 2. iou glorious, [glore-us.] e-u, 
 
 1. oa boat, [bote.] o. 
 
 2. oa broad. [braud.] au. 
 

 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 Compound Letter 
 vowels. 
 
 Words in which the same co 
 is different letters, 
 
 1. oe 
 
 2. oe 
 
 3. oe 
 
 4. oe 
 
 antoe-ci. [an-te-ci.] e. 
 throe, [thro.] o. 
 canoe, [canoo.] oo. 
 does, [duz.] u. 
 
 1. oei 
 
 oeiliads. [e-il-yads.] e. 
 
 1. oeu 
 
 manoeuvre, [manoover.] oo. 
 
 43 
 
 1 
 
 oi 
 
 2. 
 
 oi 
 
 8. 
 
 oi 
 
 4. 
 
 oi 
 
 4. 
 
 oi 
 
 5. 
 
 oi 
 
 5. 
 
 oi 
 
 6. 
 
 oi 
 
 1. 
 
 00 
 
 2. 
 
 00 
 
 8. 
 
 00 
 
 4. 
 
 00 
 
 4. 
 
 00 
 
 1. 
 
 ou 
 
 2. 
 
 ou 
 
 3. 
 
 ou 
 
 4. 
 
 ou 
 
 5. 
 
 ou 
 
 6. 
 
 ou 
 
 7. 
 
 ou 
 
 1. 
 
 ow 
 
 2. 
 
 ow 
 
 3. 
 
 ow 
 
 1. 
 
 ua 
 
 2. 
 
 ua 
 
 3. 
 
 ua 
 
 4. 
 
 ua 
 
 5. 
 
 ua 
 
 voice, boil, toil. 
 turquoise, [turkees.] ee. 
 tortoise, [tor-tiz.] i. 
 avoirdupois, [aver-du-pois.] e. 
 connoisseur, [connesseur.] e. 
 shamois. [shammee.] ee. 
 chamois, [chammee.] ee. 
 devoir, [dev-wor.] w. 
 
 moon, fool, rood, soot, moor, 
 wool, [wtil.] u, 
 
 blood, flood, [bind.] u. [flwd.] u. 
 door, floor, [dore.] o. [flore. J o. 
 moor, [more.] o. (not right.') 
 
 ground, found, bound. 
 
 adjourn, [adjurn.] u. 
 
 croup, aggroup. [croop, aggroop.] oo. 
 
 though, [tho.] o. 
 
 brought, ought, sought. 
 
 could, would, [coold, woold.] oo. 
 
 lough, shough. [lock, shock.] o. 
 
 now, co a?, bo U7, shower, tower, 
 grow, low, prow, [gro, lo, pro.] o. 
 prowl, [proul.] ou. 
 
 assuage, [ass wage.] wa. 
 
 guard, [gard.] a. 
 
 mantua. 
 
 mantuamaker. [mantumaker.] u. 
 
 victuals, [vittles.] e. 
 
14 
 
 
 ALPIIAOLOGY. 
 
 Compound Letter 
 vowels. 
 
 Words in which the same combination 
 is different letters. 
 
 1. 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 ue 
 ue 
 ue 
 
 cons!*etude. [consuetude.] we. 
 to conq?*er. [conkicer.] we. 
 cue j ensue, [cm, ensw.] u. 
 
 3. 
 4. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 6. 
 6 
 6. 
 7. 
 
 ue 
 ue 
 ue 
 ue 
 ue 
 ue 
 ue 
 ue 
 ue 
 
 accrue, [accroo.] oo. 
 argue, [argew.] ew. 
 Tuesday. [Tuesday.] we. 
 guess, [gess.] e. 
 colleague, [colleag.] 
 pedagogue, [pedagog.] 
 oblique, [oblike.] 
 antique, [anteek.] 
 true, [troo.] oo. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 ui 
 ui 
 ui 
 ui 
 ui 
 
 languid, [languid.] wi. 
 guide, [gide.] i. (g is here hard.) 
 build, [bild.] i. (short t.) 
 juice, [jewse.] w. 
 bruise, [broose.] oo. 
 
 1. 
 
 uo 
 
 quote, [kuwte.] wo. 
 
 1. 
 
 uy 
 
 buy. [by.] y. 
 
 1. 
 
 uoy 
 
 huoy. [bu?oy.] w. 
 
 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 Compound Letter 
 Consonants. 
 
 An application of the Compound Letter 
 Consonants. 
 
 1. 
 
 bb 
 
 a&6, ebb. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 ch 
 ch 
 ch 
 ch 
 
 mche. [nitsk.~\ sh. 
 ostricA. [ostrie^e.] dge. 
 cAaos. [A-aos.] k. 
 schedule, [skedule.] k. 
 
 1. 
 
 ck 
 
 pac&, nick. \ik.~\ 
 
 1. 
 
 dd 
 
 add. 
 
 1. 
 
 ff 
 
 °ff> sta # 
 
 1. 
 
 gg 
 
 W- 
 

 
 ALPHAOLOGY. 45 
 
 Compound Letter 
 Consonants. 
 
 An application of the Compound Letter 
 Consonants. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 gn 
 g h 
 
 gJiost, burgh, [gost, burg."] g. 
 
 draught, [dra/t.]/. 
 
 high, furlon^A. [hi, furlow.] 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 8. 
 
 ght 
 ght 
 gth 
 
 draught, [draft.']/, 
 taught, [taut.] t. 
 length, lengthen. 
 
 1. 
 
 11 
 
 till, mill, hll, all. 
 
 1. 
 
 nn 
 
 inn. (A public house.) 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 ph 
 ph 
 
 phantom, [/antom.]/. 
 Stephen. [Steven.] v. 
 dip/ithong. [dipthong.] p. 
 apqp/ithegm. [apothegm.] 
 
 1. 
 
 pt 
 
 wept. 
 
 1. 
 
 rr 
 
 myrrh. 
 
 1. 
 
 rh 
 
 rAetoric. [retoric.] 
 
 1. 
 
 ss 
 
 pass, fuss, puss. 
 
 1. 
 
 Bh 
 
 s/tall, bookisA. 
 
 1. 
 
 tt 
 
 butt. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 th 
 til 
 th 
 
 thank, think, panther. 
 bre^ren, worthy, father. 
 TAomas. [Tbinas.] T. 
 
 1. 
 
 wh 
 
 when, who. [hwen, hwo.] hw. 
 
 1. 
 
 wr 
 
 write, [rite.] r. 
 
 1. 
 
 zz 
 
 buzz. 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 SOUNDS OP THE COMPOUND LETTER VOWELS. 
 
 1. Aa, 
 
 1. Aa has a long slender sound, as in ^laron. 
 
 2. Aa has a shortish flat sound, as heard in the word baa. 
 
46 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 3. Aa has a shortish sharp sound, as heard in Balaam, 
 Canaan, Isaac. 
 
 2. Ae. 
 
 1. Ae has the long open e sound, as heard in amigma, 
 Cassar, pagans, Irenams, — the short close e sound in dias- 
 resis, &c. 
 
 3. At. 
 
 1. At has the long slender sound of long a, as heard in 
 trail, bail, vain. 
 
 2. Ai, in a terminating syllable which is not accented, 
 has the short close sound of i, as in certam, mountain. 
 
 3. Ai has the short close sound of e, as in agam, agamst, 
 mid. 
 
 4. Ao. 
 
 1. Ao has the long open sound of a, as in gaol. 
 
 5. Au. 
 
 1. Au has the shortish broad sound of a, as in cause, 
 aught, caught. 
 
 2. Where au comes before n, when n is followed by a 
 consonant, it has the shortish flat sound of a, as in laundry, 
 launch, aunt. 
 
 6. Aw. 
 
 1. Aw has the shortish broad a sound, as in drau?, pau>, 
 lau 1 . 
 
 7. Ay. 
 
 1. Ay, like a/, has the long open a sound, as in pray, re- 
 pay, delay. 
 
 2. Ay has the short close e sound, as in say, sayst, says. 
 [Quay, pronounced key.] 
 
 8. Ea. 
 
 1. Ea generally has the long open e sound, as in tea, fear, 
 pea, peach, teach, reach. 
 
 2. Ea not unfrequently has the short close e sound, as in 
 wealth, health. 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 47 
 
 3. In a few instances, ea has the long open a sound, as in 
 steak, break, bear. 
 
 4. When ea is not accented, it has the short obtuse u 
 sound, as in vengeance, pageant. 
 
 5. In a few cases, ea has the shortish flat a sound, as in 
 heart, hearth, hearken. 
 
 9. Eau. 
 
 1. Eau has the long open o sound, as in beau, bureau. 
 
 2. Eau has the long open u sound, as in beauty, beauti- 
 fully. 
 
 10. Ee. 
 
 1. Ee has the long open e sound, as in eel, see. 
 
 11. EL 
 
 1. El has the long open a sound, as in veil, reign. 
 
 2. El has the long open e sound, as in neither, deceit, seize. 
 
 3. In some instances, ci has the long open i sound, as in 
 height, sleight. 
 
 4. In many cases in which the syllable is not accented, ei 
 has the short close i sound, as in surfeit, foreign. 
 
 5. In a few instances, ei has the short close e sound, as in 
 heifer, nonpareil. 
 
 12. Eo. 
 
 1. Eo has the long open e sound, as in people, — the short 
 close e sound, as in leopard, — the long open o sound, as in 
 yeoman, — the short close o sound, as in George, — the short 
 close u sound, as in puncheon. 
 
 13. Eu. 
 
 1. Eu has the long open u sound, as in feud, deuce. 
 
 14. Ew. 
 
 1. Ew like eu, has the long open u sound, as in Jew, new, 
 a ewer, drew, screw. [Ew, and eu are never pronounced 
 like oo.~\ 
 
 2 In a few instances, ew has the long open o sound, as in 
 sew, shew, Shewsbury. 
 
48 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 15. Ey. 
 
 1. Ey, in an accented syllable has the long open a sound, 
 as in prey, survey, hey. 
 
 2. Ey, in an unaccented syllable, has the long open e 
 sound, as in valley, money, key, ley. [Spelled by many, lay, 
 and by some lea : a meadow, or field.] 
 
 3. In eye, ey has the long open i sound. 
 
 16. Ch. 
 
 1. Ch has the tch sound as in c/turch, charge. 
 
 2. In words which are made from the learned languages, 
 ch has the k sound, as in scAeme, character, catecAise, cAyle, 
 schedule. 
 
 [If schedule is pronounced seo\ile, ch is silent — but if it is 
 pronounced s&edule, ch has the h sound.] 
 
 3. In words of direct French origin, ch has the sh sound, 
 as in niacAine, cAaise. 
 
 4. Ch is silent in yac7tt, scAism, dracAm. 
 
 5. When ch is preceded by ar, it has the h sound, as 
 areAangel, archives, arcAipelago. 
 
 6. In a few instances ch, in this combination, has the tch 
 sound : arcAed, arcAer, arcAery, arcAenemy, niarcA. 
 
 17. Ff. 
 
 1. FfhsLS, the sound of /in /an, as in sta$ off. 
 
 18. Gh. 
 
 1. At the beginning of a word, gh has the hard g sound, 
 as in ghost. 
 
 2. At the end of words, gh often has the sound of/ in 
 /an, as in tough, rough, laugh. 
 
 3. In individual names, final gh has the hard sound of g, 
 as in Chambersbur</A. [burc/.] 
 
 4. Gh is often silent, as in high, plou</A, hough, throuaA, 
 mi^Aty, hright, sight, fight. 
 
 19. le. 
 
 1. Ie final, has the long open % sound, as m tie, \ie, pie. 
 
 2. Ie, when followed by another letter, has the long open 
 e sound, as in thief, relief, grenadier. 
 
ALPHAOLOGT. 49 
 
 20. leu. 
 
 1. leu has the long open u sound, as in lieu, adieu. 
 
 21. lew. 
 
 1. lew has the long open u sound, as in view, review. 
 
 22. Oa. 
 
 I. Oa, except in brood, groat, where it has the broad a 
 sound, has the long open o sound, as in boat, coat, loaf. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1 . How many sounds has aa f 
 
 2. What are the sounds of aa f 
 
 3. What sounds has ce f 
 
 4. What sounds has ait 
 6. What sounds has ao t 
 
 6. What sounds has au? 
 
 7. What sounds has aw f 
 
 8. What sounds has ay t 
 
 9. What sound has ay in day ? 
 10. What sound has aw in draw ? 
 
 II. What sound has aa in baa ? 
 
 12. What sound has aa in Aaron? 
 
 13. What sound has ay in say, says, and sayst? 
 
 14. What sound has at in again? 
 
 15. What sound has ch in church ? 
 
 16. What sound has ch in chyle? 
 
 17. What sound has ch in archives ? 
 
 18. What sound has ch in schedule? 
 
 19. What sound has ea in ear ? 
 
 20. What sound has ea in health ? 
 
 21. What sound has ea in steak? 
 
 22. What sound has ea in heart? 
 
 23. What sound has ea in vengeance ? 
 
 24. What sound has eau in flambeau ? 
 
 25. What sound has eau in beauty ? 
 
 26. What sound has ee in tree ? 
 
 [The contraction e'er, is pronounced air — and nJer, 
 nair.~\ 
 
 27. What sound has ex in reign ? 
 
 28. What sound has ei in deceit ? 
 
 29. What sound has «* in height ? 
 
 30. What sound has ei in foreign ? 
 81. What sound has ei in nonpareil ? 
 
 5 
 
f>0 AI.PIIAOLOGY. 
 
 22. What sound has eo in feofment? 
 
 33. What sound hay eo in yeoman? 
 
 34. What sound has eo in people ? 
 
 35. What sound has eo in George ? 
 80. What sound has eo in dungeon ? 
 
 37. What sound has eu in feud ? 
 
 38. What sound has eu in rheumatism ? 
 3 9. What sound has ew in drew ? 
 
 40. What sound has ew in sew? 
 
 41. What sound has ew in screw ? 
 
 42. What sound has ey in bey, prey, and survey? 
 
 43. What sound has ey in abey ? 
 
 44. What sound has ey in eye ? 
 
 45. What sound has gh in ghost? 
 
 46. What sound has gh in burgh ? 
 
 47. What sound has gh in plough ? 
 
 48. What sound has gh in laugh, rough, tough ? 
 
 49. What sound has gh in lough, and hough ? 
 
 [G7t here, has the sound of A*.] 
 
 50. What sound has ie in die, lie, pie ? 
 
 51. What sound has ie in grief, relief? 
 
 52. What sound has ieu in lieu ? 
 63. What sound has few in view ? 
 54. What sound has o« in boat ? 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 23. Op. 
 
 1 . Of, when final, has the long open o sound, as in doe, 
 f'A', throe. 
 
 2. In shoe, and canoe, oe has the sound of oo. 
 
 •>. Oc, a Latin two letter monothong, has the long open 
 (- sound, as in antceci, fetus. 
 
 4. Oe } a Latin two letter monothong, has the short close 
 e sound, as in fetid. 
 
 5. Oe in the verb does, has the short sound of u. 
 
 24. 01 
 
 1 . 01. a two letter diphthong, has the short close o sound, 
 and the long open e sound, as in voice, rejoice, boil, co/1, 
 
 2. 0), when not accented, has the short close i sound, as 
 in avoi'rdupo/s, connoisseur, torto/se, choir. 
 
ALriiAOLOGY. 51 
 
 J**! 25. Oo. 
 
 1. Oo gcuerally has the long slender sound of o in tomb, 
 as in too, soon, moon. 
 
 2. Oo has the short slender oo sound, as in fool, "wool, 
 good, wood. 
 
 3. Oo has the short close u sound, as in blood, flood. 
 
 4. Oo has the long open o sound, as in door, floor. 
 
 26. Ou. 
 
 1. Ou has the short close o sound, and the slender o sound, 
 as in sound, thou, ounce. 
 
 2. On, as a two letter monothong, has the short close u 
 sound, as in tough, young, flourish, rough. 
 
 3. Ou, as a two letter monothong, has the shortish broad 
 a sound, as in thought, ought, bought. 
 
 4. Ou, as a two letter monothong, has the long open o 
 sound, as in though, dough, court, fould, mould. 
 
 5. Ou, as a two letter monothong, has the short close o 
 sound, as in trough, cough, lough, shough. 
 
 0. Ou, as a two letter monothong, has the slender o, or 
 the oo sound, as in soup, through, you. 
 
 7. Ou, as a two letter monothong, has the short oo sound, 
 as in would, could, should. 
 
 27. Ow. 
 
 1 . Ow, as a two letter diphthong, has the sound of ow, aa 
 in down, broum, dowry, shower. 
 
 2. Ow, as a two letter monothong, has the long open o 
 sound, as in owe, know. 
 
 28. Oy. 
 
 1. Oy is a two letter diphthong, and has the sounds of ol 
 in voice, rejoice, as in oyster, toy. [Voycc, rejoyce] 
 
 29. Th. 
 
 1. Th, inceptive, has a hardish sharp sound, as in th<\nk, 
 //tick, Sunder, th\\\g, th'mV. 
 
 2. Th iu thee, that, the, than, then, their, these, there, 
 flutter, this, thine, they, th»u, thov, thus, thy has its soft flat 
 sound. 
 
52 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 3. Th, final, has its hardish sharp sound, as in sou*£, dea$, 
 breatfA, mou^. 
 
 4. The final th in beneath, booth, with, sooth, smooth, be- 
 queath, &c, has its flat soft sound. 
 
 5. The middle th, when preceded, or followed by a conso- 
 nant, is sharp, as in a^Awart, swartAy. 
 
 6. The middle th in the following words, has it flat soft 
 sound : brethern, burthen, farther, farthing, worthy, northern, 
 mother. 
 
 7. In words which are purely English, th between two 
 vowel letters generally has its flatish soft sound, as in 
 whiter, ga^Aer, nei^Aer. 
 
 8. In words which are derived from the learned lan- 
 guages, th has its hardish sharp sound, as in apa^y, ei^er, 
 neither, a^eist, sympa^y, A^Aens, apo^Aecary. 
 
 9. Th has the sound of t as in ^Aomas, Barnes, $yme, 
 astfmia, phtf/iisic. 
 
 30. Ph. 
 
 1. Ph has the sound of / in /an, as in Philin, philoso- 
 phy, philanthropy. 
 
 2. In nephew, and Steven, ph has the sound of v, 
 [Nevew, Steven.] 
 
 3. Ph is entirely silent in apophthegm, phthisis, phthisio. 
 [Apothegm, tisis, tisic.~\ 
 
 31. Ua. 
 
 1. Ua has the shortish sharp a sound, as in guard. 
 
 2. Ua has the short close a sound, as in guarantee, pi- 
 quant. 
 
 3. Ua has the short obscure e sound, as in victuals. 
 
 4. Ua has the long open u sound, as in mantwamaker. 
 [Mantumaker.] 
 
 5. Ua, as a two letter diphthong, has the sound, of w f 
 and of long slender a, as in persuade, [persuade.] 
 
 32. Ue. 
 
 1. Ue has the long open u sound, as in hlue, ague, ensue. 
 
 2. Ue has the short close e sound, as in guest. 
 
 3. Ue has the obscure e sound, as in league, intrigue, 
 antique. 
 
ALPEIAOLOGY. 6S 
 
 4. Ue, as a two letter diphthong, has the sound of %o, and 
 of long e, as in query, fqu'ery.] 
 
 5. Ue, when preceded by r or by rh, has the long open u 
 ,ound, as in rue, rueful, true, rueing. 
 
 3. Ui. 
 
 1. t'i has the long open i sound, as in guide, guile. 
 
 2. Ui has the short close i sound, as in conduit, circuit. 
 
 3. Ui has the long open u sound, as in fruit, juice, suit. 
 
 4. Ui, as a two letter diphthong, has the sound of w, and 
 of long open i as in quiet, [quiet.] 
 
 5. Ui, as a two letter diphthong, has the sound of w, and 
 of short close i, as in languid, [languud.] 
 
 6. Ui, when preceded by r, or by rh, has the long open 
 u sound, as in fruit, fruitful. 
 
 34. Uo. 
 
 1. Uo, as a two letter diphthong, has the sound of w, and 
 of long open o, as in quote. [qu?ote.] 
 
 35. Uy. 
 
 1. Uy has the long open y sound, as in hvy. 
 
 2. Uy has the feeble sound of y, or the long open sound 
 of e, as in plaguy. 
 
 3. Uy, as a two letter diphthong, has the sound of 10, and 
 of long open e, as in obloquy, [obloquy.] 
 
 <l 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What sound has final oe? 
 
 t3. What sound has oe in shoe, and canoe? 
 
 3. What sound has oe as a two letter Latin diphthong ? 
 
 4. What sound has oe as a two letter Latin monothong ? 
 6. What sound has ei as a two letter diphthong ? 
 
 6. What sound has oi when it is not accented? 
 
 7. What sound does 00 generally have ? 
 
 8. Does 00 ever have the short slender 00 sound ? 
 
 9. Does 00 ever have the short close u sound ? 
 
 10. Does 00 ever have the long open sound ? 
 
 11. Is ou ever a diphthong? 
 
 12. Is this compound letter ever a monothong? 
 
 13. Is ou a diphthong, or a monothong, in sound? 
 
 14. Of what two simple letters has vu the sound in ounce? 
 16. Is ou a monothong in tough f 
 
 16. Why ? [ Continued m p. 6tJ. ] 
 "5* 
 
54 
 
 ALPHAOLOGY. 
 LETTER CLASSISCOPE. 
 
 Alphabet. 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 Conso- 
 nants. 
 
 Mutes. 
 
 Semi- 
 vowels. 
 
 Liquids. 
 
 Palatals. 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 b 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 
 < 
 
 d 
 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 g 
 h 
 
 
 g 
 h 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 J 
 
 k 
 
 
 J 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 q 
 
 
 q 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 z 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 
 LETTER CLASSISCOPE. 
 
 55 
 
 Labials. 
 
 Dentals. 
 
 Guttural*. 
 
 Nasals. 
 
 Unguals. 
 
 Mono- 
 thongs. 
 
 Diph- 
 thongs. 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 aa 
 ae 
 ai 
 ao 
 
 ay 
 
 f 
 
 
 g 
 k 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 au 
 
 aw 
 
 ay 
 
 ea 
 
 eau 
 
 ee 
 
 eo 
 
 m 
 
 ew 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 ey 
 
 oi 
 
 P 
 
 
 q 
 
 
 
 ieu 
 iew 
 
 ou 
 ow 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 oa 
 oe 
 
 oy 
 ua 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 00 
 
 ue 
 ui 
 
 V 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 
 ou 
 
 010 
 
 ua 
 ue 
 ui 
 
 uo 
 
 uoy 
 
 uy 
 
56 ALPI1A0L0GY. 
 
 [Because on in tough represents but one simple sound.] 
 
 17. What simple letter would supply the place of ou in rough ? 
 [Close short w.J 
 
 18. Has ou, us a monothong, the shortish broad a sound ? 
 
 19. In what instance has ou the long open o sound ? 
 
 20. Does this monothong ever have the short close o sound ? 
 
 21. What sound has ou in tough ? 
 
 22. What somad has ou in soup, and you? 
 
 23. Why is ou a monothong in soup, through, you, and your? 
 
 [Because it represents one sound — moiws, one, thoyyos, 
 sound.] 
 
 24. What sound has ou as a monothong ? 
 
 25. Is ow a diphthong ? 
 
 2G. What sound has ow as a diphthong ? 
 
 27. What 6ound has ow as a monothong 2 
 
 28. What is oy ? 
 
 29. What sou»d has ny ? 
 
 50. What sound has the inceptive th ? 
 
 51. What sound has the inceptive th in thee, that, than, then, &c. 
 
 52. What sou«d has the final th ? 
 
 53. In what words has the final th the flat soft sound ? 
 
 54. What soutid has the middle th where it is preceded, or fol- 
 lowed by a consonant ? 
 
 55. In what words has the middle th its flat soft sound ? 
 
 56. What sound has th when between two vowel letters in words 
 which are purely English? 
 
 37. What sound has th in words derived from the learned lan- 
 guages 2 
 
 38. Has th the sound of t in any instance ? 
 
 59. Does ph ever have the sound off? 
 
 40. What sound has ph in Stephen, and nephew? 
 
 41. In what words is ph entirely silent? 
 
 42. What sound has ua ? 
 
 43. What sound has ua in guard? 
 
 44. What sound has ua in guarantee? 
 
 45. What sound has ua in victuals ? 
 
 46. What sound has ua in mantuamaker? 
 
 47. Is ua ever a diphthong ? 
 
 48. When ua is a diphthong, what two simple letters does it 
 represent in souad ? 
 
 49. How many so\mds has ue as a monothong ? 
 
 60. What sound has ue in blue ? 
 
 61. What is ue in query ? 
 
 62. When ue is a diphthong, what two simple letters docs it 
 represent in sound ? 
 
 53. What is said in this Lesson of ui? 
 
 64. What sound has ui in guide ? 
 
 65. What two simple letters does ui, as a diphthong, represent 
 in. quiet, and in languid? 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 57 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 LETTER DEFINING. 
 
 Letter defining is the process of describing letters by 
 their characteristics } and function*, as the elements of literal 
 words. 
 
 SPECIMEN OF DEFINING LETTERS. 
 
 1. Name. 
 
 JVJ a simple consonant, semivowel, liquid, and nasal, 
 having its unringing sound. 
 
 a, a simple vowel, having its long smooth sound. 
 
 m, a simple consonant, semivowel, liquid, and nasal, 
 
 having its own nasal sound. 
 e, a simple vowel, having its short obscure sound, and 
 
 giving a the long smooth sound. 
 
 2. Rhubarb. 
 
 Rh, a compound letter consonant, a semivowel, liquid, and 
 
 lingual, having the rough r sound. 
 u, a simple vowel, having its oo sound. 
 
 b, a simple consonant, a mute, and a labial, having its 
 
 own labial sound. 
 
 a, a simple vowel, having its long rough sound. 
 
 r, a simple consonant, mute, semivowel, liquid, and 
 lingual, having its smooth sound. 
 
 b, a simple consonant, mute, and labial, having its own 
 
 labial sound. 
 
 3. Fog. 
 
 F, a simple consonant, semivowel, and labial, having its 
 
 ff sound. [Not its v sound.] 
 o, a simple vowel, having its short sound. 
 <j, a simple consonant, mute, semivowel, and guttural, 
 
 having its hard sound. 
 
58 ALl'IIAOLOGY. 
 
 4. Givest. 
 
 G, a simple consonant, mute, semivowel, and guttural, 
 
 having its hard sound. 
 i, a simple vowel, having its short sound. 
 v, a simple consonant, semivowel, and labial, having its 
 
 own labial sound. 
 e, a simple vowel, having its close obscure sound. 
 s f a simple consonant, & semivowel, and dental, having 
 
 its sharp hissing sound. 
 t, a simple consonant, mute, and dental, having its own 
 
 dental sound. 
 
 5. Voice. 
 
 V, a simple consonant, semivowel, and labial, having its 
 
 own labial sound. 
 oi, a two letter diphthong, having its close o, and its long 
 
 open e sound. 
 c, a simple consonant, mute, and semivowel, having its 
 
 soft hissing sound. 
 e, a simple vowel, have its obscure close sound. 
 
 6. Boat 
 
 B, a simple consonant, mute, and labial, having its own 
 
 labial sound. 
 oa, a two letter monotlwng, having the long open o 
 
 sound. 
 t, a simple consonant, a mute, and a dental, having its 
 
 obtuse dental sound. 
 
 7. Emew. 
 
 E, a simple vowel, having its long open sound. 
 
 m, a simple consonant, a semivowel, liquid, and nasal, 
 
 having its obtuse nasal sound. 
 cw, a two letter monothong, having its long open u 
 
 sound. 
 
ALPHAOLOGY. 
 
 59 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 In which every letter in a word is to be defined according to 
 the preceding specimen. 
 
 Aaron 
 
 beauty 
 
 money 
 
 mighty 
 sight 
 
 baa 
 
 see 
 
 key 
 
 Balaam 
 
 eel 
 
 leat 
 
 tight 
 
 Canaan 
 
 feel 
 
 church 
 
 tie 
 
 Isaac 
 
 veil 
 
 charge 
 
 He 
 
 aenigma 
 
 reign 
 
 scheme 
 
 pie 
 
 certain 
 
 neither 
 
 character 
 
 grenadier 
 
 mountain 
 
 either 
 
 catechise 
 
 relief 
 
 Britain 
 
 deceit 
 
 chyle 
 
 thief 
 
 again 
 
 seize 
 
 schedule 
 
 lieu 
 
 saith 
 
 height 
 
 machine 
 
 adieu 
 
 gaol 
 
 sleight 
 surfeit 
 
 chaise 
 
 view 
 
 launch 
 
 yacht 
 
 review 
 
 aunt 
 
 foreign 
 marchioness 
 
 schism 
 
 broad 
 
 vaunt 
 
 drachm 
 
 groat 
 
 draws 
 
 nonpareil 
 
 archangel 
 
 boat 
 
 paws 
 
 leopard 
 
 archives 
 
 coat 
 
 laws 
 
 yeoman 
 
 archipelago 
 
 loaf 
 
 delays 
 
 George 
 
 arched 
 
 doe 
 
 repay 
 
 puncheon 
 
 archer 
 
 foe 
 
 pray 
 
 deuce 
 
 archery 
 
 throe 
 
 say 
 
 feud 
 
 archenemy 
 
 shoe 
 
 says 
 
 Jew 
 
 march 
 
 canoe 
 
 sayst 
 
 mew 
 
 archbishop 
 
 antceci 
 
 wealth 
 
 emew 
 
 staff 
 
 foetus 
 
 health 
 
 ewer 
 
 off 
 
 foetid 
 
 steak 
 
 drew 
 
 ghost 
 
 voice 
 
 break 
 
 screw 
 
 laugh 
 
 rejoice 
 
 bear 
 
 sew 
 
 rough 
 
 toil 
 
 tear 
 
 shew 
 
 tough 
 
 coil 
 
 hc^rt 
 
 Shrewsbury 
 
 burgh 
 
 soil 
 
 hearth 
 
 prey 
 
 Johnsburgh 
 
 avoirdupois 
 
 hearken 
 
 survey 
 
 gusto 
 high 
 
 connoisseur 
 
 beau 
 
 bey 
 
 tortoise 
 
 bureau 
 
 valley 
 
 bright 
 
 choir 
 
60 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 DIVISION OF WORDS UPON THE BASIS OF THE NUMBER 
 OF SYLLABLES WHICH EACH CONTAINS, into 
 
 1. Monosyllables, 
 
 2. Dissyllables, 
 
 3. Trisyllables, and 
 
 4. Polysyllables. 
 
 1. A monosyllable is a word which contains but one sylla- 
 ble ; as, the, is, but, mill, staff. 
 
 2. A dissyllable is a word which contains but two syllables; 
 as, hu-man, defend, up-on. 
 
 3. A trisyllable is a word which contains but three sylla- 
 bles; as, gen-er-al, de-pend-ing. 
 
 4. A polysyllable is a word which has four, or more sylla- 
 bles ; as, gen-er-al-ly, con-tem-pla-tion, in-com-pat-i-bil-i-ty. 
 
 I. Syllable Numbering, 
 Is the process of classing a word by giving the number of 
 syllables which it contains. 
 
 Specimen of syllable numbering. 
 The human mind is generally fickle. 
 
 The, a monosyllable, gnoniefying with mind. [Defini- 
 
 tion I.] 
 
 human, a dissyllable, gnomefying with mind. [Defini- 
 tion II.] 
 
 mind, a monosyllable. [Definition I.] 
 
 is, a monosyllable, gnomefying with mind. [Defini- 
 
 tion 1.] 
 
 generally, & polysyllable, gnomefying with is. [Definition IV.] 
 
 fickle, a dissyllable, gnomefying with mind. [Definition II.] 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [Custom is] (the plague) (of wise men.) 
 
 2. [Forgiveness is divine.] 
 
 3. [Ingratitude is] (a base crime.) 
 
 For more Exercises, take pages 147, and 177. 
 
 DIVISION OF WORDS UPON THE BASIS OF THE STATE IN 
 WHICH THEY ARE USED, into 
 
 1. Primitive, and 
 
 2. Derivative. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 01 
 
 1. & primitive word is one which is in its primary state; 
 as, man, good, content, York. 
 
 2, A derivative word is one which has one, or more sylla- 
 bles added to its primitive state ; as, munfid, goodness, con- 
 tentnimt, Yorkshire. 
 
 II. Word Progression, 
 
 Is the process of classing a word by giving the progress 
 of its formation. 
 
 Specimen of word progression. 
 The human mind is generally fickle. 
 
 The, a primitive word, gnomefying with mind. [Defini- 
 
 tion I.] 
 
 human, a primitive word, gnomefying with mind. [Defini- 
 tion I.] 
 
 mind, a primitive word. [Definition I.] 
 
 is, a primitive word, gnomefying with mind. [Defini- 
 
 tion I.] 
 
 generally, a derivative word, gnomefying with is. [Definition II. ] 
 
 fickle, * a primitive word, gnomefying with mind. [Defini- 
 tion I.] 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 True religion promotes harmonious intercourse.] 
 'They have given occasion] (for criticism.) 
 
 1. [Tr 
 
 2. [Th 
 
 3. [We are responsible] (for the rest.) 
 
 4. Rare effusions. Pious thoughts. A profuse admixture. 
 
 5. [John gave an agreeable entertainment.] 
 
 6. [Custom is] (the plague) (of wise men.) 
 
 7. [Ingratitude is] (a great crime.) 
 
 DIVISION OP WORDS UPON THE BASI8 OF THE NUMBER OF 
 ENTIRE WORDS WHICH EACH WORD CONTAINS, into 
 Simple, and compound. 
 
 1. A simple word is one which contains but one entire 
 word ; as, man, manly. 
 
 2. A compound word is one which contains two or more 
 entire words ; as, man-kind, man-servant, tea-pot. 
 
 III. Word Numbering, 
 
 Is the process of classing a word by giving the number 
 of entire words which it contains. 
 
 U 
 
62 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Specimen of word numbering. 
 
 [The watchmen are very vigilant;] (nevertheless there is much 
 
 injury) (done) (by nightwalkers.) 
 
 The, a simple word, gnomefying with watchmen. [Defi- 
 
 nition I.] 
 
 watchmen, a compound word, containing the two words, watch, 
 and men. [Definition II.] 
 
 are, a simple word, gnomefying with watchmen. [De- 
 
 finition I.] 
 
 very, a simple word, gnomefying with vigilant. [Defi- 
 
 nition I.] 
 
 vigilant, a simple word, gnomefying with watchmen. [De- 
 
 finition I.] 
 
 nevertheless, a compound word, containing the three words, 
 never, the, and less, gnomefying with its own 
 mono which follows it. Definition II.] 
 
 there, a simple word, gnomefying with is. [Definition I.] 
 
 is, a simple word, gnomefying with injury. [Defini- 
 
 tion I.] 
 
 much, a simple word, gnomefying with injury. [Defini- 
 
 tion I.] 
 
 injury, a simple word. [Definition I.] 
 
 which, (understood), a simple word, made synonymous 
 
 with injury by application. (See page 107.) 
 
 is, (understood), a simple word, gnomefying with 
 
 which. [Definition I.] 
 
 done, a simple word, gnomefying with which understood. 
 
 [Definition I.] 
 
 by, a simple word, gnomefying with nightwalkers 
 
 [Definition I.] 
 
 nightwalkers, a compound word, containing the two words, night t 
 • and walkers. [Definition II. J 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [We saw the cloudcapt towers.] 
 
 2. [They (that live in gorgeous palaces,) have menservants,] 
 (and goldrings.) 
 
 The icehouse is full] (of icewater.) 
 
 The glowworm is well known.] 
 
 A certain man planted a vineyard.] 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 Spelling. 
 [The Rules for spelling require more attention than I have been 
 able to give them — hence they are not yet completed.] 
 
■ 
 
84 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 Is the second grand division of English grammar, and 
 respects, 
 
 1. The solitary, and the gregarious state of words. — 
 (Book I. pp. 6, 8.) 
 
 2. The constructive rank of assemblages of words. — 
 (Book I. p. 10.) 
 
 3. The five cordictions, the life principles of speech. — 
 (Book I. pp. 17, 54.) 
 
 4. The classification of words into monos. — (Book I. p. 22.) 
 
 5. The constructive properties of words, and monos. — 
 (Book I. pp. 54, 137.) 
 
 6. The dividing of words into ten denominations. — [Book 
 II. p. 86.] 
 
 7. The power to make certain distinctions, which some 
 words possess in addition to their dictionary meaning.— 
 [Book II. p. 128.] 
 
 8. The variations in the form of certain words. — [Book 
 n. 229.] 
 
 9. The translation of words Atom one denomination to 
 another.— [Book II. 229.] 
 
 SUBDIVISION OP ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Etymology is subdivided into nine parts, viz. : — 
 
 1. Sym-monology. (Book I. pp. 6, 8.) 
 
 2. Be-maology. (Book I. pp. 6, 10.) 
 
 3. Car-diology. (Book I. pp. 6, 17.) 
 
 4. Mo-nology. (Book I. pp. 6, 22.) 
 
 5. Tropology. (Book I. pp. 6, 54, 137.) 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 85 
 
 [The first five parts of Etymology, are treated of in 
 Book I.] 
 
 6. Classiology. 
 (Classis, a class, and logos, a word.) 
 
 7. Ectology. 
 
 (Ektos, extra, in addition to, and logos, a word.) 
 
 8. Mutology. 
 
 (Muto, to change, and logos, a word.) 
 
 9. Syndicology. 
 
 (Syn, together, or with, diko, to signify, and logos, doc- 
 trine, word.) 
 
 [If Etymology really comprises nine distinct parts, why 
 should not these parts be distinctly defined ?] 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. Into how many grand divisions is English grammar divided? 
 
 2. What is the first grand division of English grammar ? 
 
 3. What is the second grand division ? 
 
 4. What does the second grand division respect ? 
 
 5. Can you name the five parts of Etymology, which are treated 
 of in Book I. ? 
 
 3. What four parts of Etymology, are treated of in Book II. ? 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 CLASSIOLOGY, 
 
 Is the sixth part of Etymology, and respects the general 
 classification of words upon the basis of their denominative, 
 or class characteristics. 
 
 8 
 
80 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 A DENOMINATION OF WORDS. 
 
 A denomination of words is a number of verbal signs, 
 which have the same characteristic mark. 
 
 [The word, noun, means but one word, as John is a noun. 
 But the words, noun denomination, mean an entire class 
 of words, the whole family of nouns.] 
 
 It seems perfectly inconsistent with philosophy, that a system of Grammar should 
 not contain class names. 
 
 The word, book, is a noun ; but this word is not a class of words ! The word, 
 walks, is a verb ; hut as the word, walks, is not a class of words, how can it be said 
 that the word, verb, is the name of a class of words ? 
 
 To supply this deficiency, it seems necessary to have a technical term which 
 means a class of words. Therefore I have employed the word, denomination, in the 
 sense of a class of words. 
 
 Characteristic. 
 
 In Grammar, a characteristic is the property by which a 
 word is thrown into a particular denomination. 
 
 Under Classiology, the words of the English Language are divided into ten de- 
 nominations. Bu t, as in analyzing words, it is convenient to speak of them singly, 
 each member of a denomination, receives, as its individual name, the particular 
 distinctive epithet which designates its own denomination. ' 
 
 In English, there are ten denominations of words, viz. : 
 
 1. Noun denomination. 
 
 2. Pronoun denomination. 
 
 3. Verb denomination. 
 
 4. Preposition denomination. 
 
 5. Conjunction denomination. 
 
 6. Adjective denomination. 
 
 7. Subadjective denomination. 
 
 8. Adverb denomination. 
 
 9. Subadverb denomination. 
 10. Interjection denomination. 
 
 There is certainly a serious objection to the following language which is used by 
 the old school grammarians : j 
 
 u There are ten parts of speech. ,y 
 
 As every word in a language is a part of it, there must be as many parts of 
 speech as there are words in a language. Every verb is a part of language. Hence 
 if there are ten thousand verbs in the English language, the verbs alone make ten 
 thousand parts of speech ! ! [See Appeal, p. 319.] 
 
CLASS1GL0GY. 87 
 
 1. THE NOUN DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a class of trunk words which are the regular, fixed 
 names of the things that hold a trunk rank in the colloca- 
 tion, or presentation, of the objects of thought ; as, Ring, 
 gold, leather, cloth, book, jun, paper, virtue, vice. 
 
 The word, trunk, expresses not only an ability to stand alone, but 
 a capacity to sustain branch matter. 
 
 Now, whether an object becomes (rutiklike from the circumstance 
 that it is taken alone, or from the consideration that it is taken 
 with branch matter which it is made to sustain, the regular, fixed 
 name by which it is presented, is a noun ; as, ring, large gold 
 ring. 
 
 In the first, the ring is taken alone — it is made to stand by 
 itself — hence the ring, in this isolated state, resembles a trunk 
 without a branch. 
 
 In the second instance, the ring is taken in connection with 
 branch matter which cannot sustain itself, for the size, and kind 
 cannot stand without the aid of the ring to which they naturally 
 belong, and on which, they as naturally depend as do the branches 
 upon the trunk. 
 
 In the following, the ring is presented by the word, it — and, ns 
 this little word is not the regular, fixed name of any object, the 
 word, it, is not of the noun denomination. 
 
 That is a beautiful ring — may I examine it. 
 
 Additional Illustrations. 
 
 1. Gold ring. 
 
 2. Ring dove. 
 
 3. Leather shoe. 
 
 4. Shoe leather. 
 
 5. Pie apples. 
 G. Apple pic 
 
 7. John is here. 
 
 8. John Adams was there. 
 
 9. Where is the man ? 
 
 10. Where is the man servant? 
 
 11. Call the servant maid. 
 
 12. Tell the maid servant to come here. 
 18. Joseph bought some good peaches. 
 
 14. Joseph Brown has peach brandy. 
 
 15. Brass rules are made of brass. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. Why is ring, in the first syllabane, a noun ? 
 
 Uccau.se it is a trunk word which is a regular, fixed uamc of an 
 
88 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 object that holds a trunk rank in the iriincFs own collocation of the 
 two things named in the syllabane. [The material, and the thing 
 made.] 
 
 2. Why is not r%ng i in the second syllabane, a noun f 
 Ring here, is not even a trunk word. Ring, in the second in- 
 stance, is not only not a trunk word, but it is not the name of an 
 object which holds a trunk rank in the mind's collocation of the 
 two things mentioned in the syllabane. Ring, in the second in- 
 stance, is a branch word, and is the name of a distinctive mark 
 which holds a branch rank in the mind's collocation, or disposition 
 of it in respect to the dove. 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 What the trunk is to the branch parts in the framework of a 
 tree, the noun is to the branch words in the framework of a sylla- 
 bane; as, Good gold, Moses smote the rock. Gold, Moses, and 
 rock are nouns. 
 
 NOUN TESTS. 
 
 Test I. 
 
 In general, if the isolated word when placed after John's, 
 John, new, Miss, Mrs., or Mr., becomes the trunk of the 
 syllabane, it is of the noun denomination ; as, John's book, 
 John Adams, Miss Adanis, Mrs. Franklin, Mr. Washington, 
 
 Test II. 
 
 If the gregarious word holds the trunk rank where it 
 stands, and in the test syllabane too, it is of the noun de- 
 nomination; as, gold ring — John's ring. Ring dove — 
 John's ring. 
 
 Although the word, ring, becomes the trunk part of the sylla- 
 bane, John's ring, with as much ease as it does in the first instance, 
 yet, in the syllabane, ring dove, ring is not of the noun denomina- 
 tion. In the syllabane, ring dove, ring is a mere branch word ; 
 hence it does not hold the same framework rank in the syllabane, 
 ring dove, which it holds in the syllabane, John's ring. In "John's 
 ring," ring is the trunk, the basis, the foundation, part; but, in 
 M ring dove," ring is a mere branch word. 
 
 Test HI. 
 
 The word which does not become a trunk name when 
 placed after John's, John, new, Miss, Mrs., or Mr., is not of 
 the noun denomination : as, John's the, John the, new the, 
 Miss the, Mrs. the, Mr. the. 
 

 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 
 
 »y 
 
 DISPLAY OF TUB TESTS. 
 
 
 
 John 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 John 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 New 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 Miss 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 Mr. 
 
 t. 
 
 
 
 
 APPLICATION OF THE NOUN 
 
 TESTS, 
 
 
 To the words, strength, Rome, Adams, 
 
 Franklin, 
 
 Taylor, 
 
 and Washington. 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 John's strength. 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 John Adams. 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 New Rome. 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 Miss Franklin. 
 
 
 
 5. 
 
 Mrs. Taylor. 
 
 
 
 6. 
 
 Mr. Washington. 
 
 
 
 
 TESTING. 
 
 Testing is the process of deciding the denomination of a 
 word by the means of & fixed test. 
 
 1. That man has great strength of mind. 
 
 Tested: 
 
 that is not of the noun denomina- 
 tion because it is not here made a 
 trunk word. Test III. 
 man a word of the noun denomina- 
 tion because it is here made a trunk 
 word. Test II. 
 
 has is not of the noun denomina- 
 tion because it is not here made a 
 trunk word. Test III. 
 great is not of the noun denomina- 
 tion because it is not here made a 
 trunk word. Test III. 
 
 Strength — John's strength — strength is a word of the noun de- 
 nomination because it is here made 
 a trunk word. Test II. 
 of Is not of the noun denomination 
 because it is not here made a trunk 
 word. Test III. 
 
 Thai-^ John's that— 
 
 Man — John's man- 
 
 Has — John's has — 
 
 Great — John's great — 
 
 Of— John's of— 
 
90 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 Tested: 
 Mind — John's mind—-' mind a word of the noun denomina- 
 tion because it is here made a trunk 
 name. Test II. 
 
 Ring. Leather. This. 
 
 Ring — John's ring — ring a word of the noun denomina- 
 
 tion because it can be made a trunk 
 word. Test I. 
 
 This — John's this—* this is not of the noun denomina- 
 
 tion because it is not here made a 
 trunk word. Test III. 
 
 [There is one view which may be taken of this in the syllabanc, 
 John's this, which renders this a noun — but it may not be wise to 
 give this view now.] 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 In which the child should be thoroughly drilled according to 
 the preceding specimens. 
 
 1. [That the child may have the tests which are to be applied 
 in these Exercises, constantly before him, I have placed them at 
 the head of each page under which any of the Exercises occur.] 
 
 2. [The child should be required to test every word in a sylla- 
 bane ; and he should be required to apply the Test to each word 
 before he attempts to say whether it is of the noun denomination, 
 or not.] 
 
 Test I. In general, if the isolated word when placed 
 after John's, John, new, Miss, Mrs., or Mr., becomes the 
 trunk of the syllabane, it is of the noun denomination ; as, 
 John's book, John Adams, Miss Adams, Mrs. Franklin, Mr. 
 Washington. 
 
 exercises in testing. 
 
 Peter. built. in. of. Samuel's. 
 
 Shoes. made. into. from. Peter's. 
 
 Temple, where. the. beyond. men's. 
 
 Lucy. Sally. temple. Solomon's. Murray's. 
 
 Test II. — If the gregarious word holds the trunk rank 
 where it stands, and in the test syllabane too, it is of the 
 noun denomination ; as, gold ring — John's ring ; Ring dove 
 — John's dove. 
 
 Test III. — The word which does not become a tr\ 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 91 
 
 name when placed after John's, John, new, Miss, Mrs., or 
 Mr., is not of the noun denomination ; as, John's the } John 
 the, new the, Miss the, Mrs. the, Mr. tJie. 
 
 EXERCISES IN TESTING. 
 
 1. Peter made Samuel's shoes. [ Two nouns in the mono.] 
 
 2. Samuel cut Peter's hand. [Two nouns in the mono.] 
 
 3. Lucy knits men's mittens. [Two nouns in the mono.] 
 
 4. Sally makes ladies' clothes. [ Two nouns in the mono.] 
 
 5. Julia studies Murray's Grammar. [Two nouns in the 
 mono.] 
 
 6. Harriet read Homer's Iliad. [Two nouns in the mono.] 
 
 7. Men built Solomon's temple. [Two nouns in the 
 mono.] 
 
 8. John bought some shoe leather. 
 
 9. James Boston purchased this leather for shoes. 
 
 10. Nancy made this bread. 
 
 11. Mrs. West made this bread pudding. 
 
 12. Isaac, is it not almost pudding time ? 
 
 13. This is beautiful marble. 
 
 14. That building is a marble house. 
 
 15. This marble is for that man. 
 
 16. These men purchased three bushels of salt. 
 
 17. Is this salt water? 
 
 18. Give me a water cracker, Isaac. 
 
 19. Have you cloth shoes, Nancy ? 
 
 20. John Sampson has cloth for a coat. 
 
 21. What have you in your coat pocket? 
 
 22. Have you a good pocket knife ? 
 
 23. The meeting was held in the court house. 
 
 24. The court is now in session. 
 
 25. Where are the silver spoons ? 
 
 26. These spoons are made of silver 
 
92 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 27. He likes spoon victuals. 
 
 28. Potiphar did persecute Joseph. 
 
 29. Israel worshipped the golden calf? 
 
 30. Moses destroyed the calf. 
 
 31. Eleazar was consecrated. 
 
 32. Jericho did fall. 
 
 33. The Israelites crossed the Jordan. 
 
 34. The Jordan was crossed. 
 
 35. Moses served Jethro. 
 
 36. Jacob's remains were transported. 
 
 37. Moses did send spies. 
 
 38. Joshua stopped the sun. 
 
 39. The moon was stopped too. 
 
 40. Eglon did oppress Israel. 
 
 41. The ark had been taken away. 
 
 42. Jabin did oppress Israel. 
 
 43. The Levites exterminated the Benjamites. 
 
 44. Gideon routed the Midianites. 
 
 45. Ruth must have followed Naomi. 
 
 46. Gideon was chosen to rescue Israel. 
 
 47. Cicero was banished. 
 
 48. Sylla did plunder Athens. 
 
 49. Jacob fled to escape Esau. 
 
 50. Esau sold his birthright to procure pottage. 
 
 51. Socrates was doomed to die. 
 
 52. Rome was to be destroyed. 
 
 53. Sodom was to be destroyed. 
 
 54. God intended to destroy Gomorrah. 
 
 55. "Who saw Memnon invent letters ? 
 
 Proceed as follows : 
 
 Teacher. — How many nouns has the sentence which is 
 marked 28 ? 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. Vd 
 
 Pupil. — It has two, viz., Potiphar, and Joseph. 
 
 Teacher. — How many nouns has the 29th sentence t 
 
 Pupil. — It has two, viz., Israel, and calf. 
 
 Teacher. — Why is calf a noun ? 
 
 Pupil. — Because it is a trunk word, and a regular fixed 
 name of a thing which holds a trunk rank in the mind's 
 collocation of the things, mentioned in the sentence. 
 
 3. THE VERB DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a large class of cordictive branch words which act in a 
 quadruple, triple, double, or single capacity, as occasion re- 
 quires; as, 
 
 1. John loves his enemies, John has books. Quadruple. 
 
 2. John will love his enemies ; Go thou. Triple. 
 
 3. John having a book, he read aloud. Triple. 
 
 4. John being wise, we took his advice. Double. 
 
 5. John will love his enemies. Single. 
 
 6. John will be good. Single. 
 
 7. John will have come by ten o'clock. Single. 
 
 [The same definition in another form.'] 
 
 3. THE VERB DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a large class of cordictive branch words which exert, 
 or surrender their cordictive, ascribing, tense, and their signi- 
 ficant power, as occasion requires ; as, 
 
 1. I have a book. 
 
 Here have exerts Mb four powers. 
 
 2. I can have a book. 
 
 Here can exerts its four powers. But have surrenders three ; 
 have exerts its significant power only. 
 
 3. John can be good. 
 
 Here can exerts its four powers. But be surrenders three ; be 
 exerts its ascribing power only. 
 
 4. John will have come by ten o'clock. 
 
 Here mil exerts its cordictive, its significant, and its tense power. 
 
94 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 Have exerts its tense power only. Come exerts its significant 
 power only. 
 
 Have, Be. 
 
 Have, and Be are the only verbs which are required to surren- 
 der both their cordictive, and their significant power, on any occa- 
 sion. 
 
 Where be, or been is used to ascribe something which is expressed 
 by other words, it surrenders both its cordictive, and its significant 
 power; as, 
 
 1. John can he good. 
 
 2. James will be a good boy. 
 
 3. Joseph has been good. 
 
 4. Nathaniel will have been in the city three weeks next 
 Monday. 
 
 1. In the first, be ascribes the goodness, expressed by good, to 
 John. 
 
 2. In the second, be is used to ascribe the predicate, a good boy, 
 to James. 
 
 3. In the third, be, thrown into been, ascribes the goodness, de- 
 noted by good, to Joseph. 
 
 4. In the fourth, been, (which is be in another form, ) is employed 
 to ascribe Nathaniel to the city — or rather, to ascribe him to the 
 place denoted by in. In the following, however, be exerts its sig- 
 nificant power only : — 
 
 John must be. 
 
 That is, he must exist. 
 
 Have. 
 
 Where have is used to fix the time of the mono, it surrenders its 
 ascribing, its cordictive, and its significant power ; as, 
 
 1. John could have written last week. 
 
 2. Nathaniel will have been in Philadelphia three weeks 
 next Monday. 
 
 3. I shall have seen my father by one o'clock to-morrow. 
 
 4. I shall have a book soon. 
 
 In the fourth, have retains its significant power, which it exerts 
 in expressing possession. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 95 
 
 5. I have written several books. 
 
 Here have surrenders its significant, but retains its cordictive, its 
 (scribing, and its tense power. 
 
 1. I have a book. (Exertion of the four powers.) 
 
 2. They do the work. (Exertion of the four powers.) 
 
 3. I can have a book. (Can. Exertion of the four 
 powers.) 
 
 4. Has he a book. (Exertion of the four powers.) 
 
 5. I have written a book. (Have exerts three powers — 
 written one.) 
 
 6. I can have a book. (Have exerts its significant power 
 only.) 
 
 7. They do write books. (Do exerts its cordictive, its 
 ascribing, and its tense power — write exerts its significant 
 power only.) 
 
 8. I am sick. (Am surrenders its significant, but exerts 
 its cordictive, ascribing, and its tense power.) 
 
 9. I am. (Here am exerts its four powers. Am here 
 expresses existence.) 
 
 [Another form of the same definition.'] 
 
 3. THE VERB DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a large class of cordictive branch words which may act 
 in the quadruple capacity of exerting their cordictive, signi- 
 ficant, ascribing, and tense power ; as, John resembles her: — 
 in the triple capacity of exerting their cordictive, significant, 
 and tense power ; as, John will read, Read thou : — in the 
 double capacity of exerting their cordictive, and ascribing 
 power; as, John being ready, he departed: — in the single 
 capacity of exerting their significant, their ascribing, or their 
 tense power; as, John can write, Jane will be good. 
 
 1. The exertion of both the cordictive, and significant power, is 
 required when it devolves on the verb, not only to aid in forming 
 the cordiction, but to express that to which the cordiction relates; 
 as, I have a book ; I can have a book. 
 
 2. The exertion of but one of these powers, is required when 
 it does not devolve on the verb to do both acts, but, either to 
 
96 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 aid in forming the cordiction, or to express that to which the cor- 
 diction relates ; as, I have written a book ; I can have a book ; I 
 can write a book ; I am sick. 
 
 4. THE PREPOSITION DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a small class of uncordictive branch words appropriated 
 to the nouns, and pronouns of the uncordictive monos, to 
 express where, or what one thing is in respect to another; as, 
 
 1. Joseph is in the house. [Where? — in."] 
 
 2. John is on the house. [Where? — on.] 
 
 3. Johnson is under the house. [Where? — under, .] 
 
 4. Stephen was at the house. [Where* — at.~\ 
 
 5. Samuel will be over the house. [ Where? — over.] 
 
 6. The bird flew between the trees. [ Where? — between.'] 
 
 7. The belt was about his waist. [Where? — about.'] 
 
 8. He went out about the third hour. [ Where? — about.] 
 
 Where was this act in respect to the third hour ? Was it under, 
 over, or beyond? It was about: that is, it was in the neighbour- 
 hood of the third hour. 
 
 9. He spake against her. [ What the speech is in respect 
 to her.] (Against expresses the unfavourable character of 
 the speech in respect to her.) 
 
 5. THE CONJUNCTION DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a small class of uncordictive branch words appropriated 
 to cordictive sub syllabanes, to express what the predicates 
 of the sub syllabanes, are to the predicates of the supers ; as, 
 
 1. [Joseph went,] (because John wanted to see him.) 
 Because. 
 
 In the trone, it is predicated of Joseph, that he went; in the clad, 
 it is predicated of John, that John wanted to see him. Here, then, 
 are two predicates — and the point to be decided is, what is one in 
 respect to the other. This point is clearly decided by because: 
 because indicates very distinctly, that John's desire to see Joseph, 
 was the cause of Joseph's going. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 97 
 
 John wanted to see him. 
 
 Became is appropriated to this syllabane to express the fact 
 that what is predicated of John, was the cause why Joseph went. 
 
 2. [John wanted to see Joseph,] (therefore Joseph went 
 to him.) Therefore. 
 
 Here, it is predicated of Joseph, that he went to John. And 
 therefore is appropriated to the syllabane which makes this predi- 
 cate, to express what this predicate was in respect to that made 
 of John in the super syllabane. Therefore indicates, that the predicate 
 made of Joseph by the syllabane to which it, therefore, is appro- 
 priated, was an effect, a consequence, flowing from the predicate 
 made of John in the super syllabane. 
 
 6. THE ADJECTIVE DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a large class of uncordictive branch words, applicable 
 both to cordictive, and uncordictive nouns, and employed 
 merely to suggest, or fully to express, something which the 
 nouns do not include ; as, What man came ? Any man, No 
 man, John's man, Brewers' yeast, Murray's Grammar, Boy's 
 
 The general meaning of adjectives may be acquired to 
 some extent, from the following 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Adjectives are employed, 
 
 1. What man will come ? 
 
 1. [To allude to particularity.'] 2. Which man shall I call? 
 
 3. Which one went ? 
 
 « r _ n 1. Any man may come. 
 
 2. [To express vagueness. J * .X 
 
 L F * J 2. Some one will come. 
 
 1. All men will not come. 
 8. [To express totality."} 2. The wliole company came. 
 
 3. They all will come. 
 
aa 
 
 QLARSrOLOOy. 
 
 4. [7b express negation.'] 
 
 5. [7b express particularity.] 
 
 6. [ 7b express severalty. ] 
 7*. [7b express number.] 
 H. [7b express identity.] 
 
 b. [To express state.] 
 
 10. [7b express quality.] 
 
 11. [7b express the 2/^.] 
 
 1 . JVb man will come. 
 
 2. iVo one will eome. 
 
 3. Neither man will come. 
 
 1. Certain men will come. 
 
 2. Particular ones have come. 
 
 1. £bc& man will come. 
 
 2. j&Wy one will come. 
 
 3. Either man may go. 
 
 4. Neither man will come. 
 
 1. One man will come. 
 
 2. >Sfcr men will come. 
 
 1. Same men. 
 
 2. Very ones. 
 
 3. Identical man. 
 
 4. Aforesaid man. 
 
 1 . WW/ men can come. 
 
 2. <Sfcjfc men cannot come. 
 
 3. Broken dishes. 
 
 4. Whole dishes. 
 
 5. They are anxious. 
 G. Thou art rich. 
 
 7. Ye are angry. 
 
 1. Large men will come. 
 
 2. Strong men will come. 
 
 3. Tall ones will come. 
 
 4. Short ones will come. 
 
 1. Carving knife, 
 
 2. Writing desk. 
 
 3. *S7<w leather. 
 
 4. Tea pot. 
 
 5. TWA pick. 
 
 6. 7?«2w strop, 
 
 7. Bake pan. 
 
 8. Cheese press. 
 
 9. Ifiw* howl. 
 
CLASSIOLUOY. <K* 
 
 12. [To indicate that the thing* 
 
 mentioned, are not well 1. A Mian Will come. 
 known, or that they are not 2. An Indian will come. 
 distinguished from others by 3 4 man f that company. 
 distinctive circumstances. ] 
 Here i indicates that the man who will coine, in not distinguished from the other 
 aaen of the company by any dintinctiyc circumstances. 
 
 1. The man icho stands tliere. 
 
 13. [To indicate either that the % ^ gun hag risen 
 
 things mentioned, arc welt _ .. . , , 
 
 knoin, or that they are dis- 3. The llOll IS a noble am- 
 tinguished from all other nial. 
 
 tAtn^t 0/ *Ac «rw foW ty 4. T^Aow art the man. 
 
 distinctive circumstances, 5 ^/ ie legislature of Penu- 
 
 e^pn»>«l or implied. ] 8y l V ania, is in session. 
 
 COMMENT?. 
 
 1. The man who stands yonder, will come. 
 The clause, who stands yonder, expresses the distinctive circum- 
 stance which is indicated by the, in The man, &c. 
 
 2. The sun has risen. 
 Here, the indicates that the sun is well known. The sun. What 
 sun? The well known sun which is the great source of heat, and 
 light. 
 
 4. The lion is noble. 
 Here, too, the indicates that the lion is well known. 
 
 4. Thou art the man. 
 
 What man ? The man that had been described by Nathan before this 
 appropriation of the to the word, man. 
 
 ** And David's anger was greatly kindled against the man — and 
 he said to Nathan, as the Lord liveth, The man that hath done this 
 thing, shall surely die. J ' 
 
 * t&~ " that hath done this M/«</." 
 
 5. The Legislature of Pennsylvania is now in session. 
 
 The description to which the points, is, of Pennsylvania. 
 
 The old school grammarians call the. the definite article, "becaus* 
 it ascertains what particular person, or thing is meant." The does not 
 ascertain the identity of the object — the conveys an allusion to a 
 description which ascertains what thing is meant. — (Sec the Appeal.} 
 
 * Tho fiujccr is tho *nrd, tfi*, »hicb directe the ntlenlk'U ol 1)i»tKI to tbo dewrljv 
 HOD—- 'tkal hath June this tkinoP 
 
100 
 
 CtASSIOLOGY. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The nouns take adjectives before, and after them. 
 
 Few of the pronouns take adjectives before them. One, and 
 ones take adjectives both before, and after them ; as T a good one, 
 one should be good, these ones are good. They will receive all 
 before it ; all they went. Others will receive some, the, all, these, 
 those, several, many, any, two, $c, before it; as, some others, the 
 others, all others, several others, which others, what others. But 
 these adjectives cannot follow the pronoun ; as, others some, others 
 the. Adjectives which come after nouns, or pronouns, generally 
 express quality, state, number, or totality ; as, Henry is tall, he is 
 well, they all went, John found them all sick, we found them six in 
 number. 
 
 14. [ To express the producer.] 
 
 1. Bakers' bread. 
 
 2. Brewers' yeast. 
 
 3. Webster's child. 
 
 4. Sun's light. 
 
 5. Murray's Grammar. 
 
 6. Blackstone's Commentaries. 
 
 7. Music's charm. 
 
 8. Wind's music. 
 
 9. Firemen's difficulties. 
 
 16. [To express numeral order.] 
 
 1. Third man. 
 
 2. First class. 
 
 3. Fourth pupil. 
 
 4. Second class. 
 
 16. [To express the proprietor.'] 
 
 1. John's hat. 
 
 2. My glove. 
 
 3. Your book. 
 
 4. Jane's hand. 
 
 5. Ladies' books. 
 
 6. Eagles' wings. 
 
 17. [To express the name.] 
 
 1. John Calvin. 
 
 2. Henry Clay. 
 
 3. Jacob Collamer. 
 
 4. Reverdy Johnson. 
 
CLASMOUXil'. 
 
 101 
 
 18. [To express sex.] 
 
 1. Man servant. 
 
 2. She bear. 
 
 3. He goat. 
 
 4. Hen sparrow. 
 
 10. [To express the till*.] 
 
 1. Mr. Tustin. 
 
 2. 3/rs. Adams. 
 8. Miss Jones. 
 
 4. Master Henry. 
 
 20. [To express titular rank.] 
 
 1. Captain Henry. 
 
 2. Otoe* Shields. 
 
 3. General Taylor. 
 
 4. Sergeant Davis. 
 
 5. Major Bliss. 
 
 6. Viscount Humphreys. 
 
 7. Sheriff Nathans. 
 
 8. Alderman Thojnson. 
 
 9. Squire Jones. 
 
 10. Senator Benton. 
 
 11. Mayor Swift. 
 
 12. Attorney general. 
 
 21. [To express to what a thing is 
 attached, as an appendage, 
 or apart.] 
 
 1. Animal organs 
 
 2. Horse hair. 
 
 3. Cup handle. 
 
 4. Thumb joint. 
 
 5. Finger nail. 
 
 6. Hat band. 
 
 7. iVou? beam. 
 
 8. Bridle strap. 
 
 9. JSoofc cover. 
 
 10. Shoe string. 
 
 11. Chair poet. 
 
 12. Church bell. 
 
 13. Bible leaf. 
 
 14. iStore pipe. 
 
 15. Head dress. 
 
 1 6. 6W collar. 
 
 17. A r ec& collar. 
 
 
102 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 1. Sun beam. 
 
 2. Moon light. 
 
 3. Gaslight. 
 
 4. Geese feathers. 
 
 22. [Tb express from what some- 5. Bear oil. 
 
 Miny springs.] 6. /Sect water. 
 
 7. Apple seeds. 
 
 8. Spring water. 
 
 9. jHbrse hair. 
 
 23. [7b express with what a thing 1. Hand saw. 
 
 « two*.] 2. -Few* ball. 
 
 1. Nasal sounds. 
 
 2. Guttural voices. 
 
 24. [To express by what means, 3. IfcaJ music. 
 
 or in what vessel a thing is 4. Pan cakes. 
 produced.] 5. Artificial flowers. [By art.] 
 
 6. Ndturalorgans.[Bj nature.] 
 
 1. $fcwie coal. 
 
 25. ITo express something to which 2. ice water. 
 
 <A« <A*ny denoted by the 3. Astral lamp. 
 
 noun, m «miter.] 4. Oalcened book-case. 
 
 5. Ctyster plant. 
 
 1. Franklin stove. 
 
 2. Daguerreotype picture. 
 
 26. [lb express the inventor, or 3. Fulton boat. 
 
 <fo/a*ro».] 4. Girard College. 
 
 5. Justinian code. 
 
 6. Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 1. Insolent people. 
 
 27. {To express demeanor.] 2. Modest women. 
 
 3. Braggart men. 
 
 4. Affable manners. 
 
 1. Present time. 
 
 28. [fi> «rprar tfww.] 2. .fWure period. 
 
 3. Pas2 days. 
 
 4. Expired hours. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 103 
 
 29. [To express cruelty.] 
 
 30. [To express oppression.'} 
 
 1. Barbarous treatment. 
 
 2. Inhuman conduct. 
 
 3. Savage blows. 
 
 4. Unfeeling masters. 
 
 1. Tyrannical treatment. 
 
 2. Oppressive taxation. 
 
 3. Unreasonable demand. 
 
 31. [To express weight.] 
 
 32. [To express function.'] 
 
 33. [To express morality.] 
 
 1. i/^fa air, 
 
 2. Heavy wood. 
 
 3. Ponderous things. 
 
 1. Consultative committee. 
 
 2. Treaty ministers. 
 
 1. Good men. 
 
 2. Bad boys. 
 
 3. «/us6 conduct, 
 
 4. Right treatment, 
 
 5. Proper course. 
 
 6. Moral precepts. 
 
 1. Boys 1 hats. 
 
 2. fflMp seminary. 
 
 3. Horse shoes. 
 
 4. Window glass. 
 
 5. JBbJ band. 
 34. [To express for whom, or for 6. Head dress. 
 
 whaty a thing is designed.] 7. /^foe strings. 
 
 8. $tove pipe. 
 
 9. Parlour stores. 
 
 10. Kitchen tables. 
 
 11. Cliair leg. 
 
 12. >S7ioe leather. 
 
 {'Note. — Where the appendage is actually applied, the adjective 
 bngs to class 21 — but, where it is merely designed to be applied, 
 the adjective belongs to class 34.] 
 
 13. Meat sauce. 
 
 14. Parlour stove. 
 
 15. Kitchen , chairs. 
 
 16. Ladies' Book. 
 
104 
 
 CLAfcSIOLOUY. 
 
 So. [To express openness.] 
 
 1. Letters patent. 
 
 2. Patent letters. 
 
 3. Overt acts. 
 
 4. Free passage. 
 
 5. Open doors. 
 
 6. Public roads. 
 
 7. Common property. 
 
 86. [To express sbnilarity.] 
 
 1. Like results. 
 
 2. Analogous principles. 
 
 3. Ilomogcneal statements. 
 
 37. [To express dissimilarity.'] 
 
 1 . Different principles. 
 
 2. She is unlike him. 
 
 3. Dissimilar views. 
 
 4. Heterogeneal things. 
 
 38. [To express the style of differ- 
 ent writers.] 
 
 1. Affected sentences. 
 
 2. Bombastic periods. 
 
 3. Concise account of, &c 
 
 4. Diffuse writers. 
 
 5. Easy speakers. 
 
 6. Elegant sentences. 
 
 7. Epistolary style. 
 
 8. Feeble language. 
 
 9. Florid diction. 
 
 10. Flowing periods. 
 
 11. Harsh sentences. 
 
 12. Lofty style. 
 
 13. Loose style. 
 
 14. Neat sentence. 
 
 15. Nervous language. 
 
 16. Negligent style. 
 
 17. Obscure periods. 
 
 18. Perspicuous style. 
 
 19. Simple style. 
 
 20. Stiff style. 
 
 21. Terse language. 
 
 22. Tumid writers. 
 
 23. Verbose style. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 105 
 
 39. [To express prosperity.] 
 
 40. [To express industry.'} 
 
 41. [To express piety. ] 
 
 42. [To express courage.] 
 
 43. [To express beauty.] 
 
 44. [To express pleasantness.] 
 
 45. [To express consistency.] 
 
 46. [To express opposition.] 
 
 1. Prosperous voyage. 
 
 2. Lucky hit. 
 
 3. Fortunate circumstance. 
 
 4. Successful efforts. 
 
 1. Active man. 
 
 2. Diligent pupils. 
 
 3. Industrious people. 
 
 4. Assiduous students. 
 
 5. Laborious man. 
 
 1. Holy bible. 
 
 2. PtVw5 person. 
 
 3. Devout man. 
 
 4. Religious congregation, 
 
 1. They are fearless. 
 
 2. You were intrepid. 
 
 3. They were undaunted. 
 
 4. They were bold. 
 
 1. Beautiful fields. 
 
 2. i^t?i€ trees. 
 
 3. Handsome houses. 
 
 4. .Pretty ribands. 
 
 1. Agreeable persons. 
 
 2. Pleasant walk. 
 
 3. Pleasing manners. 
 
 1. Virtue is agreeable to Scrip- 
 
 ture. 
 
 2. His conduct was conform- 
 
 able to the Bible. 
 
 3. Treatment which was suit- 
 
 able to his station. 
 
 1. Antagonistkal measures. 
 
 2. Adverse views. 
 
 3. Repugnant course. 
 
 4. Opponent principles. 
 
 5. Contrary direction. 
 
 6. Antithetical words. 
 
10G 
 
 CLAtfSIOLOGY. 
 
 47. [7b express opprobrium.] 
 
 48. [7b express optation.] 
 
 49. [Tb express something in re- 
 
 spect to optics.] 
 
 50. [7b express slander."] 
 
 51. [7b express dispersion.] 
 
 52. [7b express inattention.] 
 
 53. [7b express sadness.] 
 
