Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/englishcoastdefeOOclinrich ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES . C/5 X) biD ;r bjo _ 0) ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES FROM ROMAN TIMES TO THE EARLY YEARS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY BY GEORGE CLINCH LONDON G. BELL AND SONS, LTD, Li^O ^%c^ idni^ii^K PRESS : charles vvhittingham and co. , e TpOW^ COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE ARTHUR JAMES BALFOUR, M.P. FIRST LORD OF THE ADMIRALTY THESE PAGES ARE INSCRIBED 446929 PREFACE THE intricate coast-line of England, so difficult for an enemy to blockade, so difficult at every point for combined naval and military forces to defend against raiders, presents to the student of history an extremely interesting subject. It is to its insularity that England owes something of its greatness, and to the great length of its coast-line that its vulnerability is due. The present book represents the results of a study of the methods and means by which England, from Roman times down to the early years of the nineteenth century, has defended her shores against various over-sea enemies, who have attempted, sometimes suc- cessfully, to invade and conquer. viii PREFACE The author wishes to return thanks for the loan of blocks used in illustration of this volume, particularly to the Society of Anti- quaries for Figs. 3, ID, II, 29, 31, 32; the Royal Archaeological Institute for Figs, i, 4, 7, 13, 18; the Kent Archaeological Society for Figs. 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43; the pro- prietors of the ** Victoria History" and Pro- fessor Haverfield for Fig. 15 ; and the Technical Journals, Limited, and Mr. A. W. Clapham, F.S.A., for Fig. 24. The corrected proof-sheets of the book have been submitted to the proper authorities at the War Office, and that Department has sanctioned the publication of the volume. CONTENTS PAGE Preface vii List of Illustrations xi Part I Prehistoric Camps 3 The Roman Invasion of Britain . . 5 The Count of the Saxon Shore . . 13 Roman Coast Fortresses ... 16 Part II The Saxon Settlement of England . 75 Danish Incursions and Camps . . 80 The Norman Invasion of England . 86 Norman Coast Castles .... 87 Part III Mediaeval Castles and Walled Towns ON the Coast 95 Part IV Coast Defences under Henry VIII and Later On the East Coasts of Kent and Sussex 159 CONTENTS PAGE Of the Estuaries of the Thames, THE Medway, etc 1 79 Of the South Coast . . . .182 Part V Miscellaneous Defences The Navy 195 The Cinque Ports . . . . 196 Defensive Chains, etc. . . . 204 The Coastguard . . . . .212 Index . . . . . . . . 219 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 12. 13- 14. 15- 16. 17- 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Dover Castle. Buck's engraving Frmitispiece Gariannonum (Burgh Castle). Plan . Gariannonum (Burgh Castle). Plan pub- lished in 1776 ..... West Mersea. Plan of Roman building Regulbium (Reculver). Plan Regulbium (Reculver). Roman masonry Reculver. The ruins of the church RuTUPiAE (Richborough). Plan . Reculver. From a print published in 1781 Richborough. Roman masonry of north wall Dover, Roman Pharos. Elevation of north side Dover, Lymne. Lymne. Section Roman Pharos. Roman walls . Plan Pevensey. Bastion PoRCHESTER. Plan PoRCHESTER. Water-gate PoRCHESTER. Exterior of west wall Shoebury. Plan of Danish camp . Yarmouth. North Gate, 1807 Yarmouth. South Gate, 1807 Ipswich. St. Matthew's Gate, 1785 Orford Castle, Suffolk, 1810 22 23 27 29 31 ZZ 36 39 43 47 51 54 55 59 63 65 67 83 104 105 107 109 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 23. Cowling Castle, Kent, 1784 . . .114 24. QuEENBOROUGH Castle, Kent. Plan . . 118 25. QuEENBOROUGH Castle, Kent. View in 1784 119 26. Canterbury Castle in the Eighteenth Cen- tury . . . . . . . .121 27. Sandwich, Kent. Fisher Gate . . -123 28. Sandwich, Kent. Barbican . . . .126 29. Dover. Bird's-eye view of town and harbour, temp. Queen Elizabeth . . . -131 30. Saltwood Castle, Kent. The Gate House . 135 31. Portsmouth Harbour, /^w/>. King Henry VI 1 1 143 32. SouTHSEA Castle, temp. King Henry VHI . 147 33. Southampton. Plan . . . . -150 34. Deal Castle, Kent . . . . .163 35. Tilbury Fort in the Year 1588 . . . 166 36. Tilbury Fort in the Year 1808 . . .167 37. General Plan of Henry VHI's Blockhouses ON Kent and Sussex Coasts . . .170 38. Sandown Castle. Plan . . . -171 39. Deal Castle. Plan . . . . .172 40. Walmer Castle. Plan . . . . -173 41. Walmer Castle FROM the North . . . 175 42. Sandgate Castle. Plan .... 177 43. Camber Castle. Plan . . . . .178 44. Upnor Castle, Kent 180 45. Hurst Castle, Hants 183 PART I PREHISTORIC CAMPS THE ROMAN INVASION OF BRITAIN THE COUNT OF THE SAXON SHORE ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES PREHISTORIC CAMPS ROUND the coast of England there are many prehistoric earthworks of great extent and strength. These fall generally under the heads of hill-top fortresses and pro- montory camps. The works comprised under the former head are so arranged as to take the greatest possible advantage of natural hill- tops, often of large size. On the line where the comparatively level top developed into a more or less precipitous slope a deep ditch was dug, and the earth so removed was in most cases thrown outwards so as to form a rampart which increased the original diffi- culties of the sloping hill-side. The latter type of earthwork, called pro- montory camps from their natural conforma- tion, were strengthened by the digging of a 3 4 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES deep ditch, so as to cut off the promontory from the main table-land from which it pro- jected, and in some cases the sides of the camp were made more precipitous by artificial scarping. An examination of these types of earth- works leads to the conclusion that they were probably tribal enclosures for the safe-guard- ing of cattle, etc. ; that, strictly speaking, they were not military works at all, and, in any case, had no relation to national defence against enemies coming over-sea. One finds in diflferent parts of the country a prevalent tradition that the Romans occupied the more ancient British hill-top strongholds, and the name ** Caesar's Camp " is popularly applied to many of therri. If such an occupa- tion really took place it was, in all probability, only of a temporary character. These fortifica- tions were not suitable to the Roman method of military operations and encampment, and such archaeological evidences of Roman occu- pation as have been found point to the presence of domestic buildings, such as at Chancton- ROMAN INVASION OF BRITAIN 5 bury Ring and Wolstanbury Camp (Sussex) rather than military works. However, the question must not be dis- missed as entirely without some foundation in fact, because it was only natural that the Roman invaders who dispossessed the Britons of their fastnesses should themselves have taken temporary possession of the works from which the Britons were driven out. THE ROMAN INVASION OF BRITAIN There is hardly a single detail of the first invasion of Britain by the Romans which has not been the subject of dispute or discus- sion among historians and antiquaries, but, briefly, it may be stated as highly probable that Caesar left Portus Itius (Boulogne) on 25 August 55 B.C., and landed at or near what is now Deal on the following day. When Caesar found a convenient time for 6 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES the invasion of Britain, he got together about eighty transports, which he considered would be sufficient for carrying two legions across the channel. Those galleys which he had left he distributed to the questor, lieutenants, and officers of the cavalry. In addition to these ships there were eighteen transports, detained by contrary winds at a port about eight miles off, and these were appointed to carry over the cavalry. A favourable breeze sprang up, and anchor was weighed about one in the morning. The cavalry in the eighteen other transports em- barked at the other port. It was ten o'clock when Caesar reached the coast of Britain, where he saw the cliffs covered with the enemy's forces. He speaks of the place as being bounded by steep mountains in a way which clearly describes Dover and the eminences in its neighbourhood, comprising Shakespeare's Cliff, the western and eastern heights, and all the magnificent cliff of pre- cipitous chalk rock which extends to Kings- down, near Walmer. On such a coast as this. ROMAN INVASION OF BRITAIN 7 apart from the presence of the enemy, landing was impossible, and Caesar wisely determined to sail eight miles further on, where he found, probably at Deal, a plain and open shore. Caesar's description is most interesting, and may be quoted : ^^But the barbarians perceiving our design, sent their cavalry and chariots before, which they frequently make use of in battle, and following with the rest of their forces, en- deavoured to oppose our landing: and indeed we found the difficulty very great on many ac- counts; for our