,,,, .. %: ,j. y - 'ii H ; - !^t ''7 Ood' blwtn. thi . i .. .. -, , , .,, \lu- liumai) i i L of i^-are and liidiutry. oud tnn^tbenio^ the ' :.aii.jm of tbe tarlh THE EDITOR OP "PLEASANT PAGES.' ff ith is the Lord's, and all that therein is. BEINO AN AMU3INO 3EIUES OP OBJECT LESSONS FOOD AND CLOTHING O~F ALL NATIONS IN THE YEAR 1851 PREFACE. ACCORDING to the prospectus issued at the beginning of tins work, it was designed to contain the history of the Raw Material ; Machinery and Manufactures ; Fine Arts, and Sculpture, of the Great Exhibition. The Author does not, however, regret that it has been found impossible to carry out so extensive a plan in one volume. In the progress of the work, he deemed it more desirable to give to the subject of THE FOOD AND CLOTHING OF ALL NATIONS IN 1851, the full space which its valuable details required. The subject is in itself sufficient to form a highly interesting volume. In conformity with the principles of education on which the Object Lessons are written, it has been the aim of the Author, not only to convey in an amusing manner a mass of information, but to cultivate in the reader the powers of observation, comparison, induc- tion, and memory, by the exercise of which the mind is trained to investigate and acquire knowledge for itself. It has also been attempted to observe a far more important principle by applying such knowledge 0170 IV PREFACE. to the cultivation of faith in the providence of God ; and for illustrating the motto of the title-page, "THE EARTH IS THE LORD'S, AND ALL THAT THEREIN IS." A history of the Great Exhibition has been added ; and illustrations of some of the " lions," which will long be remembered by its numerous visitors. The facts relating- to the great event of 1851, and the facts in Natural History relating to the familial- objects around us, are eminently " Fireside Facts." They have been arranged in one volume, in order to render it a book of permanent interest, not only as a record of the Exhibition, but as a book of reference for useful knowledge. The introductory history of the Exhibition is the same as that in "Little Henry's Holiday," as the Author did not deem it necessary to rewrite the same particulars in a different style for this volume. The Priory House, Clapton, December, 1851. PART THE FIRST. CHAP. I.-HOW THE IDEA AROSE. run 1750. The Society of Arts. Competition, Exhibition. 1798. French "Exposition." Belgium, Spain. 1849. Birmingham. His ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PHIJJCE ALBERT. Exhibition ofSociety of Arts. The Queen, .20,000 13 CHAP. II.-HOW THE MONEY WAS RAISED. How to get 20,000. Messrs. Munday. THE ROYAL COMMISSION FOR THE PKOMOTIOX OF THE INDUSTRY OF ALL NATIONS. Public Subscriptions. Mr. Peto and others 3 5 CHAP III.-HOW THE IDEA OF THE PALACE AEOSE. The Plans from Britain, France, and Belgium. Mr. PAXTON. The Victoria Regia House. Mr. Stephenson. What the People said. The lllmstratKd London A"*, tf 'W *K ** If 4 ' THE SPANISH WINK JAU. T1IK MASS OF HOCK CRYSTAL. THK KOH-I-NOOU. Till: INDIAN RUBHKK TH01MIV. T II I. CO I; N T li (> I 1 II Y . KUSSIAN DBHARTMBNT, OBJECT LESSONS FR03I THE them!" So, they found a gentleman of the Society named Fuller, and they said to him, " We think that your plan of making an Exhibition from all nations is a very good one ; and, if you can carry it out, thousands of people will pay to come and see it, so yon will be sure to succeed and get plenty of money. And this is what we will do. We will lend you 20,000, and besides that, we will spend 50,000 to make a fine building for you, and lend yon a great many more thousands for the expenses altogether about on hundred thousand pounds! 4 H. Well done, Mister Mun- days ! They were P. They were noble men, certainly; but listen! Then Mr. Fuller made haste at once to take the good news to the Prince. He hastened to his Highness's country seat at Bal- moral, in Scotland, and on the 3rd September, 1850, nt the very moment when the Prince was going out to hunt the stag, His Highness was informed of this noble offer. H. Well, that shows how the money was raised. P. Not quite. It would not have been right for the Society to have let Messrs. Munday spend all this money for them, before they knew whether they would be able to pay it back besides, they found that they would want nearly Tico hun- dred thousand pounds. The " Royal Commission" was now granted, and the Prince and gentlemen who formed THE ROYAL COMMISSION FOR THB PROMOTION OF THE INDUSTRY OF ALL NATIONS, began to col- lect subscriptions. Rose. There, Henry! Then that is how the money was raised. P. No, indeed it is not. The people would not subscribe properly. " The appeal to the public was almost a failure." Fine speeches about this Exhi- bition were made in London and other parts of the country; but the people had never heard of such a thing before, and some, who wanted to show how wise they were, laughed at the thought, and the money "drib- bled in slowly." Thus the Prince, HOW THE IDEA OF THE PALACE AROSE. nobles, and gentlemen of the Royal Commission, who were going to collect the money, be- gan to think, " We shall not be able to do it," when another gentleman, Mr. Samuel Peto, came to their help. He said, " I will be security for 50,000 ;" the Prince said he would be security for more money; and other wealthy men followed, until security was raised for Two HUNDRED THOUSAND POUNDS. And thus ilie, money was raised laboriously. //. Thank you, papa. What is next? P. You have heard, 1 st, How the idea of the Exhibition arose ; and 2ndly, How the means arose. You shall hear, 3rdly, How the idea of the Palace arose.* CHAPTER THIRD How THE IDEA OF THE PALACE AROSE. When any one struggles through difficulties it does him good! He feels himself strong, and greater ; and has greater ideas. So the ideas of the " Royal Commission" began to enlarge. There came grand thoughts of teaching other things to men by means of the Great Exhibition ; and there also came the thought, "We will have a splendid house for our friends, when they come * It may be as well to acknow- ledge, that the materials for parts of this account are taken from the ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, and the OFFICIAL ILLUSTRATED CATA- LOGUE. The Editor has, in fact, made free with every source of in- formation that he could obtain. over to see us." So, architects were wanted now, men to draw plans of the building ; and the architects came. 245 Plans were made: 188 were made in Britain ; 27 came from France, and a few came from Belgium, Holland, and other parts; and with them there came new dif- ficulties for the Royal Com- mission. The plans were all examined, and none of them suited. So the Commissioners sent for other architects and engineers, to make a new plan for the purpose. But when the people saw the idea of a great brick and mortar building which was to cost 200,000, they asked, "Where are you going to put it ?" They were told that it was to be placed in Hyde Park, but thousands of people said, "No!" And the newspapers made a noise ; and angry men made speeches ; and many said 'twas a shame their park should be spoiled by a large brick and mortar building. And the Com- missioners //. I should think they were puzzled. P. Perhaps they were; but somebody was always sent to help them. Mr. PAXTON came this time. Rose. What was the gentle- man's name, Henry ? H. Mr. PAXTON. Let us hear about him. P. Mr. Paxton thought about the building. This gentleman is a landscape gardener, and he is very clever in writing books, and in making houses, it seems. He made a beautiful garden for the Duke of Devon- 5 MB. PAXTON. shire; and, as the Duke had a new and enormous water-lily, Mr. 1'axton made an immense conservatory of iron and glass for it to grow in. And, when he heard that the building of the Exhibition did not please the public, he thought to him- self, perhaps, "Why shouldn't a glass house be as good for an Exhibition as for a house of plants? If I were to make them one, like that of the Duke of Devonshire, I'm sure they would like it. They could have a house higher than the trees, and the large trees could grow inside it." So, on the 18th January, 1850, when Mr. Paxton was engaged on a Rail- way Committee, he hastily sketched his idea of the bui Iding on a sheet of blotting-paper, which happened to be near him. He then went home, and from his sketch he formed a finished drawing, working all that night, and working on still at all the plans and particulars for ten days, when he set out for London by train to see the Commissioners. He thought that his plan had been made too late to be of any use, but he happened to meet in the railway-carringe a gentleman mimed Stephenson, an engineer, who was one of the " Royal Commissioners." This gentleman looked at the drawings very closely, and at last he said, " Wonderful !" but he thought it was a pity they Imd not been prepared before. However, he said he would show them to the Commis- sioners. You know, I dare say, whether 6 the Commissioners used Mr. Paxton's plans or not. At first it was said they were too late, and then, that it was not usual to build with iron and glass. Some of the architects who had made the plans for the Com- missioners said it was impossi- ble for such a building to an- swer, that it would be blown down by the wind, that hail- stones would break the glass, that the glass would get loose, and fall in, and the people of " all nations" would be bruised or killed. Others said it would be too hot inside, and the un- happy visitors would be grilled. The public, however, soon heard of it, and began to speak for for themselves. They saw the plans, and read about them in the Illustrated London News. They read, and talked, and were pleased. The mighty " million" shouted out their opinions again : " It will be a famous place ! a transparent palace like crystal. Let us have A CRYSTAL PALAI K !" The Royal Commissioners said so too. They said, " We can put it up in Hyde Park, and, what is more, we can take it down again, and that will be a very good thing." Then it was all agreed to. Thus, the idea of the Crystal Palace arose suddenly. //. Well done, Mr. Paxton, this time ! P. True, Henry, the idea was " well done." But let us go on ; we haTe nothing raised yet but ideas. We have harder work before us now, for we have to speak of the raising of the Palace. MESSK9. FOX AND HENDERSON. CHAPTER FOURTH How THE CRTSTAL PALACE AROSE. How did it arise ? I wish I were a poet, Henry, that I might make some fine com- parison to show you how it was done. It rose swiftly and silently, almost like some fairy scene; and yet, with labour, as all the rest had been done. " Industry" has made many a fairy scene, and her secret is, Work ! work! work! L. And the building rose suddenly, papa. P. Yes, with strange sudden- ness. As the dry bones that were shaken by the wind came together, "bone to his bone," so came the columns of this Crystal Palace! They came from afar : an exceed- ing great army of iron and wooden bones. "" By waggon loads they came, girders and trusses, columns and ribs, of iron and wood. Then, they fitted one to another, forming a framework fairy-like and fine for the transparent glass. No unsightly heaps of brick! no smoking heaps of lime! no click of noisy trowel ! no great un- sightly scaffolding ! All the parts were ready prepared ; and, though they came from distant places, they quickly joined together, like brethren who knew each other. Then, ranging in square companies, and in long rows, they helped and supported one another until they were tall and strong. Thus were they able to bear up their curved-shaped friends, the giant ribs, who gratefully formed a roof over their heads, and covered them in from the rain. H. Well done, Mr. ! But who did it ? P. Well done, Messrs. Fox and HENDERSON, you may say now. Rose. Then tell us, please, papa, who were Messrs. Fox and Henderson. I want to hear some more "particulars." Will you describe to us, a little bit? P. Very well, I am not at all tired : but before telling you how the building was made, you shall hear what there was to make. Messrs. Fox and Henderson are two of the great builders (or contractors) who, as I told you, abound in our wealthy country ; you shall now see what gigantic undertakings two Englishmen can carry on. At the time when Messrs. Fox and Henderson began the great palace, they had other exten- sive works in hand, in all parts of the British Empire. These I will mention directly. Let us first speak of their work in Hyde Park. DESCRIPTION OF THE PALACE. Look at the picture. This Crystal Palace is 1,851 feet long. H. I cannot understand ex- actly how much that is. P. You can, if you try. Do you know the street where your aunt lives, and where each house contains eight rooms? Rose. I know it, papa; there are 50 houses on each side of the road. P. Then just imagine that, instead of 50, there were 116 7 TOTALS OF SURFACE, SPACE, AND MATERIAL. houses then you get an idea of the length of the Crystal Palace. It is as long as 116 eight-roomed houses placed in a row ! //. Then how broad is it? P. About as broad as a street of 28 such houses, that is, 456 feet; and in the arched part, called " the transept," which crosses the building, it is 68 feet high. There! put it away in your memory, Rose. " The Crys- tal Palace is 1,851 feet long, 564 feet broad, and 68 feet high." H. But how high is it in the large part, papa? P. In the "long part," which is called "the nave," its height is 65 feet. The whole building covers almost eighteen acres of ground a space about six times as large as that of St. Paul's. You know what a square foot is? //. Yes. A square piece of board, which measured a foot on each side, would be the size of a square foot. I will cut out a piece of the proper size when we are at home. P. And if you wished to cut out enough pieces to cover the whole space of the Exhibition, you would have to make NINE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY-NINE THOUSAND, EIGHT HUNDRED AND EIGHTY-FOUR of them, for that is the number of square feet in the Exhibition. The floors of the galleries measure 217,100 square feet, and the ground floor measures 777,284 square feet. Let us add them together : Galleries . 217,100 square ft. Ground Floor 777,284 That would be 994,384 square feet altogether. Would you like to know what space is contained in the building ? Rose. Yes, please, papa. P. Then suppose that you made a solid block thus; and Fig. i. that each of the six sides was a perfect square foot, such a block is called a cubic foot. Rose. And, how many cubic feet could we put in the space of the Exhibition? a thousand? P. More. H. Not a hundred thousand? P. Yes; three hundred and thirty times as much. The space of the Exhibition is no less than three hundred and thirty hun- dred thousand cubic feet, or 33,000,000, as we say. The surface of the glass measures 89 6,000 square feet. The quan- tity of the wood is 600,000 cubic feet, and the quantity of the glass is 896,000 Ibs. The weight of all the iron is 9,072,000 Ibs. and the cost of the building about 150,000. These, then, are the " totals." You must write them down on a piece of paper. //. I will, papa. The CRYSTAL PALACE, which Messrs. Fox and Henderson built, is six times as large as St. rani's. Its length is 1,851 feet (the num- ber of the year in which it is built), it is 456 feet broad, 64 feet high in 9 THE HOARDING. the nave, and 88 feet high in the transept. The total surface of the flooring measures 994,384 square feet ; and the total space of the building is 333,000,000 cubic feet The total surface of the glass mea- sures 896,000 square feet. The total quantity of the wood is 600,000 cubic feet. The total weight of the glass is 896,000 Ibs. (or 400 tons). The total weight of the wrought-iron and cast-iron is 9,072,000 Ibs. (or 4,050 tons), and the total cost of the building ia not much more than 150,000. Now, the completion of all this work was undertaken by two men. They began at the end of July, 1850, and it was ready for receiving the goods to be exhibited by about the end of January, 1851. In how many months did they do it? li. I have been counting, in only six months, papa. P. This, you will say, then, is a great undertaking for two men: but, as I told you, they had at the same time extensive works in all parts of the king- dom. They were making a whole railway in Ireland; an immense wrought-iron bridge over the river Shannon ; another over the Medway, at Rochester; a truly immense station for pas- sengers at the end of the Great Western Railway; a large sta- tion at Liverpool for another railway; a railway station at Bletchley; another at Oxford, of iron and glass, like the Palace itself; and several other large works which I cannot at present remember. Think of that, dear Henry. Think what two men can perform, and when you have plenty of work to do, never sit down and say, " I can't!" 10 H. Well, I won't again. But now, will you let us hear how it was all done? P. Yes ; let us leave the totals, and attend to the parts. We will imagine that we are sitting on the ground, in Hyde Park, and then we shall see the parts coming. First came the men with theodolites. Surveyors, they were called, for they took a " survey" of the ground. Then came the hoarding. Rose. What is that? //. I will tell you; the great boards which they stick up, all round the place. P. Here is a picture of the Fig. 2. hoarding. It pleases me very much ; for those who built this work of art wisely copied the Works of Nature, where nothing is wasted. The boards of the hoarding were all used after- wards for the floor of the build- ing itself. You may see by the picture that it was not neces- sary to nail them together. The two upright posts were fixed in the ground and the boards were slipped in between them. The posts were then tied together at the top, so that the boards were held tight, and could not full out. Rose. But, I suppose that tnere was some waste. What THE IRON COLUMNS. was the use of all those great posts afterwards? P. They formed joists, the thick pieces of wood which are laid on the earth to nail the floor upon. H. To be sure. Don't you see, Rose, that they couldn't nail the boards to the ground ? it would be too soft. Rose. Ah! P. When the hoarding had been fixed, and the ground was enclosed, the surveyors once more came with their theodo- lites, and measured the places for the iron-columns ; and then came the columns themselves. The columns were followed by all manner of parts by "girders," "trusses," "braces," " Paxton gutters," " sash-bars," Fig. 3. THE IRON COLUMNS. " ventilating bars," and a great many more things. I have drawn some of these parts for you. Let us examine them. The beautiful COLUMNS are interesting objects. There are three rows, the columns from the floor to the gallery, which are 18 feet .V. inches high; the second row rise from the gallery, they are 16 feet 7| inches long; and the third row, which are as long as the second, rise above them up to the roof. Thus, the columns are placed on top of each other, only having small columns between them, to which the girders are fastened. Let us find out the good qualities of these columns. Suppose that all three columns had been joined in one, thus: 16ft. 7in. 16ft. 7Jin. 18ft. 5in. 51ft. Sin. //. The great column would have been too long. It would have measured 51ft. 8in. P. Yes; besides the length of the smaller columns between ; and, if they had been made thus long Ruse. I can see : they would have been more likely to bend. P. True; then another good quality is, that they arc hollow. //. Then they cannot lie MTV firm. If you have a lt<>ll,nr friend, you never say he is a firm one. P. The same law does not apply to iron columns. IIollow- ness gives firmness and strength. You know that straws arc 1ml- 12 low; so also 'are quills. Pro- fessor Cowper was talking in a lecture about the beauties of these columns, and wanted to show their strength, so he cut two quills of equal length, and placed them upright. On these small quills he managed to place 1 00 Ibs. weight, and then another 100 Ibs., but they did not break until 224 Ibs. were placed upon them. The quills possessed this strength, just because they were hollow. This hollowness is a beautiful quality. It not only gives strength, but gives them another use like the hoarding, they are made to serve two purposes. Rose. What else are they fit for, I wonder? P. If you look at the picture below, which shows the form of the roof, you will see that, when it rains, the water might settle in all those ridges, therefore the water must be conveyed from the top of the building to the bottom. May it come down through the roof on the heads of the people? Rose. To be sure not. Ah ! there would be a good plan, it might pour down throuyk t/te columns. P. And so it docs, the columns are water-spouts. They not only hold up the roof, but carry down the water. //. So we may say three good things of the columio: 1st, Their. slmrt lait/th gives them strength; 2nd, Their Iwllowncss gives strength ; and 3rd, Their &tf&NMMMinakefl them useful as water- spouts. THE TRUSSES. P. While you may add 4th, Their hollowness also gives lightness. The columns are kept apart by the cross-pieces called girders, which are drawn on the same page with the columns but, let us ascend at once to the im- mense girders which extend across from the columns on one side of the nave to the columns on the other side, a distance of 72 feet. These immense girders are called TRUSSES, and as you may observe, contain nine girders. 72 Fig. 4. H. Yes, and on each girder a little roof is raised they are like little hills. Rose. Or Arab's tents; that is the way you draw tents, Henry you make lines up and down! P. They are called ridges, and the valleys between them are called furrows; thus they form what the architects called a " ridge and furrow" roof. Rose. And I suppose that in the furrows there are gutters, or something, that the water may run away to the columns. H. But you see, Rose, that the water would run " long- ways," it could not reach the poles on each side. P. Ah! How can it reach the columns? Rose. Well, that would be very easy ; there might be a gutter on the top of each large truss. The gutters in the ridges would lead to the gutters in the trusses. (See Fig. 6, page 14.) H. Yes, the gutters on the trusses are placed crossways, of course. Then, they lead to the tops of the columns, and the water flows down them. P. That is right ; at the base of each column is a pipe through which the water is conveyed, as Mr. Dickens says, "into the jurisdiction of their honours the Commissioners of Sewers." I will show you two more inte- resting points concerning the roof and the gutters, and then we will conclude our descrip- tion. Yon know that, when any vapour rises and reaches a cold surface, as there is no heat to keep the particles of the vapour apart, they unite again, or condense, as we say. Rose. Yes, and form drops. I noticed that yesterday ; mam- ma poured some hot water into the slop-basin and put the plate of toast on the top ; then the steam arose up to the flat plate, and when we lifted it up a number of little drops fell off. P. And so it might be in the Crystal Palace ; the vapour which we call " breath," arises 13 PA XTON-G UTTER. TRANSVERSE GUTTER. from the crowds of people below and if the glass roof were flat, thus , or like the bottom of the plate, then ? H. Then the vapour from the people's breath would form drops, and make a shower-bath on the people's faces. It would return to those it came from. P. But by placing the panes in an oblique (or slanting) direc- tion so and so ___, the drops formed by the vapour do not fall thus, but trickle along the glass, slowly. If. And, when they reach the end of the glass, don't they fall off? P. No: there is a gutter to receive them, a very ingenious affair, which was invented by Mr. Paxton, and is called the Tig. 5. " Paxton-gutter." This you will see is really three gutters. There is a larger one with a smaller one on each side. //. And I can see what they are for, the drops from the vapour in the inside of the glass trickle down the panes, and the side of the wood, into the small gutters, and the rain out-ulf the glass pours into the large gutter. P. Just so; and again, the gutter is a good firm solid rafter, and is therefore useful Fi*. 6. as part of the frame-work for I the Pax ton-gutters, and the the glass. Here i* a piece of "cross way" gutters on the tops the outside of the roof. you of the trusses. may see the ridge and furrow, //. Well, then, they are very 14 BEGINNING TO BUILD. good gutters. They do three things: 1st, They support the glass ; 2nd, They receive the rain outside the glass ; 3rd, They receive the breath inside the glass. Rose. They are almost as good as their relations the columns. One is a column and a spout, the other is a rafter and a (/utter. P. And now if we j ump down from the roof to the floor, we shall find that it also serves three purposes. When we reach the Exhibition, we shall find that the boards which were once a hoarding, are now used as a floor, a dust trap, and a ventilator. But we have had too long an account. Let us add up " the quantities," and proceed. H. As you say them, papa, I will write them on the same piece of paper with the totals, if you will please speak slowly. P. Very well, then write down Of the columns there are 3,300. There are 3,300 girders made of cast-iron, and 358 of the long trusses made of wrought-iron. The Paxton-gutters would measure altogether no less than 20 miles the panes of glass are joined to thin slips of wood which are colled "sash bars" the total length of these is not less than TWO HUN- DRED MILKS! There! what do you say to that? H. Now, papa, please to tell us how it was all put together, if you are not tired. P. Oh, 7 am not tired. When the hoarding was fixed, and the foundations were prepared, the columns began to arrive. It was some time before the different parts came, for they had all to be cast at places near Birmingham, which are a long way off. A month and twenty days had passed away ; the 20th of September had arrived, and only 77 columns had been fixed out of 3,300. But, during all this time everything had been made ready, and hundreds after hundreds of columns had been cast. Everybody had learned his duties, and was prepared to proceed, and then came the columns in abundance. Ah, it was a truly busy scene! if you had only been outside that hoarding you would have liked to watch the waggons! Every day you would have cried out, " Here they come !" and, as they unloaded, you would have seen columns, girders, trusses, and other pieces in abundance. From the immense and mighty furnaces of the casting works were brought, in one week, 316 girders; and also, every week, at least 200 columns. Each casting, as soon as it was delivered, was very carefully weighed and ex- amined. It was made to bear very heavy weights, to see if it were of the proper strength ; it was next painted, and was then carried off to its proper place to be fixed. All this was done with the greatest dexterity. " Each heavy article could be lifted from the waggon, weighed, placed in the 'proving machine,' lifted out again, and taken to its place, in less than four minutes." The scene became more busy 15 PREPARING FOR THE GLASS. every week. As more columns were brought in, more men were hired to work, and in the course of a month (by the end of October) hundreds of co- lumns were rising, and nearly 1,500 men were at work. H. But, papa, if the columns were three or four times as tall as the men, how could the men lift them? P. Very easily, by means of " shear-legs." Rose. Whatare" shear-legs?" not their own legs, I suppose. Are they stilts? P. No, nor wooden legs, al- though they are made of wood. They are two wooden poles, which are placed together so: What shape do they form, with the line of the ground? Rose. A triangle, papa. P. Here is a picture of a column being hoisted by means of the shear-legs. You may notice that there is a long rope on each side to keep them steady. At the apex of the trian- gle (you have learned what that means in PLEASANT PAGES), there are pulleys with ropes passing over them, thus you see how the men pulled them up. With 1,500 men at work, not only were great numbers of the columns and girders soon raised, but the smaller parts of the framework for the glass. During all this time the glass- blowers had not been idle. They had plenty to do; they had to make large and thick panes of glass almost a yard and a half long and ten inches broad. They soon found that as they had to make so many thousand panes, they had really too much to do. ENGLAND could not supply workmen enough to make such an immense quantity in so short a time; it was neces- sary, therefore, to bring work- men from foreign countries to help. Each pane was made in a manner different from the old system, which you will under- stand better when you have an " Object Lesson" on glass. A few weeks, and the scene in Hyde Park was more exci- ting still. The increasing num- bers of men had worked on through November to the be- ginning of December, when the bustle was at its height. The columns, girders, and heavy castings were still being brought; with an enormous number of smaller castings, which were GLAZING THE ROOF. erected with amazing rapidity. Other pieces of framework, and sash-bars, for the glass were next prepared then came the glass; and with it came more men still, to fix it. H. Yes, Glaziers, I suppose. P. The most trying under- taking of all was next begun, namely, the hoisting of the great curved ribs for the roof of the transept; these ribs we shall be able to see when we reach the Palace. I cannot give yon an idea of the great " crabs," and tall "shear-legs" which were used. This most dangerous work was completed in one week; sixteen great ribs were erected, and fortunately with- out any accident. Then the glaziers were mounted high up to their work, and soon they were dotted over the roof, look- ing in the distance something like the flies on the ceiling. When these glaziers worked on the " ridge and furrow" roof, they were conveyed in new and ingenious machines with wheels, which travelled in the Puxton gutters. The men soon learned to work quickly, and 80 of them, in one week, put in 18,000 panes of glass. One man, in one day, inserted 108 panes, which co- vered 367 feet of the roof. Thus, all kinds of labour were being executed at the same time, and all varieties of people were seen. There were not only the glaziers attending to the glass, but carmen unloading the wag- gons, and workmen raising the roof, workmen raising the co- lumns, painters painting them, carpenters attending to tbe works of wood, carmen unpack- ingthe glass, crowds of porters performing odd jobs, while the scene was made gayer still by the numerous red coats of the Sappers and Miners, which sparkled here and there amidst the crowd. " Useful men these," you might have said, " they have done all the surveying and planning." Besides these were the higher orders of workmen. His Royal Highness the Prince, Mr. Wyatt, Mr. Fuller, the architect Mr. Paxton, the con- tractors, the decorator Owen Jones, numbers of draughtsmen and clerks, with a great sprink- ling of visitors, whose principal labour was, in trying to under- stand how all was done so quickly. But even with so large a supply of men, there were not enough hands to complete the great work ; and a new power had been added a great #t cam- engine, with the power of six horses, might have been seen setting in motion several ma- chines, and causing them all to help. Let us talk of these machines : the steam was turned on, and this was the signal for them to work. They were obliged to obey evidently they knew this, and had been accustomed to steam, for immediately they began punching, and drilling, and cut- ting bars of iron into their proper lengths. Another machine had been preparing the "Paxton gutters ;" another cut the wood into sashes for the glass, pre- paring them by mile-lengths; another actually pmnti-d them ; while another a still more knowing machine received 17 WORKING STEADILY. THE GOODS. ;ogs of wood, and sent them out again in the shape of long spouts for drainage, with even the holes for the nails bored through them. Ah! those ma- chines, how well they obeyed the steam, and how the steam kept them at work ! No ma- chine took the slightest interest in the work of his neighbour, or even offered to assist him. The spout-machine kept en- tirely to his spouts, and not a single gutter or sash-bar did he make. Indeed he had no time to try ; he was so intent on his work, that he scarcely seemed conscious of having a neighbour at all. Rose. Perhaps he hadn't any " consciousness." I 1 . He was none the worse for that. Certainly, every ma- chine kept to his oirn business, and so did each workman, and that is one reason why the build- ing was finished in time. The conscious workmen, in- deed, seemed as active as the machines; all worked on stea- dily, and the great giant the dumb, unconscious Palace rose silentlyover their heads. "Won- derful!" they thought, as they saw what they were doing all wondered at the work of their own hands! still guided by greater minds than their own, their hands worked on, while the building seemed to look down from its height, and won- der how large it was going to be. H. Perhaps he wondered what he was being m&Aefor! Jiose. And he would wonder what those impertinent steam- engines had to do with it, and why their wheels went round 18 and round without seeming to mind him at all. P. True. And as through all December the machines and the crowds of men worked on (for now there were nearly TWENTY- FIVE iirxuRKD MKN), the great giant of iron and glass must have tared more still. Yes, indeed! for his masters were working all through the night, and had lit him up by torchlight! He must have felt it to be awful and grand when the bright lights danced through the dim .slmdi-s, and the men and machines moved on. What did the ma- chines care for the night ? why should they go to sleep? They "never tired nor stopped to rest." No ! each machine still worked and " pursued the even tenor of his wav." H. Poor Crystal Palace! I dare say he felt that he must be built, and must grow up as large as they chose to make him ; he couldn't help himself. P. Yes; and as time rolled on, strange things rolled in. While the Palace had been thus preparing, beautiful goods to exhibit had been prepared by thousands of men in all parts of the world. Gentlemen from England had been sent all over Europe ; and messages had been delivered to '* all nations," say- ing that this Palace was built for them to exhibit in. Like the school-boys whom we talked of, they were invited to a "com- petition" for prizes. Soon they began to try who could make the finest and best of goods; and, when they had done their best, they sent their works over the land and the seas, to Hyde ARRIVALS. COMPLETION. Park. If you had had the pro- per ears, you might have gone to the top of the Palace one windy night, and have heard that they were coming. Great wheels were buffeting the ocean waves, and bearing ships from the east great sails were driven along by the wind from the countries of the west, north, and south; and the whistling wind, which had crossed the ocean for thousands of miles, and had reached the Palace before them, whispered in its corners, "They come!" Great packages were soon made ready ; and by railway from the cities of Europe; by canal and rail from the counties of England, the}' were sent off, directed to the Great Exhibition. After that, they came-, and with them came a scene of bustle and business, which I could not reasonably attempt to de- scribe. There were workmen from Austria and France; men from the Zoll verein and Bavaria ; from all parts of Germany, from Russia, from Switzerland and Italy, from Spain, Belgium, and Holland. From the far- west came Americans; and from the East the men of Egypt, i all attending to their goods ; amidst the confusion of tongues, a work mightier than Babel's still went on ; and by its appointed day, the 1st of May the Crystal Palace was finished. On the 30th April, the night before the Palace was bom, I stood outside and asked him, "How came yon here?" Soon I imagined that the answer came back in these words: "AVE, the Crystal Palace, are so bewil- dered at ourselves, that we scarcely know how we came here. We know where we came from. We came from the bot- tom of the sea, and from the tops of mountains, from dark caves, and from mines in the bowels of the earth. There we were called by different names, such as 'sand,' 'soda,' 'galena,' 'ironstone,' and 'pine.' But some of us were melted in hot furnaces, and were cast, and are now called 'iron,' and 'glass;' and some have been hammered, cut, sawn, and drilled. But it has been done so quickly that all we can tell you is, we are now called 'THE CRYSTAL PALACE.' " Thus, the Crystal Palace arose, rapidly. CHAPTER FIFTH. HOW THE IDEA WAS REALIZED. P. I suppose you remember the 1st May, Henry? //. Yes, very well, papa. P. On the 1st May, 1851, the people rose np early ; at five o'clock on the 1st of May the people were getting up; at four o'clock on the 1st of May, there were people getting up. At three o'clock in the morning there were people getting up. a few people rose at two, and many were rising all night long, for some never slept at all. When the morning came, there were clouds over-head, but beneath there was light-hearted joy. Tens of thousands of men and women hurried down the streets. Cabs and carriages 19 THE TALE FROM " OLD TIME. ' filled the road, and all moved 1 onward to the west. From : north, and south, and east, and 1 west ; by steamers and rail, by omnibus and cab, by carriage or gig, came the myriads of 1 people, and stood round the j GREAT EXHIBITION. Rose. Yes, we heard abont that, pupa; the Exhibition was ready to be opened. P. But I think you do not i know of all that gave the people ' joy. As I was waiting with the crowd, I saw an old man with an eager face, and a very glad sparkling eye. His head : was bald, and his beard was i grey. "What is it," I said, " that makes you glad? Is it ! that you see the Crystal Palace sparkling in the light of the sun?" "Not only that," he , said. "la it that you expect j to see the Queen, and intend to say 'God bless her?'" "Not ! only that," he said. " Is it that you see men of all climates, ! apd of all colours, meeting to- 1 gether with friendly looks?" " Not only that. It is all these together that make me glad. Don't you notice," he whispered, " that all these men have one feeling toward that building? Don't you hear the Frenchmen say to their enemies, * the per- fii iii ins English,' ' Brothers ! we helped to make it!' Listen how they say, ' We all have an interest there !' " Rose. I should like to have seen that old man ; he had some kind thoughts. P. Yes, you shall hear more about htm soon. On that day there was a brotherly feeling beaming from the faces of all, 20 and I'll tell you why. This Exhibition was showing them the marvellous good works of each others' hands, which they had never seen before, but now it was beginning to teach them more. This Exhibition had brought them together, and was showing them marvellous good- will in each others' hearts, irltich they had never seen before. For tiie first time since the world was made, men of all nations were working together in one great act of peace. Now hear what the old man related to me. "Not forty years ago," he said, "I saw the fathers of these men meet on the battle-field. I saw their forefathers meet, hundred of years ago. The Franks and the Goths, the Celts and the Moors, met only to show their hate to each other. Do you know why?" he said. " No," I replied. " Then I'll tell you it was because they did not know each other. Ah !" he cried, " I have seen all history ! I've seen it all myself. I remember the first great gathering of Chris- tian nations, seven hundred years ago." Hose. What an old man, papa! How could he have lived for seven hundred \ra:-s ? P. You will hear. He lias lived six thousand years. But listen to his story. "That mighty gathering of the nations! Like the people arouixl us now, they were brought together by an idea. How that idea arose and grew! The 'Industry of AH Nations' wa-s aroused, and was making INSIDE THE PALACE. 1st MAT. swords and spears. They met and heard the idea from the sacred lips of their priests. ' Go dip your swords in Wood ! Go wage fierce war! Go kill, for the sake of Christ, the Prince of Peace! Hundreds of thousands are to follow hundreds of thousands ; and meet around Jerusalem, the former city of God, to destroy their fellow -men.' Europe answered with the cry, 'It's the will of God!'* Then, as they promised to go, and to .fight round the Holy City, the blessing of the Almighty was asked by the Archbishop of HOME, on the first and fearful gathering of the nations. But the high days of chivalry are now passed away, and those of the sword and spear are pass- ing away too. Come, come with me," said the old man sud- denly. " Come to the Crystal Palace ! ye shall see a very different gathering of the peo- ple of the earth. Come!" he cried, as he moved along faster (for he had been moving on all the while), I never stop! and, with his hour-glass in his hand, he bore me on his wings over the people in the midst of the Great Exhibition. //. (Whispering.) Rose, the old man had wings ! Who was he? P. I know not how it all hap- pened, but when we i-eached the palace, the people outside had seen the sight. The splendid carriages, and the pomp and show had gone away, and I found inside, the Queen and " Deus id vult, Dens id vult." the Prince of the greatest na- tion of the earth. There were other princes, nobles and mighty lords, the old warrior of the world, with his sword put up for ever and the great men of all degrees who had come from thousands of miles. As I gazed through the bright and beautiful building, and saw the long lines of faces, the many strangers in character and in dress, it seemed that men from all countries of the earth had met. Had met not with fierce rage, or flaming swords not diseased and dying with hunger and fatigue not expiring under a burning sun outside the gates of the city but near where the cool crystal fountain played, and murmured a sweet soothing sound ; near the quiet shade of a noble tree; under the high arch of the transparent transept. There, surrounded by the bril- liant trophies of the arts of peace, more beautiful and plea- sing than the trappings of war, there the second gathering of the nations began. The sound of a thousand voices had just ceased to breathe their melody through the air, to the hymn of " God save the Queen," when the President of the Society of Arts, His ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE AL- BERT, whose first difficulties you may well remember, arose and read a long address to Her Majesty. It would take too long for me to tell you all of it, but I will read to you the last and most striking parts: " Hnvinar thus briefly laid before Your Majesty the results of our labours, it now only remnins for 21 THE ADDRESS AND THE RKPLT. us to convey to Your Majesty our dutiful and loyal acknowledgments of the support and encouragement which we have derived throughout this extensive and laborious task, from the gracious favour and coun- tenance of Your Majesty. It is our heartfelt prayer that thit un- dertaking, irhich has for its end the promotion f>f all branches of human 'industry, and the strengthening of the bonds of peace and .friendship among all nations of the earth, m'a>, by the blessing of Divine Provi- dence, comlnce to the welfare of Your Majesty's people, and lie long remembered among the brightest circumstances of Y'our Majesty's peaceful and happy reign." Her Majesty then arose and replied. Here are some of Her Majesty's cheering words : "I cordially concur with yon in the prayer, that by God's blessing this undertaking may condnce to the welfare of my people and to the common interest* of the human race, by encouraging the arts of peace and industry, strengthening the bonds of union among the nations of theearth, and promoting a friendly nnd honourable rivalry in the useful exercise of those fa- culties which have l>eon conferred by a beneficent Providence for the good and the hnppineoa of man- kind." There, dear Henry ! Does not your heart fuel glad ? The cry which rose in Christendom more than 700 years ago might \\i-ll have been tittered again for the cause of Peace " It is the will of God" "It is the will of God." 11. Peace i* God's will always. 1\ True ; and so said the 22 Archbishop of Canterbury, for the highest part of the service had yet to come. None forgot that 'GOD was there ! and after the reply of Her Majesty, there stood up not the Arcltbishog of Rome, but the Archbishop of England. He arose to ask the Divine blcsMiijr <>u this no- ble work. He asked that it might be blessed to teach all nations more of love, brother- hood, and peace. Hear some of his words : " AND now, Lord, we beseech Thee to bless Thy works which Thou hast enabled us to begin, and to regard with Thy favour oru PURPOSE of ft/lifting tor/ether /< the bomU of peace anil concord the different nations of the earth ; for with Thee, O Lord, it tht prejtaration oj'the heart in man. Of fliee it couieth that violence is not heard in our land, wasting nor destruction within its borders. It is of Thee, Lord, that nations do not lift up the sword against each other, norlenrn wnrany more; it is of Thee, that peace is within our walls, and planteowiMM within our palaces. Therefore, Lord, not unto us, not unto us, but unto Thy name be all the praise. Both riches nnd honour como of Thee, and I lion reignest over all. In thine hand it is to innke great and to give strength unto nil. Now, therefore, God, we thank Thee; wo praise Thee, and mil-cat Thee so to overrule this assembly of many nations, that it ntay tend to the advancement of Thy glory, to the diffusion of Thy holy word, to the increase of general pros- perity, by promoting peace and THE PRAYER. good-will among the different races of mankind."* Then, once more came the sound of the organ. The thousand voices again were ' This is only a part of the prayer, which is too beautiful to be for- gotten. It is so simple that a child may understand it, and it is therefore printed entire, that the children may read it often, and long remember it. ALMIGHTY and everlasting God, who dost govern all things both in heaven and in earth, without whom nothing is strong, nothing is holy, ac- cept, we beseech Thee, the sacrifice of pr.iise arid thanksgiving, and receive these our prayers, which we offer up unto Thee this day, on behalf of the kingdom and people of this land. We acknowledge, O Lord, that thou hast multiplied on us blessings which thou mightest most justly have withheld. We acknowledge that it is not because of works of righteousness which we ha\e done, but of Thy great mercy that we are permitted to come before Thee with the voice of thanksgiving, and that instead of humbling us for our offences, Thou hast given us cause to thank Thee for Thine abundant goodness. And now, O Lord, we he- seech Thee to bless thy work which Thou hast enabled us to begin, and to regard with Thy favour our purpose of knitting together in the bonds of peace and concord the different nations of the earth; for with Thee, O Lord, is the preparation of the heart in jnan. Of Thee it cometh that violence is not heard in our land, wasting nor destruc- tion within its borders. It is of Thee, O Lord, i hat nations do not lift up the sword against each other, nor learn war any more; it is of Thee that peace is within our walls, and plentcousness within our palaces; it is of Thee that knowledge is increased throughout the world, for the. spirit of man is from Thee, and the inspira- tion of t'ie Almighty giveth him understanding. Therefore, O Lord, not unto us, not unto us, but urto Thy name be all the praise. While we survey the works of art and indus- heard, and the song of " Halle- lujah" rang through the build- ing, while the Queen and nobles walked through the aisles of the palace, from one end to the other, until they again reached the transept, from whence they started. The Queen then de- clared THE EXHIBITION OPENED. P. Just at that moment, I missed my friend TIME, who had brought me thither on his wings, and, rubbing my eyes, I found myself in the place where I had first met him in the Park ; but how I returned I cannot tell. try which surround us, let not our hearts be lifted up that we forget the Lord our God, as if our own power and the might of our hands had gotten in this wealth. Teach us ever to remember that all this store which we have prepared cometh of Thine hand, and is all Thine own. Both riches and honour come of Thee, and Thou reignest over all. In Thine hand it is to make, great and to give strength unto all. Now, therefore, O God, we thank Thee; we praise Thee, and entreat Thee so to overrule this assembly of many nations, that it may tend to the advancement of Thy glory, to the diffusion of Thy holy word, to the increase of general prosperity, by promoting peace and goo't-will among the different races of mankind. Let the many mercies which we receive from Thee dispose our hearts to serve Thee more faithfully, who art the author and giver of them all. And, finally, O Lord, teach us so to use those earthly blessings which Thou sivest us richly to enjoy, that they may not withdraw our affections from those heavenly things which Thou hast prepared for those that love an 1 serve Thee, through the merits and mediation of Thy Son Jesus Christ our Lord, to whom, with Thee and the Holy Ghost, be all honour and glory. 23 THE OPENING. H. I think that you had been dreaming, papa. P. Very likely ; however, I remembered all that my spirit had seen, and I also looked back on the past. I thought how the idea of the Exhibition arose, and how the idea of the palace arose, and now I had seen it made real. It was,, as we say, " realized." " Why," I asked, "was it magnificent?" Not because of the glitter and gold, but because God was there ! the God of heaven, where angels sing of peace on earth and of good-will towards men, deigned to smile on that day. He is the source of high magnificence. So,, when we look back on the JCxhibition of the Industry of all Nations, we may truly think, /iou; the idea was realised, mag- nificently! Just then, I thought I heard a flapping of wings, and I ima- gined that my friend "Time" was flying over head. I could not see him, but I heard him singing contentedly to himself: 'I have seen a grand day to- day." Yes, I cried to him you have seen one of the grandest days since the beginning of the world ; it tells us that there are even better days to come vet. * //. Papa. Ilerc is a park"! and I can see a pond. I think that we must be near the Exhi- bition now. Shall I pull the string, and ask the cabman ? /*. No, you need not do this 1 this place is called Piccndilly. linst. And what, papa, is that building in the distance across the park ? 24 P, That is Buckingham Pa- lace, where HEK MAJESTY THE Qi I.K.V lives. This park is called the " Green Park ;" we shall soon reach Hyde Park. Here is a little drawing for you, by which you may see where we are, and what is the exact position of the building. //. VCR, we have to pass Hyde Park Corner; and go up the road to Knightsbridge. Have you finished \ Fruxi- TPKE. P. We might exist without the third substances, or even 23 without the second, but the./rrst we could never dispense with. They are the most important, therefore our first series of Object Lessons sluill bo on t/ie substances used as food. CHAPTER NINTH. ON THE SUBSTANCES USED AS FOOD. You will not find many minerals in this series. The minerals are the food of the veyetubles ; the only mineral often used thus by man is salt, which is eaten as a " condi- ment" with our food. Ion. I remember our old les- son on salt, papa. You said that it did not form fi^d it was only useful to help in di- gesting our food. P. That is the case. There- fore, we shall find our food in the substances derived from the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Let us consider for a minute the variety of these articles. We have in this Exhibition articles of food which grew under the burning sun, in Africa, and Asia, they have been sent from the Spice Islands, China, India, Persia, Egypt, Tunis, Malta, the West Indies, &c. In most of these hot places round the Equator (which you know are called "tropical coun- tries") the articles of food are vegetable productions. In hot climates, vegetable food is far more suitable than the flesh of animals, and we find, too, that under the influence of the sun, SUBSTANCES USED A8 FOOD. the trees and plants in those countries grow to an enormous size, and yield most luscious and beautiful fruits. But, if we were to travel sud- denly from the tropics to the cold countries around the poles, there we should find that the case is very different. There, in the very coldest part, where the sun hardly shows his face for weeks, scarcely any vege- tables grow only a little Ice- land moss, with sea-weed, and different kinds of fungus. But, vegetables are not so much re- quired there as in the warm tropics; the people are com- pelled to cat more animal food. If, again, we return to the countries sitiiated between the Tropics and the Poles those which arc neither very hot nor very cold we find a different kind of produce, and accord- ingly different food. Now, we shall be able to find in the Exhibition, the articles of food from " all nations." Therefore, in this course of lessons, and perhaps in the other courses, AVC will speak, first, of the substances sent from the tropical countries; secondly, of the substances from the frozen countries; and thirdly, of the substances from the temperate counti'ies. Let us make a new chapter, with a new heading. CHAPTER TENTH. IlAW MATERIALS SUBSTANCES USED AS FOOD. (Tropical Countries.) Suppose that you enter the GREAT EXHIBITION at the door of the South Transept. Before going any further, take out your map, and look for the tropical countries in the Eastern Hemi- sphere. If we were to begin our course at the most easterly part of the hemisphere, the first countries we should observe would be the islands of the Indian Ocean. But, on the same map is a far more important place the great Eastern British possession, the famous country, INDIA. As India is of very high im- portance, we find it situated in the very centre of the Palace. Let us, therefore, go there, and see what specimens of their food the folks from India have sent us! L. How are we to reach India when we are at the Palace? P. Proceed in a straight line from the beautiful iron gates of the South Transept to the crystal fountain, and you will notice on your way that the western side of the transept is occupied with India. On reaching the crystal fountain, turn round with your face looking down the ivestern nave, and you will find that the Indian department is on your right hand and on your left. It occupies, in fact, not only the western side of the south transept, hut the western side of the north transept also. Now, if you really want to enter India, and study the arti- cles of food, I would advise you not to wait long, or to look very far down the nave. Mind that you don't look at the silk trophy! keep off your eyes from the horse and the dragon, or the timber trophy behind it! Don't 29 INDIAN DEPARTMENT. look up or down! Don't begin to look at the people! Don't look at anything, until you have made haste into the INDIAN DEPARTMENT. W. Why, papa? P. Because you are likely to forget what you have conic 'for; and, at the end of half an hour, you may find that you have un- consciously wandered a very long way from India, to quite another part of the building. It will perhaps cost you another half hour before you find your way back again. Last week I was going to sec Mr. Lawson's vegetable produc- tions of Scotland, in the south gal- lery, when I was just tempted to run down to Russia for a few mi- nutes, to show a lady the mala- chite doors, and the beautiful vases. We stopped at a great many places before we reached Russia; we stopped a very long time in Russia itself, and we stopped at several places on our way back. The consequence was that we did not reach the vegetable productions until we had been in the Exhibition for two hours and a quarter! Such is the way in which you may be tempted in the Exhibition. Oh, it is a sad place for attending to business! But, Ictus proceed to India forthwith. Even, when you are safe inside the department, if you are not careful, you will take a long time before you reach the arti- cles of fowl. You will cit her stop to look at the wonderful collection of jewels, containing the great diamond, "the I tun -,-/- t'-noor, or sea of light," ^r the room furnished in the stvle of i 30 an Indian palace, or the rich shawls, carpeting, and matting; or, perhaps, you will be led away by the curious models which have been made to show the Indian manners and cus- toms ; there you will see so many strange things that yon will be sure to stop. You will see the model of a native court of justice but I am afraid that I too shall be led away from our subject. We are going to talk of the articles of food in India. You will find in the Indian department good specimens of sugars from the sugar-cane and from dates. You will t'md arrow-root, pearl sago, and tapi- oca, nutmegs, pepper, cinnamon, and all kinds of spices; tea* and coffees, different kinds of wheat, with oats, miller, niai/.e, or In- dian corn, and rice. The last mentioned is the most important article of food in India; it forms the daily bread of the millions of people in that and the neigh- bouring country, China. Ion. Then, papn, may we begin our lesson by having an Object lesson on Rice? P. Yes, we will do so. In- deed, we shall only have time for the jirim-ipal articles of food in each country. 