 1. Contemptuous conduct. 
 
 2. Scurrilous publication. 
 
 3. Disdainful airs. 
 
 4. Despiteful enemies. 
 
 5. Haughty demeanor. 
 
 6. Scornful manners. 
 
 1. Optative mode. 
 
 2. Desired amount. 
 
 1. Optic nerve. 
 
 2. Optic angle. 
 
 3. Optic axis. 
 
 4. Optic organ. 
 
 1. Libellous paper. 
 
 2. Defamatory words. 
 
 3. Slanderous reports. 
 
 4. Calumnious language. 
 
 1. Dissipated clouds. 
 
 2. Dispersive measures. 
 
 3. Scattered seeds. 
 
 1. Unmindful lads. 
 
 2. Careless parents. 
 
 3. Inattentive pupils. 
 
 4. Negligent servants. 
 
 1. Heavy hearts. 
 
 2. Moody thoughts. 
 
 3. Sad feelings. 
 
 4. Forlorn man. 
 
 5. Poor fellow. 
 
 54. [7b express place.] 
 
 55. [7b express a want of some- 
 thing.] 
 
 1. Inner feelings. 
 
 2. Bosom friend. 
 
 3. Outside passengers. 
 
 1. Hopeless state. 
 
 2. Groundless fears. 
 
 3. Hatless man. 
 
 4. Treeless field. 
 
 5. Faithless people. 
 
 6. Heartless child. 
 
CLASSTOT/WH*. 
 
 G6. [7b express time.} 
 67. [7b express verbality.] 
 
 58. [7b express position.] 
 
 69. [ To express a want of culti- 
 vation.] 
 
 60. [To express kindred.] 
 
 61. [7b express addition.] 
 
 62. [ 7b express aid. ] 
 
 63. [?b«r/WM AaMf.] 
 
 64. [7b express age.] 
 
 65. [7b express privacy.] 
 
 <5G. [To express construction.] 
 
 1. IF/nte?* nights. 
 
 2. 2?a/fy days. 
 
 1. Verbal intercourse. 
 
 2. TftWy men. 
 
 1. Mid-heaven sun. 
 
 2. i^per lip. 
 
 3. Uiider lip. 
 
 4. The above facts. 
 
 1. ItifcJ thoughts. 
 
 2. i?w/e manners. ,_.. 
 
 3. Crude ideas. 
 
 1. Fellow pilgrim. 
 
 2. £We Jones. 
 
 3. Brother John. 
 
 1 . J&rc snow. 
 
 2. Additory matter. 
 
 1. Auxiliary society. 
 
 2. StqyplemeiUal part. 
 
 1. Crying child. 
 
 2. Kicking horse. 
 
 1. Young man. 
 
 2. OW people. 
 
 3. TVejp wine. 
 
 4. OW rules. 
 
 5. &afc bread. 
 
 1. Private papers. 
 
 2. $scre£ matters. 
 
 3. Latent principles. 
 
 1. Straight-bodied coat. 
 
 2. £W$e bridle. 
 
 3. Three~xided figure. 
 
 4. Tico-story house. 
 
 107 
 
108 
 
 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 C7. [To express feebleness.] 
 
 68. [To express restraint.'] 
 
 ). [To express freedom."] 
 
 1. Relaxed nerves. 
 
 2. Weak nerves. 
 
 3. Faint hearts. 
 
 1. Debentured goods. 
 
 2. Restrained acts. 
 
 3. Stringent rules. 
 
 4. jBow€? men. 
 
 5. Confined air. 
 
 6. Cramped genius. 
 
 1. jFVee people. 
 
 2. Uneonfined air. 
 
 3. Affable manners. 
 
 4. JKify speaker. 
 
 70. [tt oyrw ife ^o/nm j ^.^ doctrme 
 
 ?««%, or distinctive cir- ^ ^^ ^^ 
 cumstance.] 
 
 Note. — Here the nouns express the quality, for the doctrine be- 
 longs to the Bible, and the form to the book. 
 
 71. [To express that of which the 1. Brass metal. 
 
 thing consists.] 2. Philadelphia city. 
 
 1. Leather shoes. 
 
 72. [To express the material of 2. Silver spoons. 
 
 which a thing is made.] 3. Gold ring. 
 
 4. Silver watch. 
 
 Note. — 71 differs from 72: the brass is the metal itself — and 
 Philadelphia is the city. But the gold is not the entire ring, nor is the 
 silver the whole of the spoons. 
 
 The metal has nothing but brass — the ring has something more 
 than gold — it has form, and size. 
 
 73. [To express novelty.] 
 
 74. [To express fulness.] 
 
 1. Rare wit. 
 
 2. Singular events. 
 
 3. Unusual flocks. 
 
 4. Strange things. 
 
 1. Plenary expression. 
 
 2. Replete monos. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 109 
 
 75. [7b express emptiness.] *' ^"P^ ^ands. 
 L r r J 2. Vacant heads. 
 
 1. Many books. 
 
 76. [7b express an indefinite num- 2. Several apples. 
 
 ber.] 3. Few persons. 
 
 4. J&we books. 
 
 77. [7b express an indefinite quan- 1. Much good. 
 
 <»<y.] 2. Zitefe harm. 
 
 1. Twice-told tales. 
 
 78. [7b egress repetition.] 2. Duplicate papers. 
 
 3. Reiterated crimes. 
 
 79. [7b <?rpr<w» the place of birth, 1. American soldiers. 
 
 residence, <$r.] 2. Philadelphia firemen. 
 
 1. French silks. 
 
 80. [7b Mpi* the country in \. ^ lish wa f' 
 
 which a thing is made.] $' **°\ Cracke ^ 
 
 4. Manchester calicoes. 
 
 5. Leghorn hats. 
 
 81. [Toexpressthecity, or country, \ **™ ^erchmte. 
 
 mwhichaperson,orathiny *' ™^¥™ lawyers. 
 ... i^ o. iVew Jrora market. 
 
 r 4. Baltimore churches. 
 
 82. [2b express presence, and near- 1. 77m knife. 
 
 ««*•] 2. T'Aese pens. 
 
 83. [7b express presence, but dis- \, That book. 
 
 fcroce/roro.] 2. TViose books. 
 
 84. [7b express locality. ] 
 
 85. [7b express occupation.] 
 
 1. Yonder apple. 
 
 2. Inside door. 
 
 3. Tljp piece. 
 
 4. Bottom piece. 
 
 1. Doctor Jones. 
 
 2. Lawyer James. 
 10 
 
^|q CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 stood.} ' 9 
 
 1. Ogle wagons. 
 
 87. [» ^ % & »-•] I ^TtH wagon, 
 
 1. Zem- watches. 
 
 88. [7b express a prominent dis- ^ fen-jewelled Vf&tch. 
 
 tinctive part of a thing.] g Steam ship. 
 
 1. Apple trees. 
 
 89 [To express the kind of fruit 2. Straicberry vines. 
 8y ' L . ;, , , 3. Ckmarf bushes. 
 
 *•**;? 4. 67*em/ trees. 
 
 90 [To express how long the means 1. Eight-day clocks. 
 ' . JL*. 6. #«***] 2. 0»e<fay clocks. 
 
 1. Bulbous roots. 
 91. [7b exprm ft *ftap« of a ^ Egg-shaped urchin, 
 tfwtf.] 3. 0&fo«# figures. 
 
 1. Another man. 
 92. [To «xpr«» anotow rtw^-J 2. Otfier people. 
 
 3. Oblong figures. 
 
 1. Another man. 
 
 2. Otfier people. 
 
 1. Chaotic state. 
 
 1. 1//WW' 1 ' raw*»~« 
 
 93. [7b express confusion of part*.] 2. Confused masses. 
 
 I. Oriental manners. 
 
 1. J^maZ step. 
 
 95. [To express termination.] ^ Dernier resort. 
 
 1. Cantering &&- 
 
 96. [7b express what gait.] ^ Pacing horse. 
 
 1. Thin paper. 
 i n 2. Slender rods. 
 
 97. [7b «rpre« *■*.] J j^, wxm &. 
 
CLASS10LOGY. Ill 
 
 1. Gloomy times. 
 
 98. [To express tenebrosity.] 2. Tenebrious tokens. 
 
 3. Sad affair. 
 
 1. Principal witness. 
 
 99. [To express degree of import- 2. Chief musician. 
 
 ance.] 3. Secondary matters. 
 
 4. Minor importance. 
 
 -^ rm £ , n 1. Treacherous man. 
 
 100. [To *-.*£*] 2 JWriton*. kings. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Extensive as is this illustration of the significant powers of the 
 adjective, it is a mere commencement of a development of the great 
 variety of things, facts, and circumstances of which adjectives are 
 expressive. This illustration, though limited, is sufficient to give 
 the learner a general idea of the significant powers of the words 
 which the old grammars attempt to define by saying that, 
 
 " An adjective is a part of speech which is added to nouns to 
 express their quality !" 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is a noun? 
 
 2. What is & pronoun? 
 
 3. What is a verb? 
 
 4. What is & preposition? 
 
 5. What is a conjunction ? 
 
 6. What is an adjective? 
 
 7. Are adjectives copious, or limited in their significant powers ? 
 
 A Specimen of Construing the Adjective. 
 
 " Black's Sarsaparilla Blood Pills." 
 
 Black's, is an adjective, employed here to express the pro- 
 ducer of the pills. [Page 94.] 
 
 Sarsaparilla, is an adjective, employed to express the material of 
 which the pills are made. [Page 100.] 
 
 Blood, is an adjective, employed to express the use of the 
 
 pills. [Page 93. J 
 
 nils, is a noun. [Page S4.] 
 
112 CLASS10L00Y. 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 To be construed exactly according to the preceding Specimen. 
 
 1. The stove pipe of the Franklin stove is old. 
 
 2. Which man came ? 
 
 3. No man servant answered. 
 
 4. All these head dresses are new. 
 
 5. Yonder is a church bell. 
 
 6. The bridle strap is on the plough beam. 
 
 7. Have you used your new razor strop ? 
 
 8. John Foster saw James Johnson? 
 
 9. Does Miss Jane Boston like oyster plant ? 
 
 10. Was that lad insolent ? 
 
 11. All ladies are modest. 
 
 12. I like ice water in the summer season. 
 
 13. Who has ever seen a sun beam by moon light? 
 
 14. Gas light, Astral lamp. 
 
 15. Vocal music, Girard College, Fulton steamboat. 
 
 16. William Baker is attorney general. 
 
 17. A certain man planted a vineyard. 
 
 18. Captain Henry saw Colonel Shields. 
 
 19. Mayor Barker fell in with Senator Webster. 
 
 20. Mr. Collamer is now Postmaster General. 
 
 21. These children saw two she bears. 
 
 22. The third boy in the fourth class was transferred. 
 
 23. People generally like bakers' bread. 
 
 24. They got some brewer s' yeast. 
 
 25. My small hats are all wool hats. 
 
 26. John's new hat is a fur hat. 
 
 27. Her gloves are kid gloves. 
 
 28. John Calvin preached Bible doctrine. 
 
 29. Henry Clay may soon be Senator Clay. 
 
 30. My young children understand Murray's Grammar. 
 
 31. John's oldest son was killed in the Mexican war. 
 
 32. Have you read our, "Ladies' Book?" 
 
 33. Samuel Jones hit that eagle with his double-barrel gun. 
 
 34. Baron Swedenburg was a Swede man. 
 
 35. Viscount Johnson was an English man. 
 
 36. David Brewster has a cart horse, carriage horse, sad- 
 
 dle horse, and a race horse. 
 
• LAJJ810LO0T. 113 
 
 LESSON II. 
 2. THE PRONOUN DENOMINATION 
 
 Is a small class of extra trunk words which, in general, 
 have distinctive powers within themselves,* but derive their 
 meaning from the nature of the case, or from the nouns, pro- 
 nouns, verbs, adjectives, clauses, and sentences, with which they 
 are made synonymous by application; as ; I, we, it, which, 
 that, lumself. 
 
 * Distinctive powtrs are the means of distinguishing the genders ; as, he, site — 
 plurality from unity; as, tliou, ye ; I, we — the par-e-theme from the pros-o-theme, 
 and the panta-theme from the other two themes; as /, me, us, we — par-e-themes ; 
 thou, thee, ye, you — pros-o-themes ; he, she, it, book — panta-themes. 
 
 All the things, mentioned, or implied, in a sentence, fall under two general de- 
 nominations, viz. : — 
 
 Prosochists, and 
 Tfiemes. [objects.] 
 
 1. Prnsochist is compounded of the Greek, prosocheia, attention, and ist, one who 
 applies in practice what is mentioned in the principal part of the word of which ist 
 is a suffix. 
 
 The prosochist is that person whom the noun itself designates by means of an 
 audient intonation, an audient indication, or an audient comma, as the particular 
 individual to whose notice the par-e-theme presents the different objects mentioned, 
 or implied, in the sentence ; as, Master, I hare brought unto thee my son. (Master.) 
 
 2. Theme is made from the Greek, thema ; and, as thema is made from tit/temi, to 
 sit, or place, theme may properly be defined to mean whatever is presented to the 
 notice, of a person. In this system of grammar, theme means anything which is pre- 
 sented to the notice of the prosochist ; as, Master, 1 have brought my son unto 
 thee. i [/, son, thee.] 
 
 The themes presented to the notice of the prosochist, are divided into 
 
 1. Par-e-theme, 
 
 2. Pros-o-Uieme, and 
 8. Pan4a-theme. 
 
 1. PAR-E-THEME. 
 
 The par-erUume is the person who is designated, or distinguished, by the pro- 
 noun, as the particular individual who presents the different themes in the sen- 
 tence, to the notice of the prosochist : as, 
 
 1. Master, /have brought unto thee my son which hath a dumb 
 spirit. (/.) 
 
 2. Master, my son has been brought unto thee by me. (Me.) 
 [The prefix part of par-e-theme, is made from the Greek, par-e-cho, to exhibit.] 
 
 2. PROS-OTIIEME. 
 
 The pros-o4heme is the prosochist presented to his own notice, which is always 
 
 done by means of a pronoun ; as, 
 
 Master, I have brought unto thee my son. (Thee.) 
 [The prefix part of pros-o-theme, Is the first part of prosochist, and signifies, in 
 
 this abridged state, that the pros-o-theme is made out of the prosocfiist.] 
 
 Master, I have brought unto thee, my son. (Thee.) 
 Thcc ia not used for the purpose of addressing the Muster, the second time : thee 
 10* 
 
114 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 nXUSTRATIOX OP THE DEFIJUTIOS OF THE PB0N0UW. 
 
 1. "Richard is himself again." 
 Here, from the nature of the case, himself is made to mean the 
 usual, or natural state of Richard. 
 
 2. James, I am glad to see that thou hast come to thyself . 
 
 Here, from the nature of the case, thyself is made to mean the 
 usual condition, or common state of mind, or temper, of James. 
 
 3. I have gained much strength within a few days — I think 
 
 that I shall soon be myself again. 
 
 Here, myself from the nature of the case, means the degree of 
 strength usually possessed by me. 
 
 4. James is now in a fit of madness — but he will soon come 
 
 to himself 
 
 Here, from the nature of the case, himself means the state of good 
 nature, or calmness, common, or natural, to James. 
 
 5. Nathaniel, I am glad to find thee sober : thou art now 
 
 thyself 
 
 Here, from the nature of the case, thyself means identity of prior 
 character. 
 
 6. John, I myself will attend. 
 That is, I, the person who speaks to you, will attend. [Myself 
 is synonymous with the syllabane, the person who speaks to you.'} 
 
 is used by the par-e4heme, to call the attention of the Master to himself as the per- 
 son to whom the father had brought the son. 
 
 3. PANTA-THEME. 
 
 The panta-thetne is an object which is presented to the prosochist in no light, in 
 no character, except that of a theme ; as, 
 
 Master, I have brought unto thee my son which hath a dumb 
 spirit. (Son, which, spirit.) \Panta, all.] 
 
 The panta-tJieme is all theme. In the par-e-theme, there is a presenter — an cxJiu 
 biter: in the pros-o-tJieme, there is si prosochist — an attentionist. Bat, in the panta- 
 theme, there is nothing but a theme : hence, whatever is presented to the prosochist, 
 as a mere theme, is a panta-theme ; as, 
 
 Master, I have brought unto thee my son which hath a dumb 
 spirit. 
 
 The eon and the spirit exhibit nothing to the Master, the prosochist of the sen- 
 tence. Neither the son nor the spirit is in any way, an attentionist ; indeed, neither 
 is any thing but a theme. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 1 J 5 
 
 7. They have Christ himself for their captain. 
 Here, himself, from the nature of the case, is ft description of 
 the Christ whom they have as their captain. 
 
 They have Christ himself for their captain. 
 That is, they have Christ, the well known Saviour of men, for 
 their captain. 
 
 The phrase, Christ himself, is nearly synonymous with, The 
 Christ. 
 
 8. The apostles themselves were endowed with miraculous 
 powers. 
 The idea expressed by themselves, is this — even those whom Christ 
 commissioned, had the same miracle working power xchich Christ him- 
 self possessed. 
 
 9. Which Christ himself possessed. 
 Here, from the nature of the case, himself means what is ex- 
 pressed in these words — Who is God. 
 
 Which Christ who is God, possessed. 
 
 10. We saw the father himself 
 
 Here, from the nature of the case, the pronoun, himself, means 
 what is expressed by these words — ichose power over the child is 
 much greater than that of any other person. 
 
 We saw the father whose power over the child, is far greater than 
 that of any other person. 
 
 11. The captain himself was lost. 
 
 Here, himself, from the nature of the case, means what is ex- 
 pressed in these words — the danger in which tee were placed, was 
 almost unexampled, since, the captain whose means of protection are very 
 superior, was lost. 
 
 12. On this occasion, the hills themselves trembled. 
 
 That is, says the pronoun, themselves, the power which was exerted, 
 must have been great indeed, since the hills which nature has so firmly 
 placed in the earthy trembled before it. 
 
 13. Said the preacher at the grave side, This is the way in 
 which all the living must go ; I mi/self must soon follow. 
 That is, I, the man who is now in perfect health, arid who is speaking 
 on this solemn occasion, must soon follow. 
 
 14. / Paul myself beseech you. 
 Here, / is used in addition to Paul; hence it is an extra word. 
 
116 ^ CT,AK8I0L0<iY. 
 
 This man was generally distinguished by the word " raid," his 
 ordinary name. But as he desired to say to the Corinthians that 
 the Paul here mentioned, was the very one who wrote to them, he 
 employed the extra, I. Paid, the ordinary name, would distin- 
 guish him as a man, but not as the par-e-theme ; hence, he employs 
 the pronoun, /. 
 
 / is a trunk word — it is a foundation part in the frame work of 
 the mono. 
 
 [/(who arn) (Paul,) heseecli you.] 
 The word, I, although in possession of a distinctive power pecu- 
 liar to itself, derives its application to Paul, from the noun, Paul. 
 
 I Paul. 
 Here, /, and Paul mean the same person ; hence / is made 
 synonymous with Paul. The word Paul, however, presents this 
 individual as the well known apostle to the Gentiles ; but / pre- 
 sents him as the par-e-theme in a certain epistle to the Corin- 
 thians. 
 
 14. I Paul myself beseech you. 
 You, too, is an extra trunk word. By application, you is made 
 synonymous with the noun, Corinthians, the ordinary name of the 
 people to whom Paul wrote this certain epistle. You, and Corin- 
 thians mean the same people. But, while the word, Corinthians, 
 would present these people to the mind of the reader as the panta- 
 theme, the pronoun, you, presents them as the prosochist. [Atten- 
 tionist.] 
 
 [Although I have dismissed the pronouns which end in 
 self, I must embrace the opportunity which this sentence 
 affords of saying something on the extra, myself.] 
 
 I Paul myself beseech you. 
 
 Was [not were] this sentence deprived of its extras, it would 
 read as follows : — 
 
 Paul beseeches Corinthians. 
 
 1. By /, it is indicated that the very Paul here meant, is the 
 par-e-theme, [the exhibiter.] /Paul. 
 
 2. By myself, it is indicated who this Paul is, or ivho I am. 
 
 I Paul myself beseech you. 
 That is, I Paul, your well tried friend, beseech you. 
 Hence, myself means, your well tried friend. 
 
 15. Master, / have brought my son unto thee. 
 The relation of the things which are introduced into a sentence 
 either by direct expression, or by obvious implication, must secure 
 the admiration of all. Nothing is more simple than this speech 
 
CLASSIOLOGT. 117 
 
 relation; yet nothing is more philosophic: and, although the 
 whole lies within the grasp of a mere child, Grammar makers do 
 not understand it. 
 
 In an English Grammar, compiled by Goold Brown, I find the 
 following sentence : — 
 
 " The distinction of persons, is founded on the different 
 relations which the objects mentioned, bear to the discourse 
 itself." 
 
 " Moses smote the rock with his rod." 
 
 I should be much pleased to learn what relation Moses, the rock, 
 and the rod bear to this sentence ! 
 
 That the former of a sentence bears a relation to it, is obvious — - 
 and, perhaps, in vocal instances, the person also to whom the sen- 
 tence is addressed, bears a relation to the sentence; as, 
 
 Master, I have brought unto thee my son. 
 It is obvious that the Master bore an audience relation to this 
 sentence when it was addressed to him. Nor is it at all difficult 
 to see that the father, who styles himself, /, bore a formative rela- 
 tion to this sentence when he addressed it to the Master. But it 
 requires more penetration than falls to the lot of most persons, to 
 see what possible relation the son bore to this sentence ! The son 
 did not form the sentence — nor is there any intimation in it, that 
 he gave audience to it. 
 
 " Moses smote the rock with his rod." 
 
 What possible relation do Moses, the rock, and the rod bear to 
 this sentence ? 
 
 Moses had been dead years before the sentence was formed. I 
 have just constructed the sentence. And is it possible, that Moses, 
 who departed this life years, yea, centuries, ago, has found his 
 way back from mother dust, and, in some mysterious manner, 
 attached himself to this proposition ? 
 
 Whether the rock from which Moses brought the copious stream, 
 has decayed out of being, I will not pretend to say ; but even if it 
 is yet in existence, it can hardly be supposed to have left its ter- 
 rene bed for a place in this verbal frame-work. 
 
 I will not pretend that the rod, employed by Moses in perform- 
 ing this standing miracle, was perishable. But, if it has found its 
 way from the streaming rock into this sentence which I have just 
 formed, it is obvious that the days of miracles, are not yet over. 
 
 The distinction of persons, is not founded upon relation of any 
 kind, but upon an ancient dramatic practice among the Greeks and 
 Romans. Of this practice, and the distinction of the three per- 
 sons in the old Grammars, founded upon it, I speak in my ArrEAL. 
 
 Although the distinction of persons, could have been founded 
 upon what may be called the speech relation which one thing bears 
 to another, it never could have been founded upon any relation 
 
118 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 which the things mentioned in a sentence, bear to the sentence it- 
 self. 
 
 The speech relation on which the distinction of persons, could 
 have been founded, is so simple that it is illustrated by almost 
 every business transaction among men. For instance, take a 
 scene in buying, and selling dry goods. 
 
 1. There are goods to be sliown. 
 
 2. There is a person to examine them — to give attention 
 to them. 
 
 3. There is a person to show them. 
 
 Master, I have brought unto thee my son. 
 
 1. The Master is called on to give attention tome. Master, look 
 on me. Master, /, have done so and 80. /, then, am the first 
 theme, the first object, the first article of goods to which the atten- 
 tion of the Master, is directed : I show myself first. 
 
 2. The Master is next directed to look upon himself. 
 
 Master, I have brought unto thee. 
 
 That is, Master, look on me as the bringer, and on thyself as the 
 person to whom I bring. Now, as the Master directs his atten- 
 tion to me, I bear an objective relation, not to the sentence, but the 
 Master himself. And, as he turns his attention to himself as the 
 person to whom I bring the son, he bears an objective relation to 
 himself : he becomes the theme, or object of his own attention. 
 
 Having called the attention of the Master to myself as the bringer, 
 and to himself as the person to whom I had brought, I next ex- 
 hibit to him the son as the person whom I brought. Hence the 
 son becomes an object, or a theme of the Master's attention, or 
 notice. 
 
 The general relation of the Master to me, himself, and the son, 
 is that of an examiner — of an attentionist. Hence he is denominated 
 the prosochist — the attentionist. And, as every thing to which he 
 gives attention, must bear an objective, a themative, relation to him, 
 /, himself, and the son, are objects, or themes of his notice. 
 
 Wherever speech is, there are these four relations, viz. : — 
 
 1. The Prosochistic — Master } 
 
 2. The Par-e-themic — I y 
 
 3. The Pros-o-themic — thee, 
 
 4. The Panta-themk — son. 
 
 No sentence can be formed without a prosochist ; nor can any 
 sentence be constructed without a par-e-theme. 
 
 These characters, however, are not always mentioned. For in- 
 stance : — 
 
 I Paul beseech you. 
 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 119 
 
 Here, the prosochist is not mentioned ; but as the sentence is 
 addressed to somebody, the prosochist must exist in idea ; as, 
 
 Corinthians, I Paul beseech you. 
 
 In the following, the prosochist is not named : — 
 
 , I have brought my son unto thee. 
 
 In the following, the par-c-theme is not expressed : — 
 
 Master, this son has been brought unto thee, . 
 
 In the following, the implied par-e-theme is expressed : — 
 Master, this son has been brought unto thee by me. 
 
 [See the Appeal, on Person.'] 
 
 A DIAGRAMIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE FOUR SPEECH RELATIONS 
 WHICH THE THINGS MENTIONED, OR IMPLIED IN A SENTENCE, 
 BEAR TO EACH OTHER. 
 
 thou 
 thee 
 
 
 P 
 
120 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 16. "It rains." 
 
 It is an extra trunk word, made synonymous with the noun, 
 rain, by application. 
 
 I am aware that grammarians, in general, say that it is a state 
 of things which rains ! A state of things dropping down upon our 
 heads, out of the clouds, would certainly be a singular state of 
 things ! 
 
 But what rains? That is, what falls down out of the clouds ? 
 Why, rain, which is denned to be falling drops of water. The rain, 
 then, rains. That is, the falling drops of water come down out 
 of the clouds. 
 
 The verb, rains, gives the pronoun, it, an application to the rain 
 or water which rains from the clouds. The pronoun, it, is used 
 because it is more pleasing to the ear to say, It rains, than it is to 
 say, Rain rains. 
 
 17. It is pleasant to see the sun. 
 
 Here, it is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with 
 the clause, to see the sun, by application. 
 
 " To see the sitn," expresses the ideas clearly. But to give the 
 sentence a more pleasing turn, the same ideas have an extra ex- 
 pression through the agency of the pronoun, it. If it should be 
 omitted, the sentence would assume the following form : 
 
 To see the sun is pleasant. 
 
 This form of the sentence is not quite so pleasing to the ear as 
 the following: — 
 
 It is pleasant to see the sun. 
 
 Besides, by the use of it, the writer is enabled to predict the intro- 
 duction of his main idea, which prepares the reader to receive it. 
 
 It is pleasant. 
 
 Here, the reader is informed that there is something which is 
 pleasant ; hence he is thrown into a state of expectation, and atten- 
 tion. This something which is pleasant, cannot be apprehended 
 till the reader arrives at the clause which gives this extra word, it, 
 a distinct meaning. And, as the syllabane, to see the sun, gives 
 the word, it, its own meaning, it and to see the sun, are made synony- 
 mous by application. 
 
 18. It rains very fast. I know it. 
 
 Here, it is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with 
 the entire sentence, It rains very fast, by application. 
 
 It rains very fast. I know it. 
 
 As the samo idea which is expressed by it in the second sentence, 
 

 CLASSIOLOGY. 121 
 
 is expressed by the first sentence, it, in the second sentence, is an 
 extra word. 
 
 19. Who, then, can be saved ? 
 
 Here, who, is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with 
 the syllabane, what person, by application. 
 
 20. It is John who tore this book. 
 
 Here, it is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with 
 the syllabane, the person, by application. 
 
 Who tore this book ? 
 
 The person is John. 
 
 It is John who tore this book. 
 
 Who is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with John, 
 by application. 
 
 21. It is they who have done this mischief. 
 
 Here, it is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with 
 the syllabane, the doer, by application. 
 
 Who has done this mischief? 
 
 The doer is they. 
 
 The idea is that the mischief has been done by the concurrent 
 action of several persons ; and that these associated individuals 
 constitute the doer of the mischief: hence, it may be used with 
 perfect propriety. 
 
 They is fin extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with the 
 syllabane, these persons. 
 
 It is they who have done this mischief. 
 (The doer of this mischief, is [not are] these persons.) 
 
 Who is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with the]/, 
 by application. And, 83 they is made synonymous with persons, by 
 application, who, virtually, though not constructively, is synony- 
 mous with peraons. 
 
 22. It is said tJiat the Apostles were illiterate men. 
 
 
 Here, it is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with 
 the clause, the Apostles were illiterate men, by application. 
 
 That is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with the 
 clause, the Apostles were illiterate men, by application. 
 
 This construction is very common, and perfectly proper. The 
 use of that seems to indicate that the writer who obviously under- 
 takes to prepare the miud of the reader for the main idea in the 
 * 11 
 
 
122 CLASSIOLOOY. 
 
 proposition, becomes apprehensive that the reader begins to in- 
 quire in his own mind, well, what is tmd t 
 
 It is said. 
 
 But what is said? 
 
 To answer this question which the writer presumes exists in the 
 mind of the reader, the writer points toward, or points out, by the 
 use of the extra, that, what is said. 
 
 It is said — well, but what is said? Why, that which lies 
 along there j do you see it ? 
 
 Here it is — J^* the Apostles were illiterate men. 
 It is said that the Apostles were illiterate men. 
 
 [That, in this, and similar situations, is called a conjunction, by 
 some, by others, an adjective. Yet it is neither a conjunction, nor 
 an adjective y but a pronoun.] 
 
 23. John sold me an ox, which his father did not wish him 
 
 to do. 
 
 Here, which is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous 
 with the verb, sold, by application. 
 
 24. That, John sold me an ox, ichich his father did not wish 
 
 him to do, is true. 
 
 Here, that is an extra trunk word, and is made synonymous with 
 the syllabane, John sold me an ox, which his father did not wish him 
 to do, by application. 
 
 25. You say the tree is green, which he clearly denies. 
 
 Here, which, is a pronoun, and is made synonymous with the 
 adjfciive, green, by application. 
 
 If the preceding illustration of the use of pronouns, gives 
 the true character of this denomination of words, it proves 
 most clearly that the old definition of the pronoun, is too 
 despicable for serious notice. Yet, in the AprEAL, I have said 
 much upon this definition ; and, erroneous as the old defini- 
 tion is, I must press the adult learner of English Grammar, 
 to examine with care what is there said upon the pronouns 
 as treated of by the old school grammarians. 
 
CLASSIOLWY. 
 
 123 
 
 THE WORDS OF THE PRONOUN DENOMINATION. 
 
 I 
 
 Us 
 
 Yourselves 
 
 One 
 
 Wc 
 
 Thee 
 
 Himself 
 
 Ones 
 
 Thou 
 
 Him 
 
 Herself 
 
 Others 
 
 Ye 
 
 Her 
 
 Themselves 
 
 Which 
 
 He 
 
 Them 
 
 Oneself 
 
 As 
 
 She 
 
 Whom 
 
 Itself 
 
 That 
 
 They 
 
 Whomsoever 
 
 Onc-another 
 
 This 
 
 Who 
 
 Myself 
 
 Each-other 
 
 These 
 
 Whoever 
 
 Ourselves 
 
 It 
 
 Those 
 
 Whosoever 
 Me 
 
 Thyself 
 
 You 
 
 So 
 
 - 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 
 1. What is a noun? [Page 86.] 
 
 2. What is said of the word, trunk, under the definition of the 
 noun denomination? 
 
 3. What is a pronoun ? [Page 80.] 
 
 4. What is the verb denomination? 
 
 5. In how many capacities does resembles act in this sentence ? 
 
 John resembles his mother. 
 C. Why is resemble* a verb? 
 
 7. What four powers does resembles exert in this sentence ? 
 
 8. How many powers does have exert in the seventh sentence 
 under the definition of a verb ? 
 
 9. What three powers does will exert in the second sentence 
 under the definition of a verb ? 
 
 "John being wise, we took his advice." 
 
 10. How many of the four verb powers does being exert here? 
 
 11. How many of the four does took exert ? 
 
 12. Is a verb cordictive, or uncordictivef 
 
 13. Is a verb a branch, or a trunk word? 
 1 1. What docs quadruple mean ? 
 
 15. How many powers does have exert in the following mono- 
 logue? — 
 
 I have a book. 
 
 10. How many of the four verb powers docs have exert in this 
 sentence ? — 
 
 John will have been punished. 
 
 17. In what capacity does brcn act in this t»cuteuce? 
 
124 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 18. How many of the four verb powers does have surrender where 
 it is used to mark the time? 
 
 19. What is said of have, and be at the foot of the 87th page ? 
 
 20. In what capacity does be act in the following sentence ? — 
 
 James can be good. 
 
 21. How many powers does be surrender? 
 
 22. Boes can exert the four verb powers ? 
 
 23. What are the four powers of the verb ? 
 
 24. What power does been exert in the following sentence ? — 
 
 Joseph will have been in the city ten days next Saturday. 
 
 25. What does am express in the following sentence ? — 
 
 I am. 
 
 26. How many of the four verb powers does am exert in the next 
 monologue ? — 
 
 I am sick. 
 
 27. How many of the four verb powers does am as here used, 
 surrender ? 
 
 28. When is the exertion of both the cordictive, and the signifi- 
 cant power of the verb required ? [Page 89.] 
 
 29. On what occasion is the exertion of but one of these powers 
 exerted ? 
 
 30. Do all verbs have cordictive powers ? 
 
 [The verb always exerts cordictive power, unless its form, 
 or position in the verb series prevents this exercise ; as, John 
 wrote the letters, They have books, The sun being up, we de- 
 parted, .] 
 
 In the following monologues, the verbs in italic characters 
 do not exert their cordictive power : — 
 
 1. John has written the letter. 
 
 2. Jane was cooking the steak. 
 
 3. Joseph can be good. 
 
 1. How many verbs can be used in the same verb series? 
 Four : — John will have been pushed. 
 
 32. How is the preposition denomination defined ? 
 
 33. What does in, in the first example, express ? 
 
 34. What does about, in the eighth sentence, express ? 
 
 35. What does against, in the ninth monologue, express ? 
 
 36. Is the preposition denomination a large, or a small class of 
 words ? 
 
 37. Is a preposition a cordictive word? 
 
 38. To what nouns, and pronouns, are the prepositions appro- 
 priated ? 
 
 39. Are prepositions branch, or trunk words ? 
 
CLAS5?10L0GY. 125 
 
 40. What is the conjunction denomination? 
 
 41. To what syllabanes are the conjunctions appropriated ? 
 
 42. What do you understand by the words, " cordictivc sub sylla- 
 
 43. What is a predicate ? 
 
 [Any thing, or fact which is affirmed, asked, commanded, 
 suhjirmed, or petitioned of a person, place, or thing; as, 
 
 Is Samuel good, Samuel is good, Samuel, be thou good, 
 If Samuel is good, Forgive thou our sins.'] 
 
 44. What examples illustrate the definition of the conjunction? 
 
 45. What is because ? 
 
 46. What is the adjective denomination ? 
 
 47. What is wo, in the syllabane, no apples ? 
 
 48. Are adjectives applicable to cordictivc nouns, and pronouns ? 
 
 49. Are adjectives cordictive words ? 
 
 50. Are adjectives branch words ? 
 
 61. Are adjectives applicable to uncordiclive nouns, and pronouns ? 
 52. What is a cordictive noun ? 
 
 [A cordictive noun is one which aids the verb in forming 
 a cordiction ; as, Moses smote the rock.] (Moses smote.) 
 
 63. What is an uncordictive noun ? 
 
 [An uncordictive noun is one which does not aid in form- 
 ing the cordiction of the mono ; as, Moses smote the rock 
 with his rod.~] (rock, rod.) 
 
 54. What is a cordiction? [Book I. page 17.] 
 
 55. Which is the cordictive noun in this sentence ? — 
 
 Jane resembles Nancy. 
 
 56. Of what denomination is resembles ? 
 
 57. Why is resembles of the verb denomination ? 
 
 58. How many of the verb powers does resembles exert here ? 
 5'J. What is the characteristic of the adjective ? 
 
 [The characteristic of the adjective, is the capacity to be 
 applied to both the cordictive, and the uncordictive nouns. 
 The preposition is an uncordictive branch word applicable 
 to uncordictive nouns only. The adjective is applicable to 
 both the cordictive, and the uncordictive nouns; as, John's 
 son has John's hat, These Jive large apples did not grow in 
 these Jive large fields.] 
 
 60. What is apples? 
 
 61 . Is apples cordictive ? 
 
 62. Is fields uncordictive ? 
 
 63. What is carving, in carving knife? 
 
 64. What does carving express ? 
 
 11* 
 
126 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 65. What do the adjectives in the following syllabanes express ? 
 
 1. What book have you ? 
 
 2. Has any man called ? 
 
 3. Some person has come in. 
 
 4. Are all the children well ? 
 
 5. John has no book. 
 
 6. Each of the seven boys has a new book. 
 
 7. ^Aose two boys must read in the same book. 
 
 8. Call tlie large boy. 
 
 9. jTAatf white dish is my «?«$& bowl. 
 
 10. Bakers' bread. 
 
 11. Murray's Grammar. 
 
 12. Have you seen John Boston ? 
 
 13. He is the attorney general. 
 
 14. Is the court martial now in session ? 
 
 15. Get those apple seeds. 
 
 16. Do you like peach pie ? 
 
 17. JFAarf , is a nasaZ sound ? 
 
 18. His voice is guttural. 
 
 19. He is a man of affable manners. 
 
 66. What is the pronoun denomination ? 
 
 67. Is the pronoun denomination small ? 
 
 68. Is a pronoun a branch word ? 
 
 69. Are pronouns extra names ? 
 
 70. Do any of the pronouns derive their meaning from the nature 
 of the context ? 
 
 71. What does myself me&n in this sentence? — 
 
 I hurt myself. 
 [Myself, here, means that I hurt, not another, but myself] 
 
 72. What does myself mean in the following sentence ? — 
 
 I myself hurt me. 
 
 [Myself, here, not only intimates that the hurting of me had 
 been charged upon another person, but expresses the fact that 
 this act was done by me in my own proper person.] 
 
 [A man may do an act by his agent, and he may do it in his own 
 proper person. ] [In propria persona. ) 
 
 73. Is the pronoun ever made synonymous with a verb, an adjec- 
 tive, a clause, another pronoun, and an entire sentence ? 
 
 74. Have you examined with care the illustrations of the func- 
 tions of the pronoun, which begin under page 108 ? 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 127 
 
 75. Have you examined the cut which illustrates the four speech 
 relations ? 
 
 76. Can you repeat all the words of the pronoun denomination ? 
 
 77. Is me a pronoun? 
 
 78. Is as a pronoun ? 
 
 79. Is that a pronoun ? 
 
 Name all the Pronouns in the following sentences:— 
 
 1. [That man is old;] (but he is not wise.) 
 
 2. [He was entertaining them.] 
 
 3. [Which lad brought the note] (which I read ?) 
 
 4. [Get thou thy book,] (Charles.) 
 
 5. [I want American black silk hats.] 
 
 6. [He is not] (the man.) 
 
 7. [I am] (he) (whom thou didst call.) 
 
 8. [It is] (they) (who did this mischief.) 
 
 9. [That (man is mortal,) has never been denied] (by 
 me.) 
 
 10. [We have heard that] (the Greeks have defeated the 
 Turks.) 
 
 11. [You allege that] (this man is innocent;) (but we affirm 
 that) (he is not.) 
 
 12. [He was not] (that light;) (but he was sent to bear 
 witness) (of that light.) 
 
 Note. — Where the can be substituted for that, that is an adjec- 
 tive ; as, the light. 
 
 13. [Jesus ( , himself) drew near while] (they com- 
 muned together.) 
 
 14. [He was so unwell] ( , , , ) (that) (he could 
 not attend.) 
 
 [The consequence was) (that) (he could not attend.) 
 
 15. [It rains.] [We know that.] 
 
 16. [We told him to read the book ;] (and he did so.) 
 
 Here, so is synonymous with the word, it. 
 
128 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 DENOMINATION TESTS. 
 Principle I. 
 
 1. Every word which is the regular ; fixed name of a 
 thing, xoord, or fact that holds a trunk rank in the mind's 
 collocation of the objects of thought, is of the noun denomi- 
 nation; as, 
 
 The knife is sharp, In has two letters, pronounce thou the 
 word, hooky* the writing of the letter gave offence, the 
 offence was caused by laughing. 
 
 Principle IL 
 
 2. Every &/Uabcane } whether long, or short, which is made 
 the regular, fixed name of a thing, or a fact that holds a 
 trunk rank in the mind's collocation of the objects of thought, 
 is a noun ; as, 
 
 1. He said, they will reverence my son. 
 
 2. Have you to 'pay the note immediately f 
 
 3. Thou shall love the Lord) is the first commandment. 
 
 4. The first commandment is, Thou shalt love the Lord. 
 
 5. To see tJie sun is pleasant. 
 
 PART VII. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 Ectology is that part of Etymology) which respects the 
 distinctive powers that some words exert in addition to their 
 Dictionary meaning. (Uktos, extra, in addition to, and 
 logos, a word.) 
 
 1. Bog, boys. (Addition of the number.) 
 
 2. Bog, girl. (Addition of the gender.) 
 
 3. Man, Moses. (Addition of the distinction between a race, and 
 individuals.) 
 
 4. High, higher, highest. (Addition of the distinction in de- 
 gree.) 
 
 5. Write, wrote. (Addition of the distinction in time.) 
 
 * Every word is the regular, fx^d, name of itself— and, as, in the collocation of 
 the objects of thought, the mind can give a word the trunk rank, any word may be 
 made a noun. 
 
ECTOLOGY. 129 
 
 LESSON III. 
 ECTOLOGY OP NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS. 
 
 To nouns, and pronouns belong, 
 
 1. Application, 
 
 2. Reladiction, 
 
 3. Numer diction, and 
 
 4. Genediction. 
 
 APPLICATION. 
 
 In grammar, application respects the appropriation of 
 nouns, and pronouns. 
 
 1. Application of Nouns. 
 
 The application of nouns respects their appropriation to 
 classes, or to individuals ; as, Boy, James. 
 
 Application of Pronouns. 
 
 The application of pronouns respects their appropriation 
 to rational beings only, or to mere things, and irrational 
 beings, or to rational, and to irrational beings, and to mere 
 things; as, / saw the man that read the book which lay on 
 the table tliat was near us. 
 
 [/ and us are applied to rational beings only ; that is applied to 
 things, to rational, and to irrational beings ; and which is applied 
 to things, and to irrational beings.] 
 
 The applications of pronouns are divided into, 
 
 1. Rational, 
 
 2. Irrational, and 
 
 3. Ambi. 
 
 The rational application respects the appropriation of pro- 
 nouns to rational beings only; as, Friend, i" do thee no 
 wrong ; didst thou not agree with me for a penny ? 
 
 [Pronouns of the rational application — /, we, me, vs, thou, ye, 
 you, who, whosoever, whom, whomsoever, myself, ourselves, thyself, 
 yourselves, oneself] 
 
c 
 
 130 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 The irrational application respects the appropriation of 
 pronouns to mere things only, or to mere things and to irra- 
 tional beings ; as, John saw the horse lohich ate the grass 
 which grew in that field ; I told Stephen to write the letter, 
 and the lad did so. 
 
 [Pronouns of the irrational application — ivhich, and *o.] 
 
 Note. — The pronoun, which, is not unfrequently applied to rational 
 beings. For instance, in the following: — "For the kingdom of 
 heaven is like unto a man that is a householder, which went out 
 early in the morning to hire labourers into his vineyard." 
 
 " Our Father, ivhich art in heaven." 
 
 This application of ivhich is wrong. " 
 
 The ambi application respects the appropriation of pro- 
 nouns both to what is rational, and to what is irrational ; as, 
 The man that was saved, and the horse that was lost, fell 
 through the bridge together. 
 
 [Amhiy both.] 
 
 [Pronouns of the ambi application— he, she, it, him, her, they, them, 
 himself, herself, itself, the?nseloes, one another, each other, one, ones, 
 others, as, that.] 
 
 2. RELADICTION. 
 
 The reladiction of nouns, and pronouns, is the expression, 
 of the speech relations of the mentioned things to one another; 
 as, John } /saw thee with him. 
 
 3. NUMERDICTION. 
 
 The numerdiction of nouns, and pronouns, is the expres' 
 sion of number — unity } and plurality ; as, book } books; I, 
 ice. 
 
 [NumeroSy number, and dictio, speech.] 
 
 4. GENEDICTION. 
 
 The (jenediction of nouns, and pronouns, is the expression, 
 of the gender of animals ; as, boy y girl. 
 
ECTOLOOT. 
 
 131 
 
 1. APPLICATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 The application of a noun respects its appropriation to a 
 class, or to mere individuals ; as, city, Philadelphia* 
 Nouns have two technical applications, namely, 
 
 Classy and Individual. 
 
 1. The class application of a noun is its appropriation to 
 a class ; as, man, city, state, town. 
 
 2. The individual application of a noun is its appropria- 
 tion to individuals; as, Thomas, Baltimore, Pennsylvania, 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 
 INDIVIDUALS. 
 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 This 
 
 man 
 
 is 
 
 Jones, 
 
 the 
 
 painter. 
 
 My 
 
 boy 
 
 
 James 
 
 the 
 
 shoemaker. 
 
 The 
 
 river 
 
 
 Delaware 
 
 a noble 
 
 stream. 
 
 Her 
 
 brother 
 
 
 John 
 
 the 
 
 grammarian. 
 
 The 
 
 man 
 
 was 
 
 Washington 
 
 the 
 
 General. 
 
 John's 
 
 writing 
 
 to 
 
 Samuel 
 
 last 
 
 week. 
 
 The 
 
 day 
 
 •was 
 
 Saturday 
 
 a 
 
 time. 
 
 The 
 
 month 
 
 of 
 
 June 
 
 has thirty days. 
 
 The 
 
 Lord 
 
 said, 
 
 Adam, 
 
 
 where art thou f 
 
 A devout 
 
 man 
 
 was 
 
 Cornelius 
 
 who feared God. 
 
 A certain woman, 
 
 
 Man/, 
 
 had seven 
 
 devils. 
 
 This 
 
 plant. 
 
 
 Charles, 
 
 has great 
 
 virtue. 
 
 The 
 
 height 
 
 of 
 
 Washington 
 
 was six 
 
 Sect. 
 
 The 
 
 increase 
 
 of 
 
 Boston 
 
 in 
 
 population. 
 
 The 
 
 strength 
 
 of the Bostonians 
 
 or of other men. 
 
 The 
 
 queen 
 
 of 
 
 England 
 
 is a mere 
 
 woman. 
 
 This 
 
 man 
 
 
 Johnson, 
 
 is A 
 
 shoemaker. 
 
 This 
 
 carpenter 
 
 
 Mr. Mann, 
 
 is not a 
 
 teacher. 
 
 That 
 
 bird, 
 
 
 Eliza, 
 
 is a 
 
 robin. 
 
132 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Every thing both in nature, and art, belongs to some clas.* 
 No object can be found which has not something in common 
 with many others. And this property which each individual has, 
 throws them all into the same class. Man's relation to the vari- 
 ous objects which surround him, makes if very convenient for 
 him to consider these objects both in classes, and as individuals. 
 Hence every language has words which are designed, and cal- 
 culated to speak of these objects in classes, and as individuals too. 
 The word, boy, is the name of a class of human beings. But 
 the word, John, is the name of an individual, not the name of a 
 class of individuals. This being that is called John when one 
 has occasion to distinguish him from his classmates, is deno- 
 minated boy when one has no occasion to call him out from 
 among his brethren. Hence the same being has two names — a 
 class name, as boy, and an individual name, as John. 
 
 There are two ways of bringing an individual out from among 
 the members of his class, by virtue of words. An individual 
 may be designated, brought forth, by virtue of his individual 
 name ; as, John. 
 
 And an individual may be designated, pointed out, by apply- 
 ing branch words to the class name ; as, This boy, that boy, my 
 boy, the good boy, this little boy. 
 
 In general, the individual name is as effectual in designating 
 any certain member of a class of objects, or beings, as is the 
 class name with the aid of suitable branch words. 
 
 Still, there may be instances where the individual name itself 
 requires the aid of suitable branch signs ; as, 7'his John, the other 
 John, your John, &c. 
 
 In many instances, one individual name is applied to another; 
 as, John Smith, James Foster, Mary Brown. 
 
 That an individual name may be applied to more than one, is 
 obvious. For instance, there may be one thousand boys in 
 Pennsylvania, who are called John. But, then, these boys are 
 not a distinct class of human beings : they are individuals that 
 have no particular characteristic mark to throw them into a dis- 
 tinct class. 
 
 The word, Sunday, is an individual name ; still this name is 
 applicable to all Sundays. But the Sundays of a year, do not 
 form a distinct class of days. The day which is denominated 
 Sunday, has the same class mark which every other day has. 
 True, there are various institutions which exert an influence 
 over men, and manners, on Sunday; but these institutions do 
 not impart to the time itself any characteristic mark which dis- 
 tinguishes it from the time of Saturday. What is an individual 
 name 1 
 
 An individual name is a trunk sign which has the power in 
 
ECTOLOGT. 133 
 
 itself to individualize / as, Monday, Sunday, June, July, James, 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 That the period of time, called Monday, is a legitimate mem- 
 ber of a class, is admitted. As Monday, however, this period 
 of time belongs to no class. But, as a day, it belongs to the 
 class of days. There is no class of Mondays — each Monday is 
 taken as an individual. It may be well enough to remark, in 
 this connection, that, where the individualizing power is derived 
 entirely from the application of branch words, the trunk name 
 is not an individual noun; as, This glove, My hat, His book, 
 Call the older boy of the two. 
 
 Glove, hat, book, and boy, have no individualizing power in 
 themselves. The power to individualize lies in this, my, his, and 
 older. 
 
 In many instances the context, the nature of the subject, or 
 some denning circumstance may individualize; as, 
 
 " Now, the God of peace, that brought again from the dead 
 our Lord Jesus Christ, that great S/iepherd of the sheep, through 
 the blood of the everlasting covenant, make you perfect in every 
 good work." 
 
 That the word, God, as here used, means the true God, the 
 Supreme Being, is obvious from the connection in which it is 
 used. But, as this individualizing power does not lie in the 
 word itself, God, is a class noun. 
 
 The same remark holds good in relation to the words, Lord, 
 and Shepherd. These two names are applied to Christ from the 
 very connection, and from the nature of the subject too. "Lord 
 Jesus Christ," "the great Shepherd:' 
 
 The test is this, if the word when it is taken by itself, indi- 
 vidualizes, it is an individual noun. But, if it generalizes, it is 
 a classific noun. Fancy, then, that the word, God, is imprinted 
 in the palm of your hand, and that you are to decide which of 
 the various gods it means. If, when the word is in this solitary 
 state, you cannot say that it means the true God, or this, or that 
 particular false god, it means all gods, the entire class of gods. 
 
 God. 
 Lord. 
 Shepherd. 
 Saviour. 
 It would be wrong in principle, to call these names indivi- 
 dualizing nouns where they are applied to the true God by virtue 
 of any agency which lies out of these words themselves. 
 
 Persons are thrown into distinct classes by virtue of their 
 vocation, or station ; as, Shoemakers, Coopers, Carpenters, Au- 
 thors, Editors, Printers, Kings, Queens, Presidents, Governors, 
 Generals, Judges, &c. The classes which are formed upon the 
 basis of vocations, and political stations, are minor ones. The 
 
 12 
 
13 1 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 individuals that constitute the class of shoemakers, are U«en 
 from the class of men. No ; they are not taken from the human 
 family — they remain in the major class while, by virtue of their 
 calling, they are formed into the minor class. Hence, although 
 a man cannot be at two places at the same time, he can be in 
 two classes at the same moment. 
 
 1. The writing of the letter was wrong. 
 
 Writing is here a trunk word ; and, as it is the name of a 
 class, it belongs to the nounitory. As this word when uninflu- 
 enced by branch words, and by the connection in which it 
 stands, is the name of any, and all acts of making letters with a 
 pen, or with some equivalent means, it is a class noun. 
 The iv riling of the letter by James was not necessary. 
 
 Here the act of writing is individualized. But as the word, 
 writing, does not individuate this act, this sign is not an indivi- 
 dual name. 
 
 2. The crookedness of the stick. 
 
 The word, crookedness, is a class name, for it includes the at- 
 tribute of crookedness wherever it is found. There are many 
 crookednesses. The crookedness of the horn, the crookedness of the 
 rainbow, the crookedness of the road of life, the crookedness of the 
 lane, the crookedness of the mind, &c, &c. 
 
 This word crookedness, however, embraces the whole class. 
 Hence it is a class noun. 
 
 3. To see the sun is pleasant. 
 
 " To see the sun" is a trunk sign — and, as it is the name of a 
 class of actions, it is a class name. True, this class of actions 
 may be small— but small, or great, the syllabane, "to see the 
 sun"* is the name of all of the class. 
 
 And Herod said, "John have I beheaded" 
 " John have I beheaded." 
 
 That this mono, this assemblage of words, is a name of a 
 complex idea, can not be doubted by any man who can reason 
 on the subject of grammar. This mono is one long name ; and 
 each short word in it, is a mere syllable. In the whole word, 
 there are four syllables. These four syllables are given to the 
 reader as one word ; and he must take them as one word. Herod 
 said. 
 
 But what did he say ? "John have I beheaded." 
 Said must rest on two pillars — Herod is one ; and what he 
 said, is the other. " John have I beheaded" is what he said — 
 hence this syllabane is a foundation, a trunk name. It is a 
 trunk name because it can stand alone : 
 
 1. " John have I beheaded." 
 
ECTOLOGY. 135 
 
 But is this mono a class name, or an individual one ? Does 
 this mono individuate? It does individualize; but, as it indi- 
 viduates through the aid of extraneous matter, the reader is 
 compelled to leave this mono to ascertain whom the word, 7, 
 represents. 
 
 John have i" beheaded. 
 
 But who is I? Herod is J. And does this pronoun, /, de- 
 cide that Herod is I? No; the reader must resort to the indi' 
 vidual name, Herod, to enable him to fix this act of beheading 
 John, upon Herod. 
 
 Herod has beheaded John. 
 
 Here the mono individualizes by virtue of its own intrinsic, 
 innate, power. The sign, whether it consists of one word, or 
 of many, which individuates by the aid of adcititious matter, is 
 not an individual name. 
 
 My hands. 
 
 That the hands are individualized, distinguished from all 
 other hands, is true. But, as the means by which the act of in- 
 dividuation is done, is in my, and not in hands, hands is not an 
 individual, but a class noun. 
 
 But why is not my of the nounitory 1 My is not a trunk, but 
 a branch, sign. Hence this word cannot belong to the nounitory. 
 
 John have I beheaded. 
 
 Does the word, beheaded, include a class of actions 1 It cer- 
 tainly does not in this proposition. Nor does the word, hand, ir 
 the following, mean a class of hands : 
 
 My hand. 
 
 Hand can not here include the class of hands, because my 
 prevents it But, in the following, hand comprehends the entire 
 class : 
 
 Hand. 
 
 So, if beheaded is placed alone, it includes all the acts of 
 severing the head from the body : 
 
 Behead. 
 
 But the subject under consideration is not constituted by the 
 word, beheaded, alone. The point to be decided is, whether this 
 mono, John have I beheaded, is a class, or an individual sign. 
 This very act, for aught there is in this mono to prevent it, may 
 be done a thousand times, and each time by a different agent; as, 
 
 1. Saul said, John have I beheaded. [Done by Saul.] 
 
 2. Luke said, John have I beheaded. [Done by Luke.] 
 
 3. Pilate said, John have I beheaded. [Done by Pilate.] 
 
136 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 As the mono, John have I beheaded, embraces the three acts, 
 so it might include thousands, and thousands. Hence this mono 
 is a class sign. 
 
 The following is an individual sign : 
 
 Herod has beheaded John. 
 
 1. Saul said, Herod has beheaded John. 
 
 2. Luke said, Herod has beheaded John. 
 
 3. Pilate said, Herod has beheaded John. 
 
 Here the mono is the sign of the same act at all times, and in 
 all respects. 
 
 1. This man is the Washington of the age. 
 
 2. That one is the Cicero of America. 
 
 3. This volume is the History of the Twelve Ccesars. 
 
 If the way in which an individual is spoken of, constitutes 
 him a class, his name becomes a class noun ; as, 
 
 1. This person is the Washington of the age. 
 
 2. That one is the Cicero of America. 
 
 3. He is reading the Lives of the Twelve Ccesars. 
 
 1. The Washington. 
 
 That is, the one that so distinguished himself by his deeds, 
 that he stands so far above all his fellows, that he is the only one 
 in the class. 
 
 2. He is the Aristides of Philadelphia. . 
 
 Aristides was pre-eminently just — and, on this basis he con- 
 stitutes a distinct class. 
 
 3. Girard was the Crcesus of Philadelphia. 
 
 Croesus is here made to constitute a class. Hence his name 
 is a class noun. 
 
 But, as Girard is not spoken of as a class, his name is an tn- 
 dividual noun. 
 
 I have extended my remarks upon the characteristics of a class, 
 and an individual name, to a great length. But the importance 
 of the subject, and the little light which the old theory sheds 
 upon this part of the pupil's path, will apologise for this pro- 
 lixity. And, although I have said much, the darkness which 
 neither Mr. Murray, nor his industrious simplifiers have even at- 
 tempted to diminish, may be as thick as it was when I first put 
 the feeble blaze to my taper which I shall leave to be trimmed 
 by more able hands. 
 
 In the Appeal, I attempt to show that every noun is proper. 
 And, as the pupil will do well to examine for himself, I refer 
 him to the chapter on Common, and Proper nouns, in that work. 
 
CLASfclOLOGY. 137 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 SUBDIVISION OF VERBS. 
 
 Verbs are subdivided upon the basis of their relative position in 
 a verb series, and upon their capacity to be used without another 
 verb, into 
 
 1. Inceptive, 
 
 2. final, 
 
 3. Medial, and 
 
 4. Solo. 
 
 1. An Inceptive verb is the first word in the verb series ; as, 
 
 Can be punished ; Might have been punished. 
 
 2. A Final verb is the last word in the verb series ; as, 
 
 Can be punished ; Was punished; Might have been pun- 
 ished. 
 
 3. A Medial verb is one which comes somewhere between the 
 Inceptive, and the Final verb ; as, 
 
 Can be punished; Might have been punished. 
 
 4. A Solo verb is one which is used alone, without another verb ; 
 as, 
 
 John punislied them j Be thou good ; I have a book. 
 
 1. Verbs which are always inceptive. 
 
 May Might Shall 
 
 Can Could Should 
 
 Must Would Ought. 
 
 2. Verbs which may be Inceptive, Medial, Final, or Solo, as occa- 
 sion requires. 
 
 Be. Have. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 1 . Joseph, be writing your copy. [Inceptive.] 
 
 2. Jane will soon be writing. [Medial.] 
 
 3. Sarah must be good. [Final.] 
 
 4. Sarah, be thou diligent. [Solo.] 
 
138 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 Have. 
 
 1. I have written. [Inceptive.] 
 
 2. John will have written. [Medial.] 
 
 3. I must have a book. [Final.] 
 
 4. I have a book. [Solo.] 
 
 3. Verbs which may be Inceptive, or Solo, as occasion requires. 
 
 Am, Art, Is, Was, Wast, Are, Were, Has, Hast, Hath, Did, 
 Didst, Does, Doth, Dost. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 1. I am writing. [Inceptive.] 
 
 2. I am the pupil. [Solo.] 
 
 3. Thou art reading. [Inceptive.] 
 
 4. Thou art here. [Solo.] 
 
 5. is he walking ? [Inceptive.] 
 
 6. Henry is not well. [Solo.] 
 
 7. He was walking. [Inceptive.] 
 
 8. She was ill. [Solo.] 
 
 9. Wast thou looking t [Inceptive.] 
 
 10. Wast thou well then. [Solo.] 
 
 11. The letters are written. [Inceptive.] 
 
 12. The letters are correct. [Solo.] 
 
 13. Were they then formed ? [Inceptive.] 
 
 14. They were then here. [Solo.] 
 
 15. John has written. [Inceptive.] 
 
 16. Jane has a book. [Solo.] 
 
 17. Thou hast seen him. [Inceptive.] 
 
 18. Thou hast a knife. [Solo.] 
 
 19. He hath examined the subject. [Inceptive.] 
 
 20. She hath a good mind. [Solo.] 
 
 21. He did lament. [Inceptive.] 
 
 22. John did the work. [Solo.] 
 
 23. Didst thou speak ? [Inceptive.] 
 
 24. Thou didst the work well X [Solo.] 
 
 25. James does walk. [Inceptive.] 
 
 26. Johnson does these jobs well. [Solo.] 
 
 27. He doth read slowly. [Inceptive.] 
 
 28. Henry doth this sort of work with great skill. [Solo.] 
 
 29. Dost thou not recollect us ? [Inceptive.] 
 
 30. Dost thou these deeds with pleasure ? [Solo.] 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 130 
 
 81. Dost thou not recollect us? [Inceptive.] 
 
 32. Dost thou these deeds with any degree of pleasure ? 
 [Solo.] 
 
 33. The letters being read. [Inceptive.] 
 
 34. He heing wise, we gave heed to his counsel. [Solo.] 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 We not unfrequently find the word being used as a medial verb. 
 For instance — "The house is being built;" "The boy is being 
 taught." 
 
 This use of being is shamefully bad ; indeed, it is so despicable, 
 that I can hardly consent to comment upon it. That being is 
 neither medial nor final, must be clear to all who have made the 
 construction of the verb series a subject of thought. [More under 
 the head of Syntax.] 
 
 4. Verbs which, though almost always Inceptive, mag be Solo. 
 
 Will. Would. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 1. Jane will be here soon. [Inceptive.] 
 
 2. I will — be thou clean. [Solo.] 
 
 3. I would write the letter if I could. [Inceptive.] 
 
 4. [I would that] all would come ilnto me, and have life. 
 [Solo.] 
 
 Note. — The first would is a solo verb, the second is an incep- 
 tive verb. 
 
 But would is so generally an inceptive verb, that I have classed 
 it with the eight which are always inceptive. 
 
 5. Verbs which mag be Medial, or Final, as occasion requires. 
 Been. Done. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 1. These letters must have been written by that man. 
 [Medial.] 
 
 2. These persons have been in error. [Final.] 
 
 Note. — Been, in the primitive form, be, may be inceptive, medial, 
 final, or solo, as occasion requires. 
 
140 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 6. Verbs which may be Inceptive, Final, or Solo, as occasion requires. 
 Do. Had. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 1. I do say this. [Inceptive.] 
 
 2. He would do the deed. [Final.] 
 
 3. They do these jobs very well. [Solo.] 
 
 4. They had seen her before. [Inceptive.] 
 
 5. John must have had some aid from thee. [Final.] 
 
 6. I had several books on this subject. [Solo.] 
 
 7. Verbs which are ahvays Solo verbs. 
 Quoth, Off, Away, Up, Wot. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 1. Quoth he. 
 
 2. Quoth I. 
 
 3. Off with his head. 
 
 4. Away with him. 
 
 5. Tfcy ye. 
 
 6. Wot ye not that, &c. 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 1. [Charles should be good.] 
 
 Charles is a cordictive noun. 
 
 Should is an inceptive verb, exerting the four verb powers. 
 Be is a final verb, ascribing goodness to Charles, and sur- 
 
 rendering its other verb powers. 
 
 2. I will — be thou clean. 
 
 [I will.] 
 
 / is ft cordictive pronoun, of the par-e-theme reladiction, made 
 
 synonymous with Christ, by application.* 
 Will is a solo verb, exerting the four verb powers, and is here 
 
 made synonymous with order, command, wish, or desire, by 
 
 application. 
 
 * Reladiction is the expression of the four speech relations, viz. : 
 
 1. Pros-o-chistic~, 
 
 2. Par-e-theme, 
 
 3. Pros-o-lheme. and 
 
 4. ran-tu-theme. 
 
CLASSIOLOOY. 141 
 
 (Be thou clean.) 
 
 Be is an inceptive verb, surrendering its significant, and its ascrib- 
 ing power. 
 
 Thou is a cordictive pronoun, of the pros-o-iheme reladiction, made 
 synonymous with the syllabane, leprous man, by applica- 
 tion. 
 
 Clean is an adjective, and, as here used, expresses restoration to 
 health. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. I was accosted. The sun had risen. 
 
 2. Thou wast accused. Some would be confounded. 
 
 3. They must have been taught. She was here. 
 
 4. John will have a book. 
 
 5. I go. 
 
 6. Thou wentest. 
 
 7. Will she have a book ? 
 
 8. He willed me a house. 
 
 9. He would go. 
 
 10. You had gone. 
 
 11. Have you a pen ? 
 
 12. " I will— Be thou clean." 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 Note. — Should any Grammarian ask, "Why I do not adopt the 
 m common subdivision of verbs, into Auxiliary and Principal" he is 
 referred to the Appeal for an answer. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. The inceptive verb always exerts cordictive power; as, John 
 teas writing the letter. 
 
 2. The nine verbs which are always inceptive, always exert the 
 four verb powers ; viz., cordictive, ascribing, tense, and significant; as 
 John can have a book. 
 
 3. The final verb, except be and been, surrenders three powers, 
 viz., the cordictive, ascribing, and the tense power; as, John con 
 walk. 
 
 4. Be and been, when final verbs, surrender three of the verb 
 
142 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 powers, viz. : the cordiciive, the significant, and the tense ; as, John 
 can be good, James has been bad. 
 
 4. Be and been, as medial verbs, exert their ascribing power only ; 
 as, John might be writing his copy, Jane should have been learning 
 her lesson. 
 
 5. Have, when a medial verb, exerts its tense power only ; as, 
 Johnson will have been in Philadelphia three days next Monday. 
 
 6. Will, as an inceptive verb, exerts the four verb powers ; as, I 
 will pay you soon. 
 
 7. A solo verb, except in the imperative, and in the petitio native 
 cordiction, always exerts the four verb powers ; as, Moses smote 
 the rock ; I will — be thou clean. 
 
 8. In the imperative, and in the pctitionative cordiction, the incep- 
 tive, and the solo verb, surrender the ascribing power only ; as, 
 Be thou clean ; Be thou writing soon, John ; Forgive our sins ; Par- 
 don our transgressions. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is a verb? 
 
 2. How many powers naturally belong to verbs ? 
 
 3. What is an inceptive verb ? 
 
 4. Can you name the four powers which naturally belong to the 
 verb? 
 
 5. Is cotdd, always an inceptive verb ? 
 
 6. Is will, always a solo verb? 
 
 7. What is a, final verb ? 
 
 8. What is a solo verb ? 
 
 9. How many of the natural powers of the verb does an incep- 
 tive verb surrender in a solo of the imperative cordiction ? 
 
 10. What powers does the inceptive verb exert in the petitionative 
 cordiction ? 
 
 11. What powers does the solo verb surrender in the imperative 
 cordiction ? H 
 
 12. Is have, a medial verb ? 
 
 13. What powers does have, as a medial verb, exert ? 
 
 14. What powers does have, as a final verb, exert? 
 
 15. What powers does have, as a solo verb in the affirmative cor- 
 diction, exert? 
 
 16. Can did be & final verb ? [No.] 
 
 17. Can did be a solo verb? [Yes.] 
 
 18. Can did be a medial verb ? [No.] 
 
 19. Can done be a medial verb ? [He must have done writing the 
 letter.] 
 
 20. Can do be an inceptive verb ? 
 
 21. Can do be & final verb ? [I must do the work.] 
 
 22. What is did, in the following sentence ? — 
 
 Washington did command the army. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 143 
 
 28. What is did in this sentence? — 
 
 Sarah did the work well. 
 
 24. What is do in the following ? — 
 
 "Do you see that lad ?" 
 [I do , .] 
 
 Note. — Here see, the final verb, is understood ; which renders 
 do, an inceptive verb. 
 
 25. What verb may be inceptive, final, or solo, as occasion de- 
 mands? 
 
 26. What verb may be medial, final, or solo, as occasion re- 
 quires ? 
 
 27. What verbs are always inceptive ? 
 
 28. What is a verb ? 
 
 29. How many verbs are there in the following sentence ? — 
 
 lie was not that light, but he came to bear witness of that 
 light. 
 
 30. What kind of a verb is teas, here ? 
 
 Is there a verb series here? \Camc to bear."] 
 81. What is he? What is that? What is but? What is wit- 
 ness? What is of? What is light? 
 
 32. Why is he a pronoun ? 
 
 33. How many of the verb powers does was exert here ? 
 
 34. How many does came surrender ? 
 
 35. Does bear exert cordictive power here ? 
 
 LESSON V. 
 PRONOUN TESTS. 
 
 The trunk word which can be placed on the comma, and 
 read with the skeleton syllabane, is a pronoun. 
 
 1. , am here. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 2. , art sick. [The pros-o-theme.] 
 
 3. , , am writing. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 4. , , art not satisfied. [The pros-o-theme.] 
 
 5. Richard is , again. [The panta-themc.] 
 
 6. These books are the ones , this man wants. [The 
 panta-themc.] 
 
 7. That gentleman wants such books , these. [The 
 panta-theme.] 
 
144 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 8. This boy is the lad , reads so well. [The pan- 
 ta-theme.] 
 
 9. Nathaniel has the book , this boy wants. 
 
 10. , is said , this man is brave. [The panta- 
 theme.] 
 
 11. , is pleasant to see the sun. 
 
 12. , this man is brave, is not denied. [The panta- 
 theme.] 
 
 13. Boys, have , yourselves seen Stephen. [The 
 pros-o-theme.] 
 
 14. , ourselves are perfectly satisfied. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 15. Boys, have you , seen Stephen? [The pros-o- 
 theme.] 
 
 16. We , are perfectly satisfied. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 17. I , went. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 18. , myself went. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 19. We , went. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 20. , ourselves went. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 21. Ye , went. [The pros-o-theme.] 
 
 22. , yourselves went. [The pros-o-theme.] 
 
 23. And Jesus went up into a high mountain, and when 
 , was set, his disciples came unto , . [The panta- 
 
 theme.] 
 
 24. The men went into a field, and when , were 
 there, , saw their brother approaching , . [The 
 panta-theme.] 
 
 25. , expects to be saved, , must repent. [The 
 panta-theme.] 
 
 26. The woman , came. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 27. , , expects to be saved, must repent. [The 
 panta-theme.] 
 
 28. I shall soon be , again. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 29. Nathaniel, I am glad to find , sober ; , art now 
 , . [The pros-o-theme.] 
 
 30. John, I , will attend. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 31. They have Christ , for their captain. [The 
 panta-theme.] 
 
 32. The Apostles , were endowed with miraculous 
 powers. [The panta-theme.] 
 
 33. , Christ , possessed. [The panta-theme.] 
 
 34. These men saw the father , . [The panta-theme.] 
 
CLASSIOLOOY. 145 
 
 35. These men , saw the father. [The panta-theme.] 
 
 36. The captain , was lost. [The panta-theme.] 
 
 37. On this occasion, the hills , trembled. [The 
 panta-theme.] 
 
 38. , ourselves must soon follow. [The par-e-theme.] 
 
 39. , Paul, , beseech , . [The par-e-theme, 
 and the pros-o-theme.] 
 
 40. [ , ( , am Paul) beseech , .] [The 
 par-e-theme, and the pros-o-theme.] 
 
 41. Master, , have brought my son unto , . [The 
 par-e-theme, and the pros-o-theme.] 
 
 42. , rains. [The panta-theme.] 
 
 43. , so cold , John must have a fire. [The 
 panta-theme.] 
 
 44. , said , this man is in error , » his 
 friends deny. [The panta-theme.] 
 
