AGRiC. DEPT MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. WM. BULLOCK CLARK, STATE GEOLOGIST. REPORT ON THE HIGHWAYS OF MARYLAND In Accordance with an Act Passed at THE SESSION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF 1898. (LAWS OF MARYLAND 1898, CHAP. 454.) THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS, Baltimore, December, 1899. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HIGHWAY REPORT MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. t WM. BULLOCK CLARK, STATE GEOLOGIST. REPORT ON THE HIGHWAYS OF MARYLAND, In Accordance with an Act Passed at THE SESSION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF 1898. (LAWS OF MARYLAND 1898, CHAP. 454.) THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS Baltimore, December, 1899. -re 2- '/ A a. BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. . COMMISSION LLOYD LOWNDES, . ... . . PRESIDENT. GOVERNOU OF MARYLAND. PHILLIPS LEE GOLDSBOROUGH, . . . ... COMPTROLLER OF MARYLAND. DANIEL C. GILMAN, . .. . EXECUTIVE OFFICER. PRESIDENT OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. R. W. SILVESTER, ... . . . SECRETARY. PRESIDENT OF THE MARYLAND AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. SCIENTIFIC STAFF WM. BULLOCK CLARK, ..... STATE GEOLOGIST. SUPERINTENDENT OF THE SURVEY. HAKRY FIELDING REID, .... CHIEF OF DIVISION OF HIGHWAYS. ARTHUR 1ST. JOHNSON, HIGHWAY EXPERT. ST. GEORGE L. SIOUSSAT, .... SPECIAL ASSISTANT. F. H. SCHLOER, MACHINIST. EDWARD B. MATHEWS, . . ASSISTANT STATE GEOLOGIST. CHIEF OF DIVISION OF GEOLOGY OF THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU (CENTRAL COUNTIES). CHARLES S. PROSSER, CHIEF OF DIVISION OF GEOLOGY OF THE APPALACHIAN REGION (WESTERN COUNTIES). GEORGE B. SHATTUCK, . CHIEF OF DIVISION OF GEOLOGY OF THE COASTAL PLAIN (SOUTHERN AND EASTERN COUNTIES). L. A. BAUER, . . . . . . . . CHIEF OF DIVISION OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. LETTER OF TRANSM1TTAL To His Excellency LLOYD LOWNDES, Governor of Maryland and President of the Geological Survey Commission. Sir: I have the honor to present herewith a report dealing with the question of highway improvement in Maryland. The subjects discussed in the volume include the relations of Maryland topography, climate and geology to highway construction ; the history of the devel- opment of Maryland highways; the present condition of the roads and best means for their improvement; the relative values of the dif- ferent natural road-building materials in the several counties; the importance of good roads to the people and the methods of highway construction employed in the counties of Maryland, in other states, and in foreign countries. This exhaustive report upon Maryland highways will give much valuable information to the citizens of the state upon a subject of paramount importance and cannot fail to influ- ence to a greater or less extent the future construction of our public roads. Very respectfully, WILLIAM BULLOCK CLARK, State Geologist. JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, November. 1899. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE 23 PART I. INTRODUCTION, INCLUDING AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORGANI- ZATION OF HIGHWAY INVESTIGATIONS BY THE MARY- LAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. BY WILLIAM BULLOCK CLARK. 27 CHARACTER OF THE INVESTIGATIONS 30 HIGHWAY CORRESPONDENCE 33 Letter to the Boards of County Commissioners 34 Letter to the Newspapers of Maryland 36 Letter to the Farmers of Maryland 37 Letter to the Presidents of Turnpike Companies of Maryland 40 Letter to the Governors of Other States 43 Letter to Highway Officers ; 43 SAMPLE ROAD CONSTRUCTION 44 SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAYS 45 PROPOSED LEGISLATION 46 PART II. THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, CLIMATE AND GEOLOGY TO HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION. BY WILLIAM BULLOCK CLARK 47 MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY IN RELATION TO HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION 49 The Coastal Plain 50 The Piedmont Plateau 54 The Appalachian Region 57 Conclusions 61 MARYLAND CLIMATE IN RELATION TO HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION 63 Pressure Areas 64 Temperatures 05 Precipitation 66 Winds 74 General Effect of the Climate on Roads 76 MARYLAND GEOLOGY IN RELATION TO HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION 80 The Road-Bed 80 The Road-Materials 82 THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU 82 The Trap Rocks 82 Gabbro 83 Peridotitc and Pyroxenite '. 84 12 CONTENTS PAGE Diorite 85 Diabase 86 Granitic and Quartzitic Rocks 87 Gneiss 87 Granite 88 Quartz-schist 90 Quartzite 90 Triassic Sandstones 91 The Calcareous Rocks 91 Marble 92 Crystalline Limestone 92 Shenandoah Limestone 93 Triassic Conglomerate 93 The Slate Rocks 93 Phyllite 93 THE APPALACHIAN REGION 94 The Eastern Appalachian or Blue Ridge District 94 The Volcanic Rocks 94 The Quartzitic and Granitic Rocks 95 The Central and Western Appalachian District 96 The Limestones 97 Shenandoah Limestone 97 Niagara Limestone 98 Salina Limestone 98 Helderberg Limestone 98 Greenbrier Limestone 98 The Sandstones 99 Juniata Sandstone 99 Tuscarora Sandstone 99 Oriskany Sandstone 100 Pocono Sandstone .' 100 Pottsville Conglomerate 100 The Shales 100 THE COASTAL PLAIN 101 The Gravels 101 Potomac Gravels 101 Lafayette Gravels , . . 102 Columbia Gravels 102 The Marls 102 Cretaceous Marls 103 Eocene Marls 103 Neocene Marls 103 The Sands and Clays 103 Miscellaneous Materials 104 Oyster-Shells 104 Furnace Slag 105 Burnt Clay 105 Crude Petroleum * 105 Manufactured Products . . . 106 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL- SURVEY 13 PAGE PART III. HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND, AND ITS INFLU- ENCE ON THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE. BY ST. GEORGB LEAKIN SIOUSSAT 107 THE BEGINNINGS OF HIGHWAYS IN MARYLAND 109 Transportation by Water 109 Early Ferries 110 Contemporary Highway Legislation Ill The First Road Law of Maryland 1 12 Hardships of Travel 118 The County Courts and the Roads 114 St. Mary's and Calvert County Records 115 Charles County Records 115 Baltimore County Records 116 The Herrmans and the Roads of Cecil County 117 An Early Mail-Route 118 The Law of 1704 and its Supplements 119 The Roads " Ascertained " 122 Charles County 122 Cecil County 123 Anne Arundel County ..." 123 Early " Rolling Roads " 123 Exemption from Highway Service 124 COMMERCIAL GROWTH AND THE "WESTERN MOVEMENT" 125 Maryland Towned and " Untowned " 125 The Westward Movement 126 The Monocasy [Monocacy] Road 127 Travel North and South 128 The Development of Northern Maryland 131 Packhorse vs. Wagon 132 The French and Indian War 133 Exploration of the Ohio Country 133 " Braddock's Road " 134 Braddock's Expedition 135 Road from Fort Frederick to Fort Cumberland 137 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT AND LATER HIGHWAY LEGISLATION 138 Canal Schemes 139 Highway Legislation 140 Laws Regarding Single Roads 140 Legislation lor Groups of Roads 143 Legislation for Separate Counties 146 Attempts at Uniformity 148 Reaction towards Separate Legislation 150 General Legislation 153 Extension of the Powers of the County Courts 153 Penal Legislation and the Roads . . . . > 154 Private Roads . . 155 14 CONTENTS PAGE Method of Travel at the End of the Eighteenth Century 156 Stage-Lines and Stages 157 The Pains and Pleasures of Travel 159 The Development of Turnpikes in Maryland 162 Baltimore County Turnpikes 163 Incorporation of Private Turnpike Companies 166 The Turnpikes of 1804-5 166 Gallatin's Report on Turnpikes 170 The Banks and the Turnpike to Cumberland 171 Increase of Turnpike Companies 172 Governor Goldsborough's Report 172 Further Bank Aid 174 The Turnpikes and Baltimore City 175 The Rise of the Canal and Railroad 177 Subsequent Turnpike Legislation 178 Maryland's Relation to the National Road 178 Washington and the Ohio Country 178 The Northwest Territory 180 Alexander Hamilton and the National Improvement of Highways 180 Albert Gallatin and the Inception of the National Road 181 The Maryland Route Selected 183 Consent of the States and Federal Appropriations 184 National Road under State Control 185 PART IV. THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS. BY ARTHUR NEWHALL JOHNSON 187 INTRODUCTION 189 Mileage 190 GENERAL OUTLINE OF HIGHWAY CONDITIONS 192 Surface of the Country Traversed 192 Appalachian Region 192 Central and Southern Maryland 193 The Eastern Shore 195 Instructions to Supervisors 196 Instructions 196 Dirt Roads 197 Stone Roads 199 Gravel Roads 202 Shell Roads 202 Bridges 205 Hauling Distances 208 Amount Hauled 210 Cost of Hauling 211 Guide-Boards 212 Surveys 212 HIGHWAY CONDITIONS IN THE COUNTIES 213 Allegany County 214 Anne Arundel County 216 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 15 PAGE Baltimore County 217 Calvert County 221 Caroline County ...;;...... 221 Road Maps 222 Carroll County 222 Cecil County 226 Charles County 228 Dorchester County 229 Frederick County 281 Garrett County 234 Harford County 286 Howard County 238 Kent County 240 Montgomery County 241 Prince George's County 244 Queeu Anne's County 246 St. Mary's County 247 Somerset County 249 Talbot County 250 Washington County 251 Wicomico County 254 Worcester County 255 Summary 256 List of Turnpikes 261 PART V. CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR OF ROADS. BY AKTHCK NEWHALL JOHNSON 263 Road Location 265 Grading 268 Drainage 271 Cross-Drains , 273 Side-Drains : 274 Surfacing 276- Preparation of the Foundation 276 Stone Roads 279 Rolling 282 Crowns 284 Thickness of Macadam Material 284 Maintenance 289 Gravel Roads 291 Shell Roads 292 Slag Roads 294 Use of Burnt Clay on Roads 295- Use of Oil on Roads 290- Broad Tires 297 Maps of Roads 300- 16 CONTENTS PAGE Tools and Machinery 301 Cost of Crushing Stone 306 Rollers .' 309 Highway Literature. 311 PART VI. QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS, AND THE METHODS OF TESTING THEM. BY HARKT FIELDING REID 315 INTRODUCTION 317 Forces to be Withstood by a Road-Metal 317 Methods of Testing Road-Metals 319 Microscopic Test .... 319 Abrasion Test 320 Crushing Test 322 Cementation Test 322 Value of the Tests 324 Results of Tests Made by the Maryland Geological Survey 325 Laboratory of the Highway Division 326 Results of Tests of Road-Metals 327 PART VII. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS, INCLUDING THE METHOD AND EXPENSE OF ROAD IMPROVEMENTS. BY HARRY FIELDING REID .... 331 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS IN MARYLAND 333 The Opening and Closing of Roads 333 Roads Taxes 335 Road Commissioners, Road Supervisors and Laborers 335 Road Repairs and Drainage 338 Gates, Guide-Posts and Bridges 339 Road Records 341 Corporations 343 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS IN THE OTHER STATES 343 Alabama 343 Arkansas 344 California 344 Colorado 346 Connecticut 346 Delaware 348 Florida 349 Georgia 349 Idaho 349 Illinois 349 Indiana 350 Iowa 351 Kansas 352 Kentucky , 353 Louisiana . . 353 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 17 PAGE Maine 354 Massachusetts 354 Michigan 857 Minnesota 358 Mississippi 359 Missouri 359 Montana 360 Nebraska 361 Nevada 361 New Hampshire 361 New Jersey 362 New York 366 North Carolina 368 North Dakota 370 Ohio 370 Oregon 371 Pennsylvania 372 Rhode Island 374 South Carolina 375 South Dakota 375 Tennessee 375 Texas 376 Utah 376 Vermont 376 Virginia v 377 Washington 378 West Virginia 378 Wisconsin 379 Wyoming . 379 The Employment of Convicts in Road-Building 380 ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS IN EUROPE 383 Austria 383 France 384 Germany 389 Prussia 389 Saxony 389 Switzerland 391 United Kingdom 393 England 393 Ireland 394 PART VIII. THE ADVANTAGES OF GOOD ROADS. BY HARRY FIELDING REID 395 INTRODUCTION 397 Value of Good Roads in Foreign Countries 399 Increase in Land-Values 400 Economies Effected by Good Roads 404 A Specific Estimate 408 2 18 CONTENTS PAGE Special Losses Due to Bad Roads -til Indirect Benefits 412 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE IMPORTANCE OF STATE HIGH- WATS 413 Advantages of a State Highway Commission 426 Some Suggestions Regarding Road Improvement 432 The Relocation of Roads 432 Width of Road 433 Guard-Rails 434 Wide Tires 434 Sign-Boards 434 Plats and Records 434 Passenger Railways 435 Turnpikes 436 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE FACING PAGE I. Stone Arch over Castleman River, Garrett County 29 II. Sample Road at Timonium Fair Fig. 1. Road Partially Constructed 42 Fig. 2. Road Nearly Completed 42 III. Map Showing the Physiographic Provinces of Maryland 56 IV. Map Showing the Divides and Drainage Basins of Maryland 64 V. Chart Showing Normal Annual Temperature and Precipitation for Maryland 72 VI. Map of the Road- Materials of Maryland 80 VII. Photomicrographs of Rock Sections Fig. 1. Trap Rock, Gabbro, Baltimore County 82 Fig. 2. Trap Rock, Serpentine, Harford County 82 VIII. Photomicrographs of Rock Sections Fig. 1. Trap Rock, Diabase, Montgomery County 84 Fig. 2. Gneiss, Baltimore County 84 IX. Photomicrographs of Rock Sections Fig. 1. Granite, Cecil County 88 Fig. 2. Sandstone, Montgomery County 88 X. Photomicrographs of Rock Sections Fig. 1. Marble, Baltimore County 96 Fig. 2. Limestone, Washington County 96 XI. Photomicrographs of Rock Sections Fig. 1. Quartzite, Frederick County 104 Fig. 2. Indurated Gravel, Prince George's County 104 XII. Three-Notch Road in St. Mary's County Fig. 1. View of Notches on Tree ' 120 Fig. 2. View of Road with Notched Tree 120 XIII. Survivals of Early Road Methods Fig. 1. Breaking Stone by Hand, Frederick County 144 Fig. 2. Hauling with Two- Wheel Ox-Cart, Port Tobacco, Charles County 144 XIV. Map Showing Through Routes of Travel before 1776 156 XV. Map Showing the Main Highways of Maryland 190 XVI. Types of Roads- Fig. 1. Dirt Road, Harford County 196 Tig. 2. Limestone Road, Washington County 196 XVII. Types of Roads- Fig. 1. Trap road, Baltimore County; Stone Spread in Layers and Rolled 200 Fig. 2. Gneiss road, Baltimore City ; Stone Spread without Rolling. 200 20 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE FACING PAGE XVIII. Types of Roads- Fig. 1. Gravel Road, Prince George's County 204 Fig. 2. Shell Road, Baltimore County 204 XIX. Types of Bridges- Fig. 1 . Iron bridge over Choptank river, Caroline County 208 Fig. 2. Stone bridge over Conococheague river, Washington County 208 XX. Maps of Allegany, Anne Arundel and Calvert Counties 216 XXI. Maps of Baltimore and Carroll Counties 220 XXII. Maps of Caroline, Cecil and Charles Counties 224 XXIII. Maps of Dorchester and Frederick Counties 282 XXIV. Maps of Garrett, Harford and Howard Counties 236 XXV. Maps of Kent, Montgomery and St. Mary's Counties 240 XXVI. Maps of Prince George's and Queen Anne's Counties 244 XXVII. Maps of Somerset, Talbot and Wicomico Counties 248 XXVIII. Maps of Washington and Worcester Counties 254 XXIX. Testing Laboratory, Showing Deval Abrasion Machine 320 XXX. Testing Laboratory, Showing Page Cementation Machine 322 XXXI. Rock Fragments Before and After the Abrasion Test 324 Fig. 1. Marble, Baltimore County 324 Fig. 2. Limestone, Washington County . 324 Fig. 3. Trap Rock, Diabase, Frederick County 324 XXXII. Briquettes, Before and After Cementation Tests 326 Fig. 1. Marble, Baltimore County 326 Fig. 2. Limestone, Washington County 326 Fig. 3. Limestone, Washington County 326 Fig. 4 Trap Rock, Gabbro, Baltimore County ...... 326 XXXIII. Types of Bad Roads in Maryland- Fig. 1. Clay Road in Wet Weather, Howard County 400 Fig. 2. Hillside Road with " Breakers," Harford County 400 XXXIV. Types of Bad Roads in Maryland- Fig. 1. Sandy road, Worcester County 416 Fig. 2. Turnpike Abandoned from Rough Surface, Montgomery County 416 XXXV. Types of Bad Roads in Maryland ' Fig. 1. Dusty road, Baltimore County 432 Fig. 2. Undrained Road in Cut, Charles County 432 FIGURE PAGE 1. Mean Temperature in the Four Climatic Divisions of Maryland 66 2. Fluctuations in Normal Rainfall 72 3. Fluctuations in Annual Precipitation at Baltimore, 1871-1898 74 4. Old Sign-Board Giving the Rates of Toll on Animals and Vehicles 169 5. Showing Effect of Storm- Water on a Steep Grade (Vertical Scale Exag- gerated) 195 6. Cross-Section of I-Beam Bridge 306 7. Laying Side-Drain for Macadam Road on State Highway in Massachusetts. . 272 8. End Elevation and Longitudinal Section of a Pipe Culvert under an Em- bankment 273 9. Cross-Section of Road with Open Side-Ditches 274 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 21 FIGURE PAGE Jf Sections of Lateral Drains for Underdrainage of a Road-bed 275 12. Pipe-Drain Badly Laid, and the Opening, as a Consequence, Partially Closed. 276 13. The Effect of Placing Broken Stone upon Firm and Soft Foundations, respectively 277 14. Applying Stone for Macadam Road on State Highway in Massachusetts 278 15. Rolling Surface of Macadam Road on State Highway in Massachusetts 281 16. Laying Telford Road on State Highway in Massachusetts 285 17. Roman Road 287 18. Early Eighteenth-Century Road 287 19. Late Eighteenth-Century Road 287 20. Modern Macadam Road 287 21. Section of Road on Sidehill with Side-Drain and Telford Foundation on Up- hill Side 288 22. Section of Road Cut Through Heavy or Soggy Soil with Telford Founda- tion and Side-Drains 288 23. Section of Old Shell Road Surfaced with a Thin Layer of Broken Stone 294 24. Road-Machine or Grader Refilling Earth over Pipe-Drain 303 25. One Form of Portable Stone-Crusher 304 26. Portable Form of Combined Crusher, Elevator and Screen 304 27. Rotary Stone-Crusher - t 305 28. Automatic Screen for Assorting Crushed Stone into Different Sizes 306 29. General Arrangement of Crushing-Plant on Sidehill Location 307 30. General Arrangement of Crushing-Plant on Level Ground 307 31. Reversible Horse-Roller 310 32. Steam Road-Roller 310 33. Gravel Road in Southwestern Connecticut 337 34. Macadam Road in Eastern Massachusetts 355 85. Sandy Road with Improved Gravel Road in Foreground, New Jersey 365 36. Macadam Road at Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania 373 37. Six-Horse Load on a Main Road, Harford County 406 38. Two-horse Load on a Macadam Road, North Carolina 407 PREFACE The present volume deals with the questions connected with high- way improvement in Maryland. The subjects discussed are of much importance to the people of the state and an attempt has been made to secure the best information available regarding them. Not only have the most modern treatises regarding road-building been liberally drawn upon, but personal inspection has been given to the best high- ways now under construction in other states. All types of our Mary- land highways have been studied, looking to their permanent and economical improvement. The various road-materials have also been classified as regards their value and advantageous location for highway purposes. It is believed that the volume contains much of practical value. The Introduction, including an account of the Organization and Conduct of Highway Investigations by the Maryland Geological Survey, by Wm. Bullock Clark, comprises Part I and gives an account of the organization of the Highway Division by the General Assembly of 1898, together with a review of the provisions of the act. Fol- lowing this is a discussion of the methods of investigation which have been pursued by the Survey in platting the distribution of the road- building materials and in testing their availability for highway pur- poses; also an account of the detailed examination of Maryland high- ways and the plans proposed for their improvement. Several pages are devoted to the correspondence which -was entered into with the county commissioners, farmers, turnpike companies, governors, and road officers regarding highway affairs. This chapter closes with a brief account of the sample roads con- structed, the specifications prepared for Maryland highways, and the necessary legislation for the continuance of the work of the Highway Division. 24 PREFACE The Relations of Maryland Topography, Climate and Geology to Highway Construction, by Win. Bullock Clark, forms Part II of the volume, and includes a summary of the leading topographical, clirna- tological and geological features of the state in their relation to road- building. The dependence of the highways upon the surface con- figuration of the land in the various portions of Maryland is discussed in some detail and the bearing of the distribution of temperature and rainfall upon the construction of roads is fully pointed out. Much attention is given to the relationship between geology and highways, since not only the road-bed itself but the materials which are em- ployed in the actual construction of the road so largely affect the character of the traveled ways. The different types of rocks and their distribution are described and platted upon the maps accompany- ing the report. The Highway Legislation in Maryland and its Influence on the Economic Development of the State is the title of Part III and is prepared by St. George Leakin Sioussat. This chapter deals with the history of highway development in Maryland, including an account of the various laws which have been passed since the first road-act in 1666. The gradual development of the present road-system through its various phases, both of general and local legislation, are traced out in much detail. The influence of national legislation in the eon- struction of the far-famed National Road forms an interesting chapter in the history of highways. The Present Condition of Maryland Highways constitutes Part IV of the volume, and is written by Arthur ISTewhall Johnson, formerly connected with the Massachusetts Highway Commission. Mr. John- son has very thoroughly examined the condition of our Maryland highways and presents in his report upon them a very complete account of their present condition and future needs. He has also secured a large amount of valuable information regarding the amount expended annually by the county commissioners and turnpike companies upon the highways of the several counties, and the details of this investiga- tion are presented in his report. The Construction and Repair of Roads, also by Arthur Newhall MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 25 Johnson, forms Part V of the volume, and includes a treatment of the important subject of road-engineering. The latest and best informa- tion relating to the question of the construction and repair of roads is laid before the people of the state in this report, and the importance of the facts presented cannot be too strongly dwelt upon, since good roads are only attainable as the result of the best engineering knowledge. The Qualities of Good Road-Metals and the Methods of Testing Them comprises Part VI of the volume and is prepared by Harry Fielding Reid, the Chief of the Highway Division. The relative wearing and cementation values of the various rocks of the state, based upon the results of numerous mechanical tests, are described fully in this portion of the volume. The great importance of this experimental work to those invested with power in highway matters is clearly shown by these investigations, and the hope is expressed that our county authorities will submit in the future their road- materials to the Survey to be tested. A description of the laboratory of the Survey is likewise given. The Administration of Roads, also by Harry Fielding Reid, forms Part VII of the volume, and includes a discussion of the laws regu- lating road-construction and maintenance in the various counties of Maryland, in the several states of the Union, and in the leading coun- tries of the world. The Advantages of Good Roads, also by Harry Fielding Reid, forms Part VIII of the volume, and contains a summary of the more im- portant facts brought forward in the preceding chapters, together with a discussion of the great advantages resulting to any com- munity by the employment of intelligent methods of highway-con- struction and maintenance. The financial, moral, and social advan- tages of good highways are presented. It is pointed out that such results are only attainable as the result of proper engineering skill, which can best be secured through a well organized state highway bureau. The majority of the illustrations were especially made for this volume. The Maryland Geological Survey desires to give credit to MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE I. ffi H U OS INTRODUCTION INCLUDING AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORGANIZATION AND CONDUCT OF HIGHWAY INVESTIGATIONS BY THE MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BY WM. BULLOCK CLARK No subject to-day more demands the attention of the people of Maryland than that of road-construction. When hundreds of thou- sands of dollars 'are being annually appropriated for our highways it is pertinent to inquire whether this outlay is intelligently made, and if not, whether better methods of road-construction cannot be adopted in order that the people of the state may secure a larger return for the money which they expend. It was with the object of ascertaining the actual facts in the case that a bill was presented at the last session of the General Assembly authorizing the State Geological Survey Commission to investigate the subject of road-building in Maryland and make a report thereon. The bill which is given below was intro- duced in the House February 24, was passed by that body April 1, by the Senate April 4, and received the signature of the Governor April 9, 1898. It is as follows: A Bill, entitled " an Act to confer additional powers upon the Commission established by the. Act of General Assembly at the session of 1896, Chap- ter 51, by providing for the investigation of the question of road-con- struction in this State, and for the preparation of reports thereon, and to make an appropriation therefor." SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland, That the Commission established by the Act of the General Assembly of Maryland at the session of 1896, Chapter 51, be and the same is hereby authorized to 30 INTRODUCTION make provision for the investigation o the question of road-construction in Maryland. SEC. 2. And be it enacted, That the said Commission be and the same is hereby authorized to appoint, under the direction of the Superintendent of the Survey such assistants and other employees, as they shall deem neces- sary, and the said Commission shall also determine the compensation of all persons employed, and may remove them at pleasure. SEC. 3. And be it enacted, That the said Commission shall see that proper investigation is made of the condition of the roads in this State, and of the best means of improving the same, together with a study of the classifica- tion and distribution of the road-building materials in the several counties. SEC. 4. And be it enacted, That the said Commission shall see that a report upon the state of the roads and the best method of improving, constructing and maintaining the same, with estimates of costs, expenses and plans, be submitted at the next session of the Legislature, and that special reports be prepared at such time as they are deemed necessary. SEC. 5. And be it enacted, That the said Commission shall see that record is kept of all its proceedings, and of all moneys received and spent under its direction and for what purposes; which record and account shall be sub- mitted to the said Commission at the semi-annual meetings of the same to take place in March and November, such records and accounts to be always open to the inspection of any committee which the Legislature may appoint. SEC. 6. And be it enacted, That all moneys paid out on account of this work shall be paid by the State Treasurer upon the order of the Executive Officer of the Commission endorsed by the Comptroller. SEC. 7. And be it enacted, That the sum of ten thousand dollars annually, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be, and the same is hereby appro- priated out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this Act. SEC. 8. And be it further enacted, That this Act shall take effect upon the date of its passage. Many prominent citizens throughout the state, as well as the State Road Convention, the Road League, and the League of American Wheelmen, exerted their influence toward the passage of the bill. The valuable support given by the latter organization, particularly by its Chief Consul, Conway "W. Sams, Esq., who has advocated good roads for many years, was of the utmost importance in bringing about successful legislation. CHARACTER OF THE INVESTIGATIONS. Immediately upon the passage of the bill a Highway Division was established as part of the State .Geological Survey under the direc- tion of Professor Clark, the State Geologist, and Dr. Reid was placed in charge of the work as Chief of the Highway Division. Cotnmuni- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 31 cation was at once opened with the Highway Commissioners of Mas- sachusetts, Connecticiit, and New Jersey, where the latest and most intelligent methods of state road-building are now in full operation. At the invitation of the Commissioners visits of inspection were made to those states by Messrs. Clark and Reid and the leading roads exam- ined in various stages of construction. Through the courtesy of the Board of Highway Commissioners of Massachusetts one of the best trained of their younger engineers, Mr. A. K". Johnson, was secured as road-expert for the Maryland work. Messrs. Clark and Reid have been widely over the state during the past eighteen months in connection with the various investiga- tions that have been undertaken by the Highway Division and which are fully described in the subsequent pages, and Mi*. Johnson, who began his investigations upon the first of June, 1898, has traveled over 2500 miles of Maryland roads in his study of the present condition of" the. highways, as explained by him in the later chapters of this report. Dr. Mathews, the Assistant State Geologist, and the chiefs of the various geological divisions with their assistants have also devoted much attention to the accumulation of information regarding the condition of the highways in those portions of the state in which they have been conducting their geological investigations. Every mem- ber of the Survey was furnished with a definite plan of highway work which he was to pursue in connection with his other investigations. In this manner most of the highways of the state have been actually observed by some member of the Survey staff and detailed informa- tion secured for the preparation of the report. One of the most important lines of investigation which the High- way Division has been following is that connected with platting the distribution of the natural road-building materials. This study was conducted under the direction of the chiefs of the three geological divisions, Messrs. Mathews, Prosser, and Shattuck, each of whom had under him several efficient assistants, who were especially detailed to this work. Particular attention was given to the study of the dis- tribution of the basic eruptive rocks or " traps " in the Piedmont Plateau, as they are the most valuable road-building materials in the- 32 INTRODUCTION state. Dr. Mathews had associated with him in this work Messrs. Leonard and Bonsteel, who spent the entire summer in mapping the boundaries of these rocks and in locating the most available points for quarries. The character and location of the gneisses, granites, and limestones in the same district were carefully considered, since they may also be used to advantage under certain conditions. The study of the distribution of the widely extended iron-bearing gravels of the southern and eastern counties of the state has occupied the attention of the Coastal Plain Division of the Survey under Dr. Shattuck, and he and his assistants have already completed the map- ping of this material throughout the district. The importance of these gravels in future road-construction throughout the tide-water counties cannot be over-estimated, and a fuller discussion of this sub- ject will be given by the author in the subsequent pages of the report. The distribution of the limestones and iron-bearing sandstones in western Maryland has been mapped in much detail by Professor Prosser and those associated with him, and this accurate location of the best natural road-building metals of our western counties cannot fail to be of advantage to the residents of that section of the state. By far the most significant phase of the highway investigations is connected with the practical physical tests to which the natural road- materials have been subjected. The tests of the abrading, fracturing, and cementing qualities of the rocks of the state, as explained more fully by Dr. Reid in later chapters, are of great importance to the officials of our counties who are anxious to expend the public funds in the most economical manner. Nothing more largely affects the value and permanency of highways than the selection of proper materials in their construction. The information which the Survey will be able to give upon this subject to the people of the several counties will many times repay any expenditure which the state has made for these investigations. The machinery which has been secured for this ex- perimental work can be employed with constantly increasing value to the established authorities and to those private individuals who may desire to send their road-metals to the Survey to be tested. The Survey will be glad, so far as time will permit, to make all such tests MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 33 free of charge to the citizens of the state of Maryland. It is greatly to be hoped that our county officials will avail themselves of this opportunity to ascertain the actual facts regarding the availability of their natural road-building materials instead of spending the public funds first and then relying upon the actual serviceability of the materials to determine their value. The Maryland Geological Survey will also be glad to furnish such expert assistance, either in the drawing up of actual specifications and plans, or in supervising the same, as the Boards of County Commis- sioners may desire. The Survey will be pleased, so far as the time and funds at its disposal will permit, to render any services to the citizens of Maryland that are within its powers. Having secured a large amount of valuable information regarding the needs of Mary- land highways and the distribution and character of the best natural road-building materials, and having at its disposal trained highway experts, it believes that it is in a position to perform an important public service to the state. HIGHWAY CORRESPONDENCE. The Highway Division of the Survey has endeavored from the be- ginning to place itself in close touch with the highway needs of the state. Thousands of circular-letters have been sent out to county and municipal officers and to the prominent people of every section. Attempts have been made to secure the most intimate knowledge of the manner in which the county officers and private companies have conducted their highway affairs. It has been difficult, oftentimes, to obtain satisfactory answers to the questions, but in many instances very comprehensive statements have been secured, so that the results regarding highway-management which are presented in the subsequent chapters of this volume are confidently felt to be based upon the best information which it is possible to secure. It has been especially difficult to obtain the needed information from the private turnpike companies, as they have seemed in most instances unwilling to make a public statement of their affairs. 