ships being large, required a great depth of water ; and the soldiers, who were wholly unacquainted with the places, and had their hands embarrassed and loaden with a weight of armour, were at the same time to leap from the ships, stand breast high against the waves, and encounter the enemy, while they, fighting upon dry ground, or advancing only a little way into the water, having the free use of all their limbs, and in places which they perfectly knew, could boldly cast their darts, and spur on their horses, well inured to that 8 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES kind of service. All these circumstances serving- to spread a terror among our men, who were wholly strangers to this way of fighting, they pushed not the enemy with the same vigour and spirit as was usual for them in combats upon dry ground. ** Caesar, observing this, ordered some galleys, a kind of shipping less common with the barbarians, and more easily governed and put in motion, to advance a little from the transports towards the shore, in order to set upon the enemy in flank, and by means of their engines, slings, and arrows, drive them to some distance. This proved of considerable service to our men, for what with the surprise occa- sioned by the make of our galleys, the motion of the oars, and the playing of the engines, the enemy were forced to halt, and in a little time began to give back. But our men still demurring to leap into the sea, chiefly because of the depth of the water in those parts, the standard-bearer of the tenth legion, having first invoked the gods for success, cried out aloud : * Follow me, fellow-soldiers, unless ROMAN INVASION OF BRITAIN 9 you will betray the Roman eagle into the hands of the enemy; for my part, I am re- solved to discharge my duty to Caesar and the common-wealth.' Upon this he jumped into the sea, and advanced with the eagle against the enemy : w hereat, our men exhorted one another to prevent so signal a disgrace, all that were in the ship followed him, which being perceived by those in the nearest vessels, they also did the like, and boldly approached the enemy. **The battle was obstinate on both sides; but our men, as being neither able to keep their ranks, nor get firm footing, nor follow their respective standards, because leaping promiscuously from their ships, every one joined the first ensign he met, were thereby thrown into great confusion. The enemy, on the other hand, being w^ell acquainted with the shallows, when they saw our men advanc- ing singly from the ships, spurred on their horses, and attacked them in that perplexity. In one place great numbers would gather round a handful of Romans; others falling lo ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES upon them in flank, galled them mightily with their darts, which Caesar observing, ordered some small boats to be manned, and ply about with recruits. By this means the foremost ranks of our men having got footing, were followed by all the rest, when falling upon the enemy briskly, they were soon put to the rout. But as the cavalry were not yet arrived, we could not pursue or advance far into the island, which was the only thing wanting to render the victory complete."^ Sea-fighting was not unknown to the Ro- mans, but as far as the invasion of Britain was concerned, Caesar's fleet may be regarded as a collection of ships for transport purposes rather than a fighting naval force. The main object of Caesar was to land his soldiers so that they might encounter and vanquish the enemy on dry land. This, as the graphic words of the '^ Commentaries " clearly tell, was quickly accomplished. The British method of fighting, in which chariots were employed for ' "Commentaries on the Gallic War " ROMAN INVASION OF BRITAIN ii the attack, is described by Caesar,^ who was evidently impressed by their skilful com- bination of rapid and awe-inspiring attack with the freedom and mobility of light in- fantry. It is noteworthy that Caesar says nothing about coast defences in the form of earthworks, or indeed in any other form, and it is on other grounds improbable that the Britons possessed ' "Their way of fighting- with their chariots is this: first they drive their chariots on all sides, ind throw their darts, insomuch that by the very terror of the horses, and noise of the wheels, they often break the ranks of the enemy. When they have forced their way into the midst of the cavalry, they quit their chariots and fight on foot : meanwhile the drivers retire a little from the combat, and place themselves in such a manner as to favour the retreat of their countrymen, should they be overpowered by the enemy. Thus in action they per- form the part both of nimble horsemen and stable in- fantry; and by continual exercise and use have arrived at that expertness, that in the most steep and difficult places they can stop their horses upon a full stretch, turn them which way they please, run along the pole, rest on the harness, and throw themselves back into their chariots with incredible dexterity " (" Comm. on the Gallic War," iv, xxix). 12 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES any provision of that kind against invading enemies, although they themselves lived in stockaded enclosures. The Romans were the first people to intro- duce anything like general coast-defence in Britain, and in this, as in all other branches of their military enterprises, they displayed great skill, intelligence, and thoroughness. For the defence of the coast of the eastern and southern parts of Britain they erected a chain of castra or fortresses extending from Bran- caster, on the north-west coast of Norfolk, to Porchester, situated on the extreme north-west shore of Portsmouth Harbour. The position of the various fortresses shows that it was not necessary, according to the Roman plan of defence, that one fort should command views of its neighbours. Reculver and Richborough, Richborough and Dover, Dover and Lymne, Lymne and Pevensey, were in no case visible from each other, al- though the distance which separated them was not great in every case. Under these cir- cumstances it is not remarkable to find evid- COUNT OF THE SAXON SHORE 13 ences, as will presently be explained, of special provision for signalling between the fortresses. THE COUNT OF THE SAXON SHORE During the early part of the Roman occupa- tion of Britain the chief mode of defence adopted against piratical incursions was the navy, classis Britannica. This, for the most part, moved in those waters which lay between the British and Gaulish coasts, answering to what we now know as the Straits of Dover and the southern part of the North Sea. For a time the navy was able to keep the seas free from pirates, but towards the end of the third century the trouble became greater than ever. Raiders came in large numbers both to our own coasts and also to the Con- tinental coasts opposite, to both of which the name of the Saxon Shore was given. The Romans decided to take strong measures to put an end to the trouble. For this purpose 14 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES they appointed a special officer, one Marcus Aurelius Valerius Carausius, commonly known by his last name. The appearance of Carausius on the stage of history brings into prominence a man of strong but unscrupulous character. He is be- lieved to have allowed the pirates to carry on their work of plunder at their pleasure, and then, having waited for the proper moment, he relieved them of their booty on the return journey. In this way he acquired great riches, and in due course he employed the fleet, not against the enemy of Rome, but against Rome, and in such a way as to render Britain inde- pendent. After several ineffectual attempts to break his power, Diocletian and Maximianus found it necessary to recognize him as their colleague in the empire, a triumph which Carausius commemorated by striking a medal bearing as a device three busts with appro- priate emblems the legend : {ob.) CARAVSIVS . ET . FRATRES . SVI {rev. ) PAX AVGGG. Carausius was murdered by his chief official. COUNT OF THE SAXON SHORE 15 Allectus, in the year 293. Shortly after his death, and when the British province had ceased to be independent of Rome, an oiBcial was appointed called the Count of the Saxon Shore. This officer, whose title was Comes Littoris Saxonici^ was a high official whose duty it w as to command the defensive forces and supervise the fortresses erected on the east, south-east, and south coasts of England against the pirati- cal raids of the various tribes of Saxons and others during the latter part of the Roman oc- cupation of Britain. The precise nature of his duties and the full extent of his authority are equally unknown, but they probably comprised the general oversight and command both of the fortresses on the British coast from the northern coast of Norfolk to a point near Portsmouth, and the navy which guarded our shores. Opinions are divided on the question as to what was precisely meant by the phrase ^* the Saxon shore." Was it, as some think, those parts of the shore of Britain and Gaul on which. i6 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES being specially subject to Saxon raiders, de- fences were erected or employed for repelling the invaders? Or was it, as others have sup- posed, perhaps with less probability, a strip of territory following the line of coast nearest the sea on which the Saxons were allowed to settle in late Roman times? ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES A CAREFUL examination of the fortresses which protected the line of coast to which reference has been made, is likely, we think, to afford some light upon the above-mentioned point. If we pay attention to the plans of these fortresses, it will be obvious that at least two, Reculver and Brancaster, belong to a type of Roman fortress which is associated with a period much earlier than the time, as far as we know, when Saxon or other raiders began to molest the coasts of Britain and Gaul. Perhaps it is significant that these two castra command the entrance to two of the great water ways on ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 17 our east coast, the Thames and the Wash. The other seven fortresses, judging from their plans, belong to a later stage of development in Roman military architecture. From this and other features already de- scribed we may infer that the whole series of fortresses was built at different periods, and probably in the following order : Reculver. Richborough. Brancaster. Lymne. Porchester. Pevensey. Unfortunately, the architectural remains of the remaining castra are not sufficiently per- fect to allow of classification. One or two of the coast fortresses, such as Pevensey and Lymne, may well have been erected towards the close of the Roman oc- cupation. It is significant that tiles bearing the impressed name of Honorius have been found built into the walls of Pevensey, point- ing to the lateness of the building of at least some of the masonry at that castrum.^ ' See below, page 61. C i8 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES At Lymne early inscriptions, etc. have been found built into the walls, indicating a period if not late in the Roman period, at least a con- siderable time after the date of the inscribed stones which were enclosed, as mere building material, in the walls. This is corroborated by indications of adhering barnacles, from which we may fairly conclude that there was a period of submergence between the time of the carving and the subsequent use as building material. It seems probable, therefore, that although the earlier fortresses may have been intended to serve as centres for the Roman army, they may have been supplemented at a later period by other castra, forming altogether a chain of defences intended to protect the shores of Britain against Saxon invaders. The late Mr. G. E. Fox, F.S.A., who made a special study of the subject, writes as follows : ^ * ' By the last quarter of the third century the Romano-British fleet, on which no doubt de- ' '' Victoria History of Suffolk," i, 282. ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 19 pendence had been placed for the protection of the east and south coasts from raids by plundering bands of rovers from over the seas, had evidently failed to afford that protection. Whether it was that the fleet was not numer- ous enough, or for whatever reason, the Roman government determined to supplement its first line of defence by a second, and this was achieved by the erection of forts capable of holding from 500 to 1,000 men each, on points of the coast-line extending from the mouth of the Wash to Pevensey on the coast of Sussex. The coast-line indicated received the name of Litus Saxonicum^ and the nine fortresses which guarded it are called * the forts of the Saxon Shore.' " The following were the nine fortresses re- ferred to with the modern place-names: 1. Branodunum. Brancaster. 2. Gariannonum. Burgh Castle (near Yarmouth). 3. Othona. Bradwell-on-Sea. 4. Regulbium. Reculver. 20 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES 5- Rutupiae. Richborough. 6. Dubris. Dover. 7- Portus Lemanus. Lymne. 8. Anderida. Pevensey. 9- Portus Magnus. ? Porchester. It will be observed that the various fortresses in this chain of defensive works occur at ir- regular distances on or near the coast-line, and on examination it will be found that in most cases good reason exists for the selection of the various sites. I. Branodunum There is sufficient evidence to identify the Roman fort of Branodunum with some ruins lying to the east of Brancaster, a village situated near the north-western corner of Nor- folk, on the shores of the Wash. The only early mention of the place is found in the **Notitia Imperii," a catalogue of the distribu- tion of the imperial military, naval, and civilian officers throughout the Roman world. From this remarkable work, a compilation which ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 21 has come down to us from a very early period, it appears that the *' Comes Littoris Saxonici " (the Count of the Saxon Shore) had under him nine subordinate officers, called Praepositi, distributed round the coasts of Norfolk, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire. The fortress at Brancaster is now in a very much ruined state, and but little can be gathered of its original form from a casual or superficial ex- amination. Excavations and careful searches made about the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury brought to light many facts about its plan.^ The fortress was a square of 190 yards and the angles were irregularly rounded. Ex- clusive of ashlar, the walls were found to be 10 feet thick, and bounded with large blocks of white sandstone. At one of the roughly rounded angles the ashlar facing remained in- tact. It consisted of blocks of sandstone firmly set in mortar with joints of three inches mini- mum thickness. Traces were found within the walls of small ' Archaeolog-ical Institute, Norwich volume, 1851, pp. 9-16. 22 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES apartments adjoining the main walls into which the smaller walls were regularly bonded, pointing- to contemporaneity of the work. Two facts of some importance are proved by Gariannonum (Burgh Castle.) FIG. I the excavations, viz. (i) the strength of the fortress as a defensive work, and (2) the simple and early character of the plan. Traces of gates were observed in the eastern and west- ern walls. ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 23 2. Gariannonum Now known as Burgh Castle, is situated in Suffolk near the point where the rivers Yare and Waveney fall into Breydon Water. The fig. 2. plan of roman' walls, etc., at gariannonum (burgh castle) (From an engraving published in 1776) lines of its walls enclose a space, roughly speaking, 660 feet by 330 feet, over four acres. It is generally considered to be one of the most perfect Roman buildings remaining in the kingdom. The walls in places remain to 24 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES a height of 9 feet, and their foundations are no less than 12 feet in thickness. The bastions, or perhaps more correctly, towers, which flank the gates and support the rounded angles of the walls are of peculiar, pear-shaped plan. They are solid, and to the height of about 7 feet are not tied into the walls. Above that height, however, they are bonded into the walls with which, curious as it may appear, they are undoubtedly coeval. It is noteworthy that there are two bastions on the east side and one each on the north and south sides, and that they, six in all, are provided with a hole in the top, 2 feet wide and 2 feet deep, indicating in all probability that they once mounted turntables upon which ballistae were placed for the defence of the fortress. The masonry is of the kind which is usually found in Roman buildings, namely, a rubble core with courses of bonding tiles, and an outer facing of flints chipped to a flat surface. Gariannonum was a place of great import- ance in Roman times. Here was stationed the captain of the Stablesian horse, styled Garian- ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 25 nonensis, under the command of Comes littoris Saxon ici, Walton, — Near Felixstow, situated on what is now the fore-shore, but which originally was a cliff 100 feet high, and commanding extensive views of the surrounding country, are the ruins of what was an important Roman station. Although possibly not ranking as one of the nine great coast fortresses, it occupied a most important site for the defence of this part of the east coast of Britain, and com- manded not only the entrance to the River Deben, but also all the adjacent coast to the south of it. Almost every trace. of the station has now been obliterated by the waves, but from plans which have been preserved it ap- pears that its plan was that of an oblong with towers or bastions at each angle. ^ 3. Othona Or Ithanchester, near Bradwell-on-Sea, in Essex, was another important member of the ' '* Victoria History of Suffolk," i, 278. 