 45. It rains. John knows , . [The panta-theme.] 
 
 46. James was invited to attend, and , did , . [The 
 panta-theme.] 
 
 47. John sold us an ox, , his father did not sanc- 
 tion. [The panta-theme.] 
 
 48. [A certain man planted a vineyard,] (and , set an 
 hedge) (about , ) (and , digged a place) (for the wine 
 vat,) (and , built a tower,) (and , let , out) (to 
 husbandmen,) (and , went into a far country.) [The 
 panta-theme.] 
 
 49. , did John call ? 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 3. THE VERB DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a large class of cordictive branch words, which act in a 
 quadruple, triple, double, or single capacity, as occasion re- 
 quires; as 
 
 1. John loves his enemies. (Quadruple.) 
 
 2. John will love his enemies. Go thou. (Triple.) 
 
 3. John having a book, he read it. (Triple.) 
 
 13 
 
146 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 4. John being wise wc took his advico. (Double.) 
 
 5. Job - will love his enemies, (Single.) 
 
 6. John will be good. (Single.) 
 
 7. John will have come by 10 o'clock. (Single.) 
 
 How a word may be known to be a Verb. 
 Rule I. 
 
 The branch word which will aid a trunk word in forming 
 a cor diction, is a verb; as, I walk; He reads; We write; 
 Thou art. 
 
 Rule II. 
 
 The branch word which cannot aid a trunk word in form- 
 ing a cordiction, is not a verb ; as, Of John; A book; T/ie 
 pen. 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 To decide whether a branch word has cordictive power, it 
 may be placed in juxtaposition with I, thou, he, or we. 
 
 Every branch word which has cordictive power, will act 
 in conjunction with one of these trunk words in forming a 
 cor diction. Hence these pronouns are styled 
 
 TEST PRONOUNS. 
 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He 
 We 
 
 SPECIMEN OF TESTING. 
 
 1. Could have been punished. 
 
 Could, he could. — Could is a verb. — Rule I. 
 
 have, we have. — Have is a verb. — Rule I. 
 
 been,* be thou. — Been is a verb. — Rule I. 
 
 punished, IpunisJied. — Punished is a verb. — Rule I. 
 
 * Whenever the derivative form of a -word is a preventive against the exertion 
 of oordictlvw po-**fr, the. word dbotild l>e teatcd in (mother form. Uencc bten is 
 wiuoed to be, its primitive fctatc. 
 
 
CLAWIOT.OOY. 
 
 147 
 
 2. The good, old man. 
 
 TESTED. 
 
 The, the we, we the. — The is not a verb. — Rule II. 
 
 good } good thou, thou good. — Good is not a verb. — Rule II. 
 
 old, old we, we old. — Old is not a verb. — Rule II. 
 
 man, man we, we man. — Man, as used in the above sylla- 
 bane is a trunk word ; hence it cannot be a verb as 
 there used. But man, in the following sentence, is 
 a branch word, and is a verb : — 
 
 We man our own ship. 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 In Testing whether words are Verbs. 
 
 Awakw* 
 
 draww* 
 
 nearer 
 
 any 
 
 Awoke 
 
 drive 
 
 freeze 
 
 never 
 
 Awaken 
 
 drink* 
 
 give 
 
 rise 
 
 Begin 
 
 though 
 
 surely 
 
 run* 
 
 Choose 
 
 hew 
 
 indeed 
 
 see 
 
 Blow 
 
 fullest 
 
 goest 
 
 shake** 
 
 Break 
 
 fly 
 
 grow 
 
 knit 
 
 Softly 
 
 forbear 
 
 partake 
 
 mowed 
 
 Come 
 
 forsake 
 
 no 
 
 many 
 
 Well 
 
 otherwise 
 
 not 
 
 clothed 
 
 Do 
 
 else 
 
 smite 
 
 forbear 
 
 Rather 
 
 lie 
 
 scarcely 
 
 forsake 
 
 Sooner 
 
 rise* 
 
 sparingly 
 
 throw 
 
 Chiefly 
 
 run 
 
 scantily 
 
 tread 
 
 Freeze 
 
 see** 
 
 speak 
 
 wear 
 
 Give 
 
 shake 
 
 steal 
 
 weave 
 
 Equally 
 
 unlike 
 
 stride 
 
 write** 
 
 So 
 
 flew 
 
 less 
 
 bore 
 
 Thus 
 
 forbore 
 
 strive 
 
 best 
 
 Know 
 
 tore 
 
 swear 
 
 blown 
 
 Broke 
 
 best 
 
 hewed 
 
 broken 
 
 Chose 
 
 little 
 
 former 
 
 forsaken 
 
 Did** 
 
 much 
 
 lain 
 
 generally 
 
 Drew 
 
 threw 
 
 crowd 
 
 frozen 
 
 Drove 
 
 trod 
 
 partaken 
 
 given 
 
 Drankr** 
 
 wore 
 
 namely 
 
 off 
 
 Fell 
 
 wove 
 
 risen 
 
 gone 
 
 Deal 
 
 wrote** 
 
 seen 
 
 grown 
 
 Clothe 
 
 can 
 
 shaken 
 
 known 
 
148 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 TENSE OP VERBS. 
 
 Tense is the fourth power of the verb, and is exerted in 
 pointing out six different times. [Tempus, time.] (Tense 
 is the time-expressing power of the verb.) 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 1. We write. [Present tense.] 
 
 2. "We wrote. [Past tense.] 
 
 It is important that the learner should make a distinction be- 
 tween the tense, and the time which the verb points out by means 
 of the tense. The tense of a verb is to the time pointed out, what 
 the hands of a watch are to the time pointed out by them. The 
 hands are not the time ; nor is the tense the time. 
 
 In general, the tense is indicated by certain forms of the verb ; as, 
 ivalks, walked, do, did. 
 
 But the tense is often varied by exchanging one entire word 
 for another ; as, am, was, go, went. That is, I now am ; I then 
 wa.s; I now go; but I then went. 
 
 In some instances, the tense of the verb seems to consist of a 
 time-expressing 'power which resides in the verb, even where the verb 
 has no form, indicative of the residence of this power ; as, will, shall. 
 
 While will, and shall seem to possess, in addition to their diction- 
 ary, and context meaning, & power to point out future time, they are 
 devoid of every thing like a form for the indication of the resi- 
 dence of this power. 
 
 1. I will write. [Future.] 
 
 2. They will walk. [Future.] 
 
 The English language is almost entirely dependent upon these 
 two inceptive verbs for the expression of future time. To throw any 
 event, fact, or circumstance into future time by means of the verb, 
 the speaker, or writer must use will, or shall. (Should rarely.) 
 
 The tenses of verbs derive their distinctive names from the dif- 
 ferent times which they express. Hence the tenses are divided into 
 
 1. Present, 
 
 2. Re-present, 
 
 3. Past, 
 
 4. Prior -past, 
 
 5. Future, and 
 
 6. Prior-future. 
 
 That these distinctive words are quite applicable, may be seen 
 from an examination of the following division of time itself: — 
 
ECTOLOGY. 149 
 
 Men exist on land; fishes in water ; nnd events in time. 
 
 The earth is divided into different parts ; and while some men 
 live in some sections, others reside in other sections. These 
 sections are named, that we may be able to learn in what cer- 
 tuin part, or division, a particular man lives. These names are 
 first general ; as Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. They are, 
 secondly, particular ; as, Frrtnsylvania, Maryland, Virginia. They 
 are, thirdly, minute ; as, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Mount Vernon. 
 
 In this way we are enabled to locate men ; in this way we are 
 enabled to find their exact topography, their exact place of residence. 
 But, if the earth was without these divisions, or the divisions 
 without these names, how very difficult it would be to ascertain 
 the topography of a man, the place of his residence ! Without these 
 divisions, and names, who could tell me at this time, the spot of 
 ground on which Washington resided ; and who could inform you 
 upon what part of the great earth Daniel Webster has placed him- 
 self. But by these dhnsions and names, with what ease can you 
 inform me upon what division of the earth Washington was placed ; 
 nnd with what readiness can I inform you upon what spot Webster 
 is located ! 
 
 Washington. Webster. 
 
 Mount Vernon. Boston. 
 
 Men are the inhabitants of the earth ; evenU are the inhabitants 
 of time. Men live in nations, states, counties, towns, cities, wards, and 
 neighbourhoods ; events live in ages, years, months, weefo, days, hours, 
 minutes, and seconds. Men live on the earth; events reside in time. 
 And, as the earth is divided, and subdivided with a view to a know- 
 ledge of the location of men ; so time is divided, and subdivided with 
 a view to a knowledge of the topography of events. Events exist 
 in time — and, to mark their respective locations, topographies, or 
 spots of residence, time itself is divided into six chronological dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 For the purposes of speech, time is divided into 
 
 1. Present y 
 
 2. Recalled present, 
 
 3. Past, 
 
 4. Prior-past, 
 -**'- 5. Future, and 
 
 6. Prior-future. 
 
 1. Present time is that, whether little or much, which is 
 represented to be in our presence; as, This day ; This even- 
 ing; To-day; This morning ; This year. 
 
 2. Recalled present time is past time made present, by 
 
 13* 
 
150 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 placing it in our presence again; as, I have written two let- 
 ters to-day. 
 
 Note. — Here, to-day is the entire period which, from the nature 
 of the case, is divided into two parts, viz., the part in which I 
 wrote the letters, and that in which I speak of the writing of them. 
 One part of the day has gone ; the other part has not yet passed 
 off. But the passed part, the part in which I wrote the letters, is 
 recalled by have — I have written two letters to-day. 
 
 By to-day, the whole period is placed in our presence. What, 
 inquires the thinking pupil, Is the whole day brought into our 
 presence ? Did not some of it pass off in writing the two letters ? 
 Yes; — but, then, this part is recalled by have, and the whole 
 day is represented to be in my presence. 
 
 I have written two letters this week. 
 
 Here, the entire week is represented to be in my presence ; hence, 
 this whole week is present time. Yet I will not pretend that the 
 part of the week in which I wrote the letters had not already 
 passed off. But, as there is no expression of this fact, and, as the 
 words used put the whole week into my presence, the whole week is 
 present time in speech. Every Grammarian will allow that the 
 whole week, in the first of the following sentences, is present time : — 
 
 1. I am very well this week. 
 
 2. I have written two letters this week. 
 
 3. I wrote two letters last week. 
 
 Now, if last throws the whole week out of my presence, this brings 
 the whole week into my presence. 
 
 3. Past time is that, whether little or much, which, has 
 been in our presence, but has passed out of it ; as, Last 
 week. 
 
 4. Prior-past time is that which had passed out of our 
 presence before another time passed out of it ; as, 1847 be- 
 fore 1848. 
 
 As 1847 had passed out of owe presence before 1848, 1847 is prior 
 past time. 
 
 5. Future time is that which has not yet come into our 
 presence; as, 1860, 1870. 
 
 6. Prior-future time is that which will come into our 
 presence before another future time will come; as ; 1860 
 before 1862 ; Next Monday before next Tuesday. 
 
ECTOLOGY. 151 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 TENSE. 
 
 Tense is the fourth power of the verb, and is exerted in 
 pointing out six different times. 
 There are six tenses, viz. : — 
 
 1. Present, 
 
 2. Re-present, 
 
 3. Past, 
 
 4. Prior-past, 
 
 5. Future , and 
 
 6. Prior-future. 
 
 1. PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 The present tense is the power which the verb exerts in 
 representing time to be in our presence, which may be more 
 or less, according to the nature of the case ; as, 
 
 1. I am. 
 
 2. Henry rides out daily. 
 
 3. Virtue is commendable. 
 
 4. These merchants purchase their goods in Manchester. 
 
 5. God wills whatever comes to pass. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. I am. 
 
 Perhaps in I am, there i8 no more present time than is occupied 
 in uttering the sentence. 
 
 2. Henry rides out daily. 
 
 Here, from the nature of the case, the present time designated 
 by rides, may be long, or short. Should the practice of riding out 
 daily be continued ten years, the period of present time indicated 
 by the tense of rides, must comprise not fewer than one hundred 
 and twenty months. 
 
 3. Virtue is commendable. 
 Here, the present time has no end. 
 
152 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 4. These merchants purchase their goods in Manchester. 
 Here, the amount of present time must be decided by the num- 
 ber of years in which these men continue in business. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. In very many instances, the exertion of the time-ex- 
 pressing power is indicated by certain forms of the verb. 
 
 2. Solo verbs which end in s, es, or th, are of the present 
 tense ; as, Henry has a book ; John hstfh great faith in dreams. 
 
 3. In general, solo verbs which are used in their primi- 
 tive state, are of the present tense; as, We walk; They 
 sing. 
 
 4. Every inceptive verb exerts its time-expressing power. 
 
 5. No final verb exerts the time- expressing power; as, 
 We did walk; They shall have been punished. 
 
 6. All medial verbs, except have, surrender their time- 
 expressing power ; as, They will be punished. 
 
 7. As a medial verb, have exerts its time-expressing 
 power only ; as, They will have been punished. 
 
 8. Where there is but one verb in the Demi-mono, it 
 exerts its present tense ; as ; John was to return last week. 
 [Book I. p. 32.] 
 
 PRESENT TENSE CONCORDANCE. 
 
 £By consulting this Concordance, the learner will find all the 
 variety of cases which have this tense.] 
 
 1. Thou art to be the next President. 
 
 2. Is he coming to the city soon ? 
 
 3. He is to return to America next year. 
 
 4. Go thou to school. 
 
 5. Be thou here at the appointed hour. 
 
 6. I will — be thou clean. — I decree it — be thou clean. (I will it.) 
 
 7. I can call in a few days. 
 
 8. I may come next week. 
 
 9. They must return next fall. 
 
 10. I might return to-morrow if I would. 
 
 11. I could go next year if I desired it. 
 
 12. I would go now if I was not sick. 
 
 13. Was I in good health, I surely would return immediately. 
 
 14. John should attend to his book at home. 
 
 15. If he was well he would visit us. 
 
 16. I wish that we were now in Pennsylvania. 
 
ECTOLOGY. 153 
 
 17. Were we out of this place, I should be much pleased — I would 
 
 not be found here again ! a 
 
 18. Had he a knife, he could make his own pens. 
 
 19. Did he write a good hand, he might be employed as clerk. 
 
 20. Was he now inclined to attend to his affairs properly, he 
 
 might soon recover from his embarrassment. 
 
 21. I told him to go to church. 
 
 22. He is about to return to London. 
 
 23. Were the papers here, we would proceed to business. 
 
 24. When the mail arrives, we shall get some news. 
 
 25. Would he come if he could? 
 
 26. I have a book. 
 
 27. Thou hast a pen. 
 
 28. He has a knife. 
 
 29. I am to have a new book next week. 
 
 30. Had he a book, I would give him a lesson. 
 
 2. RE-PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 The re-present tense is the time-expressing power which 
 a verb exerts in making the passed part of an expressed, or 
 implied period, present time again; as, Thomas has read 
 his book through. 
 
 That is, Thomas has read his book through this evening, this 
 morning, or this week. [Re, again.] 
 
 The inceptive verb, have, has, hath, or hast, with one exception, 
 is the only verb which has the re-present tense. 
 
 Have, as a medial verb after may, can, must, might, could, would, 
 or should, has the re-present tense. 
 
 have 1 
 hast 
 has 
 hath 
 
 1. JRe-presentf 
 
 written ( , , , ) 
 
 2. Re-present, 
 
 may 
 
 can 
 
 must 
 
 might 
 
 could 
 
 would 
 
 should 
 
 • have flown. 
 
 Here, there is no tense mono that decides which one of these three 
 times is intended : — 
 
 1. Recalled present } 
 
 2. Past, 
 
 3. Prior-past. 
 
154 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 If, however, we drop the hiceptives, have decides the time to 
 which the writejr wishes to point to be the recalled present. 
 
 Dave flown. 
 
 Here, we must say, have flown to-day, this morning, this week, this 
 year, or this sometime. 
 
 But where the inceptives are used before have as a medial, wo 
 may say, this week, or last week. 
 
 The tense of the verb is often very feeble. So weak, indeed, is 
 this power of the verb, that was it not for the aid which is derived 
 from the nature of the subject, or from some expressed, or implied 
 mono of the sentence, we could not ascertain in many cases what 
 particular time the writer intends. 
 
 To illustrate the influence which the nature of the case exerts 
 over the time-expressing power of the verb, we will take did, was, 
 and have. 
 
 The tense of did is clearly passed ; — John did return. 
 
 Yet this passed tense of do, may be rendered present; as, 
 
 Did the boy write a good hand, he might be useful to 
 some merchant. 
 
 Had 
 
 1. John had my book last week. [Clearly passed.] 
 
 2. Had John a book, he could learn his lesson. [Clearly 
 present.] 
 
 Was. 
 
 1. Jane was well last week. [Clearly passed.] 
 
 2. Was Jane now well, she could return to Philadelphia. 
 [Clearly present.] 
 
 May have written, can have written, must have written, might 
 have written, could have written, woidd have written, and should 
 have written, may be of the re-present, past, or prior-past, as occa- 
 sion requires. 
 
 1. Re-present. — They could have come this week. 
 
 2. Past. — They might have come last week. 
 
 3. Prior-past. — God must have known the fate of men 
 before he created them. 
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 1. I have written a book (,,,)* 
 
 2. Thou hast read the letter ( , , ) 
 
 * The commas indicate some implied re-present mono ; an, (in my life,) (to-day.) 
 
ECTOLOQY. 155 
 
 3. He has been at church ( , , ) 
 
 4. She hath been at tea ( , , ) 
 b. Henry must have returned this week. 
 
 fi. He may have been here (this evening.) 
 
 7. He might have been here (this year.) 
 
 8. He could have gone (this iceck.) 
 
 9. He would have gone (this week) had the boat made a third 
 
 trip. 
 10. I have never drunk better water. 
 
 Notk. — If the time expressed, or implied has all passed off, the 
 tense of the verb should be passed ; as, 
 
 I never drank better water. 
 Here the whole life is alluded to as ended. Hence the former 
 of the sentence shuts himself out of this world ; for his life has 
 closed. And should this departed spirit be asked, " when he never 
 drank better water," he must answer, "When I was in the 
 That is, before I took up my connections with the earth V* 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 3. PASSED TENSE. 
 
 The passed tense is the power which the verb exerts in 
 taking a point of time by Use//, and representing it to be 
 fully passed off — out of our presence ; as, 
 
 1. They came to me. 
 
 2. The birds flew over the trees. 
 
 3. Mary loved her little brother. 
 
 CONCORDANCE, 
 
 1. Thou wast the man ( , , .) 
 
 2. Was he coming to the city ? ( , , .) 
 
 3. He was to return (last year.) 
 
 4. I had a book (,,.*) 
 
 5. Thou hadst a knife ( , , .) 
 
 * It in not necessary to have an expressed past tense, mono, to make had point to 
 pa,<t time. There is always a past tense mono implied in the past tense of the verb 
 U«Hf. We should not say: She had a hook to-day, for had indicates that the tim<? 
 ■tta<M to. is all, every whit of it, prior to that of speaking. Hence we ishould way ; 
 bu<: luul a book yesterday, last evening, last week, &c. 
 
 
156 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 6. Had he come, (last week,) he could have seen his brother. 
 
 Note. — In this, and in the following instances, the time of the 
 event is known to be passed, by the passed tense mono " last week," 
 which forms a part of the sentence. 
 
 7. If he had called (la*t evening,) I would have gone to church 
 
 with him. 
 
 8. He may have written (last week.) 
 
 9. He must have gone (last evening.) 
 
 10. He might have seen me (on Monday last) had he called at my 
 
 office. 
 
 11. He could have seen me at home (in the evening) (of Saturday 
 
 last.) 
 
 12. He should have written (last evening.) 
 
 13. He would return in despite of all his Mends could say to him. 
 
 14. He would not be consoled; and we could do nothing for him. 
 
 15. Had you an opportunity to examine the witness ? 
 
 4. PRIOR-PASSED TENSE. 
 
 The Prior-passed tense is the time-expressing power which 
 a verb exerts in pointing out time that passed off before the 
 passed time designated by another verb ; as, 
 
 1. [I had seen him before] (he called) (on me.) 
 
 2. [He (that had been dead) sat up,] (and , began 
 to speak.) 
 
 Note. — When this tense is under the control of the inceptive, had, 
 it is strong, and the priority in the passage of the time, is clearly 
 marked. But, when this time-expressing power is exerted by 
 may have, must have, can have, could have, would have, should have, 
 or might have, it is quite feeble ; and was it not aided by the con- 
 text, or by some expressed, or implied prior-tense adverb, or prior- 
 tense mono, the time pointed out would be as likely to be taken for 
 re-present, or past, as for prior-passed. 
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 1. I had learned my lesson before I went to school. 
 
 2. He had had the book two days when I called on him. 
 
 3. He had been sick several days before he sent for a physician. 
 
 4. He that had been dead, sat up, and began to speak. 
 
 5. He may have been there before I arrived. 
 
 (5. He must have seen the man before this event happened. 
 
ECTOLOQY. 157 
 
 7. I might, or could have seen the President before he came to 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 8. They would have seen the President before they left Washing- 
 
 ton, at the time of their sojourn in that place. 
 
 9. lie should have done it before I came home. 
 
 5. FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 The future tense is the time-expressing power which a 
 verb exerts in representing the time not only to be future, 
 but independent of, and disconnected with, every other 
 future time; as, 
 
 1. I w ill return next week. 
 
 2. Jane shall learn English grammar soon. 
 
 3. Should it rain to-morrow, we slmll not return. 
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 1. Will he lend me one thousand dollars? 
 
 2. Will you go with me ? 
 
 8. Will you take a piece of the cake ? 
 
 4. Wilt thou send me a little of the pudding ? 
 
 5. Shall I send you a piece of the pie ? 
 
 6. They shall fall upon you in anger. 
 
 7. Thou shalt not steal. 
 
 8. Should they come, we shall see them. 
 
 9. He shall go, and that, too, in haste. 
 
 10. If he should return, he will call on us. 
 
 11. I wish that he would come back. 
 
 Note. — Shall, and will are the only verbs which uniformly have 
 the future tense. Would, and should may have this tense in in- 
 stances like the above, in which these words are introduced. 
 
 6. PRIOR-FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 The prior-future tense is the time-expressing power which 
 a verb exerts in representing that the future time to which 
 allusion is made, will come into our presence before another 
 future time mentioned in another mono ; as, 
 
 1. [I shall liave seen them] (by ten o'clock.) 
 
 2. [The two houses will have finished their business when] 
 (the king shall come to prorogue them.) 
 
158 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 I have taken this sentence from Murray. I have placed 
 shall before come, because the accurate expression of the 
 time intended, seems to require the use of this inceptive. 
 
 The prior-future tense lies in the trone, and is in will 
 have. Will expressing the futurity, and have the priority. 
 
 [The two houses will have finished their business when] 
 (the king shall come to prorogue them.) 
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 1. 1 shall have dined at one o'clock. 
 
 2. The two houses will have finished their business by the first 
 
 of March. 
 
 3. If he shall have come by seven o'clock, r. m., we shall have 
 
 seen him by eight, r. m., of the same day. 
 
 Note. — It may not be improper to remark here, that will, and 
 shall mark the time as after the present time — and that have, marks 
 it as prior to the other future time mentioned in the same sentence, 
 though in a different mono. Hence, it is clear that shall, and have, 
 or will, and have, must both be employed in constituting the prior- 
 future tense. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1 . What is tense ? 
 
 2. How many different times do the tenses of verbs point 
 out? 
 
 3. What is the original word from which the word, tense, is de- 
 rived ? 
 
 4. Of what is tense the time-expressing power ? 
 
 5. Between what two things is it important for the pupil to 
 make a distinction ? 
 
 6. By what is the tense of the verb generally indicated ? 
 
 7. By what means is the tense often varied ? 
 
 8. Does tense ever exist in verbs which have no form indicative 
 of the existence of this time-expressing power ? 
 
 9. By what other name is the time-expressing power of the verb 
 called? (Tense. ).^ .. . 
 
 10. Upon what two inceptive verbs is the English language almost 
 entirely dependent for the expression of future time ? 
 
 11. From what do the tenses of the verb derive their distinctive 
 names ? 
 
 12. What are these distinctive names ? 
 
 13. What does present mean ? [Presence."] 
 
 14. What does re mean ? [Again. J 
 
ECTOLOGY. 159 
 
 15. What does re-present signify ? [Present again.] 
 
 , 16. What does past mean ? [Gone by, gone off, left us, gone out 
 of our presence.] 
 
 17. What does prior mean. [Before.] 
 
 18. What does prior-past mean? [Passed off before the passed.] 
 
 19. What does futu re mean? 
 
 20. What does prior-future mean? [Before the future.] 
 
 Note. — The word, future, is here used technically. The word as 
 here employed, docs not mean any future time, but the future time 
 which is described in the definition of the future tense. 
 
 21. What may be seen from an examination of the following 
 division of time itself? [Foot of page 148.] 
 
 22. Where do events exist ? 
 
 23. Is time divided somewhat as nations are ? 
 
 24. Why is time so divided by the verb ? 
 
 25. What is the name of the power by which verbs divide time 
 into six parts ? 
 
 26. What is present time ? 
 
 27. What is re-called present time ? 
 
 28. What time is this day, this hour, this week, this age, &c. 
 
 29. What time is yesterday, last Monday, last week, last year, the 
 last age, &c. 
 
 30. What time is 1849? 
 
 31. What time is 1848? 
 
 32. What time is 1847 in respect to 1848? 
 
 33. What time is next Saturday in respect to next Sunday ? 
 [Prior-future. ] 
 
 34. What time is next Saturday taken by itself ? [Future.] 
 
 35. What time is next Monday in relation to next Tuesday ? 
 
 36. What time is next Tuesday without regard to any other 
 day? 
 
 37. Is present time long, or short? 
 
 38. Of what tense is am in the following sentences ? — 
 
 1. I am that I am. 
 
 2. I am the great I am. 
 
 DoeB am here mean a short, or a long time ? 
 
 39. Of what tense is have in the following sentences ? — 
 
 1. They have read their lessons. 
 
 2. We have three apples. 
 
 3. Joseph could have seen me last evening. 
 
 40. What is the past tense ? 
 
 41. What is the prior-past tense? 
 
 42. What is the future tense? 
 
 43. Is there a difference between future time, and future tense f 
 [Great difference: time in the thing pointed out; but tense is the 
 means by which it is pointed out. Tagc 148.] 
 
160 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 44. What is said of the length of time embraced by rides, in 
 Henry rides out daily ? 
 
 45. What is said of the length of time embraced by am t in \ 
 am? 
 
 46. What is said of the length of time embraced by is, in Virtue 
 is commendable ? 
 
 47. Does the final verb have tense ? 
 
 48. What is said of the tense of solo verbs which end in *, cs, 
 or th? 
 
 49. What is said of medial verbs in observation 6, page 152 ? 
 
 50. What is said in regard to the tense of solo verbs which are 
 used in their primitive state ? 
 
 51. What does have, as a medial verb exert ? 
 
 52. Where there is but one verb in the demimono, does this verb 
 exert its present tense ? 
 
 [It is proper to say a verb exerts its present tense, for tense is 
 power.] 
 
 53. Is was ever of the present tense ? 
 
 54. Is did ever present? 
 
 55. Is had ever present ? 
 
 56. Of what tense is had, in this sentence ? — 
 
 John had learned his lesson before night. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 TENSE FORMS. 
 
 The tense forms are the indicative modifications which 
 show the exertion of the tense of the verb 5 as, *, es } th } id, 
 e, a, t y Uj d, ed. 
 
 FORMS WHICH INDICATE THE PASSED TENSE. 
 
 ed y a, e, i } o, t, w, id } d. 
 
 1. Present — walk. 
 
 2. Passed — walked, [erf.] 
 
 3. Present — bid. 
 
 4. Passed — bade, [a <?.] 
 
 5. Present — pay. 
 
 6. Passed— paid. [id.~\ 
 
ECTOLOGY. 161 
 
 7. Present — blow. 
 
 8. Passed— blew. [«."] 
 
 9. Present — do. 
 
 10. Passed— did. [id.] 
 
 11. Present — get. 
 
 12. Passed — got. [o.] 
 
 13. Present — leave. 
 
 14. Passed— left. [t.] 
 
 15. Present — sting. 
 
 16. Passed — stwng. [«.] 
 
 17. Present — am. 
 
 18. Passed — teas. [was.] 
 
 19. Present — go. 
 
 20. Passed — went. [went.] 
 
 21. Present — are. 
 
 22. Passed — were, [were.] 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 It may be well to say in this place, that, in a few instances, 
 other letters are introduced. They are used, however, merely to 
 give admission to the genuine tense letters; they are not, strictly 
 speaking, tense in themselves. For instance, in left, we have /with 
 the t. But, then, / is a mere substitute for ave — this substitution 
 is necessary to the admission of t, for we cannot incorporate t 
 with leave — leavet. 
 
 It may be well enough to remark here, too, that went is the 
 passed of go ; was of am; and were of are. {New words, instead 
 of modifications of the primitive state.) 
 
 DIVISION OP THE PASSED TENSE FORMS. 
 
 The passed tense forms of the verb may be divided into 
 Regular , and Irregular. 
 
 1. Regular. [Common."] 
 The regular passed tense form is constructed from ed; as, 
 loved, walkec/, debated. 
 
 2. Irregular. 
 
 The irregular passed tense form is the new word, or the 
 modifications which are produced in the radical state of tho 
 verb by incorporating with, or casting from it, one or more 
 of the following passed tense letters : — a, d f e } i } o, t f w, w. 
 
 14* 
 
162 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 1. Walk, a verb of the present tense, whose passed tense is indi- 
 
 cated by the regular passed tense form, ed. 
 
 2. Went, a verb of the passed tense, which is indicated by the 
 
 irregular form, which in this case is a new word for 
 
 go. 
 N. B. — This short specimen should be examined with care before 
 the following Exercises, which should be disposed of exactly ac- 
 cording to the specimen, are touched by the learner. 
 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 go (went) 
 
 punished (ed) 
 
 bid (a e) 
 
 look (ed) 
 
 digged (ed) 
 
 bade — 
 
 shake (oo) 
 
 dig (u, ed) 
 
 think (ought) 
 
 flow (ed\ 
 
 dug — 
 
 bring (ought) 
 
 cry (ed) 
 
 see (aw) 
 
 brought — 
 
 lie (ay) 
 
 saw — 
 
 feel (0 
 
 lay (id) 
 
 put — 
 
 felt — 
 
 say (id) 
 
 read — 
 
 speaks (a e) 
 
 be (was) 
 
 rained (ed) 
 
 speak (a e) 
 sing (a) 
 
 do (id) 
 
 snowed (ed) 
 
 am (icas) 
 
 fall (e) 
 
 sang — 
 
 lament (ed) 
 lamented — 
 behave (ed) 
 behaved — 
 returned — 
 repaid — 
 referred — 
 degraded — 
 dethroned — 
 immured — 
 translated — 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 THE TENSELESS FORM OF VERBS. 
 
 The forms of verbs, are naturally divided into 
 
 1. Tense forms, and 
 
 2. Tenseless forms. 
 
 1. TENSE FORM. 
 
 The tense form of a verb is the form which indicates 
 the exertion of one of the six time-expressing powers of the 
 verb; as Walk, walks, walketh, walked; Go, went; Be, 
 was, art, trast ; Write, wrote. 
 
ECIOLOUY. 163 
 
 TEN8ELES8 FORM. 
 
 The tenseless form of a verb is a form which indicates the 
 nan-exertion of the six time-expressing powers of the verb j 
 as, walking, going, gone, been, seeing, writing, written. 
 
 TENSELESS FORMS OF VERBS. 
 
 writing written 
 
 loxing 
 
 being been 
 
 rmtting 
 
 HOW FORMED. 
 
 The tenseless forms of verbs are produced by incorporating 
 o, en, ne, n, u, or ing, either with the radical state, or with the 
 passed tense form of the verb ; as, 
 
 1. Written. 
 
 2. Gone. 
 
 3. Flown. 
 
 4. 'Begun. 
 
 5. Going. 
 
 DIVISION. 
 The tenseless forms of verbs are divided into 
 
 1. Be, and 
 
 2. Be and Have. 
 
 1 . The tenseless Be form is the derivative, ing. 
 
 2. The Be and Have tenseless forms are en, ne, n, u, 
 and o. 
 
 1. TENSELESS BE FORM. 
 
 The tenseless Be form of a verb is the derivative, ing, and 
 is incorporated with the final verb in the series where some 
 form of be is employed as an inceptive, or as a medial verb ; 
 as, 
 
 1. Jane will be coming. 
 
 2. James is writing. 
 
 3. Charles has been laugh ing. 
 
 4. Thou art residing. 
 6. We are walking. 
 
164 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 2. tenseless be and have FORM. 
 
 The Be and Have tenseless form of a verb is the derivative 
 deflection which is incorporated with a verb where some form 
 of Be, or Have is employed as an inceptive, or as a medial 
 verb; as, 
 
 1. I have written, [en-"] 
 
 2. Thon hast gone too far. [ne.~\ 
 
 3. He had forsake?*- us. [en.] 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 A defective verb is one which has not all the forms com- 
 mon to the class to which the defective verb belongs; as 
 Bet, Burst, Forecast, Put, Let. 
 
 These words belong to the class of solo verbs; but they 
 have not all the forms which solo verbs in general possess. 
 
 1. Write is a solo verb, and has these forms: write, 
 writes, ivritest, writeth, wrote, wrotest, written, writing. 
 
 2. Bet is a solo verb, and has but these forms : bet, bets, 
 bettest, betteth, betting. 
 
 I 3. Burst is a solo verb, and has these forms only : burst, 
 bursts, burstest, bursteth, bursting. 
 
 Burst has no passed tense form : Burst has no Have 
 and Be form. Hence, when have, or be is used before burst, 
 burst must be used in its primitive form ; as, The boiler will 
 soon be burst, [not bursted.] 
 
 Write. 
 Write has a passed tense form which is wrote. Write has 
 the Be and Have tenseless form common to solo verbs. 
 I wrote last evening ; I liave written. 
 
 1. The passed tense form of write — wrote. 
 
 2. The tenseless Be form of write — He will be writing. 
 
 3. The tenseless Be and Have form of write — Be writte>? ; 
 Have written. * 
 
LCTOLOtiY. 
 
 165 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The following presentation of defective verbs is designed to aid 
 the pupil in comprehending several important Rules in Syntax, 
 intended to guide him in the use of these verbs. And should he 
 not become familiar with these facts as here presented, he will be 
 utterly unable to apply the Rules to which his attention will soon 
 be directed. 
 
 The following defective verb has no form but its primitive state, 
 in which it is employed in all cases : 
 
 Beware. 
 
 1. This defective verb may be final; as, You should beware of 
 excess in all things. 
 
 2. Beware may be a solo verb if used in the imperative cordic- 
 tion ; as, Beware ye of false prophets. 
 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 That have the tenseless Bnfar?n; but which have no passed tense form, 
 nor any tenseless Be and Have form. 
 
 [These verba substitute their primitive state for the forms of which they axe 
 destitute.] 
 
 Had beset 
 Is besetting 
 Have bespread 
 Was bespreadm^ 
 
 Has cut 
 Was cutting 
 Hath shut 
 -lm shutting 
 Have split 
 Be split 
 Were splitting 
 
 Have let 
 Been let 
 Was letting 
 
 Hadst put 
 Been put 
 Be putting 
 
 Hast rid 
 Be ridding 
 Hadst set 
 Am setting 
 
 Has dispread 
 Was dispread 
 Was dispreadmj 
 Have forecast 
 Are forecast 
 Were forecasting 
 Had thrust 
 Be thrust 
 Be thrust?'««7 
 Hath shred 
 Was shred 
 7* shredding 
 Has sweat 
 Was sweat 
 Is sweating 
 
 Hath shed 
 Are shedding 
 Had burst 
 Was bursty 
 Been cast 
 Been casting 
 Hadst hit 
 Am hit 
 It hittm^r 
 Has hurt 
 Was hurt 
 Were hurting 
 Had knit 
 Be knit 
 Be knitting 
 Had spread 
 Were spread 
 Are spreading 
 Have wet 
 Was wet 
 Are wetting 
 
166 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is the primitive state of tvrites? [Write.] 
 
 2. What is the primitive state of puts? [Put.] 
 
 3. Wherein does write differ from put ? 
 
 {Write andjou* are both primitive forms : but, then, write will not 
 receive either have, or be before it ; for we cannot say, have write, 
 was write. But we can say have put, was put. Indeed, we can say 
 nothing else.) 
 
 4. What do you understand by have, and be ? 
 
 Have means have in all of its forms ; as, had, hath, hadst, has 
 hast, having. Be means be in all of its forms; as, am, art, was, werc t 
 is, wast, are, were, been, being. 
 
 5. What is the tenseless Be form of a verb ? 
 
 [The tenseless Be form is the derivative suffix, ing, and is affixed 
 to a final verb before which be, in one of its forms comes ; as, 
 They will be coming ; They are writm<?.] 
 
 This form, ing, is called tenseless because it is a form which indi- 
 cates the non-exertion of every time-expressing power in the verb to 
 which it, ing, belongs ; as, John is -writing. 
 
 Here, the time is pointed out by is ; this is obvious from the 
 consideration that the use of was before writing, would change the 
 time from the present to the passed: 
 
 1. John is "writing. 
 
 2. John was writing. 
 
 I know that the old Grammars call ing the present participle ! 
 
 6. Why is ing styled the Be form ? [Because ing can never be 
 used with any verb which is not preceded directly, or indirectly 
 by Be.] 
 
 7. What is the tenseless Be and Have form of a verb ? 
 
 The tenseless Be and Have form of a verb, is the derivative form 
 which is incorporated with a final verb when some form of Be or 
 Have is employed before it ; as, 
 
 1. I have written. 
 
 2. He has forsaken us. 
 
 3. It is written. 
 
 4. The saddle will have been done. 
 
 5. Thou hast gone too far. 
 
 6. They had smitten. 
 
 7. They will be smitten. 
 
 8. Why is this tenseless form denominated Be and Have ? [Be- 
 cause this form is produced by these two verbs — be, have.] 
 
ECTOLOGY. 167 
 
 9. Does not be produce the ing form ? [Yes : but have never 
 produces the ing form. We cannot say, have writing, had walk- 
 ing. We say, be writing, was walking.] 
 
 10. Do you see, then, that ing is not a Be and Have form of the 
 verb? 
 
 11. Do you see that ing is a Be form ? 
 
 12. Do you see that en is a Be and Have form? [Be written, 
 Have written.] 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. Inceptive verbs have no tenseless forms. 
 
 2. All verbs, except those which are always inceptive, 
 have the tenseless Be form ; as, heing, having, willing. 
 
 3. Many final verbs have no tenseless Be and Have form ; 
 as, put, beset, shred, loved, walked, leave, make, meant, 
 wrung. 
 
 4. All final verbs which are without the tenseless Be and 
 Have form, must be used in their primitive state, in their 
 passed tense, or in their tenseless Be form, when have, or be 
 falls directly before them ; as, I have put up the book ; They 
 had walk^Z off; The horse had been walked slowly; We 
 had f*id the debt; Joseph has been writmy. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. The verb, cost, is a legitimate member of this class of defec- 
 tive verbs — but the sense of this word will not allow us to use Be 
 with it, unless we give the word the Tenseless Be form ; as, Was 
 costing ; Be costing ; This job is costing too much money ; Thy 
 extravagance is costing father too much. 
 
 We cannot say, however, *Ht5,S 
 
 The hat was cost too much. 
 
 The apples have been cost too much. 
 
 2. Although bid, knit, and slit are not of this class of defective 
 verbs, they are often used as though they are. It is common to 
 find have bid, for have bidden : nor is it unusual to find, I bid him 
 last evening, for I bade him last evening. 
 
 8. Although knit has the regular passed tense form, it often uses 
 its primitive state for this form ; as, They have knit several hours ; 
 The yarn is all knit up. 
 
 [They have knitted several hours ; The yarn is all knitted up.] 
 
 4. Quit is often used for quitted; as, We quit last evening at 
 seven o'clock. 
 
 [We quitted.'] 
 
168 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 5. Slit has the regular passed tense form, but is not unfrequently 
 used after have, and be in its primitive state ; as, We have slit the 
 iron bars into nail rods ; This dog's ear has been slit. 
 
 [We have slitted; This dog's ear has been slitted.] 
 
 The English language is full of these obliquities from its own 
 principles, from its ownself. That they are the offspring of igno- 
 rance, is beyond doubt. Still, as long usage is on their side, they 
 have become strong, if not comely. We have heard, " He lit the 
 candle," too long to substitute lighted for lit. When vice turns 
 virtue out of doors under the sanction of the professed preachers of 
 virtue, it soon becomes difficult to tell virtue from vice, or vice from 
 virtue ! 
 
 6. Although beat is not destitute of the Be and Have form, we 
 generally find it after these verbs without this form. Been beat; 
 Have beat. 
 
 [Been beaten; Have beaten."] 
 
 QUESTION. 
 
 Is the regular passed tense form of a verb a Be and Have form ? 
 [The genuine Be and Have form of a verb is a tenseless form. Hence 
 the passed tense form of a verb, whether regular, or irregular, is not 
 a genuine Be and Have form. Still, Be and Have may always be 
 used before any verb to which the regular passed tense form is actu- 
 ally affixed ; as, These plates have been engraved 
 
 I. Verbs 
 
 Which not only possess the tenseless Be and Have form, but the regular 
 passed tense form. 
 
 [Although the regular passed tense form of a verb may always 
 be substituted for the tenseless Be and Have form, yet the tenseless 
 Be and Have form can never be substituted for the regular passed 
 tense form. We can say, They have sau-cd the wood: but we can- 
 not say, They sawn the wood. We must use the regular passed 
 tense, They saweo? the wood.] 
 
 "resent Tense. 
 
 Passed Tense form. 
 
 grave 
 
 have graved 
 
 engrave 
 
 is engraved 
 
 hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 load 
 
 loaded 
 
 mow 
 
 mowed 
 
 rive 
 
 rived 
 
 saw 
 
 sawed 
 
 had graven 
 %vas engraven 
 
 hewn 
 
 laden 
 
 mown 
 
 riven 
 
 sawn 
 

 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 
 shape 
 shave 
 shear 
 show 
 
 shaped 
 shaved 
 sheared 
 showed 
 
 shapen 
 shaven 
 shorn 
 shown 
 
 sow 
 
 strow, or strew 
 
 swell 
 
 thrive 
 
 wax 
 
 sowed 
 
 strow, or strewed 
 
 swelled 
 
 thrived 
 
 waxed 
 
 II. Verbs 
 
 » sown 
 " strewn 
 swollen 
 thriven 
 waxen 
 
 169 
 
 That have the Irregular passed tense form which they substitute for a 
 tenseless Be and Have form. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Irregular Passed Tense form. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Irregular Passed Tense form. 
 
 abide 
 
 have abode 
 
 pay 
 
 had paid 
 
 behold 
 
 is beheld 
 
 read 
 
 was read 
 
 bend 
 
 bent 
 
 rend 
 
 rent 
 
 beseech 
 
 besought 
 
 ride 
 
 rode 
 
 bind 
 
 bound 
 
 say 
 
 said 
 
 bleed 
 
 bled 
 
 seek 
 
 sought 
 
 breed 
 
 bred 
 
 sell 
 
 sold 
 
 bring 
 
 brought 
 
 send 
 
 sent 
 
 buy 
 
 bought 
 
 shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 cling 
 
 clung 
 
 shoot 
 
 shot • 
 
 dare 
 
 durst 
 
 shrink 
 
 shrunk 
 
 dwell 
 
 dwelt 
 
 sink 
 
 sunk 
 
 feed 
 
 fed 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 feel 
 
 felt 
 
 sleep 
 
 slept 
 
 fight 
 
 fought 
 
 sling 
 
 slung 
 
 find 
 
 found 
 
 slink 
 
 slunk 
 
 flee 
 
 fled 
 
 speed 
 
 sped 
 
 fling 
 
 flung 
 
 spend 
 
 spent 
 
 get 
 
 got 
 
 spin 
 
 spun 
 
 grind 
 
 ground 
 
 stand 
 
 stood 
 
 hang 
 
 hung 
 
 stick 
 
 stuck 
 
 have 
 
 had 
 
 sting 
 
 stung 
 
 hear 
 
 heard 
 
 stink 
 
 stunk 
 
 hold 
 
 held 
 
 sweep 
 
 swept 
 
 keep 
 
 kept 
 
 swing 
 
 swung 
 
 lay 
 
 laid 
 
 teach 
 
 taught 
 
 lead 
 
 led 
 
 tell 
 
 told 
 
 leave 
 
 left 
 
 think 
 
 thought 
 
 lend 
 
 lent 
 
 weep 
 
 wept 
 
 lose 
 
 lost 
 
 win 
 
 won 
 
 make 
 
 made 
 
 wind 
 
 wound 
 
 mean 
 
 meant 
 
 wring 
 
 wrung 
 
 meet 
 
 met 
 
 
 
 15 
 
170 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 III. Verbs 
 
 That have both the regular, and the irregular passed tense form, 
 no tenseless Be and Have form. 
 
 but 
 
 [These verbs substitute the regular, or the irregular passed tense form for a 
 tenseless Be and Hate form ; as, Me have ye bereaved of my children — or, Me ye have 
 bereft of my children. — Genesis, xlii.] 
 
 N. B. It is right also to use these forms without have, and be ; as, Me ye bereaved 
 of my goods ; Me ye bereft of my substance. 
 
 Present. Regular Passed Tense form. Irregular Passed Tense form. Tenseless Be form. 
 
 bereave 
 
 have bereaved 
 
 have bereft 
 
 were bereaving 
 
 build 
 
 is builded 
 
 is built 
 
 are building 
 
 catch 
 
 catched 
 
 caught 
 
 catching 
 
 clothe 
 
 clothed 
 
 clad 
 
 clothing 
 
 deal 
 
 dealed 
 
 dealt 
 
 dealing 
 
 dig 
 
 digged 
 
 dug 
 
 digging 
 
 gild 
 
 gilded 
 
 gilt 
 
 gilding 
 
 gird 
 
 girded 
 
 girt 
 
 girding 
 
 kneel 
 
 kneeled 
 
 knelt 
 
 kneeling 
 
 shine 
 
 shined 
 
 shone 
 
 shining 
 
 work 
 
 worked 
 
 wrought 
 REMARKS. 
 
 working 
 
 1. Hang and dare are not of this class. Hang, to hang up, is 
 not capable of receiving ed, the regular passed tense form. And 
 hang, to take away life by hanging, always has the regular passed 
 tense form ; as, The robber was hanged. 
 
 2. Hare, to venture, is not regular ; hence it cannot have the 
 regular, and the irregular passed tense form. We do not say, He 
 dared go ; but, He durst go. 
 
 And dare, to challenge, is regular without the power to be other- 
 wise. We do not say, They durst us to meet them ; but, they dared 
 us to meet them. 
 
 IV. Verbs 
 
 Which have the irregular passed tense form, and the tenseless Be and 
 Have form ; but tohich often substitute their primitive state for their 
 tenseless Be and Have form. 
 
 Primitive state. 
 
 Passed Tense form. 
 
 Tenseless Have and Be form. 
 
 beat 
 
 beat* 
 
 beaten 
 
 bid 
 
 bade 
 
 bidden 
 
 forbid 
 
 forbade 
 
 forbidden 
 
 * Beat has no passed tense form except its radical state which is as often pro- 
 sent as passed. 
 
ECTOLOGY. 
 
 171 
 
 It Is proper to say hare bitl, or have bidden. But it Is not proper to s*y, Hvr* 
 bade. Nor is it proper to say, We then bid hilU to go. BUI is not the passed f 
 form. We then bade him to go, is right. 
 
 V. Verbs 
 
 Which have the irregular passed tense form, and the tenseless Be and 
 Have form, hut which often substitute their passed tense form for 
 their tenseless Be and Have form. 
 
 Pr>sarf. 
 
 Irregular Passed Tense form. Tenseless Bi and Kxvtform. 
 
 bite 
 
 cleave (to split) 
 
 chide 
 
 forget 
 
 hide 
 
 spit 
 
 been bit 
 was cleft 
 is chid 
 
 art forgot 
 
 are hid 
 have spat 
 
 been bitten 
 was cloven 
 
 is chidden 
 art forgotten 
 are hidden 
 have spitten 
 
 QUESTION. 
 
 Wherein does bite differ from bid? \Have, and Be may be used 
 before the passed tense of bite ; The ehild has been bit. 
 
 But neither have, nor be can be used before the passed tense of 
 lad. W-e cannot say, The child has been bade to go.] 
 
 VI. Verbs 
 
 That have the irregular passed tense form, and the tenseless Be and 
 HxvRj'orM which they never exchavgefor any other. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Irregular Passed Tense form. 
 
 Tenseless Be and ITave/o 
 
 awake 
 
 
 awoke 
 
 hast awaken 
 
 bear (to 
 bear (to 
 
 carry) 
 
 bore 
 
 art borne 
 
 iringjorth) 
 
 bare 
 
 born 
 
 begin 
 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 blow 
 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 break' 
 
 
 broke 
 
 broken 
 
 choose 
 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 come 
 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 do 
 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 draw 
 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 drive 
 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 drink 
 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk 
 
 fall 
 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 fly 
 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 forbear 
 
 
 forbore 
 
 forborne 
 
 forsake 
 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 freeze 
 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
172 
 
 l 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Irregular Passed Tense form. 
 
 Tenseless Be and Have form. 
 
 give 
 
 gave 
 
 having given , 
 
 go 
 
 went 
 
 being gone 
 
 grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
 know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 lie 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 partake 
 
 partook 
 
 partaken 
 
 rise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 run 
 
 ran 
 
 run 
 
 see 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken 
 
 sing 
 
 sang 
 
 sung 
 
 slay 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 slide 
 
 slid 
 
 slidden 
 
 smite 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten 
 
 speak 
 
 spoke 
 
 spoken 
 
 steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 stride 
 
 strode 
 
 stridden 
 
 strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 swear 
 
 swore 
 
 t sworn 
 
 take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn 
 
 throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 thread 
 
 trod 
 
 trodden 
 
 wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 weave 
 
 wove 
 
 woven 
 
 write 
 
 wrote 
 
 written 
 
 be 
 
 was 
 
 been* 
 
 am 
 
 was 
 
 been 
 
 art 
 
 wast 
 
 been 
 
 are 
 
 were 
 
 been 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 NUMERDICTION OP NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS. 
 
 The numerdiction of nouns, and pronouns, is the expres- 
 sion of number — unity, and plurality. [Numeros, number, 
 and dictio, speech, expression of thoughts.] 
 
 The numerdiction of nouns, and pronouns, are 
 
 1. Uni, and 
 
 2. Plus. 
 
 Been is only the Ten, 
 
 Have form of fee. We cannot say. Be been, is been. 
 
ECTOLOO.Y. 173 
 
 1. The Uni numerdiction is the expression of unity winch 
 may belong either to an individual thing, or to a collection, 
 or class of things ; as, pen, it, I, book, father in law, court, 
 jury, school, family, committee. 
 
 That these nouns express unity may be seen by placing one be- 
 fore them ; as, one pen, one book, one father, one law, one court, 
 one school, one family, one committee. 
 
 2. The Plus numerdiction is the expression of plurality 
 in the same word ; as, pens, they, we, books, fatliers in law, 
 courts, juries, schools, families, laics, committees. 
 
 Hitherto, the subject of nouns of multitude, has not been well understood, and, 
 of course, not clearly presented to the mind of the student. That these nouns 
 are not rendered peculiar from the fact that they denote bodies which are made 
 up of different parts, or from the fact that they comprise numerous members, 
 amy be rendered quite obvious to all who have minds, capable of comprehending 
 imple principles, and plain truths. It is said that the word, jury, is a collective 
 noun, a noun of multitude. Is the prototype, the thing denoted by the word, 
 jury, composed of many members, or parts ? So is the prototype, of the word, 
 hand. A jury may comprise six men; a jury may comprise twelve men; and a 
 jury may comprise twenty-four men. A hand comprises five nails, four fingers, 
 on* thumh, many joints, many arteries, many veins, and many bones. If, then, 
 the word, jury, is a collective name, a noun of multitude, because its prototype com- 
 prises many parts, certainly the word, hand, is a collective name, a noun of mul- 
 titude. 
 
 Family is said to be a noun of multitude, while book is excluded from this 
 cla*w. Yet there are very few families that comprise as many members as a book. 
 It is hardly possible to find a family that is composed of more than thirty parts, 
 or members ; yet it is equally hard to find a book which is made up of so few 
 parts, members, or pages. A family is one thing made up of parts — a book is one 
 thing made up of parts — a jury is one thing made up of parts— a tree is one thing 
 niade up of parts — a church is one thing made up of parts — a minute is one thing 
 made up of parts. Is the church composed of sixty parts, or members, so is th<» 
 minute. The word, minute, then, is as much a noun of multitude, as is the word, 
 church. 
 
 It may be said that as the members of a jury, Ac., are distinct individuals, It is 
 hardly just to consider them as bearing the same relation to the jury, which the 
 fingers, .v<-.. bear to the hand. True, a man is a distinct whole ; but he is also a 
 in. rr part. John is a whole human being — but he is not a whole jury — he is a 
 mere part of a jury. Every finger is a whole, abstractly considered ; but in refer- 
 ence to the hand, every finger is a mere part. John is a part of a jury — a finger 
 is a part of a hand. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is the numerdiction of a noun ? 
 
 2. What is the numerdiction of a pronoun? 
 
 3. Of what numerdiction is man? [£7m.] 
 
 4. Of what numerdiction is men? [iVu*.] 
 6. Of what numerdiction is it f 
 
 6. Of what numerdiction is we ? 
 
 7. Is we of the noun, or of the pronoun denomination ? 
 
 8. What is the etymology of the word, numerdiction. 
 
174 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 RELADICTION OF NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS. 
 
 The reladiction of nouns, and pronouns, is the expression 
 of the relations which must be ascribed to things to form 
 speech. 
 
 The reladictions are, 
 
 1. Pros-o-chist, 
 
 2. Pros-o-theme, 
 
 3. Par-e-theme, and 
 
 4. Panta-theme. 
 
 1. The pros-o-chist reladiction is the indication which is 
 made by the form, or punctuation of a literal noun, or by 
 the intonation of a vocal one, that the person denoted by 
 the noun is the pros-o-chist, the attentionist, of the sen- 
 tence ; as, Master, I have brought unto thee my son which 
 hath a dumb spirit. [Master. ~\ 
 
 Thou, God, seest me. [God.~\ 
 
 In a few cases the pros-o-chist reladiction is found in a pro- 
 noun; as, 0, ye, of little faith. That is, 0, ye, who are of little 
 faith. [Ye.] 
 
 2. The pros-o-theme reladiction is the indication by a pro- 
 noun, that the pros-o-chist is presented to his own notice, 
 and, consequently, that he bears an objective, or a theme rela- 
 tion to himself; as, Master, I have brought my son unto 
 thee. [Thee.] (Page 107.) - 
 
 3. The par-e-theme reladiction is the indication by & pro- 
 noun, that the par-e-theme presents himself to the notice of 
 the pros-o-chist, (attentionist,) and, consequently, that he 
 bears a theme relation to the pros-o-chist; as, Master, /have 
 brought my son. 
 
 The par-e-iheme here presents himself to the notice of the pros-o- 
 chist. Master, /have brought. That is, Look on me, Master, as 
 the bringer of the son unto thee. 
 
 4. The panta-theme reladiction is the indication made by 
 nouns, and pronouns, that the object presented to the atten- 
 tion of the pros-o-chist is nothing but an object — nothing 
 
EOTOLOGY. 
 
 175 
 
 bat a theme ; as, Master, I have brought unto thee my son 
 vliith hath a dumb qiirit. [Son, which, and spirit.'] (See 
 foot-note, page 108.) 
 
 Moses smote the rock with his rod. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 The following cut is designed to illustrate the four relations which the 
 things mentioned, or implied in every sentence, must bear to one another. 
 
 thou 
 thee 
 
 % trit son who 
 
 Moses as 
 
 rock-*%, . 
 
 j Viv he 
 
 rod sm i ■ 
 
 ^1|\ him 
 
 which \ Vl that 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. TYhat are distinctive powers ? [Page 107.] 
 "1. Under what two general denominations do all the thing9 
 mentioned, or implied, fall? [Page 107.] 
 
 3. Of what is the word, pros-o-chist, compounded ? [Page 107.] 
 
 4. What is the pros-o-chist? [Page 107.] 
 
 5. From what is the word, theme, made? [Page 107.] 
 
176 ECTOLOQY. 
 
 G. How are the themes which are presented to the notice of the 
 pros-o-chist, divided? [Page 107.] 
 
 7. What is the par-e-theme ? [Page 107.] 
 
 8. From what is the prefix part of par-e-theme made ? 
 
 9. What is the pros-o-theme ? [Page 107.] 
 
 10. What part of pros-o-chist is the prefix part of ^roa-o-theme ? 
 [Page 107.] 
 
 11. Thee is not used for what? [Page 107.] 
 
 12. Thee is used for what? [Page 107.] 
 
 13. What is the panta-theme t [Page 108.] 
 
 14. What objects illustrate the panta-theme? [Page 108.] 
 1 15. What is the meaning of panta? [Page 108.] 
 
 16. What word expresses the pros-o-chist in the following sen- 
 tence ? — 
 
 Master, I have brought my son unto thee which hath a dumb 
 spirit. 
 
 17. Of what reladiction is I? 
 
 18. Of what reladiction is thee? 
 
 19. Of what reladiction are son, which, and spirit? 
 
 20. What is the pros-o-chist reladiction ? 
 
 21. What is the panta-theme reladiction? 
 
 22. What is the pros-o-theme reladiction ? 
 
 23. What is the par-e-theme reladiction ? 
 
 24. Do you understand the cut which is intended to illustrate 
 the subject of the different themes and reladictions ? 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 GENEDICTION. 
 
 Genediction is the expression of the gender of animals. 
 
 [Latin, genus, Greek, genos, sex, gender, and dictio, expression. ] 
 
 Genediction is divided into Masculin, Feminin, Amhl, 
 and Mute. 
 
 1. The masculin genediction is the expression of the male 
 gender; as, man, ox, lad, uncle, nephew. 
 
 2. The feminin genediction is the expression of the female 
 gender ; as, woman, cow, lass, aunt, niece. 
 
 3. The ambi genediction is the expression of both genders 
 in one noun; as, His parents are dead. 
 
ECTOLOGY. 
 
 177 
 
 4. The mute genediction is the silence of the noun respect- 
 ing the gender of the animal j as, A person went by us in 
 haste. 
 
 NE-0 GENEDICTION. 
 
 The ne-o genediction is the want of any expression of 
 gender, because the thing has no gender; as book, pen, 
 table. 
 
 Note. — In cases of the mute genediction, there is a sex, which is 
 not expressed. But in instances of the ne-o genediction, there is 
 no gender to be expressed. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. Generally, the noun itself marks the gender; as, heir, heiress, 
 poet, poetess. 
 
 2. An adjective is sometimes used to give utterance to the gen- 
 der ; as, a he goat, a she goat, a cock sparrow, a hen sparrow, a 
 man servant, a maid servant. 
 
 Where the adjective expresses the gender of the animal denoted 
 by the noun, the noun itself is of the mute genediction ; as, male 
 relations. 
 
 Male is an adjective of the masculin genediction. 
 
 Relations is a noun of the mute genediction. 
 
 8. Sometimes the opponent genders are expressed by different 
 words; as, husband, wife. r 
 
 4. In many instances the rational method is adopted — the same 
 word is used under two genedictive forms ; as, host, hostess, prophet, 
 prophetess, count, countess. 
 
 NOUNS 
 Having two genedictive forms. 
 
 latculin. 
 
 Fuminin. 
 
 Masculin. 
 
 Feminin. 
 
 heir 
 
 heiress 
 
 poet 
 
 poetess 
 
 host 
 
 hostess 
 
 h prophet 
 
 prophetess 
 
 count 
 
 countess 
 
 tiger 
 
 tigress 
 
 Jew 
 
 Jewess 
 
 hunter 
 
 huntress 
 
 peer 
 
 peeress 
 
 songster 
 
 songstress 
 
 prince 
 
 princess 
 
 seamster 
 
 seamstress 
 
 shepherd 
 
 shepherdess 
 
 arbiter 
 
 arbi tress 
 
 baron 
 
 baroness 
 
 enchanter 
 
 enchantress 
 
 deacon 
 
 deaconess 
 
 tailor 
 
 tailoress 
 
rs 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 
 Masculin. 
 
 Feminin. 
 
 Masculin. 
 
 Feminin. 
 
 lion 
 
 lioness 
 
 director 
 
 directress 
 
 patron 
 
 patroness 
 
 votary 
 
 votaress 
 
 actor 
 
 actress 
 
 viscount 
 
 viscountess 
 
 author 
 
 authoress 
 
 hero 
 
 heroine 
 
 tutor 
 
 tutoress 
 
 landgrave 
 
 landgravine 
 
 traitor 
 
 traitoress 
 
 widower 
 
 widow 
 
 conductor 
 
 conductress 
 
 sultan 
 
 sultana 
 
 emperor 
 
 empress 
 
 czar 
 
 czarina 
 
 elector 
 
 electress 
 
 bridegroom 
 
 bride 
 
 governor 
 
 governess 
 
 testator 
 
 testatrix 
 
 protector 
 
 protectress 
 
 executor 
 
 executrix 
 
 ambassador 
 
 ambassadress 
 
 administrator 
 
 administratrix 
 
 
 female 
 
 male 
 
 
 NOUNS 
 Having but one genedictive form. 
 
 Masculin. 
 
 Feminin. 
 
 Masculin. 
 
 Feminin. 
 
 lad 
 
 lass 
 
 bull 
 
 COW 
 
 boy 
 
 girl 
 
 bullock 
 
 heifer 
 
 son 
 
 daughter 
 
 horse 
 
 mare 
 
 beau 
 
 belle 
 
 cock 
 
 hen 
 
 king 
 
 queen 
 
 drake 
 
 duck 
 
 lord 
 
 lady 
 
 gander 
 
 goose 
 
 earl 
 
 countess 
 
 husband 
 
 wife 
 
 buck 
 
 doe 
 
 father 
 
 mother 
 
 uncle 
 
 aunt 
 
 brother 
 
 sister 
 
 nephew 
 
 niece 
 
 master 
 
 mistress 
 
 monk 
 
 nun 
 
 sloven 
 
 slut 
 
 hart 
 
 roe 
 
 wizard 
 
 witch 
 
 stag 
 
 hind 
 
 bachelor 
 
 maid 
 
 sire 
 
 dam 
 
 man 
 
 woman 
 
 he 
 
 she 
 
 him 
 
 her 
 
 PRONOUNS AND NOUNS 
 Prefixed to nouns to express the gender of the beings denoted by the nouns. 
 
 he 
 
 man 
 
 male 
 
 she 
 
 maid 
 
 female 
 
ECTOLOGY. 
 
 179 
 
 APPLICATION. 
 
 He goat 
 He bear 
 Cock sparrow 
 Man servant 
 Male child 
 Male relations 
 Male descendants 
 
 She goat 
 She bear 
 Hen sparrow 
 Maid servant 
 Female child 
 Female relations 
 Female descendants 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is genediction? 
 
 2. How many genedictions belong to nouns, and pronouns ? 
 
 3. What is the masculin genediction? 
 
 4. What is the feminin genediction ? 
 
 5. What is the mute genediction ? 
 
 6. What is the ambi genediction ? 
 
 7. What nouns have the ne-o genediction ? 
 
 8. In what does the mute genediction differ from the ne-o gene- 
 diction ? 
 
 9. Do some nouns have different forms for different genders ? 
 
 10. By what affix are these nouns modified to enable them to 
 express the female gender ? [ess.] 
 
 11. Are there any instances in which the two genders are ex- 
 pressed by different nouns ? 
 
 [Give some.] 
 
 12. Is a prefix noun, or a prefix pronoun ever used to express 
 the gender of the animal denoted by the main word ? 
 
 13. Are adjectives ever used to express the gender of the crea- 
 tures denoted by the nouns which are mute respecting the exact 
 sex? 
 
 I. Pronouns of the Par-e-thenu 
 
 t Reladiction. 
 
 
 Cm. 
 
 Rut. 
 
 
 ' I 
 
 we 
 
 
 who 
 
 who 
 
 1. Cordictitb 
 
 whoever 
 
 whoever 
 
 
 whosoever 
 
 whosoever 
 
 
 that 
 
 that 
 
 
 ' me 
 
 us 
 
 
 whom 
 
 whom 
 
 2. Uncobdictiyb 
 
 whomsoever 
 
 whomsoever 
 
 
 that 
 
 that 
 
 
 myself 
 
 ourselves 
 
180 
 
 1. COEDICTIVE 
 
 2. Uncoedictive - 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 
 the Pros-o-theme Reladiction. 
 
 Uni. 
 
 Fkis. 
 
 r thou 
 
 ye 
 
 who - 
 
 who 
 
 whoever 
 
 whoever 
 
 whosoever 
 
 whosoever 
 
 that ? 
 
 that 
 
 ( thou 
 
 you 
 
 ' thee 
 
 you 
 
 thyself 
 
 yourselves 
 
 whom 
 
 whom 
 
 whomsoever 
 
 whomsoever 
 
 that 
 
 that 
 
 which 
 
 which 
 
 III. Pronouns of the Panta-theme Reladiction. 
 
 1. COEDICTIVE 
 
 Uni. 
 
 he I 
 she l 
 it J 
 
 2. Uncoedictive . 
 
 Plus. 
 
 they 
 
 who 
 
 who 
 
 whoever 
 
 whoever 
 
 whosoever 
 
 whosoever 
 
 that 
 
 that 
 
 which 
 
 which 
 
 as 
 
 as 
 
 one 
 
 ones 
 
 
 
 others 
 
 that 
 
 
 
 him "J 
 
 
 her L 
 
 them 
 
 it J 
 
 
 himself ^ 
 
 
 herself [■ 
 
 themselves 
 
 itself J 
 
 
 whom 
 
 whom 
 
 whomsoever 
 
 whomsoever 
 
 that 
 
 that 
 
 which 
 
 which 
 
 as 
 
 as 
 
 one 
 
 ones 
 
 one another 
 
 others 
 
 each other* 
 
 others 
 
 so 
 
 _ 
 
 that 
 
 
 
 * EacJi, other, and another are adjectives. But each other, and one another are 
 uncnrdictive pronouns. When so is a pronoun it is uncordictiye ; as, I bade him to 
 read; and he did so. 
 
ECTOLOGY. 181 
 
 QUESTIONS t 
 
 In relation to the matter under pp. 179, 180. 
 
 1. Why is who repeated so often ? 
 
 2. How many of the reladictions has who ? 
 8. How many numerdictions has who ? 
 
 4. Of what reladiction is thou ? 
 
 6. Is whoever of the par-e-theme reladiction ? 
 
 6. Is whoever of the pros-o-theme reladiction ? 
 
 7. Is whoever of the panta-theme reladiction ? 
 
 It may be well to remark here that there are bnt nine, or ten 
 words in the language, which can be of the par-e-theme reladiction, 
 and that all these are pronouns. These are in the preceding 
 scheme which is designed to give a distinct view of the way in 
 which pronouns mark the different relations of the things, men- 
 tioned in a sentence where pronouns are used. 
 
 1. In how many places do you find that, which, as, one, each, 
 other, and it? 
 
 2. Is that, uni, and plus ? 
 
 3. Is that of the par-e-theme, pros-o-theme, and panta-theme rela- 
 diction ? 
 
 4. What is the plus of he, she, and it? 
 
 5. How many pronouns are both cordictive, and uncordictive ? 
 
 6. Have you examined the above scheme with great care ? 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 In which the pupil should be drilled in the reladiction, and 
 numerdiction of the nouns and pronouns which are in italics. 
 
 1. [/am] (the man) (who commands them.) 
 
 2. [it is not] (/) (who command the men.) 
 
 3. [ Who* are] (they) (that opposed the motion) (which 
 
 James made ?) 
 
 4. [He is] (the man) (who makes long speeches.) 
 
 5. [ We are not] (they) ( , whom) (yon take us to be.) 
 
 6. [/spoke] (to thee;) (but thou didst not hear me.) 
 
 7. [/went] (to churcli) (with him,) (and) (them.) 
 
 * Who is made Bynonymou* with persons in the syllabane, " wh&t persons," by 
 aj'jtlicativn. This eyllabane would hare been used had not who been employed. 
 
 1G 
 
182 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 8. [The men [whom we saw] were all masked.] 
 
 9. [The men (whom you saw) were not masked.] 
 
 10. [The bird (which flew the highest) is] (an eagle.) 
 
 11. [The lions (which we saw) were very large.] 
 
 12. [Lions are (dangerous animals) when] (they are angry.) 
 
 13. [Thou (who art bad) shouldst be good.] 
 
 14. [The children (that we taught) have become] (men) 
 
 (and) (women?) 
 
 15. [They (who are not good) cannot appreciate the good- 
 ness] (which they see) (in others.) 
 
 16. [Isaac , ] (and Thomas are) (the boys) (whom we 
 
 saw) (at the church) (which is) (in Arch street.) 
 
 17. [Jacob is] (the man) (whom we have selected.) 
 
 18. [They are not] (in the business) (which they like.) 
 
 19. [Those trees (which grow) (by the river) are very tall;] 
 
 (and they are remarkably straight.) 
 
 20. [Tne old men (whom we saw) are wise.] 
 
 21. [Those young men (whom you saw) are valiant.] 
 
 22. [The boys (that they saw) are intelligent.] 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 TRIFLECTION OF VERBS. 
 
 The triflection of a verb is a full systematic presentation 
 of the three kinds of verb inflections. 
 
 The inflections of the verb, are naturally divided into 
 
 1. Reladictive, 
 
 2. Tense, and 
 
 3. Tenseless. 
 
 1. The reladictive inflections are 
 
 s, es, th, t, and st, 
 
 and are controlled, and produced by the reladictions of the 
 cordictive nouns, and pronouns ; as, Thou writes*. 
 
 2. The tense inflections are the primitive, and derivative 
 
ECTOLOdY. 
 
 183 
 
 forms of verbs, which indicate the exertion of time-expressing 
 power; as, d } ed, a, &c. 
 
 3. The ten&eless inflections are the derivative forms of the 
 verb, which indicate the non-exertion of all time-expressing 
 power ; as, en, u, ing, &c. 
 
 TRIFLECTION OF he. 
 
 DEMIMONO. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 To be. 
 
 Prior-past Tense. 
 To futve been. 
 
 NE-DEMIMONO* 
 
 Imperative Cordiction. 
 Present — Be thou, be you, or be ye. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 
 
 Uni. 
 
 Plus. 
 
 
 Par-e-theme Reladiction. I am 
 
 We 
 
 are 
 
 Pros-o-theme Reladiction. Thou art 
 
 You 
 
 are 
 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. He is 
 
 They 
 
 are 
 
 RE-PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 
 Uni. 
 
 Plus. 
 
 
 Par-e-theme Reladiction. 
 
 I have been 
 
 We 
 
 hive been 
 
 Pros-o-theme Relinlirtion. 
 
 Thou ha.rt been 
 
 Ye 
 
 have been 
 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. 
 
 He has been 
 
 They 
 
 have been 
 
 PASSED TENSE. 
 
 
 
 
 Uni. 
 
 Plus. 
 
 
 Par-e-theme Reladiction. 
 
 I was 
 
 We 
 
 were 
 
 Pros-o-theme Reladiction. 
 
 Thou wast 
 
 You 
 
 were 
 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. 
 
 He was 
 
 They 
 
 were 
 
 * Whde 
 
 mono. Ne-demi, not half. 
 
 
 
184 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 PRIOR-PASSED TENSE. 
 
 
 Uni. 
 
 
 Jftw. 
 