34 INTRODUCTION LETTER TO BOAEDS OF COUNTY COMMISSIONERS. The first circular-letter sent out by the Highway Division was addressed to the Boards of County Commissioners, and highly satis- factory answers were secured to the questions which were submitted regarding the construction and maintenance of the county highways. The results of this correspondence are presented in a later portion of the volume. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, December 3, 1898. To the Board of Count}/ Commissioners: DEAR SIRS: I take the liberty of enclosing a series of questions, careful answers to which will greatly facilitate the work of the Highway Division of the Maryland Geological Survey. I hope we may secure your co-opera- tion in this matter and for the trouble and expense incurred by the clerk of your Board in filling out many of the questions submitted the Survey will be glad to send him a check for $10.00. Where exact figures are not at hand we hope that as close estimates as possible will be given, indi- cating in each instance whether it is an estimate or not. The Maryland Geological Survey, acting under authority granted by the General Assembly (Laws of Maryland, 1898, Chapter 454), is most anxious to find out the views of the people regarding the important matter of highway improvement. In addition to the questions asked, the Survey would appreciate any statements which you may give regarding present methods of highway management or suggestions, if any, for their improve- ment. As the representatives of the counties in all matters of highway management your opinions will have much weight. If any of the following questions do not appear clear and further information is desired please communicate with this office at once and every effort will be made to put the matter in a clearer light. Very respectfully, Questions. To what extent does your Board think it practicable for the State to enter upon actual highway improvement? Would your Board favor having a section of a model road built in your County under the supervision of the Highway Division of the Maryland Geological Survey, the Survey to prepare the specifications and plans to be used in the construction of the road according to one of the following di- visions of cost: a. To have expense divided between State and County? b. To have expense divided between State, County, and Districts through which improved piece of road passes? c. To have expense divided between State, County, and abutters upon such piece of road? (1. Or would your Board suggest some other plan as to division of ex- pense? MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 35 What plan would your Board suggest to provide for the maintenance of roads improved under one of the above plans? I'nder what act or acts of Assembly with regard to road management is your County acting at present? How many miles of roads (exclusive of city streets) within the limits of 3 - our County? (Estimate as closely as possible.) a. Mile,s of dirt roads? b. Miles of stone roads? c. Miles of gravel roads? d. Miles of shell roads? Indicate which are the main traveled roads in your County, giving towns along such roads and at terminals. Which is the main traveled road of your County? What is the 'cost of breaking stone? By hand: per perch - or per ton or per cubic yard ; by crusher: per perch - or per ton or per cubic yard . What is the cost of hauling stone per cubic yard? (State about the aver- age distance hauled.) What is the cost of spreading stone on road? What is the cost of gravel per cubic yard? What is the cost of hauling gravel per cubic yard? (State about the aver- age distance hauled.) What is the cost per square yard for spreading gravel? W 7 hat is the cost of shells per bushel? (State whether raw or steamed shells.) W T hat is the cost per bushel of hauling shells? (State about the aver- age distance hauled.) What is the cost per square yard for spreading shells? About how much stone is used per mile to stone a road, giving width of portion stoned? Cost of same? About how much gravel is used per mile to gravel a road, giving width of portion graveled? Cost of same? About how many bushels o* shells are used per mile to shell a road, giving width of portion shelled? Cost of same? How much tile drain has been laid for purposes of road drainage during the last three years? What does it cost per foot to lay tile drain? About how much has been spent on brick or stone culverts during the last three years? How many road supervisors in your County? What amount do they receive per day? How many additional men are employed by the supervisors? How much do they receive per day? About how many days during the year do the supervisors and men work upon the roads? W T hat is the required width between fences of new roads? What width of roadway (that is, portion of road to be traveled) should, in the judgment of the Board, be required in the construction of such roads? To what extent have plans with grades of roads shown thereon been used in grading roads in your County? . 36 INTRODUCTION What road machinery is owned by the County? What was the cost of same? What is the cost annually of keeping this machinery in repair? Does this machinery give satisfaction to the people of the County? About what, on an average, does the farmer living along a toll-road pay per year in tolls? On a rough estimate what proportion of farm wagons in your County do you think have tires over 3% inches wide? Do most farmers order tires as wide as 3y 2 inches on new wagons? State the cost of maintaining roads and bridges in your County as far as possible, filling out the blanks in the columns below opposite the years indicated. Total amount levied for Amount spent Amount spent Amount spent Amount spent Amount spent roads and for for for for for bridges. bridges. new roads. stone roads. pravel roads. shell roads. 1870 1880 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 W T hat cities and towns have been helped by the County in the mainte- nance of their streets and how much has been paid such cities and towns? (Sign here) Clerk Board County Commissioners. County. It is very desirable that these blanks should be returned filled out not later than December 31, 1898. LETTER TO THE NEWSPAPERS OF MARYLAND. A few days after the above communication had been sent to the Boards of County Commissioners, the following circular-letter was sent to the newspapers of the state. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, December 7, 1898. DEAR SIR: The Maryland Geological Survey has sent to the Boards of County Commissioners a series of questions similar to those appended to MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 37 this letter hoping that it may secure careful answers to the same as far as possible. It is believed that the information secured will be of benefit in formulating action in the future. It is the desire of the Geological Survey to put itself in touch with the enlightened sentiment of the people of the State upon this important question. It realizes that no progress can be made, however, except by hearty co-operation on the part of the established authorities of the several counties. The Maryland Geological Survey is acting under authority granted by the General Assembly (Laws of Maryland, 1898, Chapter 454) in its investi- gation of the highway conditions of Maryland and in its study of the character and distribution of the natural road-building materials. A careful survey of every county in the State has been made along these lines during the last eight months as described in the Baltimore Sun of December 7. The methods which are being followed are those that have been adopted by countries and States which are intelligently constructing their roads. No radical change in existing road laws is proposed by the Survey, but it is believed that the construction of model roads throughout the State will gradually bring about an improved system of highway construction on the part of the people themselves. It is the hope of the Survey that you may be willing to give wide publicity through your paper to the questions submitted and will ask your readers to send, such answers as they may feel inclined to give, to the Chief of the Highway Division, Maryland Geological Swvey, Baltimore, Maryland. These letters will receive most careful consideration. Will you kindly send copies of any issues of your paper which refer to our work. Very respectfully, LETTER TO THE FARMERS OF MARYLAND. Several months later a letter was addressed to the farmers and other landed proprietors o the state. Over three thousand of these letters were sent to the leading citizens of the counties with the result that about one thousand replies were secured. These replies have been of great importance in tabulating information regarding the present condition of Maryland roads, since they come from those citi- zens of the state whose interests are most directly affected. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, April 7, 1899. DEAR SIR: The Highway Division of the Maryland Geological Survey, acting under a recent act of the General Assembly, is collecting information concerning the present condition and methods of maintenance of the high- waj's of the State, together with other data which will prove of value in formulating plans for the improvement of the roads throughout Maryland. Circulars have been sent to your Board of County Commissioners asking for information concerning the number of miles and kinds of roads in the 38 INTRODUCTION county; the cost and nature of various types of road work as carried on at present; and what road machinery is owned by the county. We have also obtained as far as possible the amount it has cost the county for re- pairs of roads for the past ten to twenty years. In addition to this infor- mation many miles of roads in every county in the State have been gone over with a view to ascertaining as nearly as possible some of the actual conditions which exist. In our laboratory, established for investigating the natural road-building materials, tests are being made of the rocks from all localities in the State. The resxilt of these experiments enables us to tell the relative value of the different rocks for road purposes. Any stone which you wish tested and compared with similar varieties from other localities we shall be glad to test for you free of cost, save the expense of the freight charges. If you will send us particulars as to the location and nature of your quarry, ledge or pit, material from which you wish us to test, we will mail you directions for sending the sample, which should weigh not less than thirty pounds. Our laboratory, which is on the ground floor of the Geological Building of Johns Hopkins University on Howard street, Baltimore, is open every week day, and we should be glad to show you at any time the methods used in testing road materials. To make our Highway Report complete in every particular we have need of the information which your answers to the enclosed questions will give. It is practically impossible for us to reach every farmer in the state as we would like to do, but we shall try to have at least one of our circulars reach every neighborhood. It is earnestly hoped that every one who receives these questions will discuss them with his neighbor and return the same to us within a week after receiving them, with as complete answers as pos- sible. We enclose an extra set, and should there be any one who. you think would be interested, will you kindly give him the extra copy. We shall be glad to send circulars to other prominent farmers in your neighborhood, who may be willing to answer our questions, if you will send us their addresses. We hope you will answer the questions as fully as possible, but do not fail to send us such answers as you can, even though many questions must remain unanswered. The information thus obtained will only be used as a whole, and will not be made piiblic as coming from any individual. If there is not room for the answer to any question in the space left for it you can put it either upon the back of the sheet or upon another piece of paper. All communications should be addressed to Maryland Geological Survey, Highway Division, Baltimore, Md. An early reply will oblige, Respectfully yours, Questions. 1. Name. 2. Nearest Post Office. 3. County. 4. What is the size of your farm? 5. What road or roads do you travel going from your house to the Post Office. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 39 6. Distance to the Post Office. 7. Is the road a clay or sanch' road, or has it been " piked " with stone, gravel or shells? 8. What repairs does this piece of road generally receive in each year? 9. Is a road machine used on the road? 10. Are the repairs of such a nature that the road is better because of them, or does the road remain about the same from year to year? 11. What in your opinion is the effect on the roads of the road machines or road scrapers? 12. Do you think it causes them to wear away faster? 13. In your neighborhood is it the custom to put the sod and other loose materials from the sides on the middle of the road? 14. Is this generally done with the road machine or by shovels? 15. To what extent and in what way have other roads in your vicinity been improved? 16. How many miles have been so improved? 17. Are you ever prevented from attending church, lectures, social gath- erings or sending your children to school by the condition of the roads at any particular season of the year? 18. How many weeks during the year are. the roads in your neighbor- hood (a) In a bad condition? (b) In an impassable condition? 19. To what places do you haul your produce to ship or sell it? 20. What is the average distance in miles which you haul a load to market or to shipping point? 21. What does it cost you to haul an average load this distance? 22. About what is the average distance produce in your district is hauled in order to reach a market? 23. Are you obliged to haul over toll-roads? 24. What do you pay per year in tolls? 25. How many horses and mules do you keep? 26. How many horses and mules would you keep if the roads were iji good condition all the time? 27. About how much weight in tons do you haul over the roads during a year (a) From your farm? (6) To your farm? 28. What kinds of produce do you sell, and how much? 29. How many tons per horse do you generally haul (a) In winter? (6) In spring? (c) In summer? (d) In fall? 30. What is the difference in cost of hauling when your roads are in bad shape as compared to when they are at their best? 31. Are the roads ever so bad that you cannot haul your produce to market or the shipping point? 32. Would it be to your advantage to haul at this time? 40 INTRODUCTION 33. What would be your additional annual profit if you could market your produce at any season of the year and thus sell at times of high prices? 34. About how much do you spend in a year on repairs to your wagons? 35. How much less do you think this expense would be if the roads were in good condition all the year around? 36. What would you be willing to pay yearly for the satisfaction of driv- ing over good roads independently of any other benefit? 37. How much increase in travel would there be in your neighborhood if the roads were good? 38. Would this increase in travel benefit your neighborhood? 39. How much annual profit would you get from this increased travel? 40. To what extent, if any, has the value of land increased per acre due to improvements on roads in your -vicinity? 41. In your opinion would the value of farms be increased if the roads in their vicinity were improved in a substantial manner? 42. About how much do you think this increase would be per acre? 43. Do you use on your .wagons tires as wide as 3% inches? 44. Do most farmers in your neighborhood use tires as wide as 3% inches? 45. Would, you favor a plan whereby the State would aid the counties in the construction of roads? 46. Would you favor having such roads constructed under the super- vision of the State Geological Survey? , . 47. If such roads were built do you think that they should be main- tained by the State or by the counties? A few weeks later the following letter was sent to those who had not replied to the earlier communication: MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, April 30, 1899. DEAR SIR: About three weeks ago there was sent to you a set of ques- tions which you were kindly requested to answer. There was enclosed an addressed stamped envelope for their return. Fearing the matter may have escaped your memory, I take the liberty of reminding you of it, and I earnestly request that you will give the ques- tions your earliest attention. The information which can be derived from the answers will be of the greatest use and importance, as is shown by the large number already returned from many sections of the State. Your set of answers is important toward compiling information in your district. If you cannot answer all the questions, answer those you can. Additional lists if needed will be mailed you on application. I hope you will not allow this request to go unanswered. Respectfully yours, LETTER TO THE PRESIDENTS OF TURNPIKE COMPANIES OF MARYLAND. The turnpike companies of the state were also asked to furnish information regarding their affairs, since the turnpikes are main- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 41 tained at the expense of the people of the state in hardly less degree than the county highways. It was thought important that the people of the state should have a knowledge of the actual conditions, but it has been very difficult to secure the desired information, as the officers of the companies have in many instances been unwilling to answer the questions submitted. The fact should not be lost sight of that the turnpike companies represent vested interests which should not be disturbed, if at all, without an adequate payment on the part of the state or counties for the properties taken, yet the control of the public ways by private interests is a matter of serious concern. The questions asked were intended simply to place the real facts before the people and not to influence action on this important subject. Sev- eral states, notably New Jersey, have already taken action in this matter and have bought out many of the private companies to the great advantage of the public interests. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, July 1, 1899. DEAR SIR: The General Assembly of Maryland, at its session of 1898, au- thorized the organization of the Highway Division of the State Geological Survey, and charged it to report on the condition of the roads of the State and the best methods of improving them. We find that in 1818, Charles Goldsborough, then Governor of Maryland, made a report to the General Assembly on the condition of the turnpikes then existing, namely: The Baltimore and Keisterstown, the Baltimore and Yorktown, the Baltimore and Frederick, and the Cumberland turnpike roads, in which he incorporated answers received from the presidents of these roads to questions submitted by him. These dealt largely with the financial condition of the roads, and the answers gave the cost of construc- tion, the amount of their stock, the sums received annually as tolls, the cost of maintenance, and the dividends declared for a number of years. We think it would be a matter of great interest to collect similar data regarding the turnpikes of to-day, for comparison, and therefore send you a series of questions, hoping that you will answer as fully as you are able or are willing to do. We do not intend to publish any information in separate form regarding the private affairs of turnpike companies, which they may not desire to make public, and therefore shall only use the answers you mark with X in compiling general statistics, without refer- ence to your particular company. Estimates will be of value to us where accurate answers cannot be given. The favor of a prompt reply, even though incomplete, will be highly appre- ciated. Yours respectfully, 42 INTRODUCTION Questions. 1. Corporate name. 2. Under what law was charter taken out? 3. Length of road built. 4. Length of road on which toll is now charged. 5. Cost of construction of whole road including bridges. *6. What bridges have been erected over considerable streams, and at what cost? 7. Has the road been bought out at any time, and at what cost? 8. What were the original amounts of bonds and stock issued? 9. 'What are the present amounts of bonds and stock outstanding? *10. What are the gross receipts for the last five years? *11. Cost of maintenance for the last five years. 12. Net profits for the last five years. 13. Proportion of gross receipts to operating expenses for the last five years. 14. Give figures of any other years that may furnish interesting com- parison with these. 15. Do you collect monthly or annual tolls from any persons? If so what are the average amounts? 16. What are the present market values of the bonds and stock? *17. What interest and dividends have been paid for the last five years? 18. Did your company ever pay dividends as high as eight per cent? When? *19. In what condition is the road at present? How many gates, and for what time and distance of road have they been thrown open in the last five years? *20. Under what grievances does the company labor which are within the power of the Legislature to remove? 21. Is there much evasion of proper tolls? 22. What do you think would be the annual receipts if these evasions could be stopped? 23. How much do you think is lost annually by dishonesty of toll-gate keepers? *24. Can you form any estimate of the number of wagons loaded with produce or merchandise, or of the value of produce or merchandise wagoned on the road in the course of a year? *25. In what manner would legislative interference most promote the in- terests of the road and at the same time those of the community? 26. What rates of toll do you charge? (If you have a printed list please enclose a copy.) 27. Would the owners like to sell the road to the State or counties at a reasonable price? 28. What would you consider a reasonable price? Answers marked X will not be used with reference to a particular cor- poration, but only in compiling general statistics. * Questions similar to those marked thus occur in the investigation of 1818. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 43 LETTER TO THE GOVERNORS OF OTHER STATES. Extensive correspondence was also entered into with officials of the various states in order that accurate knowledge might be gained regarding the conduct of highway affairs in other portions of this country. The following circular-letter was sent to the Governor of each state, requesting the desired information. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, June 9, 1899. SIR: The Highway Division of the Maryland Geological Survey is collect- ing all information available concerning recent highway legislation in the United States to serve as suggestions in the formulation of highway laws for Maryland. It would be of the greatest help if you would have sent to this office copies of your State road laws and State highway reports if any such have been enacted or prepared. What has been the experience of your State in the employment of convicts on highway work; have they proved efficient workmen, and what is the general sentiment concerning their em- ployment? Yours respectftilly, Replies were received from nearly all the states, and Dr. Reid has discussed this subject very fully in a later chapter. Upon the receipt of replies from the executives of the several states, a digest of the laws was made and the prepared statement returned for revision, accompanied by the following letter: MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, July 20, 1899. DEAR SIR: I thank you for the copy of the road-laws of your state. I have extracted from it the enclosed outline of the methods 01 the adminis- tration of your roads. Will you kindly glance over it and make any cor- rections or additions that you think proper. Yours very truly, LETTER TO HIGHWAY OFFICERS. After all the information possible was secured in the manner above described there were still some states whose laws were not compiled and from which it was necessary to secure more definite information. The following letter, with the attached questions, was sent to the State Highway Boards or other officers connected with highway affairs. 44 INTRODUCTION MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, July 20, 1899. DEAR SIR: We are making a report to the Maryland Legislature on the condition of the roads in the state and the best method of improving them; and we wish to add an account of the administration of roads in other states. We shall be greatly indebted to you if you will kindly answer the inclosed questions. Yours very truly, Questions. 1. Are roads administered by state, county or township officers? What are their titles. 2. Are they elected or appointed, and by whom? 3. Do they appoint road supervisors? 4. How is the road-tax levied, by state, county or township? 5. Is there a poll- and a property-tax? 6. Is it always spent in district where raised? 7. May it be worked out in labor? 8. Are there provisions for special tax or for issue of bonds for road-im- provements? 9. Does law provide for the width of roads, and for wide tires to "wagons? 10. What movement is on foot for the improvement of roads? 11. What improvement has actually taken place? 12. Additional remarks. SAMPLE ROAD CONSTRUCTION. The Highway Division of the Maryland Geological Survey has co-operated in the construction of two pieces of sample road. The first work was done in connection with the Office of Road Inquiry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and the second in co-operation with the officers of the Baltimore County Agricultural Society. During the summer of 1898 the Office of Road Inquiry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture was requested by the officers of Baltimore county to supervise the construction of a piece of sample road in the vicinity of Fork P. O. Mr. E. G. Harrison, the road expert of that office, was detailed to the work, and the members of the State Highway Division co-operated with him in the subsequent opening of the road, which was made an occasion for bringing together many of the leading citizens of the state, when addresses relating to the importance of good roads were delivered on the ground. This road, which is more fully described by Mr. Johnson in a later MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE II. FlO. 1. ROAD PARTIALLY CONSTRUCTED. The Frierteiiwald Co. FlO. 2. ROAD NEARLY COMPLETED. SAMPLE ROAD CONSTRUCTED UNDER SUPERVISION OF MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY AT TIMONIUM FAIR, AUGUST 29-SEPTEMBER 2, 1899. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ,45 chapter, is about one-half mile in length with a width of twelve feet, and is thus sufficiently long to indicate to the people of the county the importance of a properly constructed highway. The officers of the Baltimore County Agricultural Society requested the Highway Division of the Maryland Geological Survey to superin- tend the construction of a sample piece of road upon its grounds at Timonium during its annual fair, August 29 to September 2, 1899, which request was gladly responded to on the part of the officers of the Survey. A road one hundred yards in length was laid out, show- ing the different stages of construction from the properly prepared subgrade to the fully rolled surface. Several types of material were furnished for the road, fifty yards being constructed of slag contrib- uted by the Maryland Steel Company, while the remainder was made of crushed stone secured from the marble quarry of the Beaver Dam Company and the gneiss quarry of the Peddicord Company. Part of this road was made fifteen, and part twelve feet in width. The steam-roller and other machinery used in construction were secured from Baltimore county. Many people visited the road dur- ing the progress of the fair and great interest was manifested in the latest and most approved methods which were exhibited in its con- struction. SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAYS. Much preliminary work has already been done by the Highway Division in preparing plans for the permanent improvement of the highways of the state. Several leading lines of travel have been critically examined and in a few instances actual surveys have beefi made. The plats of these roads with detailed estimates of cost for construction will be laid before the General Assembly. The publication of the plats and estimates already made is not thought desirable in this volume, as such special information would possess little of general interest, while the expense connected there- with would be far greater than any benefits that could possibly be derived. The specifications and working drawings will be laid before the proper officials as they are needed. i 46 INTRODUCTION PROPOSED LEGISLATION. It will be necessary to enact additional legislation in order that the people of the state may derive permanent benefits from the investiga- tions of the Highway Division. It would be entirely feasible to extend the present investigations to the construction of experimental or model roads, which should be located at convenient points in the vicinity of the several county-towns in order that the people may see in actual operation the most approved methods of modern road-con- struction. Such roads might be built either by 4he state inde- pendently or by the joint action of the state and the counties. Such a gradual extension of the work of the Highway Division would be more advisable than the attempt at a general construction of highways before the people thoroughly understand the most permanent and> at the same time, the most economical methods of road-building, directed and controlled by the best engineering skill. A knowledge of road-engineering has to-day come to be as well recognized and neces- sary for the most economical road-building as any other branch of engineering where serviceable structures are sought. Before the state can actually enter upon a comprehensive plan of state road-building, in co-operation with the counties, it may be neces- sary to secure an amendment to the constitution, and if that should prove to be the case, two years at least would elapse before the work could be inaugurated; in the meantime the experimental work above described could be undertaken. In many ways such a period of model road-building would have many advantages, in that the people would thoroughly understand, before the succeeding session of the General Assembly, what kind of system they were desirous of permanently adopting. Most of the states now engaged in such schemes of road- construction have approached the question by similar stages and with the result that the state highways are meeting with almost universal approval on the part of the people. In the light of experience else- where it is to be distinctly urged that the people of Maryland enter upon state road-building cautiously and only after the best methods of work are thoroughly comprehended. PART II THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, CLIMATE AND GEOLOGY TO HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION BY WM. BULLOCK CLARK THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, CLIMATE AND GEOLOGY TO HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION BY WM. BULLOCK CLARK The diversified physical features of Maryland have so far-reaching an influence upon the many problems presented in highway-con- struction as to demand the careful consideration of the people of the state. The topography, the climate, and the geology of Maryland have been elsewhere discussed in great detail and an exhaustive treat- ment of these subjects is unnecessary in the present report. It is essential, however, to consider briefly their chief characteristics with especial reference to their effect upon road-building, and in so doing it will be apparent that those features which may be of advantage in one county may prove to be a positive' disadvantage in another; that the same amounts of rainfall, for example, will produce very different effects in areas of high and low relief, or upon hard and soft rocks; and that the same temperatures will differently affect the foundation materials of the highways in the several districts of the state. It is evident, therefore, that the highway engineer must adapt his plans for road-construction to the physical conditions of the particular dis- trict in which he is engaged. In the subsequent pages some of the general and specific relations existing between the topography, the climate, and the geology on the one hand, and highway-construction on the other, will be discussed. MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY IN RELATION TO HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION. The state of Maryland forms a portion of the Atlantic slope which stretches from the crest of the Alleghanies to the sea, and comprises 50 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. three more or less sharply defined regions that have been described elsewhere as the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, and the Appa- lachian Region. These three districts follow the Atlantic border of the United States in three belts of varying width from New York southward to the Gulf. Maryland is, therefore, closely related in its topographical features to^the states which lie to the north and south of it. Its central location on the Atlantic border renders the Mary- land section perhaps the most characteristic of this broad tract. In crossing the three districts from the ocean border the country rises at first gradually and then more rapidly until it culminates in the highlands of the western portion of the state. The relations which the surface characteristics of each county bear to highway construction need careful attention, since the manner in which the public ways are adjusted to the relief of the land be- comes a question of much practical importance. A grade sufficiently great to thoroughly drain the highway is valuable, but anything beyond that becomes a constantly increasing impediment to travel. It is evident, therefore, that much skill is required by the road-builder in locating the road in order that the grades may be kept down to the lowest possible amount compatible with the other factors involved. It will be of value to consider the leading characteristics of Maryland topography throughout the various portions of the state from this aspect, and point out the- manner in .which the highways of each county have been and may still further be adjusted to the relief of the land. THE COASTAL PLAIN. The Coastal Plain includes the eastern margin of the Atlantic slope extending from the edge of the continental shelf on the east to the head of tide on the west, the latter reaching to a line extending across the state from northeast to southwest from Port Deposit, past Balti- more, to Washington. This region is divided into a submarine prov- ince and a subaerial province, the former extending from the edge of the continental shelf to the present continental border; the latter from the land-margin to the head of tide as above described. For our present purpose it will be unnecessary to consider further the submarine province. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL, SURVEY 51 The subaerial province, which includes the eastern and northern counties of the state, comprises nearly 5000 square miles, or some- what over one-half the land area of the state. It is formed, for the most part, of level areas of lowland which extend with gradually in- creasing elevation from the coastal border, where the whole surface stands very nearly at sea-level, to heights of three hundred feet and more along its western edge. The region is cut quite to the border of the Piedmont Plateau by tidal estuaries, and the topography be- comes more and more pronounced in passing inland from the coast. The Chesapeake Bay extends nearly across its full length from south to north, while the larger rivers and their tributaries deeply indent the country in all directions, making the coast-line of Maryland the longest of any state in the country. The drainage of the region, except near the margin of the Coastal Plain, and in some of the larger rivers which rise without the area, is consequent upon the present surface of the land, but has been considerably modified by oscillations in level. These oscillations have left the lower courses of the streams submerged, producing the Chesapeake Bay and the other tidal estu- aries of the state. The subaerial portion of the Coastal Plain in Maryland may be divided into a lower eastern and a higher western division, separated by the Chesapeake Bay. The former is known under the name of Eastern Maryland, or the Eastern Shore; while the latter is com- monly referred to as Southern Maryland, or the Western Shore. The eastern division includes the counties of Worcester, Wicomico, Somerset, Dorchester, Caroline, Talbot, Queen Anne's, Kent and Cecil. To this region most of the state of Delaware also properly belongs. Nowhere, except in the extreme north, does the country reach 100 feet in elevation, while most of it is below 25 feet in height. Both on the Atlantic coast and more especially upon the shores of the Chesapeake Bay it is deeply indented by bays and estuaries. The Atlantic coast especially shows very strikingly the result of sand-bar construction and the lagoons and inlets which are formed in conse- quence of it. The drainage of the region is simple, the streams flow- ing from the watershed directly to the Atlantic ocean and Delaware 52 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. Bay upon the east, and to the Chesapeake Bay upon the west. The position of the watershed along the extreme eastern margin of the area is very striking; in Worcester county for much of the distance it is only a few miles distant from the Atlantic shore, and as a result the streams which flow to the east are small in comparison with those which drain toward the west. Among the most important rivers which reach the Chesapeake Bay from this area are the Pocomoke, Xanticoke, Choptank and Chester, which all have their headwaters within the state of Delaware, and flow in a general southwest direction in sinuous channels. The construction of highways throughout this eastern district is little influenced by the topography except along the river channels, since the intervening country stretches oftentimes for miles without any appreciable changes in elevation. Throughout the inter-stream portions of the country, therefore, the grades are insignificant, and a network of highways has been developed without any reference to the relief of the land. The position of the broad and oftentimes diffi- cultly bridged streams has had a far greater influence upon the posi- tion of the highways than the character of the land surface. At the crossing of the channels of the various streams sudden, sharp grades often occur along the valley sides, and these increase gradually in amount from the southern to the northern portion of the Eastern Shore. South of the Choptank river these sudden slopes seldom pre- sent declivities of more than twenty-five feet below the general sur- face of the country; north of the Choptank a gradual increase occurs until slopes presenting elevations of a hundred feet or more are found along the stream channels of Cecil county, and the question of grad- ing becomes an important factor. The numerous marshes bordering the Chesapeake and its estuaries, especially in the southern counties, often present very difficult problems in highway engineering that require especial treatment. These various factors will be considered more fully in a later chapter. The western division includes the counties of St. Mary's, Calvert, Charles, Prince George's, Anne Arundel, and portions of Baltimore, and Harford. In elevation this region stands in striking contrast MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 5& to the eastern division, since it frequently has an altitude of 100 feet even along its eastern margin. In lower St. Mary's county the land reaches an elevation of 100 feet on the Bay shore, which is gradually increased westward, until, near the border of Charles county, it slightly exceeds 180 feet. In southern Calvert county an elevation of 140 feet is found to the west of Cove Point and this gradually increases to the northward and northwestward, until near the southern border of Anne Arundel county the land rises above 180 feet. Throughout the western portion of this division in Charles, Prince George's and Anne Arundel counties the land gradually in- creases in height to the contact of the Piedmont Plateau, reaching 280 feet to the east of "Washington and very nearly the same elevation in the area to the south of Baltimore. Outlying patches of the Coastal Plain, as determined by their geological characteristics, are found to the westward at still higher elevations. This western division is tra- versed by several rivers which flow from the Piedmont Plateau, among the more important being the Potomac, Patuxent, Patapsco, Gun- powder and . Susquehanna. The course of the Potomac is especially striking. After flowing in a nearly southeast direction across the hard rocks of the Piedmont Plateau, it is apparently abruptly turned aside by the soft materials of the Coastal Plain, and takes a course for forty miles nearly at right angles to that which it formerly held. It turns again by a long sweep to the southeast and continues in that direction to the Chesapeake Bay. The local drainage of the western division possesses the characteristics which have already been described for the eastern section, in that the streams throughout Southern Mary- land flow chiefly to the westward. For example, the watershed of the country lying between the Chesapeake Bay and the Patuxent river is situated but a slight distance from the shores of the former, so that most of the natural drainage of Calvert county reaches the Patuxent river. A still more striking exhibition of this is seen in St. Mary's, Charles and Prince George's counties, where the streams nearly all flow to the Potomac river, the watershed of the region approaching very close to the valley of the Patuxent. The same peculiarity in the drainage is found to the southward in Virginia and the Carolinas. 54 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. The highways of Southern Maryland have a very different relation- ship to the topography from those of the Eastern Shore on account of the greater elevation of the country, resulting in deep stream channels and sharp divides. It is a striking fact that the main roads have been located chiefly along the divides, a method of construction that is not confined alone to the leading lines but is also in evidence even in the case of the smaller tributaries. The chief lines of travel, for example, follow down the two peninsulas, one along the divide between the Chesapeake Bay and the Patuxent river, the other similarly situated between the Patuxent river and the Potomac river, while lateral lines of travel have developed along the smaller divides between the streams that flow into those channels. The persistency with which the highways are placed upon these divides, instead of along the valley lines, indicates that the construction of the roads must be conducted under far more favorable conditions in the former case than in the latter, although the almost universal location of the farm-lands of the district upon the high lands has doubtless also been a determining factor of no little importance. The fact that the roads can be built without any grading to speak of upon the divides, which has largely lessened the cost of their construction, and the added fact that the destructive effect of rainfall, except at the point where the roads pass downward from the divides to the main valley lines, has been insignificant, have doubtless been the chief causes, however, of their present location. Furthermore, the side valleys, as tidewater is approached, become marshy and unsuitable for permanent highways. The location of many of the small towns along the water-front, as well as frequent wharves, for shipping purposes, has rendered it neces- sary to continue the highways to tidewater, but, almost without excep- tion, this has been accomplished along the projecting nose of the divide rather than along the valley bottom or sides. THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU. The Piedmont Plateau borders the Coastal Plain upon the west and extends to the base of the Catoctin Mountain. It includes ap- proximately 2500 square miles, or somewhat over one-quarter of the MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 55 land area of the state. It is about 65 miles in width in the northern portion of the region, but gradually narrows toward the south until it becomes somewhat less than 40 miles broad. It includes all, or a greater part, of Howard, Cecil, Baltimore, Harford, Carroll, Mont- gomery and Frederick counties. The region is broken by low, undu- lating hills which gradually increase in elevation from its eastern margin until they culminate near the central portion of the area in Parr's Ridge. This ridge divides the district into an eastern and a western division, the latter gradually sloping into the Frederick Valley. The major drainage of the area shows but little relation to the underlying rocks, but gives evidence of having been superim- posed through a cover of sedimentary materials which may have been the westward extension of the present Coastal Plain, although more recent adjustments to the underlying rocks have taken place. The eastern division of the Piedmont Plateau has, on account of its varied crystalline rocks and their complicated structure, a highly -diversified topography. Along the eastern margin the land attains at several points heights exceeding 400 feet; while at Catonsville it reaches 535 feet above the sea-level. Towards the west and north- west the land gradually increases until it culminates in Parr's Ridge, which exceeds 850 feet in Carroll county. The drainage of the east- -ern division is mainly to the east and southeast. On its northern and southern borders it is traversed by the Susquehanna and Potomac rivers, which have their sources without the area, while the smaller streams which lie between them drain directly to the Chesapeake Bay or into the main rivers. Among the most important of these intermediate streams are the Gunpowder, Patapsco and Patuxent rivers, whose headwaters are situated upon Parr's Ridge. The Pa- tapsco flows in a deep rocky gorge until it reaches the Relay, where it debouches into the Coastal Plain. All of these streams have rapid currents as far as the eastern border of the Piedmont Plateau, and even in the case of the largest are not navigable. The broad, fertile limestone valleys to which the present drainage has become partially adjusted are a striking feature of this area and are well represented to the north of Baltimore in the Green Spring and Dulaney's valleys. 56 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. On account of the complicated character of the stratigraphy, which cannot be discussed here, the valleys take different directions and are of very variable form and extent. The leading highways of travel in the eastern division of the Pied- mont Plateau largely converge toward Baltimore, the center of the traffic of this district, although many roads of scarcely less importance unite at the more populous county seats. These highways, with the exception of a few of the main turnpikes, have been similarly located with reference to the topographic features of the district as those of the western division of the Coastal Plain above described, and, although the underlying geological structure is very different in the two areas, the roads present many points in common. The highways of the Piedmont Plateau, as in Southern Maryland, are almost uni- versally placed along the main divides except in the case of the broad, fertile limestone valleys which are in every instance traversed by main roads; while the more prominent river channels generally have highways along their bottoms. The highland roads commonly reach the lowlands by sharp descents along the projecting noses of the divides, as little attempt at grading has been made. Much greater irregularity in the direction of the roads is shown, however, in the Piedmont area than in Southern Maryland on account of the much more complicated structure of the district, the network of highways presenting a very complex pattern. The western division extends from Parr's Ridge to the Catoctin Mountain. Along its western side is the broad limestone valley in which Frederick is situated and through which flows the Monocacy river from north to south, entering the Potomac river at the border line between Montgomery and Frederick counties. The valley near Frederick has an elevation of 250 feet above tide, which increases slowly to the eastward towards Parr's Ridge and very rapidly to the westward toward the Catoctin Mountain. Situated on the eastern side of the valley, just at the mouth of the Monocacy river and break- ing the regularity of the surface outline, is Sugar Loaf Mountain, which rises rapidly from the surrounding plain to a height of 1250 feet. With the exception of a few streams which flow into the Po- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY APPALACHIAN PROVINCE THE GREATER APPALACHIAN VALLEY THE PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES 13 SCALE 1:1,250,000. 20MU.es - 10 _ 20 40 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WM. BULLOCK CLARK. STATE GEOLOGIST 1899 LEGEND WESTERN PIEDMONT PLATEAU EASTERN PIEDMONT PLATEAU COASTAL PLAIN, WESTERN SHORE 1 COASTAL PLAIN, EASTERN SHORE ALLEGHANY PLATEAU ALLEGHANY RIDGES GREAT VALLEY BLUE RIDGE CH VOLUME III, PLATE III. PIEDMONT PLATEAU PROVINCE l.Hoen t, I'o. LitJ. Rhiinorr- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 57 tomac directly, the entire drainage of the western district is accom- plished by the Monocacy river and its numerous tributaries, the latter flowing in nearly parallel west and east courses from Parr's Ridge and the Catoctin Mountain. The deeper portions of the valley are considerably to the west of the center of the district, and as a result the streams upon the east are longer and of greater volume than those upon the west. The waterways at a distance from the main valley flow in marked channels, which are frequentlydeeply cut in the land. The highways of the western division of the Piedmont Plateau present much greater regularity than those of the eastern division because of the simpler drainage lines of the district, the region being almost entirely drained by a single stream, the Monocacy river, and its tributaries. Much wider areas are also overlain by rocks of sim- ilar origin and structure so that the changes in the character of the highways are much less frequent although at times very pronounced. The highways in general follow the divides toward the main valley of the Monocacy, along which are the prominent lines of travel across the state from north to south. To the west the Catoctin Mountain rises as a barrier, although many roads extend along its base while some ascend its flanks to the low divides. Isolated highlands like Sugar Loaf Mountain also affect the regularity of the lines of highway con- struction. TUB APPALACHIAN REGION. The Appalachian Region borders the Piedmont Plateau upon the west and extends to the western limits of the state. It comprises about 2000 square miles, or somewhat less than one-sixth of the area of the state and has a width of about 115 miles east to west. It in- cludes the western portion of Frederick and all of Washington, Alle- gany and Garrett counties. This area consists of a region of parallel mountain ranges with deep valleys which are cut, nearly at right angles, throughout much of the distance, by the Potomac river. Many of the ranges exceed 2000 feet, while some reach 3000 feet and more in the western portion of the mountainous area. The country illus- trates in an exceptional manner the type of adjusted drainage. The Appalachian Region is divided into three distinct physiographic dis- .58 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. tricts, based upon clearly defined geological differences; viz., an east- ern (the Blue Ridge), a central (the Greater Appalachian Valley, including the Great Valley and the Alleghany Ridges), and a western (the Alleghany Plateau) division. The eastern division comprises the area between the Catoctin and Blue Ridge mountains with a width of about fifteen miles from east to west along the Potomac, but gradually narrowing northward until it is not more than nine miles in width at the Pennsylvania line. Along the eastern border of this region the Catoctin Mountain extends from north to south, beginning in the highlands of Pennsylvania and reaching to the Potomac river at Point of Rocks. This range has an altitude of about 1800 feet in Maryland. Succeeding the Catoctin Mountain upon the west is the Middletown Valley, with an elevation of 500 feet at Middletown. The valley drains southward into the Potomac river through the Catoctin creek and its tributaries which receive their waters from the western flank of the Catoctin Mountain and the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge. The Blue Ridge of Mary- land is a continuation of the South Mountain of Pennsylvania and extends as a sharply defined range from the northern border of the state to the Potomac river, which it reaches at Weverton. Its crest forms the border between Frederick and Washington counties. The Blue Ridge reaches its greatest elevation of about 2400 feet at Qui- rauk, not far from the Pennsylvania border. The Blue Ridge in Virginia is not the direct continuation of the mountains so-named in Maryland, but of a smaller range, the Elk Ridge Mountains, which adjoin them upon the west and which are pierced by the Potomac river at Harper's Ferry. The central division, known as the Greater Appalachian Valley, which includes the Appalachian Mountains proper, is bounded upon the east by the Blue Ridge and upon the west by the Alleghany Plateau. It is divided into two subdivisions, the Great Valley upon the east and the Alleghany Ridges upon the west. The Great Valley has a width of about twenty-five miles with an elevation slightly exceeding five hundred feet at Hagerstown, which increases somewhat to the northward near the Pennsylvania line but MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 59 declines in the vicinity of the Potomac river. The Great Valley is often referred to in Maryland as the Hagerstown Valley from the well-known city of that name which is situated in the center of the district. The Antietam river and its tributaries occupy the eastern section of the valley and the Conococheague river and its tributaries the western, leaving the central portion of the valley somewhat higher than the sides. The western portion of this district, com- prising the Alleghany Ridges, has a width of about fifty miles and consists of a succession of parallel sandstone ridges with intervening- limestone and shale valleys. " It is a complex chain of long, narrow, very level mountain ridges, separated by long, narrow, parallel valleys. These ridges sometimes end abruptly in swelling knobs, and sometimes taper off in long, slender points. Their slopes are singularly uniform, being in many cases un- varied by ravine or gully for many miles; in other instances they are trenched at equal intervals with great regularity. Their crests are, for the most part, sharp, and they preserve an extraordinarily equable eleva- tion, being only here and there interrupted by notches or gaps, which sometimes descend to the water level, so as to give passage to the rivers JPotomac] . . . The ridges are variously arranged in groups with long, narrow crests, some of which preserve a remarkable straightness for great distances, while others bend with a prolonged and regular sweep. In many instances two narrow contiguous parallel mountain crests unite at their extremities and enclose a narrow oval valley, which, with its sharp moun- tain sides, bears not infrequently a marked resemblance to a long, slender, *harp-pointed canoe." 1 Among the more important ridges in Maryland west of North Mountain are Tonoloway Hill, Sideling Hill, Town Hill, Green Ridge, Warrior Ridge and Martin's Ridge, the latter reaching 2000 feet and upwards in elevation. They are arranged in groups of three parallel and closely adjoining ridges on the eastern and western aides with more distant ridges in the middle of the district. The drainage -of this area is altogether to the southward into the Potomac river. The deeper valleys in the eastern portion of the region have an eleva- tion of about 500 feet in their lower portions near the Potomac river, but they gradually become higher toward the west. Evitt's creek at its mouth near Cumberland has an elevation of about 600 feet above sea-level. 1 Rogers, H. D., Geology of Pennsylvania. 60 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. The western division, known as the Alleghany Plateau, forms the extreme western portion of the state, including western Allegany and Garrett counties. It is bounded upon the east by Dan's Moun- tain, the eastern slopes of which are referred to under the name of the Alleghany Front. To the west of Dan's Mountain the country descends into the broad synclinal represented in the George's Creek Valley, rising beyond into Savage Mountain, which is extended southward along the left bank of the i^'orth Branch of the Potomac river under the name of the Backbone Mountain. This high ridge, which throughout much of its extent constitutes the divide between the easterly and westerly flowing streams, is -the highest portion of the state and reaches elevations at several points of more than 3000 feet. The Savage river alone penetrates this highland and to-day drains the district lying between Savage and Meadow mountains. The region to the west of the main divide forms a high plateau with gently undulating mountains rising from its surface. The main ranges to the west of Meadow Mountain are Winding Ridge and Laurel Hill which, however, at no point reach the high elevation attained by Savage and Backbone mountains. All of Garrett county to the west of Backbone and Meadow 7 mountains has its drainage to the westward into the Ohio basin through the Castleman and Yough- iogheny rivers, the two latter streams uniting beyond the limits of the state and sending their waters to the Ohio by way of the Monongahela river. This division of the drainage of the Alleghany Plateau has particular interest, since the waters flow, on the one hand, directly to the Atlantic ocean by way of the Potomac river, while in the other case they follow the circuitous route to the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. The highways of the Appalachian Region are much more pro- foundly affected by the topography than elsewhere in Maryland. The high, sharp sandstone ridges and the low limestone and shale valleys have controlled the main lines of travel to a remarkable extent. The National Road was, to be sure, built directly across the country with- out much reference to the topography, with the result that it is a constant succession of ascents and descents, although much engi- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 61 neering skill was manifested in surmounting difficult obstacles. In general, however, the highways run up and down the valleys, crossing from one to the other at the lowest point in the divides or following the channel of some stream which has been able to maintain its course through the sandstone ridges, as in the " narrows " of Will's Creek and in the gorge of the Savage river. The great trench of the Po- tomac affords many opportunities for connecting roads between the adjacent valleys without encountering the difficult grades of the mountains. CONCLUSIONS. From what has been said in the previous pages it is evident that the topography of Maryland has profoundly influenced the location of its highways; in fact, this has been so marked and of such a character that the highways of the state may be readily classified from the standpoint of their topographic characteristics. Far too little advan- tage has been taken, however, of these topographic conditions in the location of the ordinary roads; still, notwithstanding this fact, a system of public ways, more or less fully adjusted to the surface of the country, has gradually been developed. That such a method intel- ligently applied everywhere through the state would greatly benefit the highways hardly needs to be discussed. One has only to examine our Maryland roads to see how frequently advantageous locations with moderate grades have been ignored and poor positions selected to be convinced of the value of such a system. Although innumerable such instances may be cited, still the Maryland roads are, in general, much more fully adjusted to the topography than is the case in many other portions of the country. Especially is this true in the case of the older Xew England roads, which were built across country without any attempt to adjust them to the relief of the land. To-day, however, no more perfect system of adjusted roads has been projected than that which is being carried out under state supervision throughout New England. Three types of adjustment of the highways to the topography are clearly evident in Maryland; first, in the eastern division of the Coastal Plain, where the adjustment is to the tidal estuaries and their 62 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. tributaries and not to the relief of the land; second, in the western division of the Coastal Plain and in the Piedmont Plateau where the roads are located mainly upon the divides; and third, in the Appa- lachian Region, where the highways follow almost exclusively the trend of the north and south valleys, and cross the mountains either by the low divides or along the main streams which have continued to maintain their courses across the ridges. This adjustment of the highways to the topography of the state,, although often carried out with marked intelligence as regards the general conditions involved, presents commonly, as above described,, glaring errors in detailed location. Frequently the introduction of a very moderate amount of grading would have made it possible for the road-builder to utilize the natural relief of the land. It is clearly evident that new locations better adjusted to the topography will have to be adopted along many portions of our main roads before our high- ways can be made of the greatest practical benefit to the agricultural and commercial interests of the state. Such adjustments, whether in the location of new roads or the re-location and grading of old ones, require above all else the introduction of intelligent engineering methods. These questions are fully discussed in later chapters. The topographic maps which the Maryland Geological Survey is now engaged in making, in conjunction with the U. S. Geological Survey, for the counties of the state will exhibit by contour lines drawn at elevations of 20 feet around the hills and valleys the sur- face configuration of the country, and will afford to the surveyors employed by our county officials the exact grades which must be overcome; in short, these maps must prove of inestimable value to the state in the future location of the highways, as routes can be projected by a competent surveyor without the expense of a survey. It will in this way be very easy to compute the relative grades presented by several possible routes. Other factors besides the adjustment of the highways to topography have often to be considered in an agricultural community. It not infrequently happens that the least advantageous location must be selected on account of the position of the farming lands. Where, as MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 65 in eastern Maryland and certain portions of southern Maryland, the surface of the country is a broad, unbroken plain, and the farming lands are mainly situated upon the uplands, the needs of the land- owner alone would require the location of the roads there rather than in the valleys, while the reverse would be true in the limestone dis- tricts of the Piedmont Plateau and throughout the Appalachian Region, where the cultivated fields are distributed along the valley lines. The best topographic conditions for road-construction and the needs of the farmer do not always coincide in the Piedmont dis- trict outside the limestone belts, although the disparity is far les& apparent in this area than in the Coastal Plain and the Appalachian Region. MARYLAND CLIMATE IN RELATION TO HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION. The climate of Maryland is controlled not only by the general meteorological conditions that affect the whole eastern seaboard but by the physical features of the state itself, the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries in the east and the Appalachian mountains in the west producing a marked influence upon the distribution of temperature and rainfall in the several counties. It is desirable to outline briefly the leading characteristics of our Maryland climate before referring to their effects upon highway construction. A detailed description of the climatic conditions of the state has been given in another place, 1 so that it will be unnecessary to state all the facts upon which the conclusions here cited are based. Like the topography, it will be found that the climatic conditions may be grouped in such a man- ner that the relationship of the climatic provinces to the physiography may be readily shown. The vital elements of climate are the deviations which occur from seasonal averages, such as periods of extreme heat and cold, humid 1 An exhaustive discussion of Maryland climate is given by Mr. F. J. Walz, Maryland Weather Service, volume i, pages 417-551. Most of the descrip- tions and tables given in this chapter are taken from Mr. Walz's article without further recognition than that here given. 