1. RICE. P. Let us now sit down and examine some rice. Here is some. L. Is this really rice, papa? I should have taken it to be oats. W. So should I. Look at its beard (or , as they un- called sometime..); there is. one long awn fastened to the end THE CORN-PLANTS. of each grain. I never knew before that rice was bearded; but, what surprises me most is the colour it is yellow, when rice is white. P. That is only because the rice grains have the husk on them. It is not exactly right to call these ears which I am showing you, rice, they are called paddy. But you see that I have here several perfect plants; what English plant do you think they resemble? L. They look like corn or barley, papa; and, they also look something like the long grass which grows by the side of rivers, and in marshes. P. Or like the long reeds, or short grass either ; for the rice, and the corn, the barley, oats, Indian corn, reeds, sugar-canes, the great bamboos found in the tropics, and many others, all belong to one tribe, which we call the grasses. The seeds of many of these grasses form the principal vegetable food for man. In some, such as the common grass of the field, the seed is not large enough for our food, therefore the stalks are used, either as green food for horses, or to make dry hay. Jon. You once told us of the sugar-cane, papa. We do not use its seed but its stalk, or rather the juice of its stalk. P. True; but let us return to our rice, or ra flier, to the subject of the CORN -PLANTS. We will examine, together, the rice and all these other grasses which yield grain. L. Look, Willie! Papa has brought several more plants, and each has grain at the end of its stalks. Here is a long stalk of oats, here is some barley, and here is one much more like grass. P. This is rye ; and here is another resembling grass, which we call millet. This very large plant, with such a thick stalk, and such broad leaves, is maize, or Indian corn. Here are many more grasses with smaller seeds than the others, so that they are not honoured by the name of corn-plants. You may now examine these corn-plants, and tell me in what respect they are all alike. Count the diffe- rent parts of each plant. W. I will count them, papa. Each plant has a stalk, a root No! I will begin at one end first. In each plant there is a root, a stalk. What are these little stoppages in the stalk, the hard places? P. They are the knots or joints. W. Well, then. The plant has a root, stalk, joints, leaves, ears for look at this plant, it has several ears ! There is a skin outside each little grain in the ear. P. That is called the husk. W. The husk, t\\e grain; and some of the plants have an awn, or beard, at the end of each grain ; so that the different parts of each corn-plant are the root, the stalk, the joints, the leaves, the husk, the grain, and the beard. P. Now examine these parts, and see if there be anything else worth describing. L. Yes. papa. The root of the one I have in my hand is not a bulb like the root of a 31 " DISTINCTIONS " OF CORN-1M, \N I<. tulip or an onion, but it is a bundle of thin fibres, so we say thatitisa,/i6rou.f root. I wonder whether the other plants have fibrous roots. W. Yes. I have been no- ticing them ; they all have fibres. I will examine the stalk. The stalk is thin and hollow, and is divided into several parts by these joints. The joints make the stem stronger, because if it were not divided, and consisted nly of one straight piece it would be more likely to bend and break. Ion. Iwillexamine the haves. 1st, Each leaf springs from one of these knots. 2ndly, The leaf grows round the stalk for some distance, and makes a sort of sheath to it, and then it branches out. 3rdly, The leaves are not the shape of the leaves on the trees, but they are very- long and narrow, end- ing in a point. P. If you examine them more minutely, you will observe that their veins are different from those of other leaves; they are all straight, and parallel with each other, and extend from the beginning of the leaf to the end, while other leaves have a mid-rib, and veins spreading out on each side, so as to form a sort of net-work all over the leaf. L. I will notice the ear, papa. In some of the corn-plants the grains form a close ear, and in many the grains hang loosely. The ear of some is bearded, and in others the ear is not. P. You may now write down " the distinctions" of a corn- plant, and this account will 32 then answer for all the other corn-plants we may describe. Jon. I will write it, pupa. THE CORN-PLANTS Are large grasses, distinguished by having a root, which is fibrous ; a stalk, which is long, hollow, and jointed ; leaves, which are long and narrow, with straight pa- rallel veins (they grow from the joints, and form a sheath round the stem for some distance, thus making it stronger) ; andt/rain, which is sometimes bearded, and sometimes not and cither hangs loosely, or is arranged in a close car. P. That will do. We will now describe the rice itself. Suppose that I begin with its history. Rice originally grew either in India, or sonic other warm part of Asia, for there it is still found in a wild stat* -flourish- ing near the bank of sonic river, or in the marshes. The grain of the wild-rice, however, is much smaller than that which is cultivated. The plant was not long con- fined to Asia. It was found to be so useful that it was carried by man to all parts of the world suitable fof its growth, so that, now, it is said that no grain supports the life of so large a number of persons as rice. It was transported to the Western world about 150 years ago; and now, in the West Indies, and South America, enormous ARTICLES OF FOOD. RICE. quantities are grown forming a very important article of food. It feeds, also, as I told you, the millions of people in China; and in the South of India immense numbers of the people get scarcely anything else to eat. They eat it with a powder, which consists of a few spices mixed together, and is called curry powder. The English people in India eat it with nearly every meal, and you have, I dare say, heard of the singular way in which the Chinese convey it to their mouths, by means of " chop- sticks." If you carry your finger across the map, and touch each rice-growing country, you will find that it also forms the food for the Egyptians, the Arabs, and the people of othercountries outside the tropics. Even in the south of Italy and Spain very fine crops are raised. L. Is that because Italy and Spain have a warm climate? P. Yes. And because the people have, from the beginning, carried out a good system of supplying the plant with water, great quantities of which are necessary to its growth. Perhaps one reason for its being so largely cultivated is found in the fine crops it yields. One acre of land, it is said, will give two crops of from 30 to 60 bushels every year. Another reason for its cultivation is, perhaps, that the process of culture is not expensive. Very little, or nothing, is paid for manure. A gentleman who lias been to India says that he never saw or heard of an Indian farmer manuring his rice-fields, in the smallest degree. There are fields in India which have continued to yield a fine crop of rice every year, for perhaps thousands of yeai's; and during all this time they have never been manured. L. Will you tell us, papa, how the rice is cultivated? P. Yes. Perhaps the method of cultivation will explain why manure is not wanted. The best places for rice-fields are the low open plains through which rivers pass, as the large quan- tity of water necessary is the great peculiarity of the rice growth. As soon as the small green shoots from the seeds are a few inches above the ground, the water from the rivers is let in upon the field, completely flooding it, and causing it to look something like a large pond. As the grain grows, it is flooded a second time, and shortly before the grain ripens, it is flooded a third time ; the water being allowed to remain in the field until the grain is quite ripe, and ready for the harvest. This rule for flooding the rice is not always adhered to. The fields are, in fact, kept constantly wet, and are more or less flooded according to the kind of grain ; for some descrip- tions of rice do not require nearly so much water as others. It is supposed that the fertilising substances left on the soil by these inundations, enable the farmers to dispense with ma- nure. In those parts of the coun- try where water cannot be procured from the rivers, arti- 33 ARTICLES OF FOOD. KICE. ficial reservoirs are made to supply water other crops of rice depend only upon the help they fret from the heavy rains, and the atmosphere. I do not think that you would like to be one of the poor people who work in the rice harvest. You can easily understand that the fields must be very muddy, and in South America and the West Indies, where, I believe, much more water is used than in the East Indies, the sl.-.vcs have to work in mud which reaches to their knees. It is said that the time of rice-harvest is so unhealthy that the masters frequently leave the district during the time. When the rice has been cut down by the men with their sickles, the straw is kept for fodder for the horses and cattle. during the hot weather. Tin- ear is sometimes stacked. Sometimes the grain is trod- den out by cattle, and > mu- tinies it is beaten out in large stone mortars. Great quantities are not separated from the husk, in India, but are sent over in the cur. like that in the Great Exhibition. The rice thus sent in the car is called jfttddy. Several new and in- p-uiuijs in.ieliines have been invented t'or.scpnrutingthc grain from the husk. There are many descriptions of rice: it is said that the va- rieties are innumerable at leat. from forty to fifty different kinds are known. 11". Yes; I know a great many. I have seen their names on great tiekets in the grocers' shops. >uch as the BEST('AKO- 34 LISA RICE PATN.V KICK CEYLOX RICE. I have heard. too, of EAST INDIA RICE, and MADAGASCAR RICE. There is rice marked at Ud. peril).. d., 3d., 4d., and 5d. per Ib. I have never noticed any at 6d. P. I have bought cheaper rice than any you have men- tioned. There is a rice called cargo-rice, which is sold for a penny per pound often for less. It is so called, bei -au^e it is brought mer in ships as " ballast" a substance used to make the ship heavier, when the cargo is so light that the ship is not deep enough in the water. This is brought from the Ka-t Indies. ; mid is generally used for feeding poultry. In fact nearly all that is sold so cheaply is East India rice: it is not so nutritious a* the best rice. H". I have noticed, papa, that some of the cheap rice is very small and much broken. P. Yes, rice is a very brittle grain. The rice for which you pay "1. per pound is not so broken, because it has been screened (or sifted). U'. .Just like the coals; I have heard of " the best screened coals" the small coal is silted away from them. 1'. Hefore we make up our . you may notice the ijiiulitifs of the riee. /.. I notice first, papa, that it is very u-ltitf, and that i; to be a very hard grain. H". And it is ///<< r/;Wr; it makes :i very nice powder. Ada. Ami when you boil rice it .M/V//.S very much; why is that? ARTICLES OP FOOD. RICE. L. That is because it absorbs the water it is absorbent. W. And it nourishes us it is nutritious. Ion. And it is wholesome. P. I will tell you a peculiarity which distinguishes it from other grain. You seldom see bread made of rice. This is because it consists almost en- tirely of starch, which will not form a dough tough enough to rise. It is, therefore, princi- pally used for puddings, or cooked in some other way. We will talk more on this sub- ject when you have the history of wheat. You may now write the lesson on Rice. W. I have brought my slate, and have written " Object Les- sons from the Great Exhibition" on the top ; so you may begin as soon as you please ! Lesson 1. RICE. 1. (History.) Rice is the seed of a corn plant found in the EAST INDIES, CHINA, ARABIA, EGYPT, the WEST INDIES, and other tropical countries. It originally grew wild in the warm parts of Asia, but on account of its useful- ness to man it was soon cultivated in every country where it was found that it would grow. Thus we find it growing in the south of Spain and Italy countries which are outside the tropics. The method of cultivating rice is peculiar. The soil in which it grows is always ki-pt in a state of moisture. When the green shoots from the seeds are still very young, the rice-field is flooded with water. Tltis flooding has to be repeated two or three times, until the grain is ripe. Weflnd, therefore, that the most suitable place for its cultivation is in .tome low level plain near a river. Some species of rice can be grown with- out any greater moisture than that supplied by the rain. The rice-har- vest is very unhealthy, as in some countries the reapers have to work in mud, which is often knee-deep. On the other hand, the matter left by the inundations is so fertile that no manure is ever necessary. 2. (Different sorts.) There are several different sorts of rice, differing very much in their qua- lity and price, such as PATNA RICE, CAROLINA RICE, EAST INDIA and MADAGASCAR RICE. The common CARGO-RICE, sold at Id. per pound as food for poultry ; and the best SCREENED RICE. 3. (Description and qualities.) Rice may be distinguished from other grasses and corn-plants, first by its ear, which is loose, while each grain has a long awn or beard. The grain is while, hard, opaque, pulverable, and very absorbent, containing more starch than any other corn-plant. 4. (Uses.) On account of the latter quality rice is not much used for bread, as it does not rise or form a good tough dough. It is principally used for puddings, cakes, blancmange, Sfc. The hard- ness of rice when dry, also ren- ders it useful for making chimney- ornaments, Sfc. In China, paper is made from rice; specimens of " rice-glass" have also been seen. L. Willie has made a rather long lesson for us. Are we to commit it to memory as we do the other lessons? P. Certainly. It will be bet- ter to commit each lesson to memory as you proceed. Do 35 AUTICLE8 OF FOOD. MAIZE. not begin a new lesson until you can say the preceding one "by heart;" otherwise your lessons will he almost useless. P. If yon leave the Indian department of the Exhibition and walk into the department belonging to the WEST IN- DIES II '. Where is that, papa? P. The West Indian depart- ment is beyond that of Canada, ns you enter from the nave. This part of the world has no distinct department, for scarcely any productions have been sent from there. In the same room are the productions of New South Wales, and of the islands of the Indian sea ; the produc- tions of the Bermudas Isles, and of British Guiana a colony of Great Britain, which you may look for on your map. It comprises three divisions Demerara, Essequibo, and Ber- bice. Now, as most of these places lie in or near the tropics, the productions sent by them are very similar. The next article of lood we shall notice is 2. MAIZE. Yon will find a box of maize in the West Indian department, and I have brought you an ear to examine. W. Why, papa, this is Indian corn! I have often seen Indian corn. How much larger it is than the corn of our country ! /'. Yes; Indian corn is only another name for mai/.c. lleie is the whole plant for you to examine tell me what you observe. II'. I observe that the stalk 36 is much thicker than that of wheat. The plant does not look as though it belonged to the grasses. Ion. And I notice that the seeds have a difl'erent shape from the grains of wheat, they are almost round. L. And I notice their dif- ferent colour some are yellow, others are white, and others are of a dark red. P. And I have seen some which are a dark purple colour, almost black. We need hardly describe the plant after your former description of the corn plants. The only point 1 would wish you to notice is. the num- ber of grains in each ear. In some of the larp'-t ears there are as many as sou grains, and cadi plant generally bears two full ears. M M/.I-: is the most important corn-plant of the tropical countries after rice. Like rice, it will llourish in the warmer temperate countries. It may be grown even in England, but as the frost is sure to destroy the young plants directly they make their appearance above the ground, it has to be sown very late in the year; it then-lore does not always ripen properly he-tore the winter begins again. It is grown also in the limed State>, and other parts of America which are not tropi- cal; there it is much ued, and forms the only bread which the poor negro slaves eat. L. Docs mai/.e make better bread than rice, papa? /'. Yes; but the bread is still not so good as that made from our wheat. It is better when ARTICLES OF FOOD. SAGO. mixed with wheat ; if not, it is dry and husky. However, it is an article of food to an immense number of the people under the tropics ; but it is not eaten so much in the shape of bread, it is formed into a boiled mass, or soup, just as we boil peas to make pea- soup. Before they are ripe, the large ears of maize are also used as a green, vegetable, being boiled, or stewed, or baked. Ion. I have seen maize grow- ing, papa. I knew a boy who planted a seed in his garden, and it grew up a fine plant. It did not require so much water as rice does. P. No. Being so different a plant from rice, it is very differently cultivated The seeds are sown by dibbling, and are dropt into the earth one or two at a time. As the stalks rise above the ground, the soil is hoed round them, so as to form a small hillock. Each plant is hoed separately, three times be- fore it is ripe, sometimes four times, if the expense of labour be not too great. Before the harvest time the maize is often thinned, and the stalks and leaves of the green plants then cut down, form famous fodder for cattle. But the seed is not the only part of a plant used for food ; men sometimes e&tpith. W. Then they must be very nasty fellows ! I should not like to live in hot countries. P. But, the pith is so nice that it is sent over to the people of the temperate countries in great quantities. W. And do thev eat it ? P. Yes, you do. Not long ago, I saw yon enjoying some which had been boiled with milk. W. You cannot mean Arrow- root, papa. That is the root of a plant. P. No; in the same depart- ment of the Exhibition you will see several specimens, most of them sent from Borneo and the islands of the Indian Sea. Each specimen is called " Sago." 3. SAGO. Sago is a Malay word, mean- ing bread. If you were to ask one of the natives of the Malay isles how he procured such " bread," he might take you up to a tall palm tree. How you admire and wonder at that glorious palm ! Its height would, perhaps, be twenty-five to thirty feet (or as great as that of five men). Its thick, massive trunk, is not tapering like that of some palms, but almost as thick at the top as near the root. From the top of the trunk branch out an enormous tuft of leaves, having the appearance of a huge shuttlecock. When they are covered with a whitish powder, the tree is fit for use, and it is cut down with a saw, or other instrument. This is the only proper time for cutting down the tree, for that white powder is a kind of starch pre- pared by the tree to nourish the flowers and fruit, and it only makes its appearance on the leaves, just when the fiower- buds begin to appear. If the tree be left for the flowers to grow and the fruit to ripen, they will both derive their nourishment 37 ARTICLES OF FOOD. ARBOW-ROOT. from this starch, and from the quantity of sasro yielded by one pith inside; then if the tree be tree is prodigious it i< not cut down, yon will certainly unusual for one palm to pro- have ripe fruit, but the trunk of duce between 500 and 600 the tree will not contain much pounds. pith, it will be little more than j I need not say anything a hollow cylinder. | about the uses of sago, i Jon. But how do the natives j " Don't yon, Willie, ever again make the pith into sago? call people 'nasty' for < P. Why, in the first place, I pith." I may just add that sago down comes the tree ! as I is so abundant, that, being a said. When the natives have kind of starch, it is not only used laid the huge trunk low, they for food ; it is used in the proceed to cut him across in manufacture of calico, as a five or six pieces. They then dressing to give firmness and a split each piece, and take out fine surface to it. the pith. The pith is rather L. Are there any more ar- sticky and gummy, but it is tides of food, papa, in that washed in water, and the gum department? then rises to the top ; this j P. Yes. In several places in water is strained off, and the the department, you will see sago is washed a second or specimens of food prepared from third time. When the water the root of a plant, the sub- is finally poured away, the dried ' stance we call sago, which is really the starch of the pith, forms a powder. It is seldom used in England in this state, but bv a curious process in which it is half baked. 4. ARROW-ROOT. ARROW-ROOT is grown not onlv in the East and West it is brought into the shape of Indies, and the Spice Islands, small grains, about the size of but it is found in the Bermudas, a pin's head. Sometimes it is j two little islands, which, if you prepared in grains of a larger size, and then it is called pearl- L. Do the natives get much take your map, you will observe mated in the midst of the Atlantic Ocean, on the way to America. Like sago, it is sago from one tree, papa. I really the starch of the plant, should think that by cutting although it is procured from the do\vn the trees in that manner, root. Similar starch may be procured from a root irri.wn in our country, and called the potato. the sago would soon be all eaten up. /'. No. that is not the case. The tree grows in low marshy situations, and as the root re- mains, after the tree has been a new stem springs up, which grows until it is again fit for the axe. -- /.. Why is the root of this plant called arroto-root, papa? /'. The In.iians of South America were accustomed to use the juice of another plant Besides, the of the same species, not for the ARTICLES OF FOOD. TAPIOCA. purpose of poisoning their ar- rows, as is generally supposed, but as an antidote to the poison in which the arrows of their enemies were dipped. In preparing the arrow-root, the root, or tuber, of the plant is first carefully washed, to re- move the particles of earth sticking to it. The root is then put in a wooden mortar, and is beaten into a state of pulp. The pulp is then mixed with a great quantity of pure water, by which means its fibres are easily separated from the starch. The mixture of pulp and water is strained through a hair sieve two or three times, each time a finer sieve being used. The water then has a milky appear- ance, which is caused by the particles of the starch. It is next exposed to the air and sun, and after some time it evaporates, or " dries up," as we say, leaving only the starch in a tine power. A very large quantity of arrow-root is consumed in Bri- tain every year, as it is very nutritious, and very easy to be digested. It is used for young children, and persons in deli- cate health. Arrow-root is not the only food procured from the root of a plant which the natives of tropical countries use. You may also see in the grocers' shops, and I daresay have often eaten, a white substance, some- thing like sago in its appear- ance, except that it is prepared in larger lumps or grains. L. I think, papa, that you mean Tapioca. P. Yes; in the same room in the Exhibition are specimens of this food. 5. TAPIOCA. This substance is prepared from the root of a plant called Cassava. There are two kinds of this plant, that with a sweet root, and that with a bitter. The sweet Cassava root is known by a long fibrous cord running through the centre, while the bitter has a highly poisonous juice. On account of the in- convenient " fibrous cord" in the former plant, the bitter cas- sava is preferred, and is largely cultivated. Ion. But the poison, papa! Are the natives more fond of poison? P. Xo. but that is easily re- moved by heat, so that after baking, the poison is "volati- lized;" that is, its particles fly off in invisible vapour. In manufacturing tapioca, the roots of the cassava are first peeled, and are then ground between millstones into a state of paste. This paste is pressed very tight indeed, so as to squeeze out as much of the juice as possible ; it is then j placed in a vessel over a fire, j and stirred until the moisture has entirely evaporated; when it is thus dry it has a granular or lumpy appearance. It is ! cooled, and packed in barrels, and is then fit for for use. Tapioca is a very nutritions substance. It is said that half a pound of it per day is suffi- cient to support a strong man, but I almost question whether the tapioca alone would be suffi- cient. 39 ARTICLES OF FOOD. YAM. W. Do the tropical people feed on any other roots, papa? P. Yes. There is a large ugly-looking root, which looks something like an immense po- tato. Thousand of poor slaves get little else but this. It is called " Yam." 6. THE YAM. If you like potatoes you would like Yam. It is hardly right to call a yam or a potato a root. They are not useful in sucking up the juices of the earth for the plant, they are themselves formed from such juices, just as the plants are; and on examining a yam or a potato, the fibrous roots will be found attached to them. The plant itself is a twining plant, with a long trailing stalk, which sometimes extends along the ground, and sometimes twines round another plant. In some species of yams \\hich trail along the ground, the stalk ha-~ knots or joints; and at each joint it strikes a root into the earth. At first, these roots are only very small fibres, but as eome stronger, and grow larger, they form a small tube, which in time grows into a large yam. ii '. How large, papa? P. That depends upon oir- cMin-tanccs: ]. a tnueli greater variety in the si/.- of yams, than in the si/,e of potato"*. Some yams have lieen known toweigfa30ponnd*,and I have even rend of vams weigh - 'MIL' )") pounds. The eommoii weight is about 2 or .1 pounds. The i <;/' rii/lim/iun uit)'i-rx from t/ml of fir, , ii* il i/,,,'* not in 1 1! xii linn-!, water. It cumin/ //< f/rmrn in II in ci>lriti'_ r np the spice-box, as we shall | iiinl there many objects from tropical countries. IT. Well; you toll u< some qualities, papa. Ginger is hard, tough, fibrous, yellowish white, dry, odorous, aromatic, knotty, pungent, and hot. L. And medicinal. Here comes Ion with the spice-box! Now that we have the ginger itself, I do not see many more qualities. W. Then feel (or some. Lucy. Please lend it to me. It is not at all heavy, so there's a quality it i> li'/fit! Ion. I have thought of some- thing, papa. You say it ha- an aromatic smell; and simply be- cause it has n smell, you say it is odorous. What do you say of the _' ; Hirer because it hasafrufe? /'. \Ve say is is sapid; that is another quality. L. Aiiilyoii may say that it is niiili. it has not a smooth skin like an apple. ic. A>"! beeMM i; d grow in Kngland. but in forci.'n countries, we may rail it foreign. Ion. And because it grows in tropical < outlines, we ma;, e.ill it tro/iii-nf. I.. A:i'i ii--e:iu-e it has no life, v. e may call it imiiiiiii'it- . U'. And l.i-.-au-e i; may be ground into a powder, we may rail it ptlreraMe. Ada. A n i;i April; . IlM-lieve, gathered - .n> in Au- gust and in 1 but the April gatherings are the hct. It N imt well toopcn the \\ondy -hell- directly they arc picked. as the niitinc_ r i found to be Hither -"U and oily. (J-Micrally. :;-|er t!i" mace has h moved, the shells are dried in the sun ; ami then, being placed 44 on a frame of bamboo canes. v held over a slow tire. When, on taking up one of the nuts, it is found that the nut- le> iii the -hell, they are then ready. The shells are broken open, and the nutmegs are taken; many of ti. do not require cracking, but are found to be already cracked with the heat. The collected nuts are then sorted, and are dipped in limc- water to preserve the; :ie. however, are not dipped in lime: t! may notice at the F.xhihition. where you may find "limed" nutmegs, having a white ap- pearance; and other nutmegs which have a brown app because they have not been dipped in lime. Nutmeg abounds with oil. Every pound of nutmeg yields an ounce of what i- "fixed" or "essential" while it also contains a large quantity of "volatile" which is lighter than water. Nutmegs are often di- 1 extract the volatile nil. . then passed oft' as fiv-h. They are, however, nt very little n-e. as all the "goodne*-" has thus been taken nut of them. The .iy to try Mich mi:' rt a hot nc'-dle in one: ami if. on being taken out. the then you know that the nutmeg ha> been spoilt. Yon mav ;;l>o tell by feeling it. a- such nnt- megs are much lighter than others. I suppose t! know, pretty well, the qualities of nun /.. Yes, papa. Its "distinc- ARTICLES OF FOOD. MACE. live" qualities are aromatic, bit- ter, and pungent in taste rather pleasant, also, if a small piece be taken at a time. What other use has it besides that of flavouring our food ? P. It may, I believe, help in digesting our food, if a moderate quantity be taken. Or, if any one be sufferingpains from wind or colic, the nutmeg is useful in removing them. But, if too much nutmeg be taken, it is found to affect the head, and produce sleepy diseases. It is, therefore, a bad thing, for I have even read that the con- stant use of too much nutmeg in the East Indies has been the cause of death ! Ion. Your speaking of the East Indies reminds me of something, papa. We have not heard of the "place " of nutmeg. In which tropical countries are nutmegs princi- pally grown ? P. In Ceylon, an island at the south of India, and in the Spice Islands. Now it is also found in the West Indies. Ceylon formerly belonged to the Dutch, but in the last great war, that island, and the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, were taken from the Dutch by the English. The Dutch still possess the Spice Islands, where the greater part of the nutmegs grow, but, when they also pos- sessed Ceylon, the entire nut- meg trade was in their hands. They thus had what we call a monopoly, and they charged very high prices for the nutmegs; I forget now how much a-piece. Since then, however, it has been grown in the tropical parts of America, and in the West Indies. We may add a few words about mace. 9. MACE. Ion. We will say, first, that it is the thin scarlet membrane found outside the woody shell of the nutmeg. P. You may say. secondly, that when taken off the shell and dried, it loses its brightness of colour, and changes to an orange coloured brown. L. Well; I was thinking so, papa, for I was going to say that / had never seen any scar- let mace. P. You may add, thirdly, that, like the nutmeg, it contains a strong " essential " oil, and that its taste is rather more bitter than that of the nutmeg. Ion. Now, papa, shall we make up a lesson on Nutmeg and Mace. W. And we have not made any lesson on Ginger. P. You may make a lesson on these three spices, and then commit it to memory. Lesson 3. GINGER, NUT- MEG, ,j-c. (Qualities.) GINGER and NUTMEG are two spices often seen together in England, and rubbed on the same grater. Ginger is a hot, pungent, aromatic, conserva- tive, stimulating, and medicinal ROOT, being yellowish, white, rough and knotty in shape. L. Now let us see if we cannot say nearly the same of the nutmeg. NUTMEG is a bitter, pungent, aromatic, conservative, stimu- , 45 ARTICLES OF FOOD PE1TER. lating, and medicinal root, being brown, wrinkled, and oval in shape. MACE hag qualities similar to the nutmeg: it if rather more bitter, and is thin in shape, somewhat like a ntticork. (Uses.) As the qualities of these substances are so nearly alike, their uses also must be similar. II '. Which is seen in their being so often found together in the nutmeg-grater. (History and place.) GINGER is grown principally in tlie East Indies. It is the undir- ' ground stem of a plant rfsi'in- bling a reed or fl'ig. There are three kinds green ginger, black ginger, and white ginger. NUTMEG is grown in ( 'i '/""' the Spice Islands, and the \ West Indies. It is tin \ of a nut which grows inside a \ ijrten-lookitig fruit, something Itke our walnuts. MACE is the thin membrane found outside the woody shell of the nutmeg. L. This lesson we will com- mit to memory. Are there any more spices in the Exhibi- tion, papa? /'. Yes. I will mention one to you. It is of a spherical shape, sometimes black and .-niiictiiiii s white sometimes rnmi/1 and trrin/./i'tl, sometimes smooth. It is very j>n>iay. he so often brought to the dinner tnlile, and u>ed in connection with the .-alt. 46 Ion. Do you Know what spice papa is talking about ? It is jyt I 1 . 1 . True. 10. PEPPER. You may go to the West Indies, as well as the Spice Islands, to see the pepper growing. L. Does it grow on a large tree, papa, like the nutmeg tree. P. No; the pepper-plant is a creeper. It is not unlike a vine; sometimes it is called the pepper-vine. The outside of the leaves is of a deep green colour, the inside is of a more pale green. The berries, when ripe, become red, and then of a darker colour almost black. A pepper-vine, when the berries are on it, \ a pretty sight. As it is generally planted near a bu.-h. it grous around it, or entwines itself be- tween its branches, like in/. Sometimes it is made to grow on a pole, like hops, while another kind of pepper trails along the ground. There are two kinds of pep- per. When the commoner sort is required, the cluster of berries are not allowed to ripen; they are picked when given, the .seeds are not taken out of the berry, but are dried with the tin-en berry on them, being exposed to the sun on mat.-, and thus dried quickh. I'\ this process they turn black. and \ve call them blm-k /"'/'/>< r. \\'. \Yhy. that is very much like the biaek ginger, that is dried with the skin on. J"ii. And to make irhite gin- ARTICLES OF FOOD. PEPPER. ger, the skin is taken off. I wonder whether it is so with the white pepper. P. Yes, that is the case. To procure white pepper, the natives allow the berries to ripen. They are then picked ; the bunches are rubbed as be- fore, to separate the berries from their little stalks, and the red pulp is removed by wash- ing. The seeds, which are white, are then taken out of the water and dried. Here are two pepper-corns one is white and the other is black. Tell me what difference you observe between them ! W. The white, papa, is smaller than the black ; the black is shrivelled and wrin- kled, and the white pepper is smooth. P. Yes ; and there is a more important difference to be dis- covered by tasting. The dried outer skin on the black pepper gives it an unpleasant, fiery flavour, which you do not find in the white. Thus the white pepper is said to be better than the black. Ion. Now will you tell us of the uses of pepper, papa? I have seen peppercorns in the pickle-bottle very often. P. What should you think they are put there for? Ion. To flavour the onions, perhaps, or else to help pre- serve them. P. They are useful for both purposes ; therefore what quali- ties would you say that the pepper must have ? Ion. To give a flavour it must be sapid, and to preserve the onions it must be conserva- tive. Pepper is sapid and con- servative. P. It is also used for flavour- ing food, particularly in hot countries. It is said that 50,000,000 pounds of pepper are collected every year, and that of this large quantity only one-third is sent to the cities of Europe, and two-thirds are used by the Chinese. Like nutmeg, it helps in digesting food, and is very useful when taken with cucumbers, and other cold, raw vegetables which are hard to digest. But if too much pepper be taken, it is even more hurtful than nutmeg; it injures the liver. A very large dose of pepper is very likely to be fatal, by ex- citing inflammation in the stomach, and by injuring the nerves. Hogs are easily poi- soned with black pepper. P. In that same room of the Exhibition, I have seen many specimens of a spice, which at first appeared like long sticks. But on examination I found these sticks to consist of a num- ber of thin pieces of bark rolled up together. Here is a piece for you to examine ; it is called Cinnamon. 11. CINNAMON. W. I notice, first, that it is rather thin and brittle. P. Mention only the qualities which render it different from the spices mentioned before. Ion. It has a very nice sweet taste. I have a piece of the cin- namon in my mouth, and now I have got all the sweetness out 47 ARTICLES OF FOOD. CIXNAMOX. of it, and it leaves a sharp, hot taste. L. And it differs from the others in colour. It has a very pretty light-brown colour. P. There is a proper name for this colour it is called "cinnamon brown." The history of cinnamon has been long known. It is a spice which has been in use since the earliest times. The Greeks used it, and they procured it from the Phoenicians, a people whom I dare say you have heard of, as famous for travelling about in ships. They, it is thought, gave it the name Kin- nrimomon, from two Malay words which signify " sweet wood." The tree from which the bark of the cinnamon is pro- cured is a kind of laurel grow- ing in the same countries as the former spices. When the plants are young they require a little shade ; and, therefore, they are generally in some open space in the woods, where there are a few large forest trees to shade them. The bark is seldom taken from the tree until it is about nine years old, and is becoming very strong. The natives begin the peeling in May, at the end of the rainy season; and continue it for five or six months. The operation is very simple ; the b;irk is merely slit lengthways with a knife, the outside bark is then scraped <>ti'. and the inner bark is pra'lually loosened until it can be removed easily. It is then cxjinseil to the sun, the heat of which causes it to curl up, just like the piece of cinna- mon vou see in HIV hand. Such 48 a piece is called a quill of cin- namon ; and if we open this piece, we shall find that the smaller quills are rolled up in- side the larger ones. The same plan is not adopted in every place, for instance, in some parts, the tree is peeled before the outer bark has been scraped away. The pieces which are taken off are tied in bun- dles for twenty-four hours, and during fhis time a sort of fer- mentation takes place. This enables the natives to separate the outer bark very easily, leavingonly the pure cinnamon. Ion. But, papa, 1 know a tree, the bark of which lias been peeled off, and now it is dead! P. That is because the bark has been peeled from the trunk, so that, as the winter comes on, the sap of the tree cannot de- scend ; but the cinnamon is procured from the bark of the branches; such branch, about three years old are the best; if they are too young, they have not sufficient flavour. The inferior kind of bark is, I believe, used for the purpose of obtaining oil of cinnamon. The best cinnamon is wrapped in double cloths made of hemp, and N packed in holes. L. We know the common uses of cinnamon, papa. Can it be used as a medicine, like nutmeg or pepper? /'. Yes; being the bark of a tree, it contains an astringent property c.illed ttmjtin. Ion. What do you reallymcan by "astringent." pupa. I can tell an astringent ta-te. t-ecaii-e anything with that taste seems to draw up my tongue. ARTICLES OF FOOD. PEPPER AND CINNAMON. P. And that is why we call it "astringent." The word is derived from the Latin ostrin- gSre, to draw together ; and an astringent substance really draws together the particles of your tongue and of other sub- stances. Tell me something that is astringent. Ion. Alum is very. W. And so are sal-prunella balls very, very! L. Ginger, we said, is rather astringent; so are nutmeg, mace, and tea. W. Have you ever tasted nut-yolk, Lucy, which are used in making ink? They arc as- tringent, and so is the ink itself. P. Nut-galls are procured from the oak ; and the bark of the oak, as well as all other barks, has, as I said, an astrin- gent property, called tannin. The tannin of the oak-bark is used to convert the skins of animals into leather, which it does by drawing together so closely the particles of the skin, that it becomes more tough and firm, and the wet cannot easily penetrate it. Now, the tannin of the young bark, cinnamon, is not strong enough for this purpose, but it contains enough astringency to serve other purposes in the stomach; especially where the digestive powers are weak, and in case of bowel-complaint. It is also useful sometimes in cases of fever. W. Yes; I have seen cinna- mon-powder in Mr. Phial, the chemist's, shop. It is nearly of the same colour as this piece of cinnamon. Ion. Now we will make a "memory lesson" on Pepper and Cinnamon, before papa teaches us anything more. Lesson 4. PEPPER and CINNAMON. PEPPER is the seed of a berry, produced by a climbing plant, called, "thePepper Vine." CINNA- MON is the " inner bark " of' the young branches of an evergreen, or laurel. Pepper is used as a "condi- ment" with food, and is useful to assist digestion, particularly with ram vegetables, such as the cucumber. Cinnamon is used to Jlavour puddings, fyc. Being the bark of a tree, it hats the astringent property " tannin," which ren- ders it useful as a medicine also. P. There are still more spices in the Exhibition. Would you like to hear of the rest? W. Yes; / should like to hear of all of them, now that you have begun their history. P. Then here is a spice which very much resembles one we have heard of before. L. Ah, it looks like a pep- per-corn. P. It is not, however ; it is called ALLSPICE. 12. ALLSPICE. P. Look at it ; tell me what you think it is. Is it a seed, a root, or a bark? L. It looks more like a seed, papa ; and yet it cannot be, because now that I am shaking it, I can hear something rattling inside. May I open it? P. Yes. Lucy. Come here, Ion and 49 ARTICLES OF FOOD. ALLSPICE. Willie, and look ! The All- spice has a partition which divides the berry into two cells, and there is a pretty little seed in each, so that the allspice is If a seed. 1'. Xo; it is the dried henry, or seed-vessel. Its qualities and uses are like those of the futility, mace, and cinnamon. our seems to unite the flavour of all other spire*, and why it is called " All- its real name being Pimento. Tliis berry grows principally in the West Indies, ou a species of myrtle. In Jamaica espe- cially, it is cultivated with great care, and is there called -.Ja- maica pepper." The myrtles abound on the hills, thriving in rocky lands, or rich soil which r>i at the bottom. The trees are most beautiful objects, especially when they are in ,. as they are then loaded with bunches of white flowers, which have a most fragrant smell. Some of the old trees are thirty feet in height, but they begin to bear when they are -are old. They are not in perfection, however, until they have reached the age of S'-M-II years. They are gene- rally arranged in regular walks. So nice is the flavour of the berries, wlirii they arc fully ripe, that they are a favourite food of the birds. They pick them and cam- them away, but in doing so they often drop some of the seeds, so that they are i said to be more industrious planters of these trees than the natives. To serve as a spice, 50 however, these berries must be picked bifore they ripen, as their taste, when ripe, is not K Mi.-ng. The birds only like the full-ripe berries, i they hare lost their aromatic and hot flavour. They are gathered by hand, and are dried by the sun almost in the same way as the black pepper. The berries are known to be dry enough when the rattling of the seeds inside can be heard. Ion. Here, papa, is another spice which we have not yet heard of. What a curious shape it has! It is something like a short nail, such as the shoe- makers use. P. Yes ; and it is supposed to have derived its name from that circumstance. The French word for nail is clou, and this spice is called a CI.OVK: which name is generally belu be only a " corruption" of that word. 13. CLOVES. P. Examine this little clove, and tell me how many principal parts you see. /on. I sec tiro, papa; the aight part with the four points which project, and the little round knob which is fas- tened to the end of the straight part; but what to .-((//either the straight pan or the knob, I do not know. P. Then I must tell you. This straight part is a pan which is common to all flowers: it is the cup in which the flower is placed. ''Flower-nn very good name for it but the ARTICLES OF FOOD. CLOVES. name given to it in general is the ciilyx. Ion. And now that you have told me that, papa, I see that the little knob looks something like a little bud of a flower. P. Yes ; and if you will fetch a cup with some warm water, and put the clove in it, you will find that this bud can easily be opened. The clove, like the other spices, grew originally in the Spice Islands; but it was after- wards transported to the New World, and is now flourishing in the West Indies as well as in the East. The tree is a species of laurel. At a certain time of the year the tree brings forth very large and abundant clusters of flowers, and before the flowers have opened, when they are too small to hide the four points of the calyx which you noticed, Ion, they are picked. They are next smoked over a wood fire, and then are finished by expo- sure to the rays of the sun. Each tree yields a large sup- ply of cloves. Trees 12 years of age will yield from 5 to 20 pounds weight every year! It is rather difficult to imagine correctly how many cloves are required to make a pound. As the tree becomes older the pro- duce increases, until they are known to yield as much as 60 pounds!" After that the yearly quantity diminishes. A single tree, however, may live 150 years, and during that time it may supply 1,100 pounds of cloves. Do you notice any peculiar quality in the clove? L. Yes, papa ; I have been biting one, and the taste is very strong and pungent indeed, stronger than that of pepper, or any other spice. The smell, too, is very strong. P. That is because of the " essential oil " it contains. The quantity of this oil is so great, that it may be pressed out by the finger. Sometimes the oil is pressed out before the cloves are sold, but such a pro- ceeding is a very unfair one, as they then have very little smell or taste. L. It is as unfair as the prac- tice of depriving the nutmegs of their oil. But what is the use of the oil of cloves? P. The oil, being the essence of the cloves, may be diluted, and used for the same purpose as the clove itself; but being at the same time much stronger than the clove, it is used for curing the toothache. Ion. I suppose that that is because it is so HOT and stimu- lating. Have you finished the account of the Clove, papa? P. Yes, I have nothing more to add. Ion. Then I will sum it up, all of it, in one sentence. " THE CLOVE is the unopened bud and the calyx of a laurel ; it is distinguished from the other spices by its very strong and pun- gent flavour, and is called Clove from the French word " clou" a nail, because it resembles a nail in shape. P. You have now heard of the principal spices found in the Exhibition. I think it would be as well for you to make another short account of each, and ar- 51 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE SUCKS. range them together so as to form one lesson on the whole class. \\'. We can easily do that, papa, and we will commit the whole account to memory. Lesson 1. ARTICLES OF FOOD (Tropical Climates). THE SPICES. The Spices are a class of vege- table productions, distinguished by a peculiar smell, called " aro- matic," and a strong pungent taste. In Utis class are included 1. A yellowish-white, rough and knotty root called GINGER, 2. A /./-..////. icrinkled, oval- shaped kernel, culled NUTMEG. 3. A thin, scarlet membrane, called MACE. 4. .1 small, wrinkled, spherical seed, tcilh a rery hot, pungent taste, called PEPPER. It is found inside the berry of a climbing jib i nt called the Pepper Vine. 5. T/ie inner bark of the three- yeir-old branches of a laurel; it is of a light brown colour, and is called CINNAMO.V. 6. The dried berry, or seed- vessel, of a myrtle, which, from its hurin;/ it fluruur like that of all oUier spices, is called ALLSPICE. 7. The calyx and unopenedbud of a laurel, which contains a strong essential oil, and has a taste more anmuifir, nad even limn hut iiinl fiiiii'/i nt. tlmnpqmer. r'roin tin rittinliltincr vfits stuijit t tliut of a nail, it is called CLOVE. /'. There nre in the tropics more foreign fruits worth nten- H tioning, such a* the Cocoa-nut, the Date, the Banana, Bread- fruit. c. And there arc other articles useful for food, although they are not sufficiently nutri- tious to support lite. They are used particularly as drinks. /.. Such as TEA, papa. P. Yes, that is one which yon know comes from China, and is irrown rather on the borders of the tropics than in the very hot countries. W. COFFEE is another sub- stance. Ion. And COCOA. Ada. SI-GAR, too, comes from hot countrirs. P. True ; the three last were included in our course in PLEASAST PAGES. I may supply a few additional par- ticulars on each, but the prin- cipal of these subjects will be TEA. Suppose that we take tea next. 14. Tl.A. If you wi*h to find specimens of tea iu the (I real Exhibition, you will find several in the < 'MISUSE DEPARTMENT; I must repeat, however, before begin- ning our loson. that lea i- not strictly a tropical plant. It will grow inside the tropics, but not in the very warm climates. It is cultivated by the Chinese, particularly in the tract of land round alM.ut the thirtieth degree of latitude. Here are some specimens for you to examine. You may be- L'in bv discovering tlie ijuulitus, and the uses. Then, if you li.ive paid attention to your part of the lesson, I will pay attention ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEA. to my part, and see if I can give you an interesting history. W. The first quality I ob- serve in the tea is, that it is thoroughly dry. Ion. It is also brittle " crisp" would be a better word to use ; and it may be ground into a powder ; it is pulcerable. L. It is shrive/led that is a very good word to apply to it. W. I do not see any more qualities. We have examined its appearance, and its sub- stance: we cannot say anything of its shape, but we may add something of its colour, and something about its weight. It is black, and green, and in weight it is light. Ion. We may add that it is a vegetable substance. It is really necessary to say that to describe it properly. P. Why? Ion. Because nobody would really think that it was a vege- table substance at first sight. W. That is because it does not look natural. I suppose we must not call it a natural sub- stance. We will say that it is artificial. Ion. I don't think that that is correct. It is not made by man. W. Well, I have heard that it is. Men dry and shrivel it up, in some way or other, to make it like this. Therefore I think that it is an artifical sub- stance. Ion. But at the same time, yon see, men do not make it, they only alter its shape. L. And they alter its state from a moist green state to a dry state. P. You say that it loses some of its moisture. By thus losing its moisture, it loses one of its qualities. W. Yes. One of its natural qualities, papa. P. Then it is no longer in quite a natural state. It has been changed by the art of man, so it is in an artificial state. Ion. And yet, papa, the tea- leaf is a natural substance, be- cause men could not in any way make such a substance. When a substance is compound (that is, formed of two or three different substances such as bread, which is made of flour, water, yeast, salt, &c.), then I call it an artificial substance. So, this is what I should say of tea " It is a natural sub- stance in an artificial state." Will that do? P. Perhaps that is the best way to express it. It certainly is not an artificial substance ; and it is not in a natural state. Ion. Then I will write down the qualities of the tea. " Tea is a reqetable substance, and is therefore natural; but it has been brought into an artificial state, for it is dry, shrivelled, crisp, light, and pulverable ; sometimes it is black, and some- times (freen." P. You have not made a complete list of the qualities. I think I have said before, there are many hidden qualities in a substance, which you cannot discover by observation. L. You mean, papa, the qualities which we discover in using a substance. We call them its effects. W. I know one effect of tea ; 53 ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEA. it causes people to talk, and be more lively. When people are dull, it serves to slir tlnm n/>, just as coffee does. What is the Latin word for " stir-up " ? I forget. Ion. I remember it. Stimulate, to stir up ; and we call the coffee stimulating. L. And, if you remember, we said that coffee is refreshing ; and because it makes people glad, we call it exhilarating. II And, because it acts as a medicine, and keeps the stu- dents from going to sleep, we call it medicinal. P. Yes. You said that the coffee, in its "effects," is re- fresliinp, stimulating, exhila- rating, and medicinal: and these eiVccts also belong to the tea. If. It is very easy to know that tea has such effects, because we can feel them, and can notice them in other people, but I should like veiy much to know how the tea does so. Do you know, papa? /'. What do you want to know? H". I low the tea exhilarates people, and refreshes them. What it does inside them, to change them so. P. Well, I cannot say that I know, exactly, but I will tell you all I have learned about it. There is, both in the leaves of tea. and the berries of eoJi'ee. n peculiar substance which pro- dnc'-* the-e etl'ecN. Although this substance is found in both articles, we give it dill'erent names. When found in tea, we call it "Tlieine;" and when found in coffee, we call it "Caffeine." 54 I have a little book on che- mistry, written by a German gentleman named Licbig, and I will read you what he says of Tlieine. "When common tea leaves are placed in a watch- glass, loosely covered with paper, and gradually heated on a hot iron plate, until they are brown, long white, sliininti r///s- tals appear on the paper, and on the surface of the leave*. This is thfine." You can now easily understand that, if in- stead of heating the leaves on a watch-glass, they are heated in boiling water, the theine wonld not form dry crystals. L. No, it would be dissolved in the water. P. That is the case. So, the next time yon are going to drink a cup of tea, you may look at it and remember that it is the theine dissolved in the water, which will refresh you. W. Now I know something more, pupa. I'uf vtill yon have not told us Itmr the theine in the tea refreshes us. P. I will tell you ns much as I know of the subject. Yon have often heard how, when your food is bein;.' dige-ted, it i\ di i'l\ed by a fluid called the tin*r, ii-jii'uf. The food i> after- wards acted upon by another fluid from the liver, which we call Mi' ; hut if we have not sutlicient bile within us, what then? L. Then our food will not. In- digested. J Ml],J,, /'. And we .-hall feel unwell. Person* who do not take suili- ci. nt cxd-cUe, do not form Mitlicicnt bile: hut the theine in tea will supply the sub.-tanee ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEA. required for the purpose. This fact explains why men who sit much, and study, and females who do not often go out of doors, are so fond of tea. W. Then, we may say as the tea helps to form bile, the food is digested more quickly. P. Yes ; or the food is assimi- lated, as we say. By assimila- tion, we mean that the food becomes part of our body, by being changed into blood. The bile helps in this process; and thus, when the theine of the tea helps to form bile ? W. The bile helps to form the food into blood. Jon. And the blood begins to circulate more quickly, and we feel more lively we are stimulated and refreshed. Most people feel lively after tea. P. Thus, where food is diffi- cult to digest, tea is often useful. Which kind of food have I told you is harder to digest Animal or Vegetable food ? L. You said that vegetables were more hard to digest, and that grass-eatinganimals requir- ed salt to help their digestive organs. W. Just as you said that we require pepper to help to digest cucumber, and other raw vege- tables. P. Thus we find that tea, also, is much used amongst nations which subsist principally on vegetables. The great chemist named Liebig, whom I men- tioned j ust now, says in one of his books, "Tea and coffee were originally met with among na- tions whose diet is chiefly vege- table." Ion. But suppose, papa, that a nation could not procure any tea! The English people had no tea at one time, I suppose. What did they do then? P. Then, they used some- thing else which answered the same purpose by helping di- gestion; or by stimulating and refreshing their bodies. Let me tell you something which is worth remembering. If people would only live on proper food, and eat it in proper quantities, and take proper exercise, they would seldom require such sti- mulants. But whenever people are poor and are poorly fed, they make up for the " sinking feeling " which such want occa- sions, by tea, coffee, tobacco, opium, and worse still, beer and spirits. It is said that in Ger- many, those who receive the lowest wages, while they are obliged to live on bread and potatoes, always reserve a por- tion of their wages for coffee. Ion. I quite understand why they do that ! P. I should like you to un- derstand it very clearly. I will sayit to you once more: "Where there is good and nutritious food (containing azote, a word which I will explain to you some day), and with such nutri- tious food exercise is taken, the azote in the food forms sufficient bile ; but, where the food is poor, or hard to digest, and sufficient exercise is not taken, then suf- ficient bile is not formed ; and men use the theine in tea, or the caffeine in coffee, or some other stimulant,for the puqiose." L. Then the lesson we may make about tea, is, that if we took great care to have proper 55 ARTICLES OF FOOD. TKA. food and exercise, we might do without it, and other stimulants also. P. Yes; butitis notvery likely that this will ever be the case. Until all men give due attention to their food, there will be some people craving for stimulants, to make up for their careless- ness. In another part of M. Liebig's book, there is a para- graph expressing this opinion. I will read it to you: " It is a question whether, if we had no tea, and no coffee, the popular instinct would not replace them. Every people of the globe has appropriated some such means of acting on the nervous life, from the shores of the PACIFIC, where the Indian retires for days, to en- joy the bliss of intoxication with Kokn, to the ARCTIC RKOIONS, where the Kamschatdales prepare an intoxicating drink from a poi- sonous mushroom." Ion. Or he might add, when the student in the university. who wants to study all night, prepares a decoction containing either theine or caffeine. P. Yes, whether the uni- versity be in England or Ger- many, or elsewhere; or whether it be in the cottage or mansion, such stimulants are still in use. In the same book it is said concerning Germany " In the Customs Union (flic Zollverein), more than 00.000,000 pounds of coffee are consumed every your : while in Europe and America Tea forms part of the daily arrnnpements of the poorest labourer and the richest Inmlou HIT and the consumption of this ar- ticle is more than 80,000,000 pounds per year. 56 L. And a pound of tea will last as long as two or three pounds of coffee. If. What a long lesson we are having on the H.-YN of tea! Now I will sum it all up. " Tea and other stimulants are rcry 11 n< fill thimjs, ln'i-iiiisi> llii-i; liin-i- rrfri-x/iiiii) i/iiaUtii-x ir/iirfi make up for the want of good food." P. Oh, indeed! 1&~ tl>t the lesson yon make? I make out a very different case. Listen! Tea and all other stimulants are (except in occasional CAM! bad things, because they enable people to neglect their diet, and indulge in bad habits, without feeling the natural conse- quences. As long as men will use such stimulants to remove for a time the bad effects of their neglect, so they will not give the attention they ought to give, to their diet and ex- ercise. Jon. To be sure. Willie! Don't you see that? If the tea and other stimulants were taken away, then people would be obliged to take proper care of themselves. P. Shall I show you another way in which tea and stimu- lants are bad? II'. Yes. papn. please. P. Because they n-rnr out the, body. We do not observe this fact so much, because we take them in small <|iiamitirs. and their action is gradual; but as soon as the stimulants are used in a little more than moderate quantity, their effect becomes evident. It is said of the fre- quent use of TEA, that it an- swers the purpose for n time. but the object is attained at "a ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEA. fearful price" the destruction of health, and vigour of body and mind being the penalty. Tea is worse in this respect than coffee, as its effects are more permanent. The property in tea which has such injurious effects is weakened by keeping the leaves for a long time. Fresh tea is so stimulating, that it is seldom used until it has been kept twelve months. The injurious property may also be weakened by heat, for green tea is more exciting than black, because, when being prepared, it is not "roasted" so often. Tea is a very improper drink for young children ; it produces too strong an excitement, and causes a diseased state of the brain and nerves. It has been said by a well-known physician, that " it ought by no means to be the common diet of boarding schools. If it be sometimes allowed to the children as a treat, they should be informed that it might, if used frequently, injure their strength and con- stitution." Before we leave the subject of tea, I must not forget to mention that, although it may produce bad effects, the effects of stimulants which contain al- cohol, instead of theine or caf- feine (such as beer and spirits), are far worse. So dreadful are many of the evils which these stimulants bring, that a great society, called the NATIOKAL TEMPERANCE SOCIETY, has been formed both in England and in Scotland, to induce the British nation to abstain totally from their use. L. Have many people abs- tained from using them? P. Yes, great numbers; es- pecially drunkards, who had suffered from their bad effects; and when these societies do more to teach poor people how to spend their money in buying the best food, and how to regu- late their diet and exercise, then these people will be able to give up stimulants more easily, they will not want them. It has been found in the reports of large towns, that when wages have been high, or food has been plentiful, there has not been much drunken- ness; but that when there has been scarcity and poverty, drunkenness has increased: for when the poor cannot obtain the natural refreshment for the body from wholesome food, they get artificial refreshment from stimulants. There ! we must not go any further into the question of stimulants in general. We have made too long a subject of it already. I should, however, like you, when we print this lesson, to read it over several times. Then, perhaps, you will see that it will be one of your duties so to attend to the diet and exercise of your body, as to enjoy life without the help of stimulants. L. Now, papa, will you pi ease to give us the history of tea? P. Yes. But before we leave the qualities and uses of tea, I may as well add that in the composition of the tea-leaf are found two metals, viz., iron and manganese, of course in very small quantities. Again, you 57 ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEA. said that tea was astringent. This is hecausc it contains the substance which I said was found in the bark of trees. W. Do you mean tannin, papa? P. Yes. I once heard a lec- ture from a chemist, in which he amused the company with a I curious fact. You know that the tannin of the oak-hark is used in making leather. The lecturer showed us that when i the tea with milk in it reaches j our stomachs, the curds of the | animal substance, milk, are of- j ten hardened by the tannin in ; the tea, so as to form a thin : tough substance, like leather. \V. Then I wont take any more tea! I don't like the pro- cess of leather-making to be going on in my stomach ! P. The tannin in tea has, however, been rendered useful. There have been cases in which it has been used as an antidote to poison. Even arsenic has been decomposed by the astrin- geut tannin. The natural history of tea is the next point to engage our attention. The Natural History of Tea. Tea is brought from < 'HIV v. where it is grown principally on the hills, and in dry soils. It nourishes best with plenty of light, air, and a good sunny aspect. The plant is a species of camellia, and it is cultivated by means of seeds. The plan of culture is very simple. When a new plantation in required. the ground is care fully pre- pared, and a number of holes. about four or live inches deep, 58 are made. The holes are about five feet distant from each other to allow space for the young plants to grow. The seeds sown are always such as are quite fresh, as from their oiliness they do not preserve well. Five or six seeds are sometimes dropped into each hole, as their growth is very uncertain. Fre- quently all of the seeds will grow; and as the plants rise and grow together, they form a large bush. After they are sown, very little trouble is ne- cessary, except that of clearing away the weeds. The trees are left to grow for three years, when the plantation yields its first crop. If you were to ask a China- man which are the best kind of leaves, lie would tell you that tho>e which are from tiie young wood, and are grown in ex- posed situations, are the best. He might further inform you that the leaves are gathered three times in the year; those which are gathered in April being of a briyht and delicate colour, and aromatic flavour, and without bitterness; the leaves which are gathered at Midsummer being of a duller colour, and lete; "while," he would add. "the leaves of the third gathering are of a tlnrk green colour, and very coarse and inferior." "As the trees become older," he would tell you, " the leaves are less \ iiii.il.'..'. and u lien they are M-VCH yars or t.-n years old they are cut down. Numerous young shoots then spring up, and give a good sup- ply oi '\.iung wood and 1 ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEA. Thus you see how many differ- ent qualities of tea there may be. The quality of the leaves depends on the time of gather- ing, the age of the plant, the soil, and the situation in which the trees grow. W. And I should think, therefore, that it is very easy to procure bad tea, when the good quality depends on so many points. P. When the leaves are ga- thered, they are put in wide shallow baskets, and are ex- posed to the air or sun for some hours. The first dampness of the leaves is thus removed, and they are now ready for the dry- ing-pan. The drying-pan is made of cast iron, and is of a flat shape. When the China- man is going to dry his leaves, he prepares a fire of charcoal, and places the pan over it; he then puts in not more than half or three quarters of a pound of leaves, and stirs them about quickly with a kind of brush. When they are ready, they are swept out of the pan into bas- kets; and, as soon as a basket is full it is handed over to another workman, to undergo the operation of rolling. This he performs by carefully rub- bing them between his hands. The fourth operation is that of drying the rolled leaves they are again placed in the pan, but in much larger quantities ; and are heat ;d just sufficiently to dry them without scorching. The fifth operation is that of pickin (/ and cleaning; when all the leaves that are imperfect, or not dried properly, are removed. The last operation is that of packing it in chests, which are lined with tin-foil, and sent to England, and other countries. I might as well add that the Chinese preserve their own tea in porcelain jars, with narrow mouths, which they say give additional aromatic flavour to the tea. W. You have told us, papa, of six operations; but I think you have left out the history of the tea picking, which is the first thing. P. Yes. And that is a very important business, especially when the finer sorts are being picked. The collectors of fine tea are generally men expe- rienced in their business, and trained to it from a very early age. They are compelled to clean themselves three weeks before they begin their work; and they are forbidden to eat fish, or any other kind of food which is reckoned unclean, lest by their breath they should contaminate the leaves. They are also made to bathe two or three times a-day; and when they gather the leaves they must not use their naked fin- gers, but must wear gloves. W. There, papa! You have mentioned seven operations. The picking drying in baskets drying in a cast-iron pan rolling drying of the rolled leaves picking and cleaning of the rolled leaves and the pack- ing of the leaves in tin-foil. So that we have learned the "qualities," "uses," and "de- scription," of tea. Now will you please tell us of the dif- ferent sorts? P. Yes. 59 ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEA. The Different Sorts of Tea. There are too many sorts of tea! but they may be arranged in two divisions the good sort, and the bad sort. Let us first name them accord- ing to their place. Beside the CHINESE TEA, there is a tea which, about twenty-five years ago, was discovered growing wild in a district of India called ASSAM. Assam is in the north-east corner of India, near Bengal and Burmah. The ASSAM TEA, when it first attracted public attention, be- came very celebrated, as it was grown in a colony belonging to England. On account of its nov.-lty, it sold at very extra- vagant prices. The tea-plant may also be grown in England, being very common in our conservatories. It may be seen growing in Kew Gardens, or in Messrs. Lod- diges' gardens at Hackney. The list of names of the Chi- nese teas is almost endless. It is said that in the catalogues of the Chinese merchants there are at least one hundred and fifty names. Many of these names, however, are only in- vented to impose upon foreign- ers, and obtain a high price. The principal kinds of tea, however, are the BLACK TEA ami the (ici.KN TEA. The plants from which the green tea is picked are more hardy than the others, and "ill flourish \\lien the snow is on the -round. The two teas are cultivated in ditlercnt parts of the empire. The principal dif- ference between the green an. I the lilack tea is, that the green CO tea leaves are gathered without the stalks, and are not prepared like the black. It was sup- posed, at one time, that the green colour of the leaves was owing to their being dried on copper pans, but this I believe is not correct. It is true, how- ever, that the Chinese can so change damaged black tea by the addition of colours, &c., that it cannot be distinguished from the green. The principal black teas are named Bohea, Congou, Souchong, and Pekoe; and the principal green teas are Singlo, Hyson, and Gun- powder. There is a species of tea called 7Y/e-tea, because it con- sists of leaves and leaf stalks, compressed in the shape of a flat cake or tile. The had kinds of teas arc the coarse large-leaved teas, which are obtained in the third pick- ing M-asi>n--the.e are liy no means good for common use, and are often used in dyeimj. The poorer classes of Chinese also use them. But the \\orst kind of all an' the adulterated teas. It is well known that the Chinese use many strange sub- stances to mix with their tea. It is adulterated still more in England, where the leaves of the elm, ash, hawthorn, sloe, and apple, are mixed with the tea. Old tea-leaves are also dried.a n d chopped up with stalks of raisins. In (iennauy, green tea is adulterated \\itli the very young leaves of the strawberry plant. It is singular that we cannot, in England, enjoy the very fine teas, in which the Chinese take so much pride, ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEA. for they are always spoilt by the sea voyage ; the change of climate, and the dampness from the water, deprive them of their fine flavour. Ion. Now, papa, that we have heard of the different sorts, will you give us the history of tea? P. If we do not find the sub- ject too long. I will try and make it as short as possible. The History of Tea. TEA has a separate history in the different countries in which it is used. The Chinese History of Tea begins (like many more Eastern histories) with a fable. It is said that in A. D. 516 a good Indian prince, of religious habits, came to China as a mis- sionary, intending to set a good example to the natives, and to teach them their religious du- ties. However, he was once so overcome with his long fasting and want of rest, that he fell asleep ; he was then so angry with himself, that he cut off both his eyebrows and threw them on the ground. Both of these eye- brows grew, and became tea- shrubs the first ever known! The Indian prince soon dis- covered the virtues of the shrub, and recomended it to his dis- ciples. They all declared that it gave their minds fresh vigour, and its use became general. The English History of Tea may begin with an act of parlia- ment. In an act of parliament, of the year 1060 or 1661, it is ordered that 8d. per gallon duty be charged on all tea, coffee, or chocolate for sale. Thus you see that all three of our well- known drinks were then in use. Tea had perhaps been intro- duced to England some time it is most likely that it was pro- cured from the Dutch East India Company, who first sold t in Europe. It is likely that its use was known about the same time as that of coffee, which, you may remember, Avas first sold in England in the year 1652. Ion. Yes, I remember, papa, your telling us of the Greek servant who opened a coffee- house near Corn hill. The continuation of the his- tory of tea is connected with that of the EAST INDIA COM- PANY. It appears that its use was not very general for some time; for in the year 1664, thy purchased, as a present to the king, two pounds and two ounces of tea. Five years later, in the year 1669, the directors ordered their servants in India to " send home by their ships one hundred pounds of the lest tey they could get;" to be sent on speculation. In 1671, we read of their im- porting a package of 1 50 pounds in 1678 they imported 4,713 pounds. It then became well worth the consideration of the company as an article of trade, for it still yielded the large price of 60s. per pound. The EAST INDIA COMPANY, there- fore, obtained a "charter," by which they were allowed to keep the whole tea trade of England in their own hands. Such a charter, which prohibits others from competition, is call- ed a monopoly; its purpose is very unlike that of the Great Exhibition, and the Free Trade 61 ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEA. of the present day. On the abolition of the Company's charter, in the year 1834, the tea trade immediatelyimproved. The yearly sale was then above 31,000,000 pounds, but it has since increased to more than 40,000,000 pounds per annum, and yields an enormous sum of money to government as duty. The history of tea in Scot- land may begin with an anec- dote. A pound of fine green tea was sent to a certain lady as a rare and valuable present. The lady took care to have it cooked ! It was served up with melted butter and salted meat, but the cook found that the tea was not exactly "suitable." She complained to her mistress that "she had tried all manner of ways to cook them, and she didn't believe that all the cooking in the world would ever make those foreign greens tender!" L. And now, papa, end the history of tea with an anecdote! will you? for I am getting tired of it. P. Very well. Even in the present century people will .-tick to the idea of cooking tea. I told yon of the quantity of coffee used in Germany, but the Germans, especially the'' Khinc- l.imlcr-." who live around the river Rhine, drink plenty of wine, and therefore know little about tea. A gentleman whom I know, and who is an arti>t. wa- travelling in Germany about forty years ago, and had quite tired himself \>\ sketching all day; so when he returned to his inn, he called for some tfa to stimulate hia weary frame. 62 Poor man ! his mouth was hot and dry; how long and anx- iously he waited for that tea ! At length it came ! Yes! In came the maid, tri- umphantly bearing the smoking tea in a tureen. "Very odd," he thought, " to bring me my tea in a tureen; but, never mind! here is a ladle; they wish me to drink it like soup." No sooner had the German damsel turned her back than the thirsty man lifted up the lid joyfully, and Ah! VVha-a-a-a-t? The German cook was no better than the cook of the Scotch lady ! The tureen was full of ten-leaves, which formed a hard compact mass, for they had been care- fully squeezed, so that all the water had been drtiiurd <;//".' He was much surprised, but not half so much as the people of the inn, when he rang the bell violently, and insisted on them bringing him, instantly, the irutrr those greens were boiled in! Fortunately, it had not been thrown away; and, to the still greater surprise of the whole household, he exchanged his tureen for the. steaming sauce- pan : placed it before him on the floor; and, while they were gone for cup and saucer and milk and sugar, he ladled some of ''the water those greens were boiled in" into his drinking- horn. So you see that the quality of tea may not merely dt-p'-nd on .1, or the climate and country in which it iscultivated : it may depend on the people who prepare it. There! we have talked long enough about tea. ARTICLES OF FOOD. COFFEE. W. We will not make a les- son on Tea, papa; but will wait, please, until we have heard about coffee, and cocoa, and sugar. P. As you please. 15. COFFEE.* You will find plenty of Coffee-samples in the Great Exhibition. In the department where the arrow-root and other tropical productions may be found, you may see many specimens of West Indian coffee. As yon have already learned of this and the two following subjects, they will not long oc- cupy our attention. In our lesson on coffee, what did you say of its qualities? Ion. That, when it has been roasted, it has a rich brown colour, is crisp, aromatic, bitter, and pleasant to the taste. W. And, when you spoke of its uses, you said that they were almost like those of tea. P. Yes ; and that it has in- jurious effects like those of tea. And I added in our lesson on tea, that its bad effects may be removed on ceasing to use cof- fee, but that the injuries pro- duced by tea remain until the end of life. Since you had that lesson, I have discovered another use for coffee. A de- coction of decayed coffee toge- ther with pure soda, will form a beautiful green colour. This green colour will not change, and cannot be acted upon by * PLEASAKT PAGES, rol. i. pp. 153, 170. acids, or by light, or by mois- ture. What did I say in our Natural History of coffee? L. You said, papa, that it is the berry of a shrub growing in the West Indies and Arabia. You spoke of the different modes of cultivation in each country. The principal coffee- growing countries are Brazil, Cuba, St. Domingo, Jamaica, Berbice, Porto Rico, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Mocha. P. In speaking of the dif- ferent sorts, I might as well tell you that I noticed in one of the galleries of the Exhibi- tion specimens of coffee in which great care had been taken to supply the public with the pure seed. If you take a coffee-seed (or coffee-bean, as it is generally called), and break it open at the groove running through the centre, you will find that it contains a very thin woody fibre. In the specimen in the Exhibition, a coffee- dealer, who is named Snowden, has, by means of a patent process, entirely removed this fibre before the coffee is ground. There is another specimen of dessicated coffee, which unfor- tunately I had no time to ex- amine. I did not, in speaking of the different sorts of coffee, men- tion the bad, or adulterated, coffee. Coffee may be easily adulterated. For this purpose, burnt bread, burnt rye and wheat, and especially chicory is much used. The latter sub- stance is the dried root of a plant which was formerly cul- tivated in Belgium and Ger- 63 ARTICLK8 OF FOOD. COCOA. many. It is now largely culti- There is also a picture of the vated in Englandi If about tree called by the Spaniards one-fifth part of chicory be the Madre del cai-nn. which mixed with our coffee, it im- means the mother of the cocoa. proves the flavour; but we find This tree, the real nme of that, as it is so much cheaper which is the coral fmvhas, at than the coffee, the grocers use one time of the year, a splendid too large a quantity, and thus appearance-, being covered with the coffee is often spoiled. bright red blossoms. Coffee requires as much or Ion. What a handsome mo- even more care in the prepara- ther it must make! the cocoa- tion than tea. It should not tree must be quite pleased with be boiled, as the boiling destroys its mother. But why is it the aromatic flavour; and, to called the cocoa's mother? obtain the fine aromatic flavour P. Because the young cocoa- to perfection, seeds a year old trees are planted near to it, so should lie taken, and should' be as to have the benefit of its ground up and used on the shadow. It is said that the same day on which they arc -hade, of this tree is necessary roasted. The French are said to the growth of the cocoa. to excel in coffee-making, but Cocoa is a nutritious and re- there is a difference of opinion freshing drink, because it con- on that point. Our next sub- tains a bitter tasting substance, ject after coffee is exactly similar to the theine in tea, and the caffeine in coffee. 16. COCOA.* The name given to this sub- stance is rather longer than the In the south gallery of the two former: it is called thcnhro- Exhibition, in which the mine. The name TIIKODKOMA, patent coffee I spoke of is which is given to the species of found, arc beautiful specimens cocoa-yielding plants, is de- of the cocoa-nib. Messrs. /'/_// ri\cd from two (ireek words, and Sons, the famous cocoa meaning tin- fund of (lotls. manufacturers of Bristol, have Like tea and cotl'ce. cocoa is forwarded to the Exhibition a often shamefully adulterated. very beautiful collection of In making cocoa-paste-, or samples, showing the cocoa in chocolate, hog's laid and sago many different states. are added to increase the The re you may see preserved weight. Even red lead, it is in spirits, the cocoa pods, with said, has been mixed up, to tin- beautifully regular rows of give colour; and, in the, manu- ' -. arranged just as they facture of the powdered COCOO, were described t<> \.m in our red ochre, and .all kinds of lesson oil cocoa. You may al.-o earlh are dishonestly employed. see specimens of cocoa-lca\<^. In a periodical called The and drawings of the cocoa ', there was a few \M 1 ifi\ II 11 <> OK I I 11 f f' t li f IM/'L PLEASANT PAOBS, vol. i. p. 18G. H)(U Jill *ll(iJUIll ' M lilt I 1 11 K n jtl.ivcil ou the puMic by sonic 64 ARTICLES OF FOOD. SUGAR. dishonest cocoa manufacturers, tioned are very much like cane but I have not yet had time to sugar in their composition. read it. (ir/ipe sugar is less like the cane W. When cocoa is pure, I sugar; it is found in a liquid think I* should like it better staie, and will not become than either of the other stimu- granulous. Manna sugar is lants the coffee and tea. So found in the sweet gum, called this is what I think, from the manna, that oozes from the account you have given us, manna -tree. Liquorice sugar papa: Tea is rather good, is that which is obtained from coffee is better, and cocoa is the liquorice-root; and Mush- the best. room sugar is another kind, Now, may we have a lesson which may be obtained from on SUGAR? mushrooms. There is an ani- P. If you please. I will en- mal sugar, called Sugar of deavour to give you a few more Milk, which is procured by eva- particulars than those you have porating the whey of milk. had before. Besides these, there are artifi- cial sugars formed from starch, 17. SUGAR.* and from malt. W. I have noticed, papa, It will not be necessary to that malt contains sugar, be- describe to you the sugar- cause it has a sweet taste; but I cane, or its mode of cultivation. cannot understand how starch You heard of both subjects can have sugar in it. in your former lesson. The P. Nor can I tell you exactly sweet quality of sugar is more how the change is made except nutritious than theine, caffeine, by saying that it is effected by or theobromine; for it is this a powerful principle called sugar in plants which renders diastase, which, however, you them nutritious; it also seems to cannot well understand. But be a conservative principle in you can understand the effect, vegetables. I think I said before if you cannot understand that it is found in all vegetable the cause. Have you not no- substances. The bees find it ticed how verv sweet most i in the nectaries of flowers; it is fruits are whten "they are ripe? even found in potatoes; in the This is not the case when the cabbage-stalk; in short, as you fruit is half-grown; it is then have already heard, it forms sour. The sugar, therefore, part of every living vegetable, which the fruit acquires in and may even be made from getting ripe, must come from sawdust. The sugars which somewhere; and it is obtained we thus derive are not all alike: by the transformation of the the principal are, the Cane starch of the plant. Sagar, Maple Sugar, and Beet- It is on this account because root Sugar. The four last men- the starch of a plant quickly * PLEASANT PAGES, vol. i. p. 57. Palm is, as I told you, cut down 65 , AHTICJUES OF FOOD. SUGAR. when it is going to flower, and when the leaves are < with awhile powder. This white powder on the leave?, and the pith inside the great trunk, are both starch, which is to be 1 into sugar, to nourish the flowers and fruit as they ripen. Thus, to save the pith for themselves and prevent it from changing into sugar for the fruits, the natives of the Spice Islands cut down the tree as soon as the white pow- der appears. This change is constantly going on in plants, but not always in the same way. Some- times the change is reversed. and the sugar is changed into starch. The stalks of grasses, wheat, and other corn-plants have a rather sweet taste. I dare say y< HI hare noticed this. This is because they contain sugar which, when their sei-d is ripe, becomes starch. When, how- ever, their >><f food. It is mure general!. in the cane, which is either chewed or sucked. It is said that it is inconceivable what an enormous amount of the cane is consumed in this way. Vast ship-load* arrive daily at Manilla: and in Rio Janeiro. and the Sandwich Islam! - child is seen going abont with ji piece of stiL'ar-cane in his band. Your uncle, who has been to CHINA, tells me that he has bought many a piece of sugar- cane for a Chinese boy it is sold in little pieces on stalls in the streets, just as tli of cocoa-nut are >old on the apple-stalls in the streets of England. itc (or rather the s-i. [a eminently nutritious, and lias been called ./ in iintHrf. This is truly -i--n in the ap- pearance of the negroes, dur- ing the time of the sugar har- vest. Then, although they undergo the mo^t severe labour, they lia\e a plump and sleek appearance. In the midst of their hard work they seam-h- eat anything during the whole day. I'orthe very air they breathe ro nourish them. Old and sickly negroes often recover ARTICLES OP FOOD. SUGAR. their health by going to work iu the cane-harvest. L. How different that is from the account of the rzee-harvest ! P. Yes ; the truth is, that the plant itself not only contains sugar, but ivater, gum, acids, green fecula, gluten, and other nutritious things. W. What a number of dif- ferent substances in one vege- table! I will count them 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 1 Jive .' P. The most nutritious are the green fecula and the gluten, which contain azote \V. There is that word "azote" again! What does it mean ? P. Well, I will stop to ex- plain to you. Azote is the quality in food which is neces- sary for it to sustain life; and the food containing azote forms new blood and new flesh in your body. j Ion. Then I suppose that all food contains azote. P. Not all. There are some articles of food in which it is not found; therefore they do not form new flesh. The sugar of the sugar-cane does not nor does starch oil does not. Ion. Then, papa, what is the use of eating them? P. Yon may easily see. If you notice the meat from an ox or a sheep, you will per- ceive that there are two parts the lean and the fat. W. Yes, sometimes there are roiind masses of fat ; and some- times the fat is in streaks. P. And you will also find it in much smaller quantities intermixed with the particles of the lean. L. I have noticed that, papa. The lean consists of fibres, and the fat is deposited in very small pieces between the fibres. P. And this fibrous "lean" we call flesh: so you may make a rule that the flesh (or tissue) of your body is formed by the food which contains azote, and that the fat of your body is formed by the part of your food which does not contain azote. Now you may answer your question yourself. Ion. I think I can answer it. The food in which there is no azote, such as sugar and starch, oil and fat, are useful to make the fat in my body. P. And they have some other use. Although they do not con- tain azote, they contain another gas. called carbon ; and this gas is required to supply the heat in your body. L. Ah, I have often heard of heating food ! P. Yes. I cannot stop now to tell you how the heat is formed, because the subject does not belong to our lesson, but you shall hear that some other day. I will only tell you at present, that unless you had plenty of food containing sugar, oil, and the other substances which supply carbon, your body would not feel warm. L. But, how is it, papa, that the sugar will sustain the little children in other countries, and will not make flesh in us, or keep us alive? P. Because they feed on sugar-cane, which contains all the substances 1 mentioned ; but in extracting the sugar from the 67 ARTICLES OF FOOD. SUGAR. cane, the green fecula and the gluten are removed. Ion. Ah ! and you said, papa, that they are the qualities which contain the azote. And it is the azote that sustains lite. W. Are you sure, papa, that we could not live on sugar? P. Yes, the experiment has been tried on dogs who were fed on brown sugar and water for some weeks. The conse- quence was that they died. Before we leave the subject of sugar I must correct one mistake you have made, in say- ing that it does not contain any azote. The coarse, very brown sugar which is sold for three- pence per pound, is more nu- tritious than the white or clayed sugars which have been very much refined. The more the sugar is refined the less azote it contains; thus the sugar used by the poorer classes isu better article than that used by the rich. II '. You have not told us anything of the conservative quality in vegetables. / '. There will not be time to talk on that subject now; but 1 will just mention an interest in;. fact which you may perhap;> li.ivi- noticed. You have, seen fruits pre- served in sugar, and have seen currants and raspberries pre- served in the form of jam. Ho ilo those fruits taste before the} an- ripe? I'm. They are rather sweet, but they have a sour taste also /'. And thus the cook i oMigcd to add more sugar ti preserve them. Hut there an some fruits which in thcmseh es 68 ontain so much sugar, that it s not necessary to add more. iVben hung up and expo-vl to he heat of a bright sun, they Iry and are preserved by the iiigar within them. L. I know those fruits, papa; ou mean the tigs, raisin-, and he little dried grocers' currants. P. You may now make np vour sixth lesson on the tour micles of food we have lately talked about. Lesson 6. ARTICLES OF FOOD (Tropical Climates). TEA, COFFEE, COCOA, AND SUGAR. TEA. (Qualities.) Tea is a li'/lit. dry, s/i ririllul. cris/i, }nd- n ruftli; black or yrnn rt>/, lie- iisi- it I'liiit'inis fn no family of trees which have caused so much wonder and admiration as the Palms. They are one of the most ancient families, as you know, because you heard of them in the Geo- {agjr lessons of PLEASANT PAGES. li~. Oh, yes! I remember that the palm trees grow before, man was made, when the air was so full of carbonic acid: and I remember how great forests of them were sunk to be made into coal. lint the most interesting of their character arc their gigantic xizc, their hand- s'.iii.- appearance, and piv>cnt uefelneM. Let us think of the size of a Palm tree. /.. You told us, papa, that the sago palm was tliirty feet high. 70 P. True; but, sometimes, when our friend the Cocoa-nut palm begins to grow, he docs not stop until he has reached the height of seventy or even ninety feet! Then, having reached a commanding posi- tion, from which he can over- look all nature around him, he is satisfied. Ion. I have no idea as to how high ninety !- P. Ninety feet is twice as high as a house, if you can un- derstand how high that must be. What an immense creature it must be, for a man to look up to! Do you know how long :; .-pace five, feet is? L. I do, papa. Our uncle is only live feet high. /-*. Then you can imagine how large must be the Icnris of the Cocoa-nut tree some are as long us TIIIJKK t NCI.KS placed r on the ground in a straight line that is to say, fif- teen feet long. Only a few are quite 80 large, but the length of many is twelve or fourteen feet. H. What enormous leaves they must have! I should not like to carry home a caterpillar on a cocoa-nut leaf. I wonder how large the caterpillars are! P. Never mind that subject; think of the .-tupciidous nve ! These magnificent leaves grow at the top of the trunk, and branch out from the centre; and in the distance the trunk looks like some vegetable; (Joliath. or Indian chief, with an enormous tut'l of vegetable plumes, worn to shade his noble brow from the. glare of the burning sun. Kach slowly-waving leaf looks like an overgrown o.-trich ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE COCOA-NUT. feather. It is said of this tree, that " asserting its supremacy by an erect and lofty bearing, it may be said to compare with other trees, as man with inferior creatures." W. Yes, it is all very well for a tree to be so fine and or- namental, but is it more useful than the others? Those who have a " lofty bearing " are not always the most useful at least we found it so in the animal kingdom. P. After all I have said, its numerous uses are more striking still. To give you a just idea of its worth, I will read you an account written by a gentleman who observed it very minutely.* " The blessings it confers are incalculable. Year after year the islander reposes beneath its shade, both eating and drinking of its fruit; he thatches his hut with its boughs, and weaves them into baskets to cany his food ; he cools himself with a fan platted from the young leaflets, and shields his head from the sun by a bonnet of the leaves; sometimes he clothes himself with the cloth-like sub- stance which wraps round the base of the stalks. The larger nuts, thinned and polished, fur- nish him with a beautiful gob- let ; the smaller ones with bowls for his pipes ; the dry husks kindle his fires ; their fibi'es are twisted into fishing-lines and cords for his canoes; he heals his wounds with a balsam com- pounded from the juice of the nut ; and with the oil extracted * Melville's Adventures in the South Seas. from its meat embalms the bodies of the dead. " The noble trunk itself is far from being valueless. Sawn into posts, it upholds the islander's dwelling; converted into char- coal, it cooks his food; and supported on blocks of stone, rails in his lands. He impels his canoe through the water with a paddle of the wood, and goes to battle with clubs and spears of the same hard mate- rial. " The fruitfulness of the tree is remarkable. As long as it lives, it bears ; and without in- termission. Two hundred nuts, besides innumerable white blos- soms of others, may be seen upon it at one time ; though a whole year is required to bring any one of them to the germi- nating point. " The tree delights in a sea- side situation. In its greatest perfection, it is perhaps found right on the sea-shore, where its roots are actually washed. But such instances are only met with upon islands where the swell of the sea is prevented from break- ing on the beach by a reef. No saline flavour is perceptible in the nuts produced in such a place. It does not flourish inland ; and I have frequently observed that when met with far up the valleys, its tall stem, inclines seawards, as if pining after a more genial region. " The finest orchards of co- coa-palms I know, and the only plantation of them I ever saw at the islands, is one that stands right upon the southern shore of Papeetoe Bay. " At noonday this grove is 71 ARTICLES OP FOOD. THE DATE. one of the most beautiful, se- rene, bewitching places that ever was seen. High overhead are ranges of green rustling arches, through which the sun's rays come down to you in sparkles. You seem to be wandering through illimitable halls of pillars; everywhere you catch glimpses of stately aisles inter- secting each other at all points. A strange silence, too, reigns far and near; the air flashed with the mellow stillness of a sunset. "But after the long morn- ing calms, the sea-breeze comes in, and creeping over the tops of these thousand trees, they nod their plumes. Soon the breeze freshens: and you hear the branches brushing against each other, and the flexible trunks begin to sway. Towards evening, the whole grove is rocking to and fro, and the traveller on the Broom Koad is startled by the frequent fallings of the nuts, snapped from their brittle stems. They come flying through the air, ringing like juggler's ball>: ami often bound along the ground Cor many rods." P. I need scarcely add any- thing to such a nice account as that. I will only say, therefore, that the fruit is called "Cocoa- nut " from the Portuguese word ' ina'oro," a monkey, which name was givm to it beeaiiM- the three Mark spots at the rml of the shell have an expression something like that inlcn--tiii;_ r animal's countenance. I may also add, that these nuts grow in Im/trlien of from five to fifteen, and that they arc brought over to England at 72 very little expense, being n.-e- ful " as wedges between the tubs, and other round packages in the cargo of vessels." L. Then they are like the cargo rice., P. You may remember, lastly, if you like, that the trunk re- sembles that of the Sago palm, in yielding (from the pith) a quantity of good starchy matter for food; while from the juice of the stem a kind of palm-inne is procured; it also yields a coarse, dark-coloured sugar, and an intoxicating spirit. Which fruit shall we talk of next? /on. Please tell us about the Dates, papa. P. Very well. 19. THE DATE. We must not give much time to this fruit, although it is a truly valuable one, because the Date palm is not strictly a tropical tree, as the others are. This tree and the Dwarf-pfdm are the most northern of the Palm family. Dates are found in Egypt and the North of Africa, and in more northern climates. By far the finest dates are, however, found in Persia. In Palestine, also, the dnte is well known ; and it is often mentioned in the Scriptures. In the hot sandy deserts, also, they liordcr the rivers, and their fruit is most refreshing to the tire!' a roasted potato; <>th that when baked it is like the soft, lewder, and white crumb of new bread; others, that it 74 is very much like a piece of dried biscuit; while some say that if mixed with lime or orange juice it tastes like apple-sauce. M". The best way to judge would be to taste it ourseh es. I 3 . On the whole, the plant must be very useful, for in some places it is in season liijht. months in the year; and it was at one time said to be the most useful vegetable in the world. This, however, is by no means the case; it is not so valuable as the plantain. When the public had so high an opinion of its good qualities, a ship called the Bounty was fitted up to transplant a number from Otaheite to the West Indies. It was returning with a cargo of 1,015 plants cart-fully secured in boxes, tubs, and pots, when a mutiny broke out amongst the crew, who seized the ship for themselves, and turned the captain, and other officers, adrift on the ocean. You have, I dare say. read of the Mutiny of the iJiiuiilij, ami of Captain BlighJ I.. I have heard, papa, of a tree called the Cow Trt> yon tell us anything about it ? P. Yes. We will include it in our list. 22. THE COW TREK. I think I cannot do better than give : you the account of this tree, which has been written bv Ilmnboldt. He sa\s in one of hi- books of travels: "Among the many curious phenomena, which pr> C8 to in,- in the course ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE COW TREE, THE BANIAN TREE. of my travels, I confess there were few by which my imagi- nation was so powerfully af- fected as by the cow tree. On the parched side of a rock on the mountains of Venezuela grows a tree with dry and lea- thery foliage, its large woody roots scarcely penetrating into the ground. For several months in the year its leaves are not moistened by a, shower; its branches look as if they were dead and withered; but when the trunk is bored, a bland and nourishing milk flows from it. It is at sunrise that the veget ( ible fountain flows most freely. At that time, the blacks and natives are seen coming from all parts, provided with large bowls to receive the milk, which grows yellow and thickens at its surface. Some empty their vessels on the spot, while others carry them to their children. One imagines he sees the family of a shepherd who is distributing the milk of his flock. " It is named the polo de vaco, or cow tree, and has oblong pointed leaves, with a somewhat fleshy fruit, containing one nut or sometimes two. The thick glutinous milky fluid which issues from the trunk has an agreeable smell. When exposed to the air, this juice presents on its surface a yellowish cheesy substance, in layers, which are elastic, and in five or six days become sour, and afterwards putrefy." There is one more tree worth mentioning. Its name you have perhaps heard before; it is called 23. THE BANIAN TREE. This is one of the many kinds of Jiff trees. After the trunk has grown to a great height, it sends out its branches in a horizontal direction to the length of about twelve feet. These branches then shoot downwards to the earth, and there take root; and when they have become strong enough, they grow on ward again horizontally, and shoot down- wards as before, until the tree is like a great tent supported by so many columns. Some of these trees grow to an immense size, and are more like groves than single plants. In an ac- count of a large Banian tree, it is said that the space it covered measured 1,700 square yards. How beautiful must the cool shelter of such an extensive tree be to the Indian, and his herds and flocks! In the East Indies it is held sacred. W. I think, papa, that such a tree would have made a splendid appearance in the Exhibition. P. The fruit of the Banian tree is not much larger than a hazel, but it is very pleasant. This is the last tree we will mention in our long account of the articles of THE VEGE- TABLE FOOD IN TROPICAL COUN- TRIES. There are yet a vast number of fruits which might aft'ord interesting lessons, such as the Pine Apple, and the Pomegranate, Mangoe, Citron, Orange, and Tamarind trees. There are also many more fruits produced from the va- rious members of the palm family. 75 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE LENTIL. Although we shall not notice any more of the tropical trees, there is one plant to which we will turn our attention before making the next lesson. In- deed, it will be necessary to make our list complete, because it belongs to an important class. 24. THE LENTIL. A specimen of the Lentil may be seen in the South Gallery of the Exhibition. It is numbered 103, and has been sent by M. GUILLEREZ, of Edinburgh, who cultivated it in the neighbour- hood of that city. W. But, is not the lentil a tropical plant? P. It is one of those plants which may be cultivated in the temperate as well as the tropical climates. At the pre- sent day, it is an important article of food in Hindostan (or East Indies), which is a tropical country ; it has always been much eaten by the working classes in Egypt and Palestine. You may suppose from its being used in Palestine that it would be mentioned in Scrip- ture.* We read in the Bible of the time when it was first introduced and brought into use in Palestine. L. I don't think I have ever read it. P. Yes, you have. You have read of the careful man who liked to stop at home in his father's tents, and who uced to take an interest in the cooking, and other domestic afi'airs. Gen. TXT. ; 2 Bam. ii. 34 ; XT. 28, xxiii. 11; Ezekiel iv. 9. 76 You read that he was making from some lentils a mess of red pottage, and that he sold this mess (perhaps the first he had ever made) for a very great price. He sold it to a hungry brother of his for his birthright. W. Oh, you mean Jacob, papa! P. That is the man ; and you may remember from the pottage being red, that there arc two kinds of lentils. The red lentil obtains its colour from the red soil in which it is grown; it is supposed that it was new in Palestine in Esau's time, be- cause, when Esau saw it, he could only ask his brother to give him some of "that red" Ion. Ah, he did not know what to call it! W. But, papa, Egypt and Palestine are not tropical coun- tries I can see that on the map. P. True. And. on the whole, the lentil is not much used in the tropics; but we will mention it now, been use it represents an important class of foods. This class is said to inhabit "the coldest and lioilc-t. the drycst and dampest parts of the world." I will describe the lentil, and you shall tell me whether you have seen many similar plants. In us appearance it is something like Ihe tare or the pea, and like those plants it lias seeds which grow in a pod ; these seeds are boiled just as we boil peas, and form a soft mn-s ex- actly like "peas pudding," which you have doubtless tasted. This was the kind of mess which I dare say tempted Esau. Now, will you think of all the plants you know, and ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE LENTIL. tell me if you remember any which are like the lentil? L. You mentioned the pea, papa, and the tare. W. Beans, perhaps, are a part of the class the broad beans and scarlet runners. Ion. Do lupins belong to the same class? P. Yes; or rather to the same order. In this order are not only lentils, peas, beans, and lupins, but clover, trefoil, indigo, liquorice, and many other plants ; some grow to the size of large trees. The Tamarind tree belongs to this order. L. But you have not given us the name of the order, papa! P. They are called the Legu- minous plants. They are more useful and nutritious as food than sugar, because they con- tain azote. W. Then I suppose that they form the fibre, of our bodies? P. Yes: these vegetables would sustain life where the others, containing only starch, would not. You see now why I have noticed the lentil. Ion. Yes, because it is a legu- minous plant, and contains azote. I suppose that the corn- plants^ too, must contain azote, because bread will keep us alive. P. That is the case. That part of the CORN PLANTS which contains azote, we call gluten; and the part of the LEGUMINOUS PLANTS which contains azote, we call legumen. Ion. So we have learned of three nutritious qualities in vegetables. STAECH, &c., winch does not ontain" azote," and does not form flesh. GLUTEN (found in the corn- plants), which does contain " azote," and forms fiesh (or fibre). LEGUMEN (found in the legu- minous plants'), which does contain "azote" and forms Jlesh (or fibre}. P. But I must add once more, that the nutritious leguminous plants abound more in the tem- perate than in the tropical cli- mates. You may now make up the seventh lesson. Lesson 7. ARTICLES OF FOOD (Tropical Climates). THE COCOA-NUT, DATE, AND BANANA PALMS; THE BREAD - FRUIT, BANIAN, AND CO W TREES. The COCOA-NUT PALM is dis- tinguished as being the most noble, and yet the most useful of trees: it is also remarkable for its gigan- tic size. It is useful for fo'ad, for fuel, for clothing, for dwell- ings and furniture ; for making canoes, paddles, and all kinds of implements. It grows in SUMA- TRA, JAVA, the Spice Islands, and the South Sea Islands. The DATE PALM is another good tree of this useful family. It grows in more northern climates than the other palms. As it grows in Palestine, its fruit is mentioned in the Scrip- tures. It is much valued by the traveller in the desert, and the young plants are carefully pre- served. The tree is generally 77 ARTICLES OF FOOD. found near the bank of some river. The BANANA (or Plantain) is a smaller palm than the o/// uner of coo/.-//*//. 'J'lu-si- trees abound in the South Sea Jslnnds. The Cow TREE is a pi-i-nlinr '.id in S< iii lit Ann rim. mid , /.>-. '/'/n' irliiti juice which fi'iirs fmiii tin- In/iil.-, has tin' nn- t, -it inns /in-/n rtii's i if milk, and is />!/ >/n- nn/ives. I ', \\I\S TllF.K, /7/ /'/// - ///< A'-/-./ /iidii-s, is a Jit/- tree of HH'St pn-idiiir ylin/M mid i Hummus si-r. It Ims In pan -/ t-i a /I'li/i/ ti in/ili . siippurtfd in/ iniini i-iiiis natural pillars. The Ll.STII. is (t /ri/initi/i'iiis plant sotni't/iiii'/ ///.' tin- / '/. // is i i nt, iil,i/tl,rlnl,niir- i,,ii<'/iixsi-siii iinli'i. It a Ixo grows in /'''/if/it "ad I'nh ^tiin : il i*. . i',-i i/ni ullij an iitinin d in '78 the Script ii 1-,-s. mid ;/( r. / thkuteryofJacob nd /-.'///. There arc tiro //'////.> ///' A ////'/ the red lentil and aimtinr. The /iiitritimis /iri'pri-ti/ in ! I/7//V7; sn.ttiiins life, is called " Ii minif //." Besides these /;..<' trees, there are muni/ others ir/n'ch bring forth //ul>-t;mces used as f><>;i]>:i. whether all these thin^ are really /'// the Kxhi- hition. /'. I have. I think, seen all except the Bananas and the Uread-l'rnit. Some which can- not be found in the department of the country in which they .-. n. may Ke seen in the .So///// f ////A-/;//. There yon may .-< tin- only specimen ct wliich I c<>uld tind. There are al>o specimens of f///Vo/-_// (No. 144) in all it< stages, trom the kiln-dried root to the ground dust lit tor use." There are some leaves of a tree (No. 142) which arc said to contain n quality very much like the' / 'Ahieh we talked ahont : and I suppose we shall one day try to sec if we like them a- much as tea. Another cnrio>itv is a small lout' ot' sn-jar ( No. 14'.l ), which ha^ In en made I'rom su^.ir-citne.s ? M ilucus. P. Yes. That is the very point I wanted to lead you to. Of o>ur.-e you remember what I said to you of the food contain- J"ii. I remember it, papa. And 1 remember now. yon .-aid that only the food with azote in it would form flesh. Thus we may say the food with azote forms albumen, the albu- men formsyiVw-j/i, and the nbrin forms//' *h. P. How the food with azote forms albumen in the blood, is a point we must not now enter into; I (inly wished toshow you which part of your blooii to form newHc-h. Now. when you see in the Exhibition " tht roiii-i utrntiil fund from the blind of cuttle." you may nnder>t;md which part of the blood is likely to be nutritions. Ion. I should like, papa, to know what is the ii*e of the red " blood discs," and of the "other part of the liquor sangninis." /'. This \ou may hear some other day, but it is no part of our present subject. The blood contains a great variety of sub- stances fatty substances and mineral Mil'M.inces. Mich as salt, iron, lime, and phosphorus Cor, from our blood, there ia formed not only tlc-h. but skin or membrane, gristle, bone, mucus, water, milk. bile, gastric juice, and so on a very great of solids and liquids. Jl". Kcaliy. what a wonder- ful liquid our red blood i>! I a;:i not surprised now that men make concentrated food from it. 1'. I do not understand how the gentleman who exhibits this ANIMAL FOOD. THE SHEEP. food has prepared it. He lives at Paris; therefore, if you want to know, you had better write and ask him. At some distance from this food there are specimens of Essence of Milk 139 and 140. One is quite solid, for the curd of milk is solid albumen. This cnrd ami the sugar of milk, and other nutritious substances, are preserved by driving off all the watery particles in the form of vapour; it is said that "in the absence of a certain quantity of water putrefaction cannot pro- ceed." This milk is useful for long sea voyages and hot cli- ] mates; when it is only necessary to put a lump in boiling water and it produces fresh milk, which will keep pure for four or rive days. There are also specimens of coffee and cocoa dried with tite milk, winch must be very con- venient. In another part (35) is Es- sence of Coffee, which I have tasted, and find very nice. You may remember that we spoke of the gluten in the wheat as containing azote, and being nutritious. There are specimens of biscuits which have been rendered very nutri- tious by the addition of wheat- gluten. None of these preserved meats, however, have been sent from the tropics; they are prin- cipally made for warmer cli- mates. Ion. Now, papa, will you tell US of the animdls, which are used as food by the tropical nations of the Exhibition? P. I can only give you short descriptions. But to begin. The principal animals which form the food of man in all climates are those which feed their young with their own milk, and which, you know, are called mammals. Not all mam- mals, however, are usually eaten for food. Ion. No, papa; Lions are not ; neither are Wolves, nor Tigers, nor the other beasts of prey. P. The principal animals which supply food are the hfrbivnrous (or grass-eating) animals, which chew the cud; these we call Ruminating Ani- mals. (RUMINATING ANIMALS.) 27. THE SHEEP. The SHEEP is a ruminating animal, and is one of the most useful; it is found in the tro- pics ; but does not flourish there nearly so well as in temperate climes. It is the first animal we read of as subject to man, for the Bible tells us that " Abel was a keeper of sheep." In Egypt, which country, however, is outside the tropics, there is a breed of sheep with enormous tails. It is said that the tails of some, with the valu- able wool upon them, weigh ten pounds, while others are said to have tails which weigh 70, 80, or even 100 pounds, and are then supported on a piece of wood drawn on wheels. The sheep of tropical countries mostly live on the high lands, where the air is thin and cold. 83 ANIMAL FOOD. THE ANTELOPE, THE PEER. Some of our fine Southdown slid.']) were once exported to the West Indies; but in that warm climate, in the course of a \car or two, they lost their thick woolly fleece, and, instead, were covered hy short, crisp, brownish hair; they also be- came thin and lean. (Kl'MINATING ANIMALS.) 28. THE ANTELOPE. The ANTELOPE is another ruminating animal of the tro- pics. It supplies food for the JM-asts of prey as well as for man. The head-quarters of animals is in Africa. There may be seen vast troops of the sub-family, which we call the Tnif Antelopes. The most beautiful of these is the Spring Buck Antelope-, (often spelt Spring /,'./). They spread themselves over the -. as (lie vast wild plains in the interior of that region are called. But sometimes these wonderful plains are subject to drought; for you have, I dare say. heard of the dry seasons in Anica, when there is no rain for many weeks. Then, the pn.-turag;- being completely dried up. immense multitudes :!iiiiiuii> lire from the karroo.* in -eareh of food : and. a- it is said, "literally inundate the fertile di.-tricts nearer the Suarms alter sanp- ! to pav. like \\a\e after .er the cultivated lands of the colon!-:-, destroying their fields and crops, ain'l ail In turn. r, they iitford abundant 84 -. prey to man, and fur- nish him with food. When the rain begins to fall, the hordes return, but their numb, much thinned by the attack of man and beast; yet it is said that their numbers whiten or speck the country as far as the eye can reach. A traveller who fell in with a swarm thus re- turning, supposes their number to have been from 25,000 to 30,000. In a few day-, the whole disappear. In Asia, antelopes are often hunted with dogs and falcons. The falcon flies at the head of the animal. thu- the bird -tops its progress, and gives time tor the dogs to come up. lu India, the Antelopes we meet with are larger, more cluni>y. and have more of the form of an ox; they are therefore calK-u (or ox-like) Antelopes. One of the largest is called the Nyl OkOM, (Hi MIXATING ANIMALS.) 29. THK I) HER. The DEER (which, by the way, are very different from the Antelopes) are not \cry numer- ous in the tropics. The Ante- lopes supply their place. The small Mn*li I >i lon. That makes three ani- mals which are useful as beasts of burden and for food The Buffalo (of India and the Cape); The Camel (of Arabia) ; and The Llama (of South Ame- rica). P. And you may add the Horse. When we talk of the temperate countries you will hear that horses are eaten by the Tartars; the milk of the mare is also used by them. Sheep, too, in the Himalayan mountains are used as beasts of burden, as well as for food. In tlu- same region is also found the Yule, which I told you was used for both purposes. There are other animals used as food in tropical climates, which however are not rumi- nant. (NON-RCMI!CANT ANIMALS.) 32. THE HOG, BABY- ROUSSA, &c. The CHINESE PIGS form an article of food for many millions : they :uv smaller than our Kng- lish hog, but, their flesh is nut nice food; especially in the warmer parts of China, it is soft and " flabby," and the lean is hardly more solid than the fat: in the colder parts, the fli-.-h is more firm. Some people speak of it as being a an The I5.viiYitorssA is a larger animal of the pig family, with a pair of singular hook-shaped 86 tusks; it is found in Java, and the Molucca Isles. There are other animals of the hog family in Africa and America. Wild Boars of different kinds are abundant, Indian and Amer'n-an Tu/tir*, Prrcar'n*. ic. ; the last two are the only pig-like ani- mals which were found in Ame- rica at the time of its discovery. The largest of all the pig family is found in the rivers of Africa; it is called the HIPPO- POTAMUS. Its flesh is very good food, and is much sought after; some parts of the fat are a great delicacy ! (NON-BUMINANT ANIMALS.) 33. VARIOUS SMALL MAMMALS. & c . There is no accounting for As in the tropics there are all kinds of people, so do they eat "all kinds of things." In the small order " Kden- tata" (or toothless animals) is an animal called the ARMA- DILLO. It seems to be amongst the mammals what the tortoise is amongst the reptiles, for its body is encased in a bonv ar- mour. It lives in the plains of South America, feeding on the putrid carcases of the ONCH left there, as well as on vegetables, A.C.. Occ. The native.-., and the Kuropeans in America, roast these animals whole in their shells; and when they are very plump. //y the side of the sea. The principal substance of which they are formed is a .-limy ^da- tin, which is found on the sea shore; they also contain sea- weed, and a soft greenish mat- ter found on the rocks. The natives of Java and the Ka.-tern I>lcs cannot eat them, hut the Chinese have persuaded .ves that they are very nice. Ah! I have hoard the -ion, " Imagination goe.- a prat way," and now 1 know what it means. The- are not nice according to their Jiiii't/iiH-iit, hut according to their i//i(n/iiintiim.' II . V< -: and the people of -lava say that they arc not nice, i.i'i-aiiM- they use their judg- ment! How can slime and sea- \M ( d he nice food? /'. Anything can be nice according to the ta.-tc of the piTx.'ii who cats it. To a hedgehog, snails and worms are "nice:" to the cat. hlack hectics are nice; and to \ oiiiself, cooked meat is nice. Now, suppose the hedgehog's nicety he given to the cat, the cat's hlack Lectio to I.e given tn you. and your food to be given to the hcdgc- li-.g: in cadi C;:M-, that which !i::,l been "nice," would now he culled "lia-ty." I should tell you that the i|nc.-tioii. -What is the princi- 88 pal suhstance in these nots':" has been a matter of some dis- pute. By some it is believed not to be the slime found on the r.ck>. hut an animal sultance. formed from the bird itself. At all events, the nests are very much valued. they have been col- lected by the natives, they are dried in the sun, and packed in boxes. I have read that they are sold by weight, and that the price of the best is nearly 6 per Ib. Thus, only the richer classes can have the pleasure of eating them; they are sold chiefly to the emperor and his court. Sometimes they are eaten in broths and soups, and sometimes they are "soaked in water, pulled to pieces, and put in the body of a fowl." I have also read of the total quantity sent to C'hina. It is supposed that, every year, about a u-- ter of a mil/ion pounds' weight is coiiMinicd; and, allowing tit'ty or si.\ty nests to a pound, the annual supply would tie from twelve to tit teen million- equal in value to 300,000. How very true it is that'"the imagination goes a great way"! H'. Please, papa. !"!' I any further, we should like to ma!." .1 i. on on these mammals, and learn it. Lesson 8. ARTICLES OP FOOD Till-. FOOD SUPPLIED By M.\.M.M.\L>. 1. The most strU:imj urtii-l--* "f J'"'nl in i it inn are t/ie ANIMAL FOOD. DUCK, HEN, ETC. PRESERVED MEATS, ivhich are kept fresh in air-tight canisters, by expelling evert/ particle of the air. A " vacuum" is thus caused, and therefore there is no oxygen to cause putrefaction. 2. The CONCENTRATED FOODS, such as the essences of MILK and other substances, are useful in tropical countries. 3. The ANTELOPE and DEER, found in Africa, India, ~c., af- ford a large supply of food. In Africa, the head-quarters of the Antelopes, there are enormous herds of from 25,000 to 30.000 feeding on the " karroos." These in the dry season migrate towards the shores for food, and damage the crops of the farmers. 4. The SHEEP is also found in the tropics. Those of Egypt and the Cape of Good Hope are celebrated for their enormous tails. 5. The BUFFALO, YAK, and BISON, are of the Ox tribe. These, u-ith the Camel in Arabia, and the Llama in South America, are useful as food and as beasts of burden. 6. The BAT in also used as food in Madagascar, J/ivn, $'c. The species eaten are fmgivorous (or fruit-en ting), and nearly as large as a fowl. 7. The CHINESE PIG, */ieBA- BYROUSSA. the HIPPOPOTAMUS in Africa, the TAPIR in the Eastern and Western Hemi- sphere, and the PECCARIES of America, also supply food. Their flesh, however, is different in its appearance and substance from that of the "Humiliating Ani- mals." 8. The ARMADILLO and SLOTH are Mammals of another order, ivhich (ire sometimes killed for the sake of their flesh. 9. The HARE, belonging to the gnawing animals, is represented by the Agoutis, Capbyras, Gui- nea-pigs, $r. 10. T/ie BAT and DOG. are strange articles of food, used by the Chinese, whose tastes differ from those of other nations. We will next notice the food supplied by the birds. THE FOOD SUPPLIED BY BIRDS. 34. DUCK, HEN, &c. The most useful of all birds for food are those we call " poultry." To begin with China, an immense trade is carried on in the eggs of poul- try. The Chinese are said to the most skilful people in the world in managing and rearing these birds. Ducks particularly they bring up in great quanti- ties; at Canton, a great many Chinese get their living solely by rearing ducks and other poultry. In EGYPT, also, there are men who are egg-hatchers by busi- ness. It is said that the country contains four hundred artificial ovens, and that perhaps nearly a hundred million eggs are hatched every season. The men undertake to return two chickens for every three eggs, and they are paid Very good wages for their work. W. Are there any poultry in India? P. Yes, indeed. Our com- mon barn-door fowl is a native of India and of Java. The 89 AMMAL FOOD. TURKEY, PIGEON. Ql'AIL. KTC. Peacock and Guinea fowl, which belong to the same order of birds, are all natives of warm countries. They are all used as food. L. Do people eat peacocks, papa? P. Yes; though not very extensively. I dare say you have read in your Roman his- tory of the ancient feasts, when dishes were made from the heart, tongue, and liver of thousands of peacocks. 35. TURKEY, PIGEON, &c. Turkeys and Pigeons also belong to the poultry tribe. They are found in some of the warmer climates, particularly in America. The turkeys may be seen in very large numbers; but it is difficult to imagine the multitudes mentioned in the accounts given of the pigeons. It is said that the passenger pigeons fly in flocks of A//W/W.* of thousands of millions, darken- ing the country they pass over. According to Messrs. Auduhun and Wilson, two celebrated naturalists, the flocks are about a mile wide, and two hundred miles lung. When they alight. the branches of the tn-< under them, and thou*ano a rank oily taste, for its feathers and skin contain oil to protect its body from the water. Some are called Hopping Penguins. and .Mime Jumping Jacks, from their habit of leaping quite out of the water when pursuing thc'ir food. \V. Now, papa, we will make i on the "Bird-food" of the Tropit-s. Lesson 9. ARTICLES OF FOOD. (Tropical (.'limates). THE FOOD SUPPLIED BY BIRDS. 1. The most useful birth far food in trujiic'd countries, tut tiiose which we call "poultry," such as thf HKN. I)r< I KI.V. PAKIHIIH.I:. PIII.\-\M. PEACOCK. Pi'.i.nv. (^i MI. /''. MUM // " is a na- fii/li'i tun/ .Idrii. 1 1, China ti'iil Eijy)>t thf i>c<'i>!t m< 'If'ul in rtarin;/ poultry; in tlif In/ti r coiintri/ iii-arli/ iilniii- fiatf/iril i >> r// i/i 'ir In/ aitifii-iiil nii-"iis. 1 U mi Ann i icnn liirtl ; in .\.,itk Amn-icn it runtjes wild 92 in ils iKitire vmids. tmd t/rnirs fn .-/:'; // jliniri.~-li in /In' temperate than the climates. The eygs, cut well ns the flesh of birtla. lire nutritions. In Africa the eyys of the OSTRICH are eaten ; and tire much nicer t/tiui i/x flesh. Even the Jlffh of the EAGI.K, HAWK, and t/,i r birds of j>r< . I'LM.riNs. ,y. A *inti>ilarfiMid is n/so tilitnini-d in Ciiina funn IUKD'S M-:>TS thf /.>/ of n Of *n-tilti>u; licintj ill the Eastern Islands. P. We shall, for a little while. see if any supply of lo'>,l can In- supplied from the class H I >t lies. FOOD SUPPLIED BY REPTILES. 39. THE TURTLE, &c. You have hoard in your Na- tural IIi>tory Ic-suus that the K.'ptili-s are vi-rtrliratrd ani- mals, with cold blood, which live I U it h on the laud and in the water laying eggs, as the birds do. If \ou look at the map of the Western H.'ini-plieiv. you will see on the western .-ide of South America a tew \ery small i.slands called the (iida- pagoa. TheM islands abound with Turtles, which are truly enonnous animals; they have been known to weigh 500, 600, and even 8<>O Ibs. They are ful animals in supply- ing food for a ship, and the ANIMAL FOOD. THE TURTLE, ETC. sailors earnestly engage in the Business of catching them. The turtles come on shore during the night for the purpose of laying their eggs. They try to conceal themselves in the darkness, but the sailors lay wait for them, and as they re- turn to the water, they are dis- covered either by the moon- light or torch-light; the men attack them with clubs and handspikes, and quickly lay them on their backs. L. And then they can never turn themselves over again, I have heard. P. No; they are then made prisoners. In less than three hours, it is said the sailors will turn over forty or fifty turtles full of eggs. When the day- light conies, the turtles are cut up, and their flesh and eggs are salted. Salt turtle is a favourite food, with the white men as well as the negroes. The salt turtle in the tropics supplies the place of the salt cod in the temperate countries; it is, how- ever, much richer: it is more oily quantities of greenish oil used for food, and for burning, are procured from each indi- vidual. Sometimes in calm weather, and moonlight nights, the green tortoises are caught out at sea. They are soon discovered by the froth they make in the water, when rising to the surface, and they are killed with a harpoon like that used in the whale fisheries. It requires tremen- dous force to send the harpoon with sufficient swiftness to pierce the animal's hard horny buckler. The word Turtle is only another name for the Sea- Tortoise ; there being two kinds of tortoises those living on he land, and those living in the water. There are small fresh-water tortoises living in ;he ponds and ditches of Europe, [n the rivers of the tropics, in the Nile and the Ganges, there ives a very large fresh-water turtle some individuals weigh us much as 240 Ibs. They may also be seen in the rivers of lava and Sumatra; and in the Ganges there are four species which, it is said, are constantly seen eating the bodies of the natives thrown into the sacred stream. They also devour birds, reptiles, and young croco- diles and in their turn become the prey of the older ones. I cannot say whether they are ever eaten by man. I should hope not. Turtles are found all over the tropics. In the East Indies, the Molucca Isles, and New Guinea; in the Bahamas sand, the West Indies; in Demerara&nd the Brazils. If you will look for these places in your map, you will see how widely the tortoise family are distributed. W. Are there any specimens of tortoises in the Exhibition? P. I could not find any. Amongst the goods from Trini- dad, there are specimens of tortoise-shell from the Hawks- bill turtle, but I did not see any turtle itself. The tortoises are an ancient family of animals, and they have the same standing amongst the land animals as the palms have amongst the trees. 93 ANIMAL FOOD. SHARKS FINS, ETC. There are many more reptiles in the tropics. Indeed, the tro- pics are their principal region, for they are about twice as numerous, and three or four times as large as their brethren in the temperate zone. JAVA, in the Old World, and BRAZIL, in the New, contain the greatest variety. Besides the tortoises, there are all kinds of liznrt/*, chameleons, crocodiles, serpents, salamanders, fowls, and frogs. All of these are highly inteiv-t- ing; the great butt-frog of the West Indies, and the tree-frog, are curious specimens. Many of thcc- fore you could feel any interest in them as food. In the Indian department of the Exhibition you may sec specimens of I tin- 'i.-i.'i Mfiirs. and Sharks' /'ins. which remind me that the in different climates are very different in character. Some are not near so dangerous as others: in the Chim particularly there is a species of shark which is often used as loud. The sharks, and certain flat fish called /trit/x, belong to the onler of cartilaginous fishes; 94 that is. fi!' 111:111 in the tropics. The desert in which St. .John the BaptUt lived, is not, how- ever, in those parts. (ARTICULATED ANIMALS.) 43. THE LOCUST. It is mther on the borders than within the tropics that Locusts are eaten. In Dr. Kino's History of Palestine there is a good account of the manner in which the locust- M iv used ax food. It is said Locusts an- c.-.t ii by th" r.cdouins: they collect 'them numbers in th,. n;ie_' of April, when they me easily caught. After liaving been roasted a little upon the iron-plate on which bread is baked, they are dried in the sun, and then put into large sacks, with the mixture of a little salt. Another way is to throw them alive into boiling water, in which a good deal of salt has been mixed; after a few minutes they are taken out and dried in the sun : the heads, feet, and wings are then torn off, the bodies are cleansed from the salt and perfectly dried, after which they are stowed away in sacks. They an- never served up as a dish, hut every one takes a handful of them when hungry. They are some- times eaten broiled in butter; and they often contribute mate- rials for a breakfast when spread over unleavened bread mixed with butter. " In some parts, after being dried, the Arabs grind them to a powder, of which a kind of bread is made in small cakes. Of all Bedouins known, thocdi>uins swallow them entire." The locusts belong to the same order MS the grasshopper and the cricket, but they are much larger. The service \vl-jeh they ma\ render as food is not M-i\ ;:ivat. and it cannot be compared with the injury, past ANIMAL FOOD. THE LOCUST. calculation, which they do to the vegetation of Africa and other warm countries. I will read you another account of the locust which is very dis- tressing: "Tims the 'plague of locusts' is not unfrequently repeated in tropi- cal countries, and is dreaded by the inhabitants even more than an earthquake. These insects are of such extreme voracity, that no green thing 1 escapes them ; and their num- bers are often so increased, that they fly in masses which look like dark clouds, and cover the ground where they alight for miles together, it may be easily conceived that they must produce incalculable injury. "The North of Africa and the West of Asia are the countries most infested by these pests. It is related by Augustin, that a plague, in- duced partly by the famine they had created, and partly by the stench occasioned by their dead I bodies, carried off 800,000 inhabi- | tants from the kingdom of Numidia and the adjacent parts. "They occasionally attack the South of Europe. It is recorded that Italy was devastated by them in the year 591 ; and that a prodi- gious number both of men and beasts perished from similar causes. no less than 30,000 persons in the kingdom of Venice alone. These tremendous swarms usually advance towards the sea : and being there checked, and having com- pletely exhausted the country be- hind them, they themselves d'ie of famine, or are blown into the sea by a gale. " " In 17S4 and 1797, they devas- tated Southern Africa; and it is stated by Mr. Barrow (in his tra- vels in that country) that they covered a surface of 2,000 square miles ; and that, when cast into the sea by a strong wind from the north-east, and washed upon the beach, they formed a li; miles long, and produced a barrier along the coast three or four feet high ; and that, when the wind again changed, the stench created by the putrefaction of their bodies was perceived at a distance of 150 miles inland."* Ion. Now, papa, will you tell us about the Wild Honey ? P. If you wish it ; but Honey cannot fairly be called an animal substance. 44. WILD IIONEV. HOXET is the vegetable juice collected from the nectaries of flowers. You may read in your Natural History of the bees, how they have a long trunk (or proboscis) which they insert into the tubes of the flowers. This vegetable juice is passed from the proboscis of the bee into its cross or honey bag. Here it undergoes some change, so that when it is brought up again to be placed in the honey- comb it is not purely a vege- table substance. The honey in Palestine and the borders of the tropics is, however, the most famous. There wild honey abounds. I have read that the account of Palestine as "a land flow- ing with milk and honey." was literally true. The combs of the bees were placed usually in clefts of rocks and hollow trees : and when the honey which they had made from the rich vege- tation around was melted by the sun, it actually flowed down in streams. The traveller Buckhardt no- * Dr. Carpenter's Animal Phy- sioloev. ARTICLES OF FOOD. ticed in Palestine a honey shells. Salt Turtle in the tropics which is a true vegetable sub- more than snp/tlien the place of the stance. He heard of a tree prow- Salt Cod in the colder climes. ing in the valley of the Jordan, Some of the ot/ur families of which is about the size of an Reptiles are used as food, but olive tree. The "honey," as not many, for they include the the Arabs called it, is found Lizards, Serpents, Crocodiles, collected on the surface of the Frog* ,v.-. leaves, like the round drops of 2. The TROPICAL FISH also dew. The natives either gather afford food to man. The Shark- it from the leaves or from the Jins, Fish Maws, and Isini/lnss in ground under the tree, which is the Great Exhibition, tell us of often completely covered with it. the sharks, rock-cod, sturgeon, and It has a brownish colour and a other " gelatinous" Jiah, which are sweet taste; and the Arabs eat found in the CHIM:-I:. IM-IAN, it like honey with butter, or and other tropical seas. Various put it in their gruel. This is " Ray-fish," Soles, and others likely to be the kind of honey abound in the tropics. which Jonathan found on the 3. The OYSTER and many ground under a tree, and ate.* other Molluskn. such us tlte Whelks, You may now make up your Cowries, and Limpets, are also tenth lesson. m/i ii in t/ii-sr i-fnintritx. 4. From tin JOINTKH (or tt fir(i- Lesson 10. ARTICLES or FOOD oi/ii/ifl") AMM U - irqe (Tropical Climates'). snjtpli/ of Crn/is, lobsters, and other " Crustacea." There are THE FOOD SUPPLIED /.mill, Fresh-u-atfr. and Mnrine BY REPTILES, FISHES, CRABS, as in the dirixiunx nf the MOLLUSKS, JOINTED Tortoise family. The West In- ANIMALS, $-c. dies is the principal country fur tlif hind-crabs ; a mini// hind- 1. The principal REPTII.E- crab is found in great numbers FOOD of the tropics is that ob- in the East Indiis. / from the Tortoises. There 5. Even the INSECTS contribute are three kinds of these nnimok to the supply of food. Tlte LO- The LAND TORTOISE, the CUSTS and the BEE are Itoth of FRESH-WATER TORTOISE, and > rrice. The f'jod afforded by the MARINE TORTOISE: the two the body of the locust does not, latter are called Turtle*. The however, compensate for the great Twtlesof the (J U.Al'.VioS I-l 1 - injury it causes to re/' tut ion. are of an enormous site, some- times ii;-!'ihhiij us much as GOO or Ion. No\v. papn, I should like 800 jmunds. They are en m/ fit to make a list merely a li.-t of by the sailors during the nitjht. - of the different niiiiiuil and "re killed fur tfif snke nf and vegetable Mil'Stnncrs. I r flesh, their oil, and tin ir feel that it would help my nipmofv VPFV Ttni(*li 1 Sam. sir. 25-27. /'. Vny well, you may do so. 98 OBJECT LESSONS FROM THE GREAT EXHIBITION. tjp Cijiit RAW MATERIALS FOOD OP TROPICAL COUNTRIES. VEGETABLE KINGDOM. RICE. MAIZE. SAGO. ARROW-ROOT. TAPIOCA. YAM. GINGER. NUTMEG. MACE. PEPPER. CINNAMON. ALLSPICE. CLOVES. TEA. COFFEE. COCOA. SUGAR. COCOA-NUT. DATE. BANANA. BREAD-FRUIT. COW-TREE. BANIAN TREE. LENTIL. ANIMAL KINGDOM. PRESERVED MEATS. CONCENTRATED FOOD. MAMMALS: SHEEP. DEER. ANTELOPES. BUFFALO. CAMEL and Llama. HOG, Babyroussa, Hippopotamus, &c. ARMADILLO, Sloth, Bat, &c. HARE, Rabbit, Rat, Dog, &c. BIRDS: HEN, Duck. PIGEON, Quail, &c. OSTRICH EGGS. EAGLE, Hawk, &c. WILDFOWL, Gull, &c. PENGUIN. RurriLps: TURTLE, &c. FISH, &e. : SHARK FINS, &c. ISINGLASS. MOLLUSKS, OYSTER, Crab, &c. LOCUST, &c. 99 AKTICLES OF FOOD. W. Now I call that a very nice, easy list to remember. P. And I see a nice thought which easily arises from it. Is it not pleasant to think that, though these animals and vege- tables are so many and so dif- ferent, there is One Maker to them all? and that He rules over all, cares for all, and keeps all in perfect order? It is pleasant, too, to think how each animal was made by Him for some good purpose. Many of them have their boundaries marked on the earth, and only go to and fro in their appointed place, to do their share of work in the great plan of nature. Suppose that each could think and know that ? L. Then he would be very pleased ! IT. I think, too, that the ani- mals would be very thankful. P. To be pure they would. Then, how much more thankful should ice be! "\Yhenwe think how many and how different are the beautiful plants and animals; and that all are good for our use and comfort, then may we remember the great truth which thi> Exhibition so plainly sets forth. ' ; The earth is (he Lord's, and all that therein <'.- .- " The cotii]Ki. II ttrtiu." And you may sing also this good song "Mountains, and all hills; fruitful trees, and redan : " Beasts, and all cattle ; creep- ing thinf/s and //'/".'/ fotrl : " Kings of the earth, and all people ; princes, and all judges of the earth : . " Both yovny men, and maidens ; old men, and childn n : " Let them jiraise the name of the Lord : for his name alone u t ; his glory is above tlie eartli and h> 8c*, moon, and stars, by dny and nijrht, At God's commandment, give us light ; And when we wake, and while we deep, Their watch, like guardhn angels, keep. The bright blue sky above onr head. The soft preen eartli on which we tread, The ocean rolling round the land, Were made by God's Almighty hand. Sweet flowers that hill and dale ndorn, Fair fruit-trees, fields of ^TH.-.H nnd corn, The clouds that rise, the sOimvers thnt full, The winds that blow God sends them all. The beasts that graze with downward rye, The birds that prrrli. and sing, ami . The fishes swimming in the sea, God'a creatures are as well as we. But uf* he forra'd for better things; As servants of the King of kings, With lifted hands nnd open f.v . And thankful heart to seek his grace. 100 ARTICLES OF FOOD. TEMPERATE COUNTRIES. PART THE FOURTH. CHAPTER TWELFTH. for England and other temperate countries. ARTICLES OF FOOD IN THE Bread and butter, cheese, TEMPERATE COUNTRIES. onions, beef, mutton, veal, lamb, P. What is meant by the pork, venison, bacon, poultry, Temperate countries? eggs, game, rabbits, German L. I will show you, papa, on sausage, tongue, tea, coffee, and the map. Here are the Tropical sugar, rice, tapioca, and arrow- countries, in the centre of the root, gruel, porridge, pudding, earth ; and the Frigid countries dumpling, tarts, custards, jellies, are situated around the poles. sauces, potatoes, and other The Temperate countries are vegetables, biscuits and cakes, those between the Tropical and the Frigid. fruits, nuts, wine, beer, milk, honey, treacle, and many other W. I will read you some things. of their names, papa, and you P. You have made a rare will see whether any of them medley, Willie ! We must not have sent any goods to the take them in such disorder. 1st, Exhibition. Great Britain, We will distinguish the vegeta- France, Holland, and nearly table from the animal sub- all the countries of Europe. stances. 2ndly, We will The greater part of Russia, and speak only of the principal of Asia and the Islands of things. Srdly, We will only Japan beyond. And then remember such as are cultivated again, in the Western Hemis- in temperate countries. The phere, there is the great coun- articles coffee, sugar, tapioca, try of North America, where &C., are only used, and not the people called Yankees grown in these parts ; so, as live. you have already had their P. Goods have been sent to history, we need not mention the Exhibition from almost all them again. of these countries so, let us As you mentioned the bread observe their articles of food and bu tter first, suppose we begin in the Exhibition. with the corn-plants of the W. Will you please to begin temperate countries. with GREAT BRITAIN, papa? I The qualities and uses of wonder what is the principal BREAD we have talked about food of the English? already.* The flour with which Ion. Ropring wheat, we hear of rerfand white wheat. The difference of co- lour is, I believe, owing to the soils in which they are grown. If white wheat be grown in .-tiff wet soils, it becomes red, and if red wheat be sown in a light soil, it becomes yellow and then white. Wheat not only differs in its colour but in its substance. There are what are called the hard wheats, and the soft wheats. These may conjtantly change in their substance, just as the white and red wheats change in colour. The hard wheats con- tain more gluten than the others, while the soft wheats contain more sturch. What did I tell yon was the most important difference be- tween the gluten and the starch of a vegetable? L. You said, papa, in one of our other lessons, that gluten contains azote (or nitrogen), which forms new flesh in our bodies, and that starch docs not ARTICLES OF FOOD. WHEAT. contain nitrogen, and only forms ah, you did not finish the subject! you only said that the gum and sugar, and the starch in plants, would form heat in the body, but you did not tell us why you promised that you would do so. P. Very well; but, first, a word about the gluten of wheat. It is this tough gluten which renders wheat so nutritious that it has been called "the staff of life." It is the toughness of the gluten which causes the dough to be tough. You know that bakers put yeast in their dough, which ferments and makes it rise. The gluten causes the particles to hold together, so that the bread becomes porous. W. And, when we had a les- son on rice, papa, you said that rice did not make good bread, because it is nearly all starch. I can understand that now; it is because there is not enough gluten to hold the particles of the starch together. P. True. Now, you have heard that the gluten forms the "albumen" in our blood, that the albumen forms "fibrin," and that the fibrin forms "flesh." Let us next talk about the starch of the wheat. L. I remember, papa, that there were several specimens of starch in the Exhibition. In the corn-trophy of the Russian department there were bowls of starch ; some was made from wheat, some from potatoes, and some from other vegetables. P. Yes. But our question now is What is the use of starch as food? I must first tell you that, just as gluten contains the gas nitrogen, so starch is formed principally by a very different element called carbon. Whenever carbon meets with another gas called oxygen, the oxygen instantly consumes it, causing an intense heat. Thus if we happen to receive any car- bon in our body, and afterwards to receive some oxygen, suppose that the oxygen happened to meet with the carbon inside, what would happen ? W. The oxygen directly it met with the carbon would burn it ; and there would be a bonfire inside one's body. P. There would not be so violent a burning as to cause a bonfire, but there would be combustion enough to cause heat, which we should feel. And this kind of combustion is going on within each of us now, and it continues all the day and night long, making us warm. You know how you receive the oxygen into your blood. Ion. Yes. You told me a long time ago that the oxygen gas is a part of the air, and that when we breathe, the oxygen enters our blood through our lungs. P. And as our blood passes through all the little arteries and veins of the body, it ga- thers carbon from the wnste tissue of our flesh; this carbon the oxygen burns. But I must tell you that the tissue of our flesh does not waste fast enough to supply much carbon for burning; how, therefore, is more carbon supplied? Ion. From the starch in our 103 ARTICLES OF FOOD. W1IKAT. food, jnijia. You said that the starch contains carbon. P. True, this starch is lite- rally bunit away inside the liody. You must not suppose, however, that the carbon is " burnt into nothing," as I have heard you say. When the oxygen and the carbon meet, although there is a combust ion, it is impossible for them to de- x/i<>'/ c'iich other. L. Then, what becomes of them, papa? P. By the union of the two, a new gas is formed, called <,- bottle acid gas. You call it " breath"! On a cold day you can see it, as it comes out from your mouth. W. Now, papa, I think I can sum up the account. The heat of our body is caused by the ga oyygen uniting with cnrbim. We get oxvjren from the air, and we get a little carbon from our tissue (or llesh) as it wears out. l!ut, the ti.ssue does not wear out Hirtt enough to supply ;dl tlie f.-irbon we wnnt to keep us warm, BO tlie greater part of the carbon : "i! by the starch, sugar, fat, mid oilier kinds of food, which 'ontain nitrogen. ..t rLdit, papa? /'. Yes. and yon may nlsosec [QQg MS we breathe, we want l'ooid'-: 104 and, when we come home we feel wanner, and our cheeks look red. P. And something else we then want more food to make fresh carbon; we then feel that we have an j>ctite. I may as well add that there are other gases in our food besides car- bon and nitrogen. The oxy- gen unites with another gas, and forms water, which is pass- ing out all day long through the pores of your skin. And when you have been taking strong exercise the oxygen and this other gas (hydrogen) form this water so quickly that you see it standing on the skin iu drops, and call it fn-/-t;/ii,-cd up in supplying the carbon required for that oxygen. Ian. Yes, I have heard of people ' running to keep down their fat," and now 1 under- stand they run to get more ox\gen to liiini down their iat, or cl.-e to make it into vi perspi- ration." Ha, hah! Willie! if you like I'll make yon run all the way to school and all the ARTICLES OF FOOD. BARLEY, OATS. way back again, and then we shall see if you look thinner. P. You will not see a differ- ence so soon as that. In the works of nature we find that " order" is the first law. Such changes are not carried on violently or suddenly, but by slow and gentle degrees. But let us return from the subject of exercise and food in general to the Wheat. Now you can understand why the bread from wheat is called THE STAFF OF LIFE. In the seeds of this corn-plant God has provided all that we require for nourish- ment. 1st, The gluten, con- taining nitrogen to form albu- men, fibrin, flesh, &c. ; and 2ndly, The starch, containing carbon. &c., which form heat and perspiration, fat, c. Here is another corn-plant yielding a grain almost equal to that of wheat . (CORN-PLANTS.) 46. BAELEY. Ion. I can always distinguish barley, papa, by its ear it has such long regular awns. P. And UNTO is something else worth noticing in the bar- ley the grains are all exactly of the same length. Being so uniform in size they have been used as a measure, for we say that three barleycorns make one inch. Barley is even a more hardy plant than wheat, for it will grow in colder cli- mates. It is also an early plant, for it grows more quickly and ripens sooner than wheat; so that, in some warm countries there are two barley harvests in the year. Accordingly, we find in the history of the plague of hail (in Exod'us ix. 31) that " the flax and barley were smitten, for the barley was in the ear ; . . . but the wheat and the rye were not smitten, for they were not come up." This happened in March. W. Is not barley a cheaper grain than wheat, papa? P. Yes ; at one time the poorer people of this country could get no other bread but barley-bread. Now, however, they use wheaten flour, and the barley is kept for fattening poultry, and feeding the pigs; a small quantity is prepared as pearl-barley, but nearly the whole year's crop of barley is now used to make malt for the brewers. I have read of 30,000,000 bushels of barley being used for the purpose every year. Since the establishment of Temperance Societies, how- ever, the quantity thus wasted has been much smaller. There is another corn-plant, which grows in even colder climates than those of wheat and barley. The grain is called (CORN-PLANTS.) 47. OATS. The difference between this plant and wheat or barley is easily noticed. W. Yes; I can see, papa, that the oats are not arranged in a close ear; they hang loosely, just like the seeds of the grass which grows in the fields. P. There are advantages in 105 ARTICLES OF FOOI?. OATS, RYE. the grains being loose, as each grain lias more light and air than if in a close ear: again, from their drooping posit inn. the rain does not soak and spoil them, but trickles off. There are two or three kinds of oats: the bearded oats, the common oats, the black oats, &c. Oats, like barley, were formerly used by the English to make their bread, but now we have wheat instead, and oats are principally used to feed horses. It appears that they were used as provender for horses by the Romans, for the Emperor Caligula fed his favourite horse with gilt oats out of a golden cup. As. however, oats are fitted for a colder climate, we find that they are still eaten very large-lv in S<- iniieli gluten that it is very hard indeed ; it is called ///"//" /"/'., a hard grain. Some inaTuroiii is made frum th.- ilmir and water alone; in other kinds the Hour has the white of eggs mixed with it. When the dough for the : roni has been kneaded to its proper degrees of toughness, it is drawn out into long cords, which I dare say you have seen. Ion. I have, papa, and have tasted them too. But how is it that all the long cords are of the same size and thickness? P. The tough dough is drawn through holes of the si/.e re- quired. The hole running through the centre of the cord is formed by a copper wire. \Vhen the macearoni is made smaller than the usual size, about the thickness of the body of a worm, it is called Vermicelli. Sometimes in making vermicelli a little beer, or yolk of cgi: and sugar, is mixed with the dough. The great interest which the Neapolitans take in their macca- roni is rather am using. If a poor man can only procure enough <>f this for his daily food, he willingly goes without meat; but all are not rich enough to afford it every day. The mac- earotii-hoiler stands at the cor- ner of the street, wherever lie can find room, and as somi as he has taken his place to sell i-, he is .surrounded by numbers who are anxious to buy. He h:us " hot niaeearuiii'' to sell, in all qualities and in all shapes. "Here is macearoni in thin cord- ! inaccaroni.long. nar- row, and tlat like ribbons! mac- earoni ln-oad and thin lik of paper! maccanmi round like hallsorin the shape of hean>and S.i tlio>e who are fortu- nate enough to have any money in their pockets, bring it out to buy. With live ///"/ (about ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE COBN-PLANTS. twopence) the poor Neapolitan can buy enough fora meal. lie is not particular about knives and forks, or other instruments ; he sits himself down in the cor- ner of some building, where he throws back his head, and opens his mouth ; he then takes about a yard of the maccaroni cords in his hand, and slides them into his open mouth, and down his throat, without breaking them. If the poor lazzarone can afford ten grani, then he has a sumptuous feast, including scraped cheese ! With three more grani he can buy a bottle of common wine; for in that sunny grape-growing country wine is very cheap.* W. Yes, five grani are equal to 2d., so that thirteen grani are not 6d. That is very cheap for a dinner and a bottle of wine ! P. True; and the motto over the maccaroni stall is, "Here you may eat well and at small expense." Let us now make the lesson on the corn-plants of the temperate countries. Lesson 11. ARTICLES OF FOOD. (Temperate Climates.') FOOD SUPPLIED BY THE CORN-PLANTS. 1. The grasses which supply arain for the food of man are highly useful in the temperate as ivell as the tropical climates. There are several different species. * Knight's Pictorial Gallery of Arts, p. 19. WHEAT is known by its close ear, and by its strength and thickness as a plant. There are two kinds of whent; the Sjirinq- wheat, which is bearded, and the Winter-tuheat. Some wheat is of a red colour, and others white ; the plant varies according to the soil in which it groivs. Wheat is the most nutritious of the corn- plants, and most suitable for making bread, Sfc. BARLEY is a more hardy grain than wheat. It is easily culti- vated, and it groivs quickly, there- fore it is earlier than the other corn-plants, as we find in the account of the PLAGUE OF HAIL 27i Egypt. It contains much sugar, and is therefore used for making malt for the brewer. OATS are still more hardy than barley. They are cultivated in Scot/and, Ireland, and Lanca- shire. The ear of this plant is loose and hanging, like that of mam/ oilier grasses. Oats are an important food in Scotland, where they are made into por- ridge and oatmeal cake. In England we use ground oats (or groats) for making gruel. Oats are also used in England as food for horses and poultry. RYE contains more gluten than barleif or oats. It forms food for the people of Northern Eu- rope. The Swedes make it into cakes, which they are said to bake only twice a-year. The Lap- landers buy it in exchange for their dried fish. In England, it is soivrt after a crop of potatoes, and is cut doiun when green, as fodder for horses. BUCKWHEAT (which is not truly a corn-pi;, at} yields a kind 109 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE CORX-PLANTS. of grain. Poultry are very fond of it ; so also are cattle. MILLET flourishes better in a warm than a cold climate; so we Jind tfiat it is eaten in the South of Europe, as well as the tropics. The bread from Mi/iet is very nice when hot and new, but it afterwards becomes dry and From the flour of these plants we make not only BREAD, but BISCUITS, CAKES, PUDDINGS, MACCARONI, tfC. P. Before we say good-bye to these corn-plants, I think we must stop for a moment to no- tice the order to which they belong. The order Gmmintp, or grass tribe, is, of all others, the most useful to man. In the wheat, barley, oats, rye, and millet, we have five plants from the seed of which we get food in a direct manner. But. from the smaller grasses, such :is tin- grass of the Held, which does not afford seed large enough for our nourishment we get food indirectly. L. Yes; we live on the ani- mals which they support. You said that they liked to eat the Mid hay. because the stalks contained sugar. /'. True; and that reminds me that we om-M-lves cat the s:;ilk of one of the grass tribe. 1/er.uiM' of the sugar ill it. It is a much larger plant than the .dked grass of the field. U'. I do not know what grass it can be! /'. 1 1 is called the Siiynr-raiif. I think 1 told you before, that the sugar-cane is one of the _'!'. I ----- . 110 IT. Ah, I had forgotten that! So we get all our sugar from the stalk of "a grass," just as the cattle do. P. But I was going to show you how much we depend on the small grass of the field, as well as the lar^i- grasses the corn-plants and the sugar-cane. What would you do without Milk? You have heard of the v-ugar of milk." which gives to it so nice a flavour. Tin- siiL'ar the cow procures from the sugar in the grass stalk. Again : in one of Dr. Car- penter's books it is said, that ' without computing pork, bacon, or poultry (much of which is fed on grass, or corn), upwards of 150,000,000 Ibs. of meat are consumed in London every year." It is supposed that the consumption of the whole country is ten times as much. or 1,500 mi/lions of pounds. " Again, it has been calculated that the butter and cheese made. in Britain every year is worth not less than 5.000,000." Now, remove from the earth, for one year, the small grasses of the grass tribe, and we at once lose nearly all this food! Here, then, is an exer- cise in arithmetic for you. Take 1.500(i.Oii> It.s.. say at 6d. pi-r Hi. for the meat, and add that to the 5jOpO,000 for but- ter and cheese, then you only get an idea of the animal value to man of that portion of the _-r:i-> trilie used for its herbage /.. And then, papa, you have not taken into account the !:." There is another kind, railed the c/iii-lc-ftcfi, which t he 1 1 el.rews ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE KKAX. I used to eat with lentils, when : they went out to the battle- field. We have in our garden 1 the sweet pea and the everlasting pea, (LEGCMIXOUS PLAXTS.) 52. THE BEAN. W. I reniemher, papa, when we took a walk through uncle John's bean-fields, what a pretty sight the black-and-white flowers were. L. And if yon recollect. Wil- lie, the beans had a delicious smell it was very sweet. P. The flower of the bean contains a great deal of honey. This also has the shape of a butterfly. W. Yes ; I was just going to say so. P. And what do you call it because of its shape? IT. A papilionaceous flower. P. The horse is perhaps the animal who has the greatest interest in the beans. The beans are one of his most important articles of food. When the far- mer prepares his beans for him, they are generally crushed or split, then they are mixed with cut hay, or chaff. The hog also is fed on beans, as well as peas, they are used more particularly when the hog is to be fattened for bacon, for the beans give firmness to the flesh. Mankind eat them at the dinner-table, but they also eat beans as bread. The miller grinds them with new wheat to make bread-flour. Ion. He has no business to do so that is as bad as putting chicory with the coffee. P. But perhaps a little bean- meal improves it just as a little chicory is said to improve the coffee. At all events, the millers say that the soft wheat (page 102) will not grind well without beans. In some parts of the country a coarse kind of bread is eaten, which is nearly half bean-meal. The meal of beans is certainly the heaviest made from the leguminous plants. It was eaten by the Romans as a sort of gruel, or pottage. The Roman ladies thought it useful to render the skin smooth, and to take away wrinkles. In this country ladies use bean-Jloicer water for wash- ing the face when it has been " tanned " by the sun. The cultivation of beans re- quires great care and skill. The plant is subject to the disease of mildew, and it is frequently at- tacked by the aphis. The seed is generally sown in February or March, and the harvest is in the autumn. It is either sown by the drilling-machine, or dibbled in with the hand; it is sown in rows like the peas. The bean is a much more ancient plant in England than the pea. It is supposed that it was introduced by the Romans. The plant was used in sacred feasts by the Romans and bv the Greeks. It was also held sacred by the Egyptians. In the very early times it was so venerated that it was forbidden to be eaten. The large broad kind, called the Windsor beans, were intro- duced into England by some Dutch gardeners, who came 113 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE KIDNEY-BEAN. over and settled near Windsor at the time of the Revolution. (LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.) 53. THE KIDNEY-BEAN. This is another plant with a papilionaceous flower, but it is very different from the common bean. There are two kinds the white French Sean, and the Scarlet Runner. The FRENCH BEAN seems to be a native of every quarter of the globe except Europe. It has hern introduced into the differ- ent countries of Europe at differ- ent times. It was brought to Eng- land from Flanders in the year 1509. The people of Flanders called it Turk's fiectn, l>ut we took the n;nne wliicli tin- I-'reiich h:id given it. Ft iippeurs that they procured it from Italy, and called it the /&trings. The plant has this peculiarity the tendrils, when holding to the support, twine round it from right to left, while the tendrils of other plants turn from left to right. In using the kidney -bean and scarlet runner as food, we do not use the seed, as with the pea. 114 Ion. No, we eat the pod the Icf/innc, I should say. IT. And we eat the legumes seeds and all before they are ripe. P. True. But sometimes we allow the beans to ripen, espe- cially the French beans. We call them Haricot beans. W. I think, papa, that I re- member seeing some haricot beans in the shop-window- of our corn-chandler. ]t was about two years ago. P. That was soon after the potato famine in Ireland. When the potato crops failed, and scarcely a potato was to lie had, it was thought that the Iri-li and English people, would cat haricot heans in.stead. MI that large quantities were grown to be eaten as a substitute for potatoes. Many people tried them, but they were not liked, and few would eat haric.it heans while they could procure the potatoes themselves. Ion. And we used to have rice to eat, instead of potatoes; but /didn't like eating rice. P. No, neither the rice nor the haricot beans were K) able for us as the potato. You see that people are very slow in making changes in their food. I told you that when the scarlet runners were brought to Eng- land, it was about 100 years before they were used as food. Ion. Is it because people are obstinate? /'. No; by no means. Tt is quite right to he careful in making such changes. We generally find that the food which grows best in the people's ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE LUPIN, THE TAMARIND. own climate, and which they have always been accustomed to, is the most suitable. If the Indians and the English were to change their corn-plants for j i a few years, both people would I suffer we should be very glad to have our wheat back again, and they would be glad of their rice. (LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.) 54. THE LUPIN. If an Englishman were asked to show you a Lupin, where would he take you to? L. He would take me to the flower-garden, and say it was a very pretty jloicer. You could soon see that it is papilionaceous. W. And we can easily tell that it is leguminous, because the seeds of some lupins grow inside a very large legume; it is almost as large as a bean- pod. P. The lupin is much more plentiful in the warmer tempe- rate countries. It is found growing wild in North and iSouth America. In the South of Europe, the Neapolitans, who eat so much maccaroni, also eat lupins. They first soak them in water to take away their bitter taste, as the ancient Romans used to do. It is also found in Africa and Asia. If you were to travel to Palestine, and Egypt, and other Eastern countries, you would see large fields of lupins, which are sometimes eaten raw, and some- times boiled, as we boil beans in England. They are sown in No- vember, and are ready for har- .vest in about five mouths. The seeds are beaten out with rods, the ancient instruments used for thrashing in those countries where the flail is not known. In some countries, lupins were once used as a green manure, that is to say, they were allowed to grow to a good size, and then were dug into the ground to rot and form new mould. W. That is like our gardener when he dug up that weedy piece of ground in the corner of the garden, he dug the weeds in. He told me that when they rotted, they would be obliged to give back to the earth all the goodness they had taken out of it. P. And that reminds me that lupins are famous for exhaust- ing the "goqdness" of the ground. They are said to be called lupins, from lupus, a wolf, because they devour the sub- stance of the land on which they are grown. (LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.) 55. THE TAMARIND. This tree is better known to us as producing an article of medicine, than as an article of food; indeed, it belongs rather to the tropical than to the tem- perate productions. In the East Indies, the tamarind tree may be seen to perfection. There it grows to be large and handsome, with broad spreading branches ; these branches have light green leaves, and flowers of a light yellow colour streaked with red ; the legumes, which succeed the flowers, and contain the seeds, are very long. On opening one of these legumes, however, you 115 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE LK<;rMIXOi:S PLANTS. would find it filled with a pulp, which has fibres running through it : this is the part which renders the tamarind tree valu- able; it is truly cooling and refreshing, and is eaten not only in India, hut in Africa, where the tired travellers carry it with them across the desert to quench their thirst. The tamarinds which are brought to England are preserved in sugar. We sometimes form a cooling drink by pouring boil- ing water over them, and they are frequently used thus in India, forming a kind of sher- bet. L. Are not the seeds ever used as food? P. They are not very suit- able, but I have read that in times of scarcity they are soak- ed until their dark skin comes off, and then they arc boiled like beans. Tamarinds are brought from the West Indies, as well as from the East Indies. I think we have exhausted the principal leguminous plants. There are, no doubt, other plan ts of this order, which proiluee food, for it is a most extensive order, containing species which are widely different. The only other leguminous plant which is likely to be known to you, is the LII..I oi:l( l. I'I.AS l. Inn. I suppose that that is grown in Spain, for we .ot'teu hear of Sfiiiiiiah liquorice. P. Yes; it grows in Spain. and the other warm countries around the Mediterranean, but it will also grow in Kngland. Near the town of I'oiitet'raet. in York-hire, there are large, fields of liquorice. The juice of 116 the root is made into small cakes. Before leaving the legumi- nous plants, I may add, th.it the legume and pod, when eaten as food, is called " pulse." Pulse is the general name for legumi- nous food. You may now make the les- son on leguminous plants. Lesson 12. ARTICLES OF FOOD. (Temperate Climates.) FOOD SUPPLIED BY THE LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. THE LKct'MiNors Pi \vi< are easily dutmmasktd liy fair- ing seeds enclosed in a pud, which is cnllid ii " fft/iinn ." T/iry *'//> /ill/ atatuedfood; then7.> contained in a mttritii" stance called "le.gumrn." which is similar to the "gluten" of irlniit. TIIK PEA is perhaps the most important leijuiniimns jtlunt in t/ic tt'in/ii rnti 1 citiliitrii'.i ; ir/n n i/n i n, it ts used us a Vegetable fur the. (liniii / table, and whin I/I-//OH; it is used for soup, peas-pudding, $r. ; its straw is used for fat t< //- ing hogs, rows, inul simp, lit the ii-iiitir; tin jlnin-ra of the pen are called "papilionaceous, the Latin papilio, a luttirjli/. :n'i, n/!i/, were unhnnirn in Kiii'th it was tin' custom In st-ndfuri/n n / us In KLAMII i;s. There are tli(/'n> n colour, such as the wall-flower. Ion. Now, let us examine the u-cd. Look! ttif M-i-'ls are in a jwd, like the seeds of the 118 leguminous plants. Why are they not called leguminous? P. Without pointing out any other difference, I may tell you that none of these seeds would serve as articles of food like the seeds of the pea and bean. They have not within them the substance called legumen, which, you remember, contains the .azote that nourishes us. The seeds of the cabb:i all the cruciform plants, have a hot or biting taste. Perhaps it would be as well to add, that although we name them according to the shape of their flower, they have / called after their pods. They were called " siliquose plants," from siliqua, the Latin word for pod. There is one more dis- tinction: these plants m ly all anniHils that is, they come to perfection and die in the space of a year; each plant supplying seed for the in-\t year, except those which are " double " plants. JT. V.-. I i .. - _-oing to ask. I thought that the I >i,nble stocks did not supply seed! Ion. And I know a cruci- form plant which is not an annual the /iri-iiijitim stock is not. It only flowers every two years, so it is called a Ji. which means a two-year plant. The Wall-flower, too, is not an annual. I\ True; but w->7 plants <>!' this order are. Now, in tin- Order of Leguminous plants, we timl many that become tall trees, such us the Tninni-iinl ami '1 lie Corn-plant.-. again, arc annuals ARTICLES OF FOOD. Tilt CABBAGE. W. Before we make the les- son on the Cruciform plants, I think I can see another of their distinctions. P. What is it? W. That we do not procure food from their seed, as we do from the corn-plants and the leguminous plants ; we onlj eat their leaves, P. That is not a correct dis- tinction. You have made the mistake because we are learning the distinctions of a tribe of plants from one indivi- dual. Do you know what I mean by generalizing? W. Yes. You mean speak- ing of things in general. I was generalizing when I was speak- ing about Cruciform plants in general. P. True ; and you only had knowledge of one of the tribe. The truth is, that they are not all like the cabbage; for some supply food from their root, we eat the fluwer-stalk of others. Shall I tell you what you may learn from your mistake? W. Yes, papa, please. P. You may leam that you cannot generalize (or speak generally) concerning a tribe from a knowledge of one speci- men. Y"ou must either have seen most of the tribe yourself, or you must generalize under the guidance of some one else who has done so. Ion. Then please to show us some more specimens, or tell us some more names, that we may see if we know them. P. No. I have helped you to point out the chief distinc- tions, by observing the cabbage; so I shall not tell you any more names. Now, you may easily find out the others, by looking for plants with distinctions like those of the cabbage, and we shall discover them as we pro- ceed with our lessons. You may now mark the dis- tinctions of the Cruciform plants ; and we will then begin the course with the plant in hand the Cabbage. THE CRUCIFOKJI PLANTS Are a large and useful tribe of annuals. They are so called because they are distinguished by having A blossom with four petals, which have the shape of a cross, while the six stamens and pistil are arranged somewhat in the form of a Maltese cross. Seed, which is found in a pod, and which nearly always has a hot biting taste. The seeds are small, and, as they do not contain any legumen or azote, they are not nutri- tious. On account of their pods, these plants were once called Siliquose plants, from the Latin sihqua, a pod. (CRUCIFORM PLANTS.) 57. THE CABBAGE. It is hardly fair to call a cabbage an annual, for there are some cabbages which, it is said, will produce leaves for several years that is, if they are cut off regularly. You must take care, however, to cut off the seed-stem as soon as it appears, or else the plant will run to 119 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE CABBAGE. seed. There are so many dif- ferent sorts of cabbages, suited for winter and summer, that they may be produced all the year round. The cabbage is a very fruit- ful vegetable ; it is said that no vegetable can produce so much food from the same space of ground, if it be a good stiff soil, such as the cabbage likes. I dare say that you have seen cabbages growing. They are cultivated in this way The youngplants are first raised from seed, and are then planted in the fields in long rows. These rows are kept straight by the help of a line, and the holes are made with a dillcr. As the young plants grow, the rows arc thinned; nearly every other cabbage is cut out, so that those standing may have space to grow to a good size ; those cut down are not wasted they generally form food for the The cabbage crop does not always succeed. If the weather be too hot, many of the young plants do not take root ; but even when they grow larger, very bad accidents often happen to them. Thus 1st, the outside leaves often turn yellow. M'. And. 2ndly, the <-,it< ,- jnllni-x! Ah! J remember the caterpillars! Oh, what a -i^ht those four cabbages were in the corner field at uncle John's ! All their leaves were drilled through and through ! and the nasty whiti>h green caterpillars crawled in and cut, even int.. the \i;ry heart of the cabbage. /'.True. Then we may say, 2ndlv, the caterpillars, and, '120 :?rdly. the slugs are great ene- mies of the cabbage. Ion. And, 4thly, some blight, perhaps. P. Yes, indeed. The cab- bage is sometimes covered with a very minute fly ; these flies are so very small, that they look like a grey powder on the leaf. There is another < caused by an insect. r>thly. The cabbage sometimes has a singular appearance; the stalk increases in size near the root ; it has a "breaking-out," as it were. This breaking-out forms a thick whitish-green crust, something like the swellings you sometimes see on the trunks and brandies of trees. The disease is caused by an insect which lays i:- in the part where tli joins the root. "When this hap- pens in afield of cabbages, they never come to perfection, and it is best to cut down all the |.l.int>. mix quicklime with the earth, and not again plant it with cabbages for three or four years. The slugs and cater- pillars are difficult to clear away; the greatest helps are fowls and ducks, which will eat them in great quantities. II'. What are the rises of cal'tiML'e. papa? P. Most of its uses yon are acquainted with 1st, it is use- ful at the dinner-table: 2ndly, it i- n-ef'ul for fucII. The turnip was well known to the ROMANS. The price of some turnips in Rome was a sestertius (twopence) each. In ENGLAND, it seems to have been grown in the early times, and to have been lost sight of during the times of war and trouble. We hear of it, how- ever, in Henry VIII.'s time : then they were baked, or roasted iu (i.-lie- at the .-hrine. of Apollo. The LMv.it naturalist, Pliny speaks of the radi Etjyjtt as being MTV sweet, and also speaks of (JiriiKiii radishes .sometimes weighing the enor- mous weight of forty pounds. In France and Swit/crland, the pea-ants roast their radishes under the ashes, and they are ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE HORSE-RADISH, ETC. thus useful to give flavour to soups. In Portugal they are boiled, and they were thus cooked formerly in England, being considered good for a cold, but they have an insipid taste when prepared in this way. The radish has been used in England about 300 years. It is supposed that it was first brought from China. (CRUCIFORM PLANTS.) 61. THE HORSE-KAmSH. This plant does not belong to the same family as the ra- dish. Its leaves are different ; its root also spreads more under- ground. It was not used at the dinner-table in England until about the year 1600. Before then it was used as a medicine. Horse-radish is also used for clearing the skin, being scraped and soaked in cold milk. (CRUCIFORM PLANTS.) 62. MUSTARD AND CRESS. There are two sorts of MUS- TARD : the white mustard, which we grow with the cress for a salad; and the black mustard. The latter is ground up to form the mustard we use at the din- ner-table. It is grown in great quantities in the fields of Dur- ham and Yorkshire. In prepar- ing this flour of mustard it is necessary to get rid of the black husk; this is done by delicate sifting. Mustard is not only useful to eat with meat, because of its flavour, but because it assists in digestion. A table-spoonful of mustard in a glass of water is useful as an emetic that is to say, for causing sickness. It is also useful in case of cold, for if it be mixed with the warm water in a foot-bath, or be made into a poultice, it draws the blood to the part where it is applied. The mustard-plant reaches a great size in Eastern countries; and was chosen by our Saviour as the subject of a parable (Matt. xiii. 31). The CRESS which we eat with the mustard as a salad, is a hardy little annual, and is a native of Persia. It differs from the mustard in the form of its leaves and seed: it has also a slightly different flavour. (CRUCIFORM PLANTS.) 63. WATER-CRESS. This plant grows in running streams, and is much cultivated in the neighbourhood of London. It is positively necessary that the water be constantly in mo- tion, or the plant will not grow. When, therefore, the market-gardeners cannot find a suitable stream, they cut out a number of beds in sloping grounds, and procure a supply of water, which they keep mov- ing by artificial means. The cruciform flowers are small and white; and the pods are about an inch long. I suppose you know which part of the plant is useful as food? W. Neither the flowers nor the pod, papa, but the leaves ; they are useful because they have a warm pleasant flavour. 125 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE CRUCIFORM PLANTS. Ion. But there is another plant so much like the water- iiat I couldn't tell the difference. I once picked some of it, and the water-cress man j told me to throw it away be- cause it is poisonous. P. The plant which you speak of, is so much like the water-cress that it is called the FooTs Water-cress. It is not, however, poisonous ; neither is it a cruciform plant, but it be- longs to the " umbelliferous" tribe, which we shall speak of next. I will point out one difference by which you may easily know one plant from the other, without seeing them in flower. If you examine the Fool's water-cress, you will see that the leaf -stalk does not branch offat once from the stem, but it grows for some distance around it, forming a sheath. You see the same thing in the corn-plants ; the long leaves grow round the thin weak straw for some distance, and form a sheath, before they branch out from it; but if you examine the water-cress, you will see that this is not the case with it. i So, by remembering this dif- ference you may easily avoid being deceived by the Fool's water-cress. 64. VARIOUS CRUCIFORM P. There are yet many of these plants unnoticed. Some are cultivated for their seeds, some for their leaves, and others for their pav flowers; they are found in all parts of the temperate climates, but they will not grow either in the 126 tropics, or in the frigid coun- tries. Altogether there are about two thousand species. Shall 1 mention one or two more ? U". Do, please, papa! then we shall have a pood list. P. There is the RIIJH; which is cultivated tor its seed, from which a nice oil is ex; I should have told you that most of the seeds contain n lit- tle oil. We can procure oil from the mustard-seed; rape oil is, however, better known. Scurvy grass, as it is called, is i\ 'inni near the sea-side, and is said to be a remedy for the scurvy. Many of this tribe are weeds. One, called the Shepherd' is well known ; it grows near the hedges, and produces a trianyru- lar, or heart-shaped pod, which is also something like a ]>ur-.-. Amongst those which are mere- ly weeds or flowers, we hav.j the Lady-smock, Wild Rockets, Jack by the Hedge, Candv-tuft, &c., &c. Let us conclude by saying one very good thing about the-o plants it has often been said before "None of them are poisonous ; you may safely make a salad of the young leaves, \\herever you tind them. The worst they can do to you is to bite your tongue." Jon. Now for our lesson on the cruciform plants. Lesson 13. ARTICLES or FOOD. (Temperate Climates.} THE FOOD SUPri.II'.h BY THE CRUCll-'liM PLANTS. 1. This extensive tribe of plants ARTICLES OF FOOD. THK CRUCIFORM PLANTS. supply many important articles of food. All the plants are dis- tiiKjuished by having a flower with four petals which form a cross; and six stamens, which with the pistil resemble a" Maltese cross." They have small round seeds in pods, and from this circumstance they were once called " Siliquose plants." The seeds are generally hot, and contain a bitter oil ; for- tunately none of the plants are poisonous. In the tribe are in- cluded 2. The CABBAGE, of which there are two kinds, the " close- hearted," and the spreading. There are several varieties of cabbage, some of them of mon- strous size. 3. The CAULIFLOWER and BROCOLI are mere varieties of the cabbage with the flower-stalk increased to a great size. 4. The TURNIP also belongs to the Cabbagefamily. It affords food by the great enlargement of the fleshy fibre of the root, which forms a large round bulb. The cultivation of this plant is often much hindered by the turnip- fly. 5. The RADISH is a small and useful vegetable; there are two kinds, the long radish, and the round turnip-radish. 6. The HORSE-RADISH is cul- tivated for its root, which, when scraped into thin shavings and mixed with vinegar, is pleasant to eat iuith roast beef. 7. MUSTARD and CRESS are grown principally as salad. There are two kinds of mustard, the white, and the black, which has a reddish colour and a sharp pungent taste ; this is ground to a powder, and is used to flavour meat. It is grown in Durham and Yorkshire. 8. The WATER-CRESS is a plant growing in running streams, and is eaten for the sake of its young leaves : it bears a small white flower. 9. Besides these, there are many other species, altogether about two thousand in number. Amongst those cultivated for their flowers are the STOCK, WALL-FLOWER, j and CANDY-TUFT, the SHEP- HERD'S PURSE, LADY-SMOCK, WILD-ROCKET, and SCURVY- GRASS. The RAPE plant is cul- tivated principally for the oil which may be extracted from tiie seed. P. We will now turn our at- tention to another tribe of plants. Here is one with a long orange- coloured, fleshy root, and a sweetish taste. It is called (UMBELLIFEROUS PLANTS.) 65. THE CARROT. Ion. I should have supposed that the Carrot belongs to the same tribe as the turnip. P. You may soon tell the difference by looking at the green top of this carrot. Is it like a turnip-top? L. No, the leaf is more like a parsley-leaf. How wrinkled it is ! and then each leaf is di- vided into many parts. P. See, too, how it grows from the stalk of the plant ! Ion. Yes. I remember what you said of the umbelliferous plants, and now I can see it. Look, Lucy, how each leaf-stalk grows a little way round the 127 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE PAKSSIP, rKLF.UY. large stalk, and forms a sheath to it. P. But the most noticeable part is the blossom, or flower. This flower is so peculiar that it cannot easily be mistaken; it is, therefore, the grand distinc- tion of the order to which the carrot belongs. II". I notice that there are several branches bearing flow- i T-. and that all these branches spring from one stalk; then, from each of these stalks springs a bunch of little stalks, each bearing a flower; they all spring from one place just like the spokes of a wheel, or the rays in a circle. Ion. And they are something like the ribs branching out from the stick of the umbrella, for the flowers at the end of the stalks form a round head. P. These peculiar bunches of flowers are called uml>ek, and all the plants with such flowers are called UMBELLIFEROUS 1'i VNT8. I have not much to tell yon of the cultivation of the carrot, except that it is very easily cul- tivated; it will grow in almost any soil, and in very cold wea- ther. If care be not taken, the carrots will fork that is, they will divide into two or three roots instead of one. They are packed in straw, and stored up for the winter as food for cattle. Yon know that i root is the pan ucd for food; it is nutritious because of the ;: contains. /.. And >ugar also. Carrots are very sv /.. Is the carrot useful for anything besides food? 128 P. Yes. The anciei I the seed " as a medicine ap.. the bite of serpents." It may be used to poison cricket- : these insects are so fond of car- nit, that if it be scraped and made into a paste with arsenic, thev eat it readily. P. The history of the carrot is like the history of the preceding vegetables. It was introduced i by some of the persecuted j Flemings who settled in K< M in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. - id that in the reign of ! James I. the ladies used to ornament their bonnets witii the leaves of the wild carrot. which are very beautiful in the autumn time. (UMBELLIFEROrS PLANTS.) 66. THE PARSNIP. Did yon ever ta-tf Parsnip? 11'. I have. pnpa. I am very fond of them ; for they are even sweeter than carrots, and they have a white colour. P. From this sweetness one of its uses is derived ; the (juantity of Migar in the parsnip that a wine and a spirit may be procured from it. In Ireland it is brewed with hops, and form* a drink which i< not unlike beer. In this country it is used par- ticularly in Lent time to tat with MUt-ffob. The parsnip is even a more hardy plant than the carrot, for it will live out of en in the most frosty weather. (UuBi:i.i.in:i:t S PLANTS.) 67. CKLKKV. Inn. I lia\ ( clery- beds. When people cultivate ARTICLES OF FOOD. CELERY. celery they make trenches in the ground, in which they place the young plants. As fast as the young plants grow they are covered up with earth, until at last, a bank is formed, in which the long stalks of the plant are nearly buried. When the stalks are taken out they are quite white, because they have been kept from the light by the earth. W. And / remember seeing a gardener cover up the young shoots of celery; he said he was " earthing-up" the plants, and afterwards they were " strawed j over," for he covered the beds with straw to protect them from the frost. P. The celery is covered up with earth, that it may be white and juicy; if it were exposed to the air, it would be too green and hard, and would have too strong a flavour. Some gar- deners earth-up their plants until the stalks are two feet long. I may tell you, 2ndly, that the goodness of celery much depends upon its growing rapidly. W. Now, please tell us a third fact. P. Srdly, Keep your celery dry by draining off the moisture from the bank. And, 4thly, I will tell you why. If you go to some of the marshes in the Isle of Thanet, near the sea, you will find it growing wild; but this wild celery is poisonous, because of the dampness of the soil. L. And ichy is it not poison- ous in a dry soil, I should like to know ? P. This is all the explanation I can give you. Celery con- tains two principal "qualities" the narcotic quality, which is poisonous ; and the aronuitir, which is pleasant. A damp soil causes the narcotic quality to increase, but if the plant be placed in a dry soil, it loses its narcotic quality, and becomes aromatic. W. And very nice to eat with cheese ! I did not know before that it was an aromatic flavour that I liked so much. P. The earthing-up of the cel- ery is another cause why the poi- sonous quality is lost ; but how it causes this I cannot tell you. Perhaps one of the agricultural chemists can. I have heard that the seed, also, of celery is sometimes used in soup. There is a kind of celery with a root like a turnip, which is eaten in Germany, where it grows to a great size. It is seldom culti- vated in England, but is some- times imported ; it is called the turnip-rooted celery, or Celeriac. 68. VAEIOUS UMBELLI- FEROUS PLANTS. There are yet several small umbelliferous plants used for food. The tunsJp and parsnip supply food from their root; the celery from its stalk. There are two of which we use the leaves, while of others the seeds are useful. I will describe one to yon. It grows in the kitchen-garden, and its leaf has a pleasant aro- matic flavour; therefore, the cook uses it in making broth, &c. It has, also, a very pretty appearance, for its bright 129 ARTICLES OF FOOD. PARSLEY, ETC. green leaf is very curly; so, the cook trims it nicely, and when she brings up a fowl, or a ham, or fish, or a cold joint, j which is to be served in artist- like style, then M'. I know she arranges it all around the dish and on the meat. We call it PARSLEY. P. Yes; she "garnishes with parsley," as the cookery book directs. There are two kinds of parsley, the plain-leaved and the curled-leaved. The curled- leaved is better, not only because it is prettier than the other, but because it can be easily known from the weed called the Foot's parsley. Ion. I know what fool's par- sley is. I once picked some, and the gardener showed me that the leaf is plainer than the parsley leaf: he said, too, that it is poisonous. P. There is another umbel- liferous plant, which often grows wild; the leaf is long, featltery, and very beautiful. The smell, however, is unplea- sant; it is too narcotic. You may easily procure some at the fishmonger's; if you buy mac- kcrcl. or some salmon, he will give you some of this plant to ii-e in making sauce. /.. I have seen the plant, papa; it is railed FI.VNKI.. P. True. The fennel grows plentifully near the sea, on chalky dirt's. It i> found in Sussex, between Worthing and Brighton. U'. Some of the umbellifer- ous plants we have heard of L'ive a* toi ill from their roots (such as the carrot and pur- no snip), we eat the stalk of the celery, the leaf of the parsley and fennel, and what umbelli- ferous plants give us seed to eat? P. I suppose you have heard of caraway seed ? '. Oh", yes! and I hare tasted them. P. Very well, then ; see how you like its history. The CARAWAY-SKID is the produce of an umbelliferous plant. It is not strictly a seed; it is the pulp of the ripe fruit. The plant grows wild in many parts. In Suffolk and K^.'x it is cultivated upon "old grass land, broken up for the pur- pose." It is generally a biennial. Do vou know what that means? L. Yes ; a firo-year plant, like the Brompton Stork. You know the principal use of the caraway-seed. Cori- ander-seed belongs to t) family of plant; so also do. the Dill plant, the seeds of which are used to make "Dill-water;" this you know is often given to babes. U'. When they have the stomach-ache. Nurse told me so. P. Nearly all these seeds are ntfiliriniil. The doctors u>e the seeds of caraway, coriander, dill, cummin, and atii.se. I ilare s;i\- you ha\ c heard of ani- seed, for that is as much u-c.l to comfort the bubo as the dill-water. We will notice one more umbelliferous plant. I told you of the "narcotic" ijuulity in the celery. I .-aid that >'Hiie of these plants which grow wild have the narcotic ARTICLES OF FOOD. UMBELLIFEROUS PLANTS. quality so strong that they are highly poisonous. The most poisonous is the HEMLOCK, which is described as a "rapid and deadly poison to all ani- mals." The hemlock, never- theless, is a noble-looking plant, and the root may "be eaten if boiled ; for heat will drive away the poison (volatilize it), just as it volati- lizes the poison of arrow-root. The Athenians used to poison their criminals with the juice of the hemlock. I dare say you have read in the history of Greece how the famous philo- sopher Socrates was put to I death by drinking hemlock. Therefore, in winding up the ! account of these plants, what may we say of them ? Ion. We will say that they | are not so safe as the cruciform plants, that they are a danger- ous tribe to meddle with, unless you understand them. Lesson 14. ARTICLES OP FOOD. (Temperate Climates.) THE FOOD SUPPLIED BY THE UMBELLIFER- OUS PLANTS. The umbelliferous plants are a useful tribe, supplying us with one or two pleasant vegetables. The chief distinction of tie tribe ix seen in the flowers, which have stalitts arranged in peculiar bunches called " umbels." 1. The CAIIROT is a useful vege- table, well known front its orange- coloured, sweet-tasting root. It if as introduced into England by the Flemings, and at first its beautiful bright green leaves mere no admired that they mere warn by the ladies as ornaments in ttieir bonnets. 2. The PARSNIP is much like the carrot, but it has a white root. It is, however, sweeter ; and although the carrot is very hardi/. tlte parsnip is more so, for it will live through the hardest winter. Parsnips are used dur- ing " Lent," being eaten with salt-flsh. 3. CELERY is known from the aromatic flavour of its stalk. TJiisflavour is preserved by keep- ing the stalks white ; and the whiteness is preserved by cover- ing them over with earth, to keep them from the light. 4 Some of these plants are useful, because of their seeds, which are cither used by the con- fectioner for their nice flavour, or as medicine ; such as the Cara- way, Dill, Coriander, Cummin, and Aniseed. Others arc highly poisonous, such as the different kinds of hemlock ; but they also are useful as medicine. P. Now, let me call your attention to one more order of plants which supply us with food. Look at this Dandelion ! You are in the habit of speak- ing of it as one flower, but it is really a number of flowers clustered together. Each little part which you would perhaps call a yellow petal, is a distinct flower, or floret (as we say, which means little flower). The daisy is formed in the same way ; it is not a single flower, but it consists of between two and three hundred florets. The flat white leaflets in the border of the daisy are all distinct florets, and the golden eye is made up of vast numbers of such florets which are not fully developed ; 131 ARTICLES OF FOOD. COMPOSITE PLANTS. indeed, they are so small that they can only he discovered by a microscope. When the daisy is cultivated, this " golden eye " becomes smaller, just because these florets prow to their full size. You may see this in tin- large white daisy which grows in vour garden, Willie. \V. Yes, it is quite round ; it does not seem to have any eye at all. P. You may see the same thing in the Dahlia, which is a very large daisy. Many become single, as we say when they have a yellow eye, because the florets in the centre are not developed. W. And is each petal in the dahlia, a distinct flower, papa ? P. Yes. Whatnamewouldyou give to a flower, which is made up of several smaller ones? L. I should say it was com- pound. P. True; and because it is compound, or composed of smaller flowers, we call it a riiiii/Hisite plant. The composite nature of the plant m.iy be well seen in the Dandelion. When all the flowers have died, each leaves in its place a small seed with the that the seeds form a round feathery ball. Von have. I dare say. seen what purpose i- answered l>\ leaving this downy tlower-cnp attached to the seed. Ion. Yes: I have blown them all off from thistles and dande- lions, and the feathery part i> ra-ily wafted through the air. Thus the seeds arc seatten-d abroad. and new plautsspriii'_' up. /'. And. after youhaveblow n away these seeds, you mav ob- 132 serve the round-shaped and flattened surface filled with minute holes. From each of these, one of the small flowers (or , florets) grew. The order of Composite Plants is a very extensive one, for it contains many thousand species. These plants abound in tin; temperate countries, and al- though they are smaller than those growing in the tropics, they are much more numerous. For instance, in England they form one-tenth of all the native flowering-plants ; being about 140 species. In some other temperate countries they are even more abundant. L. Then, I suppose that we shall find a great mam " ar- tirles of food" ill this order? P. No ; you will not find many. One large division of the order are known for their milky juice, which has a Litter and an astringent ta. -i- soned with butter and vinegar; -.>nii-tiincs they are preserved in honey. (COMPOSITE PLANTS.) 72. THK JKUrS.VLEM A Kri< IIUKK. Although this plant has a similar name, it differs from the 134 common Artichoke, belonging to a different family. It also differs in its appearance, for it is a kind of Min-flower. The part eaten is the root, which looks sometimes like a potato, and has a sweet taste, like a parsnip. L. Does it grow in Jerusalem, papa? P. The word Jerusalem has no reference to the holy city ; it is derived from the Italian word Girasoli, which means " to turn toward the sun." There are many other com- posite plants supplying food, as we might expect of so large an order. Besides the artichoke there is another plant with a root resembling a par- snip, which is much used on the Continent. It has the awk- ward name Scorzonera, bc'-iniM- its properties are an antidote to the poison of a snake called the Scurzo. Ion. It is like the root of the Arrow-root plant, which is an antidote to the poison of the Indians' arrows. P. Most of the fleshy roots of these plants are medicinal. The dandelion root which forms chicory-, is also used as a medi- cine. There is one, something like a white daisy, which is used as a medicine ; it is railed the < 'hauiornile. II". 1 once had some chamo- mile-tea ; it was very bitter. P. Besides the flow er of the chamomile, we sometimes use the seeds of the Sun-flower, another composite plant. You know many other composite flowers. 1 will mention some. The Marigold, Daisy, China- ARTICLES OP FOOD. THE POTATO. aster, Dahlia, the common weed, Groundsel. L. Ah ! those are very fami- liar friends! W. And now if we add the names which we know already we shall have a good list of Composite plants. I will count them. TheChamomile, Scorzon- era, Artichoke, Jerusalem Ar- tichoke, Sun-flower, the En- dives (which include the En- dive, the Chicory, and the Dan- delion), Lettuce. And you may discover many others, if you will look for them in the garden or fields. There are many more vege- tables used as food in the tem- perate climates. We will no- tice two or three belonging to various orders. 73. THE POTATO. This is one of the most use- ful vegetables in the world. In Ireland it forms a principal arti- I cle of food; it was first culti- | vated there in the reign of King James I. Its history begins with the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In the year 1584 (about 100 years after Columbus discovered Ame- rica), the Queen sent out a fleet " to discover and plant new countries." This fleet was fitted up principally by Sir Walter Raleigh, who commanded, and in the course of his excursions one of his men, named Thomas Heriot, discovered the plant. In the account which he sent home, he stated that the natives called it operands, and that the round roots hung together as if fixed on ropes. He recom- mended its use for making sweetmeats, and says that they should be eaten sopped in wine, or boiled in prunes. Ion. How differently they are cooked now! P. Sir Walter Raleigh first planted them in Ireland, but his first effort was a failure. You know that the plant yields a very pretty purple and yellow flower, and that it is succeeded by green berries. The gardener, when these were ripe, despised the " apples," as he called them, and laughed at them as speci- mens of the fine fruit which his master had broughtfrom abroad. When they were brought to Sir Walter, he also despised them, and ordered them to be thrown out of his garden as useless weeds. In digging them up, the gardener discovered the tubers themselves, which he thought might be worth keep- ing, and saved them. The plant did not grow into favour rapidly. Like the scarlet- runner, it is an instance how slowly people adopt any new food. The Puritans declared that it was not lawful to eat them because they are not men- tioned in the Bible. About the year 1700, when the first gardeners' calendar was published, it was still neg- lected, for the plant was noticed in this way : " Plant your potato in your worst ground." It was also said to be of less note than the horse-radish, so that it was still despised in Eng- land ; but by this time it had be- come popular in Ireland, for we read that there "potatoes were used as much as bread." 135 ARTICLES OF FOOD. POTATO, ONION. About thirty years afterwards (in the year 1728) its cultiva- tion in Scotland began. A Scotch labourer, named Pren- tice, cropped his little garden with potatoes, and the value of his crops soon became known to his neighbours, who followed his example. Mr. Prentice soon made his fortune and retired from business, having the pleasure of knowing that, \>v introducing the plant, he had been of great service to his country. I need not speak of the culti- vation of the potato. In seed- time the old potatoes are cut into pieces, which are dropped into holes made by the dibber, and each piece containing an eye will produce a new plant. A few years ago the potato was attacked by a most destructive called the rot ; it eau.-ee. The goose-foot tribe grows in the northern parta of Europe, and in nearly all the waste places of the world they are considered as " rank weeds ;" and the spinach is an example of the reformation to be made in a plant by cultivation. Inn. I have seen the spinach, papa, when it has run to seed. The e^/-'v.. /. or fruit, as you would call it, is rather prickly. P. Yes; and this is why it is called spinach, from the Latin $l>inn, a thorn. The next plant we shall speak of has a Greek name. Jon. This is a piece of BEET- 138 ROOT, papa. Why have you placed it beside the spinach? P. Because it also belongs to the Goose-foot tribe. It is called Beet, because the shape of its fruit (or seed-vi - like that of Beta, the second letter in the Greek alphabet. The beet is cultivated for its tleshy root, which is of a bright red colour. What else can you say of it? L. It is soft and watery. Ion. It has a sweet taste. II '. It is used in making up salads. P. True; there are two kinds the red and the white beet. You know which we make use of. There is one kind used as food for cattle, which is both red and white it is called the Mangel WurzeL Cows are very fond of it. Not many years ago, in the time of Napoleon Bonaparte, the French people were the enemies of the English, and Bonaparte said that the people were not to buy goods produced in the English colonies then the French would not buy the sugar which we had grown for them, and were obliged to make their sugar from the beet-root. Beet-root sugar is very good, but it is more expensive than that from the cane. The French cultivated the beet-root very largely, and opened extensive manufactories for HKKT-KOOT SUGAR. But they have since found it is better to have our sugar from the West indies. 76. RHUBAKH. This is the last vegetable we ARTICLES OF FOOD. COMPOSITE PLANTS. will mention it is not eaten with meat like the others, but its large fleshy leaf-stalk is used as with sugar, to make tarts. &c. Rhubarb is a plant of the dock kind. The root of some species is used as a medicine ; some of the root is brought from Turkey, but much more from other places. In Turkey the men are very fond of it, they will carry it about with them, and will nibble a little bit every now and then. You have, I dare say, seen and tasted such rhubarb. Ion. I have ; it has a rich brown colour, and a very bitter taste. I call it nasty. P. You may now make a lesson on the plants we have lately been talking about. Lesson 15. ARTICLES OF FOOD. ( Temperate Cou n tries. ) THE FOOD SUPPLIED BY THE COMPOSITE AXD OTHER PLANTS. These plant ninay be easily dis- tinguished, as the flower consists of a number of very minute fion-ers (or Jlorets) growing on one head ; most of' them contain a white milky juice, which is bitter and narcotic. TJtey J'orm, per- haps, the largest order of plants existing. 17te LETTUCE is well known, the leaves being used as a salad. Like the celery stalks, they are ren- dered crisp and pleasant by being blanched they are tied round, so that the leaves may J'orm a white "hsart." There are two kinds, the Cabbage and the Cos-lettuce. 2. The ENDIVE has an appear- ance something like that of the lettuce and -is also used, as a salad. The chicory, and the dan- delion plants are endives, and the roots of both yield a substance called chicory, which is ground up with coffee to improve its fla- vour. 3. The roots of some composite plants are fii's'hy ; in cooking them, fhe poison is driven off' by heat, and they taste something like the parsnip and carrot. One. called the SCOKZONKRA, is used on the Continent. The root of fhe JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE is eaten in England; another plant, call- ed the AIITICHOKB, which is very different, supplies food from the Jlon-er-buds. The seeds of the .^UN-FLOWER may be used as food for poultry. 5. The order of Composite plants issaid tobe the largest order known it contains several wett- knonrnjlowers. such ax the DAISY, the DAHLIA, the CHINA A~TER. the THISTLB, the MARIGOLD, and othei-s. 6. There are many other u-se- ful vegetables belonging to vari- ous orders, such as the Potato, the Onion, Spinach, Beet, and Rhu- barb. The POTATO is cultivated for the sake of its fleshy "tuber;" it was brought into England from America in the time of Sir Walter Raleigh. It nas a long time before the plant became a I general article of food. The OXION is cultivated for its fleshy "bulb." It has a strong pungent taste, but when boiled, this pungency is driven an-ay by the heat, and the onion becomes sweet. SPINACH and BEET belong to a division of plants called the Goose-foot tribe, because some have broad leaves shaped like the foot of a goose. The leaves of spinach are generally boiled like 139 ARTICLES OF FOOD. FHflTS. tlie cabbage, rchile beet -root is cut in slices, and eaten with salads, Sf-e. lihuliarb it a plant of the dvck html ; it* thick If of -stalks contain sugar, and from t/irir ///orfof a legumi- nous plant is its fruit such a- tiic pea-ihe.ll; but we do not eat such fniit. IV. No; we give the pea- shells to the pigs, and we eat the teeds. P. Yes. The red berry of the pepper vine, which we talked :. is its fruit, but we do not eat such fruit. L. No ; the berries arc vsaxhnl lit]' from the seeds when white pepper is prepared. The pulp 140 of the coffee-berries is also wa>bed oil' from the seeds. P. Again, if you allow one of your sweet-williams to run to seed, you will see that the seeds are kept in pods, which are open at the top, and that they fall out if the j>o,l< he turned upside down. These seed-cases are the fruit of the sweet-william, but you do not eat them. ir. No; they are only dry husky skins. P. It is when the seed-case enlarges, and becomes soft and pulpy, that it makes pleasant fruit. The seed of the apple we call the />/', and there is a mass of fresh green pulp be- tween the pips and the Mnooth rind of the apple: this \\e call the fruit. What do you say of such fruit as that? Ion. That we do eat it. P. True; and, although all seed-cases are fruits, in general c.>n\crsation we only call those fruit which we are able to eat. W. Now I can say what a fruit is a fruit is " an eatable secd-< /'. Let us try to arrange our fruits in their proper places. Have you ever Been a wild rose ? Ion. I gathered a great many last year, papa. We called them dog roses. P. Ami next time you gather one, will you count the /.. Af/.v of the flower you will see that it has five spreading petaN. Without stopping to de-r by the ciul "I January, these figs are ripe, ami it is said that they arc tin 'ii picked as "delicious morsels." I have seen a fig-tree, papa; and have seen the .-.cci>nt-crop fig.> were verv large. 146 P. The second crop w<. appearance, but does not /-i/ien in our country the winters are too cold ; while the tijr- tree in the warmest temperate climes sometimes has three crops of fruit they are called the easier fig, the summer fig, and the /;//otash contained in their ashes. The same bitter quality is found in the. green husk of the fruit, and in the skin of the kernel. There must be some- thing nice in this quality, for anglers boil the leaves and Im-ks in water, and pour the juice on the earth, in order to procure worms, which quickly rise to the surface for it. The fruit is, however, the be.t part. It i> useful in every stage of its jTouth. When young and green it is used as a pickle, and ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE WALNUT, CHESTNUT. was at one time boiled in sugar as a sweetmeat. W. That is like the GREEN GINGER. P. True ; but we generally eat the fruit when it is ripe. When the skin of the kernel can be easily removed, the fruit is wholesome and nutritious, but when the kernels are old and dry, so that the skins stick to them, they are indigestible. You would not suppose that they would become an article of daily food Ion. I should have thought that they are not wholesome enough for that. P. But, I have read in the " Penny Cyclopedia," where I found these particulars about the walnut-tree, that in many parts of France, Spain, Italy, and Germany, the people live entirely on walnuts during the picking season. In those countries walnut- trees are far more important than in England; there is a certain district on the Rhine which is almost entirely planted with them; and it is said that to this day " no young farmer living there, can marry a wife until he proves that he is father to a certain number of walnut- trees." L. Have you told us all the uses of the walnut, papa? P. In another place I shall have to speak of the walnut oil. The seeds are nutritious because they contain so much albumen, which I told you is the substance that forms the fibrin of the blood. The mode of gathering walnuts in this country is rather peculiar. The fruit is beaten off the tree with a long pole ; for it is said that the beating is good for the tree's health. Lately, however, certain unbelieving people have ventured to say that the beating injures the tree, and that it is better to let the fruit drop off, or pick it. 83. THE CHESTNUT, &c. The CHESTNUT is another good fruit. In the Physical Geo- graphy lessons of PLEASANT PAGES, you had an account of the splendid chestnut-trees on Mount Etna. L. Yes, I remember the CHESTNUT-TREE OF A HUNDRED HORSES. You said that a string, to surround it, must be as long as a street containing ten mid- dle-sized houses I forget the number of feet in length. P. I said that the tree is 163 feet in circumference. The chestnut-trees even live to a greater age than the walnut- trees those on Mount Etna are said to have lived several thousand years. The " tree of a hundred horses" is said to be the oldest tree in the world its age has been calculated at about 5,200 years. The chestnut does not belong to the same order as the wal- nut. The order (Corylacce) in- cludes the Chestnut, Hazel-nut, Filbert, the Horse Chestnut, the Oak, the Beech, and others. You may know them, 1st, be- cause they all yield valuable timber; 2nd, by the peculiar kind of flowers called catkins, which hang from the male plants ; and from the fruit 151 AKTICLES OF FOOD. FRUIT-BEARING PLANTS. being called either nut, mast, or acorn L. I have heard of beech- mew*, but I never knew before, that it was the fruit of the beech. I have read that pigs eat it, as they eat the acorn of the oak. P. The other nuts grown and eaten in temperate countries, are the FILBERT, the HAZEL, and the BARCELONA scrs. Most of these yon are acquainted with, so that we will not go into their history now. The Brazil and Cocoa nut, is brought from the tropics ; all these nuts contain oil. /.. Now, papa, shall we make a lesson on the different /rui'tof P. Perhaps it would be as well to make a list of their names, that you may commit them to memory. Lesson 16. ARTICLES OF FOOD. (Temperate Countries.) THE FOOD SUPPLIED BY THE FRUIT-DEAR- ING PLANTS. The principal fruit-bearing plants are those belonging to the ROSE TRIBE, such as tiie APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE, and MEDLAR, vrith seeds container/ in a horny case called a "core;" and the PKACH, APRICOT, NECTARINE, 1'i.i M. CHERRY, and ALMOND; the seeds of which are found in a harder case called a "stone." This division of the Rose-like plants is called the Almond tribe. The other rose-like plants are the Raspberry and Strawberry. 152 In the Nettle tribe are found the MULBERRY and the FIG. In the Gooseberry tribe ve have the Gooseberry, and the Black, White, and Rtd CUR- RANTS. The CRANBERRY resem- blts die currant, but belongs to a different tribe. The Olive tribe contains the OLIVE-TKEE, which is of very great importance in Palestine and the South of Europe it also con- tains the MANNA ASH, fn-m which mnnita is procured, the LILAC, PINES, $r. The Orange tribe supplies us with . tiie ORANGE, LEMON, CITRON, LIMB, and other beau- tiful fruits. There are also different kinds of Nuts, such as the WALNUT, CHESTNUT. HAZEL, FII.HERT, BARCELONA, and BRAZIL nuts. W. Now, shall we learn of the animal food from the tem- perate countries? /'. We have not quite finish- ed the account of the vegetable foods. I have on my li-t two or three liquids whirh are used to an enormous extent. They are used too much to please me. L. Please let us hear their names. J'. I JEER, WINE, and SPIRITS; and we have a better liquid, which will lead us to the ani- mal kingdom, MILK. W. Then please tell ns some- thing about these liquids, espe- cially their qualities. 84. BEEK. P. "Thank ye for a drop of beer, sir?" Do you know who says that? ARTICLES OF FOOD. BEER. W. Yes, the coalmen say so, when they bring the coals. Ion. And so does a porter when he has been cam-ing a box. W. And the dustman. L. And the chimney sweep. Ion. And the gardener the man who mows the grass plot in front of the house asked me for some the other day ; but I had'nt any money. P. And there are many more who like beer, but that does not prove that it is good for them; the general rule is, that the foods we like best are the most injurious. But one more word to show how much beer people drink. There is a certain beer- making establishment in Lon- don a " Brewery," I should call it. It belongs to Messrs. BARCLAY, PERKINS, and Co. This establishment occupies a space of no less than eight or nine acres of ground. Just think of your uncle's field, which measures five acres, and you can easily imagine how large a space this brewery covers ! But the size of the establish- ment would not give you a pro- per idea of the quantity of beer made there. You must go and look at the great malt bins. There are twenty or thirty of them, and each bin is about as high as a house. Then you may go to the cisterns where the water is kept for boiling the malt : some of these gigantic cisterns supply a hundred thousand gallons per day without becoming empty. After that go to the vats, in which the beer is kept when it is made ; some of these vats will hold three or four thousand bar- rels each. Lastly, when you have counted up all the other vessels of vast size, the mash- tuns, coppers, and boilers, go look at the thousands and tens of thousands of small, middle- sized, and huge barrels, butts, puncheons, &c., and if you take time enough to see them, you will come away filled with as- tonishment at the scale on which matters are conducted. You might wonder how even London, with all her inhabi- tants, could consume such quan- tities; but your wonder would be increased on hearing that this is only one of aboiit a dozen giant establishments in London, besides hundreds of smaller breweries. Then you might he tempted to ask, How is it that people can drink so much beer? W. Well, how is it? I don't drink any. P. We shall see soon ; but hear how the people of BAVARIA drink beer. Ion. Where is Bavaria, papa? P. Bavaria is one of the kingdoms of Germany ; you may find it on your map of Europe. Like the English, "the devo- tion of the people to beer is such, that they resort to the cellars and large beer-shops in crowds, to drink. The conver- sation of the citizens constantly runs upon the quantity and quality of the annual brewing. At the beginning of the beer season there is everywhere seen the most surprising anxiety to discover where the best beer is to be had, and the favourite 153 ARTICLES OF FOOD. BEER. beer-shop is crowded until the sprouts were allowed to grow supply is exhausted."* It is also said that brewing is the in\\ eet wort, a malting floor. This malting I know, was very pleasant, and floor was heated, and the heat I thought that if the brewer dried the barley, caused it to would have let it alone it would swell and burst, and to begin to have made very good beer ; but. grow, by sending forth a young no! tlii' sweet wort was boiled shoot or sprout. While thus a-_'ain with a number of bitter growing, the particles of the tlowers called hops. grain changed very much ; they IT. What are hops, papa? fermented, as we say, and by i hi* /'. They are the flowers of a fermentation the starch of the climbing plant. You may see an barley became sugar, to form account of the hop gardei.- nourishment for the young Kent in Pi I. VSAM P.M.: plant. When the v.vcet wort had been , L. Ah, you told us before, boiled with these hops I tasted papa, of the starch changing it again, but thought it was a into sugar; and that if the decided failure; and I told the lurcwcr so. * M urmy'B Hand-book for 6ou th- em Germany. Vol. UL p. 205. 154 ARTICLES OF FOOD. BEER. But the brewer had his own opinion, so he proceeded with his work. He drained the wort from the hops and poured it into several tubs, and proceeded^) cool it as quickly as possible. When the wort was properly cooled it was strained again into a large vat, and then came another fermenting. A little yeast was put into the vat, and that set the whole of the wort in motion. All the particles began to change; the sugar was changed into a spirit called alcohol, and the nutritious part of the barley juice, that which contained the gluten, was changed into yeast. How I stood by the side of the vat and watched it! The particles of gluten which were thus being changed, rose to the surface in a white froth, and soon the froth rose so quickly that it formed a thick substance like pudding; this was called yeast. As fast as the yeast thickened on the top, the brewer skimmed it off, and took care of it. W. What for? L, I can tell you that, Willie. Yeast is used by the baker in making bread. What kind of a fermentation do you call that, papa? You say it changed the sugar into alcohol, and the gluten into yeast. P. That is called the Vinous fermentation, from the Latin word vinum, wine. It changed the beer into wine, for beer may be called a " malt-wine." The last process was the fining or clearing ; isinglass was used for the purpose, and something else, but I forget what. L. And is this the way beer is always made, papa? P. I can't say. I know that this is the way my aunt's brewer made it. I have never seen it made at Barclay and Perkins', but I have heard that in no two counties of England is ex- \ actly the same plan followed. Besides, there are several kinds of beer. The light malt is used to make ale, and the dark brown | malt is used to make porter. < After the malt has been boiled, and the wort has been poured away, it is usual to add fresh water and boil it up again ; this decoction is of course weaker, and forms what is called small beer, or table-beer. Ion. There are several pro- cesses for making beer; I have been counting them 1st, the malting of the barley; 2nd, the grinding; 3rd, the mashing; 4th, the boiling ; 5th, the boil- ing with hops; 6th, the cool- ing; 7th, the fermenting; and 8th, the clearing and fining. Now, papa, you have not told us why beer is not a good drink? P. Because it is unwhole- some. I told you in our lesson on the corn plants,* that the gluten of the barley is the part which contains albumen, and j forms the flesh, or fibre of the j barley. Now, by the fermen- tation, this gluten was nearly all destroyed. W. Yes; you said it was changed into yeast. P. And in our lesson on sugar, I said that it supplies carbon, which forms heat within the bodv. ' Page 105. 155 ARTICLES OP FOOD. nEKR. Ion. /remember that! P. But by this fermentation, the sugar is changed into alco- hol, a spirit which supplies heat far more quickly than sugar. So that if your blood circulates slowly, and yon feel cold, if you drink a glass of beer, its alcohol will soon make you warm and lively. Ion. Then alcohol is a good thing? P. Only on very rare occa- sions, for alcohol is too heating, and injures the nerves, just as tea does. If you take very much, it will cause your blood to circulate very quickly, your body will become very warm, and your nerves and brain will become so excited, that you will think strange thoughts, and say strange words, and do strange things, and people will say to you W. They'll say, "You are drunk!" L. Or intoxicated, Willie; " drunk" is a rude word. W. Is it? P. Another bad part of the beer's history is the shameful waste it causes. About ten years ago, between forty and fifty million bushels of barley were annually used for malting. Think, now, of the ten thou- sands of starving men in this country 1 They cry for nourish- ment for their bony frames, yet the nutritious gluten, which God has placed in this barley, is nearly all destroyed and turned into yeast. The most nu- tritious substance in a brewery is the grain of the malt after it has been boiled the gluten cannot be quite boiled out, and 156 these " grains" are used to feed the great dray-horses of the brewers. L. Are you quite sure, papa, that there is so little nourish- ment in beer ? The doctor ordered mamma to take it. He said she was to drink it, because she was nursing baby. P. I cannot speak from my own observation, because I am not a chemist. But I have spoken to you before of a jrrcat German chemist, named LUHj vou shall hear what he says. You heard of the fine Bava- rian bter, and I said that nearly all the nutritious quality of the malt is destroyed in making it. Now, hear how very nearly it is destroyed. M. Liebig says : "We can prove, with mathe- matical certainty, that as much flour as can lie on the point of a table-knife is more nutritions than five measures (eipht or teu quarts ?) of the beet Bavarian beer !" What do you think of that? And then he makes the follow- ing calculation: "And we can prove that a per- son who consumes daily that amount of beer, obtains from it in a whole year, in the most favour- able case, exactly the amount of nonrixhmetit in a five-pound loaf Now, cipht quarts per day, for 365 days, are 2,920 quarts. Therefore, '2,920 quarts "best * Familiar Letters on Chemistry. By Justus von Liebig. London : Taylor & Walton a book to be studied by every head of a family. Price 6s. ARTICLES OF FOOD. WINE. Bavarian beer" are only equal to five pounds of bread. Do you think now that beer is " nutritious? " In another part of his book M. Liebig shows why it is not. When speaking of the gluten in the barley, he says, that " when separated as yeast during the fermentation, it is lost for the purpose of nu- trition." I think I mentioned that to you in my account of the brewing process. In ano- ther part he says, " that every year, in the breweries of Wir- "temburg (the capital of Bavaria), the gluten which rises when making the sweet-wort weighs 30,000 cwt., and would make 17,000 cwt. of bread." All this might relieve the hunger of the poor. How painful, then, is the thought of the more than forty million bushels of barley wasted annually in England! W. I think we had better leave the subject of beer, papa. Will you see if you can make anything better of wine? P. Let us try. 85. WINE. I have a friend who drinks wine. One evening I saw him do it. But before we say a word about that, let me tell you something. It is written in the Scriptures, " the blood is the life" (Deut. xii. 23), and we often show that by our own expressions. When any one's blood circulates slowly, his body becomes rather cold, and we say that he is not lively ; and when it entirely ceases to circulate, his body is quite cold and dead. When any one is warmed, his blood circulates more quickly, and we say that he has " a little more life in him ;" the more quickly our blood circulates the more " life" we are said to have. L. You told us, papa, that the circulation of the blood produces warmth, because it causes the carbon in the body to burn. Ion. And the blood is the life, because it contains the nourishment which supports our body. P. Let us see what this has to do with wine. The warmth of the body depends on the circulation of the blood; and the circulation of the blood depends upon the food. L. Yes ; and you said that the most heating food is the food which supplies our blood with carbon, to be burned with the oxygen we breathe. P. True. Nearly all foods supply this carbon, but there is none that acts upon the blood so quickly as a spirit called alcohol, which is found in wine. The action of this spirit on the blood can be felt almost imme- diately after it is taken. And now, hear about my friend who drinks wine. One evening he had some work to do which required hard bodily labour. He worked away very briskly, for he was full of life, and the blood cir- culated so quickly that the carbon consumed not only came out of his mouth, in breath, but came through his skin in perspiration; then he was very warm and was full of life. But his blood could not 157 AKTICLES OF FOOD. WINK. be always consuming carbon in this way ; in the course of an hour it circulated slowly again, and he looked tired. So he took a glass of wine, to " put a little life into him." L. Did it do so? P. Yes; the alcohol in that wine seemed to stir up his blood once more, and make it circu- late briskly it stimulated him, as we say (from the Latin stimiilare, to stir up). W. So that a glass of wine is "stimulating." P. Soon after he took ano- ther glass; and that made his blood circulate so quickly that it warmed, and refreshed him. ll r . Ho that two glasses of wine are stimulating and " re- freshing." P. The two glasses only made him feel warm, but he took a third glass; this was not refreshing, for it heatedhis body. W. So that three glasses are stimulating, refreshing, and " heating." * P. As he proceeded with his work, he thought he required a fourth glass, and took it. This caused his blood to circu- late faster than ever; his brain and nerves were excited ; his eyes sparkled, he began to talk and get merry, and he felt in what he called "very good s|>irlts." We say that lie was now exhilarated (from the Latin word ////are, to make merry). Jon. Then the fourth glass was "exhilarating." The < \\m\- ities of wine are very much like those we learned in our lesson on C.H i 1:1:. /'. lie soon became so exhi- laraie.l that he thought he would 158 try another glass ; but he did not now go on with his work so well : he stopped to make merry, and to take another and then another glass it did him so much good, he said. W. And how did his blood circulate by this time ? P. Very rapidly indeed ; it now circulated so quickly that it seemed to set his brain in a whirl; he could not sec dearly what he was doing; he did not even know his head from his heels; and when he got up to take another glass, "just to dear his sight," he could not walk properly, but fell down. Poor man, he had taken far too much of that wine! he was intoxicated. Ion. Ah, that was foolish! but suppose that he had taken some more, what would have been its "effects?" P. It would have brought him into a state of stupidity it would have stupijied him, as we say. IK. That makes two more qualities. Wine is intoxicating and " stupifying." Suppose when he had made himself stupid, he had taken some more, \\liat would it have done? P. It would have made him go to sleep. So that you may say again, wine is "slci-pityinj:." ;iiii we have Sherry and Mountain /' ; from Portugal, Port wine; from France, Burgundy, Chsini/Mii/m; and Claret ; from Germany, the wines from the banks of the Rhine, called Wtenish wines. True wine is the juice of the grape; but fermented wines are also made from other fruits. We have the British or home- made wines from the gooseberry, currant, cowslip, orange, raisin, and from ginger. Wine may be made from any part of a plant containing sugar from beet- roof, from tap. L. You told us that wine is made from the sap of the wal- nut-tree, papa. P. True; it may also he made from the item of the birch ; from the cocoa-nut, and many 160 other palms. We have n wine from the apple, called cider, and another from the pear, called perry. NORMANDY is an extra- ordinary place for apples: 1 have read that, in one part, for more than sixty miles, the country is one continued avenue of apple and pear trees. These home-made wines arc called "sweets" by the Excise, and they are not so injurious as those made from the grape. They contain more nourish- ment, and less alcohol. W. I have heard, papa, that many Germans and French drink wine every day at their meals, just as we drink water and beer. P. That is true ; and we must not leave our subject without doing justice to the famous UIII.MMI WINES. They contain far less alcohol than those we drink, while their sugar is almost as nutritions as the sugar-cane itself.* M. Lichig says of these wines, that " they are distinguished by producing the least injurious ctVeet. The quantity consumed by persons of all ages without injury to their health, is hardly credible. Gout, and similar diseases, are nowhere more rare than in the wine-drinking district. In no part of Germany are the apothecaries' shops so profit- less as in the rich cities on the Khine; for there wine is the universal medicine. it is con- sidered as ' milk' for th> The people of this district are so merry, that they arc called Page 66. ARTICLES OF FOOD. BRANDY, ETC. 'the jovial Rhinelanders'; and ' it is said that a 'valiant Bren- , ner' drinks every day his seven bottles of wine, and with it grows as old as Methuselah; lie . is seldom drunk, and the only mark by which he is known is his red nose." 86. BRANDY, &c. The word Alcohol \s supposed to be an Arabic word, and means ardent spirit. It consists of three gases oxygen, hydro- gen, and carbon. Jon. Those are the gases which sugar is composed of. P. True. I was going on to say that alcohol is obtained from sugar by the vinous fermenta- tion. Indeed, you heard in the previous lessons that the sugar of malt and of the grape is changed into alcohol. These gases, therefore, are found in the alcohol, but not in the same proportions. It is the alcohol in the wine which renders it intoxicating; and brandy differs from wine in being the alcohol itself, sepa- rated from the sugar, water, or other matters in the wine. TV. How is it separated, papa ? P. It is separated by a pro- cess called distillation. To dis- til a fluid it must be heated, and the most volatile parts then fly off in vapour. The intoxi- cating alcohol is the most vola- tile part of wine, so that when the wine is heated this alcohol flies off in vapour. The vapour is collected in a vessel, and. as it cools, it forms drops, just as the steam does on the lid of a saucepan ; so when these drops form a tablespoonful of fluid, what would you call it? L. I should call it the Alcohol of wine. Jon. Or the Spirit of wine; that name would do as well. P. Right; because it /* the alcohol of wine, and this alco- hol or spirit of wine we call Brandy. W. But why not call it "Spi- rit of Wine"? That would be the best name for it. P. Because there are spirits made from other substances. The word BRANDY is derived from the German, branuiwcin, which means burnt-wine. GIN is the spirit of Juniper-berries. RUM is a spirit made from mo- lasses, the part of the sugar-cane juice which will not crystallize. WHISKY is distilled from bar- ley. Alcohol may also be ob- tained from anything which has sugar or starch. The French procure it from carrots, pears, &c., and call such spirits Eau de vie. But the true brandy (which can be procured only from wine) is called Wine Eau de vie. Eau de vie means " water of life." The Irish call alcohol Usque-Laugh, which means the same thing. The English first called it Aqua vita-, which is the Latin for "water of life." The Indians called it by the expressive name Fire icat.tr; for being the pure intoxicating principle, it burns and injures the stomach almost as much as iire would. Ion. We generally call such things SIMRITS, papa; do we not? 161 ARTICLES OF FOOD. STRONG P. Yes; brandy, gin. ruin. whi>ky. and other kinds of Kan de vie," are all called Spirits. the most intoxicating and injurious of all drinks. Before we leave the subject of spirits, we will once more j think over their effect*. What were the last effects I mentioned ! when we spoke of the glass of j wine? L. Yon said that it was ; poisonous and fat/if. J '. And bringing ruin and the most horrible misery to thou- \ sands and tens of thousands. 1 It is said that "drunkenness destroys more than the sword." This is true of one of our articles of food, therefore we must not let it pass unnoticed. I would not try to describe to you the horrors of the gin palace; you would be too much shocked. You shall only hear the words of the judyts of tlii> country, who have to deal with the wickedness which strong drink causes: JUDOB COLBRIDOE: "There i* scarcely a crime comes before me tliut i* not. directly or indirectly, caused l.y utrontj tlrhik." JCDOB UOKUBT: " Every criino ling its ori'.'in, more or lets, in irmnkt* JuixtB I'ATTBSOK: "If it were not for tli it ilrinkinij. you nho jury mid J should Lave nothing to Jo." L. But, papa, suppose that all people were to abstain from spirits, a- well as beer, would not they be ill? /'. N<>. The best persons to ask are the doctors it is their business to study such mutters. IM Therefore, in order to make men i/nitf surf that thev art- speaking the truth. T\vn nior- SANI> of the best medical men in this country have given this opinion of such food: " Total abstinence from alco- holic liquors and intoxicating beverages of all sort-, would greatly contribute to the health, the prosperity, the morality, and the happiness of the human race." Now, do you know what yon ought to d'o when yon hear this? Would you not like to contribute to the happiness of the human race ? L. Yes. I should. P. Then you should abstain from such drinks. I have heard you complain that you cannot be of use; that yon cannot serve Clod by buying Bibles for the henthen ; that you cannot preach to the hea- then; that you cannot teach ignorant people. L. Yes; I often say that. P. Now let me show you that you can. There is only one good way to teach that is by i.rniii^lf. Poor people believe in such teaching: they say that is real, therefore they learn from it. Dip you know what is meant by a million pou:nl>;' IT. Ye : it mean- a thousand hundred taken ten times. Ten times a hundred time- a thou- sand times! So many pounds would be a great deal of money. /'. True. Yet all that money is paid every year to print books, and support living teachers to teach God's word ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE SPIRIT OF STRONG DRINK. to the heathen. There are eleven large societies iu Eng- land, such as the Bible Society, Church Missionary Society, ]\'e$leyan Missionary Society^ London Missionary Society, and others. The subscribers to these eleven societies give away every year nearly ten hundred thousands (or one mil- lion') pounds to spread the know- ledge of God. Jon. But what has that to do with the strong drinks? P. A great deal. Or rather the strong drinks have a great deal to do with that ; they make the million pounds look very foolish ; and they render the people deaf, so that no one will hear the truth. Hear what the Spirit of Strong Drink says! It speaks to all who love Jesus Christ and His Truth. It says, " I am the SPIRIT OF STRONG DRINK, known by my effects, 'maddening,' 'poisonous,' and ' fatal.' Ye servants of Jesus pay one. million pounds every year to spread the spirit of your Master; but seventy million pound* are given every year by you and the people you teach that you may have me! If you will have me, I will make your million of pounds of little avail; 1 will not spread for you the spirit of Jesus, but I will spread hatred and vice. I will spread madness and death; I will make the people deaf, so that they cannot hear your truth. I will hinder every year many more than you can help! " Will you teach them to have Jesus ? I will hinder you, for they will have me first! Will you teach them to leave me ? You cannot ! Tltey will not hear you, for you KEEP ME YOURSELVES ! "Do ye serve Jesus? You serve me more I Upon ye I de- pend ; for they learn of you, and they bring me seventy millions per year to make them deaf. I am ALCOHOL, I am an EVIL SPIRIT the ' maddening,' 'fatal' spirit of WINE, and BEER, and STRONG DRINK!" If the evil spirit could speak, such, I should think, would be the words it would say. This destroying demon is found not only in Britain, but all over the earth; as I have said, it u de- stroyeth more than the sword;" it is the form in which the evil one " goeth about like a roar- ing lion, seeking whom he may devour." You may see by this that there are two ways to " contri- bute to the happiness of the human race." L. Yes ; if I cannot give money, I can teach, by my own example, that others may avoid the enemy of Jesus. P. That you may do ! It is time for you to think of such things ; and to ask, " Cannot I fight against the enemy of the truth?" While on the subject of fluids we might talk of the effervescing drinks, Ginger-beer, Lemonade, Soda-water, &c.; but I think we will be content with one other fluid, which is sometimes used with our food. 87. VINEGAR. Y"ou have heard of the sac- 163 ARTICLES OF FOOD. VINEGAR. chorine fermentation and the ore " artificial." ami a vinous fermentation. If wine be | different in their effects from exposed, it de- composes once I u-nt, r. more, and ferments. In this fer- mentation an acid called acetic arid is formed, and is called This fermentation is called the acetous fi-i nii'ntn tim,. and is the last which we shall notice. The acetic acid is really sour wine, and thus railed vine- Beer is a fluid prepared from MALT and HOPS. J7te, tnnlt is bar/?!/, which mtcrgoet the aar- r/inrini' fi'mtentution. 77ie juice of the barley is then mired irith kept, "in/ fenncnti'd iii/nin ; the. vinous fermentation producing beer. Thin drink w tint nutritions, gar for the word " vinegar" is \for tin 1 nutritions i/nnliti/ of ///< only a corruption of two French words, tun, wine, ami aiyre, sour. The uses of vinegar you \\ell know, it is seen so often in the i.< turned into ifi-ast. ir/ii/f, tin' sin/fir is c/,'i/, i/nl info afro/io/. 7'/i is idrohol i/nicki us tin- i-in-idation of tin /Join/, or cruet-stand. Vin-egar has one | stimulate*, OK ire fay ; and if taken ipialiiy, which is also found in too furt/ed/, it wt only stimulates salt and in spirits. Ion. Yes; it is conservative, so it is useful for pickling. lint in/orii-ates. CIDI-.I: mid l'i:ii;v nre two ink* resemblintj /n; r. and P. There is one more fluid I made, from tlijni<-< of t/ic .\/i/>/t; worth mentioning. It does not belong to the vegetable king- dom, but. it is ninth more valu- able than any that have yet been mentioned. It is a natural fluid, and is called V. We had several lessons on this subject, and you inny find them in the lir-t volume of I'I.KASANT I'.U.KS. You may now mnko the lesson on the vegetable Hiinb used in temperate climates. Lesson 17. AKTICM or Foor>. (Temperate Countries.) FLUIDS / in' I I/it I 'tr. \Vl\i-: i'.v made from f/ jnirr a f l/i,' (rni/H. irlurli i/rini-.i in thi' trarm sontlrn rnnnfriiso/' /,'//- rope. SPAIN, I'"';n .. \i . ITALY, (fKUMAXV. Illlll ]' \-.\-- no/,// t',,r tin ir trims. 'I'll, /irin- I'OKT, Slli-:i;l:v . ( 'n VM- I-M.M .1 'l. VIM.I. ,"'i:i. CIUKANT, ORANGE, I; \l~is. mid ( ilNC.KR. II / . ma i/ In' niiidi' f'rinn l!i.i.r- Itocvr. and uidud from mn/ iiart of nseil jimts of tin- irini- In/ a . trith tlifir foiitrfftirtine fer- mentation. This causes the substance to become putrid, or rotten, as we >ay. Thus it is not good to separate the curd and whey by letting the milk become sonr, for the acetous fermentation which thus begins cannot easily be stopped it changes to the putrefactive fer- mentation, and the cheese be- com'-s rotten. The proper substance t'ntn t'm-tirt fermen- tation. I should like, before we hear anything more about cheese, to stop and notice the "elVects" of the four fermenta- tions we have heard of. 1. The, saccharine i'f'-un-ntntin changes starch into sugar. J. I'ln- >-ii,'in.< Ji'niii'itliiliint changes sugar into alcohol. 3 The net-tons ftrnn-nlnltnn produces an acid ta.-te. 4. The putrefactive fi-rnienta- tion causes the substances to become putrid, or de- compose. /'. These four fermentations have very much to do with our food: but let us tini-h the his- tory of cheese. You would suppose, that as the curd of milk is white, the cheese would be white. The yellow colour is produced by a substance called Arnotto. There arc many kinds of BhMMU The Dutch |>erhaps make more el of an egg consists of a substance i rather different from the casein of the milk ; it is called albumen. 1 Again, in the flesh of the animal you have a different substance. Flesh is principally fibrin, \ which, as I told you, is made \ from the albumen. Ion. So we have now heard | of five substances containing 1 nitrogen : ! legumen, . gluten . IT- ,11 Vegetable, Animal, ( 3. casein, 4. albumen, 5. fibrin. P. And all of these sub- stances form new flesh, and sustain life; God has in His wisdom provided them for us in different forms. The animal fibrin is the most easily digested, 167 ARTICLES OF FOOD. GELATINE. and the legnmen and gluten of the vegetable kingdom least easily. That is to say, the more the food containing nitrogen is like the flesh which it is in- tended to repair, the more easily the stomach digests it. Li. That is curious, papa, for when any one is ill, he does not like to eat the fibrin of meat ; hut he will be tempted with the albumen of egg some- times an egg is too -strong for him. and he will only eat the casein in a bit of dry cheese or, at last, he will come down to the y I ii ten of wheat l\ True; or he will take a little weak GELATINE. Ion. What is gelatine, papa? Does it contain nitrogen? P. Yes. Ion Oh, I am so sorry you did not mention it before. I would have added it up with the others. P. But I did not wish yon to do so, and therefore did not mention it. (leJntiue. cannot be nscd to form albumen and fiirin in the blood. Gelatine is found in the tendons, muscles. ligaments, and bones of animals it is also found in hoofs and horns. The swimming bladder of the stuvu'' on is formed en- tirely of gelatine. We buy it in the form of little threads, which we mil Liinr/luss. L. And there is jmtf.nt geln- tiii'-. papa. Manimu bought a packet at the chemists the other day. Some had the same form as isinglass, and in another packet it was made in thin transparent sheets. /'. 'run-: I have seen it. Ami I have neon thick, brown, -cmi- 168 transparent sheets of ylue. Glne is a coarse gelatine. But I was telling you. that although gelatine contains ni- trogen, it will Tiot form new fibrin, or flesh. In Paris, a little while ago, some experi- ments were made to see if it would sustain life. It was found that when made into jellv. soup, or broth, gelatine was very bene- ficial, but yet it was not h." You may now make a list, not only of the sub>tanccs with nitrogen, but of those with- out nitrogen. Take those of the animal and vegetable king- dom also. W. I will write the list FOODS rniitaininir oxy- gen, liyilroL'fn. carbon, mid ///- troy en such as I utrill, Alinitiirn, Filn-iii, (iflntiiic. iVc.. arouxofid to form new fibre, or cur- tilage, n tu I tU xuatuin life. POOM containing oxy- gen. h\ iirul carbon, *nr!i as in Oil n.! l-'nt, Utarol, fiiiiiiu; I ill ni, i(rc., ii iv useful in sup- ply carbon, to be coimnined by the I lie oxygon ii brcntlic, cniiini.' In-lit, to supply wiitor n\\i\J'ut of the body. ARTICLES OF FOOD. T1IK GOOSE. Now, I will keep this table to look at; so, when I am going to eat anything new, I shall see whether it is a heating food or a nourishing food. P. Remember that most foods are both. But let us go on with our account of the animals. You will remember that in our lessons on the tropical climates, we spoke much of the mammals eaten as food. Almost the same mammals sup- ply food in the temperate coun- tries; but we may this time talk of the birds which supply us with food. THE FOOD SUPPLIED BY BIRDS. 90. THE GOOSE. Although we noticed some of the poultry in our lessons on the tropics, such as the Hen, Duck. Turkey, &c., we did not mention the Goose. The goose is not to be des- pised, for anyone who has dined off goose, will tell you that he owes too much to that bird to pass it over in silence. If a goose could understand Natural History, he might ex- plain that his place in the king- dom of nature is amongst the class birds, and in the order called Nutatores. W. That is a Latin word! P. Natatores is derived from the Latin nature, to swim : so you may say that the goose belongs to the order of swimming birds, which include all kinds of ducks, the swan, the sea-gull, and many others. The goose is a grass-feeding animal, eating grain also, but the Duck lives on insects and mollusks also indeed, ducks eat all kinds of dirty things. The Swans, again, eat the roots of plants growing in the water and under the water, which it is said they can reach with their long necks. The Albatross and the Stormy Petrel are noted sea- birds belonging to the same order as the goose the Pelican is another interesting bird in the order. The goose forms a nice food ; the flavour of its flesh is very rich. In the time of the Romans, many thousands were killed for the sake of the " great goose livers," which, it is said, have been considered a dainty in all ages. In London, the trade is very important, especially at Michaelmas. W. I just want to add a particular geese live to a very old age. The father of one of the boys in our school has a venerable goose, 34 years old. P. And I have read of a goose reaching his eightieth year; and it is said that he seemed strong enough to live eighty years longer, if he had been allowed to; but it appears that he became mischievous, and beat the younger geese. I think that we need hardly talk of any other birds from the temperate climates. We have before talked of the Duck and the Hen. You have, I dare say, learned of some of the smaller birds. You may have tasted the WOODCOCK, the GROUSE, the SNIPE, and. others. L, I have even heard of 169 ARTICLES OF FOOD. DAIRY PRODrCK. Sparrows and Larks being used for food. IT. Young Rooks, too, the fanners eat ; they are eaten as pigeons, and when a rook is young, it is supposed to be quite as nice. P. You may now make the lesson on the animal foods we have been talking about. Ion. How shall we arrange them? The milk, butter, and cheese may form one lesson, but what shall we do with the iiiin/. CHKKSE is the curd of milk, 170 salted, dried, and pressed. The curd is separated from t/if whet/ by means of the gastric juice in the " rennet" or dried stomach nf the calf. There are many va- KoG8 are /era, rather) are won- derful in extent. Now, the herring not only belongs peculiarly to this coun- try, but shows more strikingly than any other fish how vast are the supplies of the sea. At a certain season of the year, they set out together from the North Sea. They come in " immense and closely packed legions," numbering ten thou- sands of ten thousands. No words can give a good idea of their numbers. A league is the distance of three miles, now, these vast companies of herrings cover the ocean to the extent of several leagues. Let us suppose that there are ten leagues W. That would make thirty miles. P. Which is a much greater distance than you could walk across in a day. A company of herrings, thirty miles long and several miles broad, would be an enormous number, if these were only single herrings on the surface of the water. But the truth is, that this mass of living food is said to be several Itundi-ed feet in thickness. Our parlours, you know, are about twenty feet long. Ion. So that one hundred feet is about the length of five parlours. Only think that the mass of herrings is several hun- dred feet deep! P. You cannot well conceive such a quantity of fish. Such a company is called a sltoal. If you try and think of a shoal several leagues in length and breadth, several hundred feet in thickness, you will see that, if this shoal could be taken out of the water, and the fish could be pressed together, just as they are, they would form a mass of substantial food as large as some of the counties of England. Suppose that we wanted to make a stuck of herrings, just as you do with the straw and hay, we should require a large island to place the stack upon. Perhaps you will not wonder at the num- ber, when you know at what rate these animals increase. These shoals of fish come from the deep ocean to the shallow water near the land, for the purpose of laying their eggs. 171 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE HKRRING. Now, ii the roe of a moderate- sized female herring, more than 60,000 eggs have been found. Suppose that half the herrings in that shoal deposited their spawn, and that half the eggs became young herrings! the increase is too wonderful to be | thought of. W. I wonder that at that rate they do not become too numerous and choke up the sea. I suppose that is because there are so many millions of people in the different nations, and that nearly all can eat fish. Why, if everybody were to work as hard as he could for a j twelvemonth, and eat nothing j but herrings every day, not all the millions of people in the northern nations could eat them up! P. You must remember that the herrings help to diminish themselves, for young herrings have been found in tlie stomachs of the old ones. England being surronnded by water, with abundance of fishing-boats and ports, has of course a great interest in these fish. So also have the Dutch, tin- French, the Danes and all the people of the north. It is said that Holland, with her herring fishery alone, once covered all the northern seas with her vessels, while in all her fisheries about one-fifth of the whole population was employed. England, however, now does the greatest trade in herrings. About fifteen years ago it was calculated that the herring and cod fisheries gave employ- ment to 8,700 persons, either as fishermen, curers, or coopers. 172 How many millions of herrings were caught, it would be im- possible to say. L, At what time of the year do the herrings come, papa'' P. They arrive at the Shet- land Isles, which are at the extreme north of Scotland, about the beginning of May, ur earlier. Here the slioa,- ing that they cannot s\\im through Scotland, divide into two parts. One part take the western coast of Britain, between England and Ireland ; the other part take the eastern coast, between England and the Continent. The arrival of the herrings begins in May. but fresh swarms follow through the months of May and June, until the beginning of July. Then the numbers become truly immense and incalculable ; swimming southward they lind themselves stopped at Yar- mouth, in Norfolk, by great numbers of fishermen armed with nets. Others c-capp and are caught at Lowettoft, in Suffolk; others are caught at /Iii.ftiiitf*. in Sussex; others escape into the ocean at the south of England; but it is -aid that the herring does not sail more southward than the 45th degree North latitude. ( Jfcour-f. in the seas around the Conti- nent, vast numbers are caught. YARMOUTH is the principal herring station in England- tin- larger and peculiar herring* caught there are called " Yar- mouth blwiterg" Next in importance to the herring is the I'm H vi;i>. This fish is one of the Ilr.rrimj tribe, ARTICLES OF FOOD. PILCHARD, 'WHITE-BAIT, ETC. and is very much like the her- ring, but it has a more southern range, and is found principally on the southern const of Eng- land. Just as Norfolk is the j great herring station Cornwall is the centre of the pilchard fishery. Vast as the number are of the herrings, that of the pil- chards is not much smaller. I have heard of ' 1 2.000,000 of these fish being sold for home- use in a single year," and it is even said that " this number has been brought into port in a single day." In the more southern parts of the temperate zone, such as the Mediterranean, the her- ring and pilchard are not found. Thoy are represented by two smaller fish of this tribe, called the Anchovy and the Sardine. The former is well known in Kngland. and the sardines are ! often imported from France, preserved in oil. You may HOW buy a tin box of "Sardines a I'/t'iiilc" for Is. L. Yes; I remember, papa, that you did so ; and you were very angry that the box was soldered all round, and you could not open it. The SPRAT and WHITE-BAIT are other small fish of this tribe. The "\YhitP-bai t may be caugh t in the Thames as far from the sea asBlackwall and Woolwich. Their season ends about the beginning of October. The sittings of the Houses of Par- liament generally end with the White-bait season. When you hear of the Members of Par- liament having their white-bait dinner at Blackwall, you may. know that Parliament will soon be "prorogued." The pilchard and white-bait fisheries may be said to end first ; and the herring fishery next. The latest are the x/>nits. Sprats are said to " come in " on the Lord Mayor's day (the 9th November), and the supply is continued during the winter months. We must not end our lesson on tins tribe without one thank- ful thought of God's bounty. Do you not notice how plenti- fully we are supplied with fish from the Northern Sea? Even the Herring tribe supplies fish nearly all the year round! W. Now please to let me count up all of the Herring tribe which we have heard of, the Herrinq. Pi/chard, Sordine, Anchovy, White-bait, and Sprat. But you have not yet mentioned the Mackerel, papa. The mack- erel fishery is verv famous. P. Then we 'will talk of this fish next. (TiiE MACKEREL TRIBE.) 91. THE MACKEREL. The Mackerel does not be- long to the Hen-ing tribe, but it just comes in the part of the year when the Herring tribe are wanting. When the sprats are "out," and pilchards are not yet "in," we have the mackerel. They arrive on the coast of Hampshire and Sussex about the beginning of March, sometimes as early as February. The prin cipal months, however, for mackerel, are May and June ; 173 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE COD. PLAK I fey that time their numbers are very large. The mackerel is known by the beautiful colour of its skin : it also decomposes very rapidly out of the water; it may be known, thirdly, because its flesh is very nice, ami yet wholesome. Because of the second men- tioned quality, the value of the mackerel depends) upon their being perfectly fresh. A boat- load of mackerel brought to Billingsgate early in the morn- ing has been worth 200; the next morning its value would be about 2Us. There is another fish of the Mackerel tribe, called the Ti NNY-. it is hinder than the mackerel, and is found in more southern seas, such as the M- 'titerranean. (THE COD TRIBE.) 92. THE COD. These great fish, and all the tribe, may be distinguished by the softness of their bones, and the whiteness of their tl< --h. They live on smaller fish, also eating shrimps and other crustaccous" animals, such as shrimps and young crabs. Thirty-five crabs, none mnnlltr than a half-crown, were once taken from the stomach of a large cod. The tins of this tribe are so placed that they can inure .\~\\\ ascend ami descend in tin- wa- ter than the other tribes. Thus svc hud that they live nearer t> tin- bottom of the sea. They multiply at a very rapid rate. The cod abounds in the nor- 174 them seas. Newfound!- no I is very famous for this fish it also abounds near Great Bri- tain. Qjie of the most famous tor cod is the Dogger- bank, in Holland. T used to be brought from there alive, in heavy boats containing wells for them to swim in; much cod is. I belie-, brought in this way; the greater j part used in England is salted. W. Do the fishermen catch the cod with nets as they catch j the sprats? I should think they would want a very strong net. P. The cod is taken with the line and hook. I have heard of a Newfoundland man catch- ing nearly 500 in eleven hours. It is said. too. that at / Itank 1,600 were taken in one day by eight men. 1 dare say you are acquainted with other ti>h of the Cod tribe. I will mention some the llml- dock, H'iiitiny, Hakt, and Liny. (THE FLAT FISHES.) 93. THE PLAICE, &c. These fish lay at the bottom of the sea ; they seemed to have been flattened for that purpose. U'. Perhaps they were in- tended a- a ]iiii;inint t" I P. Perhaps! They are singu- lar creatures they .-eein un- i able to rise in the water, for i they have no uir-MadJi-r. \ ;. pcrha|. their low po-iti>>n affords them the highest en- joyment, and they will lie on tiieir white sides quite, motion- lew for a considerable time. L. Like the ov.st r-.' ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE PLAICE, SKATE, ETC. P. Yes; but they have more power of motion than the oysters. The Plaice, if disturbed by an enemy, will change from its horizontal to a vertical posi- tion ; thus it can cut through the water like the blade of a knife, and can dart along with great rapidity. But it does not like travelling in this posi- tion, for, as soon as it feels itself safe, it shuffles back to its horizontal position, gliding along with an up and down motion, like that of the waves. Ion. Which is the back of a flat fish, papa the white side, or the brown. P. Neither, Ion ; both are the sides of the fish. The colouring is an instance of a law which you have before ob- served in your Natural History lessons it is a protection. The colour is exactly like that of the bottom of the sea; so that the "pavement" is not noticed by its enemies. Now. if it were to lie with its white side upper- most ? W. Then its enemies would see it. They would tear up the pavement, and eat it, I suppose. P. I will now give you the distinctions of this tribe. The FLAT FISHES may be distin- guished, 1st, By their bony framework; 2nd, By their want of air- bladder; 3rd, By their flat shape; 4th, By having one side co- loured, and the other white; and you may say, 5thly, that they are very tenacious of life; by which I mean, that they will live a long time out of the water. Ion. Yes ; I have seen them in a fishmonger's shop. I have seen a sole jump up off" the slab, and give himself a twist! P. The principal flat fish are the Plaice, Sole, Turbot, Floun- der, Dab, and Brill. The Turbot is one of the richest and most valuable; it is said that the Dutch draw 80,000 per annum from the London market, for turbot alone. (THE EATS.) 94. THE SKATE. I have mentioned this fish next, from its resemblance to the flat fishes, of which we have been talking. In this fish the brown side is the back, and the white side the belly; when attacked they glide along, keep- ing their horizontal position, and fighting with their tail, which is armed with sharp spines. The skate is one of the real cartilaginous fishes; it forms ex- cellent food. The Saw-fish, the Doy-fish, and the Shark, belong to the same order as the skate, but they are a different tribe they form "the Shark tribe." We have now talked of the principal salt-water jish from which we procure food, but before we talk of the fresh- water fish, I will mention one or two which are found both in the rivers and in the sea. 175 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THK 8AI.MOX. (THE SALMON TKIBK.) 95. THE SALMON. The Salmon is a noble fish; it is truly beautiful iu its ap- pearance and flavour. Just as the herring?, mackerel, and others come from the deep into the shallow water to lay their eggs (or spawn), so the salmon leaves the sea and swims up the rivers for the same purpose. When a salmon is ascending a stream it is not easily stopped. One afternoon, \\hcii I was in Wales, standing In side (lie river Wye, I saw a great salmon, which had evi- dently come from the sea; it was going far up the river to spawn, and had already tra- velled forty or fifty miles. "Ah!" 1 thought, "how \\ill you get over that water-fall?" It was not a vvrv great uatcr- full. but 1 knew that the salmon could not climb up over the stmirs. I watched, when, with a sudden stroke of its tail, it made a leap from the bottom of tin- water-fall to llie top. /.. I should have liked to see that. /'. Yes ; but that waterfall was not a large one. I meii- tioii"d the faei to a Welshman. and he showed me a watei lull tn-i Irf fi'i't high, which he said the salmon would often leap. I have heard that nothing will -tup this great fish. A -aluum will travel hundreds of miles. When the salmon lias found a suitable sj>ot for ils egg-, it i- said that it makes a furrow with its none in the gravelly bed of 176 the river; in this it deposits its eggs, and carefully them up. After depositing its spawn. the salmon general! v remains in the river during the winter, and returns to the sea in the spring. Many are caught on their way back by means of nets, baskets, spearing. i\- p . It is not Inirfiil, however, to kill them on their way from the sea, as they are then full of spawn. I have heard it said that we i seldom see a full-grown salmon j in this country, because they are so eagerly pursued bv the fishermen, that lew grow to their full size. A salmon weigh- ing forty pounds is not un- common ; one specimen K eighty-three pounds. The Salmon tride aNo in- cludes the Tisorr, which is a fresh-wiitcr lish, found in the rivers, clear streams, and lakes ni liivat Britain. It is a very much smaller tish than the sal- mon. When a trout weighs twelve or fourteen pounds, it is said to be a present worthy of a place at a royal table; but that it can only be caught by a first-rate fisherman. An extra- ordinary trout was once caught weighing twenty-live pounds. The trout likes his ou n par- ticular place iu the stream, and, in Devonshire, the pedants make the water mu look in every day and ask at what time I would have my chop or steak ; but one day he brought in two beautiful n'sh ! " Aren't they beauties, sir?" said the porter. Yes" f replied; "what are they called ?" " BARISKI,, sir; I never saw any before this morning. I've bought one for myself, sir, and perhaps you would like the other instead of your chop?" "Yes," I replied cheerfully, U I will; it certainly M a beau- tiful fish," and, as I held it up, its beautiful scales glistened and glittered in the sun, like gold and silver. It seemed a great pity to boil it. L* AIM! did you like it? P. Yon sha'll hear. You might have seen me taking off the di.sh-oover at two o'clock. the next minute I was spit- ting the barbel out, and splut- tering, and wiping my mouth, and the next iiiinute I went ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE BARBEL AND PIKE. down to the porter's room, where I saw him hard at work at his barbel. " Well, John, how do you like it?" " Oh. pretty well, sir ; I think it will do!" " Oh, do you? then I will sit here and see you eat it!" So John still kept his knife and fork in action, declaring that he thought it was very nice, next time he said it was pretty fair, so I kept him at his work! The pieces at the end of his fork, I saw, were becoming gradually smaller ; presently, he said, " it worn't amiis;" but, at last, he could stand it no longer, and declared the honest truth, by throwing down his knife and fork, and saying that it was amiss ! More, he added " it was the filthiest fish he had ever tasted in his life." W. What did you have to eat instead? P. Why, we had nothing left for dinner but a MORAL LESSON and we made the most of it. " ' The proof of the pudding is in the eating' sir," said John ; " and I'll never again give up my beef-steak for anything with a golden skin !" Jon. I think, papa, that that lesson was your dessert. You had for dinner the NATURAL HISTORY LESSON " The bar- bel is tlie filthiest fish I ever tasted." So you had Dinner . . . Natural History, Dessert . . . Moral Lesson. W. And I dare say you had an OBJECT LESSON afterwards; for if you were hungry you would discover the qualities of the potato or cheese. P. Yes. But we were talk- ing of the Carp tribe. Where were we? Oh, an important distinction of the Carp tribe is, that most have a beautiful ap- pearance, but that not all have a beautiful flavour. This tribe includes the Carp, the Barbel, the " Gold and Silver Fish" the Tench, Bream, Roach, Bleak, Minnow, and others. P. We must do little more than mention the names of the other fish. (THE PIKE TRIBE.) 98. THE PIKE. The Pike maybe remembered by his voracity. A pike will eat almost anything not only small fish, but frogs, water-rats, and field-mice; it will even kill and eat young ducklings as they swim on the water. There have been two or three instances in which this fish has attacked a man. In the water, the fish is strong, swift, fierce, and active. Pikes are of different sizes. A young pike is called a Jack. 12 or 14 Ibs. is considered a good weight for a pike, but they often attain to the weight of 30 Ibs. There are wonderful stories about the long life of the pike ; it has been known to reach the age of 90 years. There is an account of a pike which was taken out of a lake in Suabia, in the year 1497 a brazen ring was found fastened to it, and on the ring was this 179 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE PERCH. inscription : " I am the fish which was first put into this lake l>y the luuiilx of the Governor of the Universe, Frederick the Second. Oct. 5, 1230." The fish must thus have been 267 years old. The FLYING FISH also belongs to the Pike tribe. The last tribe we shall notice (THE PERCH TRIBE.) 99. THE PERCH. Mr. IZAAK WALTON, who knew something about fish, has described the Perch. He says: "The perch is one of the fishes of ]>rey, that, like the pike and trout, carries his teeth in his mouth, which is very large; and he dare venture to kill and devour several other kinds of fish. He has a hooked or hog back, which is armed with sharp and stiff liristW. and all his skin ia covered over with dry, hard scales ; and he hath, :i- fVu other fish have, two tins on his back." The perch is nearly as beau- tiful in appearance as the carp, but it has a better flavour. In this tribe are included the Gur- nurtla. tlie Bullhead, and the SticJuebaek. We have now finished the arc-omit of the fish-food of the Temperate Countries. Theiuo.-t intere.-ting point is the, instinct which leads the lish every year to leave the deep sea, and mi- prate into the shallow water to dcpo.sit their spawn. L. That habit of the fish reminded me, of the migrations of the birds, who come to this country and go back again 180 ' every year "birds of passage," they are called. P. By placing this instinct within the iisli, (iod has brought them within the reach of man. Think of the millions of herrings coming in a thick .-hoal so close to our shores for the sake of the shallow water ! if these were to remain in the open sea, bow lew of them would be caught! The same instinct which guide* the mil- lions of mackerel, herrii g pilchards within reach of our nets, leads the salmon to visit our rivers. This law of nature, which compels the fish to seek the shallow water, has been truly described as " a wise and boun- tiful provision of God." Thus one tribe after another come close to our shores at their ap- pointc'i .id. it i< said, "there is not a month in the year in which we are not sup- plied with some species of lish." IT. Yet, papa, although so many are killed e\er\ year. there are more the next year, from the eggs which the other fish leave. P. True; you may think once more of their power of multi- ply inir. I tola you that in a sm-_'|.- herring' Mxty thousand eggs have been counted : but in the cod the number i- still irrearer. no le>s than '.i. 1100,000 eg^'s have been tak-'ii IV.. m one rue. We are told that the spawn of the herring sometimes covers the surface of the sea; so that at a distance it appears very much as if sawdust had been spread over it for some miles. ARTICLES OF FOOD. FOOD SUPPLIED BY FISH. Thus the supply of fish is not only regular, but it sometimes exceeds our wants. Frequently more sprats are caught than can be eaten for food ; and they are sold as manure at 6d. per bushel. I have also read of herrings and mackerel being equally abundant. I have, in one of last year's newspapers, a paragraph which will show how bountifully Providence can supply our wants. " DARTMOUTH. On Monday week, Slapton Sands were crowded with spectators to witness an ex- traordinary catch of mackerel. The whole bay, extending nearly five miles, seemed one living mass of fish. One boat safely landed 150,000 fish, and not less than 500,000 mackerel were caught on that single day, between sunrise and sunset. There was some diffi- culty in disposing of this vast quantity. The price in the morn- ing was Is. per hundred, hut this was soon reduced to 6d., and to- ward evening it fell to 6d. a don- key load. About 70,000 were left on the sands unsold, and the next day they were purchased by the farmers for manure, at 20s. per load. About forty-two years ago a large catch was made on the same sands, though not so exten- sive as the present one." Lesson 19. ARTICLES OF FOOD. (Temperate Countries.) THE FOOD SUPPLIED BY FISH. Fish are more abundant in the temperate than in the tropical cli- mates. The northern seas in particular contain immense shoals. \ The principal tribes of SALT- ' AVATER fish are 1 . The HERRING TRIBE, which are perhaps the most numerous of their size. To this tribe belong the HERRING, PILCHARD, SPRAT, WHITE-BAIT, SARDINE, and ANCHOVY. 2. The MACKEREL TRIBE, known by their beautifully marked skins, and by the rapidity with which they decay, are larger thin the herrings. This tribe includes the MACKEREL, the TUNNY, #c. 3. The COD TRIBE, which in- clude the COD, the HADDOCK, the WHITING, the HAKE, and the LING. 4. The FLAT FISH, such as the PLAICE, SOLE, TURBOT, FLOUNDER, DAB, and BRILL. These fish are without air-blad- ders, and are compelled to live at the bottom of the sea. 5. The RAYS, which include the SKATE, and others; the SHARK, DOG-FISH, and SAW- FISH belong to the same order as the Rays, nlthour/h they form a different tribe. These all belong to the division of cnrtilaginous (or yristh/) fish while the pre- ceding tribes belong to the osseous (or bony) division. 6. The SALMON TRIBE, again, belong to the division of osseous fishes. They live partly in the rivers and partly in the sea. The \ SALMON, TROUT, CHAR, and j SMELT, are the principal fish of \ the tribe. 7. The EEL TRIBE are very \ peculiar fish ; they are at once known by their long, thin, snake- like bodies, and their soft, slippery skin; the scales are so minute that they are almost invisible. 181 ARTICLES OF FOOD. FOOD SUPPLIED BY FISH. Their gill-openings are very small, and their respiration very feeble. Thus we find tfiat, being a vora- cious fish, they will sometimes leave the water and travel through the grass, in search of food. /,// the salmon, they are found both in the fresh and salt water. The CONGER and ELECTRIC EEL belona to this tribe. }Ve also obtain food from the FRESH-WATER FISH, such as 8. The CARP TRIBE, inrfmlin;/ the BARBEL, GOLD and SILVER FISH, TENCH, BRKAM, ROACH, BLEAK, and MINNOW. 'J'/iix tribe are very deceptive, for though their external nppefirance is very be'iutiful, tfieir flavour by no means corresponds. The Barbel, in particular, has a very badfifivour. 9. The PIKE TRIBE are much larger fish ; some specimens are almost as large as salmon. They are distinguished by their vora- city, fierceness, strength, and tenacity of life. The FLYING- riMi / liniijs to this tribe. 10. The PERCH TRIBE are generally rather small fish, but are covered with brilliant ////t making a list of the articles (as we . too? P. No, they all have business to attend to but many spend their time near their tire of wood and oil; indeed, some nations up there are half awake and half a-leep, and seem to live in a dream. L. Do they never see the Aurora Borealis? /'. Yes; the great northern ARTICLES OF FOOD. A FRIGID COUNTRY. light must be a great joy to them. You have, I dare say, heard of this Avonderful sight? of the streamers of rosy light which dart upwards, of the purple and red-coloured light it contains ? this is a glorious sight in those dreary days. But let us suppose the winter to have passed. Suddenly the SUMMER comes ! L. But where is the spring? P. That is left out altogether, or nearly so. The sun seems disposed to make up for lost time; he shines forth at once, and wakes up nature to her work. Soon you hear sounds. There is a cracking of ice, and a gen- tle tinkling of little rills; there is a silent melting of the snow, and as it sneaks away before the sunbeams, it joins the rills, swells them into streams, and vents forth its rage in angry rushing sounds. It may well roar; it can't help it; it is com- pelled to rush on quickly to make haste from the presence of the sun and to go it knows not where. The sun is earnest now, and he soon clears all away. Now is your time for sounds ! Hark how the dismal water goes ! The giant rivers have burst their icy chains ; they hurry forward their great masses of unmelted ice, which join the mighty waters of the snow; and now the rumblings and roarings are loud and fierce ! Who likes to be driven out of his place, which he has held in peace for eight months, and to be shaken like this by an immoveable, imper- turbable sun, who all the while looks on and smiles? But the sounds of grief pass away. Now listen to the sounds of joy, and look at the glorious sight. Nature has started up; she is wide awake! The birds seem to come from all the regions of the earth. It is said that "they people the woods and fields, the fens and marshes, and all nature is one universal song." And Nature is well dressed for the occasion. Thetreeshave thrown off their white gloves, and are covered with leafy ver- dure ; the fields have cast off their night-gowns of snow, and have put on their best grass- green coat. The air is bright, clear, and elastic. " Oh, 'tis the touch of fairy hand, Tuat wakes the spring of northern land; It warms not there by slow degrees, With changeful pulse the uncertain breeze : But sudden, on the wondering sight, Bursts forth the beam of living Ugh*; And instant verdure springs around, And magic flowers bedeck the ground." All this change the sun has wrought in about seven days; and he takes care to keep up the gladness. Soon he shines not only by day but all night long; for seven weeks he never sets. Ion. That is to make up for his seven weeks of absence in the winter. P. But we have to talk of the FOOD of the people living there. Now, therefore, there is plenty of light, let us look at the productions of the soil. 185 ARTICLES OF FOOD. VEOETAHLE PRODUCTIONS. You will not wonder to hear, in the first place, that vegeta- tion proceeds at this rapid rate all through the summer, and that in some parts barley has been sown and reaped in seven days. While the sun shines, the inhabitants are not only making hay, but are doing ail kinds of work, and have been cultivating all the fruits and vegetables that will grow and ripen there. You must not, however, sup- pose that in their short summer the people can grow all that is necessary for the rest of the year. They must have animal food, for something more than vegetables is necessary in the winter. You must not suppose, either, that all parts of these frigid countries are equally fertile. In one part you may see nicely cultivated atable land ; but as you go further north it is not so. In another part there are 20,000,000 acres clothed with fir-trees alone, and all through the northern 1-1 inn- tries we find the cone-bearing plants in too great abundance. Min-h-trees al>o, as I told you, are found; willows, too; poplar, and elder-trees. The timber of these trees is not of much value from its distance from the rivers and sea. The tur- pentine, therefore, is extracted, ami tin; trees are burnt to tin- ground; their ashes form ma- nure, and the soil is then used for growing corn. In other parts there is an abundance of heath, t'urae, and broom ; the broom wood and liquorice-plants. Many species of flowers you would see Rhododendrons, Azalias, and China-asters. Many more berry- bearing shrubs are found. W. You told us of the cran- berry, papa that it would irr<>\v in the depth of winter, and that the snow often seemed to be stained with blood, from the red juice of the berries. P. I have read, too, that flowers of the most vivid and varied colours grow. They spring up, blossom, ripen, then seed and die in six weeks. These, therefore, are not of much service for food. When travelling very far northward, you reach nor only forests, but swamps and thick morasses, which are so immense that they seem to be boundless. Here grow rushes, reed.-, and long grass. So fenny and boggy is oin- part that it h.> called Fenland, or Finland. Further northward, it is too cold for these plants the dwarf willow, the reeds, and rushes are very small indeed, or are lost altogether. Some of the vegetation is too weak tt) take dee.p root in the earth the flowers depend as nineli upon the air for nourishment as on the soil, and their roots merely creep along the sur- face. At length you may, by tra- velling northward, find spots where no vegetables seem to grow. Hen: are only <.... s, In-lit us, xi-ii-ii-i'fil, and, at last, mere 7 (/>, lint all these in- lignifiCAnt things have their uses, and, poor as they seem, many of them are far more im- portant than the trees. Without ARTICLES OF FOOD. MOSSES, LICHENS. them, many of the animals and people would die. Yes ! the world owes much to these inferior plants ; they are therefore well worthy of notice. Let us begin with the MOSSES. It is said that, in newly- formed countries, they are among the first vegetables that clothe the soil, and the last that disappear. Even on cinders they will form their green crust, and struggle hard for existence. In the mosses, we see the same principle as we saw in the eel. The respiration of the eel was feeble it lived slowly therefore it had greater " tenacity of life." Thus the mosses have a much more simple and lowly existence than other proud plants, but at the same time, their tenacity of life is wonderful, they will resist extreme cold, and ex- treme heat. Even when they have been dried up by the sun, they may be restored to life after many years. With this valuable quality within them, these humble mosses have most important work to do. Beginning near the poles, where no other plants could exist, they labour hard to form new soil for other vegetables to grow in. L. But how can they begin to grow without a soil to get nourishment from themselves? P. The truth is, they are formed so as to get nearly all their nourishment from the at- mosphere. When, therefore, they form the first green coat- ing on a barren rock, they use their roots principally for hold- iny thereto. They depend very much on the state of the air ; and after damp weather they will surround the walls and trunks of trees with verdure at a very short notice. They also form a green coating over bogs; and as each moss dies, and is succeeded by an- other, it forms a rich vegetable mould. On account of their usefulness in this way, the great botanist Linnosus termed them Servi, which means slaves or workmen. But those useful workmen have fellow -workmen, called LICHENS. A lichen may easily be distinguished from a moss. Instead of having " soft green leafy expansions," they look like dry, tough, scaly crusts, being generally of a greyish, or light brown colour. Although they are vegetables, they seem to have no leaves or stem, or anything at all like them. Like the mosses, they are able to draw their nourishment from the gases of the atmosphere. As they grow on rocks where there is not a particle of soil, the upper part of their dry scales has organs for absorbing the gases, and the underside has little hair-like instruments by which it fastens itself to the rock or tree. Although I have only to speak of them as articles of food, I can hardly help pointing out to you some of their other im- portant offices. They seem, when fulfilling their duties, to be so chained to the rock, that Lhmjeus gave to them the name of Vernaculi, or bond- slaves. Humble plants! their 187 ARTICLES OF FOOD. LK'IIKS*. feeble life is a life of labour to benefit others; they gain no benefit themselves. The main object of their life is to diy (heir own (/raves! to make little hol- lows in the rock, in which their remains may be received. This plan, by which they form soil on the barren rock for other plants, is most remarkable. Whilst living, they contain with- in them much oxalic acid. This acid corrodes the rock, and forms the hollow, or " grave," for their particles. Often the moisture is collected in these little hollows. This moisture finds its way into the cre- vices of the rocks, and when it is frozen it expands and breaks the rocks into very minute grains, which then be- come part of the soil. It is said that "successive genera- tions of these bond-slaves con- tinue to perform their hard duties, until the soil they form accumulates, and the barren rock becomes a fruitful field!" How much, once more, do we owe to little things! When Northmen reap their corn, or when they cut down timber, or when their cattle multiply, they may say "Thank yon" for their bread and meat to these little lichens for without their aid the spot from which thesetbiogi \\eiv procured, inijjht still be a barren rock! I have noticed the lichens of the northern countries, not only i lieeail-e tli.-y form -oil tor tin- food, hut because they supplv food itself. Without lichen the rein-deer would die, and with- ' out the rein-deer, many of the ; northern nations could not live; L88 they would have to move down- ward to the south. If you lived in Iceland, you would there see, perhaps, more than in any other country, the great importance of the lichen which we Call Iceland innxs. It partly supplies the want of those corn-plants which will not grow in this severe climate. About the middle of summer, you may see the Icelandic women preparing to gather lichens. They give up their butter and cheese making, leave the cows and sheep in care of the younger branches of the family, and set off on an expe- dition to the cold uninhabited parts where the lichen grows. They are generally accom panied by a few men as protectors, and the weeks they tlm- spend, are looked upon as the happiest time of the year. The men arc aNo useful to carry the tents, for they go about from place to place, and pitch their tents wherever there is an abund- ance of lichen. On I heir return home, the women dry the lichen in an oven, and then beat it in a bag into a tine powder. The natives also prepare flour from the sea-reed, mid two other plants; but I should say that all these preparations are poor substitutes for the Hour of wheat. Some of the Arctic lichens were found useful as food by the adventurers in the Arctic Expedition. Many of the sailors managed to subsist Oil lichen for some da\s, but they complained that it was miserable fare. Besides the mosses and lichens, SEA-WKKJ* is another t ARTICLES OF FOOD. SEA-WEEDS, FUNGI. kind of food. Sea-weeds may food to many marine animals. properly be called sea-lichens, Cattle, too, eat it greedily.* for they are, in many respects, The FUNGI, or MUSHROOMS, much like the lichens. Their are also an article of food in appearance may be different, some of these countries. for the sea-weeds are much There are one or two more larger, more soft, and more odd things amongst the vege- easily decomposed; but if the table productions. The Nor- small scaly lichens found on wegians have learned to apply the rocks be placed in some the wood and juices of their damp shady spot, they will trees for purposes of food. much increase in size. The inner bark of the elm, Some of the sea-weeds are which is not very abundant in exceedingly large, and they their country, and the inner form great forests under the bark of thejir, which is abund- sea. It was an immense field ant, have been brought into of sea-weed that hindered the use. This bark is dried and ship of Columbus on his first ground, and used to feed voyage to America. You may swine; but in times of scarcity, remember that it so alarmed when there is a very severe the crew, that they almost de- winter, it is mixed with meal termined to return. and used as human food. The kind of sea-weed which The twigs of the birch, and is used as food is called the the twigs of the alder and Alaria; it has a broad, long, aspen, are used as fodder for and succulent leaf. All along horses, when nothing better the shores of Northern Europe can be procured. this sea-lichen is eaten by the A kind of wine is also pro- poor. There are others which cured from the birch ; a deep are reckoned a luxury by the incision is made in the trunk, rich. In the chemist's shop, near the root, and a sweet you may see a moss which peculiar-tasted liquor exudes. grows in this country ; it is You have now heard of called the Carageen, or Irish some of the peculiar vegetable Bog Moss; but it appears that foods of these countries; be- the latter name is not a correct sides the food from TREES, one. from FUNGI, SEA - WEED, You have heard of the edible LICHENS, and MOSSES, there is birds' nests of China. The in some parts abundance of greater part of the gelatinous grass for the horses, and corn matter in these nests is pre- for man. The three hardiest pared from sea-weed; the bird, corn-plants, Oats, Barley, and before using it for nest-building, Rye, are of course best known ; swallows it, and brings it into a gelatinous state by means of its stomach. The forests and pastures of * For a considerable part of this account of the Cnjptogamia, the Author is indebted to Dr. Car- sea-weed under the sea afford penter's "Vegetable Physiology." 189 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. and many of our fruits and garden vegetables are reared, according to the position and climate of the country. Dur- ing the fine weather the people are generally engaged not only in husbandry, but in preparing for the long winter. Lesson 20. ARTICLES or FOOD. (Frigid Climates.) THE FOOD OBTAINED FROM THE VEGET- ABLE KINGDOM. lite nation* around the Arctic ciri'h' /in- rntJnT IIJHUI _fixh and flesh than K]>(i vi'iji'table food. Many of the regions encircled by the froze n x< H.I. ami ('.1'inixtil to t In- icy blasts of the nor//' iriiul. ore covered with snow tmo-thinlx cj' tin' i/i-iir. while in .tome parts notliinij but thr rcry lament form of ri-iii-table l{fe it SITU. The most i>iterrxtintj f these vegetable productions are the FCNOI (or mushrooms), the ALO.* for sea-weeds J. the LICHKNS, and the MOSSBB. These are useful. first, in forming nei soil for other plants ; secondly, as footl for tlie lower animals ; and thii-illij, in nourishing man him- self. Food for men and animals, and certain drinks, are prepared from the AI.DKB, BIRCH, PINK, anil ntlierforr.it trees. HAHI.KY, OATB, and RTK, and 1li' htirdiest of our fruit* ami rri it tables, are cultivated in some parti. 101. FOOD PROCURED FIJOM THK ANIMAL KINGDOM. P. Yon have now heard some- 190 tiling of the friend countries which do you think an' the principal source of animal food there? the MAMMALS, BIRDS, or FISH? L. I think that the./i.A are. If you look on the map, you will see that there i.- \ i\ much water within the Arctic circle. P. There is an abundance of fish, and of certain mammals which live in the sea. It you ask one of the Fins, a Lap- lander, a Greenlander, or an Icelander, he will tell you tliar tlu'M- mammals are Car better suited to his wants than the fish, because of the abundance of oil they contain. You may remember that oil and all fatty substances are, like sugar, heating foods; be- cause they supply carbon, to be consumed in ivspiiatioii. Now, if a native of the tropics were to see a Greenlander sit down to breakfast, he would lie ra- ther surprised; he would sec the Greenlander take his dried fish and dip it in oil, eating plenty of oil at etery mouthful. The Greenlander would tell him not to be alarmed that then .is nothing nasty in such a pro- ccediiiLr, but. that it was his custom. He might add, '-Jt you come to live up here, my friend, you will find that such oil is necessary. You will want it to supply carbon and heat for your body and there's no- thing will keep you so warm except oil, unless it be *j>irits." Thus you will find that the antelope, deer, sheep, goat, and oxen, on which the tm/ii'-nl nations live, are nearly all ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE SEAL. muscle (or lean) and bone they contain very little fat; such fat would be very objec- tionable to the animal itself, and to those who eat him. On the other hand, the Seal, the Walrus, the Whale, the White and Brown Bears, of the fn'r/id countries, have an abundance of fat. Unlike the muscular, swift antelope, most of these animals are slow and heavy in their movements, but their fat is a great comfort to them, and afterwards to those who eat them. The FISH, as I said, are very abundant. SALMON. HERRINGS, COD, and others, are dried and put by for the winter. There are many birds, some of which live upon the fish; the great OSPREY, or Fish Hawk, and the GOLDEN EAGLE, are often seen. The GREAT NORTHERN DIVER, the AUKS, and PUF- FINS, with flocks of Eider Ducks, Gulls, and all kinds of sea-fowl ; but not all of these are used for food. The MAMMALS are the most serviceable such as 102. THE SEAL. This animal is reckoned amongst the carnivorous ani- mals, because it feeds on small fish. It has an almost oval- shaped body, which tapers toward the tail. It is better adapted for living in the water than on the land. Being mam- mals, the seals, of course, feed their young with milk, and breed them on the land. They therefore find dwelling-places for themselves in the caves of the rocks, and here they hide themselves while they suckle their young. To attack them then is a very easy matter. Men come in the night, armed with clubs, and carrying lighted torches they make a great noise, and as the frightened seals rush toward the water, they are easily killed. But this is a cowardly way it is like the method of killing turtles. An Icelander or Greenlander will meet the seal on the water, and give him fair play. He will go in his covered boat, or kcijak, in which there is only sufficient room for his body, and with his spear in his hand, he will ride over the rough waves. The seal, hiding behind the rocks, will often attempt to bite a hole in the boat, or upset it. When killed, it is turned to all manner of purposes. Its flesh forms food; Its blood forms soup; Its oil forms firing and candles; Its sinews form threads for sewing their clothing or tents; Its skin forms a covering for their tents, boats, &c.; Its stomach forms an oil flask ; and The skin of the entrails forms window-curtains or shirts. It is said that no man can pass for a right Greenlander who cannot catch seals. Most of the northern people are trained to this work from their earliest childhood. 191 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE WALRUS, BEAR, WHALE, ETC. 103. THE WALRUS. The WALRUS is another of the Seal tribe. It is much larger, and is distinguished by its enormous tusks. With these tusks it tears up long wreaths of the sea-weed, which form a great part of its food. It is said. too. that it uses them in battle with its enemy, the polar bear. The animal is hunted for the sake of its oil and skin. Its flesh is also very palatable. Many a feast of hot walrus have sailors had on the ice, after the oil has been taken from it. 104. THE POLAR BEAR. This animal, like the walrus, lives on a mixed diet. It pre- fers seals and fish ; but when .il, it will eat mountain- berries, sea-weed, marsh-plants, &c. Some Polar Bears are of enormous size. The largest known weighed l,600lbs., and mea-ured eight feet and a-half. The I5i:i\\N and BLACK HKAU, and the UKIIU CKI/./I.V I'.i.vu, also supply food. In KAMTSCHATKA, it is the cus- tom to hunt tlicHrown Hear with agun and dogs : the hunter hides behind a tree which he knows that the animal will pass, and fires directly he comes within reach. If the tirst shot do not kill the animal, or disable him, the c the prince of animals amongst the Laplanders. Who could say enough to a Laplander in favour of his reindeer? As the camel is to the Arab a- the h'.rse is to the Tartar--a- the pig is to the Irishman Cow is to the Englishman us the dog is to the Ks(|uiniaux - so is tin- reindeer to the Lap- To tell you how the reindeer AKTICLES OF FOOD. TUB REIXDEEK. draws the Laplander and his sledge across the snow and ice for hundreds of miles; and takes him, with his load of provi- sions and clothing, to the dif- ferent markets and fairs, does not belong to our subject. In her capacity as a cow sup- plying milk, butter, cheese, flesh, and tallow the reindeer is most worthy of notice. Just as the patriarchs in the time of Abraham counted up their riches by the numbers of their flocks and herds, or just as the wandering Arabs do now, so does the rich Laplander count up his flocks of reindeer. Some husbandmen possess as many as two thousand. The animals during the summer are every morning driven up the moun- tains to graze, and every even- ing they are brought down to be milked. In the dreary winter, the reindeer has to shift very j much for itself. Then the ! lichens, which we have lately ' described, come to his relief. i These lichens cover the rocks which are under the snow. The reindeer scrapes away the snow with its feet and its broad shovel-shaped antlers, for it belongs to the family of Deer which are distinguished by their palmated antlers. If the stock of lichens fail, the reindeer must die, for they are its last resource. 108. THE ELK, &c. The ELK is another deer with palmated antlers. Al- ' though it is a tall powerful i animal, it is very gentle and tame in the northern coun- tries; in the winter it lives near the houses of the inhabi- tants. It is the largest of the Deer tribe. Its broad antlers are of im mense size, and its body yields a large supply of food. There are many more ani- mals in these cold climates, such as the Fox, the Wolf, the Ermine, and the Sable. The Beaver, too, was at one time very numerous, especially in the Western World : there also may be seen the Esqui- maux Dog. But these animals are not articles of food. L Some of them are only objects of chase. I should think that nearly all the northern nations are good hunters. P. Yes; I told you that to procure their stock for the win- ter is the chief business of many during the summer. I will read you an account of an old man who lived at Kamtschatka. Hear what he and his sons did during the summer: " The man and his sons had killed twelve hears, eleven moun- tuin sheep, several reindeer, a large number of geese, ducks, and teal, and a few swans and pheasants. ' In November,' said he, ' we shall catch man)' hares and partridges; and I have one thousand fresh salmon lately caught, and now frozen, for our winter's stock. Added to this, in my cellar there is a good stock of cabbages, turnips, and potatoes ; with various sorts of berries, and abuut thirty poods (of thirty-six pounds each) of sarannas (a root with a sweetish- bitter taste), the greater part of which we have stolen from the field-mioe, who also collect them in large quantities for the winter.' 193 ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE ELK, KTC. Tea, tobacco, and spirits, are tlie preatest articles of luxury in Kaintschatka, and bread or biscuit is a very acceptable present. The Reindeer Kitriakees make a sort of bread composed of the boiled bones of the deer, with the marrow in them, pounded very fine, and mixed with a portion of the incut and fit The scarcity of sal I is a great evil, as the ti-li cannot he dried in the open air so as to k eep properly until the next year, l!' salt were more abundant, as many fish miirlit be cured in some sea- cnin as would last for several years." L. It is a very good thing to find so much food hut I don't think that I should like to live in a frigid country for all that. P. On the other hand, the people of the north think that no one can he as happy as themselves. Some have a very high opinion of rheirown attain- ments; and ridicule other Eu- ropeans, calling them by nick- names. But most of those nations are very barbarous. It is said of the (jreenlaadera that in cooking and eating their victuals, they are most loath- some. They have no set time for meals, but usually cook their game as soon as it is brought in. When they eat, they sit upon the ground around a large wooden dish. From this they take the meat with their fingers; the men first, and afterwards the women, who sit on the opposite side of the house. IK. I call that barbarous! for the men to eat with their fingers! /.. I think it is more barba- 194 ! rous for the men to help them- selves tir>t. P. Yes. That is one of the true signs of barbarity for the men to be unpolite to the women. But hear the re- mainder! "They prefer the blood of the dog-fish to any other drink; but usually they drink water." I do not think that you would like the dining-room of the Grccnlanders. It is said that " the air is often so impure with the effluvia of dead fowls and seals, the entrails of animals, the putrid remains of boiled or raw flesh, that to a European it is impossible to remain long within doors. Every thing seems covered with the dripping "I train-oil and smoke." Ion. Have you finished the history of the food now, ]>:i]>:i? P. Not quite. We may add a great many more general particulars about these frigid countries: for instance, it is said that the Northern Indians (that is those within the Arctic circle) often cat their food raw. It is said that they also eat wliortle - berries, and even a kind of unctuous (fatty) clay. Ion. I suppose that that is when they cannot get meat poor fellows ! P. And yet there is always an abundance of fish. I told 1 you of the abundant shoals of herrings W. And of i\\c porpoises. P. And other animals of the sea arc equally abundant. There are vast swarms of shrimps which are very car- nivorous. When Captain Parry travelled in the Polar regions, ARTICLES OF FOOD. THE MEDUSA. the crew hung joints of meat from the side of the ship, and within a few nights, they were picked to the very bone. The animal life in these regions has indeed surprised many people; but you shall hear at once the account of the Medusa, which others have written then you will understand why it is so. With this account we will close our history of the animal food. 109. THE MEDUSA. " When we contemplate the aspect of the northern world, bleak, naked, dreary, beaten by the raging tempest, and subject to cold which is fatal to life, we naturally imagine that animal nature must exist there on a small scale. It might be expected that only a few dwarf and stunted species would be scattered along its melancholy shores. But the mighty Ar- chitect of nature makes here a full display of his inexhaustible resources. He has filled these naked rocks, and wintry seas, with a swarming profusion of life, such as he scarcely brings forth under the glow of tropical suns. He has stored them with the mightiest of living beings, compared to which, the elephant and hippopotamus of the tro- pics seem almost diminutive. Even the smaller species, as that of the herring, issue forth from the frozen depths in shoals which astonish by their immensity; they fill all the southern seas, and minister food to nations; the air, too, is darkened by innumerable flocks of sea-fowl. " By what means does nature support, amid the frozen world, this immensity of life? Ac- cording to the same plan by which nature supports the inhabitants of the seas by making them the food of each other. Here we observe a con- tinued gradation of animals, rising one above another, the higher preying upon the lower, till food is at last found for those of largest bulk. The basis of subsistence for the numerous tribes of the Arctic world is found in the medusa, which the sailors well describe as ' sea-blubber.' The medusa is a soft, elastic, gelatinous substance. Specimens may be seen lying on our own shores, exhibitingno signs of life except that of shrinking when touched. Beyond the Arctic circle it in- creases in an extraordinary degree, and is eagerly devoured by the finny tribes of all shapes and sizes. By far the most numerous, however, of the me- dusan races are too small to be discerned without the aid of the microscope. These medusae occupy about a fourth of the Greenland sea, or above twenty thousand square miles ; and hence their number is far be- yond calculation. Mr. Scoresby estimates that two square miles contain 23,888,000,000,000,000; and as this number is beyond human words and conceptions, he observes that 80,000 persons would have been employed since the creation in counting it. " This green sea may be con- sidered as the Polar pasture- ground, where whales are always seen in the greatest numbers. 195 ARTICLES OF FOOD. ANIMAL KINGDOM. These prodigious animals can- not derive any direct subsist- ence from such small invisible particles; but these form the food of other minute creatures, which then support others, till at length animals are produced of such size as to afford a morsel for their mighty devourers."* W. Well, I admire those medusae ! They are wonderful things. They correspond to the Lichens. P. The Lichens are the lowest sort of vegetables, and are the foundation of the vegetable kingdom, just as the medusae are the foundation of the ani- mal kingdom in the Polar seas. Ion. Yes; because, you see, the lichens die and make earth, which becomes food for large vegetables; then these larger vegetables die, and form earth to support larger plants still, and so on. That is exactly like the medusae becoming food for the animals above them. P. And in both cases, they at last afford food and clothing for man. Ought we not, indeed, to be very thankful to "the Mighty Architect," whoe noble works we thus freely use? Let us once more learn to love and thank Him whose mighty hand brings forth food from the sea, and earth, and air. You may now write your last lesson on the food of man. \V. And then may we write another list of articles of food? P. Yes; but mind that you commit it to memory when you have written it. * Edinburgh Cabinet Library. 196 Lesson 21. ARTICLES OF FOOD. (Frigid Climates.') THE ARTICLES OF FOOD FROM THE AMMAL KINGDOM. From the intense cold of the Arctic rrtjiini, IIIHII ct/tild xearcely ejrist there without animal food. TJtus ire find some of the tnii/nnls of the temperate con 11 frit* lirinij within the Arctic circle ; timl in tJte parts further northward they are replaced by the !>KI\ I>KKK, 8KAL,WAUIU8,WUALE, PORPOISB, lit: \n. ft in I others. There are also abundance of Birds; but there is not one with brilliant plumage lihe that of the Tropical birds. The prim-ipnl are the GULL, COUMORANT, the DIVBRS, AUK, PCFPIN, PKTIIEL, WILD DUCK, SBA EAOLB, Sfc. From the sea is obtained an unlimited supply offuh. parti- cularly HBRHJNO.- and HALMOS, which are found- in immense shoals. T > heea.-istenceflfthi'x,fixh , and consequently of' the \\iuile-, Seal, I'olar Hear. lye., depends on one of the lowest kindsof animals, called the MEDINA, in the same rray as the existence oft/te larger plants ilejienils tin the lamest kind ofvet/etables, the LICHENS. TJie numbers of the medusa are (jr eater than the imagination can conceive, and they are so small, that they can only be seen by means oj the microscope. There are no Iteptilcs within the Arctic circle. The mode of living and of eat- ing amonrjtt somenf the northern nations is still very barbarous ; but, from not hnoming better, they are quite content with their present state. P. Nowmakeyourtableofthe ARTICLES OF FOOD IN THE TEM- PERATE AND FRIGID COUNTRIES. OBJECT LESSONS FROM THE GREAT EXHIBITION, $urts #mrtjr imfr /iftjj. FOOD OF TEMPERATE AND FRIGID COUNTRIES. VEGETABLE KINGDOM. NUU: WALNUT, Chestnut, Com Plants: WHEAT. Hazel-nut, Filbert, &c. BARLEY. Fluids: WATER, Beer, Perry, OATS. Cider, Wine, Brandy, RYE. Rum, Gin, &c., Vinegar BUCK WHEAT. ANIMAL KINGDOM. MILLET. Dairy Pro- MlLK, EggS, Blltter Leguminous P EA . duce: and Cheese, Goose, ' BEAN. KIDNEY BEAN. and other Poultry. "" HERRING, Pilchard, LUPIN. Sprat, Whitebait, Sar- TAMARIND. Craci^oi-m CABBAGE. CAULIFLOWER. dine, and Anchovy. M Tr*e rel MACKEREL, Tunny, Cod, Haddock, Whit- TURNIP. ing, Hake. RADISH. HORSE-RADISH. Fi.t Fish- PLAICE, Sole, Turbot, Flounder, Dab, Brill. MUSTARD AND CRESS. Ray: SKATE, Shark, &c. WATERCRESS, c. TTm 'pi. 1 i f t ! s" CARROT, Parsnip, ' Celery, Caraway, Cori- ander, Aniseed, &c. Salmon SALMON, Trout, Char, Tribe : o i^. Smelt. Eel Tribe : EEL, Conger, &C. carp Tribe: CARP, Barbel, Roach. C PHuu' le LETTUCE, Endive, Ar- tichoke, Jerusalem Pike Tribe : PIKE, Flying Fish, &c. Perch Tribe:p E RCH, Bullhead, &C. Artichoke. Various P O TATO, Ollion. FRIGID COUNTRIES. Tubes : .-, SPINACH and Beetroot. VF.GF.TABLK KINGIIOM. RHUBARB. Crypto S a- MOSSES, Lichens, Sea- Fruits: TlIE RoSE TRIBE, &C. mia : weeds. APPLE, Pear. Quince, MUSHROOMS, &c. Medlar, Peach, Apri- cot, Nectarine, Plum, PINE, Birch, &c. BARLEY, Oats, &c. Cherry, Raspberry, ANIMAL KINGDOM. Strawberry, &c. SEAL. Tribe! MULBERRY, Fig. WALRUS. G T > iTbe'" y ' GOOSEBERRY, Currant POLAR BEAR. onve Tribe: OLIVE, Manna Ash, WHALE. Ash. PORPOISE. Omn-'t ORANGB, Lemon, Ci- REINDEER. tron, Lime, Shaddock, ELK, &c. Forbidden Fruit. MEDUSA, &c. 197 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. PART THE SIXTH. CHAPTER SIXTEENTH. ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. P. First a word or two on Clothing in general. You quite understand that as long as we are in the world we have to dwell in bodies made of "clay." You have learned, too, how, as long as we are thus connected with the body, we must take care of it and feed it. \V. Yes. And we have learned of more than 100 ar- ticles used for feeding it. P. And we must not only feed our body, but we must clothe it; for you will observe that unless you take care of it, and see that it has the food and clothing it requires, you and yourbody must part, or, as we say, you must " die." The clothing is of great importance, as well as the food; therefore, let us talk of it next. Go and see some savage from the Southern Seas, and question him on the subject of clothing. Ask some native of Tunis, a Frenchman, or a Chinaman, and each will show his own plan for wrapping up his body; each has a dif- ferent idea. W. Yes. And though they laugh at each other, each be- lieves his own notion the best. P. There is something good in all tbcir ideas, no doubt. The strangest idea is that of the savage. Bring forward the savage, 198 and ask, " What are your rules for the toilet?" The savage would say, " Put a ring in your nose;" or, per- haps, "one in each ear." "Tat- too thy face with bluck mark- ings. Paint with pretty colours. Wash thy body well with oil, until it glistens in the sun. Let the oil of the cocoa-nut and the palm run over thee. Wear round thy loins the skin of some beast." If you were to tell that savage that we do not think his a good costume, he might ,-av that be thought his fine limbs and broad chest were much more beautiful to look at than a great con/; or, that he believed his thick flowing hair to IMJ a much more handsome covering than a hat. Now, that is a very simple idea! very different from our idea of dress. He believes that nothing more is wanted; and his only " raw materials" are a little colour from the earth, or stain from the juice of plants; some oil (not Ma- cassar) from the trees, and either a skin or some vegetable fibres to make coarse cloth. But we may thus see how many men depend upon ideas. If the savage were to travel with you in England alone, how he would wonder at the trouble you take about dress! If you took him to Manchester, and only showed him one of the cloth factory chimneys, he would wonder why it should ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. smoke for the sake of making dress, or what chimney-smok- ing had to do with dress- making! And when you led him inside, and he saw the tens of thousands of wheels, the spin- ning-mules, and power-looms; when he saw 1,200 of these looms at work together, and heard their deafening clatter, he would wonder more how people could make so much "fuss" about dress. And he wjuld feel more sure of what he said when you led him from one factory to another; when he saw all the processes of printing and dyeing, and was told that these belonged to one manufacture only, the manu- facture of cotton. He would feel surprised, too, at the number of factories for making this cotton dress, and would be more surprised when he tra- velled from town to town throughout LANCASHIRE, and reached at last the giant port of Liverpool. How he would open his eyes at the fleets of merchant-ships, and the im- mense bales of cotton with which they were laden! Lead him to Warrington, on the Mersey, and show him the hundreds of families who live by making pins. Lead him to YORKSHIRE, and show him thousands more machines, and tens of thousands of families which get their living by making woollen dress. Lead him to Hull, that he may see the eastern port; show him vessels bringing flax from Holland, others with ?coo/from Germany, and others from Russia laden with hemp. Then tell him to count the merchants, the clerks, the porters, and the sailors, who depend upon the clothing mar- ket for their bread. Lead him southward to Bir- mingham, where men and women make buttons, and show him the thousands of people whose living depends on the button trade. Or take him up j northward, to Macclesfield and Derby, where si/hen dress is made. Then travel south- ward again, to Newcastle-nnder- Lyne, to see the manufacture of hats. Take him to Coventry ; here are more tens of thousands employed in making ribbons and watches. Lead him northward to Not- tingham, where the people are making cotton stockings, and net, and lace. Lead him down to Leicester, where tvoo/len stock' zni/sand gloves are made. Lead him southward again. Take him to the town of Northamp- ton. Let the scared savage I peep into the houses of the poor, and see how all are busy making strange leather cases for the feet! " What are these thick things with nails?" he would ask. These are boots and shoes. Take him eastward to Norwich. All the world here is making bombazines, and stuffs, and crapes. Lead him through the counties of Cam- bridge, Huntingdon, Bedford, and Buckingham, and he won- ders what we want with so much straw-plait, or why the people plait straw at all*. Many he notices making pillow-lace, at which he wonders more. Then lead him to "LONDON 199 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. TV." Take him to bjrmond- sey, where the leather is tanned take him to Spitalfields, where poor men weave silk ; and, when you have shown him all these places, you may tell him that in this country some millions of people earn their daily bread by making articles of dress. What do you think he will say? W. Why, he will say that those people would not get many customers in his country ; they don't wear hob - nailed shoes there, nor hats. P. And thus you may learn the value of an idea. Suppose that the civilized part of the world should suddenly take to the savage's philosophical view of dress, and think exactly as he thinks what would become of the millions of people to whom our articles of clothing give employment? Ion. They would be thrown out of work; then they must starve. P. But these people depend confidently on the ideas of dress which the world has now. They know that since the time of the Ancient Britons, the people of this country have changed their ideas of dress, and that they will not go back again. We have, however, to talk of the articles of clothing in THE KXIIUUTION. Suppose we go and see them II . Let us take the savage too, papa? /'. Very well ; and it would be well if we could also have an Ancient Briton, stained with woad, that he might see how 200 the ideas of the nation have enlarged. But let us enter the Crystal Palace. The list of raw ma- terials rather surprises our savage friend. I need hardly count them up. From the ANI- MAL KINGDOM we have skins, fur, woof, feathers, silk, bone, ivory, horn, pearl, tortoi.te^helt, whalebone, &c. From the VEGE- TABLE KINGDOM, cotton, htmp, flax, straw, yutta perclui, In- dia rubber; and from the MI- NERAL KINGDOM, gold and sil- ver, precious stones, brass, irot, &c. Our savage looks upon all these things, and he camioi, make out in what way we use them he cannot believe, in- deed, that they are all brought into use. Well! if he won't believe, let him walk on through the Exhibition. Let him see the various articles into which these raw materials have been formed. Look, Mr. Savage, at our rib- bons ! In how many different styles do we get them up! Here are " gauze, satin, sarsnet, and lutestring plain, figured, flow- ered, stamped of open pattern, and of open texture with edges plain, scalloped, pearled, and vandyked : some are not smooth ribbons, but they are yojered and quilted with beautiful skill." " But what do yon do with thefenthers?" grumbles the sav- age. " Surely you would not be dressed like geese !" Come and look at the FEA- THER BONNETS. Here are bon- nets made from the feathers of the ostrich, the guinea-fowl, the pheasant, the goose, anil the swan. These are " novelties !" ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. FANS, LACE, ETC. these bonnets, yet yon see rows of different shapes and colours. What do you say to them, Mr. Savage? They are light, yet they are warm and soft. Would you like to take one home to your estimable squaw? "One of those!" he would reply. "My squaw does not wear bonnets she has not the idea of such a thing." But he would still like to see the novel- ties. Then you might show him the ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS. How many things are used to make these ornaments! There are flowers made from wax, cambric, shells, feathers, and beetles' wings from hair, satin- wood, box, ivory, bone, and precious stones. Here, too, are flowers made from seeds, and not far off are singular flowers made from lace. " What's this 'ere?" our savage might say. Ah! here are strange varie- ties of FANS. Would you like to buy Mrs. (what's her name?) a FAN? Here is one enriched with jewels, and worth nearly a thousand pounds; you see, it would buy up half of your island at home. Perhaps you have never heard of M. Duvel- leroij? He is a French gentle- man, and he makes fans. He employs two thousand people in this work. Here is a set which he has made for the ladies who dwell in the Sultan's harem; you see they are orna- mented with designs from the "Arabian Nights," if you have ever heard of such a book. And now look at the /eaMer-fans! W. Perhaps he could like to see the article of dress called KOH-I-NOOR. P. Yes. Here, Mr. Savage, is a little article, one of our Queen's jewels; its value in money is greater than all your island, and half a dozen others beside 2,000,000. Look at those noughts! if you understand numeration, and think about them. Our savage chieftain wonders how many such things are worth all the world, and whether our Queen ever wears all the world in her crown. But the heavy idea oppresses him; he is tired lead him to something else. Come here, friend. Here are some articles of dress. Here are some of Mr. Nicholay's FURS. And when the savage sees the skins of the lion hang- ing from the gallery, and the helpless look of the grim bear, he grins with satisfaction. He is amused, too, with the strange collection of furs from the fox, the ermine, the stoat, the beaver, the chinchilla, and the marten ; but he does not un- destand what is meant by a " victorine." Here is beautiful LACE to be seen from Belgium ; veils worth hundreds of guineas; a lace dress which cost five years' labour in making. The savage does not care for such things; he passes on. Now examine the Cotton, the Woollen, the Silk Goods. Here, too, are some Mixed Goods. Try and understand, Mr. Savage, while I give you their names. Here are bombazines, para- mattas, merinos, cobourgs, pop- lins, which are corded, watered, and brocaded ; crapes, Cash- meres, Bareges, twilled Ban- 201 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. MIXED GOODS. danas, Indian shawls, spun-silk, cambrics, muslins, camlets, chintzes, tartans, tweeds, lin- sey-wolseys, flannels, figured gauzes, flouncings, fancy checks, scarfs, printed handkerchiefs, embroidered vests, embroidered robes, and tamboured dresses I hope you understand these names. Here are gorgeous spe- cimens of velvets, with plush satins, gros de Naples, and wa- tered silks; here are flannels, corduroys, railway-wrappers, you don't nse these in your island, I believe ? saddle- cloths, druggets, baizes, friezes, and rumswizzle. Ah, here I have puzzled myself ! Here is the rumswizzle ! Take it up and examine it yourself. Ktims- wiz/.le is rumswizzle that's what it is. It is made of wool, which is undyed and foreign. Here are more camlets, and waterproof cloths; Mackintosh capes and cloaks ; oil-skin capes, and other convenient things. Here are ginghams, calicoes, plain and striped, shirt- ings, sheetings, damasks, dia- pers, huckabacks, dimities, quillings, lambskins, doeskins, angolas, kerseymeres, broad- cloths, both piece-dyed and wool-dyed, net, Honiton lace, bobbin-net, gimp, braids, fringe, tassels, cords, cordings, glazed linings, Persian silk, hooks-and- eyes, buttons, stay-laces. Here are But the savage will not hear any more, he is bewildered quite. " You don't mean to say," he asks, " that you mar all these different kinds of things?" Yes, indeed. Let me go on ! 202 There are "No, thank you; let me go!" So we'll send him oft' to the refreshment-room. It is very clear that the im- provements which are brought forth in the Crystal Palace are not to his taste; he does not understand the idea of them. He has seen enough to know that the civilized world pay wonderful attention to their articles of dress, and that is all ! So we will leave our savage in the midst of the jellies and the ices such "improvements" he quite understands. We are now in the Transept. Let us start from here. We will travel through each department, down the whole length of the Exhi- bition. Properly speaking, we have only to notice the Raw Mate- rials of each country; but as we shall, I dare say, see in each department some articles of dress, we will also say a word or two on the people's costume. TURKEY. Here is TURKEY. It is the nearest place to the Transept, so we will begin. This country is partly in Europe and partly in Asia, but the people are more like the Asiatics than the Europeans. The outer gar- ment of a Turk is a long, loose robe; underneath his robe is a wide waistcoat tied with a sash; his trousers are quite loose, and he wears ornamented slippers. These slippers are only for tin- streets; for, when entering a house, the Turk leaves these articles at the door. On his head our Turk wears a peculiar ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. TURKEY, EGYPT, ETC. dress of white cloth or muslin. Ask him what it is. He does not say " hat," but " turban." " Here is my turban ; I take great pains in folding it." So you would say, if you saw him do it. Every one seems to fold his turban in his own way ; for a barberof Constantinople once showed the world that the mus- lin of a turban may be arranged in sixty-six different ways. Many Turks also wear a broad sabre, or scimitar, at their side. The Turkish women are dressed much like the men, except that their faces are veiled; but it is said that they will unpin a corner of the muslin to eat some sweetmeats, or smoke one of the long Turkish pipes. Here, in the Exhibition, we may see these articles. Here are some turbans, and another kind of head-dress, called a fez " flowered muslin for turbans " a " scarlet cloak embroidered in gold " a " ladies' suit com- plete" vests, belts, silk sashes, and so on; here are daggers, pistols, and sabres, " gold and steel mounted." EGYPT. Egypt, an African country, ! is found in the same depart- ment with Turkey. The dress j of the Egyptian is much like : that of the Turk ; the every i day colour is black, blue, grey, I or light brown. Those who are j descended from their prophet j Mahomet, are allowed the pri- vilege of wearing a green tur- ; ban. The Egyptian, as well as the Turkish women, wear loose trousers, like those of the men. It is from these women that the ladies of America have in- troduced a new style of dress, called the Bloomer costume. PERSIA. Persia is our next depart- ment. The dress of the Per- sians is much like that of the Egyptians and Turks, except that it is more expensive. The Persians are said to have sur- passed all other Eastern na- tions in their love of pomp and show. No Persian thinks him- self properly dressed without a dagger in his girdle. Their daggers and sabres do not speak well for the people; it is a bad thing to feel that you may have to defend yourself by force. If all the Eastern nations would put away these things, they would find it much easier to settle their disputes without such helps. The Per- sians wear high-heeled boots; their head-dress is a black sheep - skin cap. Although, like the Turks, they take off their shoes on entering a house, they do not uncover the head. " This is a very bad plan," said an English officer who had often dined with the Persians. " We are obliged to do as they do, and while we dine we have to bear the weight of our heavy cocked hats and feathers." GREECE. Here is the department of Greece, but there are not many dresses. Here, indeed, is one (numbered 56), and it tells you by its wonderful smartness the 203 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. SPAIN, ETC. character of the Greeks. The j Persians wear expensive dress, j but generally of sober colour; I the Greeks, on the other hand, dress with a great deal of show. "A physician's janissary," it is said, " wears a rich robe of scarlet; his vest is of blue vel- vet, trimmed with gold lace ; and in his silk girdle is a brace of pistols." The Greek wears short petticoats, and a short jacket, and sometimes scarlet leggings ; but his dress is very much varied. Sometimes he wears a snowy white turban, but more often the tasseled, red-cloth cap, called the Fez; and sometimes a fur cap, like a muff. The young Greeks are very handsome, and the cos- tume of some is the most grace- ful in the whole world. But all classes of Greeks dress showily ; and it is said that even a servant will spend every farthing of his wages in fine clothes. SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND MADEIRA. The costume of the Euro- pean differs much from that of the Turks and the Eastern nations. But we must not look to Spain for the character of the European dress. When a traveller passes through that country, it is said that nothing strikes him more than the wonderfully different dresses of the people. If the people were judged by their costume, you would almost suppose that the inhabitants of neighbouring provinces belonged to different hemispheres. It has been said 204 that there is as much difference between two inhabitants of the north and south of Spain as between an Englishman and a Russian. The most striking article of dress belonging to all the Span- iards is the great t her - of - pearl ornaments. But let us leave the Chinaman. We will cross the Transept. Now let us see where we are. We are now in the Western Nave of the Exhibition. Here is the INDIAN DEPARTMENT. ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. INDIA. INDIA. To say how all the people of India dress would be very diffi- cult. Come with me, and I will show you a collection of figures which will represent the different castes and trades of India. The room in which these figures are placed is a most magnificent place. It is fitted up in the style of an Indian palace. The collection of figures is a very extensive one. You may observe that each caste has a different costume. W. What are castes, papa? P. By castes we mean the different ranks of society in India. The whole nation of Hindoos is cut up into divisions, and each division has no con- nection whatever with any other. Whatever caste a man may be born in, in that caste he must remain all his lifetime. This system is a great curse to society in India. No man can ever raise himself to a better caste, so that few make any attempts at improvement. The highest caste is that of the Braltmins. They are the priests of India, and they enjoy pri- vileges which are disgraceful to think of, for they are more than cilght to be allowed to any mortal. Being priests, they cannot become kings, but they account the office of a king to be beneath their dig- nity. In the most trifling matters, they claim the first attention. Thus, it is said, if one has occasion to cross a river along with others, he enters the boat first, is first lauded on the opposite side, and then stalks away without paying for his passage. Ion. What a shame! P. The poor boatman does not think so. He would tell you that the privilege of carry- ing over so holy a person is quite a sufficient reward. The caste next in importance to the Brahmins are the Warriors. From them are chosen the kings, princes, and other rulers. The third class consists of those engaged in useful pursuits such as agriculture and com- merce. The fourth class in- cludes the labourers and work- men. The lowest of all classes are the Pariahs, or outcasts. These poor creatures are not admitted into any " caste" ; they are accounted worthless, and are in a worse condition than the brutes. Many have no dwell- ing-place whatever, but live as the dogs do ; indeed, they often quarrel with the dogs for the food which is thrown to them. Their countrymen abhor and shrink from them ; they will not allow them to enter a tem- ple, lest they should defile it. They are only employed to per- form the filthiest of work and the meanest of offices such as brutes perform. We read in the Scriptures of man's wicked inventions, and oh, how truly do you see the result of man's inventions in the condition of these poor crea- tures! The religion of the Hindoos was made by man, and you may see what such religion does. These poor Pariahs are God's creatures " created in His image." How 211 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. IX1HA. angry must the Almighty feel P. Cotton, which grows there at an invention which causes abundantly. Cotton is one of His creatures to be so treated! I the principal articles of manu- II '. I am very glad that I facture in India; the most im- was not l>orn in India. portant is sill:. The soft fingers P. And so am I, Willie. ; of the Hindoo natives are well Suppose we had lived there, , suited for all the fine processes ami I had been horn a Pariah. \ of making silk and cotton cloth, Such should I be now, and you ' and before we introduced .-team- also. Be thankful, too, that j machinery to help our ma- you live in the laud which has ( nufactures, the Hindoo cloths been reached by the " glad \ were much more valuable than tidings." May such glad tidings the English. At the present reach India soon, and cause the | time, vast numbers of these heart of man to flow with love I natives get their living by spin- toward his fellow-man! < ning and weaving. The mns- But we were talking of , lins, calicoes, ginghams, and the cloiliiny of the Hindoos, j silks of India cannot, it is said, Look at this little army of clay he surpassed. I may here figures! Did you ever see such a variety of costume? II'. S\jme of the lower castes are almost naked. P. Yes. Look at this group. Here you have a gardener, a shepherd, a village waterman, carpenter, blacksmith, plough- man, waggoner, and many others; none of these wear any- thing more than a piece of cloth round their loins and a turban on the head. The dress for the other part of their bodies is sim- ply oil. They rub it plentifully over their naked skins, and as there is plenty of oil in India, the natives find it much cheaper clothing than a coat or trousers. The turban was not anciently worn by the natives; indeed, the greater part of them do not wear it now. It was introduced by the MAIIOMKTANB when they crimson and gold brocade, conquered India, just as the gold and silver tissues, and so TAKTAUB introduced pig-tails on, are worn by the men. The when they conquered China. women wear" all sorts of /.. What is their cloth made things gold and silver lace; of, p.iim; is it cotton or linen? J elegant, vet massive trinkets, 212 mention to you that " muslin," which is a very familiar name to you, is so named from Mosul, the capital of Mesopotamia. This city is on the banks of the Tigris, and was once the great- est commercial city in the East. Look for it on your map. If". Why is calico so called? P. The word calico (another " household word " ) comes from Calicot, the capital of Malabar. From this town calico was first exported. You may look fur this, also, on your map. Hut enough of India. As I said, it would be wearisome to describe the costumes. Let us say, lastly, that, as usual in Eastern countries, there it plenty of ornament worn by those who can afford it. Tur- of the richest velvet, ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. INDIA, ETC. the case are two necklaces of pearls, valued at 7,000, and varieties of rubies, emeralds, opals, some of which are wrought into exquisite patterns. MALTA, CEYLON, JER- SEY, AND THE IONIAN ISLANDS. These places are widely apart, as you may see on the map. But their departments in the Exhibition are close to- gether. This is because they are British possessions. From MALTA we have many good specimens of black silk lace, bracelets, studs, hair-pins, &c. From CEYLON " Pearls, of course," you will say, for you have heard, ever since you were a baby, of the " Ceylon pearl fisheries ;" but I cannot find a single pearl in the depart- ment. From JERSEY, the principal articles of clothing are the spe- cimens of Jersey knitting "pair of knit stockings," "richly knitted jacket," &c. The IONIAN ISLANDS are a republic in the east of the Mediterranean Sea they can- not be called a British colony, being only under the protection of Britain. The most remark- able productions from there are the spendid aprons which the peasant girls of that country wear. I will read you the ac- count of them from the OFFI- CIAL CATALOGUE: Cl i ambers' s "Foreign Cos- "An apron of muslin, marie in tunies,'' from which much of the ! Corfu, with a border worked on preceding information has been i linen with the needle : somewhat obtained. ( similar to Dresden-work, but of 213 such as bangles, ear-rings, chains, and necklaces; pearls, too, of the size of a pigeon's egg, and strings of diamonds are worn by the wealthiest classes. There are in India singing and dancing girls, called nautches. (I do not think you would like their dancing from the accounts I have read of it.) Let us conclude with the dress of a nautch: A nautch wears " grey silk trou- sers embroidered with silver, rich anklets strung with small bella the toes covered with rings, and a silver chain across the foot a very full petticoat of rich cloth, deeply trimmed or fringed with gold and silver. The vest is almost hidden by an immense veil which crosses the bosom several times, and hangs down in broad ends. The hands, arms, and neck, are covered with jewels, and in the hair are silver ribbons and bodkins. The ears are ' fringed' with rings, and through the nose is worn a large gold wire ring, from which hang a pearl and two other gems."* Suppose our " savage " friend were to see this nautch, how he would wonder ! He would think the whole thing very ri- diculous, perhaps. But India has long been famous for jewels, and the most costly contribution iu that de- partment is the large case of diamonds and precious stones. The principal is the Durra-i- noor, a rival of the Koh-i-noor, worth, I cannot say how many hundred-thousand pounds. In ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, ETC. larger stitch, on a very elegant and classical pattern, of grapes, vine-leaves, and butterflies. " An apron of crochet-work, remarkable for the beauty of tlie pattern and execution, and show- ing that mhat lias but recently appeared in England as an ac- complishment, has been for ayes the common needlework of the Ionian peasant-fjirls. The bor- der is of deep iJresden-work, ot magnificent efl'ect, with emble- matical designs of lions, cupids, flowers, Ac. "These aprons are the ordinary work and every-day wear of the peasant-girls of Corfu ; the dress of the Greek peasant-women, in general, being of an extraordinary richness, so that a peasant-bride's dress is often her dowry, being not unfrequently worth 400 or 500 dollars." CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, WESTERN AFRICA, GOLD COAST, AND ASIIANTEE. These places you may also look for in the map. They are all colonies or " dependencies of Britain." The most curious things from the Cape are the harasses, or cloaks, such as the Kaffres wear; they are made of the skins of wild animals. There are also a Kart're warrior's head-dress; a Bushman's blanket; a very handsome tippet made from the feathers of the Cape birds. There are numerous skins of wild animals, collections of ostrich feathers, buffalo horns (you have heard of the Cape buffalo before), goat skins weighing 65lbs. each, shecp's- tail oil (you may remember the 214 account of the large-tailed Af- rican sheep which are found in Egypt), sea-elephant oil, ele- phants' tusks, and teeth of the sea-cow, rhinoceros hides, sticks, whips. &c. One of the most peculiar articles sent was a pair of horns which showed to what an im- mense age the horns of the ox tribe grow in those parts. These famous horns measured " 8 ft. 4 in. from tip to tip," and the circumference of one horn was 21 inches. The contributions from WESTERN AFRICA are interest- ing. Here is a contribution, sent, I suppose, to show how much the African damsels work : " Lime made of bones burnt into ashes, mixed with water, and dried in the sun. Used by those who spin thread to keep their fingers dry." Again, we have " Female fashionable dress of cloth, worn by the higher classes. The brown cotton is taken from the silk cotton-tree, winch grows on the Gold Coast, and most other parts of the west coast of Africa, The natives make their canoes by hollowing it to tin' required sice. The green leaves just budding are very wholesome, and used as vege- tables." Here we have more fashion- able dresses: " Fine and blue-glazed tobes, worn by the higher class. The manner in which the tobe is glazed is as follows: After the cloth hns been well dyed, it is taken out of the indigo dye, and hung up until it is thoroughly dry ; then it ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. ISLANDS IN EASTERN HEMISPHERE. is spread on a wooden roller, and is well rubbed with the shell of a snail as hard as the force of the wrist can bear, which gives the gloss." Here you find how Africa is beginning to learn the love of dress from its neighbours: "Fine cheeked long tobe, and Haussa trousers, braided with red silk about the ankles, made after the Turkish fashion ; worn by the higher class of people." There are also many articles sent from Dahomey; including the throne and cushion of the king, who is the chief supporter of the slave trade, he is, in fact, a slave-hunter. ISLANDS OF THE EAST- ERN HEMISPHERE BE- LONGING TO BRITAIN. I will give you the names of these islands in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and you will then, I am sure, be glad to find out their places. In the Eastern Hemisphere the only two islands from which goods have arrived, besides those already mentioned, are ST. HELENA and the MAURI- TIUS. The inhabitants of the Mau- ritius have lately begun to cultivate a most important article of clothing, which will soon increase the prosperity of the island. The important specimen which they have sent is seven pounds of white si/k, " reared from silkworms in the district of Tamarin." It is said that "The quality of the silk must not be taken as a criterion of what Mauritius will produce, as the manufacture is in its infancy. "About 300 acres of ground have been planted in the cooler districts of Mauritius with mulberry trees, which have rapidly grown up, and are now fit for use. A company has been formed in Mauritius by the exertions of Mr. Evena Dupont, a barrister and planter there. An experienced 'fileuse,' has been en- gaged from the neighbouring island of Bourbon, and is now giving instruction to various proprietors. Some ten persons rear worms, and send to the company regular sup- plies of cocoons; and eighty-seven other proprietors have received cocoons and mulberry cuttings from the company. It is consi- dered that this manufacture will flourish and increase rapidly in the island, and form eventually an important branch of trade, the climate and the soil being peculiarly suitable to the rearing of the silk- worm." It is stated that " Silk was sent from Bourbon, of such fine quality, as to fetch in Paris about 2 4s. the pound." The Islands in the Western Hemisphere, belonging to Bri- tain, are NEWFOUNDLAND, BER- MUDAS, PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLE, CAPE BRETON ISLE, and Islands of the West Indies, such as GRENADA, MONTSERRAT, JAMAICA, BARBADOES, ANTI- GUA, ST. VINCENT, TRINIDAD, the BAHAMAS, &c. ; but not all of these have sent goods; indeed, the articles which some exhibit, were scarcely worth sending. The tortoiseshell from the hawk's-bill turtle, the silk grass fibre, some of which has 215 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN AMERICA. been made into very pretty fans, and the hats made of the bark of trees, are the most curious productions. Of course there are specimens of cotton ; for you know that from the WEST INDIES and AMERICA the greater part of our cotton is procured. THE BRITISH POSSES- SIONS IN NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. England once had much larger possessions on the conti- nent of America than she has now. The great country called the United States once con- sisted of English colonies. The present possessions of England in Nortfi America are UPPER and LOWER CANADA, NEW BRUNSWICK, NOVA SCOTIA, and the large dreary tracts of hind round HUDSON'S BAT. In Soufh America are DEMERARA, ESSEQCIBO, and BERBICE, which three places are called BRITISH GUIANA. CANADA has not sent many articles of clothing. There are specimens of flax and hemp, which flourish in that cold cli- mate. There are bear, wolf, and fox skins, and dresses fit for those travelling in sledges; there are the honis of the moose- deer, or elk, and leather from that animal; there is also whnle- skin leather, and leather from the skin of the porpoise, and other sea-mammals. There is a perfect slfdije harness for in the winter the Canadians travel much in sledges, which arc drawn by horses. From NOVA SCOTIA a very 216 important contribution has been sent. This is a collection of different sorts of iron. It in- cludes pig, grey, bar, and rod iron ; steel-iron, and steel. This collection is intended to prove that Nova Scotia can supply steel and charcoal iron in quan- tities sufficient for the s;v'(v f the whole British Empire. And what is more, the quality is said to be equal to that of the best foreign articles, and at greatly reduced prices. From NEW BRUNSWICK we have a speci- men of jet coal, or as^hnlte, which has lately been discovered there. The description given of this coal shows it to be very important; it is said to produce " gas of the purest colour, and in greater quantity than any other coal used for the pur| !<<." This coal is not only valuable in itself, but it increases the value of something else which has been mentioned. W. You mean the iron ore found in NOVA SCOTIA ; because, as the coal is in the neighbour- hood, it will be useful for smelt- ing it. P. True: the articles just mentioned arc not used for dress; but if you can trace the connection between coal and iron, you may also trace the connection between the iron and many articles of clothing. BRITISH GUIANA is at the north part of South America; you may easily find it upon the map. This colony is a curious place, for it contains a 'very mixed population. En- glish, French, Dutch, and the natives of America arc nil nu- merous there. The articles of ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. AUSTRALIA. dress exhibited are not im- portant: the fibre of plantain, of silk grass, and leaves of the cabbage, palm cotton, barks of many strange trees, panther and leopard skins, and other articles used as clothing. AUSTRALIA, &c. "A case containing 132 speci- mens of Merino wool" is perhaps the most important article of clothing from AUSTRALIA; for wool is one of the greatest sources of wealth in that part of the world. The country seems to be particularly fitted for wool-growing ; and at dif- ferent times the Merino sheep, the Thibet sheep, the Cashmere goat, and all the breeds pro- ducing the finest wool, have been introduced there. It is said that, " in 1807, the first importation of wool into England from Australia was 245 Ibs.; but in 1848, it was 23,000,000 Ibs. from New South Wales alone; and from all Australia 30,000,000 Ibs. ; which quantity is worth nearly 2,000,000." That seems to be a wonderful amount of money to be produced from the backs of sheep! The kangai'oo is, as you know, an Australian animal. We therefore find patent kan- garoo skins, and enamt.lled kan- garoo skins, in the Australian collection. It is worth while, here, to tell you about the Australian mines. We have specimens of copper from the Burra Burra mines, which have made a "great noise" lately amongst those who understand the mining business. The mine was started about six years ago by a few merchants; their capital was 12,380, a very small amount for such a purpose. In the short space of five years, copper was procured to the amount of 738,108; and the mines now yield employment to 1,003 people. These mines may be very celebrated, but recently certain " diggins" have been found, which have caused a great deal more noise. In these diggins, as they are called, quantities of gold have been discovered ; and that part of Australia seems likely to become as famous as California. It is said in the newspapers that one lump has been found weighing eighty pounds. But we must not talk any longer about mines; they do not belong to our subject. There! we have been along time trying to find out what articles of dress have been sent to the Exhibition, and really there is very little that is at all describable. I think that you would have liked better to hear of their raw material to have heard the history of the wool and cotton, to have known how it is all grown, and how it is changed into clothes. Suppose j we wind up the account with some remarks on dress in general. GENERAL REMARKS ON DRESS. It is said that after all there is very little change in the style of dress in Europe. In St. 217 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. GENERAL REMARKS. Petersburgh, in Copenhagen, in Paris, in London, and in Ame- rica, you may see trousers and coats of cloth which only differ in their " cut." The same kind of cloth coat is worn by the rich and the poor, and a work- ing man in his Sunday clothes may look as spruce as a lord. " Previous to the French Revo- lution," it has been observed, " the sword was the badge of a gentleman; but now that last difference has been put away." " But in the East it is very different; there is a different dress for almost every rank. In Persia, Turkey, or China, the nobles are labelled with the signs of their importance; they carry their rank on their backs, and their honours on their sleeves; the rich na- bob is distinguished from the ' fellah ' by his cloth of gold and embroidery." It is said of the departments of the Eastern countries in the Exhibition, where the costume of the upper classes is found, that the sun- burst of " barbaric pearl and gold " flashes around you on entering, showing "a taste for glittering trumpery, and dis- play of riches." An Eastern noble, as he rides abroad, looks pleasantly at the magnificent figure he cuts; but it is said ! that his gold-embroidered robes ' are stiff and lumpy, while his ! saddle " gleams like a burnished throne." It must, I think, be rather un- pleasant when the signs of rank sit heavily on a man. How much more comfortable are some of the poorer classes whom 218 I described those who will not be troubled by any bimh-ns. Imt in the warm weather dress their bodies with oil ! The great Indians, it appears, have the same feelings. Clothing, in- stead of being a necessnn. is an ornament. Sir Thomas Minim says, that an Indian prince, after appearing in pub- lic, blazing in jewellery, in splendid shawls of countless price, in gold-embroidered silks, on an elephant, or a prancing Arab, will return home and pull off nearly everything. He will sit nearly naked, in a calico wrapper, just as Europeans do in their slippers and dressing- gown. Poor fellows ! it is hard work to be noble! One great distinction between the East and the West of the world is seen in the people's /(Crtf/-dress. The turban is the natural covering for a burning climate; it defends the scalp from the sun, and although it is rather heavy, it protects the wearer from any chance of being " sun-struck," while it sometimes produces perspira- tion. Besides this, it serves the Mussulman as a pocket. With all his piastres wrapped around his head, the turban- wearer will sleep soundly in the caravanserai, knowing that none but a most expert thief can deprive him of his money. Knowing these advantages, and that the Eastern folks have worn turbans for ages, you will be surprised to hear that cer- tain reformers have sprung up, and have introduced a new head-dress. This head-dress is becoming very general, but it ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. GENERAL REMARKS. has caused the old steady-going Turks to bt, very angry. W. What is its shape, papa? P. It is a sort of close fitting skull-cap, and in shape it is al- most exactly like an English gentleman's hat, except that it has no rim. It differs, secondly, in colour, for it is of a bright red ; and it differs thirdly in having a tassel at the top : it is called a, fez. L. Ah, I saw some people wearing them in the Exhibi- tion! But it must take a Turkey- man much less time to put on a fez than a turban. Pop it on! and then you are ready to go out. P. That, I suppose, is its greatest advantage. But this fez shows how much people think about their articles of dress. The new head-dress has caused more excitement to the gentlemen of the East, than the Bloomer costume amongst the ladies of the West. They say it is an ungraceful red night- cap; that it gives no shelter to the head from the sun; that it makes no pleasant shadow on the face which last particulars are true. But the new style is very rapidly adopted, not- withstanding. All the " fast" and young Mussulmans wear it; the Sultan has adopted it in his army; and in Constanti- nople there is a great fez fac- tory, where enormous numbers are turned out every day. The regular slow-coach Turks look upon the abomination with horror. In some countries where the turban is worn, such as the North of Africa, an addition is made in the shape of an enor- mous broad - brimmed straw- hat, which is clapped upon the turban itself. A good assort- ment of these were seen in the Tunis department of the Exhi- bition. Now for a word on the head- dress of the West. In England, also, the head-dress is called an " abomination," and justly so. Ask an Englishman who does not like his hat, " What is the matter with it?" and he will soon tell you. " First, it has a queer shape it's like a pot. Secondly, it is very dear, and soon be- comes shabby. Thirdly, when the weather is windy ah, then ! the hat has little hold on the head, it presents a good broad surface to the wind, and accord- ingly the wind blows it off. You also know what follows a round shape is a very good, one for rolling, and it's very delightful amusement to see a man try to catch his hat; there- fore the hat affords its owner a little exercise. Fourthly, a Scotchman may sit upon his ' bonnet,' and a German or a Frenchman may put his cap in his pocket and wear it again; but if an Englishman serve his hat so, it directly becomes ' a shocking bad hat,' and must not be worn. Fifthly, it is heavy in look and in weight ; and, sixthly, it is little protec- tion from the sun, for it is said that neither felt nor beaver will ward off a sun stroke." People in England have lately been trying to reform their hats, and articles called " wide-awakes" have been invented, but they have not become popular. L. If I were a gentleman I would wear a turban. 219 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. GENERAL REMAKKS. P. Very nice-shaped tnrbans might be made; indeed, the turban is the most graceful of head-dresses. But it is objected that it is not fitted for our rainy country ; and that an April in England would soon spoil it. Now for a word or two on the subject of ybof-dress. Of the ybof-dress in general, there is not so much that is striking. There is a strong contrast be- tween the top-boots of England and the slipper-like shoes and sandals of the East. The Ori- entals are, it is said, " a slipshod people." The yellow slippers they sent to the Exhibition are sadly wanting in comfort; there is scarcely room for the toes, and it is only by fitting them tightly into the shoe, that it can be kept on at all. The pre- vailing colour seems to be yel- low. The shoes of some of the Turkish gentlemen are said to be of ft majestic breadth," and " to be made as if they were in- tended for the slaughter of black beetles and other inter- lopers, which are too plentiful in Eastern places." It has been remarked that one of the reasons for wearing loose and easy shoes, is seen in the rules of etiquette in these coun- tries; for, in entering a great man's house, it is necessary to leave your shoes at the thres- hold of his door; also, in wan- dering around the mosques, or in the mosques, or in any part which may be called " holy ground," the feet must be un- covered. The foot-dress of the West is also open to some ob- jections. Travel along the north of France (Normandy), 220 up through Belgium and Hol- land, and you meet with those wooden shoes which, as I said, may be bought for sixpence per pair, and are called sabots. These sabots are awful things to look at; it must be almost as comfortable to be put into the stocks as a pair of salmis; and yet the little Norman and Dutch children run along in them at their ease so great is the power of habit. The Itody dress is generally found between that of the head and the feet. The most strik- ing point in Eastern dress is the looseness of the robes. In- stead of fitting close to the body, like the coat of the Englishman, the robes are loose and flowing, and in this respect they are far more elegant and natural than our own. It is curious to sec how, as people get nearer together, they learn from each other. The dis- position to imitate is a prevailing part of our nature thus we find that the Turks, who are found both in Europe and Asia, and the people of Egypt and the North of Africa, are more like the Europeans wearing tight-fitting jackets over their robes, whilst others have jackets which hang loosely like our paletots. In noticing the pat- tern< of the Eastern dresses at the Exhibition, you will u!crve that the most popular pattern is the stripe there an- -mic patterns "crossed." In Ar.ihia the proper costume is of a pure white, although some fi-w of the Bedouins have lately adopted the striped Hotli; generally the white and red. ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. COTTON. ARTICLES OF DRESS, RAW MATERIAL. We will now leave the article of costume for a few words on the raw material from which it is produced. You know pretty well which are the chief raw materials for clothing. Ion. Yes, we have heard them so often. I will see if I can mention them once more. The Vegetable Kingdom yields cot- ton, flax, and hernp. The Animal Kinydom wool, silk, and fur. These are the principal. The less important are the barks, gums, and fibres of trees, and the skins of the animals. COTTON. To begin with COTTON, you know that the WEST and EAST INDIES are the most famous places for this substance ; but it will grow in other countries, if they be not too cold. For in- stance, the cotton - tree will grow in North America, and it is also procured from the South of Europe. It lias often been described. I will read you an account of it. " Cotton is a delicate fibrous substance found within the seed-pod of a tropical plant. It is in fact a series of vegetable hairs springing from the sur- face of the seed-coat, and fill- ing up the cavity of the vessel in which the seeds are con- tained. "The number of different kinds of cotton is very consi- derable. The plants vary in height from three or four to fifteen or twenty feet, according to the species. The leaves are downy, and sometimes undi- vided. The flowers are either yellow, or dull purple. The seed-vessel is a capsule open- ing in three, four, or five lobes, and then exposing many seeds enveloped in cotton. The fibre is in some species much longer than in others, thereby giving rise to the commercial names of ' long staple ' and ' short staple ' cotton. " The common herbaceous cotton-plant is the species most generally cultivated. It is an annual, and rises only to the height of about eighteen inches. It bears a large yellow flower with a purple centre, which produces a pod about the size of a walnut ; and this pod bursts when ripe, exhibiting to view the fleecy cotton, with the seeds securely imbedded in it. This variety is sown and reaped like corn. " The tree-cotton grows to a much greater height. If left to grow without being pruned, it sometimes attains a height of twenty feet. Marco Polo, the Venetian, who travelled in Asia four or five centuries ago, spoke of this tree thus : ' Cot- ton is produced here (Guzerat) in large quantities, from a tree that is about six yards in height, and bears during twenty years.' "The colour of the seed seems to be connected in some way with the quality of the cotton fibre. There is a West Indian wild cotton-plant, with so short a fibre that it cannot be spun." The quantity of cotton sent from America is immense. The 221 ARTICLES OP CLOTHING. COTTON. plant is well worth a great deal of care, and the planters are obliyed to treat it carefully. You shall hear a few particulars concerning its cultivation. " The crop is suhject to many injuries, some of which the planter can contend against, while others baffle all his care. A single night's frost, which sometimes occurs so late as the j month of April, will ruin his whole prospect, and require a renewal of the labour; nay, one day of a strong north-east wind will blight a field of growing plants. If these sources of trouble are escaped, there is another often looked forward to with dread. This is a spe- cies of cockchafer, or cutworm, which cuts the young and ten- der plants close to the ground, sometimes ruining a whole field at once. When apprehension from these dangers is over, then comes on the labour of thinning the plants, which would injure each other if left as close as they were sown. The cotton- plant is of the tap kind, which sends its root straight down into the ground, and draws much of its nourishment from the atmosphere by means of its broad leaves; and the distance between the plants in the ground i.s regulated according to this circumstance. "As the spring has its sources of mischief to the cot- ton-grower, so has the autumn. There appears about this time a caterptOar, which commits great ravages. This insect de- posits its eggs upon the leaves of the cotton-plant during Au- gust; which hatch a few hours 222 after they are deposited. They do little or no damage during the first nine or ten days of their life, but a few days before completing their growth, they become so excessively voracious as to destroy an entire planta- tion in a few hours. InstMiiccs have been known of four hun- dred acres of cotton plantation being ruined in four days by them. "Supposing the planter to have escaped all these multi- farious evils of winds, insects, and rains, the cotton-fields be- gin to display a very beautiful appearance. ' Wide - waving groups of viny foliage, blended with three-coloured blossoms of brilliant hues, and pods of darker shades in various states of ripeness. When the Hower comes forth, it has a fine yellow colour, which it retains during the first day; under the influ- ence of the night it changes to a red or crimson hue; in the third day it darkens into a chocolate-brown, and then falls to the ground, leaving a pod already half an inch in diameter.' " The cotton plants begin to open about the 1st of August; from which time to the 1st of December the whole attention of the cultivator is directed to the 'picking' of the cotton, as the pods daily open. During the autumnal season, the winds are violent, and the rains heavy, so that the picking is a tedious operation." I mentioned to you, a little while ago, that the Hindoos were particularly famous for spinning and weaving. It ap- ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. COTTON, FLAX. pears, too, that they made cotton-goods long before the English did. It is said, in proof of the quality of these goods, that a Persian ambas- sador, on his return from India, presented his king with a cocoa- nut, which contained a muslin turban thirty yards long, and so fine as hardly to be felt when expanded in the air. Dr. Ure, who has written much about manufactures, men- tions this natural fitness of the Hindoos for the work. He says that, in Coromandel and Bengal, in nearly all the vil- lages, every man, woman, and child is employed in making cotton cloth. He then goes on to say : " The peculiar tact of the natives causes their success in the manufacture, for as they are deficient in mere muscular strength, so are they endowed with exquisite sensibility and pliancy in every organ and limb. The hand of an Indian cook-maid is more delicately formed than that of a European beauty. An English workman could scarcely manage to work a piece of canvas with the sim- ple loom with which the Gentoo weaves gossamer muslin. " In India a weaver is no ig- noble caste, looked down upon with disdain. He takes rank next to the scribe, and above all other mechanics. Were he to condescend to the performance of any drudgery out of the line of his business, ho would lose his caste. Thus their fine phy- sical organization, guided by experience, gave to Hindostan the monopoly of the cotton trade, for at least three thousand years." Such was the case ; but the fingers of the Hindoos have been surpassed by what, do you think ? By machinery and steam. It is said " So wonderfully perfect has the machinery become, that the Manchester manufacturers can pay for the importation of the raw cotton, for the process of manufacture, and for the ex- pense of shipment to foreign parts, and yet undersell the Hindoos, who spin for three farthings a-day." The principal articles made from the cotton are Calicoes, Ginghams, Muslins, Dimities, &c. You may yourselves sit down and make a list of the other cotton goods. You will find that the various sorts are very numerous.* FLAX. The FLAX-PLANT is next in importance to the cotton. I dare say you have seen this plant; if you have not, you had better buy a pennyworth of linseed from the chemist, and sow it in your garden. There it will grow up with a stem, about twenty inches in height. It will bear a blue flower, which will be succeeded by the seed. As the Latin name for the plant is linum, the seed is called Unseed, and the cloth made from the plant is called linen. * The accounts of Cotton and Flax are taken partly from Knight's | Pictorial Gallery of Arta. 223 AKTICLE8 OF CLOTHING. FLAX. Jon. From what part of the plant is the cloth made, papa? P. From the long stalk of the plant, which separates into very fine silk-like fibres; but when you hear how it is culti- vated you will understand better. " The flax -plant, like the cot- ton, requires great care in the cultivation. The flax-plants come up thick and evenly, and with them also some weeds. As soon at the flax is a few inches high, the weeds are carefully taken out by women and chil- dren, who do this work on their bainl.- and knees, both to see the weeds better and to avoid hurting the young plants. They tie coarse pieces of cloth round their knees, and creep on with their face to the wind, if possi- ble; this is done that the tender flax, which has been bent down by creeping over it, may be as- sisted by the wind in rising again." It appears that the sooner the plant is gathered the finer the fabrics are. If very fine flax is wanted, for making cambrics, the plants are pulled as soon as they get yellow at the bottom of the stem. They are gathered in small bunches, which are laid upon the ground to dry, and are afterwards stacked. They are next steeped in water, which is an operation re- quiring great care. It is said that "The object of this process is to separate all the bark from the stem, by dissolving a glu- tinous matter which causes it to adhere. The usual mode of 224 steeping in England is to place the bundles of flax horizontally in shallow pools or ditches of stagnant water, keeping them under water by means of poles or boards, with weights laid upon them; water nearly putrid is sometimes employed, but at the hazard of staining the flax. In Flanders, however, where flax-steeping is a distinct t ratio, matters are thus conducted. The bundles of flax are placed in a frame made of oak rails, and then immersed in the river Lys. Boards loaded with stones are placed upon the flax, till the whole is sunk a little under the surface of the water; the bottom does not reach the ground, so that the water flows both over and under it. There are posts driven in the river to keep the box in its place ; and each steeper has a certain por- tion of the bank, which he calls his own. The flax takes some- what longer time in steeping in this manner than it does in stagnant or putrid water; but the resulting colour of the flax is very much superior. When it is supposed that the flax has been steeped nearly enough, it is examined care- fully several times in the day, to ascertain whether the fibres readily separate from the wood throughout the whole length of the stem. As soon as this is the case the flax is taken out of the water; for the quality of the flax is injured by the steep- ing being either too much or too little by only a few hours." In this way the bark is M pa- rated from the fibres, but there is yet a woody portion in>ide ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. FLAX. the stem, from which the fibres have to be drawn off without injury. To do this the steeped stalks have to be again dried, and go through certain pro- cesses called breaking and scute/liny. You may easily understand these. The stalks having been dried until they are quite brittle, and some of the fibres separate of their own accord; the "breaker" lays them in rows, and lets a heavy weight fall on them, or they are rolled by heavy iron rollers. The wood inside is thus smashed without injury to the fibres. The scutcher has then to take these stalks, and beat them with a " scutching-bat," until all the broken pieces of woody stem are knocked off. The flax is now ready for the factory, where it undergoes the operation of "scutching the ends." It is next "heckled"; that is to say, it is passed through five or six iron combs, beginning with a large-tooth comb, and ending with a small- tooth comb, until it becomes soft, silky, glossy, and free from dirt, and is quite fit for spin- ning. The other processes you must see to understand ; they are named " doubling," " card- ing," "drawing." and "roving." Flax is made into many different cloths. table-linens, shirtings, damasks, and sheet- ings; huckaback and diapers are the principal. L. Which are the principal flax-growing countries? P. By far the most famous people for flax are those of BELGIUM and FLANDERS. The Flemings have been noted for ages as cultivators and dressers of flax, and have had in their own hands the raw materials for the most finished goods. This partly accounts for the superiority of the Belgium lace, which has already been mentioned. A long time ago, they were able to form thread of so fine a texture that its value was ten times the price of standard gold. How fine a thread they can make now, it is not easy to say. The process of steeping in the river Lys gives the Flemings the main advantage, and therefore they are now being imitated bjj. others. IRELAND is famous fot its linen, and some years ago a large society was formed for improving the manufacture in that country. "When the Exhibition prizes were distributed, the society received a " council medal" for its improvements in flax. I saw one of the reports of the society a few days ago. and it appears that they are doing a great deal of good. They have brought over some Flemings to teach the natives, and have almost dou- bled the produce of the island since they began. It appears that the inferiority of the Irish flax was caused principally by carelessness. The cultivators would not pay enough attention to the soil, the weeding, and steeping they chose rather to sav that it was the fault of the country, and that it is impossi- ble for a crop of flax to be as profitable in Ireland as on the Continent. \V. How much we do owe to those Flemings, and the i 225 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. STRAW-PLAIT, WOOL. French people! The Flemings taught the English to make woollen cloths, at Canterbury and other places. Do you not remember Mr. Young's letters? And in our history of England we lenrned how the persecuted French introduced the silk- weaving when they settled in Spitalfields. L. And we owe many of our garden vegetables to the Flem- ings; they introduced the Wind- sor bean, and the brocoli, you may remember. And you told us, papa, that we used to send to Flanders for early green peas. P. True. The raw mate- rial next in importance to flax, is perhaps Hemp. The hemp plant grows in Russia and other cold countries; hemp is stronger and longer than flax, and is used principally for coarse j goods, such as sacking, sail- cloth, ropes, and all kinds of cordage, twine, &c. STRAW-PLAIT. The straw-plait manufactory , must not be passed by unmcn- tioned. It has been of very great importance. Some of the i plaited straw once sent from Leghorn, in Tuscany, was al- most worth its weight in gold. In England, in the counties of , Buckingham, Bedford, Essex, Cambridge, and Suffolk, straw- | plait affords in-door employ- , ment to many of the women , and children. In the summer, they sit all day long at their cottage doors, plaiting straw but they earn very little. You know the use of straw for hats and bonnets. 226 WOOL. Wool is the principal raw material from the atn'mnl king- dom. One of the most inter- esting woollen contributions in the Exhibition, is the case of CA8HMEKKSii.vwi.sand dresses, which was sent by His Royal Highness THE PRINCE Ai.m:i:r. The case contains two sluiwls, two dress-pieces, and a piece of coarse woollen cloth, made from the wool of the Cashmere goats kept by his Royal Highness in Windsor Park. The wool which is shorn from the Cashmere goat con- sists of substances of two qua- lities: one part is a beautifully soft and /ine down, which is found close to the animal's skin ; the other substance is outside the fine wool ; it is harsh and coarse, and is called kemp. These two wools arc, unfortunately, so intermingled, that they cannot be separated by machinery, and the coarse wool can only be drawn out from it one fibre at a time by hand; of course such a process is exceedingly slow and tedious. It would never answer, as a matter of business, thus to separate the fibres to make fine shawls; the cost of the goods would be so great, that no one would buy them. But, as MOB as it was known in the districts of the woollen manufacture that the Prince wished to try the manufacture from the fine wool, it is said that there were hundreds of hands, from the highest to the lowest, who of- fered to help. They all set about separating the fine from ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. WOOL, SILK. the coarse wool, most earnestly, without asking to be paid. They were as anxious to make this woollen manufacture for the Prince as the English ladies were to manufacture their car- pet for the Queen. I have read, that for some months, upwards of 1,000 persons were engaged during their leisure hours in this " labour of love." From the fine wool which these parties so willingly picked, the shawls in the Exhibition have been made. The piece of coarse cloth is manufactured from the coarse wool or "kemp." But, as I said, goods manu- factured from the wool of the Cashmere goat are too expen- sive. The ai'ticles called Cash- mere shawls in this country are not really so, they are made of other wool. Real Cashmere shawls seldom find their way to Europe; they are so eagerly sought after by the rich " Sul- tans" and " Rajahs " of the East, who frequently pay thou- sands of rupees for a pair. To make a large handsome pair requires, we are told, the labour of twelve or fourteen men for half a year. L. Now, papa, will you tell us where the raw material, wool, comes from, principally? P. I think I have mentioned the principal woollen countries before. SPAIN, with her merino sheep, was once the most im- portant, but is not so now. GER- MANY is of greater importance; large quantities are bought at Leipsic. A great deal is also brought from ASIA; but per- haps the greatest quantity is brought from AUSTRALIA. Abundance of wool is procured from WALES, too ; from SCOT- LAND, and various parts of ENGLAND. The principal kinds of cloth made from wool are BROAD CLOTHS, kerseymeres, serges, bom- bazines, &c. These are all used for purposes of clothing ; they are made from what is called short wool, and are called "Woollens." The other class of goods are STUFFS, blankets, flannels, baize, moreens, camlets, &c. ; these articles are made from the long wool; they are principally articles of hosiery, and are called " Worsteds." L. What is crape, papa? P. Crape is a mixed sub- stance. The Norwich crape is formed of wool and silk ; the Lyons crape is formed of worsted and silk. SILK. What a different substance from wool is SILK! the wool growing on the back of the sheep, the silk drawn out in an almost endless line from the inside of a caterpillar. One grows like a vegetable, the other is only spun. The CHINESE were the first people who wore silk dresses. The Europeans admired their smooth glossy appearance, but they thought that the silk was a vegetable production. At length the secret was found out by two monks. In the year 522 some silkworm-eggs were smuggled away from China in a hollow cane; they were hatched, and the young worms were fed upon the leaves of the wild mulberry-tree. 227 ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. FUR, LEATHER. Now, the principal silk-pro- ducing countries are CHINA, INDIA, PERSIA, TURKEY, ITALY, and the South of FRANCE. Many attempts have been made to produce good silk in this country, but the expense of rearing and attending to the worms has always been greater than the value of the silk. FUR. FUR is the principal animal clothing for cold countries, just as silk is the animal substance used in warm countries. We might almost have in- cluded its history with that of the wool, for both substances are really hair. W. And both are " coverings of the skin." P. Yes. But we find the smooth glossy form of the fur to be so convenient that we do not shear it from the skin as we do the wool ; we rather shear the skin from the animal. The finest collection of furs in the Exhibition was that sent by Mr. Nicholay, of Regent Street. The Emperor of Russia sent some fur articles, one of which was a black cloak " made from the neck of the silver fox." He valued it at 3,500. Mr. Nicholay, however, did not agree with the Emperor's "esti- mate"; he offered to make a finer cloak for 1,OOO. He says that these black skins arc brought from Hudson's I Jay, and are smuggled into Russia in consequence of the high price they fetch. LEATHER LEATHER is perhaps a more 228 important animal produce than fur. You know that it is the skin of animals rendered hard by the peculiar properties of the oak bark. This bark, and those of most other trees, contain, as I have said, a prin- ciple called tannin. The tan- nin is very "astringent"; it binds the particles of the leather together, and renders it almost waterproof; at the same time it preserves the substance from decay. Of the processes of " leather- dressing" and " tunning" I have hardly time to speak. Calf, kip, morocco, roan, kid, and sheep, are the principal kinds of leather. The other raw materials, such as horn, whalebone, bone, &c., are all more or less important ; but these you may study for yourselves. You may also ac- quire for yourselves much more information on the subjects we have talked about. Ion. If you will lend us some books, papa, I should like to read more about them. P. I am glad to hear you say so. Who would not wish to know more than he knows al- readv? I would like you to learn much of all things round about you. Tell me why you should want to gain more knowledge. IT. I like to gain knowledge because it is pleasant. /'. Try also to gain know- ledge for the sake of others. (jft knowledge that you mav give it. The getting will afford you pleasure the /'/ will afford you more plm-uic: ami more still, you will thus bo pleasing God. DUTY OF AN "EDUCATED PERSON." When PRINCE ALBERT de- signed the Great Exhibition, he had such thoughts as these he wished men to learn, that they might teach. The provi- dence of God has ordained that by teaching one another men may become as brethren, and live together in peace. Thus, when the Prince spoke of the Exhi- bition to which he was looking forward, he said, " I conceive it to he the duty of every educated person, as far as in I him lies, to add his humble mite of I individual exertion to further the I accomplishment of what he believes Providence to have ordained." Can you understand those words ? W. I cannot understand them very well. P. Then you may read them over again, and think about them. And as you grow up to be a man, ask for God's help that you may become a truly " educated person." Ask that you may be educated in spirit as well as in mind; then God will honour you to be of service in promoting the de- signs of His providence. You may also learn this beautiful hymn, to help you to remember God. PRAISES FROM THE GREAT EXHIBITION. THY bounteous hand, Lord ! This gathered wealth bestows; By thee the swelling tide is poured, Prom thee its fulness flows. Thine are the gold and gems O'er Indian surges borne The glistening pearls, the coral stems, Prom ocean caverns torn. Thine the warm colours bright, Of every tint and mould ; Thine the pale marble's purer light, All colourless and cold. The gorgeous rainbow plumes Prom tropic forests wide The downy webs of Eastern looms The palm-tree's waving pride All, great Creator, all, E'en as ourselves, is thine ; Nought, of all this, our own we call, Save by thy gift divine. Then let thy blessing crown The world's srreat jubilee, And smile with beams of mercy down On earth's one family. Too long thy children's blood, Shed by each other's hnnds, Unchecked hath rolled its crimson flood O'er all the guilty lands. Too long but now no more We blush at what hath been Henceforth, from sea to furthest shore, Be peace and concord seen. Like brethren, hand in hand, The nations mingle here ; Our Palace is their fatherland We bid the nations cheer. We clasp in one embrace, One brotherhood of soul, Our kindred of the human race, Prom Afric to the pole. And to thy name, Lord ! Eternal Three in One ! From every heart the strain is poured, As from the heart of one. " All glory and all praise," To Thee", the great I AM", i And to the Spirit of thy grace, I And to the incarnate Lamb. Worcester, 1851. n. 229 THE "LIONS." THE CRYSTAL FOUNTAIN. PART THE SEVENTH. CHAPTER EIGHTEENTH. THE (C LION8" OF I ill: EXHI- BITION. Do yon remember any objects in the Exhibition which you noticed more than the others? Ion. I do, papa. I looked more at the CRYSTAL FOUNTAIN than anything else. There were a great many more things all down that "Nave" which pleased me. Let me count up all that I can remember. P. Very well ; proceed. W. First, there was the Crystal Fountain ; secondly, the Koh-i-noor every one will re- member that ; thirdly, there was a great lump of liock Crystal iH'iir the Koh-i-noor; fourthly, 1 there was that large Wine Jar from Spain. Then I remember the great statue of Godfrey de Bouillon ; the statue of St. Michael and the Dragon; and the statue of the Amazon. L. And the Greek Slave. Ion. And the great Bavarian Lion. L. There was also the beautiful case from France. IK. Yes. Constantin's Artifi- cial flowers ; the Silk trophy from England; and the pretty Corn trophy from Russia. The India Rubber trophy, too, was a re- markable thing. The Timber trophy from Canada; and the great Jaw of the Siterm Whale ; the Stuffed A nimtils from Wur- (f.mberg; the Ccxilbrook-dnle Iron Dome.; the great Slab oftfaho- ' and the large masses of 230 Crystalized Alum. I think they were the principal things that we noticed. P. And these, and many other things, have been long remem- bered, not only by you, but by most of the visitors. From the great share of attention they have attracted they have been called the Lions of the Exhi- bition. I have made yon some draw- ings of these objects. Suppose that I arrange them in the order in which you mentioned them, and tell you something about each. L. Yes, do, papa. Just tell us enough about each to help us to remember it. P. Very well. First, THE CRYSTAL FOUN- TAIN. I should think that every one who went to the Exhibition saw the CRYSTAL FOUNTAIN. When people went in parties and separated, or when they made engagements to meet one another, the rule was, nearly always, " Meet me at the Crys- tal Fountain." And it was a very pleasant place to meet at. It was plea- sant to look at its brilliant columns of glass, and the glit- tering water. The fulling spray not only made nm.>ic, Imt seemed to cool the air. The water rose through a tube which is silvered, but it could not be seen, for the glass of the column THE " LIONS." THE KOH-I-NOOR. is so cut that the reflection of the light hid it. W. What a large basin there was, papa, surrounding the fountain! P. Yes. The basin is said to be 24 feet in diameter; the fountain is 27 feet in height; and the weight is said to be 4 tons. W. That is 80 cwt. ! P. True. It was made by Messrs. Osier, of Birmingham. Their names, as glass-makers, will not easily be forgotten now. THE KOH-I-NOOR. I said, perhaps every visitor saw the Crystal Fountain; so, I sup- pose, every one saw the Koh-i-noor ; and also, that every one must know what Koh-i-noor means. All day long 1 the thousands of people were asking the guardian policemen, ''What is its mime ?" and all day long did the policemen answer, "The Koh-i-noor, or Mountain of Light." W. I should like, papa, to hear the Koh-i-noor's history very much. P. I have here a work called " The Crystal Palace and its Con- tents." which contains both the ancient and modern history of this wonderful jewel. I will read it to you: " The KOH-I-NOOR is one of the most valuable diamonds known; there are only two others estimated at a higher price. One of these is the great Russian sceptre dia- mond, a perfectly round and beau- tifully cut brilliant, the finest diamond in the world, and valued at 4,800,000. The other belongs to the little kingdom of Portugal, but is uncut; it is the size of a turkey's egg. It is supposed to be still more valuable, but it has never yet been entrusted to a lapidary. " The Koh-i-noor has long en- joyed both Indian and European celebrity. Hindoo legends trace its existence back some four or five thousand years,and in aheroicpoem of great antiquity, which is still preserved, it is called Mahabarata, which would imply that it is one of the most ancient of all the valu- able precious stones that have come down to our times. The poem in question details its discovery in the mines of the South of India; it states that it was worn by one of the warriors slain during what is called the Great Indian War, which is supposed to have happened nearly 5,000 years ago. No men- tion is made of the diamond in In- dian record from this period up to the year 56 before Christ, when it is referred to as being the property of the Rajah of Nijayin. From him it descended to his successors, the Uujahs of Malwa, until the principality was conquered by the Mohammedans. Into their hands it fell, with other spoils, said to be of greater value than were ever before or since amassed in India." W. I remember, papa, that when you spoke of the costume in India, you spoke of the Moham- medan Conquest. You suid that the Mohammedans introduced the turban as a head-dress. P. You shall read about the conquest of India one day; but let us proceed. " About the beginning of the fourteenth century, the Mohamme- dans, in their turn, wore subjugated. The principality of Malwa was overrun by the armies of Ala-adin, the Sultan of Uelhi, in 1306, and the KOH-I-NOOII became the pro- perty, with other treasures, of the Sultan Abi-adin. '' About 200 years back may be said to commence the modern history of this singular diamond. 231 'THE LIONS. THE KOH-I-NOOB. JEAN TAVBHNIER, an enterprising 1 French trnveller, and an eminent jeweller, visited India about the year 16GO, for the purpose of pur- chasing 1 diamonds and other jewels. His profesnion and his personal character recommended him to the nobles of the court of Delhi, and even of Aurungzebe himself. By the Sultan's command, Tavernier was permit ted to handle and weigh the jewels in the imperial cabinet. Among them was one which far surpassed all the rest in size and value. Tavernier describes it as roee-cut, the shape of an egg cut in two lengthwise, of good water and grent transparency, and weigh- ing 280 carats. There is but little doubt that the diamond thus exa- mined, and described as forming one of the collection in the Delhi cabinet 200 years ago, was the Koh-i-noor. " AURCKOZEBB'S great grand- son, named MoiiAM.MBi) Sn.ui, is the next important person con- nected with the Koh-i-noor. His kingdom, Delhi, was conquered by another great Eastern ruler, named X A DI B SH A 11 . and t lie diamond then changed hands in a singular way. It is said that Xadir Shah, on his occupation of Delhi in 1739, com- pelled Mohammed Shah to give up to him everything of value in the imperial treasury ; and his biogra- ?her, a socretary, mentions apeth- t interview between hiniMlf and his wily con- queror, the latter insintetl upon tjrcheiH flint/ turban* an a jtr(*>f (if hi* regaril autl friendtlnn." L. 1'oor Mohammed! I should think that he would hardly like such friendship : he would not believe it to be true. 232 P. No. Only a co>ui>it-ror would ever have made such a re- quest ; the value of a kingdom changed hands when those two gentlemen changed turbans. But I will read on. " In whatever way it was ob- tained, there is little doubt that the jrrent diamond of Aurungzebe, which was then famous all over the East, was in the possession of Mohammed Shah at the time of the Persian invasion, and that it then changed masters and l>ecame the property of Nadir Shah. It was when it came into his hands that it first obtained the name of the Koh-i-noor. Upon the death of Xadir the diamond became the property of AHMED SHAH, of the kingdom of Kabul. It is said that Ahmed Shah prevailed upon the young son of Nadir Shah to show him the diamond, and then retained it ; the young man not having the means of enforcing its recovery. "The siil>sequent fortunes of the Koh-i-noor are no longer matter of doubt or question. The jewel descended to the successors of Ahmed Shah, and Mr. Klphinstone saw it worn by SHAH SIIOOJA as an armlet surrounded with emeralds. When Shah Shooja was driven from Kabul, he became the nomi- nal guest, and actual prisoner, of KI-.NJKKT SING, the ruler of La- hore. Runjeot spared neither im- portunity nor menace to get posses- sion of it. and in 1818 he induced or compelled the fugitive monarch to resign the precious gem, pre- | senling him on the occasion 1 with a lac and 25,000 rupees, or I about twelve thousand pounds sterling. Shah Shooja, however, gives a different account. Hestates that Hunject Staff assigned to him in exchange for it the revenues of three large villages, not one rupee of which he ever realised." 1C. What did Itunjeet Sing do ' with it. papa ? THE " LIONS." THE KOII-I -NOOK. P. He wore it, to be sure. It is said that lie was "highly elated," and he wore it as an armlet on state occasions. But the precious jewel had more adventures. Run- jeet Sing must die ! but not so the Koh-i-noor. Thus, when the Prince's death-time came, there was the great question, "Who is to have the diamond next?" The crafty priests of the land had a try for it, but failed. The ruler's life was ebbing away ; and they per- suaded him to make it a present to the great Indian idol Jugger- naut. Ilunjeet could not speak, but he made a slight bow with his head to say " yes." Runjeet's se- cretary, however, would not agree. No ! no ! He declared that he must have a better authority for such a wonderful gift than the movement of a dying man's head he would not give it up until he had a written order, properly signed. But before this could be made out, poor Runjeet died. L. Then who hud it next? P. It passed to Runjeet's suc- cessors, and was much worn by them. On all state occasions, at every public festival, out came the wondrous Koh-i-noor! SiEteSixft was the last monarch who wore it, and he was murdered. It then re- mained in the treasury of Lahore, until their last monarch was super- seded by the BRITISH GOVERN- MENT. TF. When was that, papa ? P. A year or two ago. You have often heard me talk, of the great war in India, with the Sikhs (shirks). These people are the in- habitants of Lahore; their country is sometimes called the Punjaub, which means " the country of the five rivers." In the last great Indian war our army conquered the Sikhs, took possession of Lahore, and "annexed" it to Bri- tish India. All that thev found in the Lahore treasury they seized, to pay the ex- penses of the war. Amongst the articles was the Koh-i-noor, which was then destined to leave the Eastern land for the West. The East India Company said that it was a state jewel that it could not easily be exchanged for rupees, and that it should therefore be presented totheQueen of England. Accordingly, Lord Dalhousie sent it to England, in charge of two officers. Since the arrival of the gem in England, it has passed through a more "glorious career" than ever. It has engaged the attention of all nations. More, from being the or- nament of tawny Indian princes, it is now to adorn the person of our fair and beloved sovereign, who shines forth more brilliantly than many Koh-i-noors amongst the rulers of the earth. IF. Well, I heard the people at the Exhibition grumble that it did not shine enough perhaps the Queen will teach it to shine. Ion. Or, perhaps the Queen has "taken the shine out of it"; it's a very different thing to be an ornament for black princes. P. This wonderful diamond, after all, is very badly cut and polished. It is not known where the operation was performed, but it is said that it was done by an Italian lapidary ; and when it was found in what an unwork- manlike manner he had cut it, he was immediately executed. The last point worth noticing is, that no one has ever yet bought it. Two million pounds is a rather heavy amount to pay down in hard cash. W. Yes. I noticed that every time it changed bunds it was taken by force. You told us of its being gained by conquest four times. I hope that no one will over conquer England and take it away. It seems to be more safe now than it ever has been. 233 THE " LIONS." MASS OF BOCK CRYSTAL, ETC. P. We hare had such a long talk over this Koh-i-noor that we shall only have time just to men- tion the other " lions." THE MASS OF ROCK CRYSTAL, Ac. This was sent to the Exhibi- tion principally on account of its great size. You may read in "Little Henry's Holiday" what rock crystal is composed of. This mass was cut out of the Sitiyilon, a celebrated road which was cut through the Alps by Napoleon Bonaparte. THE SPANISH WISE JAR. This great Jar is an ugly-look- ing thing, but it well represents Spain. The making of wine is one of the principal employ- ments in that warm grape-grow- ing country. The jar is a wine- coo/er ; when used, it is filled with wine and is placed under the earth. GODFREY DE BOUILLON, &c. Of this statue you may also read in " Little Henry." I have only time to say that Godfrey was a great crusader: he was the leader of the second crusade, and was proclaimed King of .IiTusalem, A. D. 1099. There was also a giant statue of KK IIAKD I., the Prince of the Crusaders, outside the building. The figure in the Exhibition is unly a cast from the original, which wns made in bronze, and is at Brussels. It is the work i :m artist named M. Simonis. ST. MICHAEL AND THE DRA- GON. The colossal proportions 234 of this statue render it a striking object. It is the work of a French gentleman, M. Le Seig- neur, and is intended to repre- sent the Archangel overthrow- ing his enemy Satan. The sub- ject is a very good one, yet both this and the statue of "Godfrey de Bouillon have been found fault with as works of art. THE AMAZON. M. Kiss, of Berlin, is the artist who designed this famous piece. Directly the Exhibition was opened it became a great favourite. So also did the GREEK SLAVE, which was more beautiful and interesting than fine. I need not describe them to you; you may better understand them by the pictures. The great BAVARIAN LION was looked upon by our artists as a failure. Its size was its great recommendation; it was a truly monstrous lion. THE SILK TROPHY, &c. The silk trophy was truly in- teresting as a specimen or" the English manufacture of silk. The art of silk - weaving was introduced into Knpland by the persecuted Protestants of France, who were obliged to flee from their country. You may read in many history books of "The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes," by which so many hun- dreds were compelled to flee to England for protection. A great number settled in London, at a place called Spitalfields. It is from Spitalfields that the tro- phy was sent, by the manufac- turers, Messrs. Keith and Co. The CASE OF ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS is a beautiful testi- THE "LIONS." THE CORN TROPHY, ETC. monial of the wonderful skill of the French. Nothing could possibly be more like nature than these artificial flowers. Al- though they are made of cam- bric, they have often been mis- taken for real flowers. Visitors have been seen to stand and admire them for two or three minutes without knowing that they were artificial. THE CORN TROPHY, &c. This collection is from Russia, and is a very tasty display of seeds and grasses. Some very fine wheat is shown, and there are specimens of dried green peas, which, when boiled and brought to the table, look as fresh as though just picked from the garden. Russia ought to produce a fine corn trophy, for this large empire contains one- seventh of all the land on the earth. Thus it has every variety of climate and soil. It is said that " There are in the world two great districts composed of ' vegetable soil' ; one in RUSSIA, and another in HISDOSTAN. In the centre and south of Russia, the soil consists entirely of decayed vegetable mat- ter, to the depth of three to six feet. This tract of vegetable soil is as great as all France and Austria together: it is most fertile, and on it is grown the immense quantity of wheat with which Russia sup- plica so many nations of Europe." Ion. Then I say that, with such land as that, Russia ought to have sent a good corn trophy. P. True. The INDIA-RUB- BER TROPHY is another inter- esting object. It contains some useful articles, such as India- rubber pontoons, and life-boats, of which there are a wonderful variety in the Exhibition. You know, I presume, that India- rubber is the juice or gum of a tree. It grows principally in America, where it flows from the tree like milk. Gutta Per- cha is a very similar gum. The TIMBER TROPHY, from Canada, is a most useful col- lection. The sugar maple, the hard iron wood, and many others, are sent from Canada's ancient and immense forests. These forests contain all va- rieties of timber; and the tim- ber trade of Canada supplies employment to from 8,000 to 10,000 men. The JAW or A SPERM WHALE is a monstrous thing. The whales from which we pro- cure oil have not any teeth; they have instead, a substance called " Whalebone." The Sperm Whales are so called, because they contain a sub- stance called Spermaceti. These are the whales in which we find teeth. They live ill the South Seas. The STUFFED ANIMALS FROM WURTEMBERG. Wuitemberg is, as you know, one of the king- doms of Germany. Some of the Germans are fond of mak- ing amusement with the lower animals. The children's books are full of droll stories of ani- mals; and the ' ; comical crea- tures" at the Exhibition afforded amusement to thou- sands. 235 THE " LIONS. COALBROOK-DALE IRON DOME. THE COALBROOK-DALE IRON DOME, &c. This immense casting was admired by many, although it was often asked, For what pur- pose is it made? It is, I sup- pose, a garden ornament. Its principal use has been to prove the skill of the Coalbrook-dule Iron Company, who sent it. Coalbrook Dale is a beautiful valley in Shropshire, through which runs the river Severn. The GREAT SLAB OF MAHO- GANY gives an idea of the won- derful size to which trees can grow in the tropics. It was sent from Honduras, a place between North and South America. It measures 57 inches across, and 64 from the top to the bottom. The MASS OF CRYSTALIZED ALCM is the last subject which I have drawn for you. The process of alum manufacture is a very singular one. You will find it described in "Little Henry's Holiday." In " Plea- sant Pages" we will have an object lesson on this substance, and other chemicals. There were, as I said, several other " lions," but I have scarcely time to describe those which I have drawn for you. You must try and make out an account of them for yourselves. THE TROPHIES OF PEACE. ADAPTED FROM "HOUSEHOLD WORDS." A MTOHTT dome is reared in solemn state, To hold the produce of the world's invention ; The ftpiicious palace of the labouring tjreat, Whose bloodless triumphs history loves to mention. The " trophies" of the past fade into gloom, Which conquerors planted on the field of battle ; When iiriTitliinir armies sank before their doom, And shouU of glory drowned the low death-rattle. These things were once, while yet the world was young, Kre it drank wisdom from the fount of rcnson; Now let a curtain o'er such scenes be hung War's winter fled, we hail a softer season. The love of art engenders love to man, Anil this, in turn, the love of Iiis Creator ; 'Tis ignorance that mnrs Heaven's gracious plan, And rears in blood the murderer and man-hater. But now the children of the human race, Crossing their bounds to mingle with each other, In foreign nations kindred features trace, And learn that every mortal is their brother. 236 THE VARIETY OF VISITORS. PAKT THE EIGHTH. CHAPTER NINETEENTH. THE VISITORS TO THE EXHI- BITION. P. At the beginning of our hook, I read to you the descrip- tion of the Crystal Palace, and the opening of the Exhibition on the 1st of May. Since those pages were written, the Exhi- bition has run its course; it is now closed, and the wonderful days of its career are matters of history. I need hardly tell you of the crowds of visitors who came to see the grand sights. Just as the light of the sun and " the rain from heaven" are given to all, so also the glories of the Exhibition were prohibited from none who had a mind to un- derstand instruction, or a soul to enjoy pleasure. So, all people came. The Queen, and the nobles ; the boys and girls from the charity schools ; learned men, and men of science ; ploughboys, and old people from country work- houses; clergymen, and men of war ; merchants ; tradesmen ; clerks ; shop-boys, errand-boys, costermongers, nursemaids, and other household servants, all kinds of folks were there. And their numbers. A thou- sand people means ten hundred; that is a great many! Ten thousand is a great many more ; they form a vast crowd. Yet when the Exhibition was to be opened, and every one talked about it, many thought, "Ah! there will often be three times ten thousand there in one day." W. That would be too many! P. Well, some said that the vast Crystal Palace would hold even forty thousand people if so many should ever come to- gether. They did not think that the number could ever be larger; but it was prophesied that if the number should ever reach 50,000, great mischief must happen. It was said, too, that no more that 60,000 could be crammed together within the walls. So people waited till the Ex- hibition was opened. During the first three weeks, the period of the live-shilling days, from fifteen to twenty thousand had met daily. But when the shil- ling days came, before a fort- night had passed away, it was found that more than fifty thousand at a time had met inside the Palace of Glass. W. That was ten thousand more than had been expected! P. In a few more weeks, people read in the newspapers reports which made them to wonder more. They heard of sixty thousand people being there; and, one day, it was said by every one that seventy thou- sand had assembled together. Ion. That was a mistake, I should think! P. No; it was true. And even that number increased. When the end of September came, the Exhibition had been open four months, and it was 2.37 THE CROWDS. known that it would positively close on Saturday the 11 th of October. There were tens of thousands who thought that they must go to see it " only once more" ; thus the crowds in- creased until the last week. Then came the great crush ! On the Monday, 107,815 peo- ple came. On the Tuesday, there were 2,100 more; that is, 109,915. On the Wednesday there were 109,760 ; and on the Thursday, the last of the shil- ling days, the visitors numbered 90,813. The day happened to be very rainy, or the number would, no doubt, have been even higher than before. Such remarkable numbers were far beyond anything that the most extravagant imagination had thought of. IK. But, papa, how did they all get there? How full the streets must have been ! P. Indeed they were. Enough conveyances to carry half the crowd, could not be had. All the great city of London was excited. Early in the morning, from the terminus of each great London Railway from the North Western, the South Eastern, the Great Western, the Eastern Counties, the South Western, the Great Northern, and from the Lon- don and Hluckwall line, along these seven principal lines enormous trains conveyed the shoals of country folks. And when these country folks reached the street, the cabs were instantly filled, the omnibuses were crowded inside and out, and vans and carts, old stage* coaches, and all sorts of queer 238 vehicles, did duty that day. The pavement and roads round the railways were choked up. W. But as they came near the Exhibition, when the differ- ent crowds met, papa? P. Then came the hubbub and noise; all seemed confu- sion, yet all was order, for the "mighty mass" of human beings moved on in one long, dark, dense stream. From early in the morning until long after midday, this dark moving stream of people covered the pavement of the whole length of Piccadilly, past Hyde Park Corner, Sloane Street, Knights- bridge, and all the way to the Crystal Palace. Nothing could be more wonderful than the crowd, except the numberless vehicles in the road. For all the conveyances I have men- tioned came from all parts, making one ask with uplifted hands, " Where can they all come from?" L. And the inside of the Palace? P. That I would rather not say anything about. The scene would take too much time to describe. Many hundreds of people went in who quickly came out again. Some were filled with awe and fear even at the hum and buzz of the great busy bee-hive, as it seemed to swell upon their car. Ion. I wonder whether any one has counted up all who came from beginning to end. P. Yes. The total number of visitors from the opening to the close, from the 1st May to the llth October, 1851, was 6,201,856. I will read to you THE EXACT NUMBERS AND TOTALS. the account which has been given of the numbers: NUMBER OF VISITORS. In the month of May the number of visitors was . 734,782 In June .... 1,133,116 In July .... 1,314,176 In August .... 1,023,435 In September . . . 1,155,240 In October, up to the llth . 841,107 Grand total . 6,201,850 The amount of money received is the next remarkable point. You may remember the early history of the undertaking. Then it was feared that not enough money could be found to meet the great expenses which would be involved. But these expenses have been paid, although they amounted to more than 350,000. And, what is more, there yet remains a surplus of 150,000. Here is the total of the re- ceipts : Public Subscription 67,400 Entrance Fees . . . 421,400 Receipts from various other sources* . . 13,200 505,000 Ion. That is a wonderful sum, papa ! What is the next re- markable point? P. The quantity of refresh- ments eaten is, perhaps, the most remarkable thing of all. There were three refreshment- courts. The principal, in the north end of the Transept, was kept by Messrs. Younf/husband and Son ; those in the east * The amounts paid by the con- tractors for supplying the cata- logues and refreshments; with the royalty on the articles sold, &c., &c. and western Nave were kept by Mr. Masters. What a famous place that Crystal Palace was to eat in ! You saw the crowds that ga- thered around the refreshment- stalls, eating ices and jellies all day long. Now hear how much they ate. In one depart- ment, Mr. Younghusband's (which was the principal), the following articles were con- sumed: Bread, 24,536 quar- terns; coffee, 9,181 Ibs.; pound cakes, 28,828 Ibs. ; Savoy cakes, 20,41 5 Ibs.; Bath buns, 311,731 Ibs.; plain buns, 460,657 Ibs.; cottage loaves, 57,528 Ibs. ; milk, 17,257 quarts ; cream, 14,047 quarts; ice, 180 tons; meat, 113 tons; ham, 19 tons; potatoes, 30 tons ; salt, 16 tons ; soda water, 40,869 bottles ; le- monade, 130, 698 bottles; ginger beer, 365,050 bottles. W. I could not have believed that so much would be eaten. What a large amount of money must have been paid for all those goods! I saw you pay 6d. for one, ice, papa, and there were ices sold for Is. each; so that the 180 tons of ice alone, yielded a very large sum ! P. Yes; it is said that the money taken for refreshments inside the building, was even more than the immense sum paid for admission at the doors. Thus, you have five remarkable points in the history of the Exhibition since its opening. Ion. I can say them, papa, I think. The variety of people who went to the Exhibition the number of people the money taken at the doors the quantity of refreshments eaten 239 CDRIODS FACTS. and the money paid for re- freshments. P. True; and I have here a list of curious facts, which are also worth remembering: " Of the money received at the doors, 275,000 was in silver, and 81,000 in gold. The weight of the silver coin so taken (at the rate of 281bs. per 100) would be 35 tons, and its bulk 900 cubic feet ! the rapid flow of the coin into the hands of the money-takers pre- vented all examination of each piece as it was received, and 90 of bad silver was tnken, but only one piece of bad gold, and that was a half-sovereign. The half- crown was the most usual bad coin, but a much more noticeable fact is, that nenrly all the bad money was tnken on the half-crown and five-shilling days. "The cash was received by eighteen money-takers; on the very heavy days six extra ones being employed during the busiest hours. From them it was ga- thered by three or four money- porters, who carried it to four collectors, charged with the task of counting it. From them it went to two tellers, who verified the sums, and handed it to the final custody of the chief financial officer, Mr. Carpenter, who locked each day's amount in his peculiar iron chests in the building till next morning, when in boxes, each holding 600, it was borne off in a hackney-cab in charge of a Bank of England clerk and a Bank- porter. " The money was received in all forms, ranging between farthings and ten-pound notes. Contrary to the notices exhibited, change was given. Occasionally foreigners gave Napoleons, and these coins being mistaken for sovereigns, they received nineteen shillings out, and liberty of admission into the bargain. The monies of America, Hamburg, Germany, and France, were often tendered and taken." MORE CURIOUS FACTS FROM TUB GREAT EXHIBITION. (IHDITBD BY MR. PUNCU.) Tnis Palace tall, This Cristinl Hall, Which Imperorrt might covet, Stands in High I'urk Like Noah's Ark, A rainbow bint above it. The towers and fanes, In other ncaynes, The fame of this will undo, Saint Paul's big doom, Saint Partner's Room, And Dublin's proud Rotundo. "Fin here that roams, As well Incomes Her dignitec and stations, VICTORIA Great, And houlrls in state The (Jon gross of the Nation?. 240 Her subjects pours From distant shores, Her Injians and Canadians; And also we, Her kingdoms three, Attind with our allngiance. Here come likewise Her bould allies, Both Asian and Knropian; From Kast and West They send their best To (ill her Coornucopean. I seen (thank Grace!) This wondthrous place (His Noble Honour Misther II. Cole it was That gave the pass, And let me see what is there). CURIOUS FACTS. With conscious proide I stud insoide And looked the World's Great Fair in, Until me sight Was dazzled quite, And couldn't see for staring. There's holy saints And window paints, By Maydiayval Pugin ; Alhamborough Jones Did paint the tones Of yellow and gambouge in. There's fountains there And crosses fair ; There's water-gods with urrns; There's organs three, To play, d'ye see, " God save the Queen" by turrns. There's statues bright Of marble white, Of silver, and of copper ; And some in zinc, And some, I think, That isn't over proper. There's staym ingynes, That stands in lines, Enormous and amazing, That squeal and snort, Like whales in sport, Or elephants a-grazing. There's carts and gigs, And pins for pigs ; There's dibblers and there's harrows, And ploughs like toys For little boys, And elegant wheel-barrows. For them genteels Who ride on wheels, There's plenty to indulge 'em ; There's droskys snug From Paytersbug, And vayhycles from Bulgium. There's cabs on stands And shandthry danns ; There's waggons from New York here; There's Lapland sleighs Have crossed the seas, And jauntingcyarsfrom Cork here. Amazed I pass From glass to glass, Deloighted I survey 'em; Fresh wondthers grows Before me nose In this sublime Musayum ! Look, here's a fan From far Japan, A sabre from Damasco ; There's shawls ye get From far Thibet, And cotton prints from Glasgow. There's German flutes, Marocky boots, And Naples Macaronies ; Bohaymia Has sent Bohay ; Polonia her polonies. There's granite flints That's quite imminse, There's sacks of coals and fuels, There's swords and guns, And soap in tuns, And ginger-bread and jewels. There's taypots there, And cannons rarej There's coffins filled with roses; There's canvas tints, Teeth insthrumints, And shuits of clothes by Moses. There's lashins more Of things in store, But thiml don't remimber; Nor could disclose Did I compose From May time to Novimber ! Ah, Judy thru ! With eyes so blue, That you were here to view it ! And could I screw But tu pound tu, 'Tis I would thrait you to it ! So let us raise VICTORIA'S praise, And ALBERT'S proud condition, That takes his ayse As he surveys This Cristial Exhibition. 241 CLOSE OF THE EXHIBITION. CHAPTER TWENTIETH. THE CLOSE OF THE EXHIBITION. LET us now talk of the Exhi- bition's last days. Thursday, October 9th, was the last of the shilling days. There remained two half-crown days during which it was open the Friday and the Saturday. The Great Exhibition closed on Saturday, the llth October, 1851. This was the 141st day since the opening, and at five o'clock in the afternoon, the organs gave the signal for clos- ing. At the same moment they struck up the national anthem, " God save our gra- cious Queen." The organs were joined by the many voices in the crowded avenues, but, un- fortunately, the building being so large, those who played and sung could not hear each other very well. So, although the organs sounded forth with all their might, and the people sung forth with all their might, they could not keep very good time. Never mind ! If there was not harmony of sound, there was a harmony of spirit, which is better still. English people always sing with spirit "God save the Queen." On the Monday and Tuesday following, the Crystal Palace was thrown open to the exhi- bitors and their friends only, who were admitted by tickets, without payment. The next day was appointed for the last great business viz., fur announcing the. names of those exhibitors who hrires affixed to the goods to show their different values ; for 244 the merit of many articles greatly depends on the price at which thev can be sold. There was a still greater defect. In verv few stalls conld people be found to give estimations of the articles shown. I had pur- posed to give you a course of Object Lessons on all the strange and peculiar objects in the Exhibition ; hut I found that it was almost impossible to do so. On examining many curious objects, I found that they could not explain their own qualities; they could not tell me their uses ; neither could they tell me their own history. The Catalogue would not help me it only gave their names, which were matters of little importance. Now, sup- posing that there had been at each stall a man who knew all that could be said about each article, how interesting a history of the Exhibition might have been made! What a peculiar series of Object Lessons we should have had ! W. But why did you not write to some of the exhi- bitors? P. I did so; but some had not time to write descriptions, others would not send any answer at all. Nearly all people felt the want of explanations. Many thousands could do little else but stare and wonder, while they ought to have been able to examine and understand. With the help of such attendants the Exhibition would have been not only a great show, but a school. But although their absence was a defect, perhaps it could not be helped; the expense of REWARDS OF MERIT. hiring such men would perhaps have been too great. So let us leave the defects. They were not many. We will rather have one more word in favour of the men by whom the idea was conceived and realized. Ion. Yes! What do the peo- ple say to Mr. Paxton now? And to Messrs. Fox and Hen- derson? P. They do not say " Mr. Paxton " now, but SIR Joseph Paxton, and instead of " Mr. Fox," SIR Charles Fox. L. Oh, papa! then they are made noblemen! P. No. They were made "knights;" they were noble men before. Did I not tell you long ago, that the work- zn^-man is the true nobleman. Indeed, the working - men are the only noblemen. He who can, and will not work, is a base-man ; no matter how he may be born. They who work whether they work with mind or body whether they work to improve the laws of the country or to improve the habits, manners, or dwellings of the people whether they work to improve the manufactures in which they are engaged whether they work to make discoveries in science whether they u-orfc to teach the young whether they work in the high and holy calling of the ministry no matter how they work, if they only work " to make the world better than they found it," they thus become more like their Heavenly Maker, who causeth all things to work to- gether "for good," and thus only do they rise " to be truly noble." So, Willie, the truth has come out at last! Two work- ing-men are acknowledged as "noblemen." How much better noblemen do they make than if they had been fighting-men ! L. Yes. Because, you see, they are more like God. P. And may many more such men men of science and industry become the nobles of this land ; and may all the present noblemen become men of learning, science, and reli- gion ; ever doing good to the world, instead of being men of war. W. And what do the people say to PRINCE ALBERT, papa? P. For him, also, they utter forth praises, which we must not keep back. They say, "All honour to our truly noble Prince!" There were times when most princes and kings were the destroyers of the earth ; their honours were built on the blood of their fel- low-men. But the Exhibition has brought out another great truth. To His Royal Highness the Prince Albert a " Council Medal" has been awarded for " the idea of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and the Model Lodging- house for the labouring classes." This may remind many princes of the earth that each has work to do within his kingdom work which leads to higher glories than those of war. L. And will other princes and nobles attend more to these things? P. No doubt they will, for already some effects of the ex- 245 HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE ALBERT. ample of the Prince are seen. The Duke of Northumberland, it is said, has given orders for one thousand new labourers' dwellings on a better plan. The Duke of Bedford has already erected a great number of better dwelling-places for his labour- ers; and we have a "Society for improving the Condition of the Working Classes." Thus we see how the Exhi- bition will bring forth fruit. With many working nobles, headed by a working Prince, all labouring to further improve- ments in the sciences and arts for their country's good, will there not be joyful results? W. Yes. I should think that the people will become much happier, and the poor people will love those who are rich. P. And princes and nobles of other nations may also learn to change their pursuits, and learn the true meaning of the word noble. Thus will other nations become happier. May many more princes be- come servants of Him who "went about doinggood," whose noble title is, TUB PRINCE OF PEACE. THE CLOSE OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION. GLORY to the God of Ilearen, Peace on earth, towards men good will ! Now shall honours due be given To the best of human skill ; Always will we deal with others As we would they dealt with us, Anil rejoice, as men and brothers, To befriend each other thus. For it is a glorious teaching, AI.BBKT, thou hast taught mankind, Greatly to perfection reaching, And enlarging heart and mind; Stirring us, and stirring others Thus to do the best we can, And with all the zeal of brothers Help the Family of Man I God be tlmnk'd ! that thus united All the world for once has been, Crowding, welcome anil delighted, Hound the throne of England's Queen : God be tlmnk'd that we and others, England with the World around, Thus have sought to love a brothers, And the good we sought, have found. MAHT1N P. TUPPHR. 24 C !- ITRIt, UlTK, AND CO. C!l VM. CUU11T, FI.BI.1' STKKEI'. NEW SERIES OF CHILDREN'S ANNUALS ON A NEW PRINCIPLE, beginning of the half-century suggests a new idea. Why should not every child keep a record of his >f f t> . fy\ LIFE-TIME. PRICE la. BY THE EDITOR OF "PLEASANT PAGES." LONDON : HOUSTON &-STONEMAN ; AXD ALL BOOKSELLERS. life-time? Begin even when the child is tAvo years old, furnish him every year with a concise account of its important CHILDREFS ANNTTALS-(CWWrf.) events, and in the course of ten years he will have a history of the progress of the world during his growth into boyhood. Such an account of his own times will be not only interesting, but highly useful, affording him a knowledge of his own country, and of the world into which he must soon enter. More he may continue to read his annual account until manhood ; and perhaps on, through manhood to his second childhood ; but this may depend upon the Pleasant Pages, or sober thoughts, which he may find to read. Children are often instruc- tive to men, so also may children's books be. The Editor, therefore, means to make a book to be read by young and old. May many young readers begin the history of this half-century, and read until they grow old ! May they and himself be spared to keep company even to the end of the term, the year 1900, and be prepared by this course for a better world ; May we then still keep company, and, with mature minds and solemn thoughts, ponder those everlasting records of the countless centuries, of a universe, of worlds, which are written in the Book of Life. One word as to details. The First Volume, entitled OLD EIGHTEEN FIFTY ONE, is to be published on 1st January, 1852. Each volume will form a complete history a whole year-full of events with Pictorial Illustrations. It is to cost no more than. One Shilling. So the Editor, with confidence, asks every Parent to procure a copy for each of his Children, and to persuade other Parents to do likewise. University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. 3AN NON DUE 2 WKS FROM DAT E RECEIVED A 000 047 064