 
 Par-e-theme Reladiction. 
 
 I 
 
 had been 
 
 We 
 
 had been 
 
 Pros-o-theme Reladiction. 
 
 Thou 
 
 hadst been 
 
 You 
 
 had been 
 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. 
 
 She 
 
 had been 
 
 They 
 
 had been 
 
 FUTURE 
 
 TENSE. 
 
 
 
 
 Uni. 
 
 
 Plus. 
 
 
 Par-e-theme Reladiction. 
 
 I 
 
 will be 
 
 We 
 
 will be 
 
 Pros-o-theme Reladiction. 
 
 Thou 
 
 wilt be 
 
 Ye 
 
 wrc'W be 
 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. 
 
 He 
 
 Uni. 
 
 will be 
 
 They 
 Plus. 
 
 will be 
 
 Par-e-theme Reladiction. 
 
 I 
 
 shall be 
 
 We 
 
 aAaZZ be 
 
 Pros-o-theme Reladiction. 
 
 Thou 
 
 shalt be 
 
 Ye 
 
 shall be 
 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. 
 
 She 
 
 shall be 
 
 They 
 
 sAaZZ be 
 
 PRIOR-FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Uni. Plus. 
 
 Par-e-theme Reladiction. I shall have been We shall have been 
 
 Pros-o-theme Reladiction. Thou wrcft /iaue been You shall have been 
 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. She w7Z Aave been They shall have been 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Subfirmative Cordiction. 
 
 Uni. Phis. 
 
 Par-e-theme Reladiction. If I am If we are 
 
 Pros-o-theme Reladiction. If thou art If ye are 
 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. If he is If they are 
 
 How is it known that the time is present ? Answer — By the form 
 of the verb. If it was future, it would be, be ; as, if I be. 
 
 That is, If I should be. 
 
 But, because it is am, art, is, and are, no inceptive verb, denoting 
 futurity, can be employed. 
 
 Passed tense of Be, changed to the present by supposition, con- 
 cession, &c. 
 
 Negative Affirmative Cordiction. 
 
 Par-e-theme Reladiction. Was I well, we would attend. 
 Pros-o-theme Reladiction. Wast thou a good writer, I would em- 
 ploy thee. 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. I wish he was here. [He.] 
 

 Plus. 
 
 
 be 
 
 whether we 
 
 , be 
 
 be 
 
 unless ye 
 
 , be 
 
 be 
 
 lest they 
 
 , be 
 
 EOTOLOOY. 185 
 
 I'ni. Pins. 
 
 Par-e-theme Reindict ion. If I was now there If we were now, &c. 
 Pres-o-theme Reladiction. If thou wast now, &c. If ye were now, &c. 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. If she was now, &c. If they w ere now, &C. 
 
 IMPLENARY MONO, FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Subfirmative Cordiction. 
 
 When there are doubt, and futurity, shall, or should may be omit- 
 ted ; yet it is better, in all such cases, to express the inceptive 
 verb. 
 
 UhL 
 
 Par-e-iheme Reladiction. If I 
 
 Pros-o-theme Reladiction. If thou 
 
 Panta-theme Reladiction. If he 
 
 This implenary state of the mono, however, produces no beauty, 
 nor any other good ; it is, therefore, better to give the plenary 
 expression ; as, If thou shouldst be at my house next week, thou 
 wilt find me at home. 
 
 1. Tenseless Be form — being. 
 
 2. Tenseless Have form — been. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 What in this system is denominated Triflection, is styled in the 
 old theory, Conjugation. But, as the word, conjugation, is a mis- 
 nomer, I cannot consent to use it. 
 
 It may be gratifying to the curious to see the definition which 
 the old school Grammarians give of Conjugation. Murray says : — ■ 
 
 " The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination, 
 and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and 
 tenses." 
 
 Goold Brown says : — 
 
 " The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of 
 its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles/' 
 
 As the word, conjugation, conveys no allusion whatever to the 
 idea of a regular arrangement, it seems to me to be employed by 
 the old school Grammarians, with a very ill grace. If the word, 
 Conjugation, means any thing, it signifies the act of conjoining one 
 thing to another. He that ties two spoons together, conjugates 
 tbem .' 
 
 1G* 
 
186 , ECTOLOOY. 
 
 The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its 
 moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. — Goold 
 Brown. 
 
 That is, the conjugation of an apple tree is the regular arrange- 
 ment of the apples which it yields. Now, as the regular arrange- 
 ment of the apples, would be a conjugation, not of the tree, but of 
 the apples, so a regular arrangement of the moods, tenses, persons, 
 numbers, and participles of a verb, must be the conjugation, not of the 
 verb itself, but of the moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and parti- 
 ciples. 
 
 Murray says :- 
 
 " The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination of 
 its several moods," &c. 
 
 That is, the indicative mood, the potential mood, the subjunctive 
 mood, the imperative mood, and the infinitive mood are to be com- 
 bined, bound together ! What a formidable coalition is the conjugation 
 of a verb ! The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination of 
 its several moods, &c. 
 
 In the Appeal, it is demonstrated that no verb has mood, that 
 no verb has number, that no verb has person, and that no verb has 
 a participle. Hence, the conjugation of a verb is the regular combi- 
 nation of these four nonentities! The conjugation of a tree is the 
 regular combination of the apples which the tree never possesses ! 
 
 IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES. 
 1st Principle. 
 
 In the formation of the verb series, no verb can stand with it- 
 self — or, 
 
 In the formation of the verb series, no two forms of the same verb 
 can stand together. For instance, Writing written, Written writing, 
 Write wrote, Wrote write, Is being, Was being, Art been, Be was, are 
 illegitimate combinations. 
 
 The house is being built, is shamefully bad. Is and being are not 
 two distinct verbs, but two forms of be. Hence is being is as bad as 
 is been. Is and been cannot stand in juxtaposition, for both forms 
 are the same verb. 
 
 2d Principle. 
 
 In the formation of the verb series, no two mono verbs can stand 
 together; as Joel Howe stands convicted of a larceny; 1 stand cor- 
 rected; Nathaniel sat eating his dinner ; They lag musing on what 
 had passed ; They stood thinking en their crimes. 
 
 1. [Stands convicted, should be is convicted.] 
 
ECTOLOGY. 187 
 
 2. [Stand corrected, should be am corrected ; or, have been cor- 
 rected.] 
 
 8. [Sat eating, is good ; it is elliptical — sat at the table, and was 
 in the act of eating his dinner.] 
 
 4. [They stood thinking, is good ; it, too, is implenary — they 
 stood, and were in the act of thinking.] 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is triflection? 
 
 2. What is the meaning of tri ? [Tris, three.] 
 
 3. How are the verb inflections divided ? 
 
 4. What are the reladictive inflections ? 
 
 5. Why are these inflections styled reladictive ? 
 
 6. Will you give all the tense inflections ? 
 
 7. What are the tenseless forms of verbs ? 
 
 8. What are the reladictive forms of verbs ? 
 
 9. Are the tenseless forms the primitive, or the derivative state of 
 the verb ? 
 
 10. What is the Tenseless Be form of walk ? 
 
 11. What is the Tenseless Be and Have form of walk? 
 [ Walk has no Tenseless Be and Have form.] 
 
 12. Is it proper, then, to use Be and Have before walk? 
 
 [Yes. — Where a final verb has no Be and Have form, these 
 inceptive verbs may be used with the final verb in its 
 primitive state, or in its passed tense form ; as, We have 
 put up the book ; They have walked a mile ; The horse 
 must have been walked over that bridge.] 
 
 13. What is the first principle under the head of important prin- 
 ciples? 
 
 14. What is the second principle under this head? 
 
 15. Is was being correct? 
 
 16. Why is not was being proper? > 
 
 17. Is he stands corrected proper? 
 
 18. Why is it not proper? 
 
 19. Is the expression, Thehouse is being built, proper? 
 
 20. Why is not is being right ? l 
 
 21. Is the expression, The house is building, proper? [Yes.] 
 [The objection which Mr. Chandler urges against this form of 
 
 expression, is not valid. He says that the impropriety of this con- 
 struction springs from its capacity to misrepresent. He denies 
 that the house is building; but aifirnis that the men are building 
 it. This same Mr. Chandler, however, admits that the following 
 is correct English . — The kettle boils, The kettle is boiling. 
 
 But does the kettle itself boil ? No, verily — the liquid, the water, 
 which this vessel contains, boils. Because the house does not 
 build itself, Mr. Chandler says the expression, The house is build- 
 ing, is improper. 
 
 How does Mr. Chandler rectify this gross error? Why, by 
 placing two forms of be together ! " The house is being built." 
 
188 
 
 ECTOLOOY. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 I. The Plurors of Nouns, and Pronouns. 
 
 The plurors of nouns, and pronouns, are the different 
 means which render nouns, and pronouns plural; as, book, 
 books (s), man, men, (e). 
 
 S 
 
 Es 
 
 Ves 
 
 Ies 
 
 E 
 
 En 
 
 Ee 
 
 Ne-o 
 
 The Plurors. 
 
 Ic, Ice 
 
 Im 
 
 Plurors. 
 
 M 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 Nepos 
 Sense 
 Imputation 
 
 Plurors. 
 
 remarks. 
 
 S is a pluror where it adds merely its own sound to that of the 
 syllable to which it is affixed; as, attorney attorneys, chimney, 
 chimney*. 
 
 But where s not only adds its own sound to that of the syllable 
 to which it is affixed, but actually changes the syllable into one of 
 an entirely different sound, and import, * is not the pluror of the 
 noun ; as, wo, la-dy, directory. 
 
 As an affix to nouns, s is numeral in its import, and denotes 
 plurality. S has this numeral import in all instances where it 
 holds in the frame-work of the word, a mere affix relation ; as, 
 book, book-s, pen, pen-s. In the same way in which semi, and 
 demi are prefixed to nouns to denote half; as, semi- vowel, demi- 
 tone ; s is affixed to nouns to denote plurality ; as, book, book-.?. 
 
 But as demi, and semi are not prefixes in all instances, as in 
 swnnary, demist; so s is not always a pluror, as in atlas, John 
 Maas. 
 
 1. Semi-vovrel, — Seminary. 
 
 2. Book-*, — At-las. 
 
 Here, as seme modifies the word, vowel, so does s modify the word, 
 book. While semi makes the word, vowel, mean a half votfel, s 
 
ECTOLOdY. 189 
 
 makes the word, boolc, mean many books. And, while semi loses 
 its prefix character in seminary, by becoming an essential part of 
 the w*d, 8 loses its affix character in atlas, by becoming an essen- 
 tial part of the syllable to which it belongs — las. 
 
 Hence where it is possible for s to convert the syllable into one 
 different from that intended, by appearing to be an essential part 
 of it, s should not be used as a pluror ; as, lady, l&-dys } wo, wos, 
 potato, po-ta-fo*, 
 
 Here * is liable to be taken, not as a mere pluralizing affix to the 
 word, lady, but as an essential part of the last syllable — and as 
 such s converts dy into dys, dis. Hence the word would become 
 la-dys, or la-dis, instead of ladies. And, if we give * its sharp 
 hissing sound, it converts wo into woss. Hence instead of having 
 woe*, we have woss. And, if we give a its short broad sound, and 
 s its sharp hissing sound, we have po-ta-fcws, instead of potatoes. 
 
 In instances, however, where y is preceded by a vowel, s retains 
 its pluror character ; as, attor-ney, attor-neys. Neys, as a mere 
 syllable, is nearly equal to nies. 
 
 S retains its pluror character where it merely adds its own sound 
 to that of the syllable to which it is affixed ; as, money, moneys^ 
 chimney, chimneys. 
 
 But where * not only adds its own sound to that* of the syllable 
 to which it is affixed, but actually changes the syllable into one 
 entirely different in sound, and import, * loses its numeral, its 
 affix character ; as, wo, wos, lady, la-dys, directory, directo-rys. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 Rule I. Nouns which end with a, e, y, or w, are plused 
 by s; as, era, eras, pie, pies, landau, landaus, how, bows. 
 
 Rule II. When a final o is preceded by a vowel, the noun 
 is plused by s; as Scipio, Scipios. 
 
 Rule III. When the final oo is pronounced like oo in too, 
 the noun is plused by s ; as, bamboo, bamboos. 
 
 Rule IV. Nouns, in general, which end in any conso- 
 nant but ch soft, x, 8, s8, or sh, are plused by s ; as, scrap, 
 scraps, chi?z, chins, mussulmaw, mussulmans. 
 
 Rule V. When the final y is preceded by a vowel, the 
 noun is plused by s ; as, key, keys, attorney, attorneys. 
 
 Rule VI. When the noun which terminates in f, or 
 fe, or ff, does not retain much of the / sound in the plu- 
 
190 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 ral, it is plused by s; as, fife, fifes, grief, griefs, surf, surfs-. 
 (Not fives, grieves, surges.) 
 
 Rule VII. When the noun is followed by the adjective 
 in a construction which might be made a compound word, 
 the noun is plused by placing s immediately after it; as, court 
 
 martial, courts martial. 
 
 NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSED BY THE S PLUROR. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 4. 
 
 Automaton 
 
 Affray 
 
 Brief Graff 
 
 Beau 
 
 Allay 
 
 Dwarf Mischief 
 
 Cherub 
 
 Attorney 
 
 Fife Proof 
 
 Encomium 
 
 Chimney 
 
 Grief Reproof 
 
 Medium 
 
 Delay 
 
 Gulph Roof 
 
 Memorandum 
 
 Money 
 
 Handkerchief Scarf 
 
 Seraph 
 
 Sunday 
 
 Hoof Strife 
 
 Mono 
 
 Mussulman 
 
 Flag-staff Surf 
 
 Turkoman 
 
 Talisman 
 
 Staff* Turf, Wharf. 
 
 Note 1. — The word, beau, is French, and is generally plused by 
 x; as, beau*. 
 
 The word is so well known, however, in the English language 
 that it may be plused by s without any danger of turning it into 
 another word — indeed I do not see that s is liable to lose its plu- 
 ror character in this place any more than in attorneys. 
 
 The other nouns in the first column, are made from foreign 
 languages ; and they may be plused by s, and also by the plurors 
 peculiar to their respective sources. 
 
 Each of these is denominated a duplus. 
 
 A Duplus is a word which has two plurors ; as, mediums, media. 
 (*, a.) 
 
 A Uniplus is a word which has but one pluror ; as, pen, pens. 
 
 N6te 2. — The words in the third column, as well as those in the 
 fourth, are exceptions to other classes. 
 
 THE ES PLUROR. 
 
 The es pluror is the plusing means of those nouns which 
 are plused by es; as, box, boxes, gas, gases. 
 
 * Staff, as a military term, is plused by s. But when the noun 
 denotes a walking-stick, it is plused by ves. 
 
ECTOLOGY. 
 
 191 
 
 RULES. 
 
 Rule I. Where a noun ends with soft ch, x y sh, *, or ss, 
 it is plused by es; as, church, churches, box, boxes, gas, 
 gases, calash, calashes, hiss, hisses. 
 
 Rule II. When the final o is preceded by a consonant y 
 the noun is plused by es; as, negro, negroes, motto, mottoes, 
 echo, echoes. 
 
 NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSED BY THE ES PLUROR. 
 
 Apollo Axis Musketo Negro 
 
 Box Diaeresis Ellipsis Rebus 
 
 Church Hypothesis Basis Volcano 
 
 Echo Grass Branch Miss 
 
 Calash Lass Antithesis Crisis 
 
 Index Lash Memento Oniphasis 
 
 Manifesto Mess Metamorphosis 
 
 Note. — Index may be considered a dupius — it has two plurors, 
 though not without regard to the sense. When the word signifies 
 pointers, or tables of contents, it is plused by es. 
 
 But when it signifies algebraic quantities, it is plused by ices — 
 indict. 
 
 The foUvwing nouns have no uni numer diction. 
 
 Annals 
 
 Archives 
 
 Ashes 
 
 Assets 
 
 Betters 
 
 Bitters 
 
 Bowels 
 
 Breeches 
 
 Clothes 
 
 Customs 
 
 Calends 
 
 Drawers 
 
 Matins 
 
 Downs 
 
 Mallows 
 
 Dregs 
 
 Orgies 
 
 Embers 
 
 Nippers 
 
 Entrails 
 
 Pincers 
 
 Fetters 
 
 Pinchers 
 
 Filings 
 
 Pleiades 
 
 Goods 
 
 Riches 
 
 Hatches 
 
 Snuffers 
 
 Ides 
 
 Shears 
 
 Lees 
 
 Scissors 
 
 Lungs 
 
 Shambles. 
 
 Tidings 
 
 Tongs 
 
 Thanks 
 
 Tweezers 
 
 Vespers 
 
 Vitals 
 
 Victuals 
 
 Letters* 
 
 Mannersf 
 
 * Letters in the sense of literature, 
 f Manners in the sense of behaviour. 
 
192 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 THE VES PLUROR. 
 
 The ves pluror is the plusing means of those nouns that 
 are plused by ves; as, elf, elves, life, lives. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 Rule I. Where the plus retains almost all the / sound, 
 the noun is plused by ves; as, beef, beeves, leaf, leaves. 
 Very little of the / sound is retained in the plus of fife— fifes. 
 
 NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSED BY THE VES PLUROR. 
 
 Beef 
 
 Knife 
 
 Self 
 
 Thief 
 
 Calf 
 
 Leaf 
 
 Sheaf 
 
 Wharf 
 
 Elf 
 
 Life 
 
 Shelf 
 
 Wife 
 
 Half 
 
 Loaf 
 
 Staff* 
 
 Wolf 
 
 THE IES PLUROR. 
 
 The ies pluror is the jplusmg means of those nouns which 
 are plused by ies; as, proxy, proxies. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 I. When the final y is preceded by a consonant, the 
 noun is plused by substituting ies for y ; as, lacfy, ladies, 
 duty, duties. 
 
 If s alone, is affixed, lady becomes l&dys; and duty becomes dii- 
 tys. And if es should be affixed, lady would become la-dy-es. And, 
 if the word should be considered a dissyllable, — thus, ladyes, du~ 
 tyes, the word, yes, would become a mere affix to other words. 
 
 In this way we should have two derivative affixes importing pre- 
 cisely the same thing — yes, and ies. 
 
 Besides, yes is not synonymous with ies in sound. Yes is yis, 
 and ies is sometimes short ie with s ; as, ies, ees. La-dees, dutees. 
 
 * When staff means a walking-stick, it is plused by ves. But as 
 a term in military affairs, staff is plused by s. 
 
ECTOLOQY. 193 
 
 Nor is it in the power of any letter to make yes, ies. Hence, 
 dyes is not equal to dies — nor is tyes synonymous with ties. Dies is 
 dees ; and ties is tees. But dyes is dy-es ; and tyes is ty-es. 
 
 Nor is it in the power of any letter except a vowel, to make ys 
 equal to es, for es, as an affix pluror, is short ee with s ; as, ys, ees. 
 Now eys, as an affix, is nearly, or quite ees — for the y is short, 
 which gives it the sound of short e — hence eys is nearly, or quite 
 ees. Therefore, all nouns terminating a singular with a y which 
 is preceded by a vowel, have the * pluror ; as, day, days. But 
 unless the y is preceded by a vowel, the noun is plused by ies ; as, 
 fly, toes. 
 
 Beauty, Fly, i, es. 
 
 Duty, Penny, i, es. 
 
 Penny is a duplus — it may be plused in two ways — pen- 
 nies, or pence. 
 
 NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSED BY THE IES PLUROR. 
 
 Proxy Cry Piracy 
 
 City Berry Prodigy 
 
 Fly Liberty Lady 
 
 Ditty Destiny Beauty 
 
 THE E PLUROR. 
 
 The c pluror is the plusing means of the nouns that are 
 plused by c ; as, man, men, woman, women. 
 
 THE EN, OR REN PLUROR. 
 
 The en, or ren pluror is the plusing means of the nouns 
 which are plused by en y or ren; as, brother, brethren, child, 
 children, ox, oxen. 
 
 BrotJier is a duplus — it has two plurors, s, and ren. When 
 the noun is applied to a person who is a brother by blood, it 
 is generally plused by s. 
 
 But, when it is applied to a member of the same society, 
 it is generally plused by ren. 
 
 17 
 
194 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 THE EE PLUROR. 
 
 The ee pluror is the plusing means of the nouns which 
 are plused by ee; as, foot, feet, tooth, teeth, goose, geese. 
 
 THE ICE PLUROR. 
 
 The ice pluror is the plusing means of the nouns which 
 are plused by ice; as, mouse, mice, louse, lice. 
 
 THE IM PLUROR. 
 
 The im pluror is the plusing means of the nouns derived 
 from the Hebrew, and plused by im ; as, cherub, cherubim, 
 seraph, seraphim. 
 
 Cherub, as well as seraph, is a duplus. Both are plused 
 by im, and s. 
 
 THE M PLUROR. 
 
 The se pluror is the plusing means of nouns derived from 
 the Latin, and plused by as; as, lamina, lamina?. 
 
 THE I PLUROR. 
 
 The i pluror is the plusing means of nouns derived from 
 the Latin, and Greek, which are plused by i; as, magus, 
 magi, radius, radii, genius, genii. 
 
 When men of genius are meant, genius has the es pluror; 
 as, The Smiths are all geniuses. 
 
 But when aerial spirits are meant, genius has the i pluror; 
 as, These are some good genu sent to protect us. 
 
 Indeed, genius may be considered a duplus. 
 
 THE A PLUROR. 
 
 The a pluror is the plusing means of nouns of foreign ex- 
 traction, which are plused by a ; as, criterion, criteria, arca- 
 num, arcana. 
 
ECTOLOOY. 
 
 195 
 
 NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSED BY THE A PLUROR. 
 
 Arcanum 
 
 Criterion 
 
 Datum 
 
 Arcanum 
 
 Criterion 
 
 Datum 
 
 Erratum 
 
 Stratum 
 
 Effluvium 
 
 Automaton 
 
 Effluvium. 
 
 Genus 
 
 Erratum 
 
 Desideratum 
 
 Phenomenon 
 
 Those in italics are dupluses — they are plused by a, 
 and s. 
 
 Note. — Criterion, genus, medium, stratum, and stamen, are dupluses. 
 Genus is plused by es ; the others, by *. (See Note under the i 
 pluror.) 
 
 THE NEPOS PLUROR. 
 
 The nepos pluror is the plusing means of those pro- 
 nouns which are plused by new words; as, I, we, — Tie, (key, 
 — it, they, — thou, you, Or ye. 
 
 PRONOUNS WHICH HAVE THE NEPOS PLUROR. 
 
 I Thee She 
 
 Me He Her 
 
 Thou Him It 
 
 (The word, nepos, is made from neos, new, and epos, a word, and 
 
 means new word. The nepos pluror, then, is the new word 
 
 pluror.) 
 
 THE SENSE PLUROR. 
 
 The sense pluror is the plusing means of the nouns which 
 are plused entirely by the sense; as, sheep, deer. 
 
 NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSED BY TnE SENSE PLUROR. 
 
 Deer 
 
 Swine 
 
 Fish 
 
 Shad 
 
 Means 
 
 Kine 
 
 Trout 
 
 Herring 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Hose 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Haddock 
 
 Salmon 
 
 Cannon 
 
 Hiatus 
 
 Apparatus 
 
 Series 
 
 Odds 
 
 Means 
 
 Alms 
 
 Amends 
 
 Wages 
 
 Species 
 
 Gallows 
 
 
196 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 THE IMPUTATION PLUROR. 
 
 The imputation pluror is the plusing means of the pro- 
 nouns which have no plural in themselves, or of their own, 
 and which are plused by imputing to them the plus numer- 
 diction of the nouns with which they are made synonymous 
 by application j as, Henry who wishes to see you, is here ; 
 The Henries who wish to see you, are here. 
 
 PRONOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSED BY THE IMPUTATION 
 PLUROR. 
 
 As That Which Who 
 
 Whom Whoever Whomsoever Whosoever 
 
 THE NE-0 PLUROR. 
 
 The ne-o pluror is the entire want, or destitution of all 
 plusing means ; as, disdain, humility. 
 
 NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSED BY THE NE-0 PLUROR. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Gold^ 
 
 Hatred 
 
 Honesty 
 
 Pride 
 
 Disdain 
 
 Violence 
 
 Integrity 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Affluence 
 
 Strength 
 
 Sloth 
 
 Flax 
 
 Business 
 
 Redness 
 
 Pitch 
 
 Wool 
 
 Goodness 
 
 Blackness 
 
 Love 
 
 Pity ; < 
 
 Accuracy 
 
 Despair 
 
 Silver 
 
 Humility 
 
 Innocence 
 
 Temperance 
 
 Confinement 
 
 Hopelessness Eucharist 
 
 Canvas 
 
 Heroism 
 
 Laziness 
 
 Wealth 
 
 Tightness 
 
 Firmness 
 
 Odium 
 
 Tidings 
 
 Snugness 
 
 Closeness 
 
 Neatness 
 
 Feebleness 
 
 Sourness 
 
 Souse 
 
 Weakness 
 
 Lard 
 
 Property 
 
 Spaciousness 
 
 Contempt 
 
 Money 
 
 &c, &c, &c. 
 
 Note. — Wlieat, tea, sugar, coffee y money, property, (as wealth,) &c, 
 should not be plused. The different wheats is not good. It should 
 be the different kinds of wheat. 
 
 The following nouns should have the ne-o pluror ; — yet 
 
ECTOLOGY. 
 
 197 
 
 writers use them as uni, or plus, as their whims lead 
 thorn. 
 
 Amends 
 
 Alms 
 
 I>ellows 
 
 Gallows 
 
 Odds 
 
 Means 
 
 Pains 
 
 News 
 
 Kiches 
 
 Wages 
 
 Billiards 
 
 Fives 
 
 Sessions 
 
 Measles 
 
 Hysterics 
 
 Physics 
 
 Ethics 
 
 Optics 
 
 Conies 
 
 Catoptrics 
 
 Dioptrics 
 
 Acoustics 
 
 Pneumatics 
 
 Statics 
 
 Statistics 
 
 Spherics 
 
 Tactics 
 
 Economics 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Mechanics 
 
 Hydraulics 
 
 Hydrostatics 
 
 Analytics 
 
 Politics 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1 . What are the grammatical properties of nouns, and pronouns f 
 
 2. What is application f 
 
 3. What are the plurors of nouns, and pronouns? 
 
 4. What is numer diction f 
 
 5. What is genediction 9 
 G. What is reladiction ? 
 
 7. What is the pluror of book? (s.) 
 
 8. What is the pluror of me ? (us.) 
 
 0. What is the pluror of mouse? (ice.) 
 
 10. What is the pluror of wo? (es.) 
 
 11. What is*the pluror of thou? (ye.) 
 
 12. What is the pluror of man? \e.) 
 18. What is the pluror of lady? \ies.) 
 
 14. What is the pluror of landau? (».) 
 
 15. What is the pluror of beau? (», or x.) 
 
 16. What is the pluror of mussulman? («.) 
 
 17. What is Ectoloqy? 
 
 18. From what is ectology made? [page 129.] 
 
 19. What is a pluror? 
 
 20. What is the pluror of attorney general? (s.) 
 
 17* 
 
198 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 SUBDIVISION OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Adjectives are subdivided upon the basis of the means 
 by which the words are rendered adjectives, into 
 
 1. Suffix adjectives, 
 
 2. Abjix adjectives, 
 
 3. Application adjectives, and 
 
 4. Absolute adjectives. 
 
 1. SUFFIX ADJECTIVES. 
 
 A suffix adjective is a word which is made an adjective 
 by a suffix ; as, Metal metallic, Music musica?, John John's, 
 Eagles eagles', Me my, He his, Me mine, Abbey abbatica?, 
 Parent parenta?, Tutor tutorial. 
 
 2. ABFIX ADJECTIVES.* 
 
 An abjix adjective is a word which is made an adjective 
 by cutting off a suffix; as, Goodness good, Redness red, 
 Strength strong, Eagerness eager, SlowZy slow, Rapidly 
 rapid, Accuracy accurate, Correct^ correct, Positiveraess 
 positive. 
 
 3. APPLICATION ADJECTIVES. 
 
 An application adjective is a word which is made an 
 adjective by its application alone; as, Stove pipe, Leather 
 shoe, Indignation meeting, Application adjectives, Gold 
 ring, Man servant, John Adams. 
 
 4. ABSOLUTE ADJECTIVES.f 
 
 An absolute adjective is a word whose adjective character 
 
 * Ab, taking from. 
 
 f Absolute means absolved, or set free from. Hence, where the cufjective charac- 
 ter of a word is absolved, set free from, all changes which are often made in worda 
 
ECTOLOGY. 
 
 199 
 
 is independent of any change in, or application of, the 
 word; as, A man, The fcook, Any pen, Some knife, All 
 children, These apples, Tlwse shoes. 
 
 Suffixes which render words Adjectives. 
 
 iar, ry, ic, al, an, ish, ful, ly, ing, id, ous, ed, y, ty, ine, ive, some, ese, 
 less, er, irs, is, s\ 
 
 Note. — Nouns may have some of these adjective terminations ; 
 as, The Republic of America. 
 
 But the pupil will not be confused from this fact if he gives 
 close attention to the following tests : 
 
 1. When trunk words have any of the adjective terminations, 
 they are nouns ; as, Party, The writing is good. 
 
 2. When branch words have adjective terminations, they are 
 generally adjectives ; as, Party feelings, Writing table. 
 
 Some verbs end with ed, en, ing, and ly ; as, He walked Henry 
 has written, I am writing, Birds fly. 
 
 Adverbs, too, may end in ly ; as, Thirdly, CorrectZy. 
 
 Adjectives made from Pronouns. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 Suffix Adjectives. 
 
 I 
 
 My, mine. 
 
 We 
 
 Our, ours. 
 
 Thou 
 
 Thy, thine. 
 
 Ye or you 
 
 Your, yours. 
 
 He 
 
 His. 
 
 She 
 
 Her, hers. 
 
 It 
 
 Its. 
 
 They 
 
 Their, theirs. 
 
 Who 
 
 Whose, whosoever. 
 
 One 
 
 One's, ones'. 
 
 Each other 
 
 Other's, others' 
 
 One another 
 
 Another's. 
 
 Which 
 
 
 What 
 
 
 As 
 
 
 Thnt 
 
 Those. [o»e.] 
 These, [ese.'] 
 
 This 
 
 to render them atJj-ctivex, and also set free from all appticaiiont from which somo 
 Wokdl derive their atljrctiiv character, the adjective itself becomes absolute. Au 
 ab.olut*: adjective is a wonl which, if we may so speak, is burn an adjective. 
 
200 ECTOLOOY. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. Upon what basis are adjectives sub-divided? 
 
 2. What is an absolute adjective? 
 
 3. What is the meaning of absolute ? 
 
 4. What is James, in Nancy James ? 
 
 5. What is Nancy, in Nancy James ? 
 
 6. What is a suffix adjective ? 
 
 7. What is John's, in John's pen ? 
 i 8. What is the meaning of suffix ? 
 
 1 9. What is affixed to John, to render it an adjective ? 
 
 10. What kind of an adjective is John, in John Burton? [An ap- 
 plication.] 
 
 11. What is an abfix adjective? 
 
 12. What does ab mean ? 
 
 13. What is good, in Good fruit? 
 
 14. What is fruit, in Fruit basket? 
 
 15. What is famed, in the following sentence? — 
 
 Cicero was famed for eloquence. 
 
 1 6. What is famous ? 
 
 17. What is fameless ? 
 
 18. What is famed, in These highly famed men ? 
 
 19. What is fame-giving, in Fame-giving tongues ? 
 
 20. What is fame, in Great fame? 
 
 21. What is family, in Family circle? 
 
 22. What kind of an adjective is familiar? 
 
 [This word is rendered an adjective by the amputation of 
 ity.-] 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 Salt water contains salt. 
 Salt is an application adjective. 
 water is a noun 
 contains is a verb. 
 salt is a noun. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Apples are plentiful. [Not, plenty. ] 
 
 2. Crooked sticks are not straight. 
 
 3. Brick houses contain many bricks. 
 
 4. John Boston has a large Franklin stove. 
 
 [More Exercises, page IOC] 
 
ECTOLOQY. 201 
 
 QUESTIONS, 
 
 On the matter which commences under page 188. 
 
 1. What is *, where it adds merely its own sound to that of the 
 syllable to which it is affixed ? 
 
 2. What is not s, where it changes the syllable to which it is 
 affixed, into one of an entirely different sound, and import ? 
 
 3. What is s, as an affix to a noun ? 
 
 4. Does * denote unity, or plurality ? 
 
 6. In what cases has * this numeral import ? 
 
 Do you understand the illustration which the author attempts 
 to give of s by the means of semi, and demi ? 
 
 6. What is the first Rule under page 189 ? 
 
 7. What is the second Rule under this page ? 
 
 8. What is the plumedium of the nouns which end with a, e, «, 
 or w? 
 
 9. When a final o is preceded by a vowel, by what means is the 
 noun plused? 
 
 10. By what plumedium is the noun plused when the final oo is 
 pronounced like oo in too ? 
 
 11. How are nouns plused which end in any consonant except 
 ch soft, s, z, 8S, or sh f 
 
 12. What is the plumedium when the noun ends in a y which is 
 preceded by a vowel? 
 
 13. What is the plumedium of key ? 
 
 14. What nouns are plused by s? 
 
 15. What nouns are plused by es? 
 
 16. What nouns are plused by ves? 
 
 17. What nouns are plused by ies? 
 
 18. What nouns are plused by e? 
 
 19. What nouns are plused by ee f 
 
 20. What nouns are plused by en, or ren ? 
 
 21. What nouns are plused by ic, or ice? 
 
 22. Who* nouns are plused by im ? 
 
 23. What nouns are plused by cef 
 
 24. What nouns are plused by if 
 
 25. What pronouns are plused by new words ? 
 
 26. What nouns are plused by the mere sense ? 
 
 27. What pronouns are plused by imputation ? 
 
 28. What nouns are they which are never plused? 
 
 29. Are there any nouns which are always uni ? 
 
 30. Are there any nouns which are always plus ? 
 
 31. What do you understand the ne-o plumedium to be? 
 
 32. What is a uniplus ? 
 
 33. What is a duplus ? 
 
 34. Are there many dupluses in the language ? 
 
 35. What is rule seventh? [Page 190.] 
 
202 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 RATIODICTION OF ADJECTIVES, AND ADVERBS. 
 
 The ratiodiction of an adjective, as well as that of an ad- 
 verb, is the expression of the ratio which one quantity of 
 the same quality, has to another quantity, as found in dif- 
 ferent things ; as, 
 
 High, higher , highest; Small, smaller , smallest. 
 
 Adjectives, and adverbs have three ratiodictions. 
 
 1. Primitive Ratiodiction, 
 
 2. Bi-derivative Ratiodiction, and 
 
 3. Tri-derivative Ratiodiction. 
 
 [Bi, from bis, two. Tri, from trios, three together.] 
 
 1. PRIMITIVE RATIODICTION. 
 
 The primitive ratiodiction is the expression of the quality 
 in its primary state, and is made by the primitive state of 
 the word; as, High tree, Small school, Good men. 
 
 2. BI-DERIVATIVE RATIODICTION. 
 
 The bi-derivative ratiodiction is an indication of a removal 
 of the quality from its primary state, by expressing an 
 increase, or diminution of it in a second thing; as, That tree 
 is higher than this ; This school is smaller than that ; These 
 men are better than those. 
 
 3. TRI-DERIVATIVE RATIODICTION. 
 
 The tri-derivative ratiodiction is the expression of the ex- 
 tremity to which relative quality can run; and, as tri indi- 
 cates, it must be made where there are as many as three 
 things ; as, This is the highest tree of the four ; That is the 
 smallest school of the three ; These are the best men of the 
 seven. 
 
ECTOLOGY. 203 
 
 1. Primitive, long 
 
 2. Bi-derivativc, longer - 
 
 3. Tri-derivative, longest - 
 
 1. Primitive short 
 
 2. Bi-derivative, shorter 
 
 3. Tri-derivative, shortest 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 There are many properties which, from their nature, are inca- 
 pable of increase, or diminution; as, perfection, universality, 
 straightness, &c. The words denoting these, have no ratiodic- 
 tione ; as, perfect, extreme. 
 
 Lines may be divided into relative, and absolute. 
 
 3. a 1. 
 Shortest long. 
 
 2. b 2. 
 SJtorter - longer. 
 
 3. c 3. 
 
 Short longest. 
 
 Now, if a should be taken as an absolute line, it could neither be 
 a short line, nor a long one. As a relative line, however, a is not 
 only a short line, but it is the shortest line. And not only is a the 
 shortest line, but it is a long line t What is it which makes a a 
 short line, and even the shortest line ? Is it not its ratio to b ? 
 Could a be denominated the shortest, if it was alone f "It could 
 not; for it would then be denominated a line merely." And what 
 is it which gives c the character of short ? Is it not its ratio to b ? 
 You will observe, too, that c is not only a short line, but that it is 
 also a long line I Nor is this all ; for c is not only a long line, but 
 it is the longest line. These lines are relative lines ; and they ac- 
 quire their respective distinctive characters from their respective 
 relative bearings upon each other. Hence, the same line is both 
 long, and short : and, what is still more curious, the same line is 
 both the shorter, and the longer line, as is seen in b. Now, a taken 
 by itself, can be called neither a long line, nor a short line : yet a, 
 taken as a relative line, may not only become a long line, and a short 
 line, but the shortest, or the longest line. 
 
 It may be well to remark again, that lines, in general, may be 
 divided into relative, and absolute. A relative line is one which in 
 
204 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 some respect, or other, is affected by a relative bearing which it has 
 upon another line. An absolute line is one which has no relative 
 bearing to any other line, and which consequently can never be 
 affected by any relation to another line. 
 
 The words whieh are relative in their application, may be gradu- 
 ated; as, sacred, beautiful, delightful. But those which are absolute 
 in their application, cannot be graduated; as perfect, straight, 
 supreme, universal, under, into, six, one, wooden, as, the, and, nor, &c. 
 
 I will briefly comment upon one, or two of these words. Let 
 me take delightful from the first class, and wooden from the second. 
 
 1. Delightful. — Of two situations, one may be more delightful 
 than the other •; and of three, or more, one may be the most delight- 
 ful. Then, again, in the case of the two only, one must be less 
 delightful than the other ; and in the case of the three, or more, 
 one must be the least delightful. Delightful, then, is a relative 
 word. That is, it is a word whose application with respect to 
 amount may be under the influence of a relative bearing which one 
 thing may hold to another. 
 
 2. Wooden. — Of two things which are wooden, one cannot be 
 more wooden than the other. Wooden is absolute in its amplica- 
 tion. It is idle to compare two wooden dishes to ascertain whether 
 one is more wooden, or less wooden than the other. The word, 
 wooden, is not elastic, so to speak, that it can be extended, and con- 
 tracted like the word delightful. And the reason why it is not, is 
 found in the want of any occasion on which it becomes necessary 
 to enlarge, and diminish the meaning of this adjective. 
 
 All adjectives which denote a fixed, a definite amount, or quan- 
 tity, are absolute. Hence, one, two, three, four, five, six, perfect, 
 square, straight, supreme, certain, sure, &c, are all absolute. Two 
 can be made to mean neither any more, nor any fewer than two 
 units. 
 
 Perfect signifies a state of excellence, which excludes all defect. 
 To no other state can perfect be applied. Perfection, then, is a 
 state, a condition, which is absolute. That is, the perfection of a 
 thing cannot be increased, and diminished by any relative bearing 
 of two perfections : one perfection cannot be greater than another 
 perfection, any more than one dish can be more wooden than 
 another. Perfection is a thing which must be taken, not with 
 another perfection, but alone, as independent, as absolute. 
 
 You may hold up two colours, say two reds, to see which is the 
 deeper of the two. So, also, you may hold up two sticks to see 
 which of the two is the longer. But you cannot hold up two per- 
 fections together to ascertain which of the two is the greater. Each 
 perfection must be taken alone, by itself. In other words, each 
 perfection must be taken as absolute. 
 
 Do you know the full import of absolute ? This word is primarily 
 from absolvo, to loose, to release, to set/ree, to render independent. 
 Thus, a mile is a great distance when connected by comparison with 
 an inch. But when the mile is absolved, loosed, released, or set free 
 
ECTOLOGY. 205 
 
 from, and independent of, the inch, it is not a great distance. That 
 is, when a mile is taken as so much absolute distance, (distance set 
 free from all other distance,) it is not a great distance. 
 
 One mile when connected by comparison with a hundred miles, 
 is a very short distance. But, when the one mile is absolved, set 
 free from the hundred miles, it is not a very short distance. 
 
 SUBDIVISION. 
 
 Adjectives may be subdivided into 
 
 1. Ratiodictive, and 
 
 2. Ne-ratiodiotive. 
 
 1. The adjective which expresses a relative proportion, is 
 ratiodictive; as, 
 
 Bad, worse, worst; High, higher, highest. 
 
 2. The adjective which does not express a relative pro- 
 portion is nerratiodictivc ; as, 
 
 /Six, perfect, certain, all. 
 
 GRADUATION OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The graduation of an adjective, is a gradual presentation 
 of the different means by which the word expresses the 
 ratio that one quantity of the same quality, has to another 
 quantity, as found in different things. 
 
 Graduation of High. 
 
 1. Primitive ratiodiction, high. 
 
 2. Bi-derivative ratiodiction, higher. [er.J 
 8. Tri-derivative ratiodiction, highest [est. J 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Wherever derivative is not strictly applicable, Bi, or Tri 
 is used without it, as in the graduation of good. 
 
 In the following, derivative should be dropped after Bi, 
 but retained after Trir. 
 
 18 
 
>6 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 
 Primitive Ratiodiction. Ei-ratiodiction. 
 
 Tri-dcrivative Ratiodiction. 
 
 good 
 little 
 
 better 
 less 
 
 best 
 least 
 
 much 
 
 more 
 
 most 
 
 bad 
 
 worse 
 
 worst 
 
 evil 
 
 worse 
 
 worst " 
 
 ill 
 
 worse 
 
 worst 
 
 A few of the 
 
 Adjectives which cannot be Graduated. 
 
 supreme 
 
 direct 
 
 conical 
 
 chief 
 
 perfect 
 
 certain 
 
 principal 
 
 all-wise 
 
 ceaseless 
 
 endless 
 
 omniscient 
 
 round 
 
 boundless 
 universal 
 faithless 
 three 
 
 omnipotent 
 omnipresent 
 graceless 
 leather 
 
 square 
 
 perpendicular 
 
 six 
 
 silver 
 
 extreme 
 
 from 
 
 and 
 
 Adjectives rarely Graduated. 
 
 Primitive Ratiodiction. Birderivative Ratiodiction. Tri-derivative Ratiodiction. 
 
 Hind 
 Fore 
 In 
 
 hinder 
 former 
 Inner 
 
 Out 
 
 outer, or utter 
 
 Up 
 
 upper 
 
 Under 
 
 
 
 Mid, Middle 
 
 
 
 head 
 
 
 
 top 
 
 
 
 f hindermost 
 
 (.hindmost 
 
 f foremost 
 
 (first 
 
 f innermost 
 
 \ inmost 
 
 {outmost 
 utmost 
 outermost 
 uttermost 
 {upmost 
 uppermost 
 undermost 
 f midmost 
 \ middlemost 
 headmost 
 topmost 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. When the word comprises but one syllable, it is gene- 
 rally graduated by adding er } and est, to its radical state : 
 
 1. Great, greater, greatest 
 
 2. Broad, broader, broadest 
 
ECTOLOGT. 
 
 207 
 
 2. When the word comprises but two syllables, and ter- 
 minates in y, or mute e, it is generally graduated by adding 
 er, and est, to its radical state : 
 
 1. Handy, handier, handiest 
 
 2. Able, abler, ablest 
 
 These adjectives may receive the subs, more, and most, 
 instead of er, and est ; as, 
 
 1. More handy, most handy. 
 
 2. More able, most able. 
 
 They may also take the subs, less, and least; as, 
 
 1. Less handy, least handy. 
 
 2. Less able, least able. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 When the adjective has more than one syllable, the ratiodictions 
 are generally made by the subs ; as, more, or most, less, or least, 
 righteous. 
 
 Dissyllables ending in y, change y into i before er, and est ; as, 
 happy, happier, happiest. 
 
 But if a vowel precedes, y is not changed into i, before er, and 
 est; as, gay, gayer, gayest. 
 
 When the word ends with a single consonant which is pre- 
 ceded by a single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er, and 
 est; as, big, bigger, biggest. 
 
 The ratiodictions of some adjectives are made by affixing most 
 to the radical state ; as upper, upper most. 
 
 Graduate the words in the following 
 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 
 soft 
 
 well 
 
 worst 
 
 evil 
 
 bad 
 
 nearer 
 
 ill 
 
 best 
 
 white 
 
 farther 
 
 less 
 
 little 
 
 many 
 
 near 
 
 much 
 
 former 
 
 sooner 
 
 most 
 
 bad 
 
 good 
 later 
 
 near 
 
 hard 
 
 ill 
 
 less 
 
 much 
 
 well 
 
 far 
 
 best 
 
 worst 
 
 late 
 
 last 
 
 least 
 
 most 
 
 less 
 
 lest 
 
 least 
 
 last 
 
 least 
 
 soon 
 
 nearer 
 
 next 
 
 long 
 
 in 
 
 farthest. , 
 
 foremost 
 
 out 
 
 forth 
 
 first 
 
 better 
 
 head 
 
 top 
 
208 ECTOLOOY. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is ratiodiction ? 
 
 2. How many ratiodictions belong to adjectives, and adverbs ? 
 
 3. What is the primitive ratiodiction ? 
 
 4. What is the fo'-ratiodiction ? 
 
 5. What is the ^n'-ratiodiction ? 
 
 6. When is derivative omitted ? 
 
 7. Are all ratiodictive adjectives graduated by different forms 
 of the same word ? 
 
 $. What is a ratiodictive word ? 
 9. What is a ne-ratiodictive word ? 
 
 10. What is the graduation of a word ? 
 
 11. How are the words generally graduated, which comprise 
 but one syllable ? 
 
 12. How are the words which comprise two syllables, and ter- 
 minate with y, or mute e, generally graduated ? 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 4. THE PREPOSITION DENOMINATION. 
 
 The preposition denomination is a small class of uneordic- 
 tive branch words appropriated to the nouns, and pronouns 
 of the uncordictiv& monos, to express where, or what one 
 thing is in respect to another ; as, Joel was in the house. 
 [See page 90, and the author's Exegesis.] ^ 
 
 Words of the Preposition Denomination. 
 
 above 
 
 as-touching 
 
 before 
 
 about 
 
 amongst 
 
 behind 
 
 across 
 
 around 
 
 below 
 
 after 
 
 as 
 
 beneath 
 
 against 
 
 as-to 
 
 beside 
 
 amid 
 
 at 
 
 besides 
 
 amidst 
 
 athwart 
 
 because-of 
 
 among 
 
 atween 
 
 between 
 
 as-for 
 
 atwixt 
 
 betwixt 
 

 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 
 209 
 
 beyond 
 
 
 into 
 
 
 toward 
 
 but 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 towards 
 
 by 
 
 
 off 
 
 
 through 
 
 concerning 
 
 
 on 
 
 
 throughout 
 
 down 
 
 
 over 
 
 
 under 
 
 during 
 
 
 past 
 
 
 underneath 
 
 except 
 
 
 regarding 
 
 
 unto 
 
 excepting 
 
 
 respecting 
 
 
 tip 
 
 for 
 
 
 round 
 
 
 upon 
 
 from 
 
 
 save 
 
 
 with 
 
 in 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 within 
 
 instead-of 
 
 
 touching 
 
 
 without 
 
 Note. — Where 
 
 any 
 
 of these words close 
 
 a trone 
 
 s, or apoeclad, they 
 
 are adverbs ; as, 
 
 He 
 
 was spoken to ; The books 
 
 were called for. 
 
 5. THE CONJUNCTION DENOMINATION. 
 
 The conjunction denomination is a small class of uncordic- 
 tive branch words appropriated to cordictive sub syllabanes, 
 to express what the predicates of the sub syllabanes, are to the 
 predicates of the supers; as, I called you; but you did not 
 come. [See page 90.] 
 
 The words of the Conjunction Denomination, 
 
 and 
 
 although 
 also 
 as 
 
 as-well-as 
 again 
 beside 
 besides 
 being 
 but 
 both 
 either 
 except 
 excepting 
 else 
 • even 
 farther 
 for 
 
 [I would recommend both teacher, and pupil to read with care 
 what is said on the preposition, and the conjunction in my Exegesis.] 
 
 18* 
 
 further 
 
 neither 
 
 furthermore 
 
 or 
 
 hence 
 
 nor 
 
 however 
 
 otherwise 
 
 howsoever 
 howbeit 
 
 provided 
 since 
 
 if 
 
 still 
 
 inasmuch 
 
 so 
 
 lest 
 
 than 
 
 likewise 
 
 then 
 
 moreover 
 
 thence 
 
 nay 
 
 therefore 
 
 nathless 
 not-only 
 notwithstanding 
 no 
 
 though 
 unless 
 whereas 
 whether 
 
 now 
 
 Yet 
 
210 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is a noun 9 
 
 2. What is a pronoun 9 
 
 3. What is a verb 9 
 
 4. What is a preposition 9 
 
 5. What is a conjunction 9 
 
 6. What is an adjective 9 
 
 7. What words have the * ? 
 
 8. Why do they have the * ? 
 
 9. Can you repeat all the prepositions 9 
 
 10. Can you repeat all the conjunctions 9 
 
 11. Can you repeat all the pronouns 9 
 
 12. In what particulars do the preposition, and the conjunction, 
 agree? 
 
 In the following — Both are words; both are signs; both 
 are names ; both are branch names ; both are uncordictive. 
 That is, they cannot aid in forming a cordiction. 
 
 13. In what particulars do these words differ? 
 
 1. The preposition is appropriated to an individual word; 
 but the conjunction is appropriated to a syllabane y a coi- 
 tion of words. 
 
 2. The preposition is appropriated to uncordictive nouns, 
 and pronouns ; but the conjunction is appropriated to cordic- 
 tive syllabanes. 
 
 3. The preposition is employed to express tvhere, or what 
 one thing is in respect to another thing ; but the conjunction 
 is employed to express what one predicate is in respect to 
 another predicate. 
 
 14. What is a predicate 9 
 
 [A predicate is whatever is said of a thing ; as, John is 
 sick ; Is he well f If it rains too fast to be out, come thou 
 in ; They are in the house ; I am he ; He is /; I am not 
 he; I am; I am not.] 
 
 Not, in "I am not he," denies the identity which am predicates 
 of me. 
 
 In "/ am not," not denies the existence which am predicates 
 of me. 
 
ectolooy. 211 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 7. THE SUBADJECTIVE DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a small class of uncordictive branch words, appropriated 
 to adjectives, or to sujierior subadjectives, to denote some- 
 thing which has a branch dependence on what is expressed 
 by adjectives, or by superior subadjectives; as, 
 
 1. It is so cold that I must have a fire 
 
 2. There is a milk white bird. 
 
 3. A blood red leaf. 
 
 Cold weather. Cold is an adjective. 
 Too cold weather. Too is a subadjective. 
 Much too cold weather. Much, and too are subadjectives 
 Very much too cold weather. Very, much, too, subadjectives. 
 This boy's mother's father's son. This, boy's, and mother' s r aro 
 
 subadjectives. 
 
 8. THE ADVERB DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a large class of uncordictive branch words, appropriated 
 to verbs to express something which has a branch depend- 
 ence upon whatever verbs denote, whether with, or without 
 restriction; as, 
 
 1. John certainly pronounced the words. [Without re- 
 striction.'] 
 
 2. John certainly pronounced the words with propriety. 
 [ With restriction.'] 
 
 3. John pronounced the words properly. [ Without re- 
 striction.] 
 
 4. Henry was not hurt. [ Without restriction.] 
 
 5. Henry was not hurt by a fall. [ With restriction.] 
 
 Here, not does not deny the general act, but the restricted one 
 — was not hurt by a fall. 
 
 6. James can not write with this pen. [ With restriction.] 
 
 7. James can not write. [ Without restriction.] 
 
 8. It is written, Man shall not live. [Without restric- 
 tion.] 
 
212 
 
 ECTOLOGY. 
 
 9. It is written, Man shall not live by bread alone. [ With 
 restriction.'] 
 
 9. THE SUBADVERB DENOMINATION, 
 
 Is a small class of uncordictive branch words appropriated 
 to adverbs, or to superior sxibadverbs, to denote something 
 which has a branch dependence upon what is expressed by 
 adverbs, or superior subadverbs ; as, 
 
 1. Jacob wrote his copy very slowly, and quite exact. 
 
 2. This boy writes much too fast. 
 
 3. The young lady reads exceedingly well. 
 
 Words of the Adverb Denomination. 
 
 aback 
 
 agog 
 
 asunder 
 
 downward 
 
 abaft 
 
 ahead 
 
 astray 
 
 downright 
 
 abed 
 
 alee 
 
 atrip 
 
 eaehwhere 
 
 about 
 
 aloft 
 
 away 
 
 enough 
 
 aboard . 
 
 almost 
 
 awayward 
 
 entirely 
 
 above 
 
 alone 
 
 awry 
 
 exceedingly 
 
 abreast 
 
 along 
 
 awhile 
 
 excessively 
 
 abroad 
 
 alongside 
 
 aweather 
 
 equally 
 
 according 
 
 alongst 
 
 aweigh 
 
 else 
 
 accordingly 
 
 aloof 
 
 aye 
 
 elsewhere 
 
 across 
 
 alow 
 
 ay 
 
 everywhere 
 
 adrift 
 
 all 
 
 back 
 
 erelong 
 
 adown 
 
 also 
 
 backwards 
 
 even 
 
 aflat 
 
 altogether 
 
 barely 
 
 ever 
 
 afield 
 
 already 
 
 before 
 
 far 
 
 afloat 
 
 altar-wise 
 
 below 
 
 farther 
 
 afoot 
 
 amiss 
 
 besides 
 
 farthermore 
 
 afront 
 
 anywhere 
 
 by-and-by 
 
 further 
 
 aforehand 
 
 apace 
 
 by-the-by 
 
 furthermore 
 
 aforetime 
 
 apart 
 
 but 
 
 furthest 
 
 afoul 
 
 apiece 
 
 certes 
 
 full 
 
 afresh 
 
 aright 
 
 chiefly 
 
 full-butt 
 
 aft, after 
 
 around 
 
 clear 
 
 fully 
 
 afterall 
 
 as 
 
 consequently 
 
 first 
 
 afterward 
 
 askant 
 
 counter 
 
 forsooth 
 
 afterwards 
 
 ashore 
 
 contrariwise 
 
 frequently 
 
 again 
 
 aside 
 
 daily 
 
 forth 
 
 agale 
 
 askew 
 
 double 
 
 fourthly 
 
 aground 
 
 astride 
 
 doubtless 
 
 forthwith 
 
 ago 
 
 assuredly 
 
 down 
 
 greatly 
 

 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 21 
 
 haply 
 
 much 
 
 rather 
 
 together 
 
 hardly 
 
 namely 
 
 same 
 
 too 
 
 hence 
 
 nathmore 
 
 self-evidently 
 
 totally 
 
 henceforth 
 
 nay 
 
 selfishly 
 
 toward 
 
 henceforward 
 
 near 
 
 since 
 
 towards 
 
 here 
 
 nearer 
 
 so 
 
 twice 
 
 hereabout 
 
 nearest 
 
 somewhere 
 
 unawares 
 
 hereabouts 
 
 near 
 
 somehow 
 
 until 
 
 hereafter 
 
 nearly 
 
 soon 
 
 up 
 
 hereof 
 
 needs 
 
 sound 
 
 well 
 
 heretofore 
 
 never 
 
 still 
 
 when 
 
 herewith 
 
 nevermore 
 
 straightway 
 
 whence 
 
 hither 
 
 nigh 
 
 surely 
 
 whencesoever 
 
 hitherto 
 
 no 
 
 tan-tiv-y 
 
 whenever 
 
 homeward 
 
 not 
 
 there 
 
 where 
 
 homewards 
 
 now 
 
 thereabout 
 
 whereabout 
 
 how 
 
 nowhere 
 
 thereabouts 
 
 whereabouts 
 
 howsoever 
 
 nowise 
 
 thereafter 
 
 whereat 
 
 ill 
 
 of 
 
 thereat 
 
 whereby 
 
 indeed 
 
 off 
 
 thereby 
 
 wherein 
 
 inward 
 
 off-hand 
 
 therefor 
 
 whereinto 
 
 inwards 
 
 on 
 
 therefrom 
 
 ' whereof 
 
 last 
 
 once 
 
 therein 
 
 whereon 
 
 late 
 
 only 
 
 thereof 
 
 whereso 
 
 later 
 
 onward 
 
 thereon 
 
 wheresoever 
 
 latest 
 
 othergates 
 
 thereout < 
 
 whereto 
 
 leeward 
 
 otherwhere 
 
 thereto 
 
 whereunto 
 
 like 
 
 otherwhiles 
 
 thereunder 
 
 whereupon 
 
 likely 
 
 otherwise 
 
 thereupon 
 
 wherever 
 
 likewise 
 
 out 
 
 therewhile 
 
 wherewith 
 
 long 
 
 overthwartly 
 
 therewith 
 
 wherewithal 
 
 mainly 
 
 partly 
 
 therewithal 
 
 while 
 
 manly 
 
 * peradventure 
 
 thick 
 
 whileom 
 
 man-like 
 
 perchance 
 
 thin 
 
 whither 
 
 merely 
 
 perhaps 
 
 thither 
 
 whithersoever 
 
 more 
 
 possibly 
 
 thitherward 
 
 whole 
 
 most 
 
 quickly 
 
 tiv-y 
 
 why 
 
 motherly 
 
 quite 
 
 to-day 
 
 yea, yes 
 
 THE INTERJECTION DENOMINATION. 
 
 The interjection denomination is a small class of intensive 
 trunk signs which reject all branch words, and express, indi- 
 vidually, the meaning of an entire sentence, in the most 
 "hurried and impressive manner ; as, 
 
 1. that my grief were thoroughly weighed, and my 
 
214 
 
 CLASSIOLOQY. 
 
 calamities laid together in the balance, for the arrows of the 
 Almighty are within me. 
 
 This is the reply of Job to those who charged him with sin, 
 folly, and impatience. 
 
 that my grief were thoroughly weighed, &c. 
 
 That is, / most heartily wish that my grief was thoroughly 
 weighed, &c. 
 
 Here, is synonymous with the sentence, / most heartily wish. 
 
 The words of the Interjection Denomination. 
 
 ah 
 
 ha 
 
 holla 
 
 pish 
 
 aha 
 
 ha ha ha 
 
 hurrah 
 
 poh 
 
 alack 
 
 ha hah 
 
 huzza 
 
 pshaw 
 
 alas 
 
 hail* 
 
 hush* 
 
 pugh 
 
 all hail 
 
 hark* 
 
 io 
 
 see* 
 
 avaunt 
 
 heigh 
 
 lo 
 
 soho 
 
 begone 
 
 heighho 
 
 look* 
 
 strange* 
 
 behold* 
 
 hey 
 
 mum 
 
 tush* 
 
 eh 
 
 heyday 
 
 
 
 welcome* 
 
 fie 
 
 hist 
 
 off* 
 
 welladay 
 
 foh 
 
 ho 
 
 oh 
 
 what* 
 
 Those which have the *, are not always interjections. 
 
 [In my Exegesis, I have several pages of reflections upon this 
 class of words.] 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 PROVING RULES. 
 
 Rule I. 
 
 The uncordictive branch word which can be appropriated 
 to the mono, they are there, is a conjunction. 
 
 , they are there. 
 
 1. But they are there. 
 
 2. And they are there. 
 
 3. For they are there. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 215 
 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 
 In the application of this Rule, the pupil should give close atten- 
 tion to the difference between mere sound, and sense. There are 
 many uncordictive branch words which can be placed before the pre- 
 ceding mono, that are not conjunctions. There is a difference 
 between appropriating a word to this mono, and appropriating a 
 "word to some one word of this mono, or to a word of some super 
 mono which may be implied, or suggested, by the uncordictive word 
 that may be introduced. 
 
 For instance, when may be placed before " they are there' — but, 
 then, when is not a conjunction. 
 
 1. When "they are there." 
 
 " When''' is not appropriated to the mono, " they are there" How, 
 then, can when be a conjunction by this Rule. 
 
 "When" is not only not appropriated to this mono, but it is not 
 appropriated to &njpart, to any word^of this mono. 
 
 "When" suggests a super mono, and is appropriated to some 
 verb in the suggested super mono. 
 
 When they are there. 
 
 Well, what will happen when they are there ? It may be ono 
 thing, and it may be another. 
 
 If we say, it will rain, when is appropriated to the verb rain ; 
 as, [It will rain when] (they are there.) 
 
 (See Exegesis, page 133.) 
 
 2. Surely "they are there." 
 
 "Surely" is not appropriated to the mono, but to are, a mere 
 part of the mono. / 
 
 Rule II. 
 
 An uncordictive branch word which can be appropriated 
 to them, is a, preposition. 
 
 , them. 
 
 1. Of them. 
 
 2. Under them. 
 
 3. For them. 
 
 Rule HI. 
 An uncordictive branch word which can be appropriated 
 
216 
 
 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 to high, strong, Mack, redder, man's, or men's, is a subad- 
 jective. 
 
 high. 
 
 strong. 
 
 black. 
 
 redder. 
 
 man's. 
 
 men's. 
 
 Application of the Rule to too, very, coal, much, this, and 
 
 1. Too high. 
 
 2. Very strong. 
 
 3. Coal black. 
 
 4. Much redder. 
 
 5. This man's. 
 
 6. These men's. 
 
 Rule IV. 
 
 The uncordiciive branch word which can be appropriated 
 to was, fly, look, live, or spoken, is an adverb. 
 
 live 
 
 % 
 
 look 
 spoken 
 
 Application of the Rule to well, up, down, sharply, here, 
 to, of, for, with, fast, and slowly. 
 
 1. There was. 
 
 2. Live well. 
 
 3. Fly up, down. 
 
 4. Look sharply. 
 
 5. Look here. 
 
 6. Spoken to, of, for, with, 
 
 7. Was not. 
 
 8. Fly fast, slowly. 
 
CLASSIOLOGT. 217 
 
 CAUTION TO THE PUPIL. 
 
 Bo not attempt to appropriate a noun, or a pronoun to 
 any of the verbs mentioned in this Rule. You are cautioned 
 against this, because even teachers, from too slight attention 
 to the Rule, not unfrequently attempt to prove the pronouns, 
 I t they, and it, by saying, / live ; They fly, &c. 
 
 These do not apprehend the Rule aright. Their practice 
 indicates that the Rule is mere sound. The Rule, however, 
 is replete with precision, and direction. For it says, almost 
 expressly, that the word to be proved, is a branch word j 
 and it clearly affirms that the word to be proved, must be 
 appropriated to was, fly, live, or spoken. I is not appropri- 
 ated to live, but live is appropriated to I. 
 
 Rule V. 
 
 An uncordictive branch word which can be appropriated 
 to thing, to things, or to Adams, without any regard to the 
 distinction of cordictive, or uncordictive nouns, is an adjec- 
 tive. 
 
 , thing. 
 
 , things. 
 
 , Adams. 
 
 Application of the Rule to high, strong, black, redder, &c. 
 
 1. High thing. 
 
 2. Strong thing. 
 
 3. Black thing. 
 
 4. Redder things. 
 6. Man's things. 
 
 6. Jane Adams. 
 
 7. Men's things. 
 
 8. Strange things. 
 
 9. Running things. 
 
 10. Flying things. 
 
 11. Sharp thing. 
 
 12. Mrs. Adams. 
 
 10 
 
218 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 13. Silk things. 
 
 14. Leather things. 
 
 15. Gold things. 
 
 16. John Adams. 
 
 17. Mr. Adams. 
 
 18. An Adams. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 SECOND SPECIMEN OP PROVING. 
 
 Too, here, there, but, if, than, unless, when, where, in, up, 
 indeed, among, at, near, high, surely, Jane, Miss, Mr., an, 
 his, as, for. 
 
 1. Too high — too, a subadjeetive. Rule 3. 
 
 2. Look here — here, an adverb. Rule 4. 
 
 3. Look there — there, an adverb. Ride 4. 
 
 4. But they are there — but, a conjunction. Rule 1. 
 
 5. If they are there — if, a conjunction. Rule 1. 
 
 6. Than they are there — than, a conjunction. Rule 1. 
 
 [I am no more there] (than they are there.) 
 
 7. Unless they are there— -unless, a conjunction. Rule 1. 
 
 8. Fly when — when, an adverb. Rule 4. 
 
 9. Look in — in, an adverb. Ride 4. 
 
 10. Look where-' — where, an adverb. Rule 4. 
 
 11. Fly up— up, an adverb. Rule 4. 
 
 12. Was indeed — indeed, an adverb. Rule 4. 
 
 13. Among them — among, a preposition. Rule 2. 
 
 14. At them — at, a preposition. i?w7e 2. 
 
 15. Fly near — near, t an adverb. jRwfe 4. ^ 
 
 16. JVear things — near, an adjective. ifo*& 5. 
 
 17. Fly high — high, an adverb. Rule 4. 
 
 18. High things — high, an adjective. Rule 4. 
 
 19. Surely was — surely, an adverb, ifotfe 4. 
 
 20. t/cme Adams — Jane, an adjective, j&wfe 5. 
 
 21. Miss Adams — Miss, an adjective. Rule 5. 
 
 22. Miss Man's hat — Miss, a subadjeetive. Rule Z< 
 
 23. Mr. Adams — Mr., an adjective. Rule 5. 
 
CLASSTOLOQY. 219 
 
 24. Mr, Man's bat — Mr., a subadjective. Rule 3. 
 
 25. An Adams — an, an adjective. Rule 5. 
 
 26. An Adams' hat — an, a subadjective. Rule 3. 
 
 27. His things — his, an adjective. Rule 5. 
 
 28. His man's hat — his, a subadjective. Rule 3. 
 
 29. -4s they are there — as, a conjunction, ifoZe 1. 
 *\ Fly as — as, an adverb. i?wfe 4. 
 
 [Fly as] (he approaches.) 
 That is, fly when he approaches. 
 1. As high — as, a subadjective. Rule 3, 
 (&> high.) 
 
 32. For they are there — -for, a conjunction. Rule 1. 
 
 (Because they are there.) 
 
 33. .Far them— ;/ar, a preposition. Rule 2, 
 34 Spoken for — -for, an adverb. Rule 4. 
 
 Rule I. 
 , they are there. 
 
 Rule IL 
 , them. 
 
 Rule IIL 
 
 , high. 
 , strong, 
 black. 
 , redder 
 , man's. 
 , mens. 
 
 Rule IV 
 
 y was 
 , live 
 , look 
 
 . fly 
 
 y spoken 
 
220 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 Rule V. 
 
 thing. 
 
 things. 
 
 Adams. 
 
 DIRECTIONS. 
 
 1. When the branch word has different denominational 
 characters, the pupil should be required to portray each in 
 proof. 
 
 2. The mono, " they are there," may be considered a 
 trone, or a cordictive clad, as occasion may require. When 
 the pupil cannot appropriate the conjunction to this mono 
 without supplying a super mono, he may form a trone 
 which will enable him to appropriate the conjunction to the 
 mono, they are there. For instance — than seems to require 
 a trone to give it a clear conjunction character : 
 
 than they are there. 
 [I am no more there] (than they are there.) 
 
 The tense may also be changed to make the conjunction 
 fit this cordictive clad — they were there. 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 Under the preceding Rides. 
 
 Correctly, softly, prudently, well, accordingly, badly, and, 
 though, although, nearer, verily, sure, indeed, positively, no, 
 not, nay, never, white, farther, many, near, why, rather, 
 sooner, chief, especially, so, as, equally, thus, like, otherwise, 
 else, differently, unlike, most, nearly, partially, partly, 
 scarcely, hardly, sparingly, scantily, less, much, bountifully, 
 liberally, best, worse, least, most, or, last, nearer, or, next, 
 farthest, foremost, nor, first, better, worse, perfect, evil, or, 
 ill, best, less, little, much, therefore, and, yet, former, bad, 
 good, as, ill, side-wise, how, certainly, truly, undoubtedly, 
 

 CLASSIOLOQY. 221 
 
 yes, and, so, later, as, well, far, for, although, late, at, all, 
 namely, universally, together, generally, conjunctively, off, 
 separately, apart, asunder, singly, alone, apiece, again, 
 though, for, yet, hereafter, already, hitherto, last, that, but, 
 although, then, either, since, also, or, whereas, both, than, 
 wherefore, besides, unless, beside, at, nevertheless, lest, 
 around, notwithstanding, but, into, of, after, but, moreover, 
 least, because, amongst, howbeit, across, not, only, nay, 
 likewise, inasmuch, nathless, if, among, soon, primarily, 
 previously, at, once, by, and, whereby, in, ill, its, toward, 
 red, against, for, behind, during, neither, its, her, our, my, 
 lady's, man's, near, soon, boy's, their, your, red, yellow, 
 white, much, short, new, old, black, blue, upper, lower, 
 mine, yours, girls', boy's, tree's, trees', bitter, little, late, 
 far, many, better, worse, less, more, least, farther, father's, 
 fathers', uncle's, aunts', aunt's, next, worst, best, fore, 
 former, latter, foremost, first, book's, books', unto, an, 
 underneath, atwixt, long, athwart, not, never, in, but, or, of, 
 over, here, there, were, away, whereon, wherein, in, at, on, 
 thither, whither, hitherward, whitherward, hence, thence, 
 gift, thence, yet, otherwise, whether, or, even, wherever, out, 
 forth, forthwith, of, to, ahead, behind, too, now, when, then, 
 whenever, after, as, afore, never, ever, aforetime, about, 
 straight, immediately, wherewith, thereby, great, secondly, 
 thirdly, again, once, twice, perhaps, peradventure, likely, 
 possibly, correctly, softly, prudently, well, accordingly, badly, 
 and, though, above, and, although, nearer, verily, surely, 
 indeed, positively, no, not, any, never, not, farther, many, 
 near, why, rather, sooner, chiefly, especially, so, as, equally, 
 thtfs, like, otherwise, else, differently, unlike, most, nearly, 
 partially, partly, scarcely, hardly, sparingly, scantily, less, 
 much, bountifully, liberally, best, worst, least, most, least, 
 or, last, nearest, or, next, farthest, foremost, or, first, better, 
 worse, perfect, evil, or, ill, best, less, little, much, therefore, 
 and, yet, former, bad, good, as, ill, sidewise, how, certainly, 
 truly, undoubtedly, yes, and, so, later, as, as-well-as, well, 
 far, for, although, late, at, all, namely, universally, together, 
 generally, conjunctively, off, separately, apart, asunder, singly, 
 alone, apiece, therefore. 
 
 19* 
 
222 classioloqy. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 SUBDIVISION OP VERBS. 
 
 Verbs are subdivided upon the basis of the number of 
 cordictive, and uncordictive nouns, and pronouns with which 
 they have a sense connection, into 
 
 1. Mono, 2. Duo, 3. Uni, and 4. Ambi. 
 [Monos, one; Duo, two. Uni, one; Ambi, two.] 
 
 1. MONO VERBS. 
 
 A mono verb is one which has a sense relation with one 
 cordictive noun, or with one cordictive pronoun only ; as, 
 
 1. Snowfalls. 
 
 2. John walks. 
 
 3. Nathaniel must be punished. 
 
 4. He laughs. 
 
 5. She smiles. 
 
 2. DUO VERBS. 
 
 A duo verb is one which has a sense relation with one 
 cordictive, and with one uncordictive noun, or pronoun only ; 
 as, 
 
 1. Jane enjoys good health. 
 
 2. Sarah resembles him. 
 
 3. Joseph has a new book. 
 
 3. UNI VERBS. 
 
 A uni verb is one which has a sense relation with one 
 uncordictive noun, or pronoun only; as, I saw the birds 
 fly ; James desired me to return. [Fly, return.] 
 
 4. AMBI VERBS. 
 
 An ambi verb is one which has a sense relation with two 
 uncordictive nouns, or pronouns only; as, John wished me 
 to write the letters. [ Write.~\ 
 
 Note. — The uni, and the ambi verbs are found in the demimono 
 only. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 223 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Verbs which are always inceptive, are always mono. 
 [Page 137.] 
 
 2. Every inceptive, as well as every medial verb, is mono; 
 as, John must have written. 
 
 3. The final verb, and the solo verb are the only ones 
 which can be duo. 
 
 4. If the mono has but one noun, or pronoun, all the 
 verbs are mono ; as, James will have been punished. 
 
 5. If the mono has two nouns, two pronouns, or one noun, 
 and one pronoun, the final, or the solo verb which may be 
 in it, is duo; as, Cato must have hilled himself; Moses 
 served Jethro ; They hurt us. 
 
 6. There may be a demimono which has neither a noun, 
 nor a pronoun ; as, The horse was inclined (to run.) 
 
 7. If there is neither a noun, nor a pronoun in the demi- 
 mono, and the verb in the demimono has a sense relation with 
 the cordictive noun, or pronoun of the we-demimono, it is a 
 mono verb ; as, [The horse was inclined] (to run.) 
 
 8. If the verb in the demimono has a sense relation with 
 the cordictive noun, or pronoun of the ne-demimono, and 
 with the uncordictive noun, or pronoun of the demimono, it 
 is a duo verb ; as, [I am] (to write a letter.) 
 
 9. No demimono can have more than one noun ', nor can 
 any demimono have more than one pronoun. 
 
 10. No demimono can have more than three verbs. [To 
 Jiave been punished.] 
 
 11. The word, have, as an inceptive verb in the demimono, 
 has no sense relation with any noun, or pronoun; as, They 
 were to have written letters. 
 
 12. Have, as an inceptive verb in the 7i€-demimono, has a 
 sense relation with the cordictive noun, or pronoun ; as, 
 They have written their copies. 
 
 13. Where have is a medial verb, and is used to fix the 
 time of the mono, it has no sense relation with any noun, or 
 pronoun; as, John will have learned his lesson by ono 
 o'clock. 
 
224 CLASSTOLOGY. 
 
 REFLECTIONS. 
 
 Why not use transitive and intransitive, inquires an old school 
 grammarian ? 
 
 Because these words are not applicable. These words are employed in the old 
 grammars: but they do not answer the purpose for which they are there used 
 better than any other two words would. In subdividing the great verb family, 
 the cause of truth, and the good of both teacher and pupil would be subserved as 
 well by the use of rock, and river, as by the use of transitive and intransitive. True, 
 rod; and river mean nothing which pertains to verbs. But do transitive and intran- 
 sitive mean any thing which belongs to verbs ? The child is taught to call resem- 
 bles a transitive verb. But why not teach the child to denominate resembles a river 
 Verb! True, there is nothing about resembles which is like a river. Nor is thero 
 any thing about this verb which is like the true meaning of transitive. The old 
 grammars tell us that a transitive verb expresses an action which passes from its 
 agent, and terminates on an object. But, as resembles does not express any action 
 at all, how can it be a transitive verb ? In the following instance, strilces is called 
 an intransitive verb : 
 
 John strikes on the ground. 
 
 Does not this verb express an action which passes from John, and terminates on 
 the ground ? 
 In the following, strilces is a transitive verb : 
 
 James strikes the ground. 
 
 Now, does not the action of John, as well as that of James, terminate upon the 
 ground ? 
 
 The following merits attention quite as much as either of the preceding : 
 
 The ground was struck by John. 
 
 Although we are told in the old grammars, that a transitive verb is one which 
 expresses an action that passes from an agent, and terminates on an object, yet 
 struck is not called a transitive verb ! 
 
 Mr. John S. Hart, who represents himself as "Principal of the Philadelphia 
 High School, and Member of the American Philosophical Society," has compiled an 
 English grammar. Under page 62, he says : 
 
 " A transitive verb is one which requires an objective case after 
 it; as, James writes a letter." 
 
 If this sentence has any bearing upon the subject under consideration, it has 
 something which 7 am unable to understand. Mr. Hart says, that a transitive 
 verb is one which requires an objective case after it. In the following sentence, 
 see is transitive — yet no objective case can be placed after it : 
 
 Whom did you see ? 
 
 Here, whom, the objective case, is actually put before did, the auxiliary verb ! 
 To construct this sentence according to Mr. Hart, it would read as follows : 
 
 Did you see whom ? 
 
 There is an objection to Mr. Hart's definition of a transitive verb, that springs out 
 of the difficulty with which the child meets in deciding what the objective case is. 
 Mr. Hart informs the pupil that " A transitive v«rb is one which requires an ob- 
 jective case after it." But the pupil turns to Mr. Hart with this problem : 
 
 "What is the objective case?" 
 
 Can the learned Murray mender solve the child's problem? No! Under page 
 47, Mr. Hart informs the child, that the nominative and objective cases are alile. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 225 
 
 " 107, The nominative and objective are alike." Page 47. 
 
 Under page 45, Mr. Hart defines these two cases: 
 
 1. " The nominative case is that in which something is asserted 
 of the noun." 
 
 2. "The objective case is that in which the noun is the object 
 of some verb or preposition." 
 
 Under page 46, Mr. Hart resumes the suhject of the cases ; and here he says 
 that 
 
 " It is of the greatest importance that the pupil should learn as 
 early as possible to distinguish between the nominative and objec- 
 tive cases. The possessive may be recognised at once by its form. 
 But to distinguish readily the other two, is one of the greatest 
 stumbling blocks to beginners!" 
 
 Yet this compiler attempts to define a transitive verh upon the distinctive fact 
 "that it requires the objective case after it ! 
 
 But from what is the child to derive his knowledge of the three cases? Mr. 
 Hart has furnished him with the following propositions which are devoid of all 
 meaning, all sense, and of all grammatical propriety : 
 
 1. " The nominative case is that in which something is asserted 
 of the noun." 
 
 2. " The possessive case is that in which something belongs to 
 the noun." 
 
 3. " The objective case is that in which the noun is the object of 
 some verb, or preposition." 
 
 The following is Mr. Hart's definition of an intransitive verb : 
 
 "An intransitive verb is one which does not require an objective 
 case after it; as, John sleeps." 
 
 One would presume from the fact that Mr. Hart is " member of the American 
 Philosophical Society," that he would not attempt to define a thing by stating what 
 it does not do ! It seems to me, though I am not " member of" any Philosophical 
 Society, that in defining an intransitive verb, it would not be at all inconsistent 
 with philosophy, to say what it requires. But strange as it may appear to philoso- 
 phers in general, here is a grammarian who is not only u Principal of the Philadelr 
 2>hia High School," but "Member of the American Philosophical Society," who 
 attempts to define an intransitive verb by specifying, not what it does require, but 
 what it does not require ! 
 
 " An intransitive verb is one which does not require an objective 
 case after it!" 
 
 If we wish to define a hatter do we tell what he does not make, or what 
 he does make ? Mr. Hart's way of defining a hatter seems to be this : 
 
 A hatter is one who does not make boots ! 
 From this, Mr. Hart seems to conclude that it follows that every person who does 
 not make boots, is a hatter ! 
 
 Almost every person would instinctively define a hatter as follows : 
 
 A hatter is one who makes hats. 
 
 And surely there is no grammarian who is " member of" a philosophical society, 
 that would not define any thing whatever upon the same affirmative principles on 
 whirl) the mere child would define a hatter 1 
 
 But, if an intransitive verb is one which does not require an objective case, why is 
 Bot every passive verb intransitive t 
 
22G CLASSIOLOQY. 
 
 1. The world was created by God. 
 
 2. The child has been taught. 
 
 3. The letter had been written. 
 
 Neither was created, has been taught, nor 7iad been written, requires an objective 
 Case ; still Mr. Hart himself calls these verbs not intransitive, but passive ! 
 
 When L. Murray constructed his English grammar, the basis on which verbs 
 were subdivided, was the transitive character of the action denoted by the verb. 
 And even now, among old school grammarians in general, this character of the 
 action expressed by the verb, is the basis of the subdivision of verbs into transitive 
 and intransitive. But this character of the action is now considered by many as 
 the mere figment of the mind. Among these may be reckoned Mr. Hart who has 
 rejected this fiction for that on which he has attempted to subdivide verbs into 
 transitive and intransitive. Mr. Hart not only saw that every passive verb which 
 expresses action, signifies a transitive action ; and, that hence every such verb is as 
 much transitive as any verbs which are actually called transitive, but he saw 
 also that thousands of verbs, which are denominated transitive, express no action 
 whatever. For instance : — 
 
 1. John enjoys good health. 
 
 2. Stephen resembles his mother. 
 
 3. James has a new book. 
 
 4. The timber wants strength and solidity. 
 
 Enjoys, resembles, has, and wants are transitive. Yet not one of the four verbs 
 signifies an action of any description. 
 
 Mr. Hart has not been willing to call these verbs transitive upon the old figment 
 principle; hence he denominates them transitive upon a new figment principle. 
 
 Now, to arrest the progress of fiction in the subdivision of verbs, I have taken 
 great pains to place this subdivision upon a reality which even the mere child can 
 readily understand. And to express the distinctive character which verbs derive 
 from this reality on which they are subdivided, I employ, 
 
 Mono, Duo, Uni, and Ambi. 
 
 The several remarks in this Lesson, which fall under the general head of Obser- 
 vations, and which are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, &c, are facts in the 
 science of English grammar, of which every old school grammarian is perfectly 
 ignorant. Had Mr. Murray known these facts when he compiled his grammar, 
 he never would have subdivided verbs into active, passive, and neuter. And had 
 his pretended simplifiers known these facts, they would not have subdivided verbs 
 iuto transitive and intransitive. 
 
 The old subdivision of verbs, numerous as it is, does not make any difference 
 between a neuter verb which has a sense relation with the nominative case, and 
 one which has a sense relation with an objective case : — 
 
 1. He run. 
 
 2. James told me to run. 
 
 In both, run is a neuter verb. But, in the first, this neuter verb is connected 
 with he, the nominative : in the second, however, this neuter verb is connected 
 with me, the objective case ! To supply this deficiency in the old grammars, I use 
 uni, and ambi. 
 
 I would refer the reader to the discussion of this subject in the Appeal. Should 
 an old school grammarian, after reading what is here, and what is there said, 
 upon the use of transitive, and intransitive, decide in favour of these words, I should 
 exclaim, 
 
 " Let Ephraim alone — he is joined to his idols." 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. Upon what principle are verbs subdivided into mono, duo, 
 
 , and ambi ? 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 227 
 
 2. What is a verb ? 
 
 3. What is a mono verb ? 
 
 4. What is a duo verb ? 
 
 5. What is a uni verb ? 
 
 6. What is an ambi verb ? 
 
 7. Is the uni verb confined to the demimono ? 
 
 8. Is the ambi verb ever found in the ne-demimono ? 
 
 9. What are verbs which are always inceptive f 
 
 10. What is every inceptive verb? 
 
 11. What is every medial verb ? 
 
 12. What verbs are the only ones which can be duo ? 
 
 13. What is & final verb ? 
 
 14. What is a solo verb? * 
 
 15. If the mono has two nouns, or what is equal to two nouns, 
 what is the final or the solo verb ? 
 
 16. How many verbs can a demimono contain ? 
 
 17. What js said of have as a medial verb ? 
 
 18. What is said of have as an inceptive verb in the demimono? 
 
 19. Can there be more nouns than one in the demimono ? [No.] 
 
 20. Does the demimono ever contain a cordictive noun. [Never.] 
 
 21. What verb is fly in the following sentence ? — 
 
 John made the bird to fly. 
 
 22. Why \sfly a uni verb ? 
 
 23. What is fly in the following sentence ? — 
 
 The bird attempted to fly. 
 
 [Here fly has a sense relation with bird only ; and, as bird is 
 here a cordictive noun, fly is a mono verb.] 
 
 24. Does a mono verb ever fall into the demimono? [Yes.] 
 
 25. Does a duo verb ever fall into the demimono? 
 
 [In the following sentence, the duo verb is in the demimono : — 
 
 James is to write the letter. 
 
 [Here, write is connected with James, the cordictive noun, 
 and with letter, the uncordictive.] 
 
 26. Does the uni verb ever fall into the ne-demimono? [No.] 
 
 27. Does the ambi verb ever fall into the ne-demimono? [No.] 
 
 28. What is a demimono? [Book I. page 33.] 
 
 29. What is a ne-demimono ? [Book I. page 33.] 
 
 30. What is the first word in a demimono ? [Book I. page 34.] 
 
 31. Where unto cannot be substituted for to, what is the assem- 
 blage of words, which begins with to? [Book I. page 34.] 
 
 32. Against what is to used ? [Book I. page 33.] 
 
 33. What verb is laugh in the following sentence ? — 
 
 John was heard to laugh heartily. 
 
 34. Where is to employed to prevent a command, or a petition 9 
 [Book I. page 33.] 
 
228 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 1. Esau sold his birth right to procure pottage. 
 
 Esau is a cordictive noun. 
 
 sold is a solo duo verb. 
 
 his is a suffix adjective, from he. 
 
 birth is an application adjective. 
 
 right is an uncordictive noun. 
 
 to is an adverb. [See page 216.] 
 
 procure is a solo duo verb, having a sense relation with Esau, 
 
 and pottage, 
 
 pottage is an uncordictive noun. 
 
 2. Moses did smite the rock. 
 
 Moses is a cordictive noun. 
 
 did is an inceptive mono verb. 
 
 smite is a final duo verb. 
 
 ZAe is an adjective. 
 
 rock is an uncordictive noun. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Potiphar did persecute Joseph. 
 
 2. Israel worshipped the golden calf. 
 
 3. Moses destroyed the calf. 
 
 4. Eleazar was consecrated. 
 
 5. Jericho did fall. 
 
 6. The Israelites crossed the Jordan. 
 
 7. The Jordan was crossed. 
 
 8. Moses served Jethro. 
 
 9. Jacob's remains were transported. 
 
 10. Moses did send spies. 
 
 11. Joshua stopped the sun. 
 
 12. The moon was stopped too. 
 
 13. Eglon did oppress Israel. 
 
 14. The ark had been taken away. 
 
 15. Jabin did oppress Israel. 
 
 16. The Levites exterminated the Benjamites. 
 
 17. Gideon routed the Midianites. 
 
 18. Ruth must have followed Naomi. 
 
 19. Gideon was chosen to rescue Israel 
 
MUTOLOGY. 229 
 
 20. Cicero was banished. 
 
 21. Sylla did plunder Athens. 
 
 22. Jacob fled to escape Esau. 
 
 23. Socrates was doomed to die. 
 
 24. Rome was to be destroyed. 
 
 25. Sodom was to be destroyed. 
 
 26. God intended to destroy Gomorrah. 
 
 27. Who saw Memnon invent letters ? 
 
 28. Did you see Samson kill Philistines ? 
 
 29. Rome bade Coriolanus to leave Rome. 
 
 30. Athens commanded Aristides to leave Athens. 
 
 31. Cyrus intended to take Babylon. 
 
 32. Alexander captured Tyre. 
 
 33. Enoch was translated to prevent his death. 
 
 34. Noah prepared to meet the flood. 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 MUTOLOGY. 
 
 
 Mutology is the eighth part of Etymology, and re- 
 spects the variation of words from one form to another, the 
 translation of words from one class to another, and the 
 cJtange of words from one sense to another by means of dif- 
 ferent forms. 
 
 HOW WORDS ARE RENDERED NOUNS. 
 
 1. Words are rendered nouns by their nature; as, Moses } 
 rock f rod. 
 
 2. Words are rendered nouns by their application; as, 
 All that relates to man, is matter of progression. [All.*] 
 
 3. Words are rendered nouns by their accent ; as reb'-el, 
 con'-vict. 
 
 4. Words are rendered nouns by some new form ; as, 
 dote, dotage; free, freedom; good, goodness. 
 
 * AUa naturally an adjective. 
 20 
 
230 
 
 MUTOLOGY. 
 
 Verbs rendered Nouns. 
 
 1. Many verbs arc rendered nouns by the following 
 noun makers: 
 
 Voun makers. 
 
 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 age . . . dote 
 
 dotage 
 
 ance 
 
 
 
 repent 
 
 repentance 
 
 ancy 
 
 
 
 occupy 
 
 occupancy 
 
 ence 
 
 
 
 depend 
 
 dependence 
 
 ency 
 
 
 
 depend 
 
 dependency 
 
 ant 
 
 
 
 defend 
 
 defendant 
 
 ent 
 
 
 
 preside 
 
 president 
 
 ment 
 
 
 
 manage 
 
 management 
 
 ure 
 
 
 
 expose 
 
 exposure 
 
 ation 
 
 
 
 simplify 
 
 simplification 
 
 ion 
 
 
 
 depress 
 
 depression 
 
 ition 
 
 
 
 add 
 
 add-on 
 
 sion 
 
 
 
 admit 
 
 admission 
 
 Hon 
 
 
 
 produce 
 
 production 
 
 er 
 
 
 
 make 
 
 maker 
 
 or 
 
 
 
 create 
 
 creator 
 
 ce 
 
 
 
 defend 
 
 defence 
 
 se 
 
 
 
 expend 
 
 expanse 
 
 ship 
 
 
 
 court 
 
 courtship 
 
 ing 
 
 
 
 begin 
 
 beginning 
 
 red 
 
 
 
 hate 
 
 hatred 
 
 ture 
 
 
 
 mix 
 
 mixture 
 
 th 
 
 
 
 grow 
 
 grow^A 
 
 ist ... copy 
 
 copyis* 
 
 2. Some verbs are rendered nouns by accent merely ; a 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 con-vict' 
 
 con'vict 
 
 pre-sent r 
 
 pres / ent 
 
 re-be 
 
 1' 
 
 
 
 reb'el 
 
 Adjectives rendered Nouns. 
 
 Many adjectives are rendered nouns by the following 
 noun makers. 
 
 Noun makers, 
 dom 
 hood 
 nets 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 free 
 
 freedom 
 
 false 
 
 falsehood 
 
 good 
 
 goodness 
 
Noun makers. 
 
 
 N 
 
 OTOLOGY. 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 ity ... real 
 
 reah'fy 
 
 *y 
 
 
 
 real 
 
 realty 
 
 ship 
 
 
 
 hard 
 
 hardsAtjp 
 
 ee 
 
 
 
 fragrant 
 
 fragrance 
 
 ey 
 
 
 
 fluent 
 
 fluency 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 high 
 
 heigh* 
 
 th 
 
 
 
 strong 
 
 strengM 
 
 ard 
 
 
 
 drunk 
 
 drunkard 
 
 ist 
 
 
 
 universal 
 
 universalis* 
 
 231 
 
 The sense of Nouns, modified by different forms. 
 
 Noun modifiers. Examples of Illustration, 
 
 ade 
 
 ale 
 
 dom 
 
 head 
 
 hood 
 
 rick 
 
 ship 
 
 wick 
 
 tan 
 
 y 
 
 ery 
 
 ler 
 
 erel 
 
 kin 
 
 let 
 
 ling 
 
 ock 
 
 ist 
 
 holi 
 
 fore 
 
 man 
 
 states 
 
 trades 
 
 The pupil may acquire the import of every prefix, and affix 
 which modify the sense of words by ascertaining the meaning 
 of the words without these modifiers, and the meaning of the 
 words with the modifiers. Lemon, lemonade. 
 
 lemon 
 
 lemonade 
 
 parent 
 
 parentage 
 
 tetrarch 
 
 tetrarchate 
 
 king 
 
 kingdom 
 
 God 
 
 GodAcad 
 
 priest 
 
 priestAood 
 
 bishop 
 
 bishopry 
 
 friend 
 
 friendship 
 
 bail 
 
 hoXWwick 
 
 music 
 
 musictafi 
 
 cutler 
 
 cutlery 
 
 smith 
 
 smithery , 
 
 jewel 
 
 je welter 
 
 cock 
 
 cockerel 
 
 lamb 
 
 1 lamb&m 
 
 river 
 
 rivute* 
 
 duck 
 
 duckling 
 
 hill 
 
 hillock 
 
 machine 
 
 machinist 
 
 day 
 
 Aoftday 
 
 runner 
 
 forerunner 
 
 slaughter 
 
 raanslaught ; 
 
 man 
 
 statesman 
 
 man 
 
 tradesman 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The following noun modifiers are generally incorporated with 
 nouns — some, however, may be affixed to adjectives. But whether 
 
232 MUTOLOGY. 
 
 affixed to adjectives, or to nouns, they are employed to change 
 the application of the word from the thing which pertains to the 
 person, to the person himself : ard, ee, er, ian, ist, or, man. 
 
 Drunk, drunkard; Drunkenness, drunkard. 
 
 Bail, bailee. 
 
 Teach, teacher. 
 
 Physic, physician. 
 
 Botany, botaxml. 
 
 Act, actor; Create, creator. 
 
 Trade, tradesman. 
 
 The following noun modifiers are incorporated with nouns to 
 throw them from the person, to something which pertains to him : 
 age, ate, dize, dom, hood, rick, ry, ship, wick, y. 
 
 Patron, patronage. 
 Tetrarch, tetrarchofe. 
 Merchant, merchandise. 
 King, kingdom. 
 Priest, priesthood. 
 Bishop, bishopric^. 
 Smith, smitkery. 
 Slave, slavery. m 
 
 Steward, stewardship. 
 Bailiff, hdMiwiek. 
 Cutler, cutlery. 
 Grocer, grocery. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is mutology. \Muto, to change.] 
 
 2. In how many ways are words rendered nouns? 
 
 3. Are words ever rendered nouns by certain forms ? 
 
 4. Can you give three words which are rendered nouns by 
 their forms ? 
 
 5. Can you repeat all the noun makers which are affixed to 
 verbs, to render verbs nouns ? 
 
 6. What is dote? 
 
 7. What is dotage ? 
 
 8. What is depend? 
 
 9. Into what does ency change depend? 
 
 10. What is said of all in the foot note ? 
 
 11. Are there any verbs which are rendered nouns by mere 
 accent ? [Give some instances.] 
 
MUTOLOOY. 233 
 
 12. From what English word is copyist derived? 
 IS, From what verb is the noun, growth, made ? 
 
 14. Is the word, copy, a verb? 
 
 15. Can the verb, copy, be rendered a noun,? 
 
 1 G. By what means can you give the verb, copy, the noun charac- 
 ter? [By application; as, He wants a copy of "The Fibst Round 
 in the Ladder of Education." 
 
 17. What is convict in the following sentence? — 
 
 The jury will convict him ; and he will then be a convict. 
 
 18. By what affix is free rendered a noun? 
 
 19. What is free? 
 
 20. By what affix is the adjective, hard, rendered a noun? 
 
 21. What is the meaning of ade, age, ate, dom, head, hood, rick, 
 ship, wick, ian, y, ery, ler, erel, kin, let, ling, ock, ist, holi, fore, man, 
 states, trades? 
 
 22. What is the meaning of the word, lemon f 
 
 23. What is the meaning of lemonarfe ? 
 
 24. What is the import of the affix, ade, in lemonade f 
 
 25. What is the meaning of age, in parentage. 
 
 26. In what particular, do the words, parent, and parentage, differ 
 in meaning ? 
 
 27 What is the effect of the affix, y, in cutlery f 
 
 28. What is the meaning of kin, in lambkin ? 
 
 29. What is the import of the affix, ling, in duckling f 
 
 30. What effect is produced by the prefix, states, in statesman ? 
 
 [The teacher should drill the pupils in this way till they can 
 give the meaning of the various sense modifiers which are used in 
 this Lesson.] 
 
 LESSON XXV. 
 ADVERBS RENDERED VERBS. 
 
 Some adverbs are rendered verbs by application, without 
 any change of form ; as, 
 
 1. He went forward ; They forward goods. 
 
 2. Take off your hat ; Off with his head. 
 
 3. Get «p; Up 1 let us be off. 
 
 20* 
 
234 
 
 MUTOLOGY. 
 
 Some words are rendered verbs by incorporating the fol- 
 lowing prefix verb makers : 
 
 Verb maker. Examples of Ulustration. 
 
 en . . . dear endear 
 
 in ... form wform 
 
 trans . . . late translate 
 
 re ... mind remind 
 
 SENSE MODIFICATIONS. 
 
 Sense modification in verbs is a change which is produced 
 in the sense of the verbs by incorporating the following 
 syllables, with verbs : 
 
 Verb modifiers. 
 a 
 be 
 dis 
 for 
 fore 
 mis 
 over 
 out 
 re 
 un 
 
 under 
 up 
 with 
 
 Examples of Illustration. 
 
 VOW 
 
 avow 
 
 spread 
 
 oespread 
 
 like 
 
 dislike 
 
 bear 
 
 forbear 
 
 tell 
 
 foretell 
 
 give 
 
 wmgive 
 
 see 
 
 oversee 
 
 live 
 
 outli\e 
 
 call 
 
 recall 
 
 do 
 
 undo 
 
 went 
 
 underwent 
 
 set 
 
 upset 
 
 stand 
 
 withstand 
 
 Certain branch words are rendered Prepositions, how. 
 
 1. Certain branch words are rendered prepositions by the 
 nature of the word ; as, of, to, in, on. 
 
 2. By application in forming a mono; as, All went but 
 him; All went past the house; All came except John. 
 
 Words are rendered Adjectives, how. 
 
 1. Certain nouns are rendered adjectives by dropping the 
 noun affix; as, Freedom, free; Blackness, black; Rectom^ 
 red; Accuracy, accurate. 
 
 2. Certain nouns, certain pronouns, certain prepositions, 
 certain adverbs, and certain verbs in the tcnscless Br, and in 
 
MUTOLOOV. 
 
 235 
 
 the tciwtc8S Have and Be form, are rendered adjectives by 
 application ; as, Leather shoe, Brewster Jones, Hat case, 
 &he bear, Under officers, The above facts, The then bailiff, 
 Writing table, Written letters. 
 
 3. Certain nouns are rendered adjectives by particular 
 suffixes; as, Mode, modal; Irony, ironical; Adamant, ada- 
 mant ine; John, John's; Bliss, Bliss' ; Holiness, holiness' ; 
 He, his ; Me, my, mine; You, your, your*. 
 
 4. Certain branch words are rendered adjectives by their 
 nature; as, The book, Any person, Every man, Each girl, 
 All children. [These are absolute adjectives.] 
 
 Adjective makers, 
 id 
 ical 
 ine 
 ous 
 eons 
 ious 
 V 
 
 iy 
 
 ish 
 
 Jul 
 
 ie 
 
 tie 
 
 able 
 
 ible 
 
 an 
 
 en 
 
 ed 
 
 tome 
 
 eat 
 
 less 
 
 's 
 
 Adjective makers, 
 y, ine 
 y, ine 
 o, rs 
 is 
 s 
 s 
 
 tr, irs 
 se, sesoever 
 
 ' 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 mode 
 
 modal 
 
 irony 
 
 ironical 
 
 adamant 
 
 adamantine 
 
 mountain 
 
 mountainous 
 
 right 
 
 righteous 
 
 space 
 
 spacious 
 
 bone 
 
 bony 
 
 man 
 
 man/y 
 
 slave 
 
 slavisA 
 
 skill 
 
 skil/W 
 
 hero 
 
 heroic 
 
 infant 
 
 infants 
 
 reason 
 
 reasonaWe 
 
 convert 
 
 converts 
 
 Rome 
 
 Roman 
 
 brass 
 
 brazen 
 
 saint 
 
 sainted* 
 
 burden 
 
 burdensome 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 sun 
 
 Buuless 
 
 lady 
 
 lady's 
 
 ladies 
 
 ladies' 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 Adjective!. 
 
 me 
 
 my, mine 
 
 thou 
 
 thy, thine 
 
 us 
 
 our, ours 
 
 he 
 
 his 
 
 her 
 
 hers 
 
 it 
 
 its 
 
 they 
 
 their, theirs 
 
 who 
 
 whose, whosesoever 
 
 It will be fulmitted by all who examine the subject thoroughly, 
 
236 MUTOLOOY. 
 
 that their, and theirs are adjectives. [See the Exegesis, on these 
 words.] 
 
 SENSE MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The sense modification of an adjective, is a change pro- 
 duced in the meaning of the word by incorporating some 
 additional syllable. 
 
 jective modifiers. 
 
 Examples of 
 
 Illustration. 
 
 ish 
 
 red 
 
 reddish 
 
 dis 
 
 honourable 
 
 dishonourable 
 
 in 
 
 sensible 
 
 insensible 
 
 un 
 
 deniable 
 
 undeniable 
 
 ne . . 
 
 genedictive 
 
 negenedictive 
 
 Words are rendered Conjunctions, how. 
 
 1. Certain branch words are rendered conjunctions by the 
 nature of the word; as, because, notwithstanding, there/ore, 
 than, nathless, and, or. 
 
 2. Certain branch words are rendered conjunctions by 
 application of the word to a cordictive mono ; as, I cannot 
 return except he sends his servant ; I shall go provided it 
 does not rain ; It is a fine day- — hence we must go there. 
 
 Words are rendered Adverbs, how. 
 Words are rendered adverbs in three ways : — 
 
 1. By the nature of the word ; as, too, indeed. 
 
 2. By the application of the word in forming a mono ; 
 as, Henry behaves very iU ; He is spoken of. 
 
 3. By some change in the form of the word ; as, Accu- 
 rate, accurate^; Just, justly Way, away; Head, ahead. 
 
 I. Some adjectives are rendered adverbs by ly ; as, 
 
 Adverb makers. Examples of Illustration. 
 
 ly . . . virtuous virtuous/y 
 
 ly . . . brave braved/ 
 
 ly . . second second/y 
 

 cLASsioLoay. 237 
 
 II. Some nouns, some verbs, and some adjectives are ren- 
 dered adverbs by incorporating a as a prefix ; as, 
 
 Adverb makers. 
 
 Examples of Illustration. 
 
 noun a, ly . 
 
 side, aside, man, manly 
 
 verb a 
 
 go> «go, miss, amiss 
 
 adjective a 
 
 right, aright, wry, awry 
 
 III. Many words are rendered adverbs by their nature; 
 as, here, there, where, &c. 
 
 These are rarely removed from the adverb denomination, 
 their native place, except when they are spoken of, when 
 they are thrown into the noun denomination ; as, here is an 
 adverb. 
 
 [The teacher should put many questions to the pupil, on this 
 Lesson, which he must construct without any aid from the author. ] 
 
 LESSON XXVL 
 I. Nomination. 
 
 In grammar, nomination is the process of naming words 
 as individuals. 
 
 [They who wish to learn upon what ground I reject the word, 
 parsing, are referred to the Appeal.] 
 
 II. Appropriation. 
 
 In grammar, appropriation is the process of assigning 
 words to their respective denominations, and ectological pro- 
 perties to their respective words. 
 
 III. CONSTRUING. 
 
 Construing is the process of arranging words in a natu- 
 ral order, of naming them as individuals, of giving their 
 etiological properties, and their context significations. 
 
238 
 
 CLASSTOLOGY. 
 
 1. SPECIMEN OP NOMINATION. 
 
 [The power (of speech) is] (a faculty) ( , , peculiar) 
 (to man ;) (and , was bestowed) (on him) (by his benefi- 
 cent Creator) (for the greatest , ;) (and , , , ) 
 ( , , most excellent uses ;) (but (alas !) how often do 
 we pervert it) (to the worst , ) (of purposes.) 
 
 [The is an adjective. 
 
 power is a noun. 
 
 (of is a preposition. 
 
 speech) is a noun. 
 
 is] is a verb. 
 
 (a J 
 
 faculty) 
 
 {which 
 
 is 
 
 peculiar) 
 
 (to 
 man ;) 
 
 (and 
 it 
 
 was 
 bestowed) 
 
 (on 
 him) 
 
 {by 
 
 his 
 
 beneficent 
 Creator) 
 
 (for 
 the 
 
 greatest 
 uses ;) 
 
 (and 
 it 
 
 was 
 bestowed) 
 
 (for 
 the 
 most 
 excellent 
 uses ;) 
 
 is an adjective, 
 is a noun. 
 
 understood, is a pronoun, 
 understood, is a verb, 
 is an adjective. 
 
 is a preposition, 
 is a noun. 
 
 is a conjunction, 
 understood, is a pronoun, 
 is a verb, 
 is a verb. 
 
 is a preposition, 
 is a pronoun. 
 
 is a preposition, 
 is an adjective, 
 is an adjective, 
 is a noun. 
 
 is a preposition, 
 is an adjective, 
 is an adjective, 
 understood, is a noun. 
 
 is a conjunction, 
 understood, is a pronoun, 
 understood, is a verb, 
 understood, is a verb. 
 
 understood, is a preposition, 
 understood, is an adjective, 
 is a subadjective. 
 is an adjective, 
 is a noun. 
 

 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 (but 
 
 is a conjunction. 
 
 (alas!) 
 
 is an interjection. 
 
 how 
 often 
 do 
 
 is a subadverb. 
 is an adverb, 
 is a verb. 
 
 we 
 pervert 
 
 «0 
 
 is a pronoun, 
 is a verb, 
 is a pronoun. 
 
 (to 
 the 
 worst 
 purpose) 
 
 is a preposition, 
 is an adjective, 
 is an adjective, 
 understood, is a noun. 
 
 (of 
 purposes.) 
 
 is a preposition, 
 is a noun. 
 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 239 
 
 Nomination is intended for the mere beginner. It is a brief, 
 simple process, in which the mere tyro in analysis, may be drilled 
 to advantage. 
 
 The different ways in which the word, Nomination, may be 
 used in teaching. 
 
 1. Teacher. — " What word is in nomination t" 
 
 2. Pupil.— " Books." 
 
 3. Teacher.—" Who is the nominator?" 
 
 4. Fupil.—" John Howe." 
 
 5. Teacher. — " Has not books been nominated already ?" " r 
 
 6. Pupil. — "No, sir ; new is the only word which has been 
 in nomination." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [I am] (the man) (who commands them.) 
 
 2. [It is not] (I) (who command the men.) 
 
 3. [Who opposed the motion] (which James made ?) 
 
 TFor more Exercises in Nomination, take pages 125, 126, 127, 
 181, and 182, Book II. And should more be deemed necessary, 
 take Book L, pages 29, 30, 81, 51, 62, 63, 90, 141, 216, &c] 
 
240 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 WORDS OF DIFFERENT DENOMINATIONS MAY ENTER 
 INTO THE SAME MONO. 
 
 John, of what materials is a shoe made ? 
 
 A shoe is made of leather, or doth, and thread. 
 
 John, every thing which is made, is formed ont of certain 
 materials. Bread is made out of flour, salt, water, and yeast. 
 
 Now, as a shoe is constructed out of certain fixed mate- 
 rials, so is a mono formed out of particular kinds of words. 
 Monos are divided into 
 
 1. Trones, and 
 
 2. Clods. [Book I. p. 54.] 
 
 And clads are subdivided into 
 
 1. Cordictive, and 
 
 2. Uncordictive.* 
 
 The uncordictive clad may be composed of one noun, one 
 pronoun, one preposition, one, or more adjectives, one, or 
 more subadjectives, and one interjection. 
 
 In constructing, then, an uncordictive clad, a preposition, 
 an adjective, a subadjective, and a noun, or a pronoun, may be 
 employed. Words of these seven denominations may enter 
 into an uncordictive clad : no others can. But, although 
 words from these seven denominations may be used in form- 
 ing an uncordictive clad, yet an uncordictive clad may be 
 formed out of a noun, a pronoun, or an interjection only ; 
 as, (Sarah,) come thou to me; It is (she,) (alas!) 
 
 And there are thousands of uncordictive clads which are 
 made of a preposition and a noun, or of a preposition and 
 a pronoun; as, With books; Of me; To him. 
 
 You see, then, that an uncordictive clad may be constructed 
 wholly out of one kind of material, wholly out of two, or wholly 
 out of three, and that it never can comprise more than four 
 kinds of materials. 
 
 The Construction of an Uncordictive Clad. 
 
 1. If a preposition is used, it should commence the mono ; 
 as, Of John's brother's new book. . 
 
 * Or intojw-e-clads, and we-^o-e-clads. [See Exegesis.] 
 

 CLASSIOLOGY. 241 
 
 2. If a subadjective is employed, it should be placed im- 
 mediately before its super; as, Of John's brotner's new 
 book. 
 
 8. If adjectives are used, they should be placed between 
 the preposition, and the noun, or pronoun, and between the 
 subadjective, and the noun, or pronoun; as, Of John's 
 brother's neio book. 
 
 4. In general, the noun, or pronoun should be placed 
 last; as, Of John's brother's new book. 
 
 N. B. No verb, no adverb, no subadverb, and no conjunction 
 can enter into an uncordictive clad. 
 
 Note I. — The verb in the demimono may become the uncordictive 
 noun of the preposition, for ; as, What went ye out for to see. 
 [For to see what thing went ye out ?] 
 
 Note II. — The interjection always constitutes an uncordictive 
 dad; as, ("Alas!) for it was borrowed." 
 
 Note III. — An uncordictive clad is rarely broken : the integrity 
 of an uncordictive clad is generally perfect ; as, Of John's brother's 
 new book. 
 
 Note IV. — An uncordictive clad rarely has the plus idios. 
 
 CORDICTIVE CLAD. 
 
 The fewest kind of materials of which a cordictive clad 
 may be made, are two ; viz., a verb, and a cordictive noun, 
 or pronoun ; as, John went when (James returned.) 
 
 The greatest number of kinds of materials which can 
 enter into a cordictive clad, is seven; viz., conjunction, ad- 
 verb, subadverb, adjective, subadjective, a cordictive noun, or 
 pronoun, and an uncordictive noun, or pronoun. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. The notation of the cordictive clad is often implenary. 
 This arises from a frequent omission of the cordictive noun, 
 or pronoun, of the verb, and frequently from an omission of 
 the uncordictive noun, or pronoun. If any one of these 
 parts is omitted, the notation of the clad is implenary ; as, 
 [" There was a man] ( , *, sent) (from God.") 
 
 2. The omission of a conjunction) a subadjective, a subad- 
 21 
 
242 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 verb j an adjective, or an adverb, is rare. But even where 
 the omission of one, or more of these parts, happens, the omis- 
 sion does not, strictly speaking, render the notation of the 
 mono imphnary. 
 
 THE TRONE. 
 
 The trone, like the cordictive clad, may be wholly com- 
 posed of two kinds of words; and, like this clad, it may 
 comprise as many as seven. 
 
 1. The hinds of materials out of which trones may be con- 
 structed. 
 
 1. Conjunctions, 
 
 2. Verbs, 
 
 3. Adverbs, 
 
 4. Subadverbs, 
 
 5. Adjectives, 
 
 6. JSubadjectives, 
 
 7. Nouns, and Pronouns. 
 
 2. The fewest number of these seven kinds, two, viz. 
 
 1. A Cordictive noun, or pronoun, and 
 
 2. A Verb. 
 
 II. The hinds of materials out of which a cordictive clad 
 may be formed. 
 
 1. Conjunctions, 
 
 2. Verbs, 
 
 3. Adverbs, 
 
 4. Subadverbs, 
 
 5. Adjectives, 
 
 6. Subadjectives, 
 
 7. Nouns, and Pronouns. 
 
 Fewest number of these hinds, two, viz. 
 
 1. Cordictive nouns, or pronouns 
 
 2. Verbs. 
 
CLASSIOtf>QY t 243 
 
 III. The kinds of materials out of which the vneordictive 
 clad may he formed. 
 
 1. Prepositions, 
 
 2. Adjectives, 
 
 3. Subadjectives, 
 
 4. Vneordictive nouns, pronouns, and interjections. 
 
 Fewest hinds, one, viz., interjection, uncordictive noun, or 
 pronoun. 
 
 [The pupil should be questioned on this Lesson with great care,] 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 He that can divide a sentence into monos, subdivide the monos 
 into trone, cordictive clads, and uncordictive clads, render all the 
 implenary monos, plenary ones, and give the different sorts of verbal 
 materials of which each kind of mono may be formed, has nearly 
 accomplished the task of learning English grammar. But, he that 
 has not acquired this capacity, must acquire it, or remain ignorant 
 of this science. If any one presumes that a mere capacity to 
 analyze words as nouns and verbs, pronouns and prepositkms, adjec- 
 tints, conjunctions, and adverbs, constitutes him a grammarian, I can 
 inform him that his presumption is fallacious. Nothing but a 
 thorough knowledge of Book L will enable a person to lfcarn 
 grammar. 
 
 Note. — In the following specimens given of Nomination, Appro- 
 priation, and Construing, I have purposely omitted the giving of 
 the distinctive character of each mono. And the teacher should 
 require his pupils to read every mono, and supply this omission. 
 
 .(Immediately after reading the mono, tell whether it is a trone, 
 jx cordictive, or an uncordictive clad.) 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 £The power (of speech) is] (a faculty.) 
 
 [ The power is] is the t rone. 
 
 (a faculty) is an uncordictive clad. 
 
 Every jgentenee which is found in the specimens of Nomination, 
 Ac, should be monoized in this way before any thing is done with 
 the Exercises. 
 
244 
 
 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 II, Appropriation. 
 
 In grammar, appropriation is the process of assigning 
 words to their respective denominations } and etiological pro- 
 perties to their respective words. 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 [Absalom made Amasa] ( 
 (instead of Joab.) 
 
 captain) (of the host) 
 
 Amasa 
 
 into 
 
 the 
 captain 
 
 1. [Absalom made Amasa"] 
 
 Absalom is a cordictive trunk word of the noun denomination, 
 
 individual application, panta-theme reladiction, 
 masculin genediction, and uni numerdiction, 
 plused by s. 
 
 made is a duo, branch word of the verb denomination, 
 
 irregular passed tense form, passed tense, exerting 
 its cordictive power in aiding Absalom to form 
 the cordiction of the mono, and gnomefying with 
 Absalom, and Amasa. 
 
 [To gnomefy with, is not only to make sense 
 with, but to depend upon.] 
 Is an uncordictive trunk word of the noun denomi- 
 nation, individual application, panta-theme rela- 
 diction, masculin genediction, and uni numerdic- 
 tion, plused by s. 
 
 2. (into the captain?) 
 
 understood, is an uncordictive branch word of the 
 preposition denomination, gnomefying with cap- 
 tain. 
 
 understood, is an uncordictive branch word of the 
 adjective denomination, gnomefying with captain. 
 
 is an uncordictive trunk word of the noun denomi- 
 nation, class application, panta-theme reladiction, 
 ne-o genediction, and uni numerdiction, plused 
 by s. 
 
 3. (of the host) 
 
 of is an uncordictive branch word of the preposition de- 
 
 nomination, gnomefying with host. 
 
 the is an uncordictive branch word of the adjective de- 
 
 nomination, gnomefying with host. 
 
CLASSIOLOdY. 245 
 
 host is an uncordictive trunk word of the noun denorui- 
 
 dation, class application, panta-theme reladiction, 
 ne-o genediction, and uni nuinerdiction, plused 
 by *. [Hosts.] 
 
 4. (instead of Joab.) 
 
 instead of is an uncordictive branch word of the preposition 
 denomination, gnomefying with Joab. 
 
 Joab is an uncordictive trunk word of the noun denomina- 
 
 tion, individual application, panta-theme reladic- 
 tion, masculin genediction, and uni numerdiction, 
 plused by *. 
 
 2. [I am] (he.) 
 
 1. [lam] 
 
 1 is a cordictive trunk word of the pronoun denomina- 
 
 tion, exerting its cordictive power in aiding am 
 to form the cordiction of the mono, made synony- 
 mous with the word, Brown, by application, 
 par-e-theme reladiction, masculin genediction, and 
 uni numerdiction, plused by we. 
 
 am is a mono branch word of the verb denomination, of 
 
 the irregular passed tense form, present tense, exert- 
 ing its cordictive power in aiding 7, with which it 
 gnomefies, to form the cordiction of the mono. 
 
 2. (he.) 
 
 he is a cordictive trunk word of the pronoun denomina- 
 
 tion, surrendering its cordictive power, made 
 synonymous with the word, agent, supposed, or 
 presumed, panta-theme reladiction, masculin gene- 
 diction, and uni numerdiction, plused by they.* 
 
 * That he has cordictive power, is obvious from the consideration, that this pro- 
 noun generally exerts cordictive power. In the following, he aids writes in form- 
 ing the affirmation, the cordiction of the mono : 
 
 He writes slowly, and exact. 
 
 But, where he, or any other pronoun whose form indicates the possession of cor- 
 diclive power, falls into the predicate mono, it does not exert this power. 
 
 All the pronouns which indicate the possession of cordictive power by their very 
 farms, may be found in this mono. [/, we, they, &c] But the pronouns whose 
 forms indicate a want of the cordictive power, never fall into the predicate mono. 
 [3f«, us, them, Ac.] 
 
 As the uncordictive forms can never be used unless there is a verb, or a preposi- 
 tion in the mono, these forms are not found in the predicate mono. 
 
 21* 
 
246 CLASSIOLOOY. 
 
 3. [We are] (the boys.) 
 
 1:. [ We are] 
 
 We is a cordictive trunk word of the pronoun denomina- 
 
 tion, rendered synonymous with our names by 
 application, par-e-theme reladiction, masculin 
 genediction, and plus numerdiction, unified by I. 
 
 are is a mono, branch word of the verb denomination, 
 
 irregular passed tense form, present tense, exert- 
 ing its cordictive power in aiding we, with which 
 it gnomefies, to form the cordiction of the mono. 
 
 2. (the boys.*) 
 
 the is an uncordictive branch word of the adjective de- 
 
 nomination, gnomefying with boys. • 
 
 boys i& an uncordictive trunk word of the noun denomina- 
 
 tion, class application, panta-theme reladiction, 
 masculin genediction, and plus numerdiction, 
 plused by s. 
 
 III. Construing. 
 
 Construing is the process of arranging words in a natu- 
 ral order, of naming them as individuals, of giving their 
 ectohgical properties, and their context significations. 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 1. [Absalom made Amasa] ( , , captain) (of the 
 host) (instead of Joab.) 
 
 [Absalom made Amasa"] 
 
 Absalom is a cordictive noun which aids made in forming 
 
 the cordiction of the mono, and signifies here, a 
 man who had more, or less authority over the 
 host, of the individual application, panta-theme 
 reladiction, masculin genediction, and uni numer- 
 diction, plused by s. [The two Absaloms.] 
 
 made is a duo verb which aids Absalom in forming the 
 
 cordiction of the mono, signifies here, the act of 
 constituting Amasa the captain of the host, 
 of the irregular passed tense form, passed tense, 
 and gnomefies with Absalom, and Amasa. [Give 
 the triflection of made.~\ 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 247 
 
 Amasa is an uncordictive noun "which signifies here, the 
 
 person whom Absalom made the captain of the 
 host, of the individual application, panta-theme 
 reladiction, masculin genediction, and uni numer- 
 diction, plused by s. [Three Amasa*.] 
 
 2-( 
 
 captain) 
 
 > f 
 
 into understood, is a preposition which expresses here, 
 
 where the captain was in respect to Joab, and 
 gnomefies with the noun, captain. » 
 
 the understood, is an adjective which indicates here, 
 
 that the captain meant, is distinguished from 
 all other captains by the circumstance that he 
 was over the host. [Page 93, clause 12.] 
 
 captain is an uncordictive noun which signifies here, a chief 
 
 military officer, of the class application, panta- 
 theme reladiction, masculin genediction, and uni 
 numerdiction, plused by «. [Captain*.] 
 
 [of the 7iost) 
 
 of is a preposition which expresses here, that the host 
 
 was the source whence the captaincy of Amasa 
 was derived. [Book III. page 180.] 
 
 [He that desires to understand of, cannot be 
 gratified unless he gives close attention to 
 its curious, though interesting character.] 
 
 the is an adjective which expresses here, that the host 
 
 meant, is distinguished from all other hosts by 
 the distinctive implied circumstance, that it 
 was composed of the children of Israel. [Page 
 93, clause 12.] 
 
 host is an uncordictive noun which means here, an army, 
 
 or a great number of men assembled for war, 
 of the class application, panta-theme reladiction, 
 ne-o genediction, and uni numerdiction, plused 
 by*. [Host*.]* 
 
 4. (instead of Joab.) 
 
 instead of is a preposition which expresses here, where Amasa 
 was in respect to Joab. 
 
 * The hogt was very likely composed entirely of men : but it docs not follow 
 because a pie is made of ox beef, that it is amain pie. So it does not follow, because 
 a host is made of men, that it is a masculin host The men are the mere materutli 
 of which the hogt is made. 
 
248 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 [Amasa was in the place of Joab — in stead 
 of — in the place of.] 
 
 Joab is an uncordictive noun which means here, the pre- 
 
 decessor of Amasa, of the individual application, 
 panta-theme reladiction, masculin genediction, and 
 uni numerdiction, plused by s. [The two Joabs. ] 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 In construing the preceding sentence, I have endeavoured 
 to notice nothing which is not clearly embraced in the defi- 
 nition of construing i 
 
 " Absalom made Amasa captain of the host instead of 
 Joab/' 
 
 Absalom, a cordictive noun which aids made in forming the 
 cordiction of the sentence, and signifies here, a 
 man who had more, or less authority over the 
 host. 
 
 The following part of the analysis, is designed to give the 
 context import of the noun, Absalom : 
 
 "And signifies here, a man who had more, or less authority 
 over the host." 
 
 This fact belongs to the process of construing , for it is 
 derived from the context. 
 
 " But," says the pupil, " the same fact may be derived 
 from history." 
 
 If it is derived from the context, it falls under the idea of 
 construing. But, if it is derived from history only, it is 
 matter of which construing can take no notice. 
 
 Absalom, a cordictive noun which aids made in forming the 
 
 cordiction of the sentence, and, as here used, 
 means a man who was a son of David, and who 
 had more, or less influence over the host of 
 Israel. 
 
 * Who was a son of David" is not derived from the con- 
 text of the sentence in which the noun, Absalom, is used — 
 that Absalom was a son of David, is true. But, as this fact 
 is not developed in the assemblage of words under consider- 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 24* 
 
 ation, construing has nothing to do with it. Any historical 
 facte which are developed by the mere context of a sentence, 
 are legitimate construing matter. 
 
 2. The kind host gave us his personal attention. 
 
 Host, a cordictive noun which aids gave in forming the 
 
 cordiction of the sentence, and, as used here, 
 means an innkeeper. 
 
 3. The landlord called his host to see me. 
 
 Host, an uncordictive noun which, as here used, means 
 
 one who is entertained at the house of another 
 for a reward. 
 
 4. He became a 7wst for the sins of man. 
 
 Host, an uncordictive noun which, as here used, means a 
 
 victim, or sacrifice. 
 
 5. The priest shows the people Christ in the circular host. 
 
 Host, an uncordictive noun which, as here used, means 
 
 the consecrated wafer which-, the Catholics say, is 
 the real body of Christ. 
 
 G. They should make him rise early. 
 
 should is an inceptive, mono verb, exerting its four verb 
 
 powers — its cordictive in aiding they to form the 
 cordiction of the sentence ; its significant in ex- 
 pressing duty; its ascribing in attributing the 
 duty of doing the act expressed by make to them; 
 and its time-expressing power in marking the 
 present tense, gnomefying with they. 
 
 make is a final, duo verb, surrendering its cordictive, its 
 
 ascribing, and time-expressing power ; but exert- 
 ing its significant in expressing the act of com- 
 pelling him to rise early, gnomefying with they, 
 and him. 
 
 7. [Good farmers make hay while] (the sun shines.) 
 
 make is a duo, solo verb, exerting its four verb powers — 
 
 its cordictive in aiding farmers to form the cor- 
 diction of the mono ; its significant in expressing 
 the process of curing hay ; its ascribing in attribut- 
 ing the act of curing to the farmers ; and its time- 
 expressing power in marking the time of this 
 event, gnomefying with farmers, and hay. 
 
KQ 
 
 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 8. Absalom made Amasa. captain. , 
 
 made is a duo, solo verb, exerting its four verb powers — 
 
 its cordictive in aiding Absalom to form the cor- 
 diction of the mono ; its significant in expressing 
 the act of constituting Amasa the captain ; its 
 ascribing in attributing the making of Amasa 
 into the captain of the host to Absalom ; and its 
 time-expressing power in marking the passed tense, 
 gnomefying with Absalom, and Amasa. 
 
 9. They will have been made good, &c. 
 
 will is an inceptive, mono verb, exerting three of the 
 
 verb powers only — its cordictive in aiding they to 
 form the cordiction of the mono ; its significant 
 in expressing the prediction that the act of mak- 
 ing them good, will happen ; and its time-express- 
 ing power in marking the future tense, gnomefy- 
 ing with they. 
 
 have is a medial, mono verb, surrendering its cordictive, 
 
 its significant, and its ascribing power ; but ex- 
 erting its time-expressing power in suggesting the 
 fact that the future time marked by will, will 
 have passed off before another future time, 
 which is implied from the nature of the case. 
 
 been is a medial, mono verb, surrendering its cordictive, 
 
 its significant, and its time-expressing power ; but 
 exerting its ascribing power in attributing the 
 act of being made good to them. 
 
 made is a final, mono verb, surrendering its cordictive, its 
 
 ascribing, and its time-expressing power ; but ex- 
 erting its significant power in expressing the pro- 
 cess of producing a moral reformation in them. 
 
 10. They slwuld extend these lines. 
 
 should is an inceptive, mono verb, exerting its four verb 
 
 powers — its cordictive in aiding they to form the 
 cordiction of the mono ; its significant in express- 
 ing the duty of them to extend these lines ; its 
 ascribing in attributing this duty to them ; and 
 its time-expressing power in marking the present 
 tense, gnomefying with they. 
 
 extend is a final, duo verb, surrendering its cordictive, its 
 
 ascribing, and its time-expressing power ; but ex- 
 erting its significant power in expressing the act 
 N of continuing the lines, gnomefying with they, 
 
 ' , and lines. 
 

 CLASSIOLOGY. 251 
 
 11. If these men were under me, they should extend these 
 plates by hammering them. 
 
 should is an inceptive, mono verb, surrendering its ascribing 
 
 power, but exerting its cordictive in aiding they 
 to form the cordiction of the mono, its significant 
 in expressing my determination to compel them 
 to extend the plates by hammering them, and 
 its time-expressing power in marking^resen* tense, 
 gnomefying with they. 
 
 extend is a final, duo verb, surrendering its cordictive, its 
 
 ascribing, and its time-expressing power ; but ex- 
 erting its significant in expressing the process 
 of widening the plates by hammering them, gno- 
 mefying with they, and plates. 
 
 12. He should extend the hand of friendship even to his 
 enemies. 
 
 should is an inceptive, mono verb, exerting the four verb 
 
 powers — its cordictive in aiding he to form the 
 cordiction of the mono ; its significant in express- 
 ing the duty of him to extend a friendly hand 
 even to his enemies ; its ascribing in attributing 
 this duty to him ; and its time-expressing power 
 in marking the present tense, gnomefying with 
 he. 
 
 extend is. a final, duo verb, surrendering its cordictive, 
 
 ascribing, and time-expressing power ; but exerting 
 its significant in expressing the act of giving a 
 friendly hand even to enemies, gnomefying with 
 he and hand. 
 
 13. They wish to extend the time of payment. 
 
 trish is a duo, solo verb exerting the four verb powers — 
 
 its cordictive in aiding they to form the cordiction 
 of the mono ; its significant in expressing their 
 desire to extend the time of payment ; its ascrib- 
 ing in attributing this desire to them ; and its 
 time-expressing power in marking the present 
 tense, gnomefying with they, and the demimono 
 which is here rendered a noun by application. 
 to extend the time is a demimono which is here rendered an uncordic- 
 tive noun by application, individual application, 
 panta-theme reladiction, ne-ro genediction, and uni 
 numerdiction. 
 
 extend is a final, duo verb, surrendering its cordictive, and 
 
 its ascribing power ; but exerting its significant 
 in expressing the act of prolonging the time of 
 
252 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 payment ; and its time-expressing power in mark- 
 ing the present tense, gnomefying with they, and 
 time. 
 
 14. He extended mercy before the king. — Ezra vii. 
 extended is a solo, duo verb, exerting the four verb powers — 
 
 its cordictive in aiding he to form the cordiction 
 of the mono ; its ascribing in attributing to God 
 the act of extending mercy ; its significant in ex- 
 pressing the act of bestowing mercy on Ezra before 
 the king ; and its time-expressing power in mark- 
 ing the passed tense, gnomefying with he, and 
 mercy. 
 
 15. I will extend peace to her like a river.— Isaiah lxvi. 
 
 will is an inceptive, mono verb, surrendering its ascrib- 
 
 ing power ; but exerting its cordictive in aiding / 
 to form the cordiction of the mono ; its signi- 
 ficant in expressing a promise to send peace to 
 her like a river ; and its time-expressing power in 
 marking the future tense, gnomefying with /. 
 
 extend is a final, duo verb, surrendering its cordictive, 
 
 ascribing, and time-expressing, power ; but exert- 
 ing its significant in expressing the act of impart- 
 ing, giving, or affording, peace to her, gnomefying 
 with 7", and peace. 
 
 16. Shall I send you a piece of the pie? 
 
 Shall J is an inceptive, mono verb, surrendering its ascrib- 
 
 ing power ; but exerting its, cordictive in aiding 
 i" to form the cordiction of the mono ; its 
 significant in alluding to the wish, inclination, or 
 desire of the pros-o-theme in relation to my send- 
 ing him a piece of the pie, gnomefying with /. 
 
 send is a final, duo verb, surrendering its cordictive, 
 
 ascribing, and tense power ; but exerting its sig- 
 nificant in expressing the act of my conveying 
 to the pros-o-theme a piece of the pie. 
 
 EXERCISES IN NOMINATION, APPROPRIATION, AND CONSTRU- 
 ING. 
 
 Let the pupil supply every noeton* as he reads his mono. 
 
 [The power (of speech) is] (a faculty) ( , , 
 
 peculiar) (to man ;) (and , was bestowed) (on him) (by 
 
 * A Noeton is the word which is understood; as, Thoit, in Go , to school. 
 
CLASSIOLOGY. 263 
 
 his beneficent Creator) (for the greatest , ;) (and 
 , , , ) ( , , most excellent uses ;) 
 (but (alas !) how often do we pervert it) (to the worst , ) 
 (of purposes !) 
 
 2. 
 
 [The rapid extension (of the Christian religion,) (through 
 the principal nations) (of the world,) may be considered] 
 (as a direct proof) (of the reality) (of the miracles) (of our 
 Saviour;) (and , , , , )(,,,,) 
 (of the miraculous powers) (with which) (the apostles 
 ( , themselves) were endowed.) 
 
 3. 
 
 [The most powerful motives call] (on us) (for those 
 efforts) (which our common country demands) (of all her 
 children.) 
 
 4. 
 [The eyes (of a fool) are] (in the ends) (of the earth.) 
 
 5. 
 
 (In the beginning) [was the word f\ (and the word was) 
 (with God j) (and the word was) (Grod.) 
 
 6. 
 
 [A certain man planted a vineyard,] (and , set a 
 hedge) (about it,) (and , digged a place) (for the 
 
 wine vat,) (and , built a tower,) (and , let 
 
 it out) (to husbandmen,) (and , went) (into a far 
 
 country.) 
 
 7. J 
 
 [Nature has so exquisitely modelled the human features] 
 ( , , , ) (that) (they are capable) (of the 
 expression) (of the most secret emotions) (of the soul.) 
 
 8. 
 
 [Now, when (he had ended all his sayings) (in the audi- 
 ence) (of the people,) he entered] (into Capernaum.) 
 
 22 
 
254 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 9. 
 r [And a certain centurion's servant (who was dear) (unto 
 him,) was sick,] (and , , ready to d}e.) 
 
 10. 
 
 ( Verily, verily, [I say] (unto you) he (that entereth not) 
 (by the door,) (into the sheepfold,) (but , climbeth 
 up) ( , some other way,) ( , , ) (the 
 
 same , ) is) (a thief,) (and , 7 ) (a 
 
 robber.) 
 
 11. 
 
 [Grive , ( , me) such , ] (as I 
 
 purchased ;) (and , , as much 7 ) (as I 
 
 purchased;) {and I shall be satisfied.) 
 
 12. 
 
 [Do , the work] (in such a manner) (as will please 
 him ;) (and he will give ( , you) as many dollars) (as 
 will pay you well) (for your trouble.) 
 
 13. c . 
 [Such , (as I have,) I will give] (unto thee.) 
 [No such thing was ever declared] (as he seems to recol- 
 lect.) 
 
 14. 
 ( , Much) (as man desires) [a little will answer.] 
 [As (Jesus passed by,) he saw a man] (that was blind) 
 (from his birth.) 
 
 15. 
 [As long (as I am) (in the world,) I am] (the light) (of tho 
 world.) 
 
 16. 
 [He was good] (as well as , , rich.) 
 
 17. 
 [They came] (as pupils) (to my school.) 
 
 18. 
 [I must not use another's book when] (I have one) (of my 
 own.)* 
 
 * "Own," is here made a noun by application. 
 
classiologt. 255 
 
 19. 
 [They accommodate one another daily.] 
 
 20. 
 [Give , ( , James) another apple.] 
 
 21. 
 [The interest (of another , ) is not as dear] (to me) 
 (as my own , , .) j 
 
 22. 
 [I claim this One] (for my own , ) — (but another 
 , claims it) (as another's , ,) 
 
 23. 
 [This day suits my interest ;] (another , may suit 
 another's ; better) (than this , , , , .) 
 
 24. 
 [Any interest (except my own , ) is another's , .] 
 
 25. 
 [The boy was called] ( , , , )( , John.) 
 
 26. 
 [The army is ( , f , ) ( , ten 
 
 thousand men) strong.] 
 
 27. ' 
 H have some recollection] ( , that) (his father was) 
 (a judge.) 
 
 28. 
 
 [The wall is ( 
 liigh.] 
 
 29. 
 
 ) ( , six feet) 
 
 [The board is ( 
 thick.] 
 
 » *. > 
 
 ) ( , an inch) 
 
 30. 
 
 
 [This boy is ( 
 old.] 
 
 > y t 
 
 ) ( , ten years) 
 
 31. 
 
 ' 
 
 [He counted his 
 man) (by man.) 
 
 army J ( , 
 
 > , ♦ )( , 
 
256 CLASSIOLOGY. 
 
 32. 
 [Henry rode] ( , , , ) ( , day) 
 
 (after day.) 
 
 33. 
 [They stood] ( , , , ) ( , one 
 
 , ) (by another , .) 
 
 34. 
 
 [The children were arranged] ( , , , ) 
 
 ( , one , ) (after another , .) 
 
 [For more Exercises, take Book T. ; pages 51, 52, 96 ; 
 Book II., pages 138, 181.] 
 [See the Exegesis.] 
 
SYNTAX. 257 
 
 PART III. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax respects the principles on which sen- 
 tences are formed from words. 
 Or, Syntax respects 
 
 1. The form, the position, and the suitableness of one 
 word in regard to another. 
 
 2. The position, and form of one mono in respect to 
 another. 
 
 8. The agreement of certain words in etiological pro- 
 perties. 
 
 4. The plenary, and implenary notation of monos, and 
 sentences. 
 
 5. What particular words should be employed. 
 
 6. The state of syllabanes which are rendered nouns by 
 application. 
 
 7. The repetition, and the non'repetition of words. 
 
 8. The legitimate forms of words. 
 
 9. Ascription of attributes to their own subjects. 
 
 10. The throwing of things into different classes by the 
 omission of other, and the retaining of things in the same 
 class by the use of other. 
 
 11. The contrasting of one object with another upon tlje 
 principle of a difference in time, or in space. 
 
 12. The including of the whole, or a mere part of the 
 class of things. 
 
 13. The prevention of the generic application of certain 
 clan nouns. 
 
 22* 
 
258 SYNTAX. 
 
 14. The unity, or the kind of what is named. 
 
 15. Notoriety ■, or a want of notoriety — or a known, or an 
 unknown, state of objects. 
 
 16. The restriction of certain nouns. 
 
 17. Force, perspicuity, euphony, and continuity. 
 
 18. The number of negatives which may be used in one 
 mono. 
 
 19. The prior mentioning of objects, and the individuality 
 of objects. 
 
 20. Sameness in cordictive theme, and in uncordictive 
 theme. 
 
 RULES RESPECTING THE FORMS OP WORDS. 
 
 Rule I. 
 
 The medial, or the final verb which follows a 
 verb that is uniformly inceptive, should have its 
 primitive form ; as, He can write. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule I. 
 
 1. He can writes letters. 
 
 The s inflection of write, is a violation of Rule I. 
 Rule * ; as, He can write letters. 
 
 2. Thou canst not went. 
 The use of went for go, is a violation of Rule I. 
 Rule , * ; as, Thou canst not go. 
 
 The pupil should be made to correct exactly according to the 
 Specimens. "Where the violation lies in the inflection of the verb, 
 he should be made to correct by the first specimen ; as, He can 
 understand*. 
 
 But where the violation lies in the use of one entire verb for 
 another verb, he should correct by the second specimen ; as, He 
 can is a good boy. 
 
 (The use of is for be is a violation of Rule I.) 
 
 * Here give the Rule. 
 
SYNTAX. ' - 259 
 
 Directions. — In the following Exercises, the violations 
 of the Rules, lie in the trones, and cordictive clads — hence 
 the pupil should give no attention to uncordictive clads. 
 
 Dispose of the trones first, in all instances. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 They can are] (good boys.) 
 . [This boy must is] (a good boy.) 
 . [Thou wilt art] (a dull pupil.) 
 Could he is] (a fine child ?) 
 He might studies too hard.] 
 Thou shouldst keeps quiet.] 
 Jacob will falls.] 
 I may went.] 
 
 Note I. 
 
 The final verb of do and did, should have its primitive 
 form; as, They do write; They did write. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Note I. under Rule I. 
 
 1. I do writes. 
 The * inflection of write, is a violation of Note I. 
 Note ; as, I do write. 
 
 2. [I did went] (last week.) 
 The use of went for go, is a violation of Note I. 
 Note ; as, I did go last week. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. James did fell. 
 
 2. Does he likes fruit? 
 
 3. Harriet did wrote ? 
 
 4. Thou didst went. 
 
 6. Thou didst came in. 
 
 6. She does speaks correctly. 
 
 7. Thou didst goest out. 
 
 8. Whom did they sent? 
 
 Can do, and did, ever be used with be, or any of be' 8 substitutes ? 
 Did cannot — and do cannot except in a kind of petition, where it 
 may be used with be only ; as, John, do be a good boy. 
 
260 SYNTAX. 
 
 Rule II. 
 
 When the cordiction is a mere command, or 
 a mere petition, the verb should have its primi- 
 tive form ; as, Be thou here in time ; Go thou 
 to school; Come ye home; Forgive thou our 
 sins. 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 There may be a command with an affirmation; as, Thou shalt 
 not steal. And there may be a petition with an interrogation; as, 
 Will you lend me your knife ? 
 
 Specimen of Correcting under Rule II. 
 
 1. Loves your enemies. 
 
 The * inflection of love, is a violation of Rule II. 
 Rule ; as, Love your enemies. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [Writes, these copies accurately,] (John.) 
 
 2. 
 
 Comes in,] (sir.) 
 Forgives thou our sins.] 
 4. [Has thou mercy] (upon us.) 
 
 ^Goes to the well] (and brings , some water.) 
 Blesses them] (that persecute you.) 
 
 Rule III. 
 
 Have, through all its variations, gives the 
 following verb the tenseless Have and Be form, 
 or some inflection which is substituted for this 
 form ; as, Have written, not wrote ; Must have 
 flown, not flew ; Hath fallen, not fell; Hath 
 drunk, not drank. 
 
SYNTAX. 261 
 
 Note. — Hide has the IFave and Be form — still hid is frequently 
 flubstituted for this form. Have hidden. This is the case with 
 several other verbs. 
 
 Specimen of correcting under Rule III. 
 1. I have did it. 
 The want of the Have and Reform of do, is a violation of Rule III. 
 Rule ; as, I have done it. 
 
 2. The boiler had bursts. 
 The want of the primitive state of burst, is a violation of Rule III. 
 Rule ; as, The boiler had burst. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He has wrote his copy. 
 
 2. I would have wrote a letter. 
 
 3. He has drank. 
 
 4. I have came. 
 
 5. I had did it. < » , 
 
 6. The birds have flew. 
 
 7. He had mistook his true interest. 
 
 8. He has wove the web. 
 
 9. [His vices have weakened his mind] (and broke his consti- 
 tution.) 
 
 10. [He has took the gun] (with him.) 
 
 11. [Joseph has fell] (down stairs.) 
 
 12. [The court has Went] (into an examination.) 
 
 13. They have invite her home. 
 
 Rule IV. 
 
 Be, through all its variations, gives the fol- 
 lowing verb the tenseless Be, or the tenseless 
 Have and Be form, or some form which is 
 substituted for the Have and Be form; as, Is 
 written, (not wrote;) Is writing, (not write.) 
 
 The variations of Be, are am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, been, 
 and being. <p 
 
 Note. — Be never gives the tenseless Have and Be form to be. 
 We do not say — I must be been ; I am being ; I am been. 
 
262 SYNTAX. 
 
 SpeciTnen of Correcting hi/ Uule IV. 
 
 1. The hat was took. 
 
 The want of the tenseless Have and Be form, of take, is a viola- 
 tion of Rule IV. 
 Rule ; as, The hat was taken. 
 
 2. He was laugh heartily. 
 
 The want of the tenseless Be form of laugh is a violation of 
 Rule IV. 
 
 Rule ; as, He was laughing heartily. 
 
 3. The work was well execute. 
 
 The want of the passed tense form of execute, is a violation of 
 Rule IV.* 
 Rule ; as, The work was well execute. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. It was drank. 
 
 2. [His resolution was too strong to be shook] (by opposition.) 
 
 3. The horse was stole. 
 
 4. The Rhine was froze over. 
 
 5. [She was invite] (into the drawing room.) 
 
 6. [Some fell] (by the way side,) (and was. trod down.) 
 
 7. The work was very well execute. 
 
 8. It has been did. 
 
 9. [The French language is spoke] (in many countries.) • 
 
 10. He was then breathe easily. 
 
 11. The water was run rapidly. 
 
 KULE V. 
 
 The uni cordictive pronoun of the par-e-theme 
 reladiction substitutes am for he in the present, 
 and was for am in the passed tense ; as, I am ; I 
 tvas ; He saw me who am his friend. 
 
 Who is synonymous with me — hence who is uni, and par-e-themic. 
 * The passed tense form is here the Have and Be form. 
 
SYNTAX. 263 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule V. 
 1. [I be] (in good health.) 
 The use of be for am, is a violation of Rule V. 
 Rule ; as, [I am] (in good health.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. I is sick. 
 
 2. [I are] (his friend.) 
 
 8. 'I is} (the man) (who is) (thy commander.) 
 
 4. I (that were there) is now to declaim.] 
 
 5. 'I (who art bad) must repent.] 
 
 6. [I (that are friendly) (to all) are glad to see thee.] 
 
 Rule VJ. 
 
 If there is neither a command, nor a petition, 
 the uni cordidive pronoun of the pros-o-theme re- 
 ladiction, substitutes art for be in the present, 
 and toast for art in the passed tense : as, Thou 
 art ; Thou wast ; He saw thee who art here. 
 
 Who is synonymous with thee — hence it is uni, and proe-o-ihemic. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule VI. 
 1. [Thou be] (a good boy.) 
 
 The use of be for art is a violation of Rule VI. 
 Rule ; as, [Thou art] (a good boy.) 
 
 J EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Thou is not sick. 
 
 2. [Thou is] (my friend.) 
 