64: THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. and dry air, liability to storms attended by wind, rain, hail or snow, and prevalence of fogs. Cyclonic and anticyclonic conditions, and the features connected with their irregular movements, also enter into the complicated study. To the irregular movements of transient pressure areas are traceable the quickly changeable phenomena known as weather. The part played by the permanent areas of high and low pressure is not so readily discernible for short periods, although they have a measurable value in determining the cumulative effects which we call climate. Kow, among these various kinds of climate, Maryland has its place, and as it is located in middle latitude and upon the western shore of the ocean, with a great continent to the west of it, and the prevailing- winds westerly, its climate might be classed as continental. But while the prevailing winds are westerly, they are far from being universally so over this section, for, as is well known, winds can blow any day from any direction. Maryland's climate thus is really semi- continental. This variability in the wind direction is caused by the passage across the United States of cyclonic and anticyclonic areas. A close study of the characteristics, movements and frequency of these cyclonic and anticyclonic areas is of prime importance for a complete understanding of the climatic conditions of Maryland. PRESSURE AREA. The permanent pressure systems influencing the climate of Mary- land are: The high-pressure area which stretches across the Atlantic ocean between parallels of latitude 40 and 60 throughout the year; the low-pressure area extending over the ]STorth Atlantic in the vicinity of Greenland, which tends to fill up in summer; and the high-pressure area which forms over the northern Rocky Mountain plateau in winter, and in summer is succeeded by a low-pressure area in that region. Transient pressure areas due to local conditions of increased or diminished air pressure form at irregular periods and frequently over- spread large areas of country. These, too, result from physical causes and arise from the continued but never-ending endeavor to restore the atmospheric equilibrium. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 19'3O' 79*OO' THE DIVIDES AND DRAINAGE BASINS INCLUDING DELAWARE AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA SCALE 1:1,250,000. 20Miles -Uriah 10 _ 20 40 _ ___ _ 60 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WM. BULLOCK CLARK, STATE QEOLOOIST 1809 LEGEND OHIO DRAINAGE POTOMAC DRAINAGE CHESAPEAKE DRAINAGE ATLANTIC DRAINAGE VOLUME III, PLATE IV. A.Roen&Co.Ltfh.BilHii.o MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 65 The results of these general and local atmospheric disturbances are shown in temperature and rainfall changes, both of which have a marked effect upon the highways. TEMPERATURE. The normal annual temperature for Maryland is between 53 and 54. The principal modifying influences that determine the de- partures from this normal in the various climatic divisions of the state are latitude, water areas and elevation. The highest normal annual temperatures are found over the extreme southern counties of the Eastern and Western Shores. The influence of the Bay causes an appreciable, but not very decided, increase in annual temperatures along either side as compared with the level land areas closely ad- joining. Over these latter areas the temperatures are very much the same, and differ but slightly from the normal for the entire state. The lowest normal annual temperatures occur in the western part of Garrett county, where they range from 46 at stations on the higher mountain ridges, to 48 in the plateau region lying to the north. Eastward from these higher elevations the increase in temperature is very rapid with the descent towards sea-level; a normal annual of 52 is reached in the western part of Allegany county, and an approach very nearly to the state normal is found in some of the valley de- pressions. No satisfactory records are obtainable for the annual tem- peratures of the Blue Ridge, although it is likely that the decrease of temperature for increase in elevation is about uniform with that found in the Alleghanies. Annual temperatures of 52 or below pre- vail over the northern portions of the Piedmont Plateau, and thence increase gradually towards the normal conditions found southward over the interior. In the extreme southern and eastern sections of the state the annual temperature rises to about 59, due in part to exceptional local conditions. There is considerable variability in the normal annual temperature, the normal annual maximum temperature for the state being about 63, while the normal annual minimum temperature is 45, a differ- ence of 9 on either side of the normal annual temperature of 54. 5 66 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. The following diagram shows the mean temperatures in the four climatic divisions of the state for each month of the year: Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. ^ -. N 75 Ss x ^-- . > ', 1 .'// V V ,/ / \ \ \ '/ [v * \ / '/* / ^ V s / s s ^ / / N \ \ '*> N. \ r/ 2j ^ ^ ^. *V A /,/ y > ^ '/, \ v i 1 .7 \ t V / ^ IS \ *, i / . \ / 3 V !> S- / ' \ ;\ \' kV ~ f / ^ \ A ,.'/ t \ I W / r [; "t \ ,S V '/// 55 \ >t-t \ ( \ lUt 5 \ \ rf. ^ s J j/ \ \ \ \ '--//- \ y \\ j if \ * \ _.f // > $7 2 We No So Fn stern Maryland. rth-Central Maryland, jthern Maryland. Stern Maryland. \ '/ / \ \ ft / N V V it '/ \\ ^ // / / />// ! \S\ ,7/2 N \N\ IZC_ I \ \ <_ //// \ t '/// V, // S s ! s -. . ft \ \ "* f _t s ^ ^ s *ft a "' ] * , 5 s ^. ** . ~ - 50 CI 45' 40- 35 30' 25" Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June.^ July. Aug. Sept. ' Oct. Nov. Dec, Jan. FIG. 1. Mean temperatures in the four climatic divisions of Maryland. Much variability is also manifested in the normal seasonal and monthly temperatures while the daily extremes of temperature are very great. The two following tables showing the highest and lowest recorded temperatures for each month and for the year at the leading stations in Maryland and Delaware are striking illustrations of the fact mentioned. PRECIPITATION. Perfectly dry air can be obtained by artificial methods, but in its natural and free state the vapor of water is always present. The MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 67 capacity of the atmosphere for aqueous vapor is limited, and is decreased by cooling. When the point of complete saturation is reached, the excess of moisture is condensed into visible form, pro- ducing clouds, and if the process of condensation is rapid, the par- ticles of water enlarge, and are brought to the surface of the earth by the force of gravity. The rate of condensation determines whether HIGHEST RECORDED TEMPERATURES. MAINLY FROM RECORDS FOR FIVE YEARS OR OVER. STATIONS. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. July. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. An- nual. 61 63 68 87 94 95 97 94 98 85 69 64 98 Bachman's Valley Baltimore 60 58 78 76 P2 90 94 95 96 100 98 103 104 98 98 95 101 84 90 75 78 64 73 103 104 Charlotte Hall.... Chestertown .... College Park 66 63 63 70 70 61 68 66 83 79 82 84 97 87 92 94 95 92 94 98 100 94 100 101 102 97 105 103 99 93 98 101 100 90 101 97 88 83 88 87 78 75 78 86 70 65 69 68 102 97 105 103 65 62 78 94 94 96 98 97 94 85 69 98 Deer Park 61 61 84 93 99 94 91 90 80 70 65 99 DentoD 62 70 82 97 98 101 102 97 98 82 80 72 102 Easton 65 64 82 93 93 96 101 98 96 87 77 66 101 EllicottCity 60 65 78 88 89 96 101 93 95 87 76 66 101 64 63 92 95 99 104 99 96 86 75 66 104 Hagerstown Jewell 62 64 62 66 82 80 92 94 98 95 98 99 98 99 100 97 95 95 88 83 78 66 68 100 99 64 61 80 94 94 99 104 98 100 90 77 67 104 Mardela Springs. . McDonogh 70 64 67 59 80 75 92 90 93 91 96 94 98 95 100 94 95 91 88 82 77 74 67 68 100 95 Milford, Del... . Millsboro, Del . . Mt. St. Mary's . . Newark, Del . . . New Market. . . . Pocomoke City . Princess Anne. . Seaford, Del ... . 66 65 61 56 62 69 68 65 66 66 68 62 61 61 70 66 66 67 84 82 78 73 79 81 76 82 82 97 99 93 92 93 93 93 95 88 96 97 90 92 93 96 93 94 100 99 98 96 96 99 99 96 98 99 99 98 102 98 105 101 95 100 99 99 98 96 98 98 100 98 97 98 99 95 95 97 96 96 96 95 98 90 87 88 86 85 91 84 84 89 78 78 74 75 83 81 78 75 77 71 68 65 63 65 74 68 68 65 99 99 102 98 105 101 98 100 100 61 64 75 87 90 92 93 90 91 82 73 65 93 Van Bibber 63 62 72 91 96 95 98 96 95 87 71 68 98 Woodstock 64 61 78 93 95 98 102 97 94 85 76 66 102 Westernport Westminster Wilmington, Del. Washington 65 60 55 76 66 62 62 78 81 82 74 83 92 94 97 93 96 99 98 96 102 99 102 102 107 103 101 103 99 102 m 101 98 98 98 104 88 90 84 92 78 74 76 80 65 66 66 73 107 103 103 104 Extremes for I each month I ' ' 76 78 84 99 100 102 109* 103 104 92 86 74 109* * At Boettcherville, near Cumberland. the fall is in the nature of mist, light showers or heavy rain, and the conditions of temperature, electrical tension, etc., determine the char- acter whether rain, sleet, snow or hail. These four forms are in- cluded under the general term of precipitation. Dew deposits are frequently heavy, and a dense fog may appreciably dampen exposed surfaces. The amounts are usually so small, however, that they may be disregarded when speaking of precipitation measurements. 68 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. The normal annual amount of precipitation for the entire state of Maryland, whether falling as rain, hail, sleet or snow, is about 43 inches. The greatest normal annual amounts occur over the western part of the Alleghany Plateau, where conditions favor both frequency and intensity of rainfall and snowfall frequency, because it is the sec- LOWEST RECORDED TEMPERATURES. MAINLY FROM RECORDS FOR FIVE YEARS OR OVER. STATION. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. An- nual. Annapolis 5 6 24 40 58 52 40 33 25 6 Bachman's Valley Baltimore 11 6 -23 7 - 3 5 17 24 31 34 36 47 46 55 44 51 35 39 20 30 17 15 3 -23 7 Charlotte Hall Chestertown College Park - 1 5 2 7 9 16 1 16 10 (j 25 25 24 25 37 37 35 33 41 43 38 45 49 54 48 52 52 51 44 50 40 41 34 35 23 30 26 22 18 22 16 14 5 9 4 2 - 1 9 -16 12 8 12 8 20 38 42 51 50 40 26 18 3 12 23 25 13 6 20 30 32 31 9>> 4 6 20 25 Denton 17 14 15 25 37 43 50 50 43 27 9 1 9 17 Easton l 15 15 26 38 40 52 50 38 28 21 12 15 Ellicott City g 8 IS 21 32 48 51 53 45 28 19 6 8 Frederick _ 7 10 o 25 33 39 50 45 37 25 19 10 g 14 1 20 34 42 49 48 38 26 24 1 14 1 14 11 23 38 45 53 50 41 28 21 8 14 Laurel ^ 18 7 23 34 45 49 46 35 21 22 6 18 Mardela Springs McDonogh. ... Milford, Del... Millsboro, Del. Mt. St. Mary's . Newark, Del . . New Market... Pocomoke City Princess Anne. Seaford, Del . Solomon's -10 3 6 -17 14 - 1 4 8 1 - 5 4 -ii -12 -10 -15 -12 -14 4 -10 11 5 15 5 17 12 11 12 5 18 16 12 18 24 26 26 22 21 21 21 27 22 25 28 37 40 38 35 37 37 33 40 31 36 41 42 45 49 40 42 42 ' 45 46 40 44 49 51 51 53 51 51 50 52 55 51 53 57 50 54 53 50 50 49 49 55 46 51 59 39 42 39 37 40 36 38 42 33 39 46 26 32 30 29 yK 27 25 33 23 28 35 18 19 21 18 13 19 16 21 21 20 23 11 10 10 6 6 6 3 11 9 6 11 -10 -11 -12 17 15 -12 14 4 -10 -11 5 24 26 9 8 24 29 33 36 24 10 ._ 4 17 26 Van Bibber . . . Washington . . . Westernport . . Westminster . . Woodstock - 1 -14 8 7 14 -11 -15 13 -16 13 9 4 3 13 4 23 22 19 22 22 38 34 30 34 34 43 43 36 40 53 52 41 50 49 42 45 41 38 28 34 31 26 16 30 23 19 15 19 15 10 -13 6 7 3 -11 -15 13 16 14 Lowest -24 26 13 6 20 29 32 31 99 4 6 20 26 tion of Maryland lying nearest to the main storm tracks of the eastern United States; and intensity, because the greatest elevations of the state are found there, and these, obstructing the flow of moisture- bearing winds, force them up the sides of the mountain slopes, lower the temperature, and consequently the vapor capacity, of the air; the result being rapid condensation and heavier rainfall than would occur over a more level country. At Sunnyside, in Garrett county, the average annual precipitation for the past six years is 53.5 inches, or MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 69 over ten inches greater than the normal annual fall for the state. This station has an elevation of 2500 feet above sea-level, and is situated on the western slope of the Backbone Mountain a ridge run- ring southwest and northeast, with elevations of 3000 feet. Just east of the Allegheny Plateau the annual rainfall decreases rapidly over an area ' including eastern Allegany county and the greater part of Washington county, or, more strictly, the Greater Appalachian Valley. A second area of diminished precipitation is found over upper St. Mary's county and the southern part of Charles county, and a third over narrow portions of Maryland and southern Delaware, bordering on the Atlantic. These three have a normal annual rainfall of 31 to 35 inches, and are the driest regions of the two states. The normal annual precipitation increases east of the Blue Ridge, over the Piedmont Plateau. Parr's Ridge divides the plateau into two rainfall divisions; west of the ridge the annual amounts are about 40 inches, while east of the ridge there is a general increase to 45 inches. A narrow area over which the normal annual fall is less than 40 inches lies just west of the Atlantic coast area already mentioned as one of the dry divisions, and a second limited area of this kind is found to embrace portions of Caroline, Talbot, Prince George's, How- ard and Baltimore counties. With these exceptions, and that already noticed in portions of Charles and northern St. Mary's counties, the normal annual precipitation for the Coastal Plain is from 42 to 48 inches. The bands of greatest precipitation in this latter area include southern Anne Arundel county, and from southern St. Mary's county northeastward over portions of Dorchester and Wicomico counties. The normal annual precipitation is divided throughout the seasons as follows: spring and summer will have about 11.5 to 12 inches, and fall and winter 9.5 to 10 inches. The normal monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation for the several districts of the state is shown in the table on pages 70-71. The fluctuations in the normal rainfall throughout the year in the several districts of the state are graphically represented in Fig. 2. 5% NORMAL PRECIPITATION DIVISIONS. STATIONS. No. Years Record. Jan. Feb. M:ir. A Alleghany Plateau. Sunnvside 5-6 4.3 5.0 5.0 Cumberland 26-28 2.3 2.7 3.0 The Greater Appalachian Vallev. Green Spring Furnace 5-6 2.4 2.9 2.6 : Mean 2.4 2.8 2.8 1 Great Falls 8-9 2.9 2.9 3.0 Central Potomac District. Washington 25 3.5 3.4 4.2 Mean . 3.2 3.2 3.6 Frederick 20-24 3.2 3.0 3.0 Enimitsburg (Mt. St. Mary's) . . New Market 20-29 9-13 3.1 2.6 3.2 3.3 4.1 3.7 SandA" Spring 7-8 3.5 3.4 4.1 Woodstock 20-28 3.5 3.4 4.0 North Central District. McDouogh 17-18 3.0 3.1 3.7 Baltimore 47-51 3.0 3.5 4.0 Fallston 26-29 3 7 4.1 4.3 Woodlawn 11 3.1 3.6 4.2 Mean 3 2 3 4 3 9 Annapolis 18-22 3.2 3.6 4.3 Anne Arundel Count}'. Jewell 8-10 2.8 3.6 4.8 Mean 3.0 3.6 4.6 Charlotte Hall 4-6 2.8 3.2 3.1 Solomon's 7 2.6 4.0 3.2 Southern District. Cherryflelds 5 6 1.9 3.5 3 3 St. Inigoes 7-8 2.5 4.1 4 9 Mean 2.4 3.7 3.6 Chestertown 6-13 2.9 2.6 3.3 Easton 7-8 2.7 3.7 3.3 Eastern Shore. Mardela Springs 10-11 2.9 4.0 4.4 Mean 2.8 3.4 37 Dover, Del 15-18 3 2 3.5 4.5 Milford, Del 14-16 2 9 4.5 3.7 Delaware and Atlantic Coast. Millsboro, Del 6 2.9 4.3 3.1 J Mean 3.0 4.1 3.8 Entire Section. Mean 3.0 3.6 3.9 i (70) YERAL DISTRICTS. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. 6.2 3.6 8.1 3.4 4.3 4.0 53.3 14.8 14.5 10.7 13.3 3.4 3.1 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.2 33.7 8.8 10.0 7.5 7.2 8.8 4.3 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.3 85.4 8.4 10.9 8.6 7.5 3.6 3.7 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.8 34.6 8.6 10.4 8.0 7.4 3.6 2.6 3.1 2.3 2.8 2.8 85.2 9.7 8.7 8.1 8.6 4.6 4.0 3.7 3.1 2.8 3.0 43.5 11.4 12.6 9.6 9.9 4.1 8.8 3.4 .2.7 2.8 2.9 39.4 10.6 10.6 8.8 9.2 3.7 2.8 3.4 2.5 2.9 2.9 38.9 10.4 10.6 8.9 9.0 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.8 3.9 3.0 43.2 11.8 10.9 11.3 9.3 4.1 4.3 3.8 2.8 4.5 2.5 42.2 11.0 12.0 11.1 8.4 5.1 4.9 3.3 3.7 3.1 3.4 45.2 10.0 15.0 10.1 10.3 3.6 4.1 3.6 3.4 3.3 2.7 42.3 11.2 11.3 10.3 9.6 4.0 3.2 3.5 2.7 3.0 2.5 38.2 9.3 11.1 9.2 8.6 4.7 4.1 3.6 3.1 3.3 3.2 48.3 11.3 12.4 10.0 9.6 4.5 4.9 4.3 3.6 3.8 3.4 48.3 12.0 13.4 11.7 11.2 4.3 5.7 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 47.8 12.1 14.0 12.0 9.7 4.2 4.2 8.7 3.3 3.5 3.0 43.3 11.0 12.3 10.5 9.5 4.8 4.6 3.7 3.8 4.3 3.4 48.2 12.9 13.3 11.9 10.2 7.0 3.4 3.7 3.7 3.3 2.9 47.9 13.9 14.1 10.7 9.3 5.9 4.0 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.2 48.0 13.4 13.7 11.3 9.8 4.ii 2.5 1.8 3.7 2.1 2.0 *34.4 *10.5 9.0 *7.1 8.0 4.2 3.2 2.0 3.2 3.0 2.6 38.6 10.6 10.7 8.1 9.2 ,6.0 3.4 2,2 3.8 S. 2 2.5 39.9 10.6 12.1 9.3 7.9 ;8.7 6.5 4.8 3.7 3.4 3.4 47.6 13.4 12.3 11.9 9.9 4.5 3.9 2.6 3.6 2.9 2.6 40.1 11.3 11.0 9.1 8.8 3.5 5.4 3.4 3.0 3.3 2.7 42.6 12.0 12.7 9.7 8.2 4.2 3.3 2.2 3.0 2.9 2.6 37.8 10.6 10.2 8.1 9.0 6.6 3.6 3.4 4.6 3.3 2.3 45.7 12.9 12.3 11.4 9.2 4.8 4.1 3.0 3.5 3.2 2.5 42.0 11.8 11.7 9.7 8.8 4.8 3.6 3.9 3.3 3.5 3.1 42.9 11.1 11.5 10.7 9.7 8.4 3.3 4.6 3.5 3.5 3.0 42.9 11.1 9.8 11.6 10.3 5.3 3.4 8.7 4.9 3.2 3.0 45.7 12.0 11.9 11.8 10.2 4.:> 3.4 4.1 3.9 3.4 3.0 43.8 11.4 11.0 11.4 10.1 4> 3.8 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.0 43.1 11.6 11.9 9.9 9.6 (71) J F M A M J J .A S O N D J .The Entire Section. Alleghany Plateau. The Greater Appalachian Valley. Central Potomac District. North Central District. Anne Arundel County. Southern District. (Western Shore.) Eastern Shore. Delaware and Atlantic Coast. JFMAMJJASO FIG. 2. Fluctuations in normal rainfall. (72) MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY NORMAL TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION INCLUDING DELAWARE AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA YEAR d^ SCALE 1:1,250,000. 20TM3T.es -lIixclL 55 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WM. BULLOCK CLARK. STATE GEOLOGIST 1899 LEGEND TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT PRECIPITATION IN INCHES 30-35 35-4O 40-45 46-50 55' 50-55 VOLUME III, PLATE V. A. Reran Co. Uth . B .ItUno MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 73 The lines of the diagram show the minimum precipitation in mid- winter with considerable increase in February and May and a very marked increase in July, while a uniform decrease in precipitation is shown in April. More or -less variability in precipitation is shown in the different sections of the state. The fluctuations in monthly and annual precipitation in the state in different years are clearly brought out in the table below: GREATEST AND LEAST TOTAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALLS OCCURRING ANYWHERE IN STATE SINCE 1818. January 11.2. . Woodstock 1883 " 0.2 Washington 1872 February 8.8 St. Inigoes 1872 " 0.1.. Fort McHenry 1864 March 12.8 St. Inigoes 1872 " 0. 5 Cumberland 1872 April 13.0 St. Inigoes ..1874 " 0.4 Fort McHenry 1847 May 12.3 Bachman's Valley 1898 " 0.2 Fort McHenry 1866 June 10.8 Frederick 1870 " 0.1 Mt. St. Mary's 1888 July .- 19.9 Jewell 1897 " 0.3 Fort McHenry 1869 August 15.9 Mount Airy 1873 " 0.3 Baltimore 1821 September 13.0 Fallston 1876 " Trace Fort McHenry 1884 October 11.0 St. Inigoes 1872 " 0.0 Taneytown 1892 " 0.0 Mount Airy 1874 November 11.0 Mt. St. Mary's 1881 " 0.1 Fort McHenry 1882 December 7.5 Mt. St. Mary's 1867 " Trace Jewell 1889 Annual 88.5 St. Inigoes 1872 20.0 Cumberland 1870 The fluctuations in Baltimore during the past twenty-eight years are given in the following figure. 74 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. Snowfall never fails completely in Maryland even in the warmest winters, although it may be reduced to insignificant proportions except 65 1871 23 4 56 7 8 -9 80 1 2 3 4 5.6 7 899Q1 2 34 5 67. 8 60 int. 50 int. 45 .Normal line. 30 Ins. FIG. 3. Fluctuations in annual precipitation at Baltimore, 1871-1898. in the mountains. The average monthly amounts for the various climatic divisions of the state are shown in the table below: AVERAGE DEPTH OF SNOW IN INCHES. Western section Jan. 12 Feb. 8 9 N. Central section 5 1 5 1 Southern section 5.4 4 Eastern section 4.6 4 1 Entire state . 6.6 5.7 Mar. Apr. May. Nov. 9.2 3.1 1.8 3.2 6.6 2.0 1.0 5.0 1.4 1.5 1.4 0.4 5.6 2.5 2.5 3.7 Dec. 5.2 2.4 2.3 1.9 2.6 WINDS. The prevailing winds in Maryland are northwesterly in winter, and during the summer months blow from a southerly direction, more generally from the southwest. The following tables show the pre- vailing wind direction for the several divisions for the past seven years: MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PREVAILING WINDS. Western section Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jan. July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. NW NW. SW Var. SW. Var. Var. SW. Vnr Var. Var. SW. N. Central section. . . NW NW. NW NW Var. Vnr SW. SW. Var NW NW NW. Southern section .... NW NW. NW Var. Var. Var. SW. SW. Vnr NW NW NW. Eastern section Entire state '. NW. NW. NW. NW. NW. NW. Var. NW. Var. Var. SW. Var. SW. SW. Var. SW. Var. Var. NW. NW. NW. NW. NW. NW. The direction of the wind depends upon the relative positions of the pressure areas with respect to each other and to Maryland. The velocity of the wind is determined by the intensity of the atmos- pheric disturbances. The only satisfactory records of the wind veloc- ities for the state are those that have been made at Baltimore and Washington. The average monthly daily and hourly velocities of the wind, in miles, for Baltimore during the past twenty-eight years are given in the table below: AVERAGE MONTHLY, DAILY AND HOURLY WIND MOVEMENT AT BALTIMORE. AVERAGE. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Monthly 4609 149 6.2 4506 161 6.7 5499 177 7.4 5038 168 7.0 4636 150 6.2 4284 143 6.0 4147 134 5.6 3T87 122 5.1 3931 131 5.5 4376 141 5.9 4413 147 6.1 4492 145 6.0 Daily Hourly The velocity of winds is extremely variable, and in times of great storms much destruction to property results, while the highways are swept bare of the finer loose particles. In the following table the maximum wind velocities in Baltimore during the past twenty-five years are given for each month, in miles per hour, whenever this velocity has been maintained for a period of five minutes or more at the rate given. MAXIMUM WIND VELOCITIES AT BALTIMORE. Jan. 1894 Feb. 1893 Mar. 1896 Apr 1879 May 1893 June 1892 Julv 1893 Aug. 1888 Sept. 1892 Oct. 1878 Nov. 1891 Dec. 1898 48 45 50 60 43 42 42 45 38 45 48 54 \ 76 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. The brief discussion of Maryland climate which has been given in the preceding pages has brought out the leading characteristics of the temperature, precipitation, and winds in the state, each of which has a controlling influence upon highway-construction and must be care- fully considered by the road-builder. GENERAL EFFECT OF THE CLIMATE ON ROADS. From what has been stated in the previous pages it will be ob- served that wide differences are found in temperature and rainfall in the various counties of the state, and that these differences must materially affect the construction of our highways. Professor N. S. Shaler of Harvard University, for many years a member of the Mas- sachusetts Highway Commission and the author of " American High- ways," presents this whole subject in a very lucid manner. He says: " As a roadway is of all constructions the most exposed to the action of the weather, the climate of the district in which it lies has a greater effect upon it than upon any other class of buildings. This effect is exercised by the rainfall, changes in temperature, and the winds. A secondary influence, arising from the above-mentioned natural condi- tions, is found in the character of the vegetation, which, under favor- able conditions, ma-y advantageously affect a road by covering the unused portion of its surface with a network of low-growing plants, such as the grasses. " Under any conditions a road has to lie open to the rain. Where this comes gently, as is usually the case in Europe, it may not wash the surface of a well-graded way in a serious manner. When, how- ever, as in this country, the rainfall, particularly in the central and western portions of the land, often comes in a torrential manner, the effect is, even on well-constructed roads, to wash out the dust which holds the stones together as well as to remove the divided portion of the rock, which should have a coating to keep the wheels and the shoes of horses from breaking the stone in a rapid manner. Thus the result of occasional heavy rains is in this country a more rapid wearing of the road-bed than occurs in the Old World. It is doubt- ful, indeed, if the Eoman ways would have survived in this land in MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 77 the manner in which they have endured in the regions where they were built. " In almost all instances the ditches on either side of a road have to receive a large share of water which flows over the surface toward the way. "Where, as in America, the rainfall may amount, as is often the case, to an inch or more an hour, a large part of the water, espec- ially when the ground is frozen, flows over the surface, and much of it finds its way to these ditches. As will be noted hereafter, the waterways beside roads are an important part of the construction. The cost of their provision and maintenance is, on the average, much greater with us than in European lands. Furthermore, it is essential that the earth beneath a macadam way, where it is not provided with a pavement foundation, should be kept dry. It is desirable, indeed, in all cases that it should be protected from the invasion of water. The expense of underdrainage, such as is hereafter to be described, is exceptionally great in the case of American constructions. " The well-known heaving action of frost, which is proportionate to the depth to which it enters the soil and to the water contained therein, is always a menace to the preservation of a roadway. This movement not only disturbs the whole construction, but it tends to force up the larger stones through the macadam or gravel, so that they disturb the bed in their ascent and encumber the way when they appear at the surface. In the Northern States of this Union, where the frost often enters the earth to the depth of three feet or more, the effect of freezing and thawing, often repeated several times in the course of a winter, is exceedingly injurious. To guard against it, it is necessary to provide for the removal of the water to a greater depth beneath the surface than is required on the continent of Europe or in Great Britain. " The evils arising from the long-continued droughts which are so common in America are felt in several different ways. Where broken stone is used as road-material it is held together by the cementing action of the dust which lies between the fragments. Where the way is traversed by heavy wagons it almost always undergoes a certain breaking up of the bond. This is restored by a recementation process, 78 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. which causes the dust, when wetted once, again to bind. It thus comes about that a road which is wetted at intervals, say no greater than a fortnight, will remain in a firm state, while, when subjected to traffic for a drought of a month or more in duration, it will be broken into a mere rubble. A conspicuous instance of this action came under the observation of the writer in the campaign of 1862 between the armies of Bragg and Buell in Kentucky and Tennessee. It was a season of remarkable drought, little or no rain falling for the term of seventy days. During this time the macadam roads of that district, which ordinarily are in excellent condition, were by the wagon and artillery trains brought almost to a state of ruin. The fragments of stone which ordinarily adhered firmly to one another were converted into pebbles, which ground up under the tread of the wheels. It was not until after the great rains which came on the night of the battle of Perryville that these roads began to return to a fairly passable state. Many of them, however, were so injured by the grinding up of the loose fragments that they were unserviceable until they were re-covered with broken stone. " The effect of the winds on roads is to blow away the protecting covering of dust. If they be strong, the action may go so far as to remove the cementing material from between the exposed crevices. In general it may be said that the wearing of a road increases rapidly with the speed and continuity of the winds and the extent to which they blow in times of drought. The strong southwest winds so prev- alent in this country, particularly in the Mississippi Valley in the summer, much increase the cost of maintenance of good ways. " In a moderately humid climate, exempt from continuous summer droughts, creeping plants, nourished by the dust from the roads, which in most cases lias a considerable fertilizing value, take hold on the shoulders and sides of the way in such a manner as to protect those exposed parts from washing or from the action of the winds. Where these conditions prevail, it is generally practicable to build a relatively narrow, hardened way with wide shoulders on either side onto which the passing teams can turn out, finding there, by virtue of the plant covering, a surface so firm that it will not rut from an occa- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 79 sional passage of wheels. If, however, the shoulders are overdry, as they are sure to become in an enduring drought, the plants are killed and the surface left exposed. " The result of the above-mentioned climatal conditions is to make the construction and maintenance of good highways a matter of greater cost in the New than in the Old World. The conditions in the two realms are so far diverse that we need to be careful in adopting without revision the methods which have been successful beyond the Atlantic. In all cases these methods should be critically examined with reference to the climatal and other needs of this country." Indirectly connected with the influence of the climate is the effect of forests on roads, and Professor Shaler further says in discuss- ing these facts that " The effect of forests on the construction and maintenance of roads is considerable. Where these woods are deeply rooted, it is necessary to exercise a considerable amount of care in removing the woody material, not only the crowns and tap-roots, but also those of any size which penetrate downward; and this for the reason that the decay of the remains of the tree is apt to bring about harmful settlements of the foundation. The cost in general of carry- ing a road through thick woods is, so far as the preparation of the bed is concerned, at least twice as great as where it traverses an open country. " The effect of a timber belt on either side of the road is sometimes to necessitate more careful drainage to insure the dryness of the sub- way. Where the hardened part of the construction is made of gravel the influence of the shade and of a plentiful contribution of fallen leaves is to preserve the layer from the excessive dryness which is likely rapidly to dessicate the surface of the wheelway. Moreover, the covering of leaves affords some protection against the impact of tires and hoofs, while the result of the decay of vegetable matter is to favor the cementation of the bed. In- a less degree the shelter of a wood or of thick plantations on either side of the road, even that which is afforded by the ordinary spaced trees which are commonly planted beside ways, is helpful to macadam roads. Trees also diminish the ill effects of winds, retaining the dust on the road in a way that it 80 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. would not be kept there if the road lies quite open to the blast. On these economic accounts, as well as for the grace which plantations afford, it is advisable to keep a way tolerably shaded, at least in such a climate as exists in almost all parts of the United States." These statements by so eminent an authority as Professor Shaler indicate how important it is that the highway engineer should famil- iarize himself with the climatic conditions of the country in which his work is placed. From what has been said in previous pages it has been shown that the rainfall is much more excessive in some localities than in others, while the variations in temperature between the eastern and western sections of the state are very great, the much deeper frosts of the latter area requiring that far greater attention should be paid to the road-bed. The difficulties attendant upon highway-construc- tion on these grounds in Maryland are, however, much less than in the area farther north to which Professor Shaler has more largely devoted his attention. MARYLAND GEOLOGY IN RELATION TO HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION." The rocks of Maryland are of much significance to the road-builder. Not only do the physical characteristics of the materials composing the road-bed largely affect the permanency of the traveled way, but the character and distribution of the rocks of the several' districts determine the quality of the road-metals which are actually placed upon the highways of the state. The relation, therefore, of geology to highway-construction is of such a nature that it is necessary to examine the questions connected therewith in some detail. THE ROAD-BED. The character of the road-Bed, or foundation, upon which the high- way must be built, is of the greatest practical importance, and de- pends primarily upon the underlying geological formation. In a region like that of the state of Maryland where the rocks are of many kinds and often of small areal development, it becomes a matter of *SO x OP THE ROAD MATERIALS Of INCLUDING DELAWARE AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA SCALE 1:1,250,000. 