26 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES Roman coast defences of Britain. It com- manded the entrances of the Rivers Black- water and Colne. Little now remains of Othona, although it is on record that the fortress enclosed an area of 4 acres, and that its walls possessed foundations no less than 14 feet in thickness. The defence of such a point as this against the incursions of foes was a matter of much importance, because this was a point on the coast of Britain specially susceptible to attack by marauders, and, as we shall see, special precautions were taken against attacks of this kind. At a distance of about four miles to the north of Othona, across the estuary of the River Blackwater, lies the island of Mersea. In the year 1896 some Roman foundations were accidentally discovered in the western part of the island which, upon examination, appear to have an important bearing on the Roman scheme of coast defence in this part of Britain. The foundations were circular, 65 feet in diameter, and closely resembling in gigantic ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 27 form the steering-wheel of a ship. The founda- tions were of Kentish rag and chalk lime mortar, and above this the low walling was almost entirely composed of Roman bricks set _S 2 »«««»« » FIG. 3. PLAN OF ROMAN BUILDING, WEST MERSEA, ESSEX in red mortar. Dr. Henry Laver, F.S.A.^ who communicated the discovery to the Society of Antiquaries of London/ modestly abstains from giving any explanation or theory as to the purpose of the building which stood on this ^ Proceedings, xvi, 422-429. 28 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES site, but in the opinion of the present writer there seems to be little doubt that the founda- tions were intended to carry a lofty pharos, or perhaps signalling tower of timber by means of which messages might have been trans- mitted to Othona and Colchester. 4. Regulbium Now known as Reculver, is situated about three miles to the east of Heme Bay. The site, although originally some distance inland, is now, owing to the encroachment of the sea, quite close to the shore. Indeed, about half of its area has been destroyed by the waves, and is now covered at high water. Its area when complete was over seven acres, and its walls which, in the eighteenth century, stood 10 feet high, and still remain to a height of 8 feet in some places, are no less than 8 feet in thickness with two sets-off inside. It seems doubtful whether there was ever a ditch round the castrum. Owing to the ruinous condition of the main part of the masonry, an^ the REGULBIUM (RECULVER) ..r-'^' K^^^i^ lOO 600 FIG. 4. RECULVER, KENT ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 31 complete destruction which has overtaken the northern part of the foundations, it is im- possible to ascertain any particulars as to the gates or internal arrangements. FIG. 5. ROMAN MASONRY, RECULVER, KENT Showing- facing- stones (squared), rubble core, and pebbly foundations As will be seen from the accompanying ground-plan the form of the castrum at Re- culver was quadrangular. The angles were rounded, but there are no indications of towers 32 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES or bastions. These features are considered characteristic of Roman fortresses of early- date. Another feature pointing to the same conclusion is the absence of tile courses in the walls. The only recorded facts about this fortress is a mention in the ^* Notitia," from which we learn that it was garrisoned by the first cohort of the Vetasians commanded by a tribune. At a comparatively early stage in the art of Roman masonry in Britain the idea was con- ceived of protecting the enclosing wall of the fortress by means of projecting bastions and towers. In an early type represented in the Romano-British coast fortresses, of which this of Reculver is an excellent illustration, there were, as we have seen, no projections whether of walls, bastions, towers, or gates. Reliance was placed in the strength and solidity of the walls themselves, which were 8 feet in thick- ness. But the desirability of having some points from which the enemy could be attacked in flank whilst battering the wall soon became evident, and in other cases such as Rich- FIG. 6. reculver: the ruins of the church D ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 0:5 borough, Lymne, Pevensey, etc., we find that the fortress was furnished not only with mas- sive walls, but also with strong- angle-towers and bastions or towers at intervals by which the wall could be commanded and protected. These various works furnish an interesting series of illustrations of the progress made in the military architecture of the period. 5. RUTUPIAE Now known as Richborough, situated about two miles north-north-west of Sandwich, was a station of great importance in the Roman period, being then, as Sandwich was sub- sequently for many years, the chief British port for travellers and traffic to and from the Continent. In shape Rutupiae was a rect- angular parallelogram, with the greater length from east to west. Its walls, which were lofty and massive, enclosed an area of somewhat less than 6 acres. At each angle is, or was, a circular bastion 18 feet 6 inches in diameter, and square towers or bastions at intervals pro- 36 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES jected beyond the general face of the walls. A considerable part of the south-east corner, and RUTUPIAE (RICHBOROUGH) FIG. 7 the whole of the east wall have been destroyed by the falling of the cliff in the direction of the River Stour. The theory formerly pro- pounded that the castrum had no eastern wall ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 37 has been disproved by the careful examinations of Mr. G. E. Fox and other eminent anti- quaries. These examinations have definitely shown that large fragments of the east wall have fallen down the cliff. It is certain that the castrum of Rutupiae as also those of Regulbium and Portus Lemanis, in spite of the doubt which has been expressed in each instance, had four w^alls. The chief peculiarity of Rutupiae is the presence of a solid mass of masonry under- ground, a little to the east rather than in the middle of the enclosed space. Many different theories have been put forward to account for its purpose, but it is now generally agreed that it was intended to serve as the foundation for a lofty structure, perhaps of timber, the purpose of which was for signalling between this station and that at Reculver, and possibly also answering to the pharos at Dover. It is not improbable that it also served as a light- house for ships entering the estuary of the Stour from the sea. If lights or signals could be seen as far as Dover they might from that 38 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES point be communicated easily to and fro from the coast of France from the high ground on which the pharos of Dover stands. In order to understand the functions and relative positions of Regulbium and Rutupiae as coast-fortresses during the Roman period, it is necessary to reconstruct the ancient geo- graphy of the north-eastern part of Kent. The small stream now falling into the sea near Reculver was at the period under con- sideration a river sufficiently broad and deep to afford a convenient channel for shipping. It was known as the Wantsum. Boats and ships voyaging from the French coast as well as from the British coast near Dover to London, usually took their course through the channel formed by the Stour and the Wantsum, thus avoiding the strong currents and tempestuous seas often raging off the North Foreland. It will be seen, therefore, that a lofty tower or lighthouse at Rutupiae would have been of the greatest value both for the guid- ance of friendly shipping and as a means •T3 (U Or £ o ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 41 of giving" warning of the approach of the enemy. The north wall of the castrum at Rich- borough is a remarkably perfect and interest- ing specimen of Roman masonry. It is note- worthy, too, as furnishing proof of the great care and thoroughness with which the Romans carried out their building works. At the base of the wall, on the outside, one sees four courses of flint in their natural form, and above them the following succession of ma- terials, in ascending order: three courses of dressed flint; two courses of bonding tile; seven courses of ashlar and two of tile ; seven courses of ashlar and tw^o of tile ; seven courses of ashlar and two of tile; seven courses of ashlar and two of tile; eight courses of ashlar and two of tile; nine courses of ashlar. The wall is 23 feet 2 inches high, and 10 feet 8 inches thick. There is one aspect of some of the Roman coast fortresses which shows that their builders were not influenced entirely by utilitarian ideas. This is the methodical and tasteful use of 42 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES stones of different colours in such a way as to produce a pleasing" species of colour decora- tion. The aim obviously was to break up the monotony of broad spaces of masonry, and possibly, also, to enhance their apparent size by multiplication of detail. The north wall of Richboroug"h, although to some extent marred by rebuilding of some part of it, affords an il- lustration of this. Here we find dark brownish- red ironstone built into the wall in a way which reminds one o bands of chequer work. A Pevensey again, where the stones are cut with the regularity and precision of brickwork, large blocks of similar sandstone are employed in regular order at different heights in the walls and bastions. To the latter in addition to their decorative use they serve to tie in the outer skin of masonry to the inner rubble. 