 3. Thou surely am well. 
 
 4. [Is thou not] (his son ?) 
 
 5. [Thou could be employed] (if thou was sober.) 
 
 6. [Was thou] (at church) ( , last Sabbath ?) 
 
 7. Is thou reading,] (Charles ?) 
 
 8. [Why am thou not] (a philosopher ?) 
 
 9. [He saw thee] (who are fishing.) 
 
 10. [Thou (who are skilful) am able to heal the sick.] 
 
 11. [I went] (with thee) (who are ignorant) (of the way.) 
 
264 SYNTAX. 
 
 Rule VII. 
 
 The uni cordictive noun of the panta-theme 
 reladiction, substitutes is for art, in the present, 
 and was for wast in the passed tense ; as, She 
 is; She was; I saw him who was here last 
 evening. 
 
 Who is synonymous with him — hence it is uni, and panta-themic. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting oy Rule VII. 
 1. [He are] (with you.) 
 
 The use of are for is, is a violation of Rule VII. 
 
 R ULE • as, [He is] (with you.) - . 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 He am] (with John.) 
 
 She are] (his sister. 
 'This book (which I have) are old.] 
 "The pen (and the knife , "-j ) are new.] 
 'Life (and death ,)( , , >)(>»>) are] (in 
 the power) (of the tongue.) 
 
 6. [Every plant ,>](>>»)(> every flower 
 ,,)(,,,) (and every drop (of water) are replete) 
 
 (with living creatures.) 
 
 7. [This is] (the man) (who were so sick.) 
 
 8. = Get such a book] (as are suitable) (for the Child.) 
 
 9. [Get the book] (that are well bound.) 
 
 10. 'Either the boy, (or the girl) were present.] 
 
 11. I (and he) are.] See the Exegesis. 
 
 12. 'Death are] (the wages) (of sin.) 
 
 13. The court are agreed. See the Exegesis. 
 
 14. One jury are dismissed. 
 
 15. (From this rule) [there are a number] (of exceptions.) — 
 Peter Bullions' English Grammar, page 139. 
 
 16. And not only are the mass (of the people) ignorant of Eng- 
 lish grammar, &c. — H. A. Pile's English Grammar. 
 
 17. (If he were) (a good boy) [ ,,,,•] 
 
 18. [Your hand are small] (but mine are large.) See the Exjs 
 
 GE8IS. 
 
 
SYNTAX. 265 
 
 Rule VIII. 
 
 If there is neither a command, nor a petition, 
 the cordictive plus noun, or pronoun, requires 
 are in the present, and were in the passed tense ; 
 as, We are, you are, they are; We were, you 
 were, they were. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule VIII. 
 
 1. We w well pleased. 
 
 The use of is for are, is a violation of Rule VIII. 
 Rulb ; a s, We are well pleased. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. We was sleeping. 
 
 2. They is running. 
 
 3. Is they all well ? 
 
 4. [Was they] (at home ?) 
 
 5. 'They was] (in the city.) 
 
 6. [They be] (fine apples.) 
 
 7. These is] (the men) (who was) (with you) ( , yesterday.) 
 
 8. The gentlemen art satisfied;] (and the ladies is pleased.) 
 
 9. The boys (who was here) am] (in school.) 
 
 10. Give (me) such apples] (as is saleable.) 
 
 11. [All the congregations (in town) is small.] 
 
 Rule IX. 
 
 The uni cordictive pronoun of the par-e- 
 theme reladiction, cuts off the reladictive in- 
 flection from every inceptive, and from every 
 solo verb ; as, I can go ; I write ; I wrote ; I 
 have written ; It is / who laugh, (Not I cans 
 go; I writes; I wrotestf; I has written; who 
 laughs.) 
 
 23 
 
266 SYNTAX. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule IX. 
 
 1. I writes letters. 
 
 The s inflection of write, is a violation of Rule IX. 
 Rule — — — — ; as, I write letters. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. I wrotest letters. 
 
 2. I thinketh so. 
 
 3. I believes it. 
 
 4. I runs very fast. 
 
 Says I] (he will not come.) 
 
 . were *rell pleased. 
 
 7. [The boy saw me] (who were then) (his protector.) 
 
 8. 1 (who teaches thee) wilt go] (with- you) (to church.) 
 
 9. [He , ] ( , thou , ) (and I writes.) 
 
 10. [Thinks I] (to myself.) 
 
 11. [Says I] (he is very sick.) 
 
 KULE X. 
 
 If there is neither a command, nor a 'peti- 
 tion, the uni cordidive pronoun of the pros-o- 
 theme reladiction, gives the t, or st inflection to 
 every inceptive, and solo verb which can take 
 these inflections ; as, Thou canstf write ; Thou 
 writer ; Thou wrotest ; Thou hastf written; 
 It is thou who laughs. 
 
 Must cannot take either of these inflections. We cannot say, 
 Thou muster write. 
 
 Wast is not a substitute for was — for the t inflection is a mere 
 variation of was, which is produced by the reladiction of thou. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule X. 
 
 1. Thou wrote too soon. 
 
 The want of the st inflection of wrote, is a violation of Rule X, 
 Rule ; as, Thou wrotestf too soon. 
 
SYNTAX. 267 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Thou smiles. 
 
 2. Thou runs. 
 
 3. Thou cans walk. 
 
 4. Thou loved thy son too little. 
 6. Thou did not see him. 
 
 Thou has a fine book,] (Stephen.) 
 
 The child saw thee] (who loves it.) 
 
 Thou (that reads orations) can declaim.] 
 
 I , ] ( , he , ) ( , and thou laugh.) 
 
 If thou do not think more) [thou will never learn.) 
 
 Rule XI. 
 
 The uni cordictive noun, or pronoun of the panta- 
 theme reladiction, gives the s, es, or th inflection, 
 in the present, and in the represent tense, to every 
 inceptive and to every solo verb which can take 
 these inflections ; as, Henry has a book ; John 
 ha* written a book; Nathaniel binds books; 
 The jury has agreed; The meeting h&th dis- 
 persed ; A meeting of your friends has been 
 called ; The court decides. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy Rule XL 
 1- £He«mtf«](to his friend) (every week.) 
 
 The want of the * inflection of twite, is a violation of Rule XI. 
 Kile => •; as, [He writes] (to his friend,) &c. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. James write letters. 
 
 2. f Stephen walk] (with me.) 
 
 3. It rain quite fast. 
 
 4. She sing sweetly. 
 
 5- The apple taste sweet. 
 
 6. The grass grow high. 
 
 7. [The number amount] (to seven hundred.) 
 
268 SYNTAX. 
 
 8. [I , , ] (and thou , , ) (and he write letters.) 
 
 9. (If Jason come) (forme) [I will go] (with him.) 
 
 Note. — Every noun denoting an assemblage, or collective body, 
 is uni, until it is plused by a plumedium ; as, Jury, juries; Court, 
 courts; Meeting, meetings. 
 
 We cannot say, three court, two jury, seven meeting, these com- 
 mittee. Hence we should not say, the jury are, the court have, the 
 meeting were addressed. 
 
 If these collective nouns, as they are called in the old theory, 
 are plus, they would take three, or any other plural adjective. We 
 can say, one court ; but we cannot say two court. 
 
 Rule XII. 
 
 The cordictive plus noun, or pronoun cuts off 
 all the reladictive inflections; as, Hoys read; You 
 write ; They laugh ; Men ivho try, succeed. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy Rule XII. 
 1. We reads books. 
 
 The s inflection of read is a violation of Rule XII. 
 Rule ; as, We read books. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. We laughs. 
 
 2. They speaks slowly. 
 
 3. The men talks. 
 
 4. These lads runs. 
 
 5. Hence comes wars. 
 
 6. [They (who tries) succeeds.] 
 
 7. [Fifty pounds (of wheat) contains] (forty pounds) (of flour.) 
 
 8. [The men (who sells apples) makes money slowly.] 
 Printers (who perseveres) makes fortunes.] 
 The boys (that goes) (to school) learns.] 
 y\\e birds (which flies high) has strong wings.] 
 'The apples (which grows) (on that tree) falls off before] 
 
 (they become ripe.) 
 
 13. [The lads (who has written their copies) has gone out.] 
 
 14. [He has such apples] (as grows) (on your young trees) (in 
 the garden.) 
 
 15. [As many boys (as has returned) will study their books im- 
 mediately.] 
 
SYNTAX. 269 
 
 Remark I. 
 
 A pronoun which is plused by imputation, may be plused bj 
 two uni nouns, or pronouns, even when they are in different 
 monos; as, [He saw me] (and her) (who are his friends.) 
 
 16. [I saw the girl,] (and boy) (who goes) (to that school.) 
 
 17. [He hired the servant,] (and rented the plantation) (that 
 belongs} (to ay brother.) 
 
 18. [He occupies the house] (as well as the bars) (which belongs) 
 (to William Johnson.) 
 
 Remark II. 
 
 Where the pronoun is synonymous with tent nouns by alternation, 
 it is not plused. 
 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 
 tnrned.] 
 
 I saw John] (or James) (who were) (at church.) 
 r Henry (or Stephen , ) (who were) (in the house) laughed.] 
 Isaac (or Newton , , ) (who were) (at school) has re- 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 The following Rule may be read, and the exercises under 
 it may be made to suit it. Yet, as the Rule itself is founded 
 in error, the author cannot recommend any person to speak, 
 or write by it. The doctrine of this Rule, is discussed in 
 the Appeal, under page 237. 
 
 Rule XIII. 
 
 When the verb which is expressed in the 
 sub mono, subjoined by and, is understood in 
 the super one, the ellipsis cuts off the rela- 
 dietive inflections, and, if there is neither a 
 command, nor a petition, requires are, or were; 
 as, [I , ~\(and John laugh ;)[I , , , ~\(and 
 thou are) (his friends ;) [Thou , , , 
 (and I were) (his friends.) 
 
 23* 
 
270 SYNTAX. 
 
 This Rule is inserted in compliance "with custom, but in opposi- 
 tion to the true principles of our language. 
 
 That it is the ellipsis which cuts off these inflections, and requires 
 are, or were, is obvious from the fact that when the superior mono 
 is made plenary, the singular noun or pronoun, in both monos, has 
 the same influence over the verb, which it has where and does not 
 occur; a's, [I am] (his friend,) (and he is) (his friend,) not, [I are~\ 
 (his friends,) (and he are) (his friends.} [I laugh,] (and John 
 laughs,) not, [I laughs,"] (and John laugh.) 
 
 The verb, then, receives the plural number, as they call it, not 
 because of and, nor because of the two nominatives which we are 
 told, are connected by and, but merely, because the verb which is 
 expressed in the mono subjoined by and, is understood in the 
 mono with which and's mono gnomefies. The verb, therefore, 
 agrees, not with the nominative, but with the ellipsis in the super 
 mono! 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XIII. 
 
 1. [I (and John , ) laughs.] 
 
 The * inflection of laugh, is a violation of Rule XIII. 
 Note ; as, [I (and John , ) laugh.] 
 
 The following exercises are correct English as they now stand, 
 according to the principles of that relation which exists between 
 the cordictive noun and the verb — but they are placed under the 
 thirteenth Rule, to be deformed (not corrected) by the doctrine of 
 custom. [See the Exegesis.] 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Socrates, (and Plato} was] (an eminent philosopher.) 
 
 The son, (and father) meets.] 
 
 Life, (and death) is] (in the power) (of the tongue.) 
 
 The time, (and place) was appointed.] 
 
 Idleness, (and ignorance) is] (the parent) (of many vices. ) 
 
 Rule XIV. 
 
 To, in the demimono, whether expressed, or 
 understood, gives the inceptive, and the solo 
 verb the primitive form ; as, To have been pun- 
 ished; To fo written; To punish ; To write. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 271 
 
 Notts. — Have, and be are the only inceptive verbs which can be 
 used in the demimono. And have, and been are the only medial 
 ones which can be used in the demimono. 
 
 Have, and be may be solo verbs in the demimono ; as, Henry 
 wishes to be good ; Charles desires to have a new book. 
 
 Rule XV. 
 
 Uni nouns which terminate with but one s> 
 and nouns whether uni, or plus, which do not 
 terminate with s, are rendered adjectives by 
 affixing an apostrophe, and an s; thus J s. 
 
 1. James* 8 glove, 
 
 2. John's hat, 
 
 3. A lady's ring, 
 
 4. A child's tooth, 
 
 5. Children's teeth, 
 (k Teeth's position, 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XV. 
 
 1. Hudsons' Bay. 
 
 As Hudson is uni, and has no terminating 8, it should be ren- 
 dered an adjective by placing the apostrophe be/ore the af- 
 fixed 8. 
 
 Rule ; as, Hudson's Bay. 
 
 2. Bullions' Grammar. 
 
 As Bullions is uni, and has a terminating s, it should be ren- 
 dered an adjective by placing the apostrophe before the affixed s. 
 Rule ; as, Bullions'* Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Pompeys' pillar. 
 
 2. Virtues' reward. 
 
 3. A good mans' heart. 
 
 4. Helens' beauty. 
 
 6. A moments' attention. 
 C. Georges' book. 
 
 7. A mothers' tenderness. 
 
 8. A fathers' care. 
 
 9. Natures' gifts. 
 
 10. Troys' destruction. 
 
 11. A days' journey. 
 
 12. Philips' hat. 
 
272 - SYNTAX. 
 
 Rule XVI. 
 
 TJni nouns which terminate with ss, and plus 
 ones which terminate with s, are rendered ad- 
 jectives by placing the apostrophe after the 
 terminating ss, or s; as, For holiness 1 sake; 
 Ladies' hats ; Fagks' wings. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XVI. 
 
 1. Ladle' s rings. 
 
 As ladies is plus, and terminates with s, it should be rendered an 
 adjective by placing the apostrophe after the s. 
 Rule ; as, Ladies' rings. 
 
 2. Holiness sake. 
 
 As holiness is «m, and terminates with ss, it should be rendered 
 an adjective by placing the apostrophe (') after the ss. 
 Rule ; as, Holiness' sake. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The likenes's accuracy. 6. Six pen's points. 
 
 2. Righteousnes's cause. 7. Five tree's branches. 
 
 3. Bas's staff. 8. Both ship's crews. 
 
 4. This las's finger ring. 9. Many fishe's fins. 
 
 5. This mis's hat. 10. Thirty file's teeth. 
 
 Remark I. 
 
 When the s, used to render a noun an adjective, will 
 coalesce with the adjective itself, the s is pronounced in the 
 same syllable ; as, John's hat. 
 
 But when the s does not harmonize, another syllable is 
 added in the pronunciation; as, Thomas', Bliss'. Pro- 
 nounced, ThomasiSj Blissis. 
 
 Remark II. 
 
 Where several of these apostropMc adjectives fall in succes- 
 sion, it is deemed sufficient, by some grammarians, to express. 
 
SYNTAX. 373 
 
 the adjective sign after the last word only; as, John, Jane, 
 Stephen, and Cluster's book. 
 
 The adjective sign is understood at John, Jane, and Ste- 
 phcn. But this sign should certainly be expressed after 
 each word; as, John's, Jane's, Stephen's, and Chester's 
 book. This is ( 'Jane book," is not English. 
 
 Remark III. 
 
 When the sign of the attribute is made the trunk word, 
 the name of the subject should have the apostrophic adjective 
 form; as, [John's going (to Boston,) was well known.] 
 [They knew] (of John's going) (to Boston.) 
 
 Note. — Going, is the name of the attribute, and is here made the 
 trunk word. John is the subject of this attribute — hence, the 
 word, John, is thrown into the apostrophic adjective form. John going, 
 is not English. 
 
 Rule XVII. 
 
 Every adverb should end in ly if the word 
 can take this inflection ; as, They write accu- 
 rate/y ; She conducted herself modesty. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XVII. 
 
 1. He writes correct. 
 
 The want of the ly inflection of correct, is a violation of Rule XVII. 
 Rule ; as, He writes correct/y. 
 
 EXERCISE8. 
 
 1. She sings sweet. 
 
 2. Grammarians should speak accurate. 
 
 3. The ship moves smooth along. 
 
 4. This note is written very correct. 
 
 6. He conducts himself very upright. 
 G. His property is near exhausted. 
 
 7. [She writes neat,] (and spells accurate.) 
 
 8. They appear to be neat finished. 
 
 9. [Hers speaks as correct] (as yours.) 
 
274 SYNTAX. 
 
 Note I. 
 
 The ly inflection should not be given to the super adverb 
 when the sub can take it ; as, She behaved exceedingly in- 
 discreet. 
 
 But if the sub cannot take the ly inflection, and the super 
 can, this inflection must be given to the super; as, She 
 behaves very discreetly. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Note I. under Rule XVII. 
 
 1. She behaved exceeding indiscretJy. 
 
 The ly inflection of indiscreet, is a violation of Note I. under 
 Rule XVII. 
 Note ; as, She behaved exceedingly indiscreet. 
 
 2. She behaves very discreet. 
 
 The want of the ly inflection of discreet, is a violation of the 
 second clause of Note I. under Rule XVII. 
 
 Second clause of Note I. ; as, She behaves very 
 
 discreet^. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. They behaved exceedingly rudely. 
 
 2. They write remarkably accurately. 
 
 3. They ran astonishing swiftly. 
 
 Note II. 
 
 When the quality is expressed as belonging to the event, 
 but by inference, carried to the thing, the adverb should 
 drop the ly ; as, The grass appears green. 
 
 Green shows how the grass appears, not how it is. 
 
 Specimen of correcting by Note II. under Rule XVII. 
 
 1. The man appears oddly. 
 
 The ly inflection of odd, is a violation of Note II. under 
 Rule XVII. 
 Note ■ ; as, the man appears odd. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 275 
 
 1. The bird looks beautifully. 
 
 2. The lady appeared gaily. 
 
 3. She appears handsomely. 
 
 4. The stick looks crookedly. 
 
 5. The paper appears whitely. 
 
 6. The block looks squarely. 
 
 Note HI. 
 
 ..*■ 
 
 There are some adverbs that represent the certain condi- 
 tion, or state which the person, or thing receives from the 
 action denoted by the verb, that should drop the ly; as, He 
 sinks deep; The purest clay burns white; The pupil should 
 write slowly, and exact. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Note III. under Rule XVII. 
 
 1. He sinks deeply. 
 
 The ly inflection of deep, is a violation of Note III. under 
 Kulb XVII. 
 Notb ; as, He sinks deep. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [prink deeply,] (or taste not the Pierian spring.) 
 
 2. Heaven opened widely her ever during gates. 
 
 3. The victory cost them dearly. 
 
 4. [Thickly, (and more thickly) the steelly circle grows.] 
 
 5. ]The cakes taste shortly,] (and crisply.) 
 
 6. 'John marched straightly] (up a steep ascent) (of steps) 
 (which were cut closely,) (and deeply) (into the rock.) 
 
 Rule XVIII. 
 
 Every subadjective should end in ly if the 
 word can take this inflection ; as, Henry wag 
 exceeding^ careful ; He was unusua% good. 
 
276 , SYNTAX. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. (Unto us) [are given exceeding great promises.] 
 2r. fit is] (remarkable fine weather.) 
 
 Note I. 
 
 Where the subadjective can be incorporated with its 
 super by a hyphen, (-) it should not have the ly inflection; 
 as a new fashioned hat. (iVew-fashioned hat.) 
 
 /Specimen of Correcting by Note I. under Rule XVIII. 
 
 1. This is an oddZy constructed house. 
 The ly inflection of odd, is a violation of Note I. under Rule 
 XVIII. 
 Note ; as, [This is] (an odd constructed house.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [Man is] (a nobly minded being.) 
 
 2. A newly fashioned hat. 
 
 3. [He is] (a highly minded man.) 
 
 4. A roundly shaped apple. 
 
 5. A squarely formed figure. 
 
 6. An oddly fashioned house. 
 
 Note II. 
 
 As the noun in the tenseless Be form is always a verb in 
 relation to adverbsj the adverbs which gnomefy with it 
 should have the same inflection which they have when they 
 gnomefy with any other verb; as, He was praised for the 
 drawing of the picture accurately. [Not accurate."] 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Note II. under Rule XVIII. 
 
 I. (In the writing (of the letter) accurate,) [he showed his gram- 
 
 matical skill.] 
 The want of the ly inflection of accurate, is a violation of Note 
 
 II. under Rule XVIII. 
 
 Note -m In the writing of the letter accu- 
 rately, &c 
 
SYNTAX. 277 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [The drawing (of the papers) hasty, occasioned a serious 
 difficulty.] 
 
 2. [He was praised] (for the drawing (of the picture) elegant.) 
 
 3. (In , speaking ( , , ) improper) [teachers set ( , 
 their pupils) bad examples.] 
 
 4. (By , constructing ( , sentences) (in general,) inaccu- 
 rate) [those , (who write grammars) demonstrate a want] (of 
 Bkill,) (which renders them incompetent to improve Murray.) 
 
 6. (In , memorizing ( , the old theory) (of grammar,) 
 even thorough) [the pupil does not become] (a grammarian.) 
 
 Rule XIX. 
 
 The cordictive pronoun which has a eordictive 
 form, should be used in this form; as, He writes ; 
 She laughs ; [/ speak] (of Washington) (than 
 who , , ) (no man (of his time) was 
 greater) (in the field.) ^ . ' 
 
 Not Him writes; not her laughs; not me speaks; not than 
 whom.* 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XIX. 
 
 1. Him writes. 
 The use of him for he, is a violation of Rule XIX. 
 Rule ; as, He writes. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1 . Them are sick. 
 
 2. Us are well. 
 
 8. Ourselves went. 
 
 4. Me will go. 
 
 6. (Her being absent,) [she was sent for.] 
 
 * Than whom, is no better than, him is — no better than whom was. 
 
 He, or who, should be used instead of wJiom. If who is used, the mono given by 
 than should not close the sentence ; as, I saw Johnson daily, (than who , , ) 
 no man ever treated me better. 
 
 But, if he, which is the better word, should be used, the mono given by than 
 thnuld close the period ; as, I saw Johnson daily ; and no man ever treated me 
 better than fit , , 
 
 24 
 
278 SYNTAX. 
 
 6. [Whom spoke] (to toe ?) [Him , ] (and her , both.) 
 
 7. Whom answered them ? [Me , , .] 
 
 8. Who spilled the ink ? [Him , , .] 
 
 9. Who made the pen ? [Me , , .] 
 
 10. Whom wrote the letter? [Her , , .] 
 
 11. [Me will now speak] (of Washington Irving) (than whom 
 , ) (a better writer cannot be found.) 
 
 12. [Him , ] (and me went.) 
 
 13. Thee must remain. 
 
 14. Thyself must go. 
 
 15. Herself shall see it. 
 
 16. Themselves are here. 
 
 Rule XX. 
 
 Duo verbs require the uncordiciive form of 
 the uncordiciive pronouns which have this form ; 
 as, James saw us; Whom did the boys call? 
 not, James saw we; not, Who did the boys call? 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 In deciding whether a, final verb is mono, or duo, it may 
 be of use to the learner to know that duo verbs, in general, 
 may be abridged, deprived of their duo character by the 
 use of some form of Be. And that he may derive all the 
 advantage from this fact, which a familiar acquaintance with 
 it will afford him, it may be well to style the verbs which 
 are abridged of their natural power to gnomefy with uncor- 
 dictive nouns, and pronouns, 
 
 ABRIDGED MONO VERBS. 
 
 The abridged mono verb is one that is naturally duo; 
 but which, by the precision of some form of Be, is deprived 
 of its natural power to gnomefy with an uncordictive noun, 
 or pronoun ; as, A letter must be written ; The water was 
 drunk ; The work has been done; The apple is eaten; The 
 girl was named ( , , , ) ( , Jane ;) 
 
 These children have been taught ( , English gram- 
 
 mar.) 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 279 
 
 Note. — When the verb which is naturally duo, ends in 
 the tenselcM Be form, it cannot be abridged of its natural 
 power to gnomefy with uncordictive nouns, and pronouns ; 
 as, I am writtrw? a letter ; Stephen was drinking water ; 
 John will soon be doing the work ; Charles is eating apples ; 
 They are naimV^ the girl after her aunt ; They have been 
 teacup English grammar. 
 
 THE PRONOUNS OP BOTH FORMS. 
 
 Cordiciive forms. 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He ) 
 
 She J 
 
 Who 
 Whoever ") 
 
 Whosoever >- 
 Whoso ) 
 
 We 
 
 Ye 
 
 They 
 
 Uncordictive forms. 
 
 Me 
 
 Myself 
 
 Thee 
 
 Thyself 
 
 Him 
 
 Her 
 
 Himself 
 
 Herself 
 
 Itself 
 
 Whom 
 
 Whomsoever 
 
 (Us 
 
 ( Ourselves 
 
 Yourselves 
 (Them 
 { Themselves 
 
 Specimen of Correcting uy Rule XX. 
 1. He saw /. 
 The use of J for me, is a violation of Rule XX. 
 Rule ; as, He saw me. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Who do you see ? 
 
 2. Who did he employ ? 
 
 3. They have called he. 
 
 4. [John called she,] (he,) (they,) (thou,) (and I) (to the house.) 
 
 6. He is] (a pupil) (who it is impossible to teach.) 
 
 C. Who would you suggest] (as a fit person) (for that station.) 
 
 7. [It is] (I) (who they wish to see.) 
 
280 SYNTAX. 
 
 Rule XXL 
 
 Ambi verbs require the uncordictive form of 
 the pronouns in the demimono, which have this 
 form ; as, Charles told Stephen to teach them. 
 Not, they. 
 
 It is not easy for beginners to manage constructions like 
 the following : — 
 
 1. Who do people say that I am ? 
 
 2. He is the person whom they say Mr. Johnson taught. 
 
 But by breaking such sentences into monos, the pupil, 
 and even many of our translators of the Scriptures, may find 
 some aid in correcting bad English. 
 
 The trone : [Do people say that ?~\ 
 
 Clads: (Who) (I am f) 
 
 The trone : [He is~\ 
 
 Clad • i ^ e P erson } ( w h° m Mr. Johnson taught) 
 SI \Qhey my.) 
 
 Rule XXII. 
 
 Prepositions require the uncordictive form of 
 the pronouns which have this form ; as, Of 
 whom did he speak ? John called for us ; Charles 
 took that man for me. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXII. 
 1. Of who did you speak ? 
 The use of who, is a violation of Rule XXII. 
 Rule ; as, Of whom did you speak ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. (Who [do you speak] to) (Nancy?) 
 
 2. [He called] (for Charles,) (John,) (and) (I.) 
 
 3. (Who [does he speak] of?) 
 
SYNTAX. 281 
 
 4. (Who [did he give the book] tot) 
 
 5. [He went] (with Jane,) (Hester,) (and) (T.) 
 
 C. (From he) (that is needy) [turn thou not away.] 
 
 7. [They took them] ( , we.)* 
 
 8. (In order) (for me to be , ) ( , he) [there must be a 
 great change.] 
 
 Plenary — In order for me to be made into him, there must be a 
 great change. 
 
 Rule XXIIL 
 
 If the pronoun which constitutes the predi- 
 cate mono, has a cordictive form, it should be 
 used in its cordictive form ; as, [It is] (/;) [It 
 was] (she;) [It is said to be] (he;) [It was] 
 {they ;) [I am] (he.) 
 
 REMAKK. 
 
 This Rule is sustained by the consideration that the cor- 
 dictive form of the pronouns which indicate their cordictive 
 power by their form, is the natural state of the words. The 
 cordictive form being their natural state, the words, as a 
 matter of course, should retain this form in every instance 
 where there is no other word which requires them to ex- 
 change it for an uncordictive form. No word except a duo 
 verb, and a preposition, has any power to demand this ex- 
 change — hence, if neither of these words belongs to the 
 mono, the pronoun should retain its cordictive form, even 
 while it surrenders its cordictive power. 
 
 In conformity to the doctrine of this Rule, we say, 
 
 1. It is (they.) Not, it is them. 
 
 • I thought it ( , him.) Not he. 
 
 Thought is used in the sense of took — and for is understood before him. 
 
 I took it for him. 
 
 I thought it to be ( , him.) Not he. 
 
 Ibr is sometimes used in the sense of the phrase, in the character of ; as, I took 
 him for a gentleman ; He took this note for good money ; lie was taken up for 
 dead. 
 
 Unless the demimono changes the tense of the proposition entirely, for is under- 
 stood when the demimono is expressed ; as, 
 
 I took him to be a gentleman. 
 
 That is, I took him for a gentleman to be» 
 24* 
 
282 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. The man is (/.) Not, is me. 
 
 3. (Who) do people say I am? Not, whom. 
 
 4. Do people say (who) (I am?) Not, whom. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXIII. 
 
 1. [It is] {me.) 
 
 The use of me for 7, is a violation of Rule XXIII. 
 Rule ; as, [It is] (I.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [They thought that] (it was) (me.) 
 
 2. [We think that] (it was) (them.) 
 
 3. [Is this] (her ?) [It is not] (her.) 
 
 4. [Was that] (him?) [It was] (me.) 
 
 5. (Whom) [is the teacher ?] [That man is] (him.) 
 
 6. (By whom) [has he been called] (him?) [He has been 
 called] (him) (by all.) 
 
 7. [It was not] (me) — (it was) (him.) 
 
 8. 'Be composed] — (it is) (me.) 
 
 9. You may well be afraid] — (it is) (me.) 
 
 10. Who made the disturbance? [It was] (John,) (and) (him.) 
 
 11. [Was it] (him,) (or , , ) (her ?) 
 
 Rule XXIV. 
 
 No word which is an adjective without ly^ 
 should have this inflection where the word is 
 used as an adjective ; as, Henry's conduct was 
 manful/^; Her demeanour was conformably to 
 the rules of modest behaviour; Is your tea 
 agreeab^ to your taste. 
 
 Rule XXV. 
 
 An adjective of the uni numerdiction, re- 
 quires a noun, or pronoun of the same numer- 
 
SYNTAX. 283 
 
 diction ; as, This man. (Not, this men) Each 
 book. (Not, each books.) That pen. (Not, 
 that pens.) The second , and third edi- 
 tion. (Not, the second, and third editions.) 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXV. 
 
 1. This men. 
 
 As men is plus, and the super of this, it is a violation of Rule 
 XXV. 
 Rule ; as, This man. 
 
 Note. — A subadjective of the uni numerdiction requires a prin- 
 cipal of the same numerdiction ; as, This man's sons ; One boy's 
 books. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [This men went] (to the city.) 
 
 2. [The fourth, (and fifth men) were lost. J 
 
 3. [The second, (and third books) are his , .] 
 
 4. [It is believed] (that) (the tenth, (and eleventh editions) have 
 been greatly improved.) — Kirkham's Grammar. 
 
 Rule XXVI. 
 
 An adjective of the plus numerdiction, re- 
 quires a noun, or pronoun of the same numer- 
 diction; as, These men. (Not, these man.) 
 Those pens. (Not, those pen.) 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXVI. 
 
 1. Those boy must be quiet. 
 
 As boy is the super of those, and uni, it is a violation of Rule 
 XXVI. 
 
 Rule ; as, Those boy* must be quiet. 
 
 Note. — A subadjective of the plus numerdiction requires its 
 principal to be of the same numerdiction ; as, These men's sons ; 
 Two boys' books. 
 
284 SYNTAX. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [I have bought six pound] (of butter.) 
 
 2. [He purchased four cord] (of wood.) 
 
 3. The cars travel] (sixteen mile) (in an hour.) 
 
 4. [Fifty pound (of wheat) contain forty pound] (of flour.) 
 
 5. [The tree is (,,,)(, a hundred foot) high.] 
 
 Rule XXVII. 
 
 When there is no comparison, as when there 
 is but one thing, or but one collection men- 
 tioned, the adjective should have its primitive 
 form ; as, Red bird ; Red birds ; Good man ; 
 Fine schools. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting oy Rule XXVII. 
 1. A redder bird. 
 
 As there is but one thing mentioned, the use of the li-derivative 
 ratiodiction is a violation of Rule XXVII. 
 Rule ; as, red bird. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. A better man. 4. A brighter light > 
 
 2. A larger apple. 5. The older person. 
 
 3. The darkest night. G. A greater mountain. 
 
 Rule XXVIII. 
 
 When but two things, or but two collections 
 are compared,* the adjective should have the 
 bi-derivative ratiodiction ; as, This bird is redder 
 than that ; That school is better than this. 
 
 * The tri-derivative ratiodiction is applicable only where all the objects men- 
 tioned, fall under one denomination. That is, if one object is a book, all must bo 
 books; as, This is the thicket book of the seven books. 
 
 The bi-derivative ratiodiction is applicable where the two objects mentioned, fall 
 
SYNTAX. 285 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXVIII. 
 
 1. This is the large** man of the two , . 
 
 As there are but two men mentioned, the use of the tri-deriva- 
 tive ratiodiction is a violation of Rule XXVIII. 
 
 Rulk ; as, This is the larger man of the two , . 
 
 under the same, or under different denominations; as, This pen is better than that 
 pen ; This knife is sharper than that razor. 
 
 I think that Mr. Joseph It. Chandler has advanced the idea that the trirderiva- 
 tive ratiodiction may be applied where there are but two objects mentioned ; as, 
 That tree is the higher of the two; Jane is the oldest of the two girls. 
 
 I must dissent from the doctrine of this position altogether. I have given con- 
 siderable attention to the subject of the tri-derivative ratiodiction, and have come 
 to the conclusion that it cannot be sustained in any case. 
 
 True, the world has started with this form of expression— but it is founded in 
 philological error, and in an unphUosophical principle. He who examines the tri- 
 derivative form of expression, will arrive at the conclusion that it is very analo- 
 gous to the following which is ridiculously wrong : — 
 
 1. The Bible is better than any book. 
 
 2. Methuselah was older than any man. 
 
 1. As the Bible is a book, and as the Bible is better than any book, it follows 
 that the Bible is better than itself! 
 
 2. As Methuselah was a man, and as he was older than any man, it follows that 
 Methuselah was actually older than himself! 
 
 Let it be presumed that there are three books before us ; and that the Bible is 
 one of the three. Let the following proposition be made in relation to the 
 Bible:— 
 
 1. The Bible is the best book of the three. 
 
 This proposition is exactly synonymous with the following : — 
 
 2. The Bible is better than any one of the three books. 
 
 Now, as the Bible is one of the three, is it not clearly said here that the Bible 
 is better than itself f 
 
 The Bible is the best book of the three. 
 
 That is, of all the books which belong to this triplicate group of books, the 
 Bible is the best. Now, if the Bible actually belongs to this group of books, is it 
 not clearly represented to be better than itself? 
 
 But what is the exact idea to be expressed? It is that the Bible is better than 
 either of the other two books. 
 
 The idea, however, which is expressed, is that the Bible is better than any one 
 of the three books. And, as the Bible is one of the three, it follows that the super- 
 lative degree, as they call it, clearly expresses that the Bible is actually better than 
 itself! 
 
 She is the handsomest lady in the room. 
 
 Now, if the lady is in the room, she is handsomer than herself! 
 
 Should the plausibility of my position have a tendency to invalidate Mr. Chan- 
 dler's, that the superlative degree may be used where there are but two things, let 
 him console himself with the reflection, that he is the greater grammarian in the 
 world. That is, he is greater than himself! 
 
 That I may be clearly understood on "the subject of the use of the superlative 
 degree of comparison, it may be well to say — 
 
 1. The superlative degree, in any instance, is against sound philosophy. 
 
 2. The superlative degree cannot be used where all the objects do not fall under 
 the same denomination. 
 
 3. The superlative degree can be used where there are but two things, if both 
 fall under the same denomination, with as much philosophic propriety as it can 
 where there are three, or more. 
 
 4. Some mono, expressed, or understood, which begins with of, must invariably 
 follow the superlative degree ; as, She is the handsomest lady in the room. 
 
 That is, She is the handsomest lady of all the ladies in the room. 
 
286 SYNTAX. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. This hat is the blackest , of the two , . 
 
 2. He is the tallest , of the two , . 
 
 3. This , is the best school of the two , . 
 
 4. He chose the last of the two , . 
 
 6. I was much the sickest of the two , . 
 
 6. Stephen has two sisters, the oldest of whom is the best 
 reader. 
 
 7. The oak, and the willow attempted to decide which was the 
 strongest. — Fable. 
 
 Rule XXIX. 
 
 When as many as three things, or three col- 
 lections are compared, they must all be of the 
 same kind, and the adjective should have the 
 tri-derivative ratiodiction ; as, This bird is the 
 reddest of the four ; This is the best school of 
 the three. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXIX. 
 
 1. I am the taller of the three persons. 
 
 As there are three persons mentioned, the use of the bi-dcrivative 
 ratiodiction, is a violation of Rule XXIX. 
 
 Rule : as, I am the talks* of the three. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. This is the better pen of the three. 
 
 2. Which is the better reader, Jane, Hester, or Susan ? 
 
 3. The Indian is the older , of the four , . 
 
 4. Blackhawk was the more sagacious , of any Indian in his 
 tribe. 
 
 Rule XXX. 
 
 Pronouns should agree in numerdiction, gene- 
 diction, and reladiction, with the nouns, pronouns, 
 
SYNTAX. 287 
 
 and syllabaries with which they are made 
 synonymous by application; as, Mother had 
 seen James before she called him. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXX. 
 1. [I offered (John) a knife ;] (but they would not take it.) 
 
 The use of they for he, is a violation of Rule XXX. 
 
 Rule ; as, [I offered (John) a knife;] (but he 
 
 would not take it.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [No person is fully satisfied] (that) (they will not be de- 
 ceived. ) 
 
 2. [The minds (of men) are active] — (it must have something 
 to work) (on.) 
 
 3. [Each (of them) received the amount] (to which) (they were 
 entitled) (by law.) 
 
 4. [I gave him oats,] (but they would not eat it.) 
 
 6. 'I gave the horse hay,] (but they would not eat them.) 
 
 6. : I gave the horse grass,] (but he did not eat them.) 
 
 7. [I gave the ox spires] (of grass,) (but he did not eat it.) 
 
 Note I. 
 
 When, for brevity, the name of the assemblage, or collec- 
 tive body, is used instead of the name of its constituent 
 parts, the mind dissolves the body into its several parts, and 
 the pronoun is synonymous with the name of these parts ; 
 as, the jury will remain out till they have agreed on their 
 verdict. 
 
 They is not synonymous with the noun, jury, but with the 
 word, members, implied. The jury will remain out till its 
 members have agreed on a verdict. 
 
 8. [The jury will continue out till] (it have agreed) (on a ver- 
 dict.] 
 
 9. [The council was not unanimous;] (and it separated) (with- 
 out coming) (to any determination.) 
 
288 SYNTAX. 
 
 10. [The enemy was not able to support the charge;] and he 
 fled.) 
 
 11. [The defendant's counsel had a difficult task] (imposed upon 
 it.) 
 
 12. [The family is not so well pleased] (with its situation) (as it 
 expected to be.) 
 
 Note IT. 
 
 "When the name of the assemblage, or collective body, is 
 not used for the name of the constituent parts, (members,) 
 the mind does not dissolve the body into its several parts : 
 hence the pronoun is synonymous with the true name of the 
 collective body ; as, A committee was appointed, and it made 
 a report upon the subject. 
 
 13. [The crowd is so great] (that I cannot get) (through them.) 
 
 14. [The company was very small] (at first ;) (but they increased 
 daily.) 
 
 15. [The school is quite large now ;] (and they will grow larger. ) 
 
 16. The third flock (of sheep) is fed ;] (but they are not watered.) 
 
 17. [The committee was divided] (in sentiment ; ) (and they refer- 
 red the business) (to a general meeting.) 
 
 Note III. 
 
 In general, it is the exact sense that decides with which 
 one of two principals, a pronoun that receives its numerdic- 
 tion, genediction, and reladiction from its principal, is 
 synonymous; as, I am the man who commands you; I who 
 command you, am the man. 
 
 In the first, who is synonymous with man. In the second, 
 who is synonymous with I. 
 
 In the first, who is uni, masculin, and panta-theme. In 
 the second, who is uni, masculin, and par-e-theme. 
 
 am] (the man) (who command you.) 
 
 (a person) (who adopt that sentiment;) (and main- 
 tain " 
 
 20. [Thou art] (a person) (who possessest bright parts ;) (but 
 who hast cultivated them) (very little.) 
 
 21. [I am] (a man) (who speak but seldom.) 
 
 22. [Thou art] (the friend) (that hast often relieved me;) (and 
 that hast not deserted me) (in time) (of peculiar need.) 
 
 23. [I am] (the boy) (that write your letters.) 
 
 24. [You are] (the boy) (who pick my apples.) 
 
 18. [lam] 
 
 19. [lam] 
 tin it. ) 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 289 
 
 The following remarks are worthy of a careful perusal — hence the learner 
 cannot do better than to memorize them. 
 
 "Master, 7" have brought unto thee my son which hath a dumb 
 spirit." 
 
 Which, as a pronoun, is not applicable to persons. Which, then, 
 is not suited to the word, son. That, or who, should be used. 
 
 Which is capable of being either of the uni, or plus, pros-o-theme t 
 or panta-theme, masculin, feminin, ambi, mute, or ne-o genediction. 
 
 Who and that, are applied to persons — which to things ; as, The 
 man who ; The boy that ; The book which. 
 
 Whose is applied both to persons, and things ; as, I saw the 
 man whose arm was amputated ; I have a book whose pages I have 
 never read. 
 
 That is preferred to who after an adjective of the to-derivative 
 ratiodiction ; as, Washington was the greatest general that ever 
 commanded an army. [See the foot note, page 284.] 
 
 When the noun does not decide the gender, the pronoun of the 
 masculin genediction is preferred; as, I saw the person when he 
 left his seat. Not, I saw the person when she left her seat. 
 
 Rule XXXI. 
 
 All adjectives made from pronouns, whether 
 by derivation or application, should agree in nu- 
 merdiction, genediction, and, generally, in reladic- 
 Hon, with the nouns, pronouns, and apostrophic 
 adjectives with which they are made synony- 
 mous by application ; as, John saw his brother ; 
 The jury will remain out till its members have 
 agreed on a verdict ; Can any person on his en- 
 trance into life, be fully satisfied that he will 
 not be deceived? Jane came here when she 
 got her book, 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1 . Tits, in the first sentence, is synonymous with John's. [Not, 
 John.] 
 John saw John's brother. Not, John saw John brother. 
 25 
 
290 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. Its is synonymous with jury's. The jury will remain out till 
 injury's members have agreed on a verdict. 
 
 3. In the third sentence, his is synonymous with person's. 
 
 4. When and occurs, their may be used instead of his, its, or her ; 
 as, I saw John, and Charles get their books ; The book, and the 
 pen were [was, it should be] moved from their proper place. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXI. 
 
 1. The boy saw their brother. 
 
 The use of their for his, is a violation of Rule XXXI. 
 Rule ; as, The boy saw his brother. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [Can any person (on their entrance) (into life) be fully secure] 
 ( , that) (he shall not be deceived ?) 
 
 2. [The minds (of men) cannot be long] (without some food) 
 (which will nourish the activity) (of its thoughts.) 
 
 3. [Each (of them) (in their turn) receives the money] (to which) 
 (he is entitled.) 
 
 4. [Each (of the boys) took their own book.] 
 
 5. 'He teaches mathematics] (with all their branches.) 
 
 6. 'Carry the scissors] (to its place.) 
 
 7. 'John, (and James) have found his books.] 
 
 8. Stephen, (or Joseph) has returned their copy.] 
 
 9. [I have examined the subject] (of alms) (in all their conse- 
 quences.) 
 
 10. [When (the nation complains,) their rulers should listen.] 
 
 11. [This company conducts their business] (with accuracy,) 
 (and) (despatch.) 
 
 12. [The church will conduct their own business.] 
 
 13. [The family is very well] (with the exception) (of two) (of 
 their members.) 
 
 14. [The school must attend] (to their writing now.) 
 
 15. [This class has lost some] (of their members. ) 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is Syntax? [Page 257.] 
 
 2. Syntax respects what ? 
 
 3. What is Rule I. ? [Page 258.] 
 
 4. Can you give Note I. under Rule 1. 1 
 
 5. Will you repeat Rule II. ? [Page 260.] 
 
 6. WiD you give me the substance of the remark under Rule IL ? 
 
SYNTAX. 291 
 
 7. What is Rule III.? 
 
 8. What is Rule IV. ? 
 
 9. Is the passed tense form ever the Have and Be form ? [Page 
 262,] 
 
 10. What is Rule V. ? 
 
 11. What is Rule VI. ? 
 
 12. By what Rule do you correct the error in the following sen- 
 tence? — ~, 
 
 " Thou is sick." 
 
 13. Will you repeat Rule VII. ? [Page 264.] 
 
 14. What is Rule VIII. ? 
 
 15. What is Rule IX. ? 
 
 16. Will you repeat Rule X. ? 
 
 17. What is Rule XI. ? 
 
 18. Can you give Rule XII. ? 
 
 19. What is Remark L under Rule XII. ? 
 
 20. What is Remark II. under Rule XII. ? 
 
 21. What is Rule XIII. ? 
 
 22. What is the substance of the Remark which precedes 
 Rule XIII. ? 
 
 23. Canyon give the exact ideas which the author has expressed 
 and illustrated in the Remarks which follow Rule XIII. ? 
 
 24. Is it good sense to say r Socrates, and Plato were eminent 
 philosophers t 
 
 25. Do you not see that this form of expression makes a plurality 
 of philosophers out of each ? [See the Exegesis.] 
 
 26. What is Rule XIV. ? 
 
 27. Will you repeat Rule XV. ? 
 
 28. Can you give Rule XVI. ? 
 
 29. What is the substance of the Remarks under this Rule ? 
 SO. What is Rule XVII. ? 
 
 31. Is there an error in the following sentence ? — 
 
 " Thou speakest correct." 
 
 32. What Rule in Syntax does this error violate ? 
 
 33. What is Note I. under Rule XVII. ? 
 
 34. What is Note II. under Rule XVII. ? 
 
 35. What is Note IIL under Rule XVII. ? 
 
 36. What is Rule XVIII. ? 
 
 37. What is Note I. under Rule XVIII. ? 
 
 38. What is Note II. under Rule XVIIL ? 
 
 39. Will you repeat Rule XIX. ? 
 
 40. What is the substance of the foot note under page 277? 
 
 41. Will you give Rule XX. ? 
 
 42. What is the substance of the Remarks under this Rule ? 
 
 43. What is an abridged, mono verb ? 
 
 44. Can you supply the noetons (implied words) which are neces- 
 
292 SYNTAX. 
 
 sary to render the sentence, employed in illustrating this definition, 
 and all of its monos, plenary ? 
 
 [The girl was named] (by the sign) (of Jane.)* 
 
 45. What is the substance of the Note at the top of page 279 ? 
 
 46. What is the cordictive form of me f 
 4tl, What ig the uncordictive form of I? 
 
 [It may seem to many that the pronouns which end in 
 self, or selves are cordictive. — He is taller than himself. 
 
 [Rendered plenary — [He is taller] (than he is tall) (of 
 himself. ) 
 
 [That is, he has more height than is derived from him- 
 self.] 
 
 48. What is Rule XXI. ? 
 
 49. Will you repeat Rule XXII. ? 
 
 50. Will you give me an explanation of the principle of Rule 
 XXIII. ? 
 
 51. Is it proper to say, [It was] (hers.) 
 
 52. What is the substance of the Remarks under Rule XXIII. ? 
 
 53. What is Rule XXIV. ? 
 
 54. What is Rule XXV. ? 
 
 55. What is Rule XXVI. ? 
 
 56. Is there any thing wrong in the following ? — 
 
 These men is good. 
 
 57. Is the following good, or bad English ? 
 
 "Henry Hudson was by birth an Englishman, but 
 had been for some time previous to, and at the time 
 of the discovery, employed in the service of the 
 Dutch East India Company." 
 
 [As previous is an adverb that can take ly, it should have 
 the ly inflection; as, "and had been employed previously." 
 
 Where before can be substituted for previous, previous 
 is an adverb, and it should end in ly ; as, " and had been 
 employed before." 
 
 But, then, if before is used, the mono which follows is 
 cordictive; as, ("and had been employed before') (the dis- 
 covery , * , , .) 
 
 Whereas, if previously is used, the mono which follows is 
 imcord-ictive ; as, (" and had been employed previously) (to 
 the discovery/') 
 
 * Named is here used in the seuse of distinguished, or called. [The girl was dis- 
 tinguishod] (by the name) (of Jane.) 
 
SYNTAX. 293 
 
 Before. 
 [The creation (of the world) had taken place before] (the 
 flood , , ) 
 
 Previously. 
 
 [The creation (of the world) had taken place previously] 
 (to the coming) (of the flood.) 
 
 Before. 
 
 [Man had fallen before"] (Christ died) (for his sins.) 
 
 Previously. 
 
 [Man had fallen previously] (to the death) (of Christ) (for 
 his sins.) 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Was the author of this sentence present, I should beg him 
 to allow me to make a few alterations in it. 
 
 " Henry Hudson was by birth an Englishman. 
 
 Why should the predicate mono, an Englishman, be 
 pushed so far from its subject ? 
 
 Why not place the relative parts of the sentence in juxta- 
 position : — 
 
 " Henry Hudson was an Englishman by birth, but had 
 been for some time previously to, and at the time of the dis- 
 covery, employed in the service of the Dutch East India 
 Company.' ' 
 
 "And had been employed previously to," is English. But 
 u had been employed at the time of die discovery," is some- 
 thing for which I have no name. 
 
 Nor does it seem to be altogether just to connect the plu- 
 perfect with the imperfect tense, as is seen in the junction 
 of the following italic parts : — 
 
 " Henry Hudson was by birth an Englishman, but had 
 been for some time previously to, and at the time of the dis- 
 covery, employed in the service of the Dutch East India 
 Company." 
 
 Was; but Jiad been, should be was; but he had been. 
 25* 
 
294 SYNTAX. 
 
 Employed may be omitted ; for had been in the service, is 
 better than, had been employed in the service. 
 Was should be employed after and, and before at. 
 
 1. "Henry Hudson was by birth an Englishman; but 
 had been for some time previously to, and at the time of the 
 discovery, employed in the service of the Dutch East India 
 Company." 
 
 2. "By birth, Henry Hudson was an Englishman ; but, 
 at the time of the discovery, he was in the service of the 
 Dutch East India Company, where he had been engaged 
 for some time before it." 
 
 58. What is Rule XXVII. ? 
 
 59. Will you repeat Rule XXVIII. ? 
 
 60. Are things, or their attributes compared ? 
 
 [The attributes are compared — hence the propriety of 
 using the word ratio — ra-she-o. Ra-she-o-diction is the 
 expression of the ratio which one quantity of a certain 
 quality, has to another quantity of the same quality as 
 found in a different thing ; as, This bird is redder than 
 that. Both birds have redness ; but one has more of 
 this attribute than the other — hence er is employed to 
 express the ratio, or the proportion of the redness of one 
 bird to the redness of the other.] 
 
 61. What is Rule XXIX. ? 
 
 62. Will you repeat Rule XXX. ? 
 
 LESSON II. 
 Rule XXXII. 
 
 As all the portion of time within which the 
 sentence is formed, is present, whenever this 
 portion of time is to be designated, the verb 
 should have the present tense ; as, Nathan said 
 unto David, Thou art the man; I am; Henry 
 rides out daily ; Virtue is commendable ; These 
 
SYNTAX. 295 
 
 merchants purchase their goods in Boston ; God 
 mils whatever comes to pass; Go thou to school. 
 [See page 151.] 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. Thou art the man. 
 
 Although Nathan formed this sentence long ago, the verb 
 has the present tense. The verb has this tense to indicate 
 that the portion of time in "which the sentence was formed by 
 Nathan, is present True, the exact time in which Nathan 
 addressed this proposition to David is not in our presence — 
 but it was in Nathan's presence when he formed the sen- 
 tence. And as art represents this fact, it (art) is said to 
 have the present tense. 
 
 But what is the present tense ? The present tense is the 
 power of the verb to bring more, or less time into the pre- 
 sence of one who speaks, or writes. 
 
 It may not be amiss to employ the language of him who 
 gives an account of the intercourse between Nathan, and 
 David : — 
 
 [" And Nathan said] (unto David,) (Thou art) (the man.") 
 Now, the sentence, Thou art tfie man, had been formed 
 long before the sentence, "And Nathan said unto David;' 1 
 yet said is passed; but art is present! Why is this so? 
 Although art had been employed by Nathan long before 
 said was used by his historian, still, as art refers to the time 
 which was in the presence of Nathan at the time he formed 
 the sentence, it is of the present tense ; but said designates 
 time which had actually passed off — had passed out of the 
 historian's presence before he formed the sentence in which 
 said ■ used. To what passed time does said point? Said 
 points to the very time to which art points. Said points to 
 the time in which Nathan formed his sentence : — * 
 
 Thou art the man. 
 
 Here, then, are two verbs (said, art) which point to the 
 same time ; yet one has the present, the other the passed 
 tense ! The solution is this : — In relation to Nathan, this 
 
296 SYNTAX. 
 
 time is present ; but in relation to his historian, this time is 
 passed. In other phrase, it was in the presence of the one ; but 
 it had passed out of the presence of the other. If, then, the 
 1 same time may be both present, and passed, how is it that 
 the old doctrine, that the character of the time designated, 
 decides the tense of the verb, is to be sustained ? 
 
 The present tense may be called the speaking tense. That 
 is, the tense that designates the time within which the sen- 
 tence is formed^ or uttered. 
 
 Note I. 
 
 Where it may be fairly presumed that the person, or 
 thing possesses the same name, the same being, or the 
 identity, which he, or it possessed when first seen, the verb 
 should have the present tense ; as, What is the name of him 
 who called on us last week ? [Not, what was the name.] 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Note I. under Rule XXXII. 
 
 1. Father, there has been a gentleman here this morning to see yon. 
 What was his name, my child ? 
 
 The nse of the passed tense, was, for the present, is, is a violation 
 of Note I. 
 
 Note ; as, What is his name ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. (Who) [was that lad] (that was here ?) 
 
 2. [Was the man's name] (Peter,) (that has called) (this morn- 
 ing?) 
 
 3. [I objected] (to the use) (of one word,) (and he asked what 
 word) (it was.) 
 
 4. [I replied that] (it was the word) (obnoxious.) 
 
 5. (What friend) [was it] (to whom) (you alluded ?) 
 
 6. [It was] (my friend) (Mr. Jones.) 
 
 7. (What story) [was it] (that you were reading ?) 
 
 8. [He took the position] (that) (brandy always made people 
 drunk.) 
 
 9. (Who) [was he] (that came to see you (a few hours) ago.) 
 
 10. [It was] (my brother) ( , , ) (John.) 
 
 11. [Was he not] (the man) (that was a candidate) (for our next 
 governor ?) He was not. 
 
 12. [The Doctor said that] (fever always produced thirst.) 
 
SYNTAX. 297 
 
 What day will to-morrow be ? 
 
 The diversity of opinion among teachers, respecting the tense which the verb in 
 this, and similar instances, should have, seems to require an observation, or two. 
 
 1. What day is to-morrow ? What day will to-morrow be? 
 
 That the verb should have the present tense, is obvious from the consideration 
 that he who asks the question, means to inquire which of the seven names that 
 are applied to the different days in the week, is applied to that portion which fol- 
 lows the day on which he puts this question. 
 
 He intends to ask nothing but this : — 
 
 By what name have men agreed to designate that portion of time which follows 
 this day? 
 
 1. To-morrow is Thursday. 2. To-morrow will be Thursday. 
 
 That is, that portion of time which follows Wednesday, is called Thursday. 
 That day which follows Wednesday, is already, is now named Tlmrsday. 
 
 Note II. 
 
 When the name is established, the thing which certainly, 
 and punctually appears under a uniform character, at a given 
 time, may be called by its established name, in the present 
 time, even before the thing appears in actual being; as, The 
 day after Sunday is Monday. 
 
 Rule XXXILT. 
 
 When the sentence is formed within the ex- 
 pressed, or implied period of recalled present 
 time, the verb should have the re-f resent tense ; 
 as, I have written a letter to-day; I have never 
 drunk better water ; I have seen him twice in 
 my life. [See pages 149, 150.] 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXIII. 
 [I wrote] (to my brother) (to-day.) 
 The pasted tense of write, is a violation of Rule XXXIII. 
 Rule ; as, [I have written] (to my brother) (to- 
 day.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [I saw my uncle Thomas] (in market) (this morning.) 
 
 2. [Mr. Jones made a thousand dollars] (this year.) 
 
 3. (John,) [did you see the book yet?] 
 
298 SYNTAX. 
 
 Did you see your sister since] (you have been) (in Boston?) 
 
 4. 
 
 5. [I purchased this book] (this evening.) 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 I spoke (with my brother) since] (I came out.) 
 
 Will you go,] (James?) [No — ] [I concluded to remain] 
 
 (at home.) 
 
 Rule XXXIV. 
 
 When the time has all passed off before the 
 sentence is formed, the verb should have the 
 passed tense ; as, I wrote a letter yesterday ; I 
 never drank better water while I was in Europe ; 
 I saw Washington twice in his life. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXIV. 
 
 I have made out very well last year. 
 The re-present tense, is a violation of Rule XXXIV. 
 Rule ; as, I made out very well last year. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He has seen her last week in Philadelphia. 
 
 2. I have bought this pencil last year. 
 
 3. Henry has gone to school, last week. 
 
 4. He hath been in Maine, last year. 
 
 5. She has written to my brother a number of times while I was 
 in Boston. 
 
 6. While I was writing this work, I have prepared another for 
 the press. 
 
 Rule XXXV. 
 
 When the time has all passed off before the 
 sentence is formed, and one event takes place 
 before another, the verb which expresses the prior 
 event, should have the prior passed tense ; as, 
 
 1. [They had dined before] (I arrived.) 
 
 2. [I had concluded to return before] (I got my father's 
 letter.) 
 
 3. [God must have known the fate] (of man) (before he 
 created him.) 
 
SYNTAX. 299 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXV. 
 
 I went before I got the letter. 
 
 The passed tense of go, is a violation of Rule XXXV. 
 Rule ; as, I had gone before I got the letter. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Joseph wrote his copies before school commenced. 
 
 2. Jane learned her lesson before she went to school. 
 
 3. God created the earth before he formed man. 
 
 4. I was in business a number of years before my brother's 
 return. 
 
 6. They saw me twice at my own house before I called on them. 
 
 6. He finished his work before I came in. 
 
 7. I was in Reading before I went to the city. 
 
 8. I was in Pennsylvania , eighteen months before I saw 
 you. 
 
 9. He had the money two days before I called for it. 
 
 10. We knew the person before he became our friend. 
 
 11. I saw the man before he came to the city. 
 
 Rule XXXVI. 
 
 When the ne-demimono is founded upon see- 
 ing, a hope, command, desire, intention, or a duty, 
 the verb in the demimono should have the pre- 
 sent tense ; as, 
 
 1. I saw him , drink the wine. 
 
 2. They hoped to get a letter. 
 
 3. They bade him , return the books. 
 
 4. We desired to find him at home. 
 
 5. They meant to write last week. 
 
 6. He ought to come soon. 
 
 Note. — This rule is clear, because the passed tense would denote 
 that whatever is hoped for, commanded, desired, or intended, had 
 been realized before even the existence of the hope, command, 
 desire, or intention. 
 
300 SYNTAX. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXVI. 
 
 I intended to have written to you last week. 
 
 As this ne-demimono is founded upon an intention, write should 
 have the present tense. 
 Rule ; as, I intended to write to you. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 •. 
 
 1. They meant to have written last Monday. 
 
 2. We desired to have found him at home. 
 
 3. The teacher told us to have done these sums. 
 
 4. They intended to have returned. 
 
 5. We hoped to have seen all the family happy. 
 
 6. They desired us to have gone home with them. 
 
 7. They saw us to have gone to school. 
 
 8. He saw me to have eat my dinner. 
 
 Rule XXXVII. 
 
 When the event expressed in the demimono 
 happens before that expressed in the we-demi- 
 mono, the verb in the demimono should have 
 the prior passed tense ; as, I was delighted to 
 have seen my brother; He was glad to have 
 paid the debt. 
 
 Here it is clear that the seeing had taken place before the 
 delight was felt ; as, He was delighted on Saturday to have 
 seen his brother on Friday. 
 
 It is also obvious that the payment had been made before 
 the gladness was felt. 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 Before leaving this tense of the verb in the demimono, it 
 may be well enough just to say that the very common, and 
 highly authorized expression, he "ought to have written," is 
 no better than "he hoped to have seen his son." 
 

 
 SYNTAX. 301 
 
 The word ought denotes duty — written denotes an action — 
 and have indicates that he had done the action even before 
 the duty is represented to exist ! He should have written, 
 is good. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting oy Rule XXXVII. 
 
 I was much pleased yesterday to pay the debt , the day , 
 , ,~ before. 
 
 As the paying had taken place before the pleasure was felt, pay 
 Ehould have the prior passed tense. 
 
 Rule ; as, I was much pleased yesterday to have 
 
 paid the debt the day before. 
 
 EXERCISES. . . 
 
 1. I was very sorry last evening to see you the night , , , 
 before. 
 
 2. I have been happy to-day to see you at church , last Sab- 
 bath. 
 
 3. He was delighted on Saturday to see his brother on Friday. 
 
 4. I was much pleased , yesterday to see you the day , , 
 , before, at my house.* 
 
 5. I am really sorry to see you in so much trouble, , last 
 week. 
 
 6. William was hurt on Thursday to see Henry misbehave , 
 the day , , , before. 
 
 7. He was much pleased on Monday to see his sister at his church, 
 on Sunday. 
 
 8. He was much pleased on Wednesday to find her in good health 
 the day , , before. 
 
 Rule XXXVIH. 
 
 When the events in both parts of the mono, 
 happen at the same time, both parts should have 
 the present, or the ne-demi?nono part, the passed 
 tense; as, I am delighted to see you; I was 
 delighted to see you last evening at my house. 
 
 * I was much pleased on yesterday to see you at my house, on the day which 
 had com* before yesterday came. 
 
 2G 
 
302 SYNTAX. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Kule XXXVIII. 
 I was delighted to have seen you last evening at my house. 
 As both events happened at the same time, the demimono should 
 have the present tense. 
 
 Rule ; as, I was delighted to see you last evening 
 
 at my house. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. I was pleased yesterday to have seen you. 
 
 2. I hope to have got a letter to-day. 
 
 3. I saw you to have written the letter. 
 
 4. I am glad to have had the money by me at this time. 
 
 5. I went to the city to have seen the Philadelphia Museum. 
 
 Rule XXXIX. 
 
 When the whole of the time alluded to in the 
 mono, falls after the formation of the sentence, 
 the verb should have the future tense ; as, I 
 shall dine at two o'clock; I will see you again; 
 [We shall see our friends when] (the stage re- 
 turns.) 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 When the stage returns, we shall see our friends. 
 
 This form of expression is common. But it is not cor- 
 rect. It should be — When the stage shall have returned, 
 we shall see our friends. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXIX. 
 Henry is coming , to-morrow. 
 As all the time alluded to by the verb, falls after the formation 
 of the sentence, the future tense should be used. 
 Rule ; as, Henry will come on to-morrow. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. There is no preaching at our church to-morrow. 
 
 2. He sees me next week on this business. 
 
 3. James, is there any lecturing in the city , next week? 
 
 4. There is a public sale at that house next Christmas. 
 
SYNTAX. 303 
 
 Rule XL. 
 
 When one portion of future time is represented 
 as prior to another, the verb which expresses the 
 event that happens in the prior portion, should 
 have the prior future tense ; as, When the stage 
 shall have returned, we shall see our friends ; 
 We shall have dined by two o'clock ; I shall have 
 seen the merchant before you will return. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XL. 
 We shall dine by two o'clock. 
 
 As dine expresses the event that is to happen in the prior portion 
 of time, the mono, we shall dine, should have the prior future tense. 
 Bulb ; as, We shall have dined by two o'clock. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. We shall get some news by eleven o'clock. 
 
 2. James will write you before next week , , . 
 
 3. He will send you the book before you want it. 
 
 4. John will call before you set out for Boston. 
 
 5. You shall see me again by ten o'clock. 
 
 6. When the mail returns we shall get some news.* 
 
 7. He will come by four o'clock , to-morrow. 
 
 8. I shall see the man before you return. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The obvious impropriety of promising in affirmative monos of the 
 prior future tense, makes it improper to use will with a pronoun 
 of the par-e-theme reladiction, or shall with one of the pros-o-theme, 
 or the panta-theme reladiction in this tense ; as, 
 
 1. I will have dined by two o'clock. (Bad.) 
 
 2. Thou shalt have arrived by seven o'clock. (Bad.) 
 
 3. They shall have come before you return. (Bad.) 
 
 * The tronc is correct, but the conlictive clad is not. 
 
804 SYNTAX. 
 
 As foretelling is consistent in these cases, shall should be used 
 with /, and will with thou, and they, and cordicbive nouns ; as, 
 
 1. I shall have dined by two o'clock. 
 
 2. Thou wilt have arrived by seven o'clock. 
 
 3. They will have come before you return. 
 
 Shall, Will. 
 
 1. In the par-e-theme reladiction, shall foretells only. 
 
 2. In the pros-o-theme, and in the panta-theme reladiction, shall 
 promises, threatens, or commands. 
 
 3. In the par-e-theme reladiction, will expresses a promise, or a 
 resolve. 
 
 4. In the pros-o-theme, and in the panta-theme reladiction, will 
 generally foretells. 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 Under the Remark which is Supplemental to Rule XL. 
 
 1. I will have dined by two o'clock. 
 
 2. I will have gone to school before ten o'clock , , . 
 
 3. Thou shalt have arrived by seven o'clock. 
 
 4. Thou shalt have come before I want you. 
 
 5. He shall have gone by noon. 
 
 6. They shall have come before you return. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Tt may be well to say here that the monos in which the tenseless 
 Be form is used causativelg, have no tense in themselves ; as, (lie 
 being) (a wise man) [we give heed] (to his counsel.) 
 
 1. Give, in the trone, is the tense of the mono, he being — and, 
 SiSgive is present, he being is likewise present. 
 
 2. (He being) (a wise man) [we gave heed] (to his counsel.) 
 Here, he being is of the passed tense. This tense is found in gave, 
 
 in the trone. 
 
 OBSERVATION. 
 
 When what is said of a subject is true at all times, the 
 verb should have the present tense; as, Virtue is commend- 
 able ; Honesty is always the better policy. 
 
SYNTAX. 305 
 
 LESSON III. 
 A SUITABLENESS OP ONE WORD TO ANOTHER. 
 
 A suitableness of one word to another, is the adaptation 
 of the shade of thought, expressed by the subordinate word 
 to the shade of thought expressed by the super. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 1. The horses run. (Good.) 
 
 2. Water runs. (Bad.) 
 
 3. Henry has arrived at Boston. (Good.) 
 
 4. Henry has arrived to Boston. (Bad.) 
 
 5. Let my right hand forget her cunning. (Bad.) 
 
 6. This man has a strong voice. (Good.) 
 
 7. This man has a beautiful voice. (Bad.) 
 
 8. " The Lord hath heard the voice of my weeping." 
 (Bad.) 
 
 9. The Lord hath heard my weeping. (Good.) 
 
 10. " And I will cut down your images, and cast your 
 carcasses upon the carcasses of your idols/' (Bad.) 
 
 11. u Enoch was translated that he should not see death." 
 (Bad.) 
 
 12. " The sword shall devour, and shall be satiate, and 
 made drunk with their blood" (Bad.) 
 
 13. " The obstinacy in Essex, proceeded from his jealousy 
 that when the King had got him, he would take revenge 
 upon him. ,, — Lord Clarendon. (Bad.) 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. Strictly speaking, that which has no feet, cannot be said to 
 run. Water has no feet — hence water, and run, are not suited one 
 to the other. 
 
 2. Arrived implies that the act is to be soon continued, changed, 
 or inverted. And, as at expresses nothing to the contrary, this 
 preposition is suited to arrived. 
 
 3. To implies a finishing, a termination of the action — hence to 
 is not suited to arrived. He arrived at Boston — but, then, he is 
 soon to leave Boston for another place. 
 
 2G* 
 
30G SYNTAX. 
 
 He has come to Boston. 
 
 The word, come, does not intimate that he is to leave Boston. 
 If come expresses any thing besides the mere action, it favours the 
 idea expressed by to, which is that the action is finished — not to be 
 resumed. 
 
 5. "Let my right hand forget her cunning." 
 
 Forget is an action Of the mind. But the hand is not only not 
 the mind, but it is a member which has no mind. The hand not 
 only has no mind, but it has nothing which resembles mind. Handy 
 and forget, then, are not adapted one to the other. 
 
 6. " This man has a strong voice." 
 That a voice has strength is obvious. 
 
 " Who in the days of his flesh, when he offered up prayers 
 with strong crying, and tears." 
 
 7. " This man has a beautiful voice." 
 
 Beauty is a property which comes to the mind through the medium 
 of the eye. Voice comes to the mind through the medium of the 
 ear. Beauty, however, is something which we never hear — we see 
 beauty. 
 
 A voice may be charming, delightful, pleasing, strong, feeble, weak, 
 acute, shrill, &c. 
 
 That there is a property in voice, similar in its effects upon the 
 mind, to the beauty of an object, is obvious. This property, how- 
 ever, should not be denominated beautiful, but delightful, melodious. 
 
 " And music more melodious than the spheres." — -Bryden. 
 
 8. " The Lord hath heard the voice of my weeping." 
 
 That voice, and weeping are ill suited one to the other, is obvi- 
 ous from the consideration that weeping does not express any thing 
 which has the organs of articulation. How can the weeping utter a 
 voice ? 
 
 The Lord hath heard my weeping, is correct. 
 
 11. " Enoch was translated that he should not see death." 
 
 See implies that whatever is represented to be seen, is visible ; 
 but death implies that the state which it expresses, is- invisible. 
 Hence the shade of the thought denoted by see, is incongruous with 
 the shade of the thought expressed by death. 
 
 In the following, see is properly used : — 
 
 We have seen the land, and, behold, it is very good. — 
 Judges xviii. 
 
 But, in the following, see is not well used : — £ 
 
 I turned to see the voice that spoke with me. — Rev. i. 
 
 I see another laiv in my members. — Rom. vii. 
 
SYNTAX. 307 
 
 12. " The sword shall devour, and shall be satiate, and 
 be made drunk with their blood." 
 
 How can a sword, whioh is both lifeless, and toothless, devour? 
 And, as a sword has no stomach, nor any thing analogous to a 
 stomach, how can it be filled to satiety? Again, as to make drunk, 
 is to stupefy by the action of spirits on the stomach, and brain, how 
 can a sword, which has neither of these organs, be made drunk? 
 
 The word, drunk, implies, that that which makes one drunk, has 
 some stupefying power which is exerted upon him who is made 
 drunk, — but has blood any stupefying power ? 
 
 13. " The obstinacy in Essex, proceeded from his jealousy, 
 that when the Kiraj had got him, he would take revenge 
 upon him." 
 
 As jealousy exists between equals only, and as Essex, a mere 
 subject, was not the King's equal, jealousy should give place to sus- 
 picion. 
 
 10. " And I will cut down your images, and cast your 
 carcasses upon the carcasses of your idols. \ 
 
 This sentence is introduced, not to illustrate the fitness of one 
 word in respect to another — nor is it here employed to show the 
 want of a suitableness of one word in respect to another. It is 
 employed to furnish an occasion for showing that the want of a 
 suitableness of one word to another, is not the only particular in 
 which error may be committed in the use of language. The seve- 
 ral words of this sentence are perfectly adapted to each other : — 
 
 " And I will cut down your images, and cast your car- 
 casses upon the carcasses of your idols." 
 
 The impropriety lies in applying the word, carcasses, to mere 
 pieces of images. 
 
 This impropriety Will appear more clear from the fact that tin's 
 word is made from caro, and casa vita, flesh without life. The 
 word, carcass, is employed to designate the body as a lifeless lump. 
 
 From this use the word has come to be applied to the decaying 
 remains of a bulky thing; as, This is the carcass of the ship, John 
 Adams. 
 
 It has also come to be applied to the mere frame of a thing 
 which is unfinished. 
 
 But the word, carcass, should never be applied to the decomposed 
 parts of an animal body — nor should it be applied to the various 
 parts into which a frame of a boat, or a ship, may be divided. 
 The parts must be together in the form of a frame — otherwise the 
 word, carcass, cannot be applied. 
 
 " I will cut down your images, and east your carcasses 
 upon the carcasses of your idols." 
 
o08 SYNTAX. 
 
 That is, I will hew dozen, cut into pieces, your images ; and 
 I will then cast your own bodies upon the bodies of these 
 images, or idols. The error here does not consist in a want of 
 suitableness of one word to another, but in a want of a suitable- 
 ness of the word, carcasses, to the things to which it is applied. 
 
 " I will cut down your images, and cast your carcasses 
 upon the fragments of your idols/' 
 
 It may also be doubted whether the word, carcasses, is properly 
 applied in the first part of this sentence. The word means a life- 
 less lump of flesh. But, as the author of the sentence intended to 
 say to these idolaters that he considered them dead to every thing 
 which is right, there is a degree of propriety in calling them car- 
 casses. 
 
 [This, and similar errors fall under Syn-de-col-o-gy, which is 
 the theme of Book III.] 
 
 As a further exemplification of this particular part of Syntax, 
 it may be well enough to give the different shades of thought, 
 which are expressed by words that are nearly synonymous. 
 
 Amend, Correct) Reform, Rectify, Emend, Improve, Mend, 
 and Better. 
 
 Although there may not be any two words which express idea3 
 that are exactly alike in all their shades; yet there are many 
 which express thoughts that are nearly alike in all respects. 
 
 For example, amend, correct, reform, rectify, emend, improve, mend, 
 and better, have the same general import, though not the same pai-- 
 ticular one. These words all imply some change for the better. 
 But, then, some of them denote the act of making better by dimi- 
 nishing ■evil ; the others denote this act by increasing good. Amend, 
 correct, rectify, and emend, denote acts which tend to diminish evil. 
 Improve, reform, and better, denote acts which increase good. These 
 seven words, then, from their manner of signification, divide them- 
 selves into two classes, namely, affirmative, and negative. The 
 affirmative class denotes the increase of good. The negative, the 
 decrease of evil. Now the individuals of either class differ as 
 much from each other as the classes do from one another. 
 
 Amend, Latin amendo, from amenda, a fault in transcribing, de- 
 notes the act which removes this fault. 
 
 Correct, Latin correctus, participle of corrigo, compounded of con, 
 and rego, denotes the act of setting in order. 
 
 lleform, compounded of re and form, means to form anew, or put 
 into a new form. 
 
 Rectify, Latin rectifico, compounded of rectus, smdfacio, signifies 
 to make, or put aright. 
 
 Emend, Latin emendo, to correct. 
 
 Improve, Latin in, and probo, to prove, or try, means to make any 
 thing good, or better, by trials, or experiments. 
 
SYNTAX. 309 
 
 The following examples show the manner in which these words 
 ire applied : — 
 
 "This man amended his private conduct, corrected his 
 public errors, rectified all his mistakes, reformed his life, 
 improved his mind, and Lettered the condition of his 
 family." 
 
 Hence it is seen that we amend conduct, correct errors, rectify mis- 
 takes, reform our lives, improve the mind, and better conditions. 
 
 To say, then, that he has corrected his conduct, or amended his 
 errors, would be to commit a mistake in the use of these words, 
 which should be rectified. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Perhaps there is no accomplishment which becomes the lady, or 
 the gentleman, more than the faculty of despatch, ease, and accu- 
 racy in colloquial intercourse. And while there are few better 
 calculated to grace the scholar, the philosopher, or the profes- 
 sional man, there is no secondary one of more importance to the 
 teacher, and parent. As parents, and teachers set examples 
 which the child generally follows, they must reform, or incompe- 
 tency in the use of speech must continue as long as time itself. 
 
 The following instances give a fair specimen of the inaccuracy 
 of that language which children follow as a rule of speech both at 
 home, and at school : — 
 
 I set with ease. 
 
 He set there last evening. 
 
 The book lays on the table. 
 
 The robber was hung. 
 
 He writes like John did. 
 
 I done it as well as I could. 
 
 It is broke to pieces. 
 
 I have a notion to go to church 
 
 They informed me how his father was a merchant. 
 
 This root is a preventative against a fever. 
 
 Jane, put these things to rights. 
 
 Brother will return the latter end of March. 
 
 Sags I to him, who done this? 
 
 Many take great pains in dress to appear well, and secure atten- 
 tion ; and, so far as personal appearance can exert an influence, 
 they attain to their end. But did they cultivate their own language 
 so that they may not deform themselves in conversation, they 
 might completely accomplish the object at which they aim. Many 
 
310 SYNTAX. 
 
 rely entirely upon their personal appearance ; but the more in- 
 teresting, and superior their external beauty, the more apparent, 
 and impressive are all their defects : for the fairer a diamond, the 
 greater the pity that it should have a blemish. It is not only ridicu- 
 lous that young ladies, and gentlemen should render themselves 
 repulsive by swerving from all propriety in speech, but a reflection 
 upon the species to which they belong. 
 
 To converse, narrate, or relate with accuracy, and interest, at- 
 tention must be given to the following points : — 
 
 1. The proper pronunciation of words. 
 
 2. The proper application of them. 
 
 3. The proper collocation of them. 
 
 4- The proper form, or modification of them. 
 
 5. The proper number of words. 
 
 6. The nature of the subject. 
 
 7. The importance of it. 
 
 8. The probable degree of interest, which will be felt 
 in it. 
 
 9. The proper place for beginning. 
 
 10. The interesting, and the uninteresting parts. 
 
 11. The length of time, which those whom one addresses, 
 can conveniently devote to the subject. 
 
 SIT, SET, LIE, LAY. 
 
 In the use of these words, individuals are very liable to commit 
 error ; they are words which every person should understand well, 
 and rightly use, if he would prevent his being classed with the 
 illiterate, and vulgar. 
 
 1. Sit denotes a state, or a posture of a person, or thing, 
 has two tense forms, sit, sat, and is used thus : — 
 
 He sits with his brother now ; but he formerly sal with 
 his sister. 
 
 There are many persons who use sot, and sale* as the passed 
 tense of sit, instead of sat; as, he sot there last evening. The use 
 of this corruption shows a culpable want of care in the use of words. 
 
 2. Set denotes action, has no variation to mark different 
 times, and is used thus : — 
 
 He set her a chair in which she set down — and, while she 
 sat there, she saw her brother sitting in his study, setting his 
 books in order. 
 
 * Sate is alwavs used for sat, in Macaulay's History of England, London ed. 
 
SYNTAX. 311 
 
 Set has no tense variation ; its time is varied by have, had, did, 
 is, was, &c. ; as, I have set back the chairs ; She had set them 
 away. 
 
 We are not very liable to commit error by using another word 
 where set should be employed — but we are quite liable to err by 
 using set for sit ; as, He sets in that pew ; I set there last Sabbath. 
 
 3. Lie denotes a state, or posture, marks different times 
 by three forms, lie, lay, lain, and is used thus : — 
 
 The book lies on the table now ; It lay there last even- 
 ing ; and it has lain there ever since. 
 
 4. Lay denotes action, has two tense forms, lay, laid, and 
 is used thus : — 
 
 He lays his hand upon the table ; He laid his book on 
 the bench. 
 
 N. B. — Where lay denotes a state, or posture, it is the passed 
 tense of lie; as, The book lay on the table last evening. 
 
 But when lay denotes action, it is the present of laid; as, John, 
 lay your book upon the table. 
 
 We are quite liable to commit error by using lay for lie; as, The 
 book lays on the table. 
 
 < 
 
 IMPEOPEB. PEOPEE. 
 
 I set* with ease. I sit, &c. 
 
 I set there last evening. I sat, &c. 
 
 He has laid here. He has lain, &c. 
 
 It was lain on the table. It was laid, &c. 
 
 The book laid on the desk. The book lay, &c. 
 
 I must lay\ there. I must lie there. 
 
 Will you sit down. Will you set down. 
 
 Note. — Here the idea to be denoted is not that of a state, or 
 position ; but that of action. Will you set down ? That is, will 
 you set, or put yourself into a chair. 
 
 The robber has laid on the m, 1 1 i_ , . „ 
 ^ The robber has lain, &c. 
 
 The robber was hung. The robber was hanged. 
 
 Note. — We say the hat is hung up — but the robber was hanged. 
 Hung denotes a state, or posture — hanged means an act, or deed 
 by which life is taken. 
 
 Set is often used in the sense of fit; as, the coat sets well. 
 
 This use of the word, however, is not in accordance with its 
 true import. It is quite probable that even here sets is improperly 
 
 * Hens set. f Hens lay. 
 
312 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 used for siis. The coat sits well. That is, it sits upon one as a 
 person may sit upon a chair. It sits upon him. That is, it does 
 not hang off, but touches him, or comes in contact with him, as he 
 who sits on a chair, or any other seat, comes in contact with it. 
 In favour of this position, the striking analogy between the posture 
 of a coat which seems to be falling from its wearer, and that of a 
 person who appears to be falling from his seat, may be adduced. 
 
 1. The coat siis on the bodywell. 
 
 2. The man sits on the chair firmly. 
 
 Rule XLI. 
 
 Words which express shades of thought, in- 
 consistent one with another, should not be so 
 used that they will have any bearing upon 
 each other. 
 
 In this table, the shade of thought expressed by the Preposition, and that 
 expressed by the word, with which the Preposition is used, are suited 
 one to the other. 
 
 Abhorrence of. 
 Abhorrent to. 
 Accommodate to. 
 Accord to, with. 
 Accuse of. 
 Acquit of. 
 
 Acting with, for, against. 
 Adapted to. 
 Adjudge in, to, for. 
 Adjutory to. 
 Adjutant to. 
 Admire at, in. 
 Admission of, to, into. 
 Admit of, into. 
 Afflictive to. 
 Admonition of. 
 Admittance into, of. 
 Advantage of, over. 
 Advised of, by. 
 Admonish of. 
 Adjudge of, to. 
 Adverse to. 
 Agreeable to. 
 Amazed at. 
 
 Admonished of, by, against. 
 Approbation of, to. 
 Arrive at. 
 Approval of. 
 
 Ask of, for, after. 
 Astonished at. 
 Aspire to. 
 Averse to. 
 Aversion to. 
 Be at. 
 Been at. 
 Believe in, on. 
 Bestow upon. 
 Betray into. 
 Boast of. 
 Brag of. 
 Break into. 
 Call on, at, to, for. 
 Charge with, on. 
 Charge to, for, with. 
 Compare to, with. 
 Compliance icith. 
 Concur with, in, on. 
 Confide in. 
 Conformable to. 
 Consonant to. 
 Contrary to. 
 Conversant in, with. 
 Correspond to, with. 
 Correspondent to. 
 Correspondence with, to, 
 Copy after, from. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 313 
 
 Cut into, in, with, &c. 
 
 Caution against. 
 
 Change into, to. 
 
 Confused with, by. 
 
 Claim to, on, upon, against. 
 
 Convicted of, by. 
 
 Debtor, to, for. 
 
 Dependent upon. 
 
 Deprive of. 
 
 Derogation from. 
 
 Derogative to. 
 
 Derogatory to. 
 
 Desire of, for. 
 
 Die of, by, with. 
 
 Dislike to. 
 
 Differ with, from, in. 
 
 Difficulty in, with. 
 
 Diminish from. 
 
 Diminution of. 
 
 Disappointed in, of. 
 
 Disapprove of. 
 
 Discourage from. 
 
 Discouragement to. 
 
 Dissent from. 
 
 Defalcation from. 
 
 Dangerous to, for. 
 
 Defamatory to. 
 
 Default of. 
 
 Defiance to, of. -> 
 
 Deflux of. 
 
 Defluxion from. 
 
 Delay of, from, in, by. 
 
 Demand of, on, upon, against. 
 
 Destructive of, to. 
 
 Detach from. 
 
 Detachment of, to. 
 
 Deter from. 
 
 Detract from. 
 
 Detraction of. 
 
 Detractive, to, of. 
 
 Detention of, in, by. 
 
 Deterge from. 
 
 Different from. 
 
 Displeasing to. 
 
 Eager in. 
 
 Easy for. 
 
 Enmity to. 
 
 Engaged in, for, at. 
 
 Equal with, to. 
 
 Exception to, at, against. 
 
 Expert at, in. 
 
 Entrance to, into. 
 
 Enter into. 
 
 Entrust to, with, for. 
 
 Fall under. 
 
 Familiar with, to. 
 
 Foundation of, for. 
 
 Free from, of. 
 
 Friend of, to. 
 
 Friendly with. 
 
 Glad at, of. 
 
 Hatred to, of. 
 
 Hope of, for. 
 
 Incorporate with, into. 
 
 In dependent of, on, upon. 
 
 Indulge in, with. 
 
 Insist upon. 
 
 Introduce to, into. 
 
 Introduction to, into. 
 
 Introductive to. 
 
 Intrude upon, into. 
 
 Inferior to, in. 
 
 Invite in, into. 
 
 Key to, of. 
 
 Limited to. 
 
 Live on, upon. 
 
 Made of, from. 
 
 Marry to. 
 
 Martyr for. 
 
 Model of. 
 
 Need of. 
 
 Necessity of, for. 
 
 Necessary to, for. 
 
 Offensive to. 
 
 Offend against. 
 
 Offence at, to. 
 
 Pervious to. 
 
 Place in. 
 
 Plan of, for. 
 
 Prevail on, upon, over, against, 
 
 in. 
 Prejudice against, of. 
 Profit by. 
 
 Protect against, from. 
 Provide for, with. 
 Permission of. 
 Permeable to. 
 Previous to. 
 Predicated of. 
 Placed in, to, by, for, with, at. 
 
 4 
 
314 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Preventive of, against. 
 
 Put into, in, to. 
 
 Pleased with, by. 
 
 Pleasing to, in. 
 
 Prior to. 
 
 Purchased at, in, for, by. 
 
 Reconcile with, to. 
 
 Reduce to, under, in, from. 
 
 Receive at, to. 
 
 Reflect on, upon. 
 
 Regard to, in. 
 
 Replete with. 
 
 Resemblance to, of between. 
 
 Resolved on. 
 
 Rule over. 
 
 Reproved of, for, at, in, by. 
 
 Right of to. 
 
 Reside at, in. 
 
 Same with. 
 
 Secretary of, to. 
 
 Sink into, beneath, under. 
 
 Sick of, with. 
 
 Sold at, in, by, for, above. 
 
 Split in, into, for, by, with. 
 
 Surprised at. 
 
 Suited to. 
 
 Suitableness to. 
 
 Suitable for. 
 
 Swerve from. 
 
 Taste of, for. 
 
 Tax for, with. 
 
 Think on, of with, upon. 
 
 True to. 
 
 Tendency to. 
 
 Value on, upon, of 
 
 Vested with, in. 
 
 Wait on, upon. 
 
 Worthy of. 
 
 Walk in, into. 
 
 Warn against. 
 
 Warning against, of, by. 
 
 War with, against. 
 
 Wish of, for. 
 
 Witness to, for, against. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Accord to, Accord with. 
 
 When accord signifies to adjust one thing to another, it requires 
 to ; as, Her hands accorded the music of the lute to that of the 
 voice. 
 
 But when accord signifies to agree, to be in correspondence, it 
 requires with ; as, His words accord with the truth. 
 
 2. Inquire of. Inquire for, Inquire after. 
 
 We inquire, or ask for a book. We ask of a person after some- 
 thing of which we desire to hear. 
 
 3. Call on , Call at. 
 
 We call on a person — and we call at a house. 
 
 4. Charge with, Charge 'upon. 
 
 We charge a person with a crime — but we charge the error in 
 the account on our attorney. 
 
 5. Compare to, Compare with. 
 
 When we attempt to illustrate one thing by another, we com- 
 pare one thing to another ; as, Christ is compared to a Iamb. 
 But, when the idea is nothing more than a resemblance in some 
 
SYNTAX. 315 
 
 quality, we say compared with ; as, These small galleys cannot be 
 compared with our tall ships. 
 
 6. Concur withy Concur in, Concur on. 
 
 We say, they concur with each other in opinion, on this subject. 
 Hence, with, in, and on, may follow concur. 
 
 7. Conversant with, Conversant in. 
 
 We say, Henry is conversant with men — not, in men. But we 
 say, Henry is conversant in the arts — not, with the arts. 
 
 8. Copy from, Copy after. 
 
 We say, he copies from nature — not, after nature. But we say, 
 he copies after, not from, his father. 
 
 9. Correspond to, Correspond with. 
 
 When correspond signifies to keep up an intercourse with another 
 by letter, we say with ; as, I have corresponded with my brother 
 for several years on this subject. 
 
 But, when correspond means to agree in one, or more respects, 
 we use to; as, These books correspond to mine with regard to the 
 amount of goods sold. 
 
 10. Died of, Died by. 
 
 We say, he died of the consumption. But, we do not say, he 
 died of, but, by a fall — not, of, but, by the sword. 
 
 11. Differ with, Differ from. 
 
 When men dispute, and wrangle, we say, they differ with one 
 another. But, when they disagree in opinion, we say, they differ 
 from one another. 
 
 12. Equal to, Eqmal with. 
 
 We say, he is equal to — not, with, the undertaking. But, we 
 eay, they made the aged equal in spoils with — not, to, themselves. 
 
 13. Exception to, Exception at, Exception against. 
 
 We say, there is an exception to this rule. When opposition is 
 made, agchut may be used; as, They made exceptions againet this 
 argument. 
 
 When didike appears to aeeempany the objection, take is gene- 
 rally used ; as, He took exception at my last remark. Iu this case, 
 exception may be followed by at, to, or against ; as. Why should he 
 take exception at Uus remark ? To take exception to my remark, 
 because it is severe, is to take au exception against me. " Rode- 
 rigo, thou hast taken against me an exception." — Shakspeare. 
 
 14. Indulge with, Indulge in. 
 
 If the matter of indulgence is not a habit, we use with; as, He 
 
316 SYNTAX. 
 
 indulged himself with a glass of wine. But, if the matter of indul- 
 gence is a habit, we use in; as, Henry indulges in over-eating. 
 
 15. Introduce to, Introduce into. 
 
 We say of a man, he was introduced to the President. But, we 
 say of a book, it was introduced into school. It is important to 
 introduce good habits into children. 
 
 16. Introduction to, Introduction into. 
 
 The introduction of the President to the company. The intro- 
 duction of these goods into America. 
 
 17. Intrude upon. Intrude into. 
 
 He intruded himself upon the ground. He intruded into the 
 room. 
 
 18. Prevail on, Prevail upon, Prevail over, Prevail against, 
 
 Prevail in. 
 
 When prevail signifies to persuade, we use with, on, or upon; as, 
 I wish that I could prevail with you to return to Boston ; He pre- 
 vailed on me to accompany him ; The glass had a charm which 
 prevailed upon him to break his temperance vow. 
 
 But, when prevail signifies to overcome, to subdue, to get the 
 advantage, we use over, or against; as, " David prevailed over the 
 Philistine with a sling, and a stone;" England will not prevail 
 against America. 
 
 When prevail signifies to extend over with influence, we use in ; 
 as, The fever prevailed in a great part of the city. 
 
 19. Protect against, Protect from. 
 
 We protect ourselves against the rain. But, we protect others 
 from the rain. 
 
 20. Reconcile to, Reconcile with. 
 
 We say, we will attempt to reconcile these persons to each other. 
 But, we do not say, we will undertake to reconcile his statement 
 to the truth. Here, with should be used ; as, We will reconcile his 
 statement with the truth of the case. 
 
 21. To Reduce under, Reduce to. 
 
 When reduce means to subdue, we use under ; as, England would 
 be glad to reduce us under her control. But, when reduce signifies 
 to take from one condition to another, we use to ; as, He would be 
 glad to reduce these rooks to powder ; Can he reduce whole num- 
 bers to fractions with perfect ease ? He is reduced to a skeleton. 
 
 22. Disappointed of, Disappointed in. 
 
 When we are disappointed in obtaining a thing, we use of— but 
 when in the quality, or character of a person, or thing, we use in. 
 
SYNTAX. 317 
 
 Discouragement, according to the sense, may have of, by, in, or 
 tcith. 
 
 Glad, may have of, or at, but not on. 
 
 Difference, may have among, between, or betwixt, but rarely of. 
 
 Failed, requires in, or of, according to the sense ; as, He failed 
 in his business, because he failed of collecting his demands. 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 The same prepositions which follow the primitive word, gene- 
 rally follow the derivative ; as. Derive from, Derivation from ; 
 Friend to, Friendly to. 
 
 Note I.— Where the relation denoted by t*t« preposition is mere 
 acquaintance, of should be used after friend; as, He was a friend 
 of mine. 
 
 But, when the relation is real friendship, or genuine affection, 
 to should be used ; as, He is a friend to the poor ; They have long 
 been friends to me ; Washington was a friend to his country. 
 
 Note II. — Although, generally, the same preposition which fol- 
 lows the primitive words, follows the derivative, yet we say dimi- 
 nish from ; but diminution of— and sometimes friend of; but in all 
 eases, friendly to. 
 
 Note III.— One noun should not be subjoined to another, unless 
 both will admit the same preposition ; as, This is a ride., and guide 
 to his conduct. 
 
 Now, as we eannot say rule to, the construction of the sentence 
 should be changed, that each noun may have its proper preposi- 
 tion ; as, This is a rule of, and a guide to his conduct. ^ 
 
 Note IV. — Between, and betwixt, should be used where there are 
 but two things — among, and amongst, where there are more than 
 two ; as, Between these two, there is great contention ; but among 
 these three, there is great harmony. 
 
 Note V. — When we are disappointed in obtaining a thing, we 
 use of; as, They have been disappointed of money. 
 
 But, when we possess the thing, and the quality does not come 
 up to our expectations, we use in; as, They are disappointed in 
 these silks. 
 
 Note VI. — During should be used only where the event continues 
 through all the period which is mentioned ; as, I have written let- 
 ters during the day. 
 
 Invite, Put, Split, Took, Walk, Key. 
 
 Invite, when the mono shows where the invitation is given, re- 
 quires in ; as, He invited me in the street, to call at his houses 
 Invite, when the mono shows to what place one is invited, re- 
 27* 
 
318 ' SYNTAX. 
 
 quires into, or to; as, He invited me into his house; They invited 
 her to our house. 
 
 In may be used as an adverb ; as, He invited me in. 
 
 Put, when the mono shows where the act is done, requires in ; 
 as, He put his hand upon me, in this room. 
 
 Put, when the mono shows into what something is put, requires 
 into; as, He put the dollar into his pocket. 
 
 Split, when the mono shows where something is split, requires 
 in ; as, He split the log in the cellar. 
 
 Split, when the mono shows the division itself of a thing, re- 
 quires into ; as, He split the log into two. 
 
 Took, requires in as a preposition ; as, They took the stranger 
 in. 
 
 Took, requires into as a preposition ; as, He took the book into 
 his hands. 
 
 Walk, when the mono intimates the leaving of one place for 
 another, requires into ; as, He walked into the house. 
 
 Walk, when the mono shows where the action is done without 
 intimating the leaving of one place for another, requires in ; as, 
 He walks in his own room. 
 
 Walk, requires in as a preposition ; as, Will you walk in, sir ? 
 
 Key, When the noun denotes a part of a thing, requires of; as, 
 This is the key of that lock. 
 
 Key, when the thing mentioned, is presented as a kind of guide, 
 or clue, requires to; as, This event furnishes a key to all the 
 secrets in the case. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Whether, Neither, Although, Unless, As, So, Not only, 
 Both. 
 
 Whether, and either, require or; as, He is either good, or bad; 
 It is not known whether he is good, or bad. 
 
 Neither, requires nor ; as, He would neither do it, nor permit 
 me to do it. 
 
 Although, and though, require yet, or nevertheless ; as, Though 
 the house is small, yet it is very convenient ; Although he was rich, 
 yet for our sakes he became poor ; Though he desires it, neverthe- 
 less I cannot yield. - - 
 
 As, in a comparison, requires so; as, As your day is, so it shall 
 be unto you. 
 
 As, where it refers to an adjective in a comparison of equality, 
 requires as ; as, I think Milton as great a poet as Virgil. 
 
 So, where it refers to an adjective, requires that t or as; as, I 
 was so tired that I fell asleep. 
 
 As, and so, in these cases, are subadjectives. 
 
 Both, requires and. Not only, requires but, 
 
SYNTAX. 319 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLI. 
 1. [I arrived] (in the city) ( , yesterday.) 
 The use of in for at, is a violation of Rule XLI. 
 Bulb ; as, [I arrived] (at the city) (yesterday.) 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 Words which enable the mind barely to infer the idea, 
 should not be substituted for those which would clearly ex- 
 press it. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by the Note appended to Rule XLI. 
 [It is right cold] (to-day.) 
 
 The substitution of right for very, is a violation of the Note ap- 
 pended to Rule XLI. 
 
 Note ; as, [It is very cold] (to-day.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [I arrived] (in Boston) Ton Monday.) 
 
 2. ^He was accused] (for this crime.) 
 
 3. 'My abhorrence (at the man) is great.] 
 
 4. 'He was acquitted] (from the charge.) 
 
 5. This system is not adapted] (for children.) 
 0. He has come agreeably] (with his promise.) 
 
 7. I have an aversion] (for all kinds) (of vice.) 
 
 8. 'He bestows encomiums] (on the work.) 
 
 9. 'Stephen boasts] (about his goodness.) 
 
 10. He brags] (about his activity.) 
 
 11. 'Thomas broke the stick] (in two.) 
 
 12. 'James called (upon me) very early.] 
 
 13. [Do they confide] (to each other?) [Yes, some have great 
 confidence] (for others.) 
 
 14. [I am not conversant] (with Greek.) 
 
 15. He acted conformably] (with his instruction.) 
 10. 'This rule is consonant] (with reason.) 
 
 17. 'Examples] (corresponding) (with the number) (in the 
 preceding list.) — Waterman's English Grammar. 
 
 1 ft, Rule V. corresponding with Murray's Rule V. — B. C. Smith's 
 English Grammar, page 130. 
 
 1 still correspond] (to my friend,) (by letter.) 
 
 His compliance (to his brother's proposition,) injured me.] 
 
 James cut the quill] (in three pieces.) 
 
 19 
 
 21. 
 
 22. [William is dependent] (on me) (for money.) 
 
320 SYNTAX. 
 
 23. 
 
 "He will resent any derogation] (of his good name.) 
 
 24. [He wrote this letter] (with moonlight) (by a poor pen.) 
 
 25. [They differ] (with each other) (in opinion.) 
 
 26. "I must dissent] (with that gentleman) (in opinion.) 
 
 27. [Any diminution (from the original sum) (will displease 
 them.) 
 
 28. [He was disappointed] (of his goods;) (for they were 
 damaged.) 
 
 29. [I was disappointed] (in money.) 
 
 30. I am glad (for an opportunity) to do good.] 
 
 31. [There is a difference] (of writers) (on this subject.) 
 
 32. [He failed] (in collecting) (his money;) (and, consequently, 
 he failed) (of his business.) 
 
 33. (From this Rule) [there are a number] (of exceptions.) — 
 P Bullions' s English Grammar, page 129. 
 
 34. (And always to omit a relative when) (of the nominative 
 case.) — P. Bullions's English Grammar, page 130. 
 
 Before attempting to correct the following ■, the pupil should 
 examine the Observations and Notes under Rule XLI. 
 
 Subtraction is] (a derivative) (of subtract.) 
 
 36. [Washington was] (a friend) (of his country.) 
 
 37. ri 
 38. 
 39. 
 
 [This is] (a guide,) -(and) (rule) (to his conduct.) 
 "He divided the apple] (between his few friends.) 
 'There should be no difference] (betwixt those three 
 brothers.) 
 
 40. [The property will be divided] (among the two sisters.) 
 
 41. [This document (which has just been printed) states that] 
 (during the past year) (1,721,000 ( , pages) (of tracts) have been 
 distributed) (in the city) (of New York.) 
 
 42. (On one occasion) (during the Peninsular war,) [the same 
 regiment came suddenly] (upon the French army.) 
 
 43. [I had occasion (during our preliminary remarks) (on know- 
 ledge,) to insist much] (on the importance) (of aocurate lan- 
 guage.) 
 
 44. [The substance (of the three first lectures) (which appear) 
 (in the present volume,) was first delivered] (in Cincinnati,) (dur- 
 ing the course) (of the last summer.) 
 
 45. ["Conditions:] — (Two dollars) (if paid) (in advance,) (two 
 dollars) (and) (fifty cents) (if paid) (during the year!") 
 
 Before attempting to correct the following, the pupil should 
 examine the Remarks on Invite, Put, Split, Took, Walk, 
 Key, &c. 
 
 46. [This is] (the key) (to that lock.) 
 
 47. [This fact is] (a key) (of the true cause) (of this event.) 
 
SYNTAX. 321 
 
 48. [These are] (the keys) (to that musical instrument.) 
 
 49. (He put his knife) (in his pocket.) 
 
 60. (He took the book) (in his own hand.) 
 
 61. [They invited him] (in the house.) 
 
 62. [Will you walk] (in this room?) 
 
 63. 'He broke the glass] (in fifty pieces.) 
 
 64. [They split the log] (in two.) 
 
 65. [Let them be made] (in pairs.) 
 
 Examine the Remarks on In, and At. 
 
 66. [He lives] (at New York.) 
 57. [They reside] (at Lancaster.) 
 
 68. [Our friends (who live) (at Rome) are] (at Philadelphia.) 
 
 j] (to the banking he 
 60. [I was] (to church) (last evening.) 
 
 69. , [I was] (to the banking house) (last week.) 
 
 61. [He purchased these books] (to this bookstore.) 
 
 62. [Do you think that] (you will be) (to home ?) 
 
 63. [Yes, I shall be] (to home) ( , to-morrow.) 
 
 64. [John says that] (he will be) (to singing school) (in the 
 evening.) ' - 
 
 The pupil should now examine Remarks on the Conjunc- 
 tions. — Exegesis. 
 
 65. [John is sick;] (and his brother is well.) 
 
 And indicates that the brother is also sick. 
 
 66. [John is sick;] (but his brother is sick.) 
 
 67. [It is written] (that) (man shall not live) (by bread) ( , 
 
 , , alpne,) (and) (by every word) (that proceedeth out) (of the 
 mouth) (of God.) 
 
 68. (Neither [John or his brother) was there.] 
 
 69. (Either [John nor his brother) was there.] 
 
 70. [He is sick,] (because he needs the doctor.) 
 
 71. He is so sick as to need a physician.] — Book I. page 154. 
 
 72. 1 do not know] (if he will go,) (or) ( , , , stay.) 
 [Mine is so ripe] (as yours.) 
 I am as weak] (that) (I cannot stand.) 
 
 *Not only his property, (and also his life) was] (in danger.) 
 "It is (neither cold,] or hot.) 
 
 73. 
 74. 
 75. 
 
 76. 
 
 77. [It is so clear] (as) (I need not explain it.) 
 
 See Set, Sit, Lie, and Lay. 
 
 h ease.) 
 
 re] (last evening.) 
 The book lays] (on the table.) 
 
 78. [I set] (with ease.) 
 
 79. [He set there] (last evening.) 
 
 80. K 
 
322 SYNTAX. 
 
 81. [The book laid] (on the table.) 
 
 82. [Will you sit down ?] 
 
 83. [I set]* (with ease.) 
 
 84. [I must soon lay* there.] 
 
 85. [It was lain] (on the table.) 
 
 86. [I set* there] (last evening.) 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN BAD ENGLISH. 
 
 87. The robber was hung. 
 
 88. [It is broken] (to pieces.) 
 
 89. [They informed me] (how) (his father was) (a merchant.) 
 
 90. [Jane will not put these things] (to rights.) 
 
 91. We must confess our disapprobation. 
 
 92. [They ran] (with avidity.) 
 
 93. [They seized their prey] (with eagerness.) 
 
 94. The exhibition is now open. 
 
 95. [My coat is now] (at the tailor's ;) (and it will be made) 
 (next week.) 
 
 96. [I would as lief go] (as stay.) 
 
 97. [Every word (which is used,) should have a legitimate 
 form.] 
 
 98. He plead his own case. 
 
 99. Do you mind how many chapters are (in Job ?) 
 
 100. [A letter conceived] (in the following words.) 
 
 101. His public character is undeniable. 
 
 102. He proposes to buy a house. 
 
 103. He performs his duty daily. 
 
 104. [When, therefore,] (the Lord knew how) (the Pharisees had 
 heard that.) — John iv. 1. 
 
 105. [Did you take notice] (to him?) 
 
 106. He emended his faults. 
 
 107. He corrected his conduct. 
 
 108. She has improved her condition. 
 
 109. This man has rectified his error. . . 
 
 110. We should correct our mistakes. 
 
 111. We heard him attentively. 
 
 112. ["Exercises] (on prosody.") — John Frost's Grammar. 
 
 113. ["A sentence ought to be divested] (of all redundant words.") 
 — John Frost's Grammar. 
 
 114. [Much more kindness (and humanity) is used] (towards 
 brutes.) 
 
 115. [The city (of Philadelphia,) is distinguished] (above every 
 other city) (in America.) 
 
 116. [English Grammar made easy] (to the teacher) ( , , 
 
 * Hens lay, and set ; but people lie, and sit. 
 
STNTAX. 323 
 
 , , ) ( , , pupil,) (originally compiled) (for the use) (of 
 West- town boarding school,) (by John Comly.) 
 
 117. [English Grammar] (in familiar lectures;) (accompanied) 
 (by a compendium.) — S. Kirkham's English Grammar. 
 
 118. (On the present opportunity,) [I have the pleasure to re- 
 peat those acknowledgments.] — Richard W. Green's Guide. 
 
 119. (Which book [it struck me] would probably form the best 
 possible companion) (to this little book.) — Richard W. Green's 
 Guide. 
 
 120. [The author ( , , ) (Mr. Henry Butler,) has arranged 
 the book] (in the best possible manner.) — Richard W. Green's 
 Guide. 
 
 121. A guide (to the Orthography,) (Pronunciation,) (and) 
 (Derivation) (of the English language.) — Richard W. Green's 
 Guide. 
 
 122. [I expect that] (my father has already come.) 
 
 123. [His furniture was pawned ;] (and he ransomed it) (by the 
 aid) (of his friends.) 
 
 124. And (should you not aspire) Tat distinction) (in the re- 
 public) (of letters.) — S. Kirkham's English Grammar. 
 
 125. [This is] (the pen) (whom I made.) 
 
 126. [As (we passed rapidly) (along , , ) I saw a mile 
 Btone,] (and this granite orator (which bore the marks) (of old 
 age) declared clearly (and eloquently) that) (it was then) (forty 
 miles) (to Philadelphia.) 
 
 127. (Gentle bird,) (which fliestso easily,) [come hither.] 
 
 128. [I am as well pleased] (with that introduction) (as , , ) 
 (with any thing) (which I have lately done.) 
 
 129. 
 130. 
 131. 
 132. 
 133. 
 evil,) 
 
 The derivation] (of one word) (of another.) 
 
 Can you give the reason] (of this motion) (of the water ?) 
 
 He replied that] (he despised this course.) 
 
 Men have different motives] (for their opinions.) 
 
 And it is precisely] (for the purpose) (of remedying) (the 
 
 * * * (that) (the following work was prepared.) — 
 Preface to J. Frost's Grammar. 
 
 134. [He cannot speak accurately] (without he learns gram- 
 mar.) 
 
 135. [It explains the usages] (of language.*) — Introduction to J, 
 Frosts Grammar. 
 
 136. [There are many] (who understand it) (as a science,) 
 (butf do not practice it) (as an art.) — Introduction to J. Frost'* 
 Grammar. 
 
 * We do not ascribe the usage to the things used, hut to him who uses them, 
 t This use of but as a relative, (a pronoun,) is very had. 
 
324 SYNTAX. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 THE POSITION OP ONE WORD IN RESPECT TO ANOTHER, 
 AND THE POSITION OF ONE MONO IN RESPECT TO 
 ANOTHER. 
 
 I. Position of Words. 
 
 The position of a word respects the place which it occupies 
 in respect to another word. 
 
 Rule XLII. 
 
 Every clade must be placed as near to its 
 own super as possible, and on that side of it, 
 which will insure the highest degree of perspi- 
 cuity, euphony, and continuity ; as, 
 
 1. [He is] (the man) (of whom) (we heard.) Good. 
 
 2. [He is] (the man) {whom (we heard) of) Bad. 
 
 3. Boy is therefore here in the objective case. Bad. — 
 Goold Brown's Grammar. 
 
 4. Therefore boy is here in the objective case. Good. 
 
 5. I will call, and pay you again. (Bad.) 
 
 The wrong position of again, makes the writer say that he will 
 repeat the payment. 
 
 6. I will call again, and pay you. (Good.) 
 
 Note. — When things are taken in numeral groups, the word 
 which designates a group by its successive position, is a subadjective ; 
 and it should be placed before the principal adjective which expresses 
 how many are included in a group ; as, The first seven verses ; The 
 last two books ; The first four pens. 
 
 I do not know that the doctrine of this Note, is a controverted 
 point. But the following, taken from Weld's English Grammar, 
 clearly intimates a disagreement on this subject, among the old 
 school grammarians : — 
 
 "The question whether the numerals two, three, four, 
 should stand before the words first, or last, or whether first, 
 or last should stand before the numerals, does not appear to 
 be settled by usage. There are good authorities on both 
 sides."_ 
 
 This quotation from an English Grammar which has already ex- 
 
SYNTAX. 325 
 
 hausted the fiftieth edition, should make those who pretend that 
 grammar has already attained to its acme of excellence, blnsh ! 
 
 But the fact which the quotation states, is not the only cause of 
 deep mortification. The grossly bad English which is found in it, 
 is another cause for humiliation in the old school. 
 
 Should stand before the words first or last ! 
 
 A mere child that has acquired all his notions of propriety of 
 expression from his attention to the common household style, would 
 Bay from the word first or last. But this Mr. Weld, who writes a 
 grammar for the learned, and the gifted, treats or as and, and and 
 as or! 
 
 But this is not all. Every old school grammarian that has ever 
 compiled an English grammar, denominates both numeral words 
 in these expressions, the first six books, the last three verses, adjec- 
 tives I If, then, the science of English grammar has attained to 
 perfection, it has attained to it by the agency of men who do not 
 know the parts of speech ! Why, if both numerals are adjectives, 
 one form of expression is as just as the other. 
 
 The first six verses. 
 
 If first is an adjective here, it follows that first verses, Is the 
 legitimate idea : hence the conclusion that there are six verses 
 which are actually first, is inevitable 1 But if first is an adverb, 
 belonging to the adjective, six, every thing but the old Grammars 
 is consistent with reason. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLII. 
 1. He invited back his friends. 
 The wrong position of back, is a violation of Rule XLII. 
 Rule ; as, He invited his friends back. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Samuel will write the letters indeed. 
 
 2. Sister will arrive peradventure. 
 
 3. Twice they returned. 
 
 4. He is here not often. 
 
 5. William nobly acted. 
 
 6. [They cannot well read] (unless distinctly they see the 
 print.) 
 
 7. [They presented their gifts] (which being not received) (they 
 became unhappy.) 
 
 8. [Nearly half (of the course) (of the study) (which (he is 
 required to go) through,) is] (of little use.) — Caleb Farnum'a 
 Eviflish Grammar. 
 
 9. [An interjection is] (a word) (uttered abruptly, to express 
 some passion, or emotion of the speaker.) — Caleb Farnum' s English 
 Grammar. 
 
 28 
 
326 SYNTAX. 
 
 10. (Within the two last years) [he has lost money.] 
 
 11. Education is not attended to properly. 
 
 12. I shall correct it never. 
 
 13. [Tell] (what (the pronouns stand) for.) — Caleb Farnum'g 
 English Grammar. 
 
 14. The two next classes may go out. 
 
 15. Sing the three first verses. 
 
 16. [The heavenly bodies are (in motion) perpetually.] 
 
 17. [Tell] (what (the prepositions show the relation) between.) 
 Caleb Farnum's English Grammar. 
 
 18. (Whom [were you speaking] of?) 
 
 19. [Prepositions refer] (to uncordictive nouns, and pronouns,) 
 (which (they should stand) before.) 
 
 20. [Give (me) some water] (which to wash in.) 
 
 21. [I have seen him] (whom (you wrote) to.) 
 
 22. (Whom [did you get your instruction] from ?) 
 What [have you been talking] about ?) 
 Whom [did he lay the blame] on ?) 
 It is not] (I) (whom (he is displeased) with.) 
 "History, only mentions two passengers] (who escaped.) 
 ^Knowing not that] (this man was) (his father) (he passed 
 
 him by) (without speaking.) 
 
 28. These words were all no doubt originally other parts of 
 speech. — Hart's Grammar. 
 
 29. Still, as the original words from which the conjunctions and 
 prepositions are derived are mostly absolute, these words are to be 
 now regarded in reference to their present use, and not their origi- 
 nal character. — Hart's Grammar. 
 
 30. Thus to require a child to parse if as the imperative of the 
 verb, gifan, to give, and unless as the imperative of the verb, onle- 
 san, to dismiss, would only serve to perplex and embarrass. — 
 Hart's Grammar. 
 
 II. Position o/Monos. 
 
 The position of a mono respects the place which it occu- 
 pies in regard to another mono. 
 
 Rule XLIII. 
 
 Every sub mono should be placed as near to 
 its super as possible, and on that side of it which 
 will insure the highest degree of perspicuity, 
 euphony, and continuity; as, 
 
SYNTAX. 327 
 
 1. He at least joined the army. 
 That is, he joined if no one else did. 
 
 2. He joined at least the army.. 
 
 That is, he joined although he might not have remained. 
 
 3. He joined the army at least. 
 
 That is, he joined the army, and he may have joined a dozen 
 other things, or he may not have joined any thing but the army, 
 yet he certainly joined the army. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting tyj Rule XLILL 
 
 [My book (which I found after) (a long search , , , ) (mi 
 the g arret) was not much soiled.] 
 
 The position of the mono, in the garret, is a violation of Rule 
 XLIII. 
 
 Rule ; as, [My book (which I found (in the garret,) 
 
 after) (a long search , , , ) was not much soiled.] 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [He passed (at least) five years] (in college.) 
 
 2. [I will keep the boys] (at least) (from fighting) (if they do 
 wrestle.) 
 
 3. [One ma y see now the world goes] (with half an eye.) 
 
 4. [I saw a ship] (gliding under full sail) (through a spy 
 glass.) 
 
 5. [A great stone (that I happened to find after) (a long 
 (search , , , ) (by the sea shore) served me] (for an 
 anchor.) 
 
 6. [I would propose, (at least,) (for the present,) to act as in- 
 spector) (of these schools.) — Alexander Dallas Bache, LL.D. 
 
 7. The Professor will deliver a lecture on Saturday evening 
 next, on the subject of Electricity, and its uses. 
 
 8. Person in grammar, is the relation of a noun. — P. BulMons's 
 Grammar. 
 
 9. [He drank the water] (himself.) 
 
 10. 'I went] (myself) (into the house.) 
 
 11. [Did people learn to speak] (by it) (at first?) — John Frost's 
 Grammar. 
 
 12. [The answer would, (of course) be] (it is incorrect,) (be- 
 cause it is not according) (to the principles) (of Grammar.) — John 
 Frost's Grammar. 
 
 13. (As I have given no Rules) (respecting the forms) (of monos) 
 (in Chapter I.) [I shall treat] (of them) (in this Appendix.) 
 
 14. [A vowel is] (a letter) (which makes (by itself) a perfect 
 sound.) — J. Frost's Grammar. 
 
328 _ SYNTAX. 
 
 15. [I wish (through the columns) (of your paper) to call the 
 attention] (of the public) (to a circumstance) (which is very sin- 
 gular.) 
 
 16. (By some) [this system will (no doubt) be discarded] (on 
 account) (of its simplicity.) — Preface to Kirkham's Grammar. 
 
 1 7. (His predecessors are very deficient,) (at least,) (in manner,) 
 (if not) (in matter.) — Same Preface. 
 
 18. Life should be well employed, which is short. 
 
 19. [They should not be entitled to be called] ( , , , ) 
 (grammarians,) (who cannot use their own language) (with pro- 
 priety.) 
 
 20. Four kinds of type are used in the following pages to indi- 
 cate the portions that are considered more or less elementary. — 
 Hart's Grammar. 
 
 21. It is a mistake to suppose that the conjunctions and prepo- 
 sitions serve merely to connect the other parts of a sentence (with- 
 out any significancy) (of their own.)— Hart's Grammar. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 THE FORM OF ONE MONO IN RESPECT TO THAT OP 
 ANOTHER. 
 
 Rule XLIY. 
 
 Memos which express similar ideas, should 
 be similar in their forms ; as, 
 
 1. When both vowels are heard, the diphthong is called 
 proper ; as, oi, in voice. 
 
 2. When only one is heard, it is called improper; as, ea, 
 in eagle. 
 
 " For whatever we may think of its origin — whether we 
 consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of 
 industry — a natural endowment, or an artificial invention — 
 certain it is, that, in the present state of things, our know- 
 ledge of it depends, in a great measure, if not entirely, on 
 the voluntary exercise of our faculties, and on the helps and 
 opportunities afforded us." — Goold Brown's Grammar. 
 
 It is a leading doctrine in English Grammar, that monos which 
 express similar ideas, should be similar in their constructive forms. 
 

 SYNTAX. 329 
 
 But, from a mere glance at three, or four of the monos in this 
 sentence, it will appear that Mr. Brown has totally disregarded 
 this cardinal doctrine in the very preface of his English grammar ! 
 
 1. (" a special gift) (from Heaven") ( . 
 
 2. r" an acquisition) (of industry") 
 
 3. (" a natural endowment") 
 
 4. (" an artificial invention") 
 
 1. As a gift, language sprang from Heaven. 
 
 2. As an acquisition, it sprang from industry. 
 
 Is not the author speaking of the source of language when he 
 calls it a natural endowment ? And is he not speaking of the 
 source of it when he calls it an artificial invention? If so, why has 
 he not commenced these monos with of? Had he done so, these 
 two uncordictive clads would be similar in their constructive form 
 to the other two monos which direct the attention of the reader to 
 the source of language : 
 
 1. (a special gift) [from Heaven.) 
 
 2. (an acquisition) (of industry .) 
 
 3. (an endowment) (of nature.) 
 
 4. (an invention) (of art.) 
 
 For whatever we may think of its origin, — whether we consider 
 it a special gift from Heaven, — an acquisition of industry, — an en- 
 dowment of nature, — or an invention of art, certain it is, &c. 
 
 Another instance in which the want of analogy in the forms of 
 two monos which are similar in ideas, is found in this syllabane — 
 
 "in a great measure, if not entirely." 
 
 Certain it is, that, in the present state of things, our knowledge 
 of it depends, in a great measure, if not entirely, on the voluntary 
 exercise nf our faculties, &c. 
 
 To restore the analogy, the mono, in a great measure, should 
 give place to partially. 
 
 Our knowledge of it, depends partially, if not entirely, upon the 
 voluntary exercise of our faculties. 
 
 The last instance which I shall give in illustration of the want 
 of analogy in the forms of monos which are similar in ideas, is 
 found in the latter clause of the same sentence : — 
 
 "On the voluntary exercise of ' our faculties, and on tlie 
 helps and opportunities afforded us." 
 
 On the voluntary exercise of our faculties, and on a judicious im- 
 provement of our helps, and opportunities. 
 28* 
 
330 SYNTAX. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy RULE XLIV. 
 
 ("Embracing a comparative review) (of Murray's Principles,) 
 (and those) (of Mr. James Brown's Grammar.") 
 
 As the mono, " of Mr. James Brown's Grammar" is analogous in 
 idea to the mono, " of Murray's Principles," its want of analogy in 
 form is a violation of Rule LXIV. 
 
 Rule ; as, {Of Murray's) {and Brown' s Principles.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [When (both vowels are heard,) the diphthong is called pro- 
 per;] (as) {oi) (in voice.) [When (only one is heard,) it is called] 
 (an improper diphthong;) (as) {ea) (in eagle.) — J. Frost's Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 2. [A sentence may be grammatically correct] (which is not 
 written according) (to the laws) (of Rhetoric.) — J. Frost's Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 3. It would be a mistake to suppose, as is sometimes done, that 
 the auxiliaries are mere inventions, introduced into the language 
 for the purpose of making out the necessary forms. — Hart's Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 4. It would be an equal mistake, (on the other hand,) (because 
 these compound forms may be analyzed,) (and) (traced) (to origi- 
 nal independent elements) (in the language) to deny their present 
 existence as compounds, and to assert, as some recent gramma- 
 rians have done, that there are in English but two tenses, the 
 present and the passed. — Hart's Grammar. 
 
 In 3, there are no parts corresponding to the monos in paren- 
 thesis in 4. 
 
 5. [The assertion may be expressed directly,] (and) (without 
 limitation.) — Hart's Grammar. 
 
 [Here, the idea which is expressed by directly, should be ex- 
 pressed in an uncordictive mono analogous in form to the mono, 
 without limitation; or, the idea which is expressed by without limi- 
 tation, should be expressed in one word.] 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 Rule XLV. 
 
 As, where all the things included by the 
 noun in the sub mono, must be compared with 
 those mentioned in the super mono, those 
 
SYNTAX. 331 
 
 named in the super must be compared with 
 themselves if they are not separated from those 
 named in the sub, where this separation is not 
 made by the nature of the things themselves, 
 it should be made by the use of other ; as, Me- 
 thuselah was older than any other man. [Not, 
 Methuselah was older than any man.] 
 
 Rule XLVI. 
 
 As, where no things which are not included 
 by the noun in the sub mono, can be compared 
 with the things mentioned in the super mono, 
 those named in the super, cannot be compared 
 with themselves if they are separated from those 
 named in the sub mono, where this separation 
 is made by the nature of the things themselves, 
 other should not be used; as, Methuselah was 
 older than any bird. [Not, older than any 
 other bird.] 
 
 These Rules are founded upon the position that it is both a 
 grammatical, and a logical absurdity to compare a thing with itself. 
 And, although they interdict the use of what is denominated by 
 the old school grammarians, the superlative degree of comparison, 
 they may be more valuable than though they sustained it. That 
 the use of the superlative degree is a superlative absurdity, is shown 
 Under page 285. Hence I shall do little more here than to refer 
 the pupil to this page. If the position there taken is tenable, the 
 following expressions are bad : — 
 
 1. [Bunyan was] (the greatest) (of all allegorists.) 
 
 2. [Demosthenes was] (the greatest) (of all orators.) 
 
 3. [Shakspeare was] (the first) (of all dramatists.) 
 
 The absurdity demonstrated. 
 
 1. All the things which are included by the noun in the sub 
 mono, must be compared with those mentioned in the super mono, 
 
332 SYNTAX. 
 
 unless there is a separation made. But Bunyan is included by 
 the noun [allegorisis) in the sub mono, and named in the super, and 
 there is no separation made ; therefore, Bunyan is compared with 
 
 himself ! 
 
 Corrected. „ 
 
 1. Bunyan was greater than any oilier allegorist. 
 [But not greater than himself.] 
 
 2. Demosthenes was greater than any oilier orator. 
 
 3. Shakespeare was before any other dramatist. 
 
 [He was not, however, before himself; but if he was 
 before all dramatists, it follows that he was either before 
 himself or that he was not a dramatist. That is against 
 reason — this against truth. .] 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLV. 
 [Jacob loved Joseph more] (than he loved all his children.) 
 
 As Joseph is included by the noun in the sub mono, [children,) 
 and as he is mentioned in the super mono, and not separated from 
 the class composed of the children of Jacob, Joseph is compared 
 with himself, which is a violation of Rule XLV. 
 
 Rule ; as, Jacob loved Joseph more than all his 
 
 other children. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLYI. 
 
 [This knife is sharper] (than any other razor.) 
 
 As the knife is not included by the noun in the sub mono, and 
 as it is separated from the razor by its own nature, the use of 
 other is a violation of Rule XLVI. 
 
 Rule • ; as, [This knife is sharper] (than any 
 
 razor.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [The Bible is better] (than all books.) 
 
 2. [Methuselah was older] (than any man.) 
 
 3. [Samson was stronger] (than all men.) 
 
 4. [Solomon was wiser] (than any man.) 
 
 5. {The Chinese Empire is older] (than any empire.) 
 
 6. [The Russian Empire is more extensive] (than any govern- 
 ment.) 
 
SYNTAX. 333 
 
 7. [Washington was] (a better commander) (than any general.) 
 
 8. The Mississippi river is longer] (than any river. } 
 
 9. 'Hope is the most -constant] (of all the other passions.)* 
 
 10. Sarah is] (the best grammarian) (of all the other girls.) 
 
 11. Of all the other schools) [this has the best regulations.] 
 
 12. [John is] (a better boy) (than Sarah. )f 
 
 13. [The English language has a greater variety] (of expres- 
 sion) (than any language.) 
 
 lesson vn. 
 
 WHAT WORDS, MONOS, AND SIGNIFICANT INFLECTIONS 
 SHOULD NOT BE USED. 
 
 Rule XLVII. 
 
 Those words, monos, and inflections, which, 
 if employed, would add a shade of thought, in- 
 consistent with the intended import of the sen- 
 tence, should not be used ; as, 
 
 1. (jase is the state or condition of a noun with respect to 
 the other words in a sentence, (the.) — Professor Bullions' s 
 English Grammar. 
 
 By the use of the, Mr. Bullions compels himself to say that case 
 is the condition of a noun with respect to all the words but the 
 noun! Hence, where there are twenty-nine words in a sentence 
 besides a noun, the noun is in the nominative case to twenty-nine 
 words 1 
 
 2. Mr. Brown and some others with him divide verbs 
 into four classes. — Bullions' s English Grammar. 
 
 3. Henry gave the fullest account. 
 
 4. He filled the chiefs offices in the government. 
 
 5. Henry is the most perfect gentleman of the six. 
 
 6. Hewit did not do nothing. 
 
 * Hope is more constant than any other passion. 
 
 t When an individual is compared as a male, the one with whom he is compared, 
 must be a male, and vice versa; as, This person is a better boy than James. [Not, 
 this person is a better boy than Sarah.] 
 
334 SYNTAX. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting ly Rule XLVII. 
 
 1. [You are about to enter] (upon one) (of the most useful) 
 (and when) (rightly pursued,) (one) (of the most interesting 
 studies) (in the whole oircle) (of science.) — S. Kirkham's English 
 Grammar. 
 
 As the writer does not intend to express that there may be 
 several which are the most interesting, but that there may be seve- 
 ral that are equally interesting, the use of the monos, {upon one) 
 (of the most useful studies,) is a violation of Rule XLVII. 
 
 Rule ; as, [You are about to enter] (upon a science) 
 
 (as useful,) (and, when) (rightly pursued) (as interesting as any 
 study) (in the whole circle) (of science.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [He purchased a philosophical apparatus] (in London.) 
 
 2. [He purchased fifty heads] (of cattle.) 
 
 3. She looks beautifully. 
 
 4. [He writes slowly,] (and exactly.) 
 
 5. The animal feels smoothly. 
 
 6. Spelling is putting letters together correctly, so as to form 
 syllables and words. — Harts Grammar. 
 
 7. [And a knowledge (of English Grammar) is now taught] (as 
 such) (in all our academies,) (and) (common schools.) — Bullions 's 
 English Grammar. 
 
 8. [He evinced the most perfect ignorance] (of language) (in 
 any) (of its departments!) — A New York Paper. 
 
 9. (Having examined the Gradual Reader) (by Mr. Stevens,) [I 
 consider it well worthy] (of adoption. ) i ( ~ 
 
 10. (No one [I think] can ever examine the series) (of Grammars) 
 (published by Dr. Bullions,) (without a deep conviction) (of their 
 superior excellence.) — From the recommendation of the Rev. John 
 Ludlow, D.I)., Provost of the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 11. It is rendered more certain. — Webster's Dictionary. 
 
 12. Giving additional assurance.— Webster's Dictionary. 
 
 Rule XLVIII. 
 
 Two negatives should not be used in the 
 same mono, unless one is a mere prefix ; as, un> 
 in, dis, non, il y &c. 
 
 1. But he was not unable to go. 
 
 2. He did not speak improperly. 
 
 &*MUT 
 
SYNTAX. 335 
 
 Not. 
 Not, when used with only, is not a negative ; as, He was 
 not only not at church, but he was unable to be there. 
 
 No. 
 No is not a negative in all instances. 
 "No, they could not bind him even with chains." 
 No is here used in the sense of nay, and has the import 
 of Yes more. 
 
 "Nay, more, they could not bind him even with chains." 
 
 Rule XLIX. 
 
 The word, the inflection, or the mono, which, 
 if employed, would merely repeat, an idea 
 already clearly expressed, should not be used ; 
 as; 
 
 Henry wished to return bach. The lad has got a knife in 
 his hand. 
 
 Back is found in return — and got, in has. 
 
 Henry wished to return. The lad has a knife in his hand — 
 Back — Got. 
 
 This machine is the most foolishes^ contrivance which has 
 ever been seen. 
 
 As est repeats the same idea which is expressed by most, 
 est should be omitted. 
 
 But before we enter on the consideration of the doctrines 
 of religion, it is necessary, in the first place, to display its 
 evidence. — Samuel Stanhope Smith, D.D., President of 
 Princeton College, 1809. 
 
 As the mono, " in the first place," is synonymous with 
 the adverb, before, it adds nothing to the sentence ; hence, 
 it should not be used : 
 
 But be/ore we enter on the consideration of the doctrines 
 of religion, it is necessary to display its evidence, (in the 
 first place.) 
 
 NOTE. 
 The word, or the mono, which, if employed, would neither 
 
336 SYNTAX. 
 
 repeat the expression of any idea, nor in any way add to, 
 nor change the import of, the sentence, should not be used ; 
 as, It would seem so, indeed. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLIX. 
 
 Henry wished to return back. 
 As bach merely represents an idea which is clearly expressed 
 by return, its use is a violation of Rule XLIX. 
 Rule ; as, Henry wished to return. 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 Under the Rule and the Note. 
 
 1. [It would seem that] (he is now) (in this city.) 
 
 2. [I had rather walk] (than , , ride.) 
 
 3. Henry is a warming himself. 
 
 4. James is a hunting rabbits. 
 
 5. [A verb (in the infinitive mood) must be (in the present 
 tense) when] (it expresses what) (is contemporary) (in point) (of 
 time) (with its governing verb,) (or) (subsequent) (to it.) — P. Bul- 
 lions' 's English Grammar. 
 
 6. (As an art,) [it teaches the right method] (of applying) 
 (these principles) (to a particular language,) (so as thereby to 
 express our thoughts) (in a correct) (and) (proper manner,) (ac- 
 cording) (to established usage.) — P. Bullions' 8 English Grammar. 
 
 7. [He has got a knife] (in his hand.) 
 
 8. [I did not see him] (in here.) 
 
 9. [Brother will return] (the latter end) (of March.) 
 
 10. He plunged down] (into the water.) 
 
 11. "Before (I do that) I must first finish this.] 
 
 12. (From whence) [came he?] 
 
 13. [John he was here] (last week.) 
 
 14. The bird it flew away. 
 
 15. [James Buchanan he went] (to Congress.) 
 
 16. [George M. Dallas he was] (Vice President.) . . ^ 
 
 17. Henry Clay will he ever be President ? 
 
 18. It would seem, therefore, to be proper, &c. — Preface to Bul- 
 lions'* Gram. 
 
 19. [But it would seem] (that) (a multitude) (of bad) (or indif- 
 ferent writers,) have judged themselves qualified to teach the art) 
 (of speaking) (and) (writing well.) — Preface to G. Brown's Gram. 
 
 20. [The person (who is acquainted) (with the science) (of gram- 
 mar) is never] (at a loss) (what word to use) (or) (how to place 
 it) (in order) (to express himself) (correctly.) — J. Frost's Gram. 
 
 21. This brings us back to the point from which we started ; 
 and enables us to show that (the expression (above cited) is incor- 
 rect) (and) (ungrammatical.) — Introduction to J. Frost's Gram. 
 
SYNTAX. 337 
 
 Rule L. 
 
 Words which, from the very nature of the 
 subject, oppose each other, should have no con- 
 structive relation one with another ; as, 
 
 Dead man; Dead men's bones; Do you see that dead 
 bird f We had not gone far before we found a dead horse. 
 
 A horse is necessarily a living creature : hence, unless a 
 horse can be both dead, and alive, at the same moment, the 
 words, dead, and horse, are rendered reciprocally opponent, 
 from the very nature of the theme. 
 
 Rule LI. 
 
 Branch words expressive of ideas clearly im- 
 plied in their supers, should not be used ; as, 
 
 A living man; The horse is alive; Running stream; 
 Liquid stream. 
 
 In several of the appellations appended to the word, God, 
 this Rule is violated; as, Gracious God; Great, and good 
 God. 
 
 The ideas expressed by gracious, great, and good, are 
 clearly implied in the word, God, itself. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 THEME, 
 
 A theme is any thing which is presented to the mind ; as, 
 virtue, vice, pain, snow, heat, coldness, Thomas, Macaulay, 
 it, I have brought my son. 
 
 Themes are. simple, and compound. , 
 
 1. A simple theme is one which has no expressed pro- 
 perties ; as, apple, books, hat, John, I, thou, Thomas, Ma- 
 caulay, history, thee. 
 
 29 
 
338 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. A compound theme is one which has one, or more ex- 
 pressed properties, or circumstances; as, Ripe apples; These 
 books; Silk hats; That John; I laugh; Thou art sick; 
 Macaulay's history ; Master, I have brought unto thee my 
 son which hath a dumb spirit; Nathan said unto David, 
 Thou art the man. 
 
 It is not often that the grammarian has any thing to do 
 with themes in their compound character. His province 
 generally requires him to take every theme as a simple one. 
 Hence, the themes with which the grammarian is concerned 
 are those only, which are presented to the mind by means 
 of nouns, and pronouns; as, Master, I have brought unto 
 thee my son which hath a dumb spirit. [Master, I, thee, 
 son, which, spirit.] 
 
 That the pupil may not confound the theme with the word by 
 which it is denoted, it may be well to say here, that the theme is 
 the thing itself ; as, an apple. 
 
 DIVISION OF THEMES. 
 
 Themes, like their names, are divided into cordictive^ and 
 uncordictive. 
 
 I. The Cordictive Theme. 
 
 The cordictive theme is the life source* of the cordiction, 
 or speech, and is denoted by a cordictive noun, or pronoun ; 
 as, John has commenced his school; (Master,) [/ have 
 brought (unto thee) my son] (which hath a dumb spirit.) — 
 [John 7 I y which. .] 
 
 II. The Uncordictive Theme. 
 
 The uncordictive theme is one which is not the life source 
 of the diction of the mono, and is denoted by the uncordic- 
 tive noun, or pronoun ; as, John has commenced his school; 
 (Master,*) [I have brought (unto thee) my son"] (which hath 
 a dumb spirit.) 
 
 * Cor, the heart, the seat of life, and dictio, speech. 
 
SYNTAX. 339 
 
 As there is one noun, or one pronoun in every mono iu 
 which there is diction, speech, that aids in making the dic- 
 tion, or speech, so there is one theme in every mono where 
 there is diction, or speech, which is the heart, the seat, of 
 the diction, or speech, of the mono. 
 
 Speech is formed by the syllabanes, John has commenced; 
 I have brouglu ; and which hath. Hence, the themes, school, 
 Master, thee, son, and spirit, are not the heart, the seat, of 
 the diction here formed. But, as there could be no speech 
 here without John, me, and tchich, these themes are the 
 I i" at, the seat, of the speech of these syllabanes. 
 
 The old school grammarians attempt to divide things into sub- 
 jects, and objects. But as this division is a distinction without a. 
 difference, I cannot consent to adopt it. In the expression, The 
 world was created by God, God 4s as much the subject as is the 
 world. It is predicated of God, that he created the world ; and it 
 is predicated of the world, that it was created by him- No one 
 can deny this position. If, then, it is here predicated of God, that 
 he created the world, is he not a. subject? 
 
 " A subject is that of which something is predicated,** say the 
 old school grammarians ; as, The world was made by God. 
 
 Here, it is pretended that the world is the only subject. But is it 
 not here said of God that he ereated the world ? 
 
 In the syllabane, John is in the house, nothing is predicated of 
 the house. But, in the «entence, The house was built by John, it is 
 as clearly predicated of John that he built the house, as it is of 
 the house that it was built by John. 
 
 The preceding definition of a subject, however, is not the true 
 one. "A subject," says Dr. Johnson, ''is that on which some 
 mental or material operation is performed." 
 
 Hence, every thing to which attention is directed, becomes a 
 subject; as the book in the following sentence; — 
 
 I read the book." 
 
 Ilenoe, too, every thing wliicfe is acted upoa by any agent what- 
 ever, becomes a subject; as, John hurt Joseph. — £See the Appeal, 
 on Subjects, and Objects.] 
 
 Rule LIL 
 
 In general, where a theme is mentioned in 
 the satne sentence more than once, it should be 
 uniformly cordictive, or uniformly uncordic- 
 tive; as, 
 
340 SYNTAX. 
 
 1. / owe James ; and / must pay him. [Not, I owe 
 James ; and he must be paid by me.] 
 
 2. A certain man planted a vineyard ; and he set a hedge 
 about it; and he digged a place for the wine vat; and he 
 built a tower ; and he let it out to husbandmen ; and he 
 went into a far country. [Not, A certain man planted a 
 vineyard; and a hedge was set about it by him, &c] 
 
 3. And the young men arose, wound him up, and carried 
 Mm out, and buried him. 
 
 The young men are the cordictive theme, and Ananias is 
 the uncordictive theme. Neither is changed, but both ex- 
 hausted. A change of either would mar the sentence ; as, 
 
 And the young men arose, and wound him up; and he 
 was carried out, and buried by them. 
 
 4. And the young men came in, found her dead, and carried 
 her forth, and buried her by her husband. 
 
 This sentence, too, has a perfect uniformity in the disposi- 
 tion of its themes, which beautifies it to a high degree. 
 
 Note. — Rule LII. has a few exceptions ; as, Master, I have 
 brought unto thee my son {which hath a dumb spirit.) 
 
 Here the son is presented in one mono as an uncordictive, but in 
 another as a cordictive, theme. - 
 
 In sentences in which the predicate mono occurs, the same 
 theme is often made both cordictive, and uncordictive ; as, [John is] 
 (the boy.) 
 
 In the trone, John is cordictive — in the clad, he is uncordictive. 
 
 I. The Relation of a Theme. 
 
 The relation of a theme respects its objective relation to 
 the pros-o-chist, to the mind, under whose notice the theme 
 is placed. 
 
 II. The Number of a Theme. 
 
 The number of a theme respects its unity, or its plurality. 
 
SYNTAX. 341 
 
 Rule LIII. 
 
 The same theme should be uniformly repre- 
 sented to bear the same objective relation to 
 the pros-o-chist, through the whole discourse ; as, 
 
 / have not undertaken this volume under the expectation 
 that / shall be able to satisfy ail my readers. / shall be 
 satisfied if /please one half of them. [Not, the audior will 
 be satisfied if he pleases one half of them.] 
 
 Rule UV. 
 
 The same theme should be uniformly repre- 
 sented to have the same number through the 
 whole discourse ; as, 
 
 7" have not undertaken this volume under the expectation 
 of pleasing all mj readers. / shall be satisfied if / please 
 one half of them. [Not, We shall be satisfied if we please 
 one half of them.] 
 
 Note. — To these Rales there are a few exceptions. For ex- 
 ample, 
 
 " 7, Paul." [It is] (they.) 
 
 While I represents that the theme sustains the par-e-theme rela- 
 tion to the pros-o-chist, Paul represents that it bears the panta- 
 tkeme relation to the pros-o-chist. 
 
 And while the word, it, represents the theme to have the singu- 
 lar number, the pronoun, they, represents the same theme to have 
 the plural. 
 
 But the principles to which these, and a few other instances form 
 exceptions, are important; hence, they should be well understood 
 by the learner. 
 
 Notb. — Words which have nearly the same sounds, should not 
 be used in the same prose sentence ; as, 
 
 To his lasting honour it must be mentioned that he attempted 
 to save those victims whose fate has left the deepest stain both on 
 the Whig, and on the Tory name. — Macaulay's History of England. 
 
 [That he attempted to save those victims whose fate has left the 
 deepest reproach both on the Whig, and on the Tory name.] 
 
 29* 
 
342 SYNTAX. 
 
 Kule LV. 
 
 Every sentence should have the words, and 
 the construction which a direct, and a clear ex- 
 pression of the writer's ideas requires ; as, 
 
 When the unclean spirit has gone out of a man, tlte spirit 
 walketh through dry places, seeking rest, but finding none. 
 
 As this sentence is usually written, it is hardly possible to decide 
 what is its exact import : — 
 
 " When the unclean spirit is gone out of a man, he walk- 
 eth through dry places seeking rest, and findeth none." 
 
 Here the reader must decide, if he can, whether the pronoun, 
 he, is synonymous with the noun, man, or with the noun, spirit. 
 
 But, as the construction of the sentence renders him no aid in 
 this task, he must resort to the nature of the case, which demon- 
 strates the existence of a gross impropriety in the grammar of the 
 paragraph. 
 
 It is the province of the sentence to show the nature of the sub- 
 ject — not the province of the subject to explain the meaning of the 
 sentence. 
 
 If we are to learn the meaning of a sentence from the nature of 
 the subject on which it is written, one sentence must be as plain 
 as another. Besides, if the meaning of a sentence is to be derived 
 from the subject under consideration, the same sentence must have 
 several meanings : different men have different views of the same 
 thing. If writers wish to be understood, they should employ the 
 construction, and the words which a direct, and a clear expression 
 of their meaning requires. It is better to say, A negro's teeth are 
 white, than it is to say, A negro is white in his teeth. 
 
 In the first construction, the whiteness is ascribed to the negro's 
 teeth; in the second, it is ascribed to the negro himself! 
 
 It is better to say, The Board of Presbyterian Publications, than 
 it is to say, The Presbyterian Board of Publication. 
 
 It does not follow that a Presbyterian Board of Publication, is 
 confined to the publication of Presbyterian works. Hence, if the 
 intention is to indicate by the title, that the Board is restricted to 
 the publication of Presbyterian books, the adjective should be 
 placed before publications ; as, j 
 
 The Board of Presbyterian Publications. 
 
 Still, the other construction may afford more convenience in 
 speaking of the collective body. 
 
SYNTAX. 343 
 
 When the unclean spirit is gone out of a man, he walketh 
 through dry places, seeking rest, and findeth none. 
 
 Now, if the man walked through dry places, the sentence might 
 be as follows : — 
 
 When the unclean spirit has gone out of a man, tJie man 
 walketh through dry places, seeking rest, but finding none. 
 
 But if the spirit walked, the sentence might be thus : — 
 
 When the unclean spirit has gone out of a man, the spirit 
 walketh through dry places, seeking rest, but finding none. 
 
 But there is another means by which the exact truth can be ex- 
 pressed in this instance : the plural may be substituted for the 
 singular. 
 
 1. When the unclean spirit goeth out of men, he walketh 
 through dry places, seeking rest, but finding none. 
 
 2. When the unclean spirit goeth out of men, they walk 
 through dry places, seeking rest, but finding none. 
 
 The substitution of the uni for the plus, and the plus for the uni, 
 is common in all languages. In the Latin, anglus for anglis; nos 
 for ego, &c. 
 
 In the following, the word, cities, is used for city : — 
 
 " And Jephtha was buried in the cities of Gilead/' 
 
 In the following, the word, thieves, is used for thief: — 
 
 " The thieves also which were crucified with him, up- 
 braided him." 
 