20MHes~lIn_cli 05 10 _ 20 40 _ 60 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WM. BULLOCK OLARK, STATE GEOLOGIST 1899 LEGEND PIEDMONT PLATEAU THE TRAP ROCKS GA3BRO | PCRIDOTITE AND PYROXENITE Mown DIABASE THE GRANITIC AND QUARTZITIC ROCKS GNEISS AND QUARTZ-SCHIST I ! GRANITE QUARTZITE TRIASSIC SANDSTONE THE CALCAREOUS ROCKS MARBLE CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONE I I TRIASSIC CONGLOMERATE 8HENANDOAH LIMESTONE THE SLATE ROCKS APPALACHIAN REGION EASTERN APPALACHIAN OB BLUE RIDOZ DISTRICT THE VOLCANIC ROCKS BASIC VOLCANICS ACID VOLCANICS THE GRANITIC AND QUARTZITIC ROCKS GRANITE I I QUARTZITE 1 I OBNTBAL AND WESTERN APPALACHIAN DISTRICT THE LIMESTONES 8HENANDOAH NIAGARA. 8ALINA AND HELDERBERG GREENBRIER THE SANDSTONES JUNI ATA-TUSCARORA ORI8KANY POCONO POTT8VILLE THE SHALES SHALES (INCLUDING MARTINSBURG, CLINTON, ROMNEY. JENNINGS, HAMPSHIRE, ALLEGHENY, CONEMAUGH. MONON- GAHELA AND DUNKARD FORMATIONS) LZZl GRAVELS AND IRON BE CLAYS AND UNCONSOLIC MARLS OCCUR AS BEDS VARIOUS PLACES IN ' AND TERTIARY FORMAT RESENTED ON THE I VOLUME III, PLATE VI. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 81 necessity for the road-builder to frequently adjust his plans to chang- ing conditions. The frequent alternation of sandstones, limestones, and shales in western Maryland and of granitic and trap rocks in cen- tral Maryland must be constantly considered by the road-master; while the varying gravels, sands and clays of eastern and southern Mary- land afford still other conditions that are not less difficult to deal with. "When the surface layers of the rocks, whatever their lithologic characters, become disintegrated, as commonly occurs in Maryland, the residual materials are generally either clays or sands, or a variable mixture of the two. In level regions, especially where the streams have been unable to remove the unconsolidatd materials, the road-bed seldom rests upon solid rock; but at the higher elevations of the Pied- mont Plateau and the Appalachian Region the more quartzitic rocks frequently reach the surface, and afford a solid foundation upon which a permanent road-bed may be constructed. The coating of residual materials when present in the elevated regions of the state is generally thin and always of varying thickness, since the rain and the streams are active agents on the steeper slopes in the removal of the uncon- solidated products. Maryland, like the states which lie to the south of it, differs very materially from our northern commonwealths in the absence of glaci- ation, which in that region swept from the surface of the country the residual materials, leaving the unaltered rocks exposed over wide tracts while burying adjacent areas under a cover of morainic debris. The more restricted areas of superficially unaltered rocks in Mary- land are confined to the larger stream-channels and the steeper slopes, while the widely distributed disintegrated products are largely found in situ rather than transported to a distance as within the glaciated belt The question of drainage is of prime importance in the construction of permanent highways. When the under-materials are sands the water drains away quickly, but when, as is often the case, these ma- terials are clays or clayey sands the natural drainage is slow and un- satisfactory. A road built upon such a plastic foundation as that which is afforded by clays readily goes to pieces unless special 82 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. precautions are taken. A base of this character generally requires not only artificial draining at the sides, but also the introduction at times of costly pavements so as to keep the surface layer of broken atones and gravel from working down into the yielding road-bed. Pro- fessor Shaler, in his work upon American Highways, refers to the fact that such clayey foundations are commonly found in the most fertile agricultural regions, and that this adds largely to the cost of road-con- struction in those areas where good roads are most essential. Take, for example, the rich limestone valleys both in the Piedmont Plateau and in the Appalachian Region. They afford thick residual clays which are generally poorly adapted for highway-construction unless some precaution is taken as in the manner above-mentioned. The great value of the agricultural interests in these areas has rendered it imperative, however, to spend much money upon the highways, and they are frequently found to be among the finest in the state. THE ROAD MATERIALS. The rocks of Maryland afford a great variety of natural road-build- ing materials. The central counties of the state, especially, are pro- vided with materials of the highest grade, while the western and the eastern sections of the state are not without road-metals of value. There are few states in the Union in which the natural road-building materials are of equal quality or are more advantageously distributed, and yet Maryland has made comparatively little use of them hitherto. THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU. The rocks of the Piedmont area are the best in the state for the various uses of the road-builder. These rocks, as elsewhere de- scribed, are mainly crystalline or semi-crystalline, and embrace a great number of rock types of varying utility for highway-construc- tion. They may be grouped into four main classes, viz., the trap rocks, the granitic and quartzitic rocks, the calcareous rocks, and the slate rocks. The Trap Rocks. The trap rocks, as shown by the tests given in later chapters, are the best road-building materials in the state, both on account of their MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE VII. FIG. 1. TRAP ROCK, GABBRO, BALTIMORE COUNTY. The Friedenwald Co. FIG. 2. TRAP ROCK, SERPENTINE, HARFORD COUNTY. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF ROCK SECTIONS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 83 resistance to wear and their fairly good cementing qualities. The trap rocks are highly crystalline with their constituent minerals firmly interlocked. They are also rich in iron, which is rendered available as a cementing medium. All of the trap rocks are of igneous origin, having been forced in a molten condition from con- siderable depths in the earth's crust into the positions which they now occupy. They are widely distributed throughout the seven Piedmont Plateau counties and occur in several well-defined varieties. GABBRO. The most extensively distributed and probably the most ancient of the basic eruptive or trap rocks which so abundantly intrude the gneiss complex is the gabbro or the " niggerhead " rock. There are three main areas of this rock within the limits of the state the Stony Forest area of Harford and Cecil counties; the great belt or sheet which extends from north of Conowingo on the Susquehanna river in a south-southwest direction to Baltimore city; and the irreg- ular, intrusive sheet which is mainly developed to the west of Balti- more, and extends thence as far south as Laurel. The gabbro is a rather fine-grained aggregate of the minerals hypers- thene, diallage, plagioclase (bytownite), and magnetite, with varying amounts of apatite and brown hornblende. The unaltered gabbros are unusually massive, heavy and dark-colored. With their alteration the color changes from a pale buff to the characteristic reddish-brown. By an increase in magnesia the gabbro passes by gradual transitions toward the rock types which include the peridotites and pyroxenites; or in alumina to rich feldspathic rocks; or in silica to others which have free silica forming blue grains. The action of pressure which has caused the recrystallization of the gneiss and marble is also well marked in the gabbros. It has caused the iron constituent pyroxene to change to another green mineral called hornblende, and has in some cases left the rock as massive as at first, or in other cases rendered it schistose. The first is gabbro- diorite, the second gabbro-schist. The change has always been most complete where the mass of gabbro is smallest, as in the narrow beds which connect the larger areas. This change is well shown along the Bel Air Road near Baltimore. 84 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. The gabbro offers great resistance to the ordinary process of decom- position and hence it is strewn abundantly all over the area which it occupies in the form of boulders. It is at the same time so hard, so heavy, and so jointed that it cannot be quarried to any advantage as a building-stone, although the loose blocks are much used for con- structing stone walls or foundations. It is admirably adapted, how- ever, as a road-metal, although its firm interlocking texture makes it a difficult rock to work. These very qualities, which increase the expense of its preparation, add at the same time to its durability, and no more satisfactory road-metal can be secured. PERIDOTITE AND PYROXENITE. The second type of eruptive rock which penetrates the gneiss complex comprises the peridotite and pyroxenite. It is younger than the gabbro, but it is genetically closely allied to it. The two types are connected by many inter- mediate varieties; and these more basic rocks, which also break through the gabbro as well as through the gneiss, may be regarded as having resulted from a gabbro-magma which had become rela- tively poor in alumina, or in alumina and silica. The absence of alumina would prevent the formation of feldspar, and hence in the first case crystallization produced an aggregate of pyroxene (bronzite and diallage) called pyroxenite; while in the second case an aggregate of olivene and pyroxene with more or less magnetite produced what is called peridotite. The two non-feldspathic eruptive rocks, pyroxenite and peridotite, are peculiarly subject to alteration, which is not, however, decom- position. Briefly it is this: the pyroxene, when it occurs alone, tends to pass into secondary hornblende, and this in turn gives rise to talc. This is the origin of the extensive beds of steatite in eastern Maryland and Virginia. The talc is always mixed with more or less pale, fibrous hornblende (actinolite) and chlorite. When, as in the peridotite, olivene accompanies the pyroxene, especially if it is bronzite, the rock tends to form serpentine instead of talc. The serpentine also contains secondary hornblende formed from the diallage. Both of the non-feldspathic eruptives are very intimately associated. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE VIII. FlG. l.-tTRAP ROCK, DIABASE, MONTGOMERY COUNTY. The Frledenwald Co. FlG. 2. GNEISS, BALTIMORE COUNTY. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF ROCK SECTIONS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 85 They do not usually cover large areas, but occur in small lenticular patches. Varieties intermediate between the two extremes are com- mon, so that the two alteration products, steatite and serpentine, are even more intimately mingled than the rocks themselves. Peridotite and pyroxenite, with their alteration products, are found best developed in Cecil and Harford counties, extending as a long, narrow belt from the state line near Conowingo southwestward toward Forest Hill in Harford county. Other areas are found near Sol- dier's Delight and Bare Hills in Baltimore county, and also in several small, narrow belts in Howard and Montgomery counties. These rocks are somewhat softer than the gabbro, but contain a large pro- portion of iron, which acts as a valuable cementing medium. They afford important road-building materials in the areas in which they are found. The steatite and serpentine frequently wear away rapidly, however, and are thus less valuable than the unaltered rock for high- way purposes. DIORITE. The rocks included under this head are closely allied to the granites, and at first glance may easily be mistaken for them. They differ, however, in the character of their feldspar and in their darker color. They always contain a green hornblende, and biotite with orthoclase and plagioclase, sometimes the former and sometimes the latter in excess. Quartz is usually present, and the rocks then resemble the well-known tonalite from European localities. Under the microscope the diorites generally show evidences of the destruction of their constituents through dynamic action or through weathering processes. The areal distribution of these rocks has not been fully studied, but they have been mapped in several small areas to the west of Wash- ington on either side of the Potomac river. They are most exten- sively developed, as far as recognized, around Georgetown and near Cabin John Bridge. The quarries near the former place substantiate the view that these rocks represent ancient eruptive masses which subsequently have been greatly changed and recrystallized by the earth movements which have taken place since their formation. The exact time at which these rocks were intruded into the surrounding 86 THE EELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. masses is not definitely known. They are clearly older than the youngest of the granites at Broad Branch and are younger than some of the older, more metamorphosed granites and granite-gneisses. It seems reasonably probable that they were erupted just before or just after the gabbros. The diorites are not as rich in iron as the trap rocks previously mentioned, but are still valuable road-metals, although on account of their limited distribution they are much less important than the other varieties described. DIABASE. The diabase, the youngest of the trap rocks, is found distributed both in the eastern and the western divisions of the Pied- mont Plateau extending from the Pennsylvania border in several long dikes which reach nearly across the state from north to south. In the western division of the Piedmont Plateau the diabase is found pene- trating the Triassic sandstones and shales as well as the rocks of earlier age, the date of its intrusion being, therefore, very much later than that of the other representatives of the trap rocks. The dia- base is probably late Triassic or perhaps post-Triassic in age. In the eastern portion of the Piedmont Plateau the diabase intrudes the older crystalline rocks in Baltimore and Harford counties occur- ring as long dikes, broken at several points but preserving all the features of the rock found farther west in Frederick county. In the western portion of the Piedmont Plateau the diabase is found both in western Carroll and Frederick counties, being best developed near the Pennsylvania line in the vicinity of Emmitsburg, where the areal distribution is several square miles in extent. From this point several dikes can be traced southward, one of them continuing be- yond the limits of Frederick county, nearly, if not quite, to the banks of the Potomac river. The diabase is composed chiefly of the minerals feldspar (labra- dorite) and pyroxene (augite) with olivene and magnetite. The rocks penetrated have been at times considerably metamorphosed by the molten rock which was forced into their fissures, generally with a hardening of the beds by partial solidification and recrystallization. The diabase decomposes with considerable rapidity, although the sur- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 87 face is generally covered with large boulders of undecayed material, which shows characteristic weathering. The diabase is an extremely important road-building material and has been used in the states to the north of Maryland much more extensively than any other of the trap rocks. This is perhaps to be accounted for from the much wider distribution of the diabase, although the readiness with which the rock can be worked makes it peculiarly valuable as a road-metal. It is generally hard, with excellent wearing and cementing qualities, and is to be highly rec- ommended. The Granitic and Quartzitic Rocks. The granitic and quartzitic rocks are in the main of less value as road-materials than the trap-rocks, although some of the varieties are of importance in this respect. These rocks cover much larger areas than the trap rocks, and are generally more readily available for road-con- struction. They are found widely distributed in all the seven counties of the Piedmont belt and have been extensively quarried at various ^points as building material, so that much refuse is available for high- way purposes. GNEISS. The prevailing rock of the Piedmont Plateau is the gneiss. It enters the state from the north in a very wide band, com- pletely surrounding the Delta-Peach Bottom slate area, but its breadth rapidly contracts toward the Potomac. The remarkably irregular form of the marble areas which are intercalated in the gneiss complex shows how intricate the stratigraphy of the latter really is. Much of its apparent simplicity is due to the obliteration of its true bedding through secondary foliation. The Maryland gneiss em- braces a great variety of types, which range from granitoid aggregates of feldspar and quartz on the one hand to nearly pure mica or horn- blende schist on the other. All of these "show considerable structural variation in the coarseness of their grain, the perfection of their parallel arrangement, etc. The gneiss is sometimes quite constant or homogeneous for considerable distances, but more usually it consists of differently constituted layers. The gneiss everywhere shows, in spite of a frequent persistence of 88 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. strike and dip, that it has been subjected to intense and repeated dynamic action. This is apparent in the larger features of its struc- ture, and in its generally crumpled, gnarled and twisted character, and in the profound metamorphism, amounting to almost complete recrystallization, which has gone on within it. No certain traces of clastic origin have ever been detected in the Maryland gneiss, although its sedimentary character may be inferred from its rapid alternation of beds of different composition and from the nature of other rocks intercalated in it like marble and quartz-schist. The color of the more massive gneisses varies from white to a dark gray or blue. The more micaceous and hornblendic varieties are dark brown or green. The mineral composition and structure are quite normal for gneisses elsewhere developed. Superficial exposures of the gneiss are very rarely fresh. This widespread decay extends also for a considerable distance below the surface, at least in an incipient form, as may be seen from the very rapid disintegration in road and railroad cuttings of rock that is sufficiently hard to require blasting. The gneisses in their less quartzose varieties when not micaceous afford very fair road-building materials, although the frequently large percentage of quartz renders their cementing qualities generally in- ferior. They have not the resistance to wear possessed by the trap rocks, and, in general, must be regarded as of inferior quality to the latter. The wide distribution of the gneiss renders it locally avail- able over a large area, and it can thus be used at times to advantage where the expense of transportation would debar the road-builder from employing the higher grades of rock. GRANITE. The granites of the Piedmont Plateau are eruptive rocks that intrude the gneiss complex in very much the same way as the trap rocks, and are among the most important materials from an economic standpoint in the state. They belong for the most part to a type known as granitite, and are generally of medium grain and of remarkably compact and homogeneous texture. They sometimes carry a considerable quantity of muscovite (Guilford), and are no- ticeable for the large and constant proportion of allanite which they contain, this latter mineral being frequently surrounded by a parallel growth of isomorphous epidote. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE IX. FIG. 1. GRANITE, CECIL COUNTY. The Frledenwald Co. FlO. 2. SANDSTONE, MONTGOMERY COUNTY. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF ROCK SECTIONS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 89 Variations in the structure of the granites are due to the develop- ment of poryphyritic crystals, as at Ellicott City and along the road from Meredith's Bridge on the Gunpowder river to Cockeysville. Other structural facies are due to secondary features, like foliation, produced by dynamic agencies. The granites are probably partly younger and probably partly older than the other eruptive types, and are not connected with them, as those with each other, by intermediate facies. They represent entirely dis- tinct epochs of eruptive activity. The evidence of their eruptive origin is most satisfactory and conclusive. They form intrusive bosses with diverging dikes and apophyses; they produce disturbance and crumpling in the rocks through which they break; they enclose fragments of the older rocks gneiss, marble, quartz-schist, gabbro and pyroxenite and finally they produce all the well-known phenomena of contact-metamorphism, both in these fragments and in the rocks which adjoin them. The granites are extensively quarried for building and paving stones at Port Deposit, Woodstock. Granite, Ellicott City, and Guilford, where great masses of granite occur. The gneiss of the Baltimore region is penetrated with a great abundance of dikes, veins, and eyes of the coarse-grained granite, known as pegmatite, which is locally known under the name of flint. Within the eastern plateau region the pegmatite appears to have been produced in two ways, at least we seem compelled by direct evidence to assume that certain occurrences of it are true eruptive dikes genetically related to the normal granite already described; while for other occur- rences an aqueous origin by segregation appears more probable, although the proof is not as good as in the former cases. The granites are very similar to the gneisses in many respects, although differing from them more or less widely in texture and mineralogical composition. As road-material they are very similar to the gneisses and possess much the same wearing and cementing quali- ties. They will also be found like them of value locally for road- building purposes, but are not to be compared as regards their durability to the trap rocks. 90 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. QUARTZ-SCHIST. This type forms but a small portion of the rocks of probable sedimentary origin included within the eastern division of the Piedmont Plateau. It is more interesting from its influence on the topography, since it causes the low ridge extending along the south side of Green Spring and Mine Branch valleys known as Setter's Eidge, than it is from its areal extent or even its mineralogical com- position. The quartz-schist rarely attains any considerable thickness, but instead seems to be closely related to the underlying gneiss into which it grades by imperceptible transitions. Between the schist and the marbles there is a sharp break, and it has been considered probable that this formation is in some way the result of fumerole action in the gneiss. This conclusion is borne out by the mineralogical composi- tion. The most abundant constituent is quartz, which occurs divided into fine beds of varying thickness by parallel layers of muscovite. In the micaceous layers are numerous broken crystals of tourmaline, whose fragments are separated along a single line as though they had been compressed and pulled apart by some earth movement. The quartz-schist occupies so small an area in the Piedmont Plateau as to deserve little consideration from the standpoint of a road-metal. It may be used to some advantage locally in Baltimore county, but its large percentage of quartz renders both its wearing and cementing qualities inferior. QUARTZITE. Isolated areas of quartzitic sandstones are found devel- oped along the eastern side of the Monocacy Valley in Frederick county, and single outliers also occur farther to the east in the valley of Deer creek in Harford county. The most extensive and charac- teristic deposit of this material in the Piedmont Plateau is found in Sugar Loaf Mountain near the boundary of Montgomery county. Here the sandstone is very homogeneous, fine-grained and compact, and is very light, frequently white in color. The massive sandstone strata of Sugar Loaf Mountain form a series of anticlines overturned toward the west. The formation continues toward the north in a few insignificant sandstone patches, while toward the south it soon dis- appears beneath the phyllite series. The Sugar Loaf sandstones pass on their eastern side upward by a gradual transition into the overlying deposits, which in their unaltered portion are somewhat shaly. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 91 The quartzite is used locally with some success as a road-metal, but its cementing qualities are poor. It is inferior in several respects to the better grades of granitic rocks above referred to. It breaks down under constant and heavy wear to an incoherent sand and it does not possess any proper cementing medium. TRIASSIC SANDSTONES. The red sandstones of Triassic age, known as the Newark formation, are much younger than the other members of the granitic and quartzitic series. They occupy a considerable area along the border of the Piedmont Plateau, beginning as a belt some ten miles in width in northern Carroll and Frederick counties. The formation gradually narrows toward the south, until in the region of Frederick its full width does not exceed one mile, while at one point directly to the west of Frederick the continuity of the beds is completely broken. Farther southward in western Montgomery county the belt of Newark deposits again broadens to a width of sev- eral miles. The rocks of the Newark formation consist chiefly of red and gray sandstones and conglomerates of both siliceous and calcareous varie- ties. The finer-grained and deeper-colored deposits generally have their individual elements united by a ferruginous cement, while the calcareous conglomerate, which is largely made up of rounded lime- stone pebbles, is generally imbedded in a reddish calcareous matrix. All of the deposits present structures which indicate that they were formed in shallow water; the coarse conglomerates, the ripple-marked surfaces, and the tracks of animals all point indisputably to this con- clusion. The more ferruginous varieties of the Newark deposits afford good road-building material, the iron constituent acting as a valuable cementing medium. The large percentage of calcareous materials in the conglomerates renders them less enduring than the trap rocks, but still they may be employed to advantage locally. They are among the most valuable of the road-metals in this series of rocks, with the possible exception of some of the better grades of gneiss and granite. The Calcareous Rocks. The calcareous rocks of the Piedmont Plateau, which include the marbles and crystalline limestones, are used to some extent as road- 92 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. materials, but in proportion as they become highly crystalline they lack those wearing and cementing qualities which are essential in a good natural road-building material. They are found covering con- siderable areas both in the eastern and western divisions of the Pied- mont Plateau. MARBLE. The marble deposits of the Piedmont Plateau possess much of topographical and geological interest. There are few areas in Maryland where the dependence of topography upon the character of the underlying rocks is better shown than in the contrast between the flat valleys in the marble and abrupt ridges of adjacent gneisses and quartz-schists. Geologically the marbles are the youngest of the series, but their relations are greatly obscured by structural com- plexity. The marbles, which are confined to the eastern division of the Piedmont Plateau, differ in texture and composition from the finer and more compact crystalline limestones of the western division. In the latter the impurities are in the form of thin, argillaceous bands, while in the former they are represented by layers of accessory min- erals, including tremolite, white pyroxene, green muscovite, brown and black tourmaline, scapolite, quartz, pyrite and rutile, which cor- respond more or less closely with the original bedding planes. The marbles are often dolomites, frequently showing over 40 per cent of magnesium carbonate. The Baltimore county marbles are extensively quarried, either for burning or for use as a flux, or as a building stone (magnesian). The marble refuse from the various quarries is at times employed upon the highways, but is much inferior to the trap rocks and the better varieties of the granitic and quartzitic rocks. Its texture is much too coarsely crystalline to form a permanent roadway. CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONE. The crystalline limestone is confined to the western portion of the Piedmont Plateau and is mainly developed in Carroll and adjacent parts of Frederick counties. It is found in long narrow bands infolded in the phyllite and extends in a general northeast-southwest direction. These limestones upon examination are found to be highly crystalline, fine-grained marbles, which be- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 93 come more and more contorted, cleaved, and faulted as they are folded across their strike toward the east. The crystalline limestones are, like the marble, in the main poorly adapted for highway purposes, although they have been used to a considerable extent locally in Carroll county. They are inferior to most of the rocks previously described from the western Piedmont district SHENANDOAH LIMESTONE. The Frederick valley is underlain by the limestones of the Shenandoah formation, which extend from north to south for a distance of twenty-five miles with an average width of about four miles. The limestone is blue or gray in color, with locally developed siliceous beds that resist the ordinary processes of decay much more than the purer limestones. These more highly siliceous beds afford excellent road-material on account of their resistance to wear. All of the limestones present excellent cementing qualities, and both in their harder and softer beds have been extensively used in road-construction. They frequently present a very dusty surface and in this respect they are inferior to the trap rocks above described, but in several features are superior to the other rocks of the district in which they occur. TRIASSIC CONGLOMERATE. The Triassic conglomerate, previously referred to in discussing the red sandstones, is largely made up of rounded limestone pebbles imbedded in a reddish calcareous matrix. These calcareous rocks are much less highly crystalline than the other calcareous beds and are therefore much better adapted for road-build- ing purposes. They have not been largely used thus far, but the tests show that they contain much better cementing and wearing qualities than the marbles and crystalline limestones. The Slate Rocks. The slate rocks cover a considerable area in the northern and western portions of the Piedmont Plateau, but are poorly adapted for road-building purposes. PHYLLITE. The slaty and shaly rocks which compose much of the areas above described are indicated upon the map under the geo- logical term of phyllite, although quite a variety of deposits varying 94 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. all the way from slightly altered shales to well-defined schists is found. They are in the main highly argillaceous, although in places arenaceous, and apparently grade over into the quartzitic series earlier described. They are closely folded toward the east and the meta- morphism of the beds, attendant upon the increasing disturbance to which they have been subjected, is so great that it is not always easy to distinguish the line of contact between them and the underlying and more ancient crystallines of the eastern Piedmont region. The phyllites, from their argillaceous character, easily break down when subjected to wear, producing clayey materials, and are thus ill-adapted for highway purposes. THE APPALACHIAN REGION. The rocks of the Appalachian Region are not in general as well adapted to highway-construction as those of the Piedmont Plateau, although some of the limestones afford road-metals of more than ordinary value. The geological structure of the district is such, however, that the same deposits are frequently repeated so that the limestone formations are well distributed throughout the area. The sandstones and shales are much less valuable for highway purposes, although the more compact, quartzose rocks have been frequently employed. The igneous rocks, which are limited to the eastern divi- sion of the Appalachian Eegion, locally afford materials of value, but they have not been employed to any large extent upon the highways of the Blue Ridge district. The rocks of this area differ so widely from those of the central and western portions of the Appalachian Region that they will be independently considered. THE EASTERN APPALACHIAN OR BLUE RIDGE DISTRICT. The rocks of the Blue Ridge district may be considered under two different heads: first, the volcanic rocks, which include acid and basic volcanics with their metamorphosed products; and second, the quartz- itic and granitic rocks, which include the Cambrian quartzite and the granite. The Volcanic Rocks. The volcanic rocks of the Blue Ridge area are generally classified AS acid and basic volcanics, although both of these rocks are fre- MABYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 95 quently much altered as the result of dynamic forces. The acid volcanics occupy an irregular area north and northeast of Middletown between the Blue Ridge and Catoctin mountains and extend nearly to the state line, while to the northwest of this main body are a few outlying masses. These rocks are close-grained mixtures of quartz and feldspar, which often show characteristic flow and other struc- tures of lava, which at times are partly destroyed as the result of devitrification. These rocks have not been used to any extent as road- metals, and the high proportion of silica may render them unavailable for that purpose. The basic volcanics occupy a much larger area in the Blue Ridge district than the acid volcanics, extending all the way from the Penn- sylvania line to the Potomac river, although they are largely crowded out to the south by the numerous intrusions of granites. The orig- inal rock possesses the characteristics of a diabase, which has, however, lost everywhere in Maryland most of its characteristic features through metamorphism, which has developed a marked schistosity. The pres- ence of amygdaloidal structure and textural variation, combined with the characters of the field relations, shows that these rocks were orig- inally formed in the same manner as modern lavas which cooled slowly near the surface under conditions of low pressure. The fresh ex- posures of this rock are light bluish-green in color, and are usually covered with the schistose dull gray or yellow slabs which arise from weathering or by masses of quartz and epidote which lie scattered over the surface after the rest of the material has been removed. The rock is generally known under the name of Catoctin schist. It is much better adapted for highway" purposes than the acid volcanics, since it contains a much larger percentage of iron which acts as a cementing medium. It has been used to some extent for the con- struction of highways in the northern portion of the area near the Pennsylvania line, and could be employed to advantage more widely as a road-metal. The Quartzitic and Granitic Rocks. The quartzitic and granitic rocks consist of quartzites and granites, the former constituting the crests of the Catoctin, Blue Ridge, and 96 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. Elk Kidge mountains, while the latter is chiefly confined to the cen- tral and lower portions of the Middletown Valley, occupying the region between the Blue Kidge and Elk Kidge ranges. The quartzite is generally a fine, pure sandstone mainly composed of quartz grains which are well worn and washed quite clean of argil- laceous materials. At times it contains a small percentage of car- bonate of lime and at other times grades over into the sandy shales which compose the other members of the Cambrian series. The quartzites have been subjected to but little metamorphism, as the quartz particles which compose the deposits do not afford materials which admit of much alteration. Slight schistosity is evident in the southern part of the Catoctin Mountain. The quartzite, although locally used for road-purposes, is poorly adapted to that purpose, as the rock, after it is broken down under constant wear, does not possess sufficient cementing power to make it a valuable road-metal. It withstands the natural wear fairly well, but its other qualities are poor. The granite of this area is found cutting the volcanic rocks above- described, and occurs as a series of long, narrow belts varying in width from a yard to six miles. It comprises a considerable area between the Catoctin and Blue Ridge mountains along the line of Catoctin Creek. The granite shows only a moderate amount of mica and is frequently garnet- or epidote-bearing, the garnet-bearing type being well exposed along the Potomac a mile to two miles east of Harper's Ferry. Here, as in the rest of the area, the granite shows marked evi- dence of dynamic alteration. The feldspars have been deformed and altered, first along the cracks, anfl then finally entirely into lenticles of quartz, muscovite, and chlorite. This final stage appears to be like a siliceous slate or schist, and is barely distinguishable from the end- products of similar metamorphism in the sedimentary rocks. The granite is fairly well adapted for road-purposes, but is inferior to many of the better grades of the same rock found in the Piedmont belt. THE CENTRAL AND WESTERN APPALACHIAN DISTRICT. The rocks of the central and western portions of the Appalachian Region differ materially from those of the Blue Ridge area and are MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE X. FIG. 1. MARBLE, BALTIMORE COUNTY. The Frledenwald Co. FIG. 2. LIMESTON 7 E, WASHINGTON COUNTY. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF ROCK SECTIONS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 97 confined exclusively to sedimentary rocks which, in general, have been but slightly changed from their original characters. They com- pose a series of alternating arenaceous, argillaceous, and calcareous deposits with interbedded seams of coal in the later formations. The rocks of this district may be divided into the limestones, the sand- stones, and the shales, the first constituting the most valuable material for road-construction. The Limestones. The limestones are most prominently developed in the central por- tion of the Appalachian Kegion and form the floor of the Great Valley, extending as a broad belt from northeast to southwest from the Penn- sylvania line to the Potomac river. The limestones are also found as narrower belts trending from northeast to southwest throughout both the district of the Alleghany Ridges and the Alleghany Plateau. These limestones are found at several different geological horizons from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, and possess varying values for the purposes of highway-construction. The most important lime- stones are known as the Shenandoah, Niagara, Salina, Helderberg, and Greenbrier, although calcareous strata are found at several other horizons. SHENANDOAH LIMESTONE. The Shenandoah formation forms the floor of a greater part of the Great Valley and is composed of a series of blue and gray limestones and dolomites in which locally sandy shales and slates are interbedded. At a few places in eastern and south- eastern Washington county, beds of pure fine-grained white marble are also found. In general, however, the limestone deposits have been comparatively little altered, although the more shaly deposits show a more or less clearly defined schistosity. The decay of the limestone through solution has left an insoluble residuum of red clay through which protrude at times beds of the harder materials. The Shenandoah limestone has been extensively used for road- building purposes through the Valley, and some of the best roads in the state are found in this locality. The less metamorphosed forms of this limestone possess most excellent cementing qualities, but, in gen- eral, its resistance to wear is poor. Some of the more compact and 98 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. highly siliceous varieties of the limestone afford high-wearing tests, as indicated in the subsequent chapters of this volume. The more common characteristics of rapid wearing have produced in much- traveled roads a surface of dust that becomes often intolerable during dry and windy periods. On the whole, the Shenandoah limestone is to be highly commended for the Valley highways where the heaviest traffic is not present. NIAGARA LIMESTONE. The Niagara limestone is repeated at several points in western Washington and Allegany counties, as the result of the denudation of the tops of the great anticlinal folds that are found in the Alleghany Kidges. Extensive occurrences of this rock are found along the Potomac to the west of Hancock and Cumberland and along the North Branch of that stream above the latter place. The rock consists of a compact blue limestone with interbedded shales. It has been used to some extent locally for highway purposes and affords good cementing qualities, although its wearing tests are not high. SALINA LIMESTONE. The Salina limestone is found throughout the same districts as the Niagara and is most accessible in the vicinity of Hancock and Cumberland. The rock is a magnesian limestone and has been extensively worked in the manufacture of cement products. It has been used to some extent as a road-metal and has the same advantages and disadvantages as the other Paleozoic limestones. HELDERBERG LIMESTONE. The Helderberg limestone is also devel- oped in the folds of the Alleghany Kidges between the Great Valley and the Alleghany Front, and like the Niagara and Salina, has been worked to some extent locally for highway-construction. It is a closely compacted blue limestone that presents the same general cementing and wearing qualities as the rocks above-mentioned. GREENBRIER LIMESTONE. The Greenbrier limestone is confined to western Allegany and Garrett counties, outcropping along the folds that extend across the state from northeast to southwest. The Green- brier limestone, especially in the upper portion of the formation, is of compact structure and gray in color. Toward the base it is inter- bedded with shales. Its frequently arenaceous character gives it MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 9<> rather high-wearing test, and its cementing qualities are also good. It could be made an important source of road-material for the extreme western portion of the state, but has not been employed to any great extent. Thin beds of limestone and calcareous shales are found scattered throughout many of the other formations, particularly in the middle and upper Devonian and Carboniferous formations, although seldom affording large deposits of limestone. They may be often made locally available for highway purposes. The Sandstones. The sandstones of the central and western portions of the Appa- lachian Region are found at several horizons and present very varied characters. Some of them have become so thoroughly changed from their original character as to become almost, if not quite, quartzitic, while others are still but slightly consolidated and have practically no value for highway-construction, as they rapidly break down into inco- herent sand. The most important sandstones are in the Juniata, Tus- carora, Oriskany, Pocono, and Pottsville formations. JUNIATA SANDSTONE. The Juniata sandstone is limited exclusively in Maryland to an area in western Allegany county in the vicinity of Cumberland, and is best developed at the base of Wills Mountain. The highly ferruginous sandstones which compose this formation present, in their more indurated layers, materials that have some value for highway purposes, but of distinctly secondary value to the lime- stone of the same district. TUSCARORA SANDSTONE. The Tuscarora sandstone upon the east enters into the formation of North Mountain, the most eastern ridge of the central Appalachians, and upon the west forms Wills Moun- tain, just to the west of Cumberland, and also occurs at several points in the intervening country. The rock is hard and massive, generally white or gray in color and consists for the most part of coarse quartz grains that have been so finely cemented as to produce a quartzitic aspect. Like the quartzites of the Piedmont Plateau and Blue Ridge districts, the Tuscarora sandstone has very good wearing qualities, but has little to recommend it from a cementing standpoint. It is 100 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. used more or less locally upon the highways, but it is distinctly inferior to the better grades of limestone of the same area. ORISKANY SANDSTONE. The Oriskany sandstone is confined, like the sandstone above described, to the central division of the Appa- lachian Region in western "Washington and Allegany counties. It is typically a rather coarse-grained, somewhat friable rock, white or yellow in color. At times the coarser material passes over into a clearly defined conglomerate, while at other times, especially in the western portion of the area, the materials are fine-grained with here and there interstratified layers of coarser materials. The frequently soft nature of the rock, particularly in its surface exposures, renders it poor for highway purposes and it is not recommended. POCONO SANDSTONE. The Pocono sandstone occurs in a series of long, narrow belts which extend from northeast to southwest in western Allegany and Garrett counties. The deposit consists mainly of hard, thin-bedded, flaggy sandstones which are seldom coarse- grained, although in a few instances slightly conglomeratic. Locally the Pocono sandstone has been used to some extent as a road-metal. POTTSVTLLE CONGLOMERATE. The Pottsville conglomerate, as the lowest member of the Coal Measures, forms the mountain ridges which border the coal basins. The Pottsville formation consists of beds of sandstone and conglomerates interstratified with sandy shales in which at times thin beds of coal are locally developed. The sandstones and conglomerates are mainly cemented by means of siliceous materials. These coarse materials are also frequently cross-bedded and are very irregular in both their extent and sequence. The Pottsville conglom- erate and sandstones are used locally for road-purposes, and in their more indurated varieties have moderate wearing qualities, but, like most of the other sandstones, are low in cementing power. The Shales. The shales are found widely interstratified with the limestone and sandstone formations and also make up independently the greater portion of many of the other Paleozoic formations which have been described in earlier volumes of the Survey. The shales are poorly adapted for highway purposes, as their argillaceous character causes MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 101 them readily to break down into clayey materials which, upon being wet, quickly change into soft mud, a character which indicates their origin. Where the underlying rock is loose shale it becomes necessary to construct the road of the harder sandstone or limestone, which have been already described. The shales are oftentimes locally employed on account of the ease with, which they are worked, but possess no permanent value, since any highway to which they are applied be- comes nearly impassable in wet weather. THE COASTAL PLAIN. The deposits of the Coastal Plain differ so widely from those which have been already described in the Piedmont Plateau and the Appa- lachian Region that we must look for the natural road-metals among materials of a very different character. In general, the deposits of the Coastal Plain are unconsolidated and possess but little natural cement in available form. Xotable exceptions are found to this gen- eral rule in the more highly ferruginous sands and gravels and in the ledges of calcareous marls. These various deposits, on account of their local availability, may be advantageously used throughout cer- tain sections of southern and eastern Maryland. The Gravels. The deposits of gravel are found at several geological horizons in southern and eastern Maryland, and have already been employed to some extent, particularly upon the roads leading to Washington. Far greater use can be made of these gravels than has been attempted thus far, as they possess very valuable wearing and cementing quali- ties when applied to highways upon which there is only moderate travel. The most important gravels are those of the Potomac, the Lafayette, and the Columbia. POTOMAC GRAVELS. The Potomac gravels, so-called, are found in the oldest of the geological formations of the Coastal Plain and outcrop along its western margin. They are generally arkosic and frequently ferruginous and thus compact readily when applied to the highways. Their distribution, however, is limited to small areas in Prince George's, Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Harford, and Cecil 102 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. counties. Further exploitation of this material will undoubtedly result in its larger use in the areas named. LAFAYETTE GRAVELS. The Lafayette gravels, which are of much more recent date than the Potomac gravels, are among the most im- portant and widely extended road-building materials of southern and eastern Maryland, being found upon the high levels generally to the south and east of the Potomac deposits. The Lafayette gravels are more or less arkosic and generally highly ferruginous. They readily cement and wear well upon a highway where there is moderate travel. These gravels are especially well developed in Prince George's and Charles counties where considerable use has already been made of them upon the roads leading to Washington. COLUMBIA GRAVELS. The Columbia gravels are of much more recent age than those which have been hitherto described and are found widely extended over southern Maryland and throughout the northern portion of the Eastern Shore. These gravels are frequently overlain to a depth of many feet by sands and loams so that they are not readily apparent, although their presence can oe easily detected along the valley lines where the streams have cut through the over- lying strata. The Columbia gravels are very variable in character, those of earlier date being better adapted for highway purposes than the later deposits. These older beds present, in their somewhat arkosic and highly ferruginous characters, a marked similarity to the Lafayette gravels and, like them, afford an unusually fine' road-metal for highways where there is moderate travel. These materials around the head of Chesapeake Bay are very accessible to water transportation and will doubtless prove in the future of much value. Gravels are found in some of the other formations of the Coastal Plain, but they lack the important cementing characteristics of those which have been described. Very widely extended gravels of late Columbia age are found over great areas in eastern and southern Maryland, but the absence of a ferruginous cement renders them of little value for highway purposes. The Marls. The marls of eastern and southern Maryland are found quite widely distributed in formations of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary age MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 103 and afford bore and there deposits of sufficient moment to be of im- portance for highway purposes. The value of these marls is depen- dent upon the presence of the carbonate of lime which acts, as in the case of the limestones earlier described, as the cementing medium. CRETACEOUS MARLS. The Cretaceous marls are confined exclu- sively to northern Kent and southern Cecil counties in the vicinity of the Sassafras river, but their availability for highway-construction is doubtful on account of the relatively low percentage of carbonate of lime which they contain. At some points they could doubtless be employed to advantage, in the absence of better materials. EOCENE MARLS. The Eocene marls extend across Maryland from northeast to southwest, occurring mainly in Kent, Anne Arundel, Prince George's, and Charles counties. Their most calcareous mem- bers are found in Prince George's and Charles counties, where hard ledges of indurated marl are frequently exposed along the valley lines. These hard limestone bands could be worked locally to advan- tage for highway purposes, but little attempt has been made to utilize them hitherto. They present all the essential characteristics of the limestones of western Maryland, although much less widely extended and, therefore, less available. NEOCENE MARLS. Neocene marl is found in the district to the south of that of the Eocene marl and is mainly confined to Queen Anne's, Talbot, and Caroline counties of the Eastern Shore, and Cal- vert and St. Mary's of the Western Shore. Thick deposits of shell marl characterize several horizons in the Neocene, but the beds are seldom indurated, as is so often the case with the Eocene marls. Exceptions to this, however, occur in a portion of lower St. Mary's county, but more frequently the shells appear loosely compacted together and thus could be readily removed by pick and shovel and applied to the highways of the vicinity. This application of shell marl has taken place to some extent in the areas in which it occurs, but is far from universal. The Sands and Clays. The greater portion of the deposits of eastern and southern Mary- land consists of interstratified sands and clays, which, like the soft 104 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. sandstones and shales of western Maryland and the phyllites of the Piedmont Plateau, are poorly adapted for the purposes of highway- construction. These materials, which must have accumulated as sandy and muddy sediments upon the bed of the sea, require the appli- cation of the harder rocks if proper highways are to be constructed. On little-used roads a suitable mixture of sands and clays may often- times greatly benefit an exclusively sandy or clayey highway, but even such roads are of little value in the winter season, nor will they suffice for localities where much traffic exists. Too often in Maryland the highways, whether situated upon sand or clay or upon the surface portions of harder rocks which have become thoroughly weathered, are abandoned to these local materials and the resultant " dirt roads " become impassable for many months of the year. MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS. Several sources of road-building materials are found outside of the geological formations which have been previously described. Among the more important that have found greater or less use in Maryland or elsewhere may be mentioned oyster-shells, furnace-slag, burnt clay and crude petroleum. OYSTER-SHELLS. The vast quantities of oysters dredged and tonged annually in the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries afford an almost inexhaustible supply of oyster-shells, many of which become available in the eastern and southern portions of the state for road- building purposes. They are very readily crushed by ordinary traffic when applied to the highways, and quickly become cemented to form a roadway of more than ordinary value. Such a highway is rapidly worn out, however, as the oyster-shells afford a low-wearing test and much less permanent -roads result than those which are constructed of the higher grades of rock. It is doubtful whether it is not more economical in the end to import trap rocks or high-grade gravels into those sections of the state which to-day are exclusively employing oyster-shells. The wearing surface of the oyster-shell road becomes quickly ground to powder, which produces a disagreeably dusty sur- face and which requires the constant application of new shells to keep from rutting. There can be no doubt, however, that oyster- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XI. FIG. 1. QUARTZITE, FREDERICK COUNTY. The FrleilenwaM Co. FIG. 2. INDURATED GRAVEL, PRINCE GEORGE'S COUNTY. PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF ROCK SECTIONS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 105 shells afford a cheap road-building material for our lower counties where more expensive roads of permanent construction are not sought FURNACE-SLAG. Furnace-slag has been found to be, under certain conditions, a highly satisfactory road-metal. It is not as valuable as the trap rocks, although its cementing qualities are excellent, except in the case of some of the materials from the old furnaces. These old slags break down quickly and are readily ground into fine dust and for these reasons are of little value in road-construction. The slag from the present iron-furnaces, on account of the large amount of lime contained in it, is very valuable as a highway mate- rial. It compacts easily when rolled and forms an even, smooth sur- face ; while the fine particles unite as a hard cement that grows firmer with time. The iron furnaces at Sparrow's Point afford material of this character that has already been demonstrated to be a valuable road-metal. BURNT CLAY. Burnt clay has been employed as a road-metal in various portions of the West where no satisfactory rock is available. The clay is prepared, as described by Mr. Johnson in a later portion of this report, by burning at the sides of the highway, the hardened substance being broken into small fragments, and placed upon the road where it serves as a foundation. It is possible that this material might be found locally available in some of our Eastern Shore coun- ties where natural road-metal is absent. CRUDE PETROLEUM. The attempt to use crude petroleum to keep the upper portions of the highways free from water and thus compact during wet weather has been pursued with some considerable success in other portions of the country, but no attempt has been made to introduce this method of highway improvement in Maryland. Mary- land is so well provided with natural road-building materials, the utility and availability of which have been so thoroughly demon- strated, that it is doubtful whether the application of petroleum would prove as advantageous here as elsewhere. It would be inter- esting to experiment with this process and actually determine its utility on some of our Coastal Plain highways, however, before dis- carding it. It is possible that under certain conditions in some locali- 106 THE RELATIONS OF MARYLAND TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. ties it might be found to be of value. This subject will be more fully discussed by Air. Johnson on page 296. Many other materials have, from time to time, been shown to be of value and have found use upon the public roads, but they can be considered of hardly sufficient general importance to be deserving of special consideration here, as few, if any, of them are of permanent value. MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. It is hardly in place here to discuss the many manufactured products which are used on city streets or park highways where special con- ditions for highway-construction prevail. The plan of this report is rather to discuss the road-metals which may be made available upon the country highways and not those more expensive materials em- ployed by our municipalities. The expensive pavements used in many of our cities and towns could not be made available for our country roads, and it is undesirable to go into the discussion of such pavement materials in the present report. Many of the Maryland road-building metals which have been above-described are admirably adapted as the basis of many of these manufactured products and are to-day being utilized for that purpose. This subject will be discussed in a report dealing with the materials of city streets, which it is the intention of the Highway Division of the Survey to prepare at an early day. PART III HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE ECONOMIC DEVEL- OPMENT OF THE STATE BY ST. GEORGE LEAKIN SIOUSSAT HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE ECONOMIC DEVEL- OPMENT OF THE STATE BY ST. GEORGE LEAKIN SIOUSSAT THE BEGINNINGS OF HIGHWAYS IN MARYLAND. " Rivers," said the philosopher Pascal,. " are roads that move, and carry us whither we wish to go." " Yes," was the comment of another, " provided we wish to go whither they carry us." A comparison of Augustine Herrman's map of Maryland with one of the present day will make evident the applicability of Pascal's say- ing, and the equal applicability of its subsequent modification, to the history of the development of highways in Maryland. Nowadays, the state appears dotted from border to border with cities, towns, and villages, bound together by a network of roads, great and small, that are the channels of intercourse of an advanced and prosperous com- monwealth. The Maryland of Herrman's time was a fringe of scat- tered settlements, strung along the bayside and along the banks of the navigable rivers, with not a trace of connecting highways. TRANSPORTATION BY WATER. The main highway of early Maryland was the Chesapeake, which is, says a chronicler of that time, " a bay in most respects scarcely to be outdone by the universe, having so many large and spacious rivers branching and running on both sides .... and each of these rivers richly supplied, and divided into sundry smaller rivers, spreading themselves out to innumerable creeks and coves, admirably carved and contrived by the omnipotent hand of our wise Creator, for the advantage and conveniency of its inhabitants, so that I have oft, with 110 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND no small admiration, compared the many rivers, creeks and rivulets of water to veins in human bodies." With ready appreciation of the u advantage and conveniency " of these " roads that move," the early Marylanders traveled from land- ing to landing and from shore to shore in sloops and pinnaces, imi- tating the customs of the native Indians, " whose buildings and habi- tations," Captain John Smith had noted, were " for the most part by the rivers, or not far from some fresh spring." Instead of mileage, compensation for boat-hire was allowed to the delegates to the Assembly from Kent and Anne Arundel. 3 Indeed, travel to any considerable distance seems to have been exclusively by water; and for the first few years after the settlement at St. Mary's the word " road " must have had but limited significance in the colonial vocabulary/ The earliest " roads " were mere paths from plantations to river landings, or from the settlements scattered along the rivers adjacent to the little capital at St. Mary's. When the colonies pushed further inland, and the streams no longer carried them whither they wished to go, more extensive highways became necessary. As yet, however, the construction and repair of roads was a matter of private concern; -over a quarter of a century elapsed between the settlement at St Mary's and the passage of the first road-law of the colony. EARLY FERRIES. In the meanwhile, the influence of the topography of the country upon the progress of the colony is evidenced by the regulations con- 1 Rev. Francis Makemy. A Plain and Friendly Persuasive. London, 1705, p. 5. (See Fiske's Old Va., vol. ii, p. 206.) ' Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. xiii, p. 35. 1 Maryland Archives, vol. i, Assembly Proceedings, pp. 143 and 284. 4 What is probably the earliest mention of a road in Maryland bears date March, 1643, when Father Philip Fisher, one of the Jesuit Missionaries, writes to his Provincial, or Superior, as follows: "A road by land through the forest has just been opened from Maryland to Virginia. This will make it but a two days' journey, and both countries can be united in one mis- sion." [Neill, Maryland in the Beginning, p. 49.] This is, of course, des- cribed too indefinitely to be identified or located at the present day, but tke reference is interesting as showing the early intercourse between the sister colonies. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 111 cerning ferries. When a line of communication crossed a river or stream a ferry was often necessary and legislation upon this subject preceded that concerning highways or bridges. As early as the ses- sion of the Assembly that met at St. Mary's in 1637-8, a number of absentees were excused from the fine for non-attendance " for want of passage over St. George's [St. Mary's] River," a want that was sup- plied by the establishment of a ferry at the next Assembly. 1 As the settlements spread, other ferries were established; and in 1658 a gen- eral law was passed requiring each county to maintain at least one ferry. 1 CONTEMPORARY HIGHWAY LEGISLATION. When the colonial settlements had expanded to such a degree that management of the highways could no longer be left in private hands there were two sources, at least, upon which the lawmakers might draw for effective road-legislation. These were the law of the neigh- boring colony of Virginia and the law of England. The first road-law of Virginia left the regulation of highways to the discretion of the Governor and Council, or the Commissioners of the Monthly Courts, or the parishioners of each parish. 3 This was supplemented twenty-five years later by an act giving the jurisdiction over the roads to the county courts, with the provision that " the course used in England " should be followed/ The English law was itself at this time in a primitive state. In feudal times care of the roads was included in the tenant's trinoda necessitas, or three-fold service: the duty of making an expedition against the enemy; the construction of fortifications; the repair of bridges (and roads). By the growth of custom the care of the highways devolved upon the respective parishes, while the repair of bridges was referred to the county at large. In early times it was not incumbent on any par- ticular officer to call the parish together and set upon them this work; therefore, later surveyors of the highways for each parish were ordered to be chosen by the constable and church wardens of that parish. 5 1 Maryland Archives, Assembly Proceedings, vol. i, p. 78. 2 Maryland Archives, Assembly Proceedings, vol. i, pp. 375-6. *Hening's Statutes, vol. i, p. 199 (1632). 4 Hening's Statutes, vol. i, p. 436 (1657-8). 5 Blackstone's Commentaries, p. 358. 