6. DuBRis, Dover A paper by Rev. Canon Puckle on Vestiges of Roman Dover was published some years ago in '^ Archaeologia Cantiana."' It was ^ Vol. XX, pp. 128-136. ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 45 accompanied by a plan in which are set out the outlines of what are supposed to have been the limits of the Roman town or fortress of Dover. Although the outline is merely tentative and hypothetical, there is a certain plausibility about the suggested site and size of the castrum. It was situated, as is pointed out, quite away from the pharos, in the lowest part of the town, the present Market Square being approximately in the middle of the enclosure. The plan is roughly a parallelo- gram with certain irregularities on the north- west angle. On the top of the eastern and western heights of Dover a lighthouse was erected by the Romans for the guidance of ships into the narrow mouth of the river. Traces of that on the western heights still remain, or remained recently : whilst that on the eastern heights stands intact, one of the most remarkable and interesting pieces of Roman architecture now remaining in the kingdom. The Roman pharos at Dover consists of a strong and massive tower, hollow within, 46 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES which rises to a height of 42 feet, having walls whose thickness varies from 12 feet at the base to about 7 feet at the top. The struc- ture is not entirely of Roman workmanship, because in the thirteenth century certain ad- ditions were made to its outer walls. Doubtless its massive masonry was calcu- lated to withstand the severe storms to which its exposed position on the lofty cliff subjected it. Whether employed for signalling purposes or as a lighthouse, this building was doubtless in such a position as to communicate with similar buildings on the coast of France, and with the lighthouse or signalling tower (it may have served in both capacities) at Rich- borough. The pharos on the western heights of Dover, of which little now remains, must have formed an extremely valuable auxiliary to that on the eastern heights, affording a guide for ships making at night for the haven of Dover. It is not at all improbable that both structures com- bined the purposes of lighthouses at night with those of signalling stations in the daytime. 1==^- n J: fc^ ■ 1^ ^^i^ : ^4|^ "-/'^^li:-?!^ EXTERNAL ELEVATION ON THE NORTH SIDE FIG. lO. PHAROS, DO\ER ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 49 The precise details of the existing pharos, although of the greatest interest from archi- tectural and archaeological points of view, are not necessary to our present purpose, but a few facts are worthy of notice. The masonry throughout is of tufa with the exception of two or three courses of Roman tiles at intervals of about 4 feet, and the foundations, which again consist of several courses of tiles arranged in three sets-off, and with an octagonal plan. The tower is of octagonal plan externally, and square within, where each of the four walls measures about 14 feet. The structure is be- lieved to have been repaired and cased with flint in the year 1259, when Richard de Cod- nore was Constable of Dover Castle. His arms, Barry of six, argent and azure, are carved in stone on the north side of the pharos. The octagonal chamber in the top story of the tower appears to have been restored or rebuilt in Tudor times. It is interesting and instructive to compare the Dover lighthouses in their relation to the E 50 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES French coast and Richborough, with the sig- nalHng" tower or Hg'hthouse of West Mersea, by means of which communications were kept up with the sea-coast station and castrum of Othona. Bearing- in mind the defensive character of the forts with which the lighthouses were as- sociated, it seems probable that their purpose had a close relation to the work of watching the coast, and obtaining early information of the approach of invaders. There is a strong probability that more of such buildings for observing the approach of enemies once existed, traces of which have now perished. 7. PoRTUs Lemanis Situated originally on the side of a spur of high ground at Lymne, near Hythe, and overlooking the flat ground of Romney Marsh, was a fortified station of sufficient importance to rank as a town. Its distance from Dover, and its situation on the south coast, suggest ^WW^i SECTION ON A B FIG. II. PHAROS, DOVER ROMAN COAST FORTRESSES 53 that it cannot have formed a part of the group of contemporary fortresses which defended the east coast of Kent. Owing to a landslip on a large scale, which happened possibly before the Norman Con- quest, the whole of the site upon which this town stood slipped downwards towards Rom- ney Marsh, and the massive walls and towers by which it was once encompassed were dis- turbed, shattered, and overturned. The form, as far as can be gathered from the disturbed foundations, was somewhat irregular. The east and west walls were parallel, and the south wall ran at right angles with them, but the north wall had an outward bow-like pro- jection. The walls, when the place was intact, enclosed a space of about 1 1 acres, and were from 12 feet to 14 feet thick, whilst the height of both walls and mural towers was somewhat more than 20 feet. The purpose of placing a strongly fortified town at this place was partly in order to com- mand a view over the surrounding country, and partly to defend the Roman port which 54 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES was situated on a branch of the River Limene,^ or rather, just at the foot of the hill on the side of which it stood. Among- the discoveries made at Portus Le- manis there were two of remarkable and sig*- nificant character. The first consisted of a FIG. 12. ROMAN WALLS, LYMNE, KENT mutilated altar-stone, bearing a much-worn in- scription indicating the dedication of the altar by a praefect of the British fleet, named Au- fidius Pantera, probably to Neptune. The stone ^ Now occupied by the Royal Military Canal con- structed as part of the defence against Napoleon's threatened invasion. PORTUS LEMANIS (LYMPNE) A. A. A. Reman luildings utiJergrsund B.B.B. Gates. C.C. Tirjieri -juith cham- them. / O. Angle of r-y.-'',.^ south -juall -;/-.:^it5 FIG. 23. COWLING CASTLE, KExXT, 1 784 parts of the walling enclosing the outer ward. The gate-house just referred to is on the south side of the outer ward, to which it gives access. Perhaps one of the most interesting- things about Cowling Castle is the fact that it was CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 1 15 built expressly for the defence of the coast against the French and the Spanish. This fact is rather pointedly referred to in the fol- lowing contemporary inscription enamelled on copper plates attached to the eastern side of the gate-house: Knouweyth that beth and schul be That i am mad in help of the cuntre In knowyng- of whych thyng- This is chartre and wytnessyng-. The inscription is set out in the form of a regular charter, to which is attached a seal bearing the Cobham arms, gules, on a chevron or, three lions rampant sable. The situation of Cowling Castle on low- lying ground near the coast is a circumstance which confirms the idea that the fortress was built for coast defence purposes. On the other hand, however, inscriptions of this kind are of great rarity, and it has been suggested with great show of reason, that whilst the purpose was partly for the defence of the coast arrd partly to keep the people of Kent in order in what were peculiarly troubled times, the in-- ii6 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES scription was so worded as to divert attention from the latter. The suggestion is worthy of consideration, but the fact remains that towards the end of the fourteenth century this part of Kent was overrun by Frenchmen and Span- iards, who burned and destroyed all the houses they came across, and Cobham's intention in building- Cowling- Castle was to check these incursions. Rochestei\ — It is clear that Rochester has in its time been an important part of our coast defences. It still retains many fragments of its Roman wall, whilst its Norman castle is represented mainly by a stately keep 70 feet square in plan, and 113 feet in height, which forms an impressive object, and is in fact a remarkably fine example of castle-building. The Norman keep was built between the years 1 1 26 and 1 1 39. The city wall, which was built in places on the site of the Roman wall, dates from the year 1225. Queeiiborough, — There is a tradition, pos- sibly it is little more, that a residence of the Anglo-Saxon kings of Kent was situated here CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 117 near the north-western mouth of the Swale, the building- being afterwards known as the castle of Sheppey, in which island it is situated. The whole fortress was rebuilt by Edward III about the year 1361 according to plans made by William of Wykeham. Edward III in due course visited the place and gave it the name of Oueenborough in honour of his queen Philippa. As a coast-defence a fortress on this site must have been of great value, commanding as it did the north-western mouth of the Swale, and protecting the water which divides the Isle of Sheppey from the mainland. Henry VIII recognized the value of this point, and repaired it so as to make it suitable for use as one of his coast castles. The plan of the mediaeval fortress, as might be expected when one remembers who designed it, is ingenious and remarkable. The main interest of this castle consists in its plan, which proves it to have been perhaps the earliest example of a fort as distinct from a typical castle of the middle ages, in which ii8 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES there was always a certain amount of accom- modation for dwelling-house purposes. Queen- borough Castle contained, mainly in its six lofty circular towers, more than fifty rooms, FIG. 24. PLAN OF QUEENBOROUGH CASTLE, KENT but these were of small size. The building of the castle was commenced in 1361 and finished about the year 1367. The plan was curiously symmetrical, and not unlike that of Camber Castle, built in the time of Henry VHI, but the elevations of the two fortresses display CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 119 great differences. The lofty towers of Queen- borough, serviceable enough in the fourteenth century when artillery attacks offered no serious menace, are wanting in Camber Castle, built FIG. 25. OUEENBOROUGH CASTLE, 1 784 From a drawing by Hollar in the sixteenth century, and their place is taken by low squat towers w^hich offered little surface for cannon-shot. Cante7'biiry, — There w^ere really two castles at Canterbury in quite early times. The first, I20 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES larg-ely perhaps of earthwork, was the work of Duke William of Normandy, and was con- structed on and near what is now the most southern point of the city wall. The purpose of the first castle was to dominate and overawe the inhabitants of the city, and also to furnish a convenient post for observing* the surround- ing- country. The castle was provided with a lofty moated mound for this particular pur- pose. The hill called the Dane John has some- times been confounded with the orig^inal mound of the castle, but as a matter of fact the two were not related in any way, the castle mound having* been destroyed many years ag*o, whilst that known as the Dane John was erected in the eighteenth century. The masonry castle, the ruined keep of which stands to the north- west of the earlier castle, was built by Henry H between 1 166 and 1 174. The keep measures in plan 88 feet by 80 feet, and, owing* to the upper storey having* been pulled down in 181 7, measures now only 45 feet in height. The castle was originally enclosed by a rampart and wall with several towers. CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 121 and had its own gate to the city, and a barbi- can on its eastern side. The city of Canterbury was enclosed by a wall built about the same time as the castle FIG. 26. CANTERBURY CASTLE IX THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY (i 166- 1 174). There were seven gates in the wall giving access to the city, viz. : (i) Newin- gate, or St. George's Gate; (2) Ridingate; (3) Worthgate; (4) Westgate; (5) Northgate; (6) Burgate; and (7) Queeningate. From the evidence of various old engravings it is ap- 122 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES parent that several of the gates had been re- built at different times. Westgate, the only one of the group which now survives, was erected in the reign of Richard II, and is an unusually good example of the mediaeval town-gate furnished, as it once was, with port- cullis, machicolations, and other apparatus for defence. It is also a building* of great beauty both of masonry and proportion. Broadstairs,—Th\s small town on the north-east coast of Kent, which in former times did a good deal of trade in connection with the North Sea fishing, still retains con- siderable traces of a gate, probably of the fifteenth century, which commanded the only means of access from the harbour to the town through a cutting in the chalk cliff. It is known as York Gate, and although altered and repaired, still possesses the massive lower part of the original gateway of flint and stone, and the grooves for the portcullis. Sandwich, — The chief traces of the fortifica- tions of this ancient and once important town are an earthern rampart or wall of considerable FIG. 27. THE FISHER GATE, SANDWICH, KENT CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 125 extent, a deep fosse, and two interesting and picturesque gates. We know that Sandwich once possessed a castle, and this probably in Anglo-Saxon times, but its site is a matter of uncertainty. It must be borne in mind that for many centuries Sandwich was the principal port for traffic and merchandise to and from the Con- tinent. It possessed a mint in the Anglo- Saxon period, doubtless in the castle, and times out of number it has taken an import- ant part in repelling invading enemies and in preserving the peace and liberty of our shores. The Fisher Gate, although buried to some depth in an accumulation of soil, retains several interesting features. One can still see the grooves for its portcullis and the recessed space in its outer wall into which the draw- bridge fitted when drawn up. The gate is con- structed of flints and stone, a certain propor- tion of which are squared blocks of sandstone, which from their size and shape may well have been derived from the walls of the ruined 126 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES castrum of Richborough, less than two miles distant. The Barbican is a peculiarly picturesque structure commanding' the entrance to the town FIG. 28. THE BARBICAN GATE, SANDWICH, KENT on the south-east side by the ancient ferry across the river Stour, which at this point is tidal and often rapid and deep. There is a modern bridg'e. The gateway, w hich is flanked by two towers presenting externally semi- circular walls, is largely of Tudor masonry, CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 127 arranged in chess-board fashion in black flint and grey stone, and long flat bricks. On the southern side of the gateway a modern door has been made into the south tower. Splayed embrasures commanding the approach are visible within the tower. According to local tradition these were intended for cannon. The upper part of the gate is a modern restoration in woodwork. Sandwich originally possessed five gates, but those described are the only two which have survived. Dover Castle, — For the last seven and a half centuries Dover Castle has been justly considered a fortress of paramount importance in the defence of England. Its site is remark- able for more than one reason. The steepness of the chalk cliff's towards the sea, and the abruptness of the other slopes, natural and artificial, which encircle it on the land side, give a peculiarly difficult, indeed, impregnable character to the fortress. The height of the hill on which the castle stands close to the narrowest part of the Channel which separates 128 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES our shores from those of the Continent renders it a spot of unusual importance for the pur- poses of observing the approach of an enemy coming across the Straits of Dover. Although there are no certain traces of de- fensive works on the eastern heights of Dover before the time of the Norman Conquest, the natural advantages of the site, and Caesar's own words make it probable that some kind of camp or look-out post was established at Dover in pre-historic times. However, this is a matter of conjecture which lacks the con- firmation of actual archaeological evidence. One of the first acts of the Norman Con- queror was to establish his power over the English by building earthwork castles, and such a work was thrown up on the eastern heights of Dover. Its form and extent are unknown, but it may, with reasonable proba- bility, be conjectured that its central eminence was that upon which the keep was subse- quently erected in the reign of Henry II. Dover Castle, as it exists to-day, presents a good example of the amalgamated defences of CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 129 several different architectural periods. Its im- portant position as the *^Clavis et repagulum Angliae," gives it a national rather than local importance, and every part of it is of historical interest. As a fortress which from Norman times, almost without intermission to the pre- sent day, has retained its garrison and main- tained a foremost place in the defence of the realm, Dover Castle deserves more than a passing notice in these pages. During the reign of Henry I (1100-1135) masonry began to take the place of earthwork defences, but in due time the need of stronger defences became apparent, and during the reign of Henry H (i 154- 1 189) the keep, citadel, and defensive works to the north were carried out at the enormous expense of nearly ;^5,ooo. The keep, one of the most important of the new works, forms a striking feature of the castle. In plan it is practically square, meas- uring 98 feet by 96 feet, exclusive of the fore- building, with walls at the lowest stage no less than 24 feet in thickness. This is amongst the largest buildings of its class in this country. K I30 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES Each of its three floors, basement, and first and second storeys, is occupied by two large apartments, those on the second floor being the chief or state apartments and possessing two tiers of windows. Dover Castle suffered a siege in 1137, and again in 12 16. The latter occurred under the second constableship of Hubert de Burgh at the hands of the Dauphin Louis of France. (See the section on the Cinque Ports, pp. 196- 204.) After this siege Dover Castle was strength- ened by the construction of an additional de- fensive work, commanding the plateau to the north of the castle, and other works, including a subterranean passage, excavated in the solid chalk, which still exists. These works were carried out between 1220 and 1239. In 1371 a series of important repairs was effected, and during the reign of Edward IV the Clopton tower was re-built, and a sum of ;^io,ooo was expended in placing Dover Castle in a state of thorough repair. Further important works were carried out CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 131 by Henry VIII in connection with his great scheme of coast defence. In addition to the strengthening- of the actual works of the castle, it appears that ** bulwarks under Dover P:r:t cf Ihr Tfwn anJ ff'irbour if DOVER temp Queen £la ^P^^^ r^^^m^ /<^! FIG. 29. BIRD S-EYE VIEW OF DOVER TOWN AND HARBOUR, temp. QUEEN ELIZABETH Castle," probably near the level of the sea- shore, and a '^bulwark in the cliff" were con- structed at this period. An interesting plan of Dover, made in the time of Queen Elizabeth, 132 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES shows not only the Arckcliffe Bulwark and the Black Bulwark, but also the walls and its towers inclosing the town of Dover. The plan was published in the sixth volume of ** Archaeologia, " and is here reproduced in much reduced size by permission of the Society of Antiquaries. In June 1666, and again in July 1667, an invasion of Dover by the Dutch fleet was ex- pected. The invasion of this particular part of the sea-coast was never carried out, but the castle was provisioned for a siege, and it is probable that the actual fortifications were improved and augmented. In the earlier part of the eighteenth century Dover Castle appears to have been much neglected, and an engraved view by Buck, published in or about the year 1735, indicates that certain parts of it had become almost ruinous; but in 1779, owing to the war with our colonies, as well as France and Spain, Dover Castle was hastily placed in a state of extra defence in order to resist the threatened invasion by our enemies. CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 133 The period of the Napoleonic menace saw great improvements at Dover Castle. Much of the underground work on the north side of the castle, as well as in other parts, belongs to this period. Of these and later works it is not necessary to speak in this volume. They belong to defences which are still effective, and at the present moment Dover Castle may be regarded as a fortress of enormous importance in the safe-guarding of our shores. Folkestone, — No traces remain here of de- fensive work, but a castle was built in quite early times, by William de Arcis, for the pro- tection of the town. Owing to the fall of the cliffs and the inroads of the sea, this has long since been destroyed. It is probable that there was some kind of protective work near the mouth of the little river which here runs into the sea, but no traces seem to remain. Saltwood, — Situated about two miles inland from Hythe, this castle can hardly be described as a purely coast-fortress, but it is such a valuable example of the mediaeval castles of its time that it deserves special attention. It 134 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES must be remembered that the typical mediaeval castle, with its elaborate defences, possessed a moral influence out of all proportion to its strategic value. As soon as eff"ective charges of gunpowder were employed the weakness of mere walls of masonry became at once apparent. Explosives were far more effective and disconcerting" than battering-rams. Experience extending over many centuries teaches, what has been so thoroughly proved by recent events on the Continent, that offens- ive tactics are almost invariably preferable to those of a defensive character, even when practised under the protection of the strongest and most elaborate fortifications. Still, as long as the only dangers were starvation and battering-rams, the mediaeval castle was as nearly as possible a perfect form of defence. Saltwood castle furnishes an ex- cellent example of this. Its main structure is of late fourteenth cen- tury date. Elaborate and complicated defences guarded the main entrance to the mediaeval castle. Before the unwelcome visitor could CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 135 enter, the following obstacles had to be sur- mounted. First was the gateway in the outer FIG. 30. THE GATE-HOUSE, SALTWOOD CASTLE, KENT wall of defence, access to which was by means of a drawbridge spanning a deep but perhaps 136 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES dry moat. This first gateway was furnished with portculHs, and heavy timber doors capable of offering formidable resistance. The outer gateway passed, the invaders would proceed across the outer bailey towards the inner and far stronger gate-house, exposed all the while to such missiles, arrows, cross-bow bolts, etc., as might be projected from the battlements and loop-holes of the castle. Here, at the entrance to the great gate- house, the moat was generally wide, deep, and filled with water. Supposing that the draw- bridge was dow^n (a most unlikely circum- stance), the enemy on approaching the gates was confronted by the massive portcullis, and at least two pairs of double timber gates be- yond it, and whilst forcing the former he would be within the range of heavy stones and every kind of dangerous and unpleasant missile dropped or thrown from the machicolations situated between the flanking towers almost on a level with the battlements above. The massive and studded oak doors were con- structed of a material which was not easily CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 137 fired, and they were barred with oak beams of the strength and almost the consistency of steel. Even when these were burnt or battered down the invaders would encounter a flanking fusilade from the lateral passages. On the other hand, if the drawbridge was up, it formed in itself an extremely formidable barrier, because by means of chains passing through holes in the wall it was drawn close to the gate-house tower and within the recess specially made to receive it, leaving the under side of the bridge flush with the surface of the gate-house wall. It may be doubted whether anything in the whole range of military architecture furnishes a more perfect system of defence than the gate- way, walls, ditches, moats, and drawbridges of a mediaeval castle ; and it seems probable that it would have proved invulnerable against a direct attack from without had not the dis- covery of gunpowder put a new and terrible weapon in the hands of the attacking force. Elaborate precautions were taken to secure the walls of mediaeval castles from attack. 138 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES Experience proved that the massive masonry of Norman times was inadequate. A new principle was universally adopted. The plan of the castle was so arranged that every part of the enclosing wall was commanded by means of mural towers. These additions not only added to the passive strength of the work, but also when placed within a bow-shot distance enabled the defenders, themselves protected, to enfilade the intermediate curtain. Again, the use of curved walls and mural towers gave free scope for constructive skill and favoured the economical use of building materials. Rye, — Wall and gates were built by Ed- ward III. Of these the Landgate remains. The Ypres Tower, a work of the time of King Stephen, also survives. The first wall was built in the time of Richard I, and of this there are no traces, whilst of the wall built by Edward III one finds very few traces. Winchelsea, — This town also was formerly walled and defended by strong gates. Of the latter three still survive, viz., Strand Gate, New Gate, and Land Gate. CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 139 Hastings, — This was the first castle built in England by the Normans after the Norman Conquest, and, in accordance with the plan of other fortresses of the period, consisted of a mound (shown in the Bayeux tapestry) and two, if not three, attached baileys. One of the baileys, called '' Ladies Parlour," is of rather small size, comprising little more than one acre, a circumstance which has led Mr. Harold Sands, F.S.A., an eminent authority on castles, to infer that it could not have been the outer bailey. His inference was confirmed by the discovery of the traces of another, and much larger, bailey, containing about five acres, situated on the eastern and northern sides. The masonry part of the castle was probably erected in the years 1171 and 1172. Further important parts of the castle were subsequently built, notably in 11 73-4, etc. The fall of the sandstone cliff, due to the inroads of the sea, has destroyed a very large part of these works, and what remains is a comparatively small part of the area of the castle. I40 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES The castle at Hastings mentioned in the ** Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" as having been built by the order of Robert, Earl of Mortain, is not to be confounded with that fortress whose ruins crown the hill overlooking Hastings. It was probably situated on the shore of the western, or Priory valley at a point near the site of the present railway station. It may not be generally known that in former times Hastings was protected on the sea side by a wall. This wall, which had a gateway and portcullis, extended from the Castle Hill to the East Hill, and was so arranged as to cut off the valley of the Bourne from the shore. A portion of the wall is figured as being in existence in 1824, when *^The His- tory and Antiquities of Hastings" was pub- lished by W. G. Moss. Slight traces of the wall may still be seen. The steep character of the hills of the Bourne valley rendered walls unnecessary on either side. This wall at Hast- ings is in some ways comparable with the de- fensive gate at Broadstairs already described. A little to the west of this wall, situated on CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 141 the very edge of the shore, was formerly a fort, the memory of which is preserved in local names. Pevensey. — The Roman castrum here, with its very interesting- masonry, has been de- scribed in the earlier part of this volume. Re- ference has also been made to the construction of a mediaeval castle within its area. It has long been supposed that there had been a Norman keep, and this has been confirmed by recent excavation and examination of the site. Bramber, — An earh earthwork, possibly a Danish camp, at Bramber, has already been mentioned. The site was granted by William the Conqueror to William de Broase, and a massive castle, of which certain ruins remain, was erected by him. It is now, owing to modifications of our river systems, somewhat remote from the main stream of the Shoreham River (incorrectly called the Adur), but there is everv reason to believe that at the time of the Danes, and probably long after, it had a direct communication by water with the sea. Shoreham itself, it may be added, in 1346, 142 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES furnished no less than twenty-six ships for Edward Ill's invasion of France. Portsmouth, — The existence of remains of the Roman castrum at Porchester, situated on the upper waters of Portsmouth Harbour, goes to show that in those early times the value of this part of the coast as a great harbour was recognized. It is curious, therefore, that no town of any importance was built at Ports- mouth until the twelfth century. The actual building of the town was commenced in the reign of Richard I, and a charter was granted in the year 1194. Confirmation of this charter was made at various dates by successive sovereigns, and important additions to the privileges were made in 1627 by Charles I. The town itself was defended by a wall with towers and gates, the date of w^hich is not clear; but from the position of the place on the south coast, and open in a peculiar degree to invasion by the French, it is reasonable to infer that the defences were made at an early period in the history of the town, probably in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries. FIG. 31. EXTRAN'CE TO PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR, temp. KING HENRY VIII CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 145 Leland in his ''Itinerary " describes the de- fences as consisting" of a *' mudde waulle armid with tymbre, whereon be g^reat peaces both of yron and brassen ordinaunces." The circuit of the town was a mile, and a ditch was con- structed outside the wall. Leland records that he heard in the town that the defences of the entrance to the harbour (*'the tourres in the hauen mouth ") were commenced in the reign of Edward IV, continued in the time of Rich- ard II, and finished in that of Henry VI I. In the time of Edward VI two towers of stone were built, one on either side, at the mouth of Portsmouth Harbour, and a chain of immense weigfht and strength was placed between them in such a way as to form a defence against the advance of the ships of the enemy. The actual chain, wuth large long links, is shown on a plan of Portsmouth of the time of Queen Elizabeth.^ The approaches to Portsmouth, east and west, were commanded by several forts and the two block-houses, popularly known as 1 "Victoria History, Hampshire," iii (plate op.)^ i86. L 146 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES Southsea Castle and Hurst Castle, both works being of the time of Henry VHI. An extremely interesting picture, in the nature of a bird's-eye view, of the defences of Portsmouth and the adjacent coast-line, ex- tending as far as the northern shores of the Isle of Wight, is given in the engraving show- ing the encampment of the English forces near Portsmouth, 1545, published many years ago by the Society of Antiquaries of London. The original of this picture perished in the fire which destroyed Cowdray House, the mansion of Viscount Montague, at Midhurst, Sussex, but fortunately the Society of Antiquaries has preserved for us the copy of a picture which is full of interest, as illustrating the mediaeval walls of Portsmouth and the castles, forts, and other works as well as the guns, ammunition, and methods of working them, in vogue for the defence of the coast about the middle of the sixteenth century. One can see, too, the two towers built at the mouth of the harbour for carrying the chain which once protected it. The picture also comprises a bird's-eye view FIG. 22. SOUTHSEA CASTLE, /emp. KING HENRY VIII CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS 149 of the naval forces of England and France drawn up in battle order at the commence- ment of the action between the two navies on 19 July 1545. Southampton. — For many years Southamp- ton took such a prominent part as a seaport, and was such a favourite town for landing and embarking during the Middle Ages, that it would indeed be remarkable if it had been left undefended. As a matter of fact its mediaeval walls and towers and gates were peculiarly strong. The walls varied from 25 feet to 30 feet in height, nearly 2,000 yards in length, and was strengthened by 29 towers. There were seven principal gates, and four of them, as well as large portions of the walls, remain. The gates which remain are (1) the North, or Bar-gate; (2) God's House, or South Castle- gate; (3) West-gate, and (4) the Postern, now known as Blue Anchor-gate. The following have been destroyed: (i) East-gate; (2) Bid- dle's-gate; and (3) the South, or Water-gate. There were also formerly a Castle Water-gate (now walled up) and a Postern near the Friary I50 ENGLISH COAST DEFENCES and God's House : the site of the latter is lost. The mural towers were chiefly drums, or of SAKuNDtL Tower SCatchcoio. _ 4CMTIE Keep 5 Castle Watercate 6b1ddlescatc 7- Blue Anchor RdsternwitmAikadi NoHTHtSOUTM.AND J+ Woolmouse IS.CanutesFVlace IC.WATtHCATt IZWatchtowcii I8.C00S House 19.CodshouseTo»e> 2aEA*TCATE 2I.n>LYH0NDToKCI> 22B0<>LINCC«EEN 24 Audit House 25.0ld Audit Ho ,.?6.HolyRo»«Chu«ci. •'27S.Lawi«ences. . 28.All Saints. . 2aOL>FlSHM..K[T SOiMlCHAELsCM SLLiMtN Hall 32.SJoMN$ Hosr. ,Co»