 Only one of the two thieves upbraided Christ. 
 
 In the following, Cicero is speaking of himself only: — 
 
 " We deceived the people, and seemed orators" 
 
 Rule LV. (Repeated.) 
 
 Every sentence should have the words, and 
 the construction which a direct, and a clear ex- 
 pression of the writer's meaning requires; as, 
 
 1. Where the terminating y follows a consonant, an addi- 
 tional syllable substitutes i for the y ; as, beauty, beau^*- 
 fuh 
 
344 SYNTAX. 
 
 2, The rules, and definitions to be memorized, are printed 
 on a large italic type. 
 
 The following sentences, taken from Hart's Grammar, are viola- 
 tions of this Rule : — 
 
 (1.) " Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
 change y into i on taking an additional syllable." 
 
 Here, the construction clearly indicates that the words which end 
 with y, are preceded by a consonant ! That this is true, may be 
 demonstrated by a little attention to the following sentence, taken 
 from the same page of Hart's Grammar : — 
 
 " Words ending in silent e, drop e on taking an additional 
 syllable." 
 
 As in this sentence it is the words which drop the silent e, so in 
 the other, it is the words which are preceded by a consonant ! 
 
 u Words ending in II, drop one I on taking an additional 
 syllable." — Harts Grammar. 
 
 What drops one I ? The words ending in 11, drop one I. 
 
 " Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant." — Harts 
 Grammar. 
 
 What is preceded by a consonant ? If one can be allowed to 
 derive the answer to this interrogation from the construction of 
 the sentence, he will say, the words ending in y, are preceded. 
 
 " Words ending in 11 drop one I," &c. 
 
 Now, if in this sentence, drop refers to words, does not preceded 
 in the following : — 
 
 " Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y 
 into i on taking an additional syllable." 
 
 What is preceded by a consonant ? True, the nature of the case 
 replies that y is preceded. But, then, the construction of the sen- 
 tence replies that the words are preceded. 
 
 A negro is white in his teeth. . . 
 
 The construction of this sentence is not right. Why ? Is the 
 construction bad because the sentence cannot be understood? 
 No. The sentence can be understood with ease. The construction 
 does not agree with the nature of the theme ; hence it is wrong. 
 The construction which is opposed to the nature of the subject, is 
 bad. The law is, that the construction of the sentence must corre- 
 spond to the nature of the subject on which it treats. Why, if a 
 sentence is good because the meaning of its author can be clearly 
 comprehended, what can be said against the following ? 
 
SYNTAX. 345 
 
 Give /some apples; Me is very thirsty, me wants waters! 
 
 (2.) " The most important rules and definitions are printed 
 in large type, italicized."— Hart's Grammar. 
 
 As we do not print in, but on type, this sentence is a violation 
 of Rule LV. To speak of printing a book in type, is as improper 
 as it is to speak of writing a book on a good style. We print on 
 type, but we write in a style. And, although it may be said that 
 type are italicized, yet the usage of good writers is opposed to the 
 expression. We speak of italicizing words — but we distinguish type 
 as italic, roman, &c. 
 
 (3.) " Spelling is putting letters together correctly, so as 
 to form syllables and words." — Hart's Grammar. 
 
 Here, Mr. Hart conveys the idea that there are several correct 
 Ways in which letters may be put together; but that only one 
 of the correct ways, is spelling ! If the letters are put together i» 
 that correct way which makes syllables, and words, the process is 
 spelling I But, if the letters are put together in a correct way 
 which does not make syllables, and words, the process is not 
 spelling I 
 
 A Substitute. 
 
 Spelling is the just formation of syllables, and words from 
 
 letters. 
 
 [The use (of this verb) is so extensive] (and incorporated) 
 (into so many peculiar phrases) (that) (it is not easy) (to re- 
 duce its signification.) — Webster's Dictionary. 
 
 What is incorporated ? Is the verb, or is the use of the verb, 
 incorporated into so many peculiar phrases ? The construction re- 
 plies that the use is incorporated ! 
 
 A Substitute. 
 
 [This verb is so extensively used, (and incorporated) (into 
 so many peculiar phrases) (that) it is not easy to give its 
 exact signification.] 
 
 It is not the province of the grammarian to give law to 
 language, but to teach it. — Goold Brown's Grammar. 
 
 As this construction renders it uncertain whether the pronoun, 
 it, after teach, is synonymous witli law, or language, the ideas of 
 the writer are not clearly expressed. 
 
 It is perfectly proper to speak of teaching the law, the grammar 
 of the language ; and it is equally as good to speak of teaching the 
 
346 SYNTAX. 
 
 language itself. If the author intends to speak of teaching the law, 
 the grammar of the language, the sentence should be constructed 
 in a way which will render it impossible for the pronoun, it, to 
 convey any allusion to language : 
 
 It is the province of the grammarian, not to give, but to 
 teach the law of the language. 
 
 But, if the author means to say that it is the province of the 
 grammarian to teach the language, the sentence should be con- 
 structed as follows : — 
 
 It is the province of the grammarian, not to give the lata, 
 but to teach the language according to it. 
 
 And to furnish a test whether he is sufficiently prepared 
 for recitation, which he cannot be unless he can furnish a 
 correct, and prompt answer to the question proposed. — Dr. 
 Peter Bullions' s English Grammar. 
 
 This sentence may be comprehended from the nature of the sub- 
 ject on which it treats. That is, the author's ideas may be guessed 
 at ! But, as a sentence which is grammatical in all respects, never 
 imposes upon its reader the task of deciding its meaning from the 
 nature of the case, and as this sentence does impose upon its 
 reader this task, it difFers from a correct one. The following part 
 of this syllabane, is a great curiosity : — 
 
 u which he cannot be unless he can furnish a cor- 
 rect, and prompt answer to the question proposed." 
 
 Though the general sense of this assemblage of words may be 
 conjectured from the nature of the subject, it is not probable that 
 even Mr. Bullions himself can give any grammatical analysis of it. 
 The word, which, is a relative pronoun without even an antecedent ; 
 and, as it has no verb, nor any preposition, it is without a case also. 
 I have invoked the aid of several old school grammarians to enable 
 me to dispose of this relative ; but, as they uniformly call it an 
 adverbial phrase, I have not been willing to adopt their views. The 
 learned ones upon whom I have depended to help me out of this 
 difficulty, say that which stands for all the parts of the verbal 
 mass which precedes it ; hence, it is a phrase ! They say that it is 
 an adverb because, like several adverbs in English, it is independent 
 of the other parts of the sentence ! 
 
 Why is it that no old school grammarian writes with gramma- 
 tical precision ? It is because the old theory of English Grammar 
 does not treat of the constructive principles of the English language. 
 No man can use a language with propriety, who has not studied 
 its constructive principles with care. But he that studies the 
 grammar of Mr. Murray only, does not study the constructive prin- 
 ciples of the English language at all. And, as the old school 
 
SYNTAX. 347 
 
 grammarians depend solely upon Murray, in one form or in 
 another, when they come to write, they find themselves without a 
 true knowledge of the grammar of their own vernacular tongue. 
 In support of this truth, I give the following sentence, written by 
 Murray himself: — 
 
 Monosyllables ending with /, I, or s, preceded by a single 
 vowel, double the final consonant. — Murray's Grammar, by 
 Murray himself. 
 
 This sentence reveals the true source of the improper construc- 
 tion of the following by Mr. Hart : — 
 
 Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y 
 into i, on taking an additional syllable. — Murray's Gram- 
 mar, by Hart ! 
 
 A Substitute for Murray's. 
 
 Where a single vowel precedes f I, or s, at the end of a 
 monosyllable, f I, or s is doubled j as, staff, mill, pass. 
 
 A Substitute for Hart's. 
 
 Where the terminating y follows a consonant, an addi- 
 tional syllable substitutes an i for the y ; as, beauty, beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 Rule LVI. 
 
 The thing which is mentioned as an index 
 to another, should be highly distinguished, and 
 closely, and exclusively related to the thing to 
 which a reference is intended ; as, 
 
 1. " The sceptre shall not depart from Judah." .* 
 
 The sceptre bears a close index relation to kings, or kingly 
 governments ; and Judah bears a close index relation to the royal 
 house which he occupied. Hence, the sentence means that kings 
 shall not cease to occupy the house of Judah. 
 
 2. "He bearcth not the sword in vain." 
 
 The sword is mentioned as an index to military authority. Hence, 
 the sentence signifies that he does not exercise martial power, or 
 authority in vain. 
 
348 SYNTAX. 
 
 3. "That at the name of Jesus, every knee should bow." 
 
 Here, the name is mentioned as an index to Jesus himself; for, 
 although the mere name is used, the real being to whom this name 
 belongs, is meant. But did not the name here mentioned belong 
 exclusively to Jesus, its use here would be a gross infraction of 
 Rule LVI. The following is an instance of grossly bad Eng- 
 lish : — 
 
 4. A noun, or pronoun addressed, and not the subject of any 
 verb, is in the nominative ease independent. — Hart's Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 As the word, name, as used in the preceding quotation, must be 
 included by the phrase, "nouns and pronouns," if the figure em- 
 ployed by Mr. Hart, is proper, the phrase may be substituted for 
 the word, name, in the following : — 
 
 "That at the name of Jesus, every knee shall bow." 
 That at the nouns and pronouns addressed, every knee 
 should bow. 
 
 To justify the figure which Mr. Hart uses, the words that are 
 denominated nouns, and pronouns, should be highly distinguished by 
 the fame of the themes to which they are applied — be individualized, 
 and each applied to a particular theme whose fame has been great 
 enough to impart a high distinction to the individual word which 
 has become its name. 
 
 But are the themes to which nouns, and pronouns, in-general, are 
 applied, at all famous ? What is there in the sentence by Mr. Hart 
 which indicates that these themes possess -great fame ? "Why, 
 there is the intimation in this sentence, that these themes are ren- 
 dered famous from the fact that they are addressed! Hence the de- 
 gree of fame which a mere verbal address imparts to the person 
 addressed, is the only basis on which Mr. Hart substitutes the 
 name of the person for the person himself! 
 
 " Nouns, and pronouns addressed are in the nominative 
 case independent I" 
 
 But have nouns, and pronouns ears, that one can be justified in 
 speaking of them as the themes addressed ? Does any man speak 
 to a mere word? Has a word any properties which favour the 
 idea that it can be turned into a person ? 
 
 True, there is something somewhere like the following : — 
 
 "JSvery tongue shall call on thy name." 
 
 But the fame of the being here referred to, is so great, and 
 general, that his very name has become so substantive that it can 
 be taken almost alone. 
 
 Why is it that the sword is mentioned as an index to war ? Be- 
 
SYNTAX. 349 
 
 cause the sword is far famed for its exclusive use in battle. But 
 does the mere fact of addressing John render him so famous that 
 we can substitute his name for his person f 
 
 Rule LVII. 
 
 If, by abridging a verb of its duo power, 
 more words are required to express the same 
 ideas, the verb should be allowed to exert its 
 duo power in all cases where no particular ad- 
 vantage can be gained by abridging it of this 
 power; as, 
 
 God created the world. [Not, the world was created by 
 God.] 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LVII. 
 
 This doctrine was preached by John Calvin. 
 
 As by abridging "preached" of its duo power, two more words 
 are required to express the intended ideas, and as no particular 
 advantage is gained by the abridgment of this power, the act is a 
 violation of the Rule. 
 
 Rule -; as, John Calvin preached this doctrine. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. These boys had been taught by me. 
 
 2. Our army was then commanded by General Taylor. 
 
 3. We have been called upon by our friends. 
 
 4. My son has been taught by his sister. 
 
 6. Henry was loved by all by whom he was known. 
 
 6. The church has many times been compared by divines to 
 that ark of which we read in the book of Genesis. — Macaulay's 
 History of England. 
 
 Rule LVILT. 
 
 The use of words, and constructions which 
 would produce an intolerable cacophony, should 
 be avoided ; as, 
 
 30 
 
350 SYNTAX. 
 
 1. " These should be committed to memory the first time 
 of going through the book." 
 
 2. " They are scarcely less important than the previous, 
 and it may be a matter of some doubt, whether they should 
 not be learned the first time of going through/' — Hart's 
 Grammar. 
 
 Corrected. 
 
 1. The pupil should memorize these on his first passage 
 through the book. 
 
 2. Whether the pupil should not learn them on his first 
 passage through the book. 
 
 [Although the first part of the second sentence is bad, the errow 
 ■which mar it, do not violate Rule L VIII.] 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 The use of constructions which throw the 
 parts of the sentence, and the ideas of the 
 author, into a chaotic state, should be avoided ; 
 as, 
 
 1. "The nominative case is that in which something is 
 asserted of the noun" 
 
 2. li The possessive case is that in which something belongs 
 to the noun. 
 
 3. u The objective case is that in which the noun is the ob- 
 ject of some verb or preposition." — Hart's Grammar. 
 
 Corrected. 
 
 1. The nominative is the case in which the noun is placed 
 when something is asserted of it. ' 
 
 2. The possessive is the case in which the noun is placed 
 when something belongs to it. 
 
 3. The objective is the case in which the noun is placed 
 when it is the object of a verb, or a preposition. 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 I do not know, in this attempt to correct these sentences, that I 
 have done justice to Mr. Hart. I cannot comprehend him. 
 
6YNTAX. 351 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 NOTATION OF MONOS, AND SENTENCES. 
 
 Rule LIX. 
 
 Every mono should have all its words, and 
 every sentence, all its monos, expressed, where 
 the implenary state of either, would produce am- 
 biguity, or cacophony ; as, 
 
 1. " And they searched the Scriptures daily, whether 
 these things were so." 
 
 [The demimono, to see, would improve the euphony of the sen- 
 tence.] 
 
 2. "Where is he that is born king of the Jews? for we 
 have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship 
 him/' 
 
 The part of the sentence which follows the interrogation, has no 
 expressed connection with the question propounded by the wise 
 men. That is, "for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to 
 worship him," has no expressed bearing upon the part which it 
 follows. 
 
 The omission of the mono, we ask the question, renders the exact 
 sense, and the precise connection, somewhat obscure. 
 
 Where is he that is born king of the Jews ? We ask, 
 because we have seen his star in the east, and we have come 
 to worship him. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LIX. 
 John taught Joseph more than James. 
 As the intention is to say that John taught Joseph more than 
 James taught him, this mono is too implenary to make a clear ex- 
 pression of the intended idea. 
 
 Rule ; as, John taught Joseph more than James 
 
 tauyJU him. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [John got the book] (he wanted.) 
 
 2. [And no man could bind him,] (no, not) (with chains:) (Be- 
 cause (that) he had often been bound) (with fetters,) (nnd) (chains,) 
 
352 SYNTAX 
 
 (and the chains had been plucked asunder) (by him,) (and the 
 fetters broken.) 
 
 [Was the mono, we know this, placed before the word, because, 
 the exact connection might be more readily apprehended.] 
 
 Rule LX. 
 
 Every mono, and every sentence, should be 
 left implenart/, when the implenary state produces 
 neither ambiguity, nor cacophony ; as, 
 
 [Give , ( , me) a book.] 
 
 [The subject of these Rules, is thoroughly discussed in the 
 Exegesis.] 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy Rule LX. 
 [Give thou (to me) a book.] 
 As the nonexpression of thou, and to would produce neither am- 
 biguity nor cacophony, their expression is a violation of Rule 
 LX. 
 Rule ; as, Give me a book. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [He drank water] (on last evening.) 
 
 2. I saw the bird to fly. 
 
 3. [Etymology treats] (of the derivation) (of words,) (and) (of 
 their classes,) (and) (modifications.) — C. FarnunCs English Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 4. [There are three persons ;] (the first,) (the second,) (and the 
 third.) — 0. FarnurrCs English Grammar. 
 
 5. [There are two numbers;] (the singular,) (and) (the plural.) 
 — C. Farnum's Grammar. 
 
 6. [Etymology treats] (of the different sorts) (of words,) (their 
 various modifications,) (and) (their derivations.) — P. Bullions' s 
 Grammar. 
 
 7. [But they understood not what things] (they were) (which 
 he said) (unto them.) 
 
 Note I. appended to Rule LX. 
 
 When the same sub-mono will gnomify with all the supers, 
 it should be understood after all but the last ) as, 
 
SYNTAX. 353 
 
 1. [Henry reads;] (and lie could write) (&y moonlight.) 
 Not, [Henry reads] {by moonlight;) (and he could write) ( , 
 » •) 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 Under Note I. 
 
 1. [William is] (a better boy) (than Thomas,) (and a more dili- 
 gent pupil.) 
 
 2. [Susan is older] (than Phoebe,) (but not) (so good a pupil.) 
 
 3. 'This tree is higher] (than that;) (and larger.) 
 
 4. [This dress is newer] (than that;) (but it is not more beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 Note II. amended to Rule LX. 
 
 When the sub-mono requires a slight change to make it 
 gnomefy with different supers, it should be expressed after 
 the first super only ; as, " He was more beloved (tJian Oin- 
 thiof) (but not so much admired") , , , .) [He 
 was not as much admired] (as Ctnthio;) (but he was more 
 beloved) ( , , , .) 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 Under Note II. 
 
 1. [Foster went faster;] (but he did not arrive (at the city) as 
 soon) (as James.) 
 
 2. Nathaniel is taller;] (but he is not so heavy) (as William.) 
 
 3. [Mr. Jones is not so wealthy ;] (but he is more generous) 
 (than Mr. Stephenson.) 
 
 4. [Sarah is more beautiful;] (but she is not so amiable) (as 
 Mary.) 
 
 5. [Laurine is more attentive] (to her books;) (but she does 
 not learn so fast) (as Marilla.) 
 
 Rule LXI. 
 
 ■ 
 
 When the cordictive noun, or pronoun is un- 
 derstood after and, or, either, neither, and as well 
 as, the sub-mono should have the same tense 
 which its super has ; as, 
 
 30* 
 
354 SYNTAX. 
 
 [I hi 
 
 books.) 
 
 I have read J (and , written books.) (Not, and wrote 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXI. 
 [I have read, (and wrote) many books.] 
 As the cordictive pronoun is understood in the sub-mono, the 
 use of the passed tense is a violation of Rule LXI. 
 
 Rule ; as, [I have read, (and written) many books.] 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 He saw me,] (and has satisfied me.) 
 He saw me,] (and even had called me.) 
 I purchased a house,] (and have paid) (for it.) 
 4. [I have received, (and wrote) five letters.] 
 He promised,] (and has fulfilled.) 
 I have received a letter,) (and wrote an answer.) 
 I went] (to the city,) (and have tarried) (a week.) 
 
 LESSON X. 
 Rule LXII. 
 
 When the sub-mono given by a conjunction, 
 has one tense, and its super, another, the cor- 
 dictive noun, or pronoun of the sub should be 
 expressed; as, 
 
 [Henry then was ;] (and he now is) (in the city.) 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXII. 
 [I was then;] (and now am) (in good health.) 
 As the sub-mono has one tense, and its super another, the non- 
 expression of the cordictive pronoun in the sub-mono, is a violation 
 of Rule LXII. 
 
 Rule ; as, [I was then;] (and /now am) (in good 
 
 health.) 
 
 1- E 
 
 2- [ 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 He acquired a fortune;] (and is spending it rapidly.) 
 He has written a letter ;] (and is now folding it.) 
 
SYNTAX. 355 
 
 8. [He had purchased the book ;] (and was paying) (for it.) 
 
 4. [lie then had money;] (but has none now.) 
 
 5. [He was once wise ;] (therefore, is thought to be so now.) 
 
 Rule LXIII. 
 
 When the noun demimono is general in its 
 application, its general theme is understood in 
 an implied mono beginning with for ; as, 
 
 1. To see the sun is delightful. 
 
 That is, for a person to see the sun is delightful. 
 
 2. To be good is to be happy. 
 
 That is, for a. person to be good is for him to be happy. 
 
 3. To profess regard, and to act differently , mark a base 
 mind. 
 
 That is, for a person to profess regard, and for him to act differ- 
 ently, mark a base mind. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXIII. 
 
 For a person to see the sun, is delightful. 
 
 As this demimono is general, the expression of its general theme, 
 is a violation of Rule LXIII. 
 
 Rule ; as, To see the sun is delightful. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. For him to be virtuous, is for him to be happy. 
 
 2. It is an honour fom person to be the author of that book. 
 
 3. For a person to be surety for a stranger, is dangerous. 
 
 4. For a person not to know what had happened before he was 
 born, is for him to be always a child. 
 
 6. For a person to improve, is his duty. 
 
 Rule LXIV. 
 
 The cordictive noun, or pronoun after and, or, 
 either, neither, and as xeell as, should be expressed 
 
356 SYNTAX. 
 
 when the sub-mono has a uniformly inceptive verb, 
 and the super, none; as, 
 
 He is here; and he icill continue here, I have procured 
 some aid ; and I can get more. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXIV. 
 
 [He is here,] (and will continue here.) 
 As the sub-mono has an inceptive verb, and the super none, the 
 nonexpression of the cordictive pronoun in the sub-mono, is a vio- 
 lation of Rule LXIV. 
 
 Rule ; as, [He is here;] (and he will continue 
 
 here.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I have procured some aid ;] (and can get more.) 
 
 I have been] (in the city ;) (and will be again.) 
 
 He is] (a faithful servant;) (and will probably remain so.) 
 
 They are now poor,] (but will soon be rich.) 
 
 He is] (a negligent lad;) (but will be diligent.) 
 
 Rule LXV. 
 
 Where the super-mono has one inceptive verb, 
 and the sub-mono another, the cordictive noun, or 
 pronoun after and, or, either, neither, and as ivell 
 as, should be expressed ; as, 
 
 1 might, and I would return ; I can, and I will return ; 
 Henry should, and he shall return. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXV. 
 [I might,] (and would return.) 
 As the super-mono has one inceptive verb, and the sub, another, 
 the non-expression of the cordictive pronoun in the sub, is a viola- 
 tion of Rule LXV. 
 
 Rule ; as, [I might;] (and /would return.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [I can,] (and will assist him.) 
 
 2 [Editors can,] (and should be useful men.) 
 
STNTA 1 357 
 
 3. [He can,] (and must help them.) 
 
 4. [James should,] (and shall go) (to school.) 
 6. [He will not be seen,] (and cannot be seen.) 
 
 Rule LXVI. 
 
 If bid, dare, make, see, behold, hear, feel, let, or 
 need, is used in the ne-demimono, to (except where 
 the duo power of the verb is abridged by be) 
 should not be expressed in the demimono ; as, 
 
 I saw him , walk ; We belield the birds , fly. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by JIule LXVI. 
 [I bade him to go] (to church.) 
 The expression of to^ is a violation of Rule LXVI. 
 Rulk ; as, [I bade him , go] (to church.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [He dare not to go] (by himself.) 
 
 2. I will make him to remain] (with me.) 
 
 3. [William beheld an eagle to fly,] (which saw him to raise his 
 
 4. [I heard him to preach] ( , yesterday.) 
 6. Did you see his whip to hit us? 
 
 6. He needs* not to go. 
 
 7. ne was seen , write. v 
 
 8. [I was seen , speak] (with him.) 
 
 9. I was bid , make haste. 
 
 Rule LXVLT. 
 
 When a, or the precedes the tenseless Be form, 
 of should be expressed after this form ; as, 
 
 His station in life is well adapted to the acquinw^ of 
 knowledge ; The not mokijig of a will is a culpable omis- 
 sion. 
 
 . , , ., 
 
 * When need is in a twonouncd ne-demimono, to should be expressed in the 
 demimono; as, They need us to aid them. 
 
358 SYNTAX. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy, Rule LXVII. 
 
 [The making (a will) was his duty.] 
 
 The non-expression of of, after making, is a violation of Rule 
 LXVII. 
 Rule -* ; as, [The making (of a will) was] (his duty.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. (By the exercising) (our judgments) [we improve.] 
 
 2. (By the observing) (truth) [we gain friends.] 
 
 3. (The copying (letters) is] (his business.) 
 
 4. (By the taking) (pains) [you will learn.] 
 
 5. [The learning (languages) is very laborious.] 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 THE NUMBER OP WORDS AND MONOS WHICH SHOULD BE 
 USED. 
 
 Rule LXYIII. 
 
 When my, his, her, or any other adjective of 
 a similar import, precedes the tenseless Be form, 
 of may either be expressed, or understood; as, 
 
 John's buying goods caused him much trouble, or John's 
 buying of goods caused him much trouble. 
 
 While the LXVIII. Rule is one which cannot be violated, the next 
 four are violated in almost every sentence. Hence, the learner 
 cannot give too much attention to them. 
 
 Rule LXIX. 
 
 When there is a more comprehensive word 
 which will express the idea with greater brevity, 
 and with equal force, perspicuity, and euphony, 
 it should be used. 
 
SYNTAX. 359 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by RULE LXIX. 
 
 (Of what consequence) [is it] (to me,) (or) (to my friends,) 
 (whether I speak according) (to its rules,) (or not,) (if I can make 
 myself understood?) — J. Frost. 
 
 As the word, grammatically, is as comprehensive, as the sylla- 
 bane, according to its rules, and as it expresses the idea, denoted 
 by this syllabane, with as much force, perspicuity, and euphony, the 
 use of this syllabane is a violation of Rule LXIX. 
 
 Rule ; as, (Of what consequence) [is it] (to me,) 
 
 Tor) (to my friends,) (whether I speak grammatically,) (or not,) 
 (if I can make myself understood ?) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [Grammar is] (the art) (of speaking) (and) (writing) (the 
 English language) (with propriety.) — Murray, CardeU, Kirkham, 
 Ingersol, French, Lennie, Farnum, Bullions, &c, &c. 
 
 2. [Grammar is] (the science) (of language,) (and) (the art) (of 
 speaking) (and) (writing) (with accuracy.) — E. Hazens Grammar. 
 
 3. [English Grammar is] (the art) (of speaking) (and) (writing) 
 (the English language correctly.) — Goold Brown. 
 
 4. [English Grammar teaches us to speak, (and write) (the Eng- 
 lish language correctly.) — R. C. Smith. 
 
 5. [English Grammar consists] (of directions^ (for speaking) 
 (and) (writing) (the English language correctly.) — 0. B. Pierce's 
 Grammar. 
 
 6. (Which form a sure guide) (in speaking,) (and) (writing) (the 
 English language.) 
 
 7. [English Grammar is] (a science,) (by which) (we learn to 
 speak) (and) (write the English language.) — B. F. Ellis's Gram. 
 
 Rule LXX. 
 
 When under a different form, or construction, 
 fewer words would express the ideas with equal 
 force, perspicuity, and euphony, it should be 
 used. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXX. 
 
 [The person (of whom) (we have already spoken,) might pur- 
 sue his inquiries (a little) farther,] (and say,) ("Whence does 
 Grammar receive its authority V')— Preface to J. Frost's English 
 Grammar. 
 
360 SYNTAX. 
 
 As under a different form, fewer words would express the ideas, 
 the construction, [The person (of whom) (we have already spoken,) 
 might pursue his inquiries (a little) farther,] (and say,) is a viola- 
 tion of Rule LXX. 
 
 Rule ; as, This person might here ask, "Whence 
 
 does Grammar receive its authority?" Or, This person might 
 further inquire, " Whence does Grammar receive its authority ?" 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [The person] (who used the expression) (might turn (upon 
 us) again,) (and inquire,) ("Why should I learn English Gram- 
 mar V -^Preface to J. Frost's Grammar. 
 
 2. [Great attention must be paid] (to the vowels) (which are 
 not accented.) — J. Comly's Grammar. 
 
 3. (And to furnish a test) (whether he is sufficiently prepared) 
 (for recitation.) — Bullions' s Grammar. 
 
 Rule LXXI. 
 
 Words and monos, which, if employed, would 
 express nothing but what is obvious from the 
 nature of the subject, should not be used unless 
 their omission would produce an intolerable caco- 
 phony by depriving a sub of a super. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXXI. 
 
 [Very young pupils, (or mere beginners) (at any age,) should 
 be required to study only the leading parts,] (which are gene- 
 rally distinguished) (in the grammar) (by larger type.) — Bullions's 
 Grammar. 
 
 As the mono, in the grammar, expresses nothing but what is obvi- 
 ous, and as its omission would not deprive any sub of a super, its 
 use is a violation of Rule LXXI. 
 
 Rule ; as, Which are generally distinguished by 
 
 larger type. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [It is absolutely necessary] (to use grammatical language) 
 (in order) (to convey his meaning clearly) (to the mind) (of- the 
 hearer) (or) (reader.) — John Frost's English Grammar. 
 
 2. [Orthography teaches the nature] (and power) (of letters,) 
 (and the correct method) (of spelling words.)— Bullions' s Gram. 
 
SYNTAX. 361 
 
 3. [A noun is] (the name) (of any person,) (place,) (or thing.) 
 — Kirkham's Oram. 
 
 4. [A noun is] (the name} (of any thing) (that we can see,} 
 (hear,) (taste,) (smell,) (feel,) (or) (discourse) (of;) (as,) (man,) 
 (apple.) — J. Comly's Oram. 
 
 5. [A substantive (or noun) is] (the name) (of any thing) (that 
 exists) (or) (of which) (we have any notion.) — L. Murray's Gram. 
 
 Rule LXXII. 
 
 Words, and monos, which, if employed, 
 would express nothing but irrelevant, or unim- 
 portant matter, should be omitted. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXXII. 
 
 "Dear Sir — I acknowledge the receipt of a copy of your Eng- 
 lish Grammar, {left) (upon my office desk) (yesterday) (afternoon") 
 
 As the last four monos express nothing but unimportant matter, 
 their use is a violation of Rule LXXII. 
 
 Rule ; as, Dear Sir — I acknowledge the receipt 
 
 of a copy of your English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. (If a piece (of writing,} (for example, a contract, or a man's 
 will,) were executed) in such, a manner, &c. — J. Frost. 
 
 2. When the number and variety of English Grammars already 
 published, and the ability with which some of them are written, 
 are considered, little can be expected from a new compilation, 
 besides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and some 
 degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the under- 
 standing, and gradual progress of the learner. — L. Murray. 
 
 Rule LXXIII. 
 
 The construction of the sentence, should make 
 a theme cordktive, or uncordictive, as the turn of 
 thought requires ; as, 
 
 1. The names, nature, division, and the sounds of tho 
 letters are here considered. 
 
 31 
 
 <ib 
 
362 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. [The wages (of sin,) are] (death.) 
 
 3. The colour of the negro is here considered. 
 
 The following constructions are bad : — 
 
 1. Letters are considered in regard to their nature, divi- 
 sions, and sounds, and mode of forming them into words and 
 syllables. — Harts Grammar. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. The negro is here considered in regard to his colour. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy Rule LXXILT. 
 
 As the turn of thought renders the nature, divisions, and the 
 sounds of letters cordictive, and the letters themselves uncordictive, 
 the construction of the sentence should make the nature, divisions, 
 and the sounds the cordictive themes, and the letters uncordic- 
 tive. 
 
 Rule ; as, The nature, divisions, and the sounds of 
 
 letters, are here considered. 
 
 I am aware that the old school grammarians take the position 
 that death is the natural cordictive theme. But I feel satisfied that 
 they are wrong. That the wages are the central point of thought 
 is obvious from the consideration that the writer attempts to say 
 what the wages of sin are. 
 
 The wages of sin are death. 
 
 Does the writer here undertake to describe death ? No — he at- 
 tempts to describe the wages of sin. 
 
 The colour of the apple is red. 
 
 Here the writer attempts to describe the colour: hence, this 
 attribute is rendered the cordictive theme by the turn of the thought. 
 Did the writer of this proposition wish to describe the apple, the 
 apple would be the cordictive theme ; and the sentence should be 
 construed thus : — 
 
 The apple is red. 
 
 But as the writer wishes to describe the colour of the apple, the 
 diction, the speech, the sentence, springs out of the colour : hence, 
 the colour is the life source of the speech, and, to express this idea, 
 the colour is called the cordictive theme. 
 
 By what means does the writer describe the colour ? By predi- 
 cating redness of it. The redness which the writer ascribes to 
 the colour through the agency of is, is the ear mark that distin- 
 guishes the colour which the writer wishes to describe. 
 
 How does the sacred writer describe the wages ? By ascribing 
 death to them: hence, death is the characteristic mark of the 
 wages of sin. 
 
SYNTAX. 363 
 
 Is it not«lear, then, that the wages moved the writer to fori* 
 the diction, the sentence, in which he predicates death of these 
 wages? If so, are not the wages the heart of this diction? As 
 life proceeds from the heart, does not the following sentence pro* 
 ceed from the wages ? — 
 
 The wages of sin are death, 
 
 Rule LXXIV. 
 
 The construction of the sentence should make 
 a thing the uncordictive theme of a verb, or of 
 a preposition, as the turn of thought requires ; 
 as, 
 
 1. I shall here consider the nature, the divisions, and the 
 sounds of letters, 
 
 2. We form syllables^ and words from letters. 
 
 1. [Not, I shall here consider letters in regard to their 
 nature, divisions, and sounds.'} 
 
 2. [Not, We form letters into syllafdes, and words.] 
 
 [It is obvious that the consideration is to fall, not upon the let- 
 ters, but upon the nature, divisions, and the sounds of letters. Hence, 
 the sentence should be constructed in a way which corresponds to 
 this particular turn x>f thought. 
 
 It is clearly indicated by the turn of the thought in the second 
 sentence, that the formation falls, not upon the letters, but upon 
 the syllables, and the words. Hence, .the construction which would 
 disregard this particular turn of the thought of the proposition, 
 would be unnatural.^ - 
 
 The following sentences violate Rule LXXIV. : — 
 
 The forming of letters into words and syllables is also 
 called spelling. — Hart's Grammar. 
 
 The syllable* and words are formed out of letters : — henee, the 
 natural construction is — 
 
 The forming of syllaUes and words from letters, is also 
 called spelling. 
 
 Rule LXXV. 
 
 When the elements are mentioned in connec- 
 tion with the thing which they constitute, the 
 
364 SYNTAX. 
 
 elements should be named before the thing 
 which they form ; as, 
 
 1. The formation of syllables, and words from letters is 
 spelling. 
 
 The following sentences are bad: — 
 
 1. The forming of letters into words, and syllables is also 
 called spelling. — Hart's Grammar. 
 
 2. Letters are considered in regard to their nature, divi- 
 sions, and sounds, and the mode of forming them into words 
 and syllables, — Hurt's Grammar. 
 
 Kule LXXVI. 
 
 The implication of a sub mono whose theme 
 has no affinity with the theme of its super mono, 
 should be avoided ; as, 
 
 Letters are considered in regard to their nature, divisions, 
 and sounds, and the mode of forming them into words and 
 syllables. — Hart's Grammar. 
 
 The sub mono, of forming, is understood after the supers, to their 
 nature, to their divisions, and to their sounds. To render this clear, 
 I will give the sentence another construction : — 
 
 We will here consider the nature, the divisions, the sounds, 
 and the formation of letters into words. 
 
 As the introduction of the mono, into words, indicates that into 
 . words is understood after nature, divisions, and sounds, so the use 
 of the mono, of forming, indicates that of forming is understood 
 after nature, divisions, and sounds. 
 
 Implenary. 
 
 We will here consider the nature, ( , , ) 
 
 (,,)(,,,,, the divi- 
 sions) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , 
 , , , the sounds,) ( , , ) ( , 
 , )( , , , , , the formation) 
 (of letters) (into words.) 
 
 Plenary. 
 [We will here consider the nature] (of letters) (into 
 
SYNTAX. 305 
 
 words,) (and we will here consider the division) (of letters) 
 {into words,) (and we will here consider the sounds) (of let- 
 ters) (into words,) (and we will here consider the formation) 
 (of letters) (into words.)* 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 We will here form the wood, the iron, the brass, and the 
 copper, into cliairs. 
 
 In this construction, which is similar to the other, " into chairs" 
 is understood after wood, iron, brass, and copper. If, in this con- 
 struction, ** into chairs" is implied after wood, iron, brass, and cop- 
 per, in the second, is not " into words" implied after nature, division, 
 and sounds? And, if in the second, il into words" is implied after 
 nature, divisions, and sounds, in the first, is not il of forming" under- 
 stood after nature, divisions, and sounds ? 
 
 From what is the implication of into chairs derived ? From the 
 actual expression of this mono as the sub of the cordietive super 
 given by and. The law is this ; The expressed prepositional sub of 
 the super given by and, or, or nor, is implied after each mono 
 which is similar to the conjunctional super given by and, or, or nor. 
 To this principle there is one exception only, which occurs where 
 the prepositional sub, or one like it, is actually expressed after each 
 mono which is similar to the conjunctional super given by and, or, 
 or nor ; as, 
 
 L We will here make the wood into chairs, the iron into 
 chairs, the brass info chafrs, and the copper into chairs. 
 
 2. Henry has lived in Boston, in Philadelphia, and in 
 Baltimore. 
 
 That is, Henry has lived in Boston, and he has lived in Philadel- 
 phia, and he has lived in Baltimore. 
 
 Letters are considered in regard to their nature, divisions, 
 and sounds, and the mode of forming them into words and 
 syllables. 
 
 But it may be said that the law of which I have spoken, does 
 not apply to this case; for ** of forming" is the sub of the super 
 given- by and. The mono, given by and, is the super of the prepo- 
 sitional sub, of the mode. 
 
 True, the principle which I have already explained as a law, 
 does not apply to this particular case. But, as this principle is 
 very similar to the one which does apply to it, and, as it is some- 
 what more easily explained than that which does apply, I have 
 given it as a key to the law which governs this case. 
 
 31* 
 
366 SYNTAX. 
 
 Principle. 
 
 When the prepositional clad which is sub to the conjunc- 
 tional mono given by and, or, or nor, has a prepositional 
 sub, this sub is understood after each mono that corresponds 
 to its prepositional super; as, 
 
 1. Letters are considered in regard (to their nature, divi- 
 sions, and sounds, and the mode of forming them into words 
 and syllables.) 
 
 The mono, to the mode, is the prepositional clad which is sub to 
 the conjunctional super given by and. This clad has a prepositional 
 sub, viz., of forming. 
 
 And, as the prepositional sub, of forming, is understood after each 
 mono which corresponds to the prepositional clad that is sub to 
 the conjunctional super given by and, it is implied after the monos, 
 to their nature, to their divisions, and to their sounds. 
 
 1. [Letters are considered] (in regard) (to their nature) 
 (of forming.) 
 
 2. (and they are considered) (in regard) (to their divi- 
 sions) (of forming.) 
 
 3. (and they are considered) (in regard) (to their sounds) 
 (of forming.) 
 
 4. (and they are considered) (in regard) (to the mode) 
 (of forming.) 
 
 That the monos, to their nature, to their divisions, and to their 
 sounds, correspond to the clad, to the mode, may be seen from the 
 following : — 
 
 1. (in regard) (to their nature) ( , , .) 
 
 2. (in regard) (to their divisions) ( ' , , .) 
 
 3. (in regard) (to their sounds) ( , , .) 
 
 4. (in regard) (to the mode) (of forming.) 
 
 Letters are considered in regard to their nature, divisions, 
 and sounds, and the mode of forming them into words and 
 syllables. — Mart's Grammar. 
 
 Rule LXXJV, requires the first part of this sentence to read 
 thus:— 
 
 The nature, divisions, and the sounds of letters are con- 
 sidered. 
 
 Rule LVII,, page 349, requires the first part of this sentence to 
 read thus : — 
 
 I shall here consider the nature, divisions, and the sounds 
 of letters. 
 
SYNTAX. 3G7 
 
 Rule LXXV. requires the transposition of words and syllables. 
 
 Letters are considered in regard to their nature, divisions, 
 and sounds, and the mode of forming them into words, and. 
 syllabi* s. 
 
 [Into syllables, and words.'] 
 
 Rule LXXVI. requires the rejection of the part of the sentence 
 which follows sounds. The sentence, then, in its revised state, 
 reads thus : — 
 
 I shall here consider the nature, the divisions, and the 
 sounds of letters. 
 
 Should one ask, what can be done with the rejected parts of this 
 sentence, my reply would be, that as they contain materials 
 enough for a separate building, they should be erected, in the 
 proper place, into a distinct sentence. 
 
 LESSON XIL 
 Kule LXXVIL 
 
 Every mono should contain supers for its own 
 subs; as, 
 
 1. [He said,"] (where art thou?) 
 
 The word, said, is a sub word ; and, as it is of the plusidios, it 
 must have two supers. He is one super, and the noun syllabane, 
 " Where art thou?" is the other. — (Book I. page 143.) 
 
 2. [Hunter heard] (that) (/am sick.) 
 
 Not, Hunter heard (of my being sick. ) 
 
 Common as is this form of expression, the subs, of, my, being, 
 and sick, have no super. 
 
 To what super does of refer? To what super does my refer? 
 To what super does being refer? And what is the super of sick? 
 My is the super of these four subs. And who, pray, is my ? 
 
 3. It was not mentioned that (he was sick.) 
 
 Not, His being sick was not mentioned. 
 
 This form of expression leaves his, being, and sick without a 
 super. But the following form provides a super for these three 
 subs : — 
 
 That he was sick was not mentioned. Or ; 
 
368 SYNTAX. 
 
 It was not mentioned that lie teas side. 
 
 4.' His expertnessm grammar procured him the situation. 
 
 Not, His being expert in grammar, procured him the situation. 
 Should we here ask, who was expert ? the answer must be his I 
 Well, who is his t 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXXVII. 
 
 1. His being sick. 
 
 i These three subs are left without a super to sustain them. 
 That he was sick, was not mentioned. Or, 
 It was not mentioned that he was siek. 
 
 2. My being sick. 
 Hunter heard that / am sick. 
 
 3. His being expert. 
 His expertness in grammar, procured him this situation. 
 
 1. His being wise, was doubted. 
 The want of a super for his, being, and wise, is a violation of 
 Rule LXXVII. 
 Rule ; as, It was doubted whether he was wise. 
 
 2. [I came] (from there.) 
 The want of a super for from is a violation of Rule LXXVII. 
 Rule ; as, I came from that place. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 "Read] (from here) (to there.) 
 'How far is it] (from here) (to Dayton ?) 
 "I will go] (from here) (to Germantown.) 
 1 exerted myself] (to prevent his becoming a bad boy.) 
 If a piece (of writing) were executed] (in such a manner) (as 
 to admit) (of two interpretations.) — J. Frost. 
 
 6. (With all its excellence,) [however, it is far (from being) in- 
 capable] (of improvement.) — Bullions. 
 
 Rule LXXVIII. 
 
 Where the idea is that of a consequence, the 
 pronoun, that, explained by ne-demi monos, 
 should be used ; as, 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 Henry studied grammar so closely, (that) (he went) 
 (through the three Books) (in four weeks.) 
 
 [Not, Henry studied grammar so closely, as to go through 
 the three Books in four weeks.] 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXXVIII. 
 
 A Grammar ought to be simple in its style, and arrangement, 
 so as to be adapted to the capacity of youth. — Bullions. 
 
 As the idea is that of a result, the use of as, and the demimono, 
 to be, and not of the pronoun* that, followed by the ne-demimono, 
 it may be adapted, is a violation of Rule LXXVIII. 
 
 Rule ; as, A Grammar ought to be simple in its 
 
 style, that it may be adapted to the capacity of youth. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The design of this book is to benefit those whose time is so 
 devoted, as to preclude the possibility, &c. 
 
 2. Apprentices whose time is so circumscribed by contract, as 
 to prevent their attending to this study in the ordinary way. 
 
 3. The author of this compilation has studied so to abridge the 
 definitions and rules necessary to be committed to memory, as not 
 to burden the pupil. 
 
 4. The master is expected to be so fully imbued with his sub- 
 ject, and so expert in his art as to be able to impart knowledge. 
 
 Rule LXXIX. 
 Other. 
 
 Other should be used only where the writer 
 wishes to indicate that the things mentioned in 
 the super mono, belong to the same class with 
 those named in the sub ; as, 
 
 1. [Jacob loved Joseph more] (than all his other children.) 
 
 2. [Get apples] (and other fruit.) 
 
 The omission of other will illustrate the Rule. 
 
 [Jacob loved Joseph more] (than he loved all his children.) 
 
 [Get apples] (and fruit.) 
 
 In the first, it is indicated by the omission of other, that Joseph 
 was not a child of Jacob. 
 
370 SYNTAX. 
 
 In the second, it is indicated by the omission of other, that apples 
 are not fruit. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXXIX. 
 
 [Jacob loved Joseph more] (than all his children.) 
 
 As by the omission of other, it is indicated that Joseph does not 
 
 belong to the class composed of the children of Jacob, and as the 
 
 writer wishes to prevent this indication, the want of other, is a 
 
 violation of Rule LXXIX. 
 
 Rule — ; as, Jacob loved Joseph more than all his 
 
 other children. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 6. 
 6. 
 ment 
 7. 
 8. 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 The Bible is better] (than all books.) 
 Methuselah was older] (than any man.) 
 "Samson was stronger] (than any man.) 
 "Solomon was wiser] (than any man.) 
 The Chinese Empire is older] (than any empire.) 
 The Russian Empire is more extensive] (than any govern- 
 
 " Washington was] (a better commander) (than any general.) 
 The Mississippi river is longer] (than any river.) 
 "Hope is more constant] (than any passion.) 
 [The English language has a greater variety] (of expres- 
 
 sion) (than any language.) 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 First, Last. 
 
 Where first, or last is used to designate a lesser group by 
 expressing its numeral place, or order in relation to the 
 other lesser groups into which a grand group is subdivided, 
 it is a subadjective, employed, not to express comparison, 
 but order, and it should precede the principal adjective 
 which expresses how many individuals this particular group 
 comprises; as, 
 
 Read the first six verses of the chapter. 
 Sing the last seven verses of the hymn. (See Note, 
 p. 324.) 
 
SYNTAX. 371 
 
 LESSON xm. 
 
 THE REPETITION OP PARTICULAR WORDS IS REQUIRED. 
 
 Rule LXXX. 
 
 Every word whose repetition would augment 
 the force of the sentence, may be repeated ; as,* 
 
 Every day, and every hour brings something interesting to 
 each officer, to each soldier, and to each citizen ; I looked — 
 but I saw no man, no woman, no child within call. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting by Rule LXXX. 
 [God always has governed the world;] (and He will govern it.) 
 As the repetition of always would give additional force to the 
 sentence, its non-repetition is a violation of Rule LXXX. 
 
 Rule ; as, [God always has governed the world ;] 
 
 (and He always will govern it.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He was neither a philosopher, saint, nor hero. 
 
 2. The deeper the prejudice more fame to the courage which 
 braves it. 
 
 3. The voice of the Lord is powerful ; it is full of majesty ; it 
 breaketh the cedars. — Ptal. xxix. 4, 6. , 
 
 4. Whom they loved, served, ran after, sought, and worshipped. 
 — Jer. viii. 2. 
 
 5. Where is the wise, the scribe, — and the disputer of this 
 world ?— 1 Cor. i. 20. 
 
 Rule LXXXI. 
 
 When the non-repetition of any adjective, 
 would reduce intended plurality to unity, the 
 adjective should be repeated ; as, 
 
 * The words which are generally repeated to Increase the force of a sentence, 
 are each, every, no, any, both, the, a, apoalrophic, and pronoun adjectives, and prepo- 
 sitions. 
 
 Nouns, and rerbs are sometimes repeated to gi ye additional force. 
 
372 SYNTAX. 
 
 Henry saw the black, and the white ox; Joseph purchased 
 a black, and a white horse ; Nathaniel called John's black, 
 and his white dog. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy Rule LXXXI. 
 [He read the Old , ,] (and New Testament.) 
 As the non-repetition of the, reduces intended plurality to unity, 
 the non-repetition of the is a violation of Rule LXXXI. 
 
 Rule ; ; as, [He read the Old , ,] (and the New 
 
 Testament.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1 . He purchased the black, and white ox, and lost them. 
 
 2. I have the small, and large apple. 
 
 8. He has the crooked, and straight stick. 
 
 4. I saw a white, and coloured man. 
 
 5. He has a sour, and sweet orange. 
 
 Rule LXXXII. 
 
 When the repetition of any adjective would 
 augment intended unity to plurality, the adjec- 
 tive should not be repeated ; as, 
 
 Henry saw the black, and white ox; Joseph purchased 
 a black, and white horse. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy Rule LXXXII. 
 
 [They saw the black, (and the white ox) when] (I fed him.) 
 As the repetition of the augments intended unity to plurality, it 
 
 is a violation of Rule LXXXII. 
 
 Rule — : ; as, [They saw the black, (and white ox) 
 
 when] (I fed him.) 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Get the red, and the white cloth which lies near you. 
 
 2. Have you the large, and the sweet apple ? The one which I 
 gave you. 
 
 3. I examined the long, and the narrow street which runs from 
 Market to South. 
 
SYNTAX. 373 
 
 hule lxxxih. 
 
 Where the plus numerdiction of the expressed 
 noun, makes too many of the same kind, the ex- 
 pressed noun should remain uni, and the first 
 set of adjectives be limited to the noeton noun 
 by the repetition of the, or by a repetition of 
 the preposition in its noeton character \ as, 
 
 1. Henry teaches the Greek, and the Latin language. 
 (Not, languages.) 
 
 2. He found this doctrine in the Old, and the New Testa- 
 ment. (Not, Testaments.) 
 
 3. The first, and the second edition is sold. (Not, edi- 
 tions.) 
 
 4. He went to Arch , and , Market street. (Not, 
 streets.) 
 
 5. Luther resides at the corner of Arch, and , Fourth 
 street. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy Rule LXXXLTI. 
 [He teaches the Greek , ] (and Latin languages.) 
 As the plus numerdiction of the expressed noun makes too many 
 of the same kind, the non-limitation of the first set of adjectives 
 to the noeton noun, is a violation of Rule LXXXIII. 
 
 Rule ; as, [He teaches the Greek,] (and the Latin 
 
 language.) - 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. [We will sing the fourth,] (and fifth Verses. ) 
 
 2. [James lives] (at the corner) (of Second,) (and Callowhill 
 streets.) - . 
 
 3. [The second, (and third books) are his , .] 
 
 4. [The fourth, (and fifth men) were lost.] 
 
 6. [His first, (and second brothers) are well.} 
 
 Rule LXXXIV. 
 
 Every word which is employed, should be 
 used in a legitimate form ; as, 
 
 32 
 
374 SYNTAX. 
 
 1. This man is going to Philadelphia. (Not, is goin.) 
 
 2. He pleaded his own cause. (Not, pled.) 
 
 3. This medicine is a preventive against a fever. . (Not 
 preventative.) 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy Rule LXXXI V. 
 I'd as lief. 
 
 The use of would, and lief in illigitimate forms, is a violation of 
 Rule LXXXIV. 
 Rule ; as, I would as soon. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Henry sot] (in that chair) (last evening.) 
 He is coming (to Philadelphia) soon.] 
 He conducted] (in a gentlemany manner.) 
 
 4. The boiler bursted. 
 
 5. He plead his own cause. 
 
 6. [Several were] (of that opinion.) 
 
 7. He has been misfortunate. 
 
 8. [I wish to get shet] (of the troublesome person.) 
 
 9. [He is] (at hum.) 
 10. You haddent any book. 
 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 
 Tant any better] (than hern.) 
 zzent this line well written ? 
 Tizzent any better] (than hizzen.) 
 He will come,] (and bring yourn,) (and theirn.) 
 He will go afore] (I go.) 
 He lives furder] (from the city) (than I.) 
 "Has John come ?] [Yes, I seed him,] (and he knowd me.) 
 = I wish] (I haddent done it) — (howsomever I dont keer.) 
 He says] (I ort to go ;) (but I wont do it.) 
 [No, " 
 
 "Do you want all ?] [No, I want part unly.] 
 'My house is sitewated] (on a nate-eral mound of consider- 
 able hithe.) 
 
 22. [You needent look so cross ;] (you cant skeer me.) 
 
 23. [That is] (a good pen.) [I dont keer] (if it is.) 
 
 24. Whar air you goin tu ? 
 
 25. [I throwd a stun] (at the bird.) 
 
 26. [This medicine is] (a preventative) (against a fever.) 
 
 27. Have you the books ? Certainny I have. 
 
 28. Do you go to school now ? No, mum. 
 
 29. Are you acquainted with Sarah ? Nome ! 
 
 30. Are you comin, Stephen ? 
 
 31. I can throw the furtherest? 
 
SYNTAX. 375 
 
 32. I disremember the circumstances. 
 
 33. He is a good musicianer. 
 
 34. He catch'd a bird. 
 
 35. [I'd rather go] (thand stay.) 
 86. You laugh cause I hurt myself. 
 
 All obsolete modifications of verbs, are considered as 
 illigitimate forms. 
 
 37. They bare a pitcher of water to her. 
 
 38. The boy should be bounden out to lam a trade. 
 
 39. They brake the bands asunder. 
 
 40. The child was then chidden by her mother. 
 
 41. Man shall forsake father, and mother, and clave to his 
 wife. 
 
 42. He drave out the money changers. 
 
 43. The water was not drunken by me.* 
 
 44. James forgat his books. 
 
 45. I gat some water for him. 
 
 46. The deed of trust was holden by me. 
 
 47. The horse had been ridden too far. 
 
 48. He had shapen the board to his mind. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 WHATEVER BELONGS TO ONE THING SHOULD NOT BE 
 ASCRIBED TO ANOTHER. 
 
 Rule LXXXV. 
 
 Whatever belongs to one thing should not 
 be ascribed to another; as, 
 
 Henry has a new pair of shoes. The newness belongs to 
 the shoe*; — not to the pair. Henry has a pair of new shoes. 
 
 Specimen of Correcting hy Rule LXXXV. 
 
 [He has a new pair] (of gloves.) 
 As the ntwne** belongs to the gloves, and not to the pair, the 
 appropriation of new to pair, is a violation of Rule LXXXV. 
 Rule ; as [He has a pair] (of new gloves.) 
 
 * Dr. Webnter *ays that drunk as a verb is obsolete But this is not so. Nor ia 
 it true that crew, the passed tense of crow, is obsolete. 
 
876 SYNTAX. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. 
 
 I bought a new pair] (of boots.) 
 2. [Give (me) a strong cup] (of tea.) 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 I purchased a large brace] (of partridges.) 
 ^He has a fine span] (of horses.) 
 
 5. f He has a fat yoke] (of cattle.) 
 
 6. It is the province of grammar simply to determine what is 
 correct according to the usage of reputable writers. — J. Frost's 
 Grammar. 
 
 7. Adjectives are varied only to express their degrees of com- 
 parison. — Kirkham's Grammar. 
 
 8. I shall notice only the personal pronouns. 
 
 9. This is a good tract of land. 
 
 10. He only promised to return the books. 
 
 11. Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. 
 
 12. Only those lads have I seen. 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 This, That, These, and Those. 
 
 The distance of the objects from the speaker, or from 
 him in reference to whom they are mentioned, is one of the 
 two governing principles in the use of these words. As the 
 eye is the organ which measures distance, I have placed this 
 organ in the centre of The Contrast. 
 
 From this eye appear to emanate different glances which point 
 to the several objects within its vision. These glances are lettered, 
 A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. The glance marked A, is the word this. 
 The one marked B, is the word that. 
 
 From this Diagram, it is obvious, that this refers to the nearer 
 thing ; and that to the more distant one. 
 
 D is those ; and G is these. D, and G, are plus : those is the plus 
 of that, and these, of this. 
 
 It is the same principle of inequality in distance, that governs 
 the application of these, and those, which governs the use of this, and 
 that. 
 
 SECOND PRINCIPLE. 
 
 The second principle on which this, that, these, and those 
 are applied, is priority, and posteriority in mentioning ob- 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 377 
 
378 SYNTAX. 
 
 jects — this principle is illustrated in the different dates. In 
 the object to which that, B, points, you find priority, 1830. 
 In the object to which this, A, points, you find posteriority, 
 lool. 
 
 You see from these different, these contrasted dates, that thai 
 points to the first thing mentioned, and this to the last. 
 
 1831 1830 A B 
 
 {This, that: this, that.) 
 
 It is obvious from the dates that those refers to the things first 
 mentioned ; and these, to the things last mentioned. 
 
 A, this . . . 1831 G, these . . . 1831. 
 
 B, that . . . 1830 D, those . . . 1830. 
 
 THIRD PRINCIPLE. 
 
 The third principle on which this, and that, these, and 
 those are applied, is found in the absence of the nouns to 
 which they point. This principle is illustrated in the blanks 
 within the circles. Where A points to an expressed noun, 
 to a filled circle, H refers to a noeton one. 
 
 (If you will take this book,) [I will take that , .] 
 
 1. C represents this, when this belongs to a noeton noun. 
 
 2. E represents these, when these belongs to a noeton noun. 
 
 3. F represents those, when those belongs to a noeton noun. 
 
 4. H represents that, when that belongs to a noeton noun. 
 
 A H 
 
 This man, not that , . 
 
 G F 
 
 3. These books, not those 
 
 B C 
 
 That book, not this , '. 
 
 D E 
 
 4. Those books, not these 
 
 1830 
 
 1830 
 
 " In the city we are entertained by the works of man ; in the 
 
 1831 1831 1831 1«0 
 
 country by the works of God : this is the presence of nature ; that 
 
 1831 1830 
 
 of art : these astonish us ; those we comprehend." 
 
 A B G D 
 
 This, that these, those. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 They who wish to understand what is called English Grammar, 
 make very free use of the word, those. Many of ,them apply this 
 

 SYNTAX. 379 
 
 adjective to things which are near by. For instance — a yonng 
 lady will apply it to gloves which she is holding ; as, " What is 
 the price of those gloves ?" 
 
 Indeed, persons in general, seem not to understand the proper 
 character of this word. It is not unfrequently used where they 
 should be employed ; as, Those who went with me, returned with 
 them. {They who went, &c.) 
 
 Those is often employed where the should be used; as, Those 
 passages of Scripture on which he commented, he made quite plain. 
 {The passages, &c.) 
 
 The following application of those, is correct : — The lecturer read 
 two verses in the New, and two in the Old Testament. On those he 
 made few comments — but on these he was prolix. 
 
 (The Contrast gives the true character of those, from which its 
 proper use may be deduced.) 
 
 In the following, that is abused: — That portion of the Holy 
 Scriptures which I have selected for the present occasion, is re- 
 corded in John v. 6. {The portion of the Holy Scriptures, &c.) 
 
 The learner should now examine the writings of different au- 
 thors, to find where they have been happy, and where unhappy, 
 in the use of this, that, these, and those. He may improve their 
 works, and his own mind by that close investigation which alone 
 can enable this to read those with pleasure and profit. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 OP The, A, An, and Such. 
 
 Principle I. 
 
 Tlic is used to indicate that the thing mentioned is well 
 known, or that it is distinguished from other things of a 
 similar kind by distinctive circumstances, either expressed, 
 or implied ; as, The lion is a noble animal. 
 
 Principle II. 
 
 A is used to indicate that the thing mentioned is not well 
 known, or that it is not distinguished by distinctive circum- 
 stances; as, A man came to us, who saw a lion near us. — 
 [See page 93.] 
 
 Note. — The numerdiction which the old school grammarians 
 ascribe to a, belongs to the noun to which a is applied. This is 
 established from tha consideration, that when unity is the leading 
 
38i) SYNTAX. 
 
 idea, one, not a, must be used ; as, How many books have you ? I 
 have one book. 
 
 [Here the adjective, a, cannot be substituted for one.] (See the 
 Appeal and Exegesis.) 
 
 Forms of A. 
 
 This adjective is employed under two forms, primitive, 
 and derivative. 
 
 The primitive form of a, is an, and the derivative is a. 
 These two forms are divided into vowel, and consonant. 
 
 Vowel Form of An. 
 
 An is the vowel form, and is so called because it is used 
 when the following word begins with a vowel sound ; as, 
 An article ; There is not an ounce of reason in him ; Get 
 an hour glass ; He gave me an historical account ; This was 
 an heroic man ; Give me an urn. 
 
 In hour glass, h is perfectly silent — hence, hour begins with a 
 vowel sound — our. Therefore, aw should be used, although hour 
 begins with a consonant letter. 
 
 Although historical begins with a consonant letter, it begins with 
 a vowel sound ; for as the accent is on the second syllable, the h is 
 almost silent. 
 
 The same remark applies to heroic. 
 
 Consonant Form of An. 
 
 The consonant form of an is a, and is so called because it 
 is used when the following word begins with a consonant 
 sound ; as, He purchased a house ; he had a wound on his 
 hand; He gave me a one dollar bill; this is a yew tree ; A 
 unit ; A eulogy ; A ewer pitcher. 
 
 One begins with the sound of the consonant w — hence a, not are, 
 should be used. 
 
 Eulogy begins with the consonant sound of initial y — hence, an is 
 used in its consonant form. 
 
 The same remark is applicable to yew tree, and ewer. 
 
 Rule LXXXVL 
 
 Where the things are tvell Jenoivn, or where 
 they are described in the sentence either by 
 
SYNTAX. 381 
 
 expression, or implication, or where all the 
 things are included by the noun, the should be 
 used; as, 
 
 The sun had risen ; Tlie fig tree ; TJie ox knoweth his 
 master's crib. 
 
 Rule LXXXVII. 
 
 Where the thing is not well known, or where 
 it is not distinguished in the sentence by the 
 expression, or implication of a distinctive cir- 
 cumstance, where all of the kind, are not in- 
 cluded, a, or an should be used ; as, 
 
 A bird flew from the branch of this tree ; An hour passed 
 off quickly. 
 
 Note I. 
 
 When the following word begins with a consonant sound, 
 a is used ; as, A book ; A book hour. [Hour for books.'] 
 
 Note II. 
 
 When the following word begins with a vowel sound, an 
 is used; as, An hour glass; An index. 
 
 Such. 
 
 Such should be used only where an object has already 
 been spoken of in reference to its hind; as, Henry has 
 sweet apples — such as you like; He is a strange man — I 
 have no patience with such persons ; Such a temper as you 
 have described, is enough to keep a whole family unhappy. 
 
 Note I. 
 
 Such should never be used to indicate the degree, or ratio 
 to which a thing possesses a property ; as, Such a bad man ; 
 I have rarely seen such white paper. Such beautiful flowers 
 I have seldom seen. — Bullions' s English Grammar. 
 
382 SYNTAX. 
 
 In these instances so should be used. 
 
 1. A man so bad. 
 
 2. Such white paper. Paper so white. 
 
 3. Such beautiful flowers, I have never seen. I have never seen 
 flowers so beautiful. 
 
 Note II. 
 
 When so is a sub, the sub, and the principal adjective gene- 
 rally follow the noun ; as, I have never seen flowers so charm- 
 ing ; He has never brought apples so large. [Not, I have 
 never seen so charming flowers ; He has never brought so 
 large apples.] 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION, AND INDIVIDUALITY OP OBJECTS. 
 
 PRINCIPLES. 
 Principle I. 
 
 Each has respect to things which are individually taken; 
 and it may be applied where there are as many as two; as, 
 Each of the two ; Each of the six. 
 
 Principle II. 
 
 Every should be used where there are several, or more, to 
 be taken individually ; as, He got several books ; and lost 
 every one ; Nathaniel saw a thousand birds, and wanted 
 every one; He met ten beggars, and gave every one a 
 crown. 
 
 Principle III. 
 
 Either, as well as neither, should be applied where there 
 are but two ; as, Either of the two, will suit me ; He is 
 either here, or there ; Neither of the two, will suit me ; He 
 is neither here, nor there. 
 
SYNTAX. 383 
 
 Rule LXXXVIII. 
 
 Where the demimono cannot be used without 
 the precession of so, as, so as, so as hereby, or so 
 as thereby, it should not be employed; as, 
 
 As an art, it teaches the right method of applying these 
 principles to a particular language, so as thereby (to express 
 our thoughts) in a correct, and proper manner. — Bullions' s 
 Grammar. [Bad in several respects.] 
 
 Partially Corrected. 
 
 As an art, it teaches the method of applying these prin- 
 ciples to a particular language in a way which enables us to 
 express our thoughts in a proper manner. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. When a member of a sentence is complete, so as to admit of a 
 full stop, but a clause is added by way of illustration, they should 
 be separated by a colon. — Rev. B. Frazee's Grammar, page 178. 
 
 2. The words which an author employs may be proper, and so 
 constructed as to violate no rule of syntax. — G. Brown's Gram- 
 mar, p. 396. 
 
 3. A sentence is a number of words so arranged as to form a 
 complete proposition. — J. Frost's Grammar. 
 
 4. The subject is so simplified as to render it unusually easy to 
 the learner. —J". Orville Taylor's recommendation of Rev. B. Frazee's 
 Grammar, signed by thirty-seven others. 
 
 6. [Syntax treats] (of the proper method) (of arranging) (words) 
 (so as to form sentences according) (to the usage) (of the most ap- 
 proved writers.) — J. Frost's Grammar. 
 
 6. Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and 
 adapting the expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit 
 neither more nor less than is intended by the author. — G. Brown's 
 Grammar, p. 298. 
 
 Note. — So should not precede that; as, He came so that he may 
 see his mother. 
 
 Should it be asked why I have taken the Exercises in bad 
 English from the old Grammars, I would reply, To establish the 
 position that the old theory cannot enable anyone, even a professed 
 grammarian, to use the English language with propriety. 
 
384 SYNTAX. 
 
 [I have not drawn upon Mr. Chandler for Exercises in bad 
 English, for this volume. In Book III., however, I come in direct 
 collision with him ; and, as I think that his inability to use the 
 English language properly, is established in that Book, I have 
 taken little notice of him in this.] 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. In general, where the nature of the case, or the context, re- 
 stricts nouns which are applicable to different kinds of the same 
 thing, to the sort intended, no adjective descriptive of the kind 
 intended, needs be used; as, Each boy whose attention is devoted 
 exclusively to English studies, must write a composition every week ; 
 Every member of the English class must write a composition this 
 afternoon ; Each one of the class which is attending to nothing but 
 English branches, must recite a lesson in grammar this evening. 
 
 2. When nouns which are applicable to different kinds of the 
 same thing are employed as titles of books, &c, words descriptive 
 of the kind intended, must be used ; as, A Dictionary of the Eng- 
 lish Language ; Easy Exercises in English Composition ; A Gram- 
 mar of the English Language. 
 
 1. A Dictionary of Language. 
 
 2. Easy Exercises in Composition. — John Frost. 
 
 3. An English Grammar of Language. 
 
 It may be said that the phrase, "■Easy Exercises" indicates the 
 kind of composition so clearly, that there is no necessity for any 
 adjective before composition, to express the kind. But does this 
 phrase indicate whether these Exercises are to be in Latin compo- 
 sition, Greek composition, French composition, or English compo- 
 sition ? The word, Dictionary, indicates that the work is on lan- 
 guage — but does this fact preclude the necessity of English, Latin, 
 Greek, or some equivalent adjective before the noun, language? 
 
 If any thing could justify the omission of English before Grammar, 
 it is the use of this word before Language ; as, A Grammar of the 
 English Language. 
 
 FORCE, OR STRENGTH OF A SENTENCE. 
 
 DEFINITION. 
 
 The force, or strength of a sentence, is the power which 
 it exerts in making a deep impression upon the mind. 
 
 The force of a sentence is mainly derived from the just position 
 of words, and monos. 
 
SYNTAX 385 
 
 Principle I. 
 
 In the construction of a sentence, the mono which ex- 
 presses the main thing, the centra! point of thought, should 
 occupy a conspicuous place. 
 
 This principle rests upon two things, — first, an obscure position 
 would ill comport with the dignity of the, principal mono in tho 
 sentence; and, secondly, it might hold the reader in suspense 
 longer than is agreeable, or necessary. 
 
 CLEARNESS OF A SENTENCE. 
 
 DEFINITION. 
 
 The clearness of a sentence is the distinctness with which 
 the ideas are expressed. 
 
 The clearness of a sentence is mainly derived from appropriate 
 words, in proper positions. 
 
 1. In general, the introductory sentence should be short. 
 
 2. Other sentences should neither be extremely short, nor ex- 
 tremely long. 
 
 3. Avoid too great a uniformity in the length of sentences. 
 
 4. A sentence which includes so many things, facts, and circum- 
 stances, that it is more properly called a dissertation than a sen- 
 tence, must be weak, and obscure. 
 
 5. The omission of which in certain monos, seems to weaken 
 the tchole sentence ; as, The conquests he gained ; The land he 
 possessed. Which he gained — which he possessed. 
 
 (>. Redundant words are destructive to the strength of a sentence. 
 This may be seen from the weakness which the redundant parts 
 of the following period, produce : — 
 
 Great ideas precede, and cause illustrious achievements. — 
 Preface to "Class Book of Poetry, by John S. Hart, A.M., 
 Principal of the Philadelphia High School, and member of 
 the American Philosophical Society." 
 
 As the cause never follows its effect, where is the use of precede t 
 Great ideas cause illustrious achievements. (Precede, and. ) 
 
 Those great ideas, ichuh in the course of centuries, have 
 been gradually developed by Us master minds, are the mov- 
 ing springs that have set the nation onward in the career of 
 civilization. — Same Preface. 
 
 83 
 
386 • SYNTAX. 
 
 The great ideas developed for centuries are the moving springs 
 of a nation in its career of civilization. 
 
 (Redundant words — which, course, in, the, of, gradually, have, set, 
 that, onward, by, its, master, minds — 14.) 
 
 DIRECTIONS TO LEARNERS. 
 
 To form proper sentences, requires appropriate materials, and 
 skilful workmen. 
 
 Sentences, in general, resemble bread, made of bad flour, kneaded 
 by ignorant cooks, raised with dead yeast, and poorly baked in ill- 
 formed loaves. 
 
 To form proper sentences, you must, 
 
 1. Ascertain the precise character of the ideas which you wish to 
 express. 
 
 2. Select the words which will express these ideas with exact- 
 ness. 
 
 3. Employ neither low, nor vulgar words. 
 
 4. Employ no technical words, unless your subject requires their 
 use. 
 
 5. Use no learned (big) words. 
 
 6. Mix no Latin, Greek, or French words with your English. 
 
 7. Give the word which denotes the main idea, a conspicuous 
 place in the mono. 
 
 8. Give the trone a conspicuous position in the sentence. 
 
 9. Be particular to arrange the words, and the monos, according 
 to the Rules on position. 
 
 10. Admit no irrelevant matter into your sentences. 
 
 11. Do not express what is obvious from the nature of the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 12. Do not express the same idea twice. 
 
 13. If possible, you should avoid the repetition of a word in the 
 same sentence. 
 
 14. Pay particular attention to uniformity in the themes, and to 
 sameness in reladiction, and numerdiction. 
 
 15. Write upon nothing in which you feel little, or no interest. 
 
 16. Do not be too ready to use the ideas of others : think for 
 yourselves. 
 
 17. Do not employ the language of others — write out of your 
 head, not out of their books. 
 
 18. Be certain that you have acquired a knowledge of the con- 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 387 
 
 structive principles of the language before you attempt to write 
 much. 
 
 19. Write upon nothing which you do not understand. 
 
 20. Monoize every sentence which you form, read, or hear. 
 
 STYLE. 
 
 Style is the distinguishing turn, cast, air, or trait, in the 
 character of a sentence. Style is divided into 
 
 1. Affected. 
 
 2. Bombastic 
 
 3. Concise. 
 
 4. Diffuse. 
 
 5. Easy. 
 
 6. Elegant. 
 
 7. Epistolary. 
 
 8. Feeble.. 
 
 9. Florid. 
 
 10. Flowing. 
 
 11. Harsh. 
 
 12. Lofty. 
 
 [Style is treated of in Book III.] 
 
 IS. Loose. 
 
 14. Neat. 
 
 15. Nervous. 
 
 16. Negligent. 
 
 17. Obscure. 
 
 18. Perspicuous. 
 
 19. Simple. 
 
 20. Stiff. 
 
 21. Terse. 
 
 22. Tumid. 
 
 23. Verbose. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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