112 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND THE FIRST ROAD-LAW OF MARYLAND. The first road-law of Maryland was passed in 1666; it was entitled " An act for making high waves & making the heads of Rivers, Creekes, Branches and Swamps passable for horse and foote." This act ordered that the commissioners of each county should " upon the 20th day of October next ensuing, meete together in their Eespective Countyes to consult of what high wayes are fitt to be made." They were also to appoint overseers of the roads and to levy tobacco or labor to be assessed equally upon the taxables of each county. Fines were provided for the non-performance of these duties either by the overseers or by the laborers whom they summoned. The act of 1666 continued in force, with but slight modifications, till 1696. However, the " highwaies or necessary Paths " for which it made provision were little more than tracks through the forest; and the enactors had in view the direction of travelers rather than the construction of roads. Transportation by wagons was as yet un- known. Thus the road-overseer had little to do but cut away the underbrush, fell obstructing trees, and drain the worst of the marshes so that the horse or mule laden with panniers full of tobacco would not stick fast in the low and swampy ground. A local road-act " for amending the wayes out of Charles County into the City of St. Mary's," passed eight years after the general law of 1666, testifies to the primitive life the colonists then were lead- ing. 2 The passage over the head of " Wiccocomico River " had become hardly passable since the building of the mill there, and the overflowing of the stream. The way was therefore dangerous for passengers and its condition even imperiled the security of the Prov- ince against an insurrection of the Indians " who live in great Num- bers in that Country." Charles and St. Mary's counties were equally assessed for the construction of a highway " passable for horse and foote over such place of Zachiah Swampe within Two miles of the said Mill upward as shall seme most convenient" to their Justices. The road thus provided for became one of the most important in 1 Maryland Archives, vol. ii. Assembly Proceedings, p. 134. 1 Maryland Archives, vol. ii. Assembly Proceeding's, p. 408 (1674). MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 113 southern Maryland; it is probably to be identified with the present road from Leonardtown through Aflen's Fresh and Chaptico to Port Tobacco. HARDSHIPS <}F TRAVEL. Concerning the actual state of the highways during this period but little information is to be found. Enough remains, however, to con- vince one of the hardships of traveling in these early times. Some idea of the difficulties due to the lack of roads may be gathered from the journal of a voyage made by Augustine Herrman, the author of an important map of Maryland. In 1659, Peter Stuyvesant, the Director-General of the New Netherlands, sent Herrman and Re- solved (or Roosevelt) Waldron as Commissioners to Governor Fendall of Maryland to confer concerning an alleged attack upon Dutch pos- sessions by Colonel TJtie of Maryland. Herrman and Waldron left New Amstel, now Newcastle, in Delaware on September 30, and walked through the woods, part of the way without a path, to the river Elk. Here they embarked in a boat procured from the Indians, and, after rowing nearly all night, arrived on October 2 near Sas- safras. Thence they rowed to Kent Island, where they abandoned their first boat, which now leaked wretchedly, and secured another, from a Captain Wike or Wickes, one of the magistrates of the island. After a fine run to Billingsly Plantation, " at the cleft " or cliffs [of Patuxent], on October 6 they arrived at Colonel Coortsey's house upon the Patuxent, and on the following day they went nine miles by land to Secretary P. Calvert's. 1 Even the establishment of a general road-law seems to have given little or no relief. Six years after the passage of the act of 1666, the celebrated Quaker, George Fox, describes his progress from the East- ern Shore of Maryland to the North as " a tedious journey through the woods and wilderness, over bogs and great rivers." '' We took horse," he writes, " at the head of Tredaven Creek, and traveled through the woods, till we came a little above the head of Miles River, by which we passed, and rode to the head of Wye River; and so to the head of Chester River; where making a fire, we took up our lodgings 1 Hazard. Annals of Pennsylvania, pp. 287, 290 (Philadelphia, 1850). 114 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND in the woods. Xext morning we traveled through the woods till we came to Saxifrax River, which we went over in Canoes (or Indian boats,) causing our horses to swim by. Then we rode to Bohemia River: where in like manner swimming our horses, we ourselves went over in Canoes. We rested a little while at a plantation by the way, but not long, for we had thirty miles to ride that afternoon, if we would reach a town ; which we were desirous to do, and therefore rode hard for it. ... The town we went to was a Dutch town, called New- castle." The slowness with which changes in the methods of transportation were brought about may be illustrated from the fate of a petition made by some of the inhabitants of St. Mary's county to the General Assembly of the Province, upon the occasion of the removal of the capital from St. Mary's City to Annapolis. The fifteenth article of this petition set forth that " the petitioners suspected the chief dislike of the location of the capital at St. Mary's to be on account of the inconvenience of its situation, because the gentlemen, the members of the house, have been forced to their great trouble oftentimes to travel on foot from Patuxent to St. Mary's and so back again." To remove all cause for such an objection, the inhabitants of St. Mary's bound themselves to procure " a coach or caravan or both to go in all times of public meetings of Assemblies and provincial Courts, etc. every day daily between St. Mary's and Patuxent River and at all other times once a week." This magnanimous proposal did not meet with the respect it deserved, for the House rather rudely observed that " The petitioners offer fair as they have done formerly, but never yet performed any, and this. House believes that the Gen'l Welfare of the Province ought to take place of that Sugar Plum and of all the Mayor's Coaches, who as yet never had one ! " THE COUNTY COURTS AND THE ROADS. To the County Courts, or Commissioners for the terms were inter- changeable were intrusted the construction and maintenance of the 1 Journal of George Fox, vol. ii, pp. 108-9. 2 Upper House Journal, 1694, p. 768. * Upper House Journal, 1694, p. 772. . MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 115 highways. The records of the proceedings of these bodies contain' a great deal of interesting information in regard to the development of the roads, but this information is unfortunately neither so complete - nor so uniform as might be wished. The records of some of the counties have been destroyed by fire; many others, though extant, are seriously damaged through carelessness; or the worthy scribes them- selves, in many eases, have taken but small pains to detail their pro- ceedings upon road-matters. But the most serious difficulty for the historical student results from the practice of recording and mention- ing roads by the names of the persons near whose lands they passed, instead of the names of the points or places through which the road ran. The reason for this is obvious; highways could not be described as running from town to town at a time when, with very few excep- tions, there were no towns. ST. MARY'S AND CALVERT COUNTY RECORDS. Direct sources for the early history of highways in St. Mary's and Calvert counties are no longer obtainable, because the court- records- of these counties have been burned. Some information may be gained from the proceedings of the Assembly, which now and then busied itself with matters of local importance, providing, as was shown above, 1 for the construction of a main road from Charles county to the capital. It is probable, moreover, that the methods of highway administration here were identical with those of Charles county, of~ which the records have fortunately been preserved. CHARLES COUNTY RECORDS. The records of the County Court of Charles county now rest securely in the Kecord Office at Annapolis. From these records it appears that in 1666 " each respective Constable of Charles Countie " was by warrant ordered " to appoint good, able and sufficient men overseers of y e works to be performed by virtue of y e said Act (IfHJfi) and also to hire procure and provide for them sufficient Labourers and Labouring tools and other necessaries for y e performance of y e works - J P. 112. 116 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IX MARYLAND intended in y e said Act." The overseers thus appointed were ordered to " repaire to the next commissioner inhabiting nearest to you for such orders and directions to be given you as shall be needful for y e discharge of your duties herein. Whereof faile not as you will answer &c." ' This certainly seems a good beginning. Unfortunately, however, no more entries are to be found for the space of twenty-four years. 2 The work went on during this time, no doubt, and overseers were annually appointed, but the clerks neglected to keep a detailed record of road affairs. BALTIMORE CO [TNT Y RECORDS. In the records of the Baltimore County Court the earliest entry of interest, which bears the date March 6, 1682, recites that the jurors for Baltimore county " do present the overseers of the highways of Gunpowder Hundred and the overseers of the highways of Patapsco for not making the highways passable for man or horse." The over- seers of. Spesutie Hundred, farther north, were also presented. 8 These drastic measures seem to have been efficient, for at June Court the delinquent overseers were excused " by Reason of there Amend mt of y e sd Highways." Several other orders in reference to roads in particular localities were given at different times by the Court. The regulations concerning ferries, the management of which, like that of the roads, was in the hands of the County Commissioners, are often serviceable in determining the principal courses of travel. At November Court, 1683, for example, provision was made for ferries over the Patapsco, Gunpowder, and Bush rivers; ' this and subsequent entries make it certain that by 1685 there was a continuous road or roads laid out from the Patapsco to the Susquehanna." Not more than five years later, the Court ordered that these roads should be 1 Charles County Court Proceedings, Liber C, pp. 84-86. 2 Some orders are indexed for the year 1684, but this volume is missing. 3 Balto. Co. Court Proceedings, Lib. D, p. 103. 4 Balto. Co. Court Proceedings, 1683, June. These are preserved without much arrangement, in the Record Office, in Baltimore. 5 Balto. Co. Court Proceedings, Lib. D, 103. 6 Across the Susquehanna, in Cecil County, was Susquehannah Manor, granted to George Talbot, in 1680. This region was as yet thinly settled. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 117 made passable for carts. In 1692 the usual procedure was varied by an order " that from henceforward the persons above-mentioned their Ma tles justices Doe grant out their warrants and appoint what over- seers they think good for clearing the highways in their respective hundreds, as they shall think fitt." Two years later the overseers were ordered to take with them " Every tythable in their hundred for the making of good highways thirty foote wide, not leaveing Loggs, Brush or Roots, appearing above ground, or young Saplings in the said Roades." " Good and sufficient bridges for man and horse to pass over " were also to be constructed. After these praiseworthy beginnings the energy of the Baltimore County Commissioners seems to have suffered a relapse, since very few entries are to be found for a considerable time. Two noteworthy items there are, however; one under 1695 gives directions to clear the road from the Courthouse to the Great and Little Falls of Gun- powder; 2 the other, in 1711, orders the construction of a " very fair and spatious Road directly leading out of the Main Road to this town of Joppa." THE HEKRMANS AND THE ROADS OF CECIL COUNTY. The beginnings of highway-construction on the Eastern Shore, at least in the northern part of it, seem to have been the care of a single family. Augustine Herrman, to whom reference has already been made, received in 1662 the grant of Bohemia Manor from Cecilius, Lord Baltimore. 4 The location that Herrman chose for his planta- tion was an additional proof of his intelligence. Bohemia Manor, bounded on the west by the Elk river, and St. Augustine Manor, a later grant, bounded on the east by the Delaware river, together spanned the Eastern Shore peninsula at about its narrowest point, and the idea of connecting the navigable waters on the west and east by a road had occurred to Herrman even before he received his grant. 5 In 1671 the authorities at New York ordered their deputies at New 1 Balto. Co. Court Proceedings, 1694, Nov. Ct. 3 Balto. Co. Court Proceedings, 1695. 8 Balto. Co. Court Proceedings, 1711. 4 Johnston. History of Cecil County, p. 38. 5 Hazard. Annals of Pennsylvania, p. 321. 118 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND Castle to clear one-half of a road from that place to Herrman's plan- tation, the Marylanders having offered to clear the other half. 1 An- other road, constructed about this time, connected Herrman's planta- tion with that of his sons on the Delaware. 2 The settlements in this part of the Province increased rapidly, and in 1674 the lands lying between the Susquehanna and the Chester rivers, which had been hitherto a part of Baltimore county, were erected into a new county under the name of Cecil. 3 The Cecil County Court took up the work of the Herrmans and devoted much attention to the making of roads. An interesting example of those old Cecil roads is that known as the " Old Choptank Road," which formed the dividing line between Bohemia and St. Augustine Manors. " It was originally," says Johnston, " an Indian path that led from the Choptank river along the dividing ridge between the two bays, prob- ably far up into Pennsylvania, but was laid out and cleared from the head of St. George's creek to the Chester river, twelve feet wide, for a cartroad, in 1682, by Casparus Hermen and Hugh McGregory, who were appointed for the purpose by the Court." By 1714 it had fallen into disuse. 4 AN EARLY MAIL-ROUTE. Perhaps because of the greater density of population on the upper Eastern Shore at this time, and the existence of better roads, the route down the Eastern Shore peninsula became the favorite line of travel from Philadelphia southward, and when, under the general stimulation that followed the removal of the capital from St. Mary's to Annapolis, the Assembly established a public post, the peninsula route was selected. Previously ordinary letters relating to public affairs had been for- 1 Johnston. History of Cecil County, p. 76. 1 Johnston. History of Cecil County, pp. 78-9. * McMahon. History of Maryland, p. 92. 4 Johnston. History of Cecil County, p. 187. A strip of land five or six miles wide across this peninsula at its narrowest point might well be se- lected to represent the steps in the development of methods of transporta- tion: Indian trail, cartroad, stage-route, turnpike, canal and railroad. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 119 warded from house to house. 1 Upon occasions of unusual importance communication with the neighboring provinces was carried on by means of " expresses," or mounted postmen. A great advance upon the earlier methods was made by the establishment in 1695 of a reg- ular post. It was ordered that the route " begin at Newton's Point upon Wicomico River in Potomack and so to proceed on to Allen's Mill, from Allen's Mill to Benedict Leonard Town, from Benedict Leonard Town over Patuxent to Mr. George Lingan's, from Mr. Lingan's to Mr. Larkin's and so to South River and Annapolis. From thence to Kent and so to William .Stadt * and from thence to Daniel Toas's 4 and so on to Adam Petersen's and from thence to New Castle and so directly to Philadelphia." A " sallary " of fifty dollars was allowed Mr. John Perry, " the post," for carrying " all public messages and Paquettes eight times a year betwixt Potomack and Philadelphia." On special occasions Mr. Perry seems to have acted as " express " to points not included in his usual route. He survived his appointment only three years; whether his disease resulted from the exposure to which his duties subjected him is not known, but after his death the system seems to have been abandoned by the Maryland Legislature.' It is probable that the Pennsylvania authorities maintained a similar post-route for some time. 7 THE LAW OF 1704 AND ITS SUPPLEMENTS. The year 1696 saw the enactment of a new road-law entitled " An Act for the better clearing of the Roads, and directing all Travellers through the Province." This was the first important advance upon the early law of 1666, which had been reenacted from time to time, 1 Assembly Proceedings, vol. i, p. 415, April-May, 1661. (See also subse- quent laws.) 1 Probably not far from Mount Pleasant. 1 Oxford. * On Chester river. ' Upper House Journal, May 14, 1695, p. 809. McMahon, History of Maryland, p. 266. 1 See Watson's Annals of Philadelphia, vol. ii, p. 391; vol. iii, p. 47 (Phila- delphia, 1890). 8 Bacon's Laws of Maryland, 1696, chap, xxiii. 120 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND with but little amendment. The text of the act of 1696 is not to be found in the Journals of Assembly nor in Bacon's Laws of Mary- land; but lengthy quotations from it, transcribed in the records of Charles County Court, indicate that its provisions were practically the same as those of an act passed eight years later, in 1704, 1 bearing the same title as the law of 1666. The act of 1704, the text of which has been preserved, constituted, with a few amendments, the road-law of the Province of Maryland for the next half century. By its provisions all public and main roads were to be hereafter cleared and well-grubbed, fit for traveling, twenty-foot wide; and good and substantial bridges made where such were necessary, at the discretion of the County Courts. Once a year the latter were to " ascertain 2 and set down " in their records what were the public roads of their respective counties and to appoint overseers of the same. Any person altering or changing such public roads without the leave of the Governor and Council, or the County Justices, was to be fined 500 Ibs. of tobacco. The same fine was provided in case any overseer so appointed should neglect to clear the roads under his charge. Every laborer who refused to serve the over- seer and every master of servants, who, upon summons from the over- seer, refused to send all his taxable male servants to assist the over- seer, was to be fined; every laborer 100 pounds of tobacco, and the master 100 pounds for every servant named and not sent. The clerk of the county was ordered to issue to the overseers appointed, warrants which should be delivered to them by the sheriffs of their respective counties. If clerk or sheriff was delinquent in this respect he was mulcted 1000 pounds of tobacco. That highways were still in a rudimentary state, and that it must have been easy to lose one's way, appears from the fifth section of this act, which is so curious that it had best be quoted exactly. " V. And that all the Roads that lead to any Ferries, Court-house of any County, or to any Church, or leading through any County to the port of Annapolis, shall be marked on both Sides the Road with Two Notches; if the Road lead to Annapolis, the Road that leads there, at the leaving the other Road, shall be marked on the Face of the Tree, in a smooth Place cut for 1 Bacon's Laws of Maryland, 1704, chap. xxi. 2 Establish with certainty. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XII. FlO. 1. VIEW OF NOTCHES ON TREE. * The Frledenwulrt Co. FlO. 2. VIEW OF ROAD WITH NOTCHED TREE. THREE-NOTCH ROAD IN ST. MARY'S COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 121 that Purpose, with the letters A A set on with a Pair of Marking-Irons, and coloured; and so with Two Notches all along the Road; and where at any Place it leaves any other Road shall be again distinguished with the Mark aforesaid, on the Face of the Tree, with a Pair of Marking-Irons, and col- oured as aforesaid. And any Road on the Eastern Shore, in Talbot County, that leads to the Port of William-Stadt [Oxford] at the entering of the same, and on parting with or dividing from any other Road, shall be marked on the face of a Tree, in a smooth Place cut for that purpose, with the let- ter W, and so with Two Notches all along the Road. And the Roads that lead to any County Court-house, shall have Two Notches on the Trees on both Sides of the Road as aforesaid, and another Notch a Distance above the other. And any Road that leads to a Church, shall be marked at the Entrance into the same, and at the leaving any other Road, with a Slip cut down the Face of the Tree, near the ground. And any Road leading to a Ferry, and dividing from other public Roads, shall be marked with Three Notches of equal Distance at the Entrance into the same. And these Rules and Methods, the several Justices of the County Courts, shall, from Time to Time, give in Charge to the Overseers of the Highways, by them to be ap- pointed for that purpose; who are likewise enjoined carefully and strictly to observe and perform the same, under the Penalty aforesaid." Survivals of this manner of directing travelers appear in the various " Notch Roads " still to be found in some counties of the state. Along at least one of these, the " Three Notch Road " in southern Maryland, notches, some of a remote date, may still be discerned in the bark of many of the oldest oaks as shown in Plate XII. A considerable advance in methods of construction is indicated by the detailed provisions as to the width and the " grubbing " of the roads and the erection of bridges. 1 The use of carts for freight trans- portation by land was becoming more general in the thickly settled parts of the Province, although travelers still journeyed almost exclu- sively upon horseback. Although the provisions of the act of 1704 are more detailed than those of the law of 1666, the general principle of procedure was not materially altered; overseers were still appointed by the County Courts. One important difference, however, was that while the 1 The overseers of the highways were frequently hindered in repairing bridges by the refusal of the owners of the adjacent lands to permit them to cut trees for that purpose. Therefore, in 1724, the overseers were au- thorized, by a law [chap, xiv], supplementary to that of 1704, to make use of any trees, except those fit for clapboards or cooper's timber, for building or repairing any bridge maintained at a public or county expense; i. e., for which appropriations were made distinct from those for highways. 122 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND earlier act authorized the County Court to levy tobacco or labor to be assessed equally upon the taxables of each county, the later law imposed a fine for non-attendance when summoned by an overseer to work upon the highways. The recovery of these fines proved vex- atious. Hence in 1723 1 the prosecution of such fines in the County Court was stopped and the determination of the penalty left to any one justice who must keep a list of such determinations and return the same every year to the Court, to be levied on execution by the sheriff, if unpaid. THE ROADS " ASCERTAINED." Another important innovation of the act of 1704 was the require- ment that the justices should once a year " ascertain and set down " in their records the public roads of their respective counties. Occa- sionally, when the County Clerk was not too much occupied, this order was obeyed, but such entries are few and scattered. In view of the rarity and local interest of these " ascertainments " of roads, the following have been transcribed: CHARLES COUNTY. " The Publick Roads of Charles County Nominated (September 14th, 1697)." " From Newton's Point to Pyskyawaxon to William Marshall's and from thence to William Thompson's and soe to ye head of Port Tobacco Creek; thence to Nangemy Mill, and from ye said Mill to Mr. Randolph Hinson's and so round to Mattawoman, and from thence to ye head of Port Tobacco Creeke again, and thence to ye Court-house of this County, and from ye aforsd William Marshall's to ye Mill at ye head of Wicomico River, and so over ye head of ye said River down to Budd's Creek and from ye Mill at ye head of Wicomico River aforesaid up to ye Court-house of this County, and from ye Court-house ye road that goeth to Piscattaway to ye uttmost bounds of the County and out of ye said Roade about three miles above ye Court- house a new Roade to be Cleared betweene Henry Dreydens Quarter & Richard Brightwells Quarter to goe to Annapolis to ye bounds of Prince George County, and from ye Court-house ye Roade to ye bridges over Zachyah Swamp, and from thence to Widdow Walters, and from thence to Benedict Leonard Town, and from thence up to James Bigger's and from Budd's Creek to ye bridges over Piles his fresh branch and from thence up to Major Boaremans Quarter and soe to ye utmost bounds of ye County towards Annapolis that way." 1 Bacon's Laws of Maryland, 1723, chap. xvii. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 123 CECIL COUNTY. " The Court ascertains all ye publique Roads of this Coty Vizt. Nov. ye 16, 1710. " From ye Cot house to ye ferry of Bohemia ye one leading directly to Franklins point ye other by ye way of y e white Marsh, & soe to Broxsons by ye way of Mr. Norris's Mill & another leading by ye way of John Running- ton's to ye head of Bohemia, another from ye Cort house to ye head of Sas- safras, Another from Wm. Davis's to ye Cross Paths nigh y head of Bo- hemia, another from sd Crosspaths to Vanbebbers Mill & from thence to Jn Chicks & from thence to Smith's Mill & from thence to Susquehannah ferry, from thence to Turkey point to Smith's Mill, from Turkey Cock hill to the head of North East River from ye North side of Bohemia ferry to John Chicks from ye Maine Road where it strikes of upon ye Manner Road to ye head of Back Creek, above where Hanse Marens formerly lived & from thence the highest way to Smith's Mill y e road from ye northside of Bo- hemia ferry to Elk Ferry, and from ye northside of Elk ferry to ye head of North East River." ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY. August Court, 1734. " The following Roads are Deemed and ascertained by the Justices of this Court to be publick Roads (Viz), from Annapolis over Severn Bridge to Patapsco Ferry from Annapolis to Huntington, from Annapolis to Elk Ridge from Annapolis round the head of South River From Appapolis to Soxith River ferry from Severn Bridge to Bells Mill from Elk Ridge Road to Indian Landing From Bells Mill to South River Ferry from South River Ferry to Queen Annes Ferry from South River Ferry to the Bay Side Road that leads to fishing Creek and from South River Ferry the Road that leads through the Mannour from Severn Ferry to Long Bridge by the Chappel to the Mountain, from Severn Ferry round the head thereof from Patapsco Falls to Rowle's from Deep Run to Patapsco ferry from London Town to Pigg point Ferry from London Town to Lyons Creek from the head of Road River Hunda to Queen Annes Ferry from Henry Ridge- ley's to the landing at Patapsco at the Mill thereof from William Ridgeley's to the said Landing at the head of Patapsco from Catlins old fields to Car- rolls Mannour From Catlins Old Fields to the Locust Thicket." The Ferries are ascertained as follows: " South River from Crown Point to the usual landing at London Town, from Hughes Landing to ^loals & Giles Points. Patapsco. Pigg Point." EARLY " ROLLING ROADS." Two years after the removal of the capital to Annapolis the Assem- bly, as a part of their scheme for developing Annapolis into a thriv- ing port, ordered the construction of four " rolling roads " for the 124 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND transportation of tobacco in cask into the town. Provision for some of these " rolling roads " was made by nearly every County Court. " In order to pass the tobacco hogsheads safely over the ' rolling roads ' it was necessary that they should be made and hooped in the strongest manner; the tobacco after being dried and stripped from the stems was packed tightly in the hogsheads and ' headed ' up; these were then rolled over and over by two men to each hogshead, to the place of shipment. The ' rolling roads ' were generally of a roundabout description, from the necessity of avoiding hills, and though long out of use, could be distinctly traced on Elkridge, after 1820. Several roads of this description are still distinguishable in Harford County." Later, these casks were fitted with shafts and hauled by oxen. EXEMPTIONS FEOM HIGHWAY SERVICE. An interesting feature of the road-law of the Province lay in the provisions concerning exemption from labor upon the roads. To en- courage the manufacture of iron, the Assembly in 1732 2 ordered that no white man or slave, employed about any iron work (unless he was also employed in raising tobacco),- should be obliged to work upon the roads or bridges. This privilege was abused; so in 1736 3 exemp- tion from labor on the roads was restricted to those constantly em- ployed in iron-works. The law was later amended, in 1750/ by requiring the owners of iron-works to send for road-work one out of every ten laborers they employed. Later, owners of water-mills were obliged to see to the repairs of the roads that crossed their property, but were exempt from other work upon the roads. On the other hand, overseers of the highways were excused from jury service while in pursuit of their official duties. 5 NOTE. The preceding extracts and references include all the legislation concerning highways enacted during the seventeenth and the first half of 1 Tyson, M. E. A Brief Account of the Settlement of Ellicott's Mills, p. 25 (Baltimore, 1865). - Bacon's Laws of Maryland, 1732, chap. xvii. This work includes the laws passed prior to 1764. ' 1736, chap. xvii. 1750, chap. xiv. 5 1715, chap, xxxvii. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 125 the eighteenth centuries, with the exception of occasional laws such as that of 1750 (chap, xv), to empower the Justices of Prince George's County Court, " to treat and agree with an undertaker or undertakers, to stop a breach now made, across the main road in Queen Anne Town." The use in this case of the word " undertaker " in the sense of " contractor " is inter- esting. COMMERCIAL GROWTH AND THE " WESTWARD MOVEMENT." MARYLAND TOWNED AND " UNTOWNED." The " ascertainments " of the seventeenth century in the Maryland County Court records impress one with the decidedly local character of the roads of that period, and the absence of the extensive highways of later times. A similar contrast with present conditions is to be seen in the dispersion of the colonial population and the non-existence of the many towns that are now to be found throughout the state. Both these contrasts, it will appear, have the same explanation. The colonists early felt the lack of some depots, or centers of com- merce, and endeavored to supply them. A description of Maryland written in the year 1670-1 states that " The Inhabitants (being in number at present about 16000) have begun the building of several Townes, which in a few yeares 'tis hoped may come to some perfection; as Calverton, Herrington and Harvy- Town, all Commodiously seated for the benefit of Trade and Con- veniency of Shipping; but the principal Town is Si. Maryes, seated on St. George's River, being beautified with divers well-built Houses, and is the chief place or seate of Trade for the Province" Soon the Legislature took up the idea, and within a few decades after 1683 ordered the erection of over one hundred " towns," all upon tidewater. 2 Within a quarter of a century, however, most of them had disappeared; some, indeed, had never actually existed; some 1 Blome, E. "A description of the Island of Jamaica; with other Isles and Territories in America, to which the English are related." London, 1672, p. 165. 3 Bacon's Laws, 1683, chap. v. 126 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND died a lingering death; some were " untowned," as a subsequent act expressed it, by the Assembly. That these fiat towns should fail was inevitable. " The innumerable rivers and creeks," says Dr. Wil- helm, " that ramify the state like the arterial system of the body caused the canoe and the pinnace to supersede the cart and the car- riage, and prevented the growth of the cross-road settlements as in the other colonies, and forced the planters to do their merchandising at the tide-water settlements." Not until the colonists had sought new lands away from the waterside could roads take the place of rivers, and, concentrating at points of vantage, foster in a natural growth the towns which refused to spring into life at the bidding of the Legis- lature. THE "WESTWARD MOVEMENT. During the royal government of the province " immigration, the principal cause of the rapid increase in population of the colony during the preceding era, had in a great degree ceased." In the second quarter of the eighteenth century settlement commenced anew. Just as in 1730 the settlements in Pennsylvania had pushed beyond Lancaster, so, too, in Maryland the " westward movement " had begun. Prince George's county, set off from Charles in 1695, 3 was in its turn reduced to definite limits by the separation of Frederick county in 1748. 4 In the meantime the gradual growth westward of the colonial settlements is seen in the records of the Prince George's County Court. Coincident with this growth came the extension of lines of com- munication. At November Court, 1712, the overseer of the New Scotland Hundred was directed to lay out and clear a road from the forks of the east branch of the Potomac to the upper lands of Rock creek. Sixteen years later the inhabitants of Monocacy Hundred petitioned for a road from the ford of Monocacy to the house of Mr. Nathan Wickham. In 1739 Meredith Davis claimed pay for keep- 1 Wilhelm. Local Institutions of Maryland. The Town, III. J. H. U., -Studies in Historical and Political Science, p. 405. - McMahon, History of Maryland, p. 273. ' McMahon, p. 92-3. Bacon's Laws, 1695, chap. xiii. 4 McMahon, p. 94. Bacon's Laws, 1748, chap. xv. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 127 ing a ferry over Monocacy on " the wagon road that conies by John Stull's to Monacosy." And in the same year there was presented to the Assembly the petition " of several Inhabitants at and above Monocasy Creek," " others at and about the Blue Ridge alias Chen- andore Mountain," others " about Monocasy above the Mountains of Potomac River," and still others of "" Potomac River on the back parts of Virginia," praying that " a good wagon road might be made at the public charge from the several places aforementioned to the city of Annapolis . . . for the more easy carriage of their grain, pro- visions and other commodities." The economic importance of such a connection was apparently not appreciated by the Lower House, which delayed consideration of this petition to another session.* THE MONOCASY [MONOCACY] ROAD. The section of Maryland mentioned in the petition just quoted had for some time been connected with Philadelphia by an important route of travel and traffic known as the Monocasy Road. This led from the western part of Virginia across the Potomac near the mouth of Conococheague creek, passing near Frederick and through Mo- nocasy, a German settlement supposed to have been near the town now called Oreagerstown, to the Pennsylvania line. 3 It is said that this road was originally an old Indian trail, later used extensively for pack-horse travel and by missionaries as a route connecting the western part of Virginia with the German settlement in Pennsylvania. 4 In 1739 the Monocasy Road, or certainly the Pennsylvania part of it, was laid out as a wagon-road, connecting at Lancaster with the road from Philadelphia. From Lancaster it ran westward, crossing the Susquehanna at Wright's Ferry, now Wrightsville, thence through the settlement upon the Big Codorus, afterwards laid out as York, thence through Hanover, crossing the Maryland line near Kreutz- 1 The Records of the County Court of Prince George's county repose in the attic of the Courthouse at Marlboro, mixed up with a ton or so of old paper, cases, accounts, etc. 1 L. H. Journals, 1720 to 1739, May 14. 1 Schulz. First Settlements of Germans in Maryland, pp. 5-6. * Gibson (Ed.). History of York Co., Pa., p. 321. 128 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND miller's Mill on Conewago creek, and so to the Potomac as described above. 1 This early connection with Philadelphia had done much to develop this part of Maryland. In 1745, the town of Frederick was laid out on lands belonging to Daniel Dulany of Annapolis, who had the economic welfare of Maryland much at heart. Other settlements had preceded this, and many followed. The soil was excellent, and one might see " turkish corn [maize or Indian corn] almost without manure, with stalks ten and more feet long." Soon highways were cleared between Frederick and Annapolis and between Frederick and Baltimore.! TRAVEL NORTH AND SOUTH. Meanwhile closer and more frequent communication was being established between Maryland and her neighbors on the north and south. Between the years 1705 and 1748 no less than fifteen ferries across the Potomac river into Maryland were established by the Assem- bly of Virginia. 4 From Philadelphia, Jonathan Dickinson writes, in 1717: " We have a settled post from Maryland and Virginia unto us, and goes through all our northern colonies, whereby advices from 'Gibson (Ed.). History of York Co., Pa., p. 514. It is probably the Mo- nocasy Road that is set down on the map as the " Great Philadelphia Wag- gon Road." In the Post Map of New England, New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, by Moll, dated 1730, which is one of the earliest to contain any indication of roads, this highway is continued only as far south as the Maryland line. Not much later it was paralleled by one from Winchester in Virginia to Shippensburg, Pa., across Maryland, further to the west. 3 Schulz. First Settlements, etc., p. 7. 8 Ibid., p. 12. 4 See Hening's Statutes at Large, passim, and especially the Ferry Act of 1748, vi, Hening, 18. Some of the more important of these Ferries were: 1705. Col. Wm. Fitzhugh's in Stafford Co., Va. 1720. From Col. Rice Hoe's to Cedar Pt., Md. 1732. From just below Quantico Creek to Col. Geo. Mason's in Md. 1740. From Dieg's Neck, Prince William Co., Va., to the lower side of Pamunky in Prince George's Co., Md. 1744. Evan Watkins, opposite mouth of " Canagochego." 1745. Wm. Clifton, Fairfax Co., Va., to Prince George's Co., Md. 1755. From land of Thos. Swearingen in Frederick Co., Va. 1755. From land of Lawrence Washington in Stafford Co., Va. 5 Watson. Annals of Philadelphia, vol. ii, p. 392. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 129 Boston unto Williamsburg in Virginia is complete in four weeks, from March to December, and in double that time in the other months of the year." Ten years later, " the mail to Annapolis is opened to go once a fortnight in summer and once a month in winter, via New Castle &c., to the Western Shore, and back to Eastern Shore; man- aged by William Bradford in Philadelphia, and by William Parks in Annapolis." Maps, newspapers and almanacs likewise make clear the constant increase of travel. The maps are more detailed. Another map by Moll of the same date (1730) as that mentioned above shows very roughly the post-road from Philadelphia across the Susquehanna and by the heads of the other rivers to Annapolis, thence to Marlboro, thence to Stafford C. TL, in Virginia, The maps of Evans (1749) 2 and of Fry and Jefferson (1757) indi- cate the main lines of travel through Maryland, and show that a con- siderable choice of route was possible. Also the Maryland Gazette contains many advertisement's illustrating the increase of intercolonial communication. In Evans' map the post-road runs from the Potomac to London Town, passing near Annapolis, with branches to and from that city, forming a triangle; then across the Magothy, with one branch passing around the head of Patapsco by Elkridge, and another crossing the Patapsco directly, and meeting the first at New Town; thence to Joppa, the mouth of the Susquehanna, Northeast, and Hollingsworth, whence one branch goes to Ogle Town, Pennsylvania, and another to New Castle, Delaware. Another road branches off just west of the Delaware line, and runs south to Georgetown, upon the Sassafras, and thence to New Town. Fry and Jefferson's map shows some variations from the others. The post-road crosses the Potomac at Belhaven, or Alexandria, and so to London Town and Annapolis. This is met at the Patuxent by another road frAm Charlestown [Port Tobacco] passing through Upper Marl- 1 Watson. Annals of Philadelphia, vol. ii, p. 392. - Mathews. Maps and Map-makers of Maryland. Maryland Geol. Survey, vol. ii, pp. 337-^SS. 130 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND boro. The route -is then similar to Joppa, passing to the northwest of the old site of Baltimore Town upon Bush river, then to the Susque- hanna, Principio, Charlestown and New Castle. The route down the Eastern Shore is also given. In June, 1729, John Carnan, at Bohemia Landing, advertises that in addition to a sloop and hands for the trade of the Chesapeake Bay, he likewise keeps carts and horses for carrying goods by land between the two bays of the Delaware and Chesapeake, that is, between Apo- quinomy and Bohemia Landing. At a later time, 1 William Clifton, of Fairfax county, Va., declares that all persons " may there be assured of a ready Passage over Potomack River, and Good Entertain- ment for Man and Horse; and as the Eiver is narrower in that part than below it may reasonably be allowed the most convenient and short road from Annapolis to Williamsburg." The distances are given as follows : Miles. Annapolis to South River Ferry ' 4 thence " Queen Anne 9 " Marlboro 9 " Broad Creek 16 " said Clifton's Ferry in Va 2 " Occoquan Ferry 16 " Acquia 18 " Fredericksburg Ferry 16 " Caroline C. H 20 " Burk's Ordinary 13 " New Castle 27 " New Kent C. H 20 " Fremeaux Ordinary - 14 " Williams 16 In all 200 Poor Richard's Almanac for 1733 gives "A Description of the Highways & Roads From Annapolis in Maryland to Philadelphia," 145 miles thus accounted : 1 Maryland Gazette, 1746, August 19. - Inn or Hotel. MAUYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY K51 Miles. Annapolis to Patapsco Ferry 30 thence " Gunpowder Ferry 20 " Susquehanna 25 " " Principio Iron-works 3 " North East 6 " Elk River 7 " New Castle 17 " " Christine Ferry 5 " Brandywyne 1 " Naamans Creek 9 " Chester 5 " Derby 9 " Philadelphia 8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NORTHERN MARYLAND. With the development of the means of intercourse came thicker- settlement. The northern part of the province now began to be set- tled rapidly. An extensive tobacco trade made the town of Joppa on the Gunpowder river for many years the commercial center of north- ern Maryland, and the numerous " Joppa roads " testify to the im- portance of these highways to the development of the town. The decline of Joppa was due to a variety of causes, one of which was the natural advantage in situation possessed by Baltimore, which owes its later development to influences similar to those that had built up the older port. Settlements increased also upon the borderland between Maryland and Pennsylvania, the debatable ground of Maryland history. About 1741, a way was opened between the settlement on the Conewago, Hanover, and that on the Patapsco, Baltimore Town. 1 This is the road shown on the maps as " Patapsco Road" and probably followed in the main the route of the present Hanover-Reisterstown-Baltimore road, with a branch road running to Elkridge. The settlers in York, Pennsylvania, also saw the advantage of communication with the Chesapeake. " The people," writes James Logan from Stenton to Thomas Penn, in August, 1743, " are very intent on y e thing and have opened a road to Patapsco. Some trading gentlemen there are- 1 Gibson (Ed.). History of York Co., Pa., p. 514. 132 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND desirous of opening a trade to York and y e Country adjacent. The inhabitants seem willing to close with them; and y e shortness of y e cut not being above 45 miles; from Philadelphia, they are about 90 miles, besides y e Ferriage over y e Susquehanna." The efforts of the trading gentlemen apparently met with suc- cess, for " as long ago as 1751, in the month of October, no less than sixty wagons loaded with flaxseed, came down to Baltimore from the back country." Five years later, sixty-one overseers were appointed by the Justice, each for one section of the road. 3 The resources of the interior had been discovered, highways to the waterside had been begun, and the development of Baltimore was assured. PACKHORSE vs. WAGON. The beginning of the westward movement was accompanied by a gradual change from packhorse to wagon transportation. This change was accomplished against strenuous opposition on the part of the pack- horse owners; just as a century later the wagoners themselves used in vain every effort to resist the extension of the railroads. A resident of Shearman Valley, Pa., who died in 1830, " aged nearly one hundred years, having lived a long life there among the Indians, . . . remem- bered seeing the first wagon arrive at Carlisle, arid the indignation it excited amongst the packers, as likely to ruin their trade! even the widening of the roads when first ordered, offended them ! " The first wagons, constructed at a period prior to the general devel- opment of iron-manufacture, were, it is said, made entirely of wood, the wheels being " sawed from trunks of the gum or buttonwood tree." Improved vehicles came with the larger production of iron, especially after the Assembly of Maryland had extended its aid to the iron-industry. 1 Gibson (Ed.). History of York Co., Pa.,.p. 514. * Morse, J. The American Geography, p. 466. 3 Balto. Co. Court Proceedings, 1756, 508ff. 4 Watson. Annals of Philadelphia, vol. ii, p. 122. " The pack-horses used to carry bars of iron on their backs, crooked over and around their bodies barrels were hung on them, one on each side." 5 Schulz. First Settlement of Germans in Maryland, p. 19. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 133 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. In the year 1749 Col. Thomas Cresap of Maryland, Lawrence and Augustine "Washington an<} Thomas Lee of Virginia, John Hanbury of London, merchant, and many other gentlemen of the two colonies and mother-country, obtained a charter from the British Government, under the name of The Ohio Company. 1 Into the broader history of this corporation it is here unnecessary to enter; by its scheme, how- ever, of trading with the far west, this company originated an idea which later was realized in the National Road, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. In all these enterprises the state of Maryland was particularly interested; hence an inquiry is warranted into the relations of the Ohio Company and of the French and Indian War to the development of highways in Maryland. EXPLORATION OF THE OHIO COUNTRY. In 1749 Christopher Gist was employed by the new company to explore the Ohio country. Leaving Wills Creek, where the company next year built a stone house, on October 31, Gist followed an old Indian trail, then the only route through the wilderness, and after a wide detour to the west and southwest returned some months later. 1 Two years afterward Thomas Cresap, who had settled at a deserted Indian village known as the Shawanese Old Town, " undertook to lay out the course of a good road from Wills Creek to the mouth of the Monongahela, now Pittsburg. He .employed as his assistant a friendly Indian, named Nemacolin." About this time the French Governor of Canada hastened to take every precaution to keep the English out of the Ohio country and establish the French there. 4 So open and energetic were the move- ments of the French that the Virginia government decided upon im- mediate opposition. Accordingly, in 1753, George Washington, then barely twenty-one years of age, was ordered to proceed to the fort 1 Lowdermilk. History of Cumberland, p. 27. * Lowdermilk, pp. 27-8. 3 Lowdermilk, p. 29. 4 Ibid., p. 40. 9 134 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND erected by the French upon the Ohio river, to deliver to its com- mander a letter from the Governor of Virginia, and incidentally to gather all the information he could concerning the strength of the French and the attitude of the Indian tribes. 1 Upon this, his first public mission, Washington proceeded to Wills Creek, Maryland, over what five years before was, " I believe, y e worst road that ever was trod by man or beast." He left Wills Creek, in company with Chris- topher Gist, November 15, 1753, and returned to Williamsburg on January 16, 1754, with a letter from the French Commandant to Governor Dinwiddie. The Governor and Council of Virginia then " unanimously concluded that immediate steps should be taken to repel the invasion of the French by force of arms." " SHADDOCK'S ROAD." The expedition now fitted out was put under the leadership of Col. Joshua Fry, with Washington second in command. Since Colonel Fry was killed as the result of a fall from his horse before he arrived at Wills Creek the entire responsibility fell upon Washington, who had gone ahead with the main body of the little army. From Winchester to Wills Creek, Washington was obliged to build the roads as he went and to make them passable for his horses and wagons; and he was bit- terly disappointed upon his arrival at Wills Creek to find that no pro- vision had been made for transporting the ammunition and stores across the mountains. 4 As it was impossible to stay where he was he resolved to push forward to the storehouse of the Ohio Company at Redstone Creek and there to erect fortifications and wait for reinforce- ments. Sixty men were sent ahead to make a road along the route blazed by Nemacolin and Col. Cresap, three years before. This road was afterwards known as Braddock's Road; but it was really con- structed by Washington as far as the Great Meadows, and " was the first road built across the mountains." 1 Lowdermilk, p. 41. 3 Washington's Journal, 1748. 3 Lowdermilk, p. 45. 4 Lowdermilk, pp. 48-9. 5 Lowdermilk, p. 53. Mr. L. " walked over several miles of this road, start- ing at Cumberland, in the summer of 1877, and clearly traced it as far as MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 135 Braddock's Expedition. General Braddock arrived in Hampton Roads February 20, 1755. 1 He proceeded to Williamsburg and then to Alexandria, where he held a conference with certain of the Colonial Governors. 1 The year before, Governor Sharpe of Maryland who, before General Braddock's coming, was in charge of the military operations against the French, had ordered the construction of a new road from Rock Creek to Wills Creek. 8 This was probably the road chosen for the regiment under Colonel Dunba-r, which was ordered to proceed to Frederick in Mary- land by the following route: Miles. To Rock Creek To Owen's Ordinary 15 To Dowdens 15 To Frederick 15 45 4 However, it is difficult to see just how Dunbar obeyed the direc- tion, " Within a few miles of the Minocasy across the Minocasy in a Float." Another regiment, commanded by Sir Peter Halkett, went direct from Alexandria to Winchester, Ya., following this course: the Six Mile House, on the National Eoad. The route pursued on leaving Wills Creek was along the valley in which Green St. extended now lies, the same being the exact course of the old National Pike. About a hundred yards east of Mr. Steele's house, and just where the Cresaptown Road now leads off southward, the road which Washington followed bore slightly to the North, and ran in almost a perfectly straight line to nearly the top of Wills Mountain, involving a very heavy grade and from there descended to the level of the Old Pike at Sandy Gap. In many respects the road was admirably chosen; it is as plain to-day as it was a hundred years ago not- withstanding trees of more than a foot in diameter are growing thickly in its bed. Having been used for sixty-five years, as the only road to the West, until 1818, when the National Pike was built, it became well worn " (p. 52). 1 Lowdermilk, p. 104. 2 Ibid., pp. 104-5. * Maryland Archives. Correspondence of Governor Sharpe, vol. i, pp. 77 and 97. * Braddock's Orderly Book. (Appendix of Lowdermilk, pp. 18-19.) 136 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND Miles. To ye old Court House 18 To Mr Colemans on Sugar Land Run where there is Indian Com, &c 12 To Mr Miners 15 To Mr Thompson ye Quaker wh ye is 3000 wt corn 12 To Mr They 's ye Ferry of Shanh 17 From Mr They's to Winchester 23 97 ' April 21 the General arrived in Frederick, Maryland, where he was joined by "Washington, whom he had appointed his aide-de-camp. Here Braddock discovered that he needed more wagons, and Franklin undertook to supply them. 2 " On the 30th of April (1755) Braddock left Fredericktown with his staff and a body-guard of light horse. Before leaving Alex- andria he had purchased of Governor Sharpe a chariot, one of the cumbersome carriages of that day, and was making his journey with a great deal of style which would have been better suited to the cultivated districts of England. He quickly discovered that the road was ill-adapted to a conveyance of that character, and did not hesi- tate to express his opinion by damning it heartily." The route followed by Col. Dunbar's regiment was April. Miles. 29th. From Fredk on ye road to Conogogee 17 30th. From that halting place to Conogogee 18 May. 1st. From Conogogee to John Evens 16 2nd. Kest. 3rd. To the Widow Baringer 18 4th. To George Polls 9 5th. To Henry Enock's 15 6th. Eest. 7th. To Cox's at ye mouth of little Cacaph 12 8th. To Col. Cresaps 8 9th. To Wills Creek 16 Total 129* 1 Braddock's Orderly Book. (Appendix of Lowdermilk, p. 23.) 2 Governor Morris had written from Philadelphia to Governor Sharpe, " there is a very good wagon road from this city to Watkins Ferry on Po- tomack," probably referring to the " Monocasy Road " already spoken of. It was by this route no doubt that Franklin sent to Braddock the needed wagons. 3 Lowdermilk, p. 114. 4 Braddock's Orderly Book. (Appendix of Lowdermilk, p. 27.) MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 137 From Wills Creek, or Fort Cumberland, the army followed the road made by Washington in the campaign of 1754 and first blazed by Cresap and Nemacolin in 1751; but through the "Narrows" at Cumberland Lieutenant Spendelow opened a new road along the east bank of Wills Creek, crossing the creek just above the mouth of Brad- dock run and rejoining the old road five miles west of Cumberland. Along this new road part of the army marched. " The difficulties of the march soon brought the General to appre- ciate the apprehension of Washington; the steep mountains, rocky roads, and ugly ravines incident to this new country were all beyond his anticipations. It became necessary to double up the teams in order to pull the wagons up the rough grades ; in some instances even this was impracticable, the seamen being obliged to draw them up by means of ropes and pulleys. Not more than three or four miles a day could be made and in order to avoid a further delay, where already weeks of precious time had been lost, Braddock eventually yielded to Washington's advice and sent back many of his wagons, taking the animals for packhorses, and transporting his stores in the only prac- ticable manner." ROAD FROM FORT FREDERICK TO FORT CUMBERLAND. After the erection of Fort Frederick had begun in 1756, the neces- sity of a short route from Fort Frederick to Fort Cumberland soon became apparent. Governor Sharpe favored it, 2 and upon the failure of the army to perform the work, he brought the necessity of con- structing this work before the Assembly. In December, 1758, after the capture of Fort Du Quesne, a committee was ordered to inquire the cost of connecting Fort Frederick and Fort Cumberland by a wagon-road and their report was as follows: " Your committee 3 have made an Enquiry into the situation of the present wagonroad from Fort Frederick to Fort Cumberland, and are of the opin- ion that the distance by that Road from one Fort to the other is at least Eighty miles, and find that the wagons which go from one Fort to the other are obliged to pass the Potowmac River twice, and that for one third of the year they can't pass without boats to set them over the river. ^owdermilk, pp. 138-9. J Maryland Archives. Correspondence of Governor Sharpe, vol. ii, p. 206. 3 Assembly Proceedings, Dec. 15, 1758, p. 74. 138 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND " Your committee 1 have also made an Enquiry into the condition of the Ground where a road may most conveniently be made to go altogether upon the North Side of the Potowmack, which will not exceed the distance of Sixty-two miles at the expense of 250 Ibs. current money as may appear from the following Estimate, viz.: " An Estimate of the Expense of clearing Road from Fort Frederick to Fort Cumberland, and the Several Different Stages: For clearing from s, d. Fort Frederick to Licking Creek, 3% miles Licking Creek to Praker's Creek, 8y 2 miles 12 Praker's to Sideling Hill Creek, 12 miles 16 For a bridge over Sideling Hill Creek 60 Sideling Hill Creek to Fifteen Mile Creek, 4 miles. . . 22 Fifteen Mile Creek to Town Creek, 15 miles 140 Town Creek to Col. Cresaps, a good road, 4 miles. . . Col. Cresaps to Fort Cumberland, wants clearing, 15 miles . 250 " Your committee are of the opinion that a road through Maryland will contribute much to lessen the expense of carrying Provisions and warlike stores from Fort Frederick to Fort Cumberland, and will induce many people to travel and carry on a trade in and through the Province, to and from the back country." Governor Sharpe and the Assembly for some time disagreed con- cerning this and other appropriations, but the new road was finally authorized. More significant than its timely construction, however, is the fact that the utility, and indeed, the necessity of an easy com- munication between the Ohio country and the East was popularly un- derstood even at that early date. The cardinal importance of this idea, though forgotten by many, was ever present to Washington, and to him, perhaps more than to any one else, was due the ultimate attain- ment of a great highway across the Alleghanies. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT AND LATER HIGHWAY LEGISLATION. In Maryland the period intervening between the Erench and In- dian War and the Eevolution was a time of intense political excite- ment. The passage of the Stamp Act called forth many champions 1 Assembly Proceedings, Dec. 15, 1758, p. 74. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 139 of the colonial rights, among whom was the younger Dulany, whose " Considerations on the Propriety of Taxing America " was often quoted by the elder Pitt in his speeches in defense of the colonies. 1 Hardly had this excitement been allayed by the repeal of the ob- noxious legislation when local, but no less bitter, controversies arose to absorb the public interest until differences at home were at last merged in the greater issues of the Revolution. Under these circumstances it is remarkable that time was found to initiate a policy of internal improvement which was interrupted, indeed, by the Revolution, but which afterwards was steadily pur- sued until the development of the steam railroad. CANAL SCHEMES. The pre-revolutionary period was productive of ideas rather than of accomplishments. The project of extending commercial intercourse by artificial waterways was not a novel one. A canal to cross the Eastern Shore peninsula had been proposed in the days of Augustine Herrman, but after his death the scheme seems to have been aban- doned. Canal schemes were revived, however, in the decade pre- ceding the Revolution. In 1768, Sir Henry Moore planned a canal for the Mohawk Valley in New York; the next year Richard Henry Lee laid before the Assembly of Virginia a similar proposition in regard to the Potomac, 2 and a year later investigations were made under the authority of the American Philosophical Society with a view to opening water-communication between the bays of Chesa- peake and Delaware. 8 1 Tyler. The Literary History of the American Revolution, vol. i, pp. lllfl. * Chevalier. Histoire et Description des Voies de Communication aux Etats Unis, vol. i, p. 131. Paris, 1840. The idea of improving the naviga- tion of the Potomac had originated with George Washington as a result of the acquaintance with the character and resources of the Ohio country which he had gained during the French and Indian War. After the Revolu- tion the matter was again urged by Washington, and the " Potomac Com- pany " formed an event of great significance for the future national de- velopment. (Acts of Assembly, 1784, chap, xxxii.) Almost contemporaneous was the incorporation of the Susquehanna Com- pany for the purpose of making that river navigable. (1783, chap, xxix.) 8 Trans., o. s., vol. i, Philadelphia, 1770. 140 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND HIGHWAY LEGISLATION. It was, however, to highway rather than to canal improvement that the Assembly of Maryland directed their attention. Hitherto the legislation regarding highways had been comprehended in two or three fundamental laws variously amended and supplemented, but from 1765 on, one is confronted with a continuous increase in the number of road-laws mainly due to the growth of population ; the divergence in the needs of different sections of the state, making uniformity no longer practicable; and the demand for improved and shortened roads. To present in detail all the laws enacted as a result of these influ- ences is neither necessary nor profitable, and surely not interesting. In the complexity of subsequent legislation, however, it is possible to distinguish certain general ideas or principles in accordance with which a classification such as the following may be adopted: 1. Laws regarding single roads. 2. Laws regarding groups of roads. 3. Legislation for separate counties. 4. General legislation for the state. 5. The development of the turnpike system. 6. Legislation for the National Road. The first four divisions relate especially to legislation near the close of the eighteenth century, while the fifth and sixth are more closely associated with the development at the beginning of the present cen- tury. The latter will be discussed at somewhat greater length. LAWS REGARDING SINGLE ROADS. The laws concerning single roads began with the passage in 1765 of an act 1 to establish a road from Hunting Creek in Dorchester county to Dover in Talbot county; in 1774 followed an act 2 requiring the justices of Somerset county to appoint persons to lay out a road from the Free School in Somerset county through the forest to Den- ston's Dams, there to intersect the main road leading from Princess Anne to Snow Hill. 1 Chap. xv. 2 Chap _ xxv . Unless otherwise indicated references are to Acts of Assembly. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY After the Revolution, the number of laws of this sort steadily^m 1 " creased; it is possible, nevertheless, to distinguish some differences in kind which may be best illustrated by a few examples. The first includes laws for roads which at the present day would be considered private roads. Six acts of the year 1783 exhibit this peculiarity. These provide for a road from the windmill and dwell- ing of Nathaniel Manning, of Dorchester county; * a road from John Goff's Mill in Frederick county; 2 a road from Dr. Ephraim Howard's tilting-forge at Elkridge; 8 the fourth a road from "William Mat- thew's Mill in Baltimore county; 4 in these four cases to the nearest main road ; a public road in Baltimore county, to form a cross-connec- tion between two main roads; " and another mill-road in Dorchester county." For each of these a separate law was enacted. Page after page of the statute-books is filled with these laws con- cerning roads to mills, plantations, churches, iron-works, forges, and many other places of a special or individual character. In cases where the new roads were especially advantageous to individuals those so benefited were usually made responsible for their preservation and repair. Another class of laws relates to the construction of more important roads. These sometimes connected a town with some previously exist- ing highway. In 1782, for example, the construction of a main road was authorized "from Elizabethtown [Hagerstown], in Washington County, through Charlton's Gap in the South Mountain, on a strait line, till it intersects the road leading from Frederick-town to York- town in Pennsylvania," which " would facilitate the carriage of pro- duce " from the western country to Baltimore, " by which means the subjects of this State would be better enabled to pay their taxes, and would increase the trade of the State in general." Other roads connected a town with a watercourse. Such a road was the highway from the town of Talbot in Talbot county to Cow Landing, on Third Haven Creek, for which provision was made in 1787." 1 1783, chap. v. * Chap. vi. 3 Chap. xv. * Chap. xi. Nov. Session. 5 Chap, xii, Nov. Session. 8 Chap, xiv, Nov. Session. 7 Chap. xli. April Session. Chap. xxiv. December Session. 142 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND Still others joined one town with another. In 1796 a committee of gentlemen from Prince George's and Queen Anne's counties and Annapolis was appointed to examine the country between Washing- ton and Annapolis and to ascertain the best route for a road to con- nect the two cities. 1 The next year, 1797, other commissioners were authorized to lay out the road as reported, at the expense of the two counties. 2 In a third group may be classed laws establishing or recognizing as public highways roads previously existing. In 1792, the road " from time immemorial " leading from Baltimore to Frederick by Dillon's Fields, Ellicott's Upper Mills, Cumming's new buildings, Fox's the Eed Horse Tavern, Cook's Tavern, and Poplar Spring, was definitely established as a public road. 3 To a fourth class may be assigned a few laws regarding two roads that marked the boundary line between two adjoining counties. In 1792 2 certain commissioners, three from Dorchester county and two from Caroline county, were appointed to open a main road and change the old road, formerly the divisional line of the two counties, the new road to serve the same end. In 1801 certain 4 similar changes were made in the divisional road between Somerset and Worcester counties. In a fifth class may be included those laws which refer to roads constructed at a later date to serve as cross-connections between lines of turnpike roads. Such a road was authorized by an act of 1799 5 to run from Widow Mortar's tavern on Hanover turnpike by George Kerlinger's mill and Hoofman's grist and paper-mill to Benedict Hunt's tavern on the York turnpike. Laws relating to roads of a chiefly historical interest may form a sixth class. Such was the old Monocacy road, which is the subject of one act of 1789. ' The same provision was made for the repair of the road from Port Tobacco to Leonardtown, one of the oldest roads in the state. 7 Finally, in a seventh class, may be mentioned the post-roads, par- ticularly the main road between the North and the South, which required not a little legislation. In 1787 commissioners were ap- 1 Chap. xci. 2 Chap. xxxv. Chap. xix. * Chap. vi. Chap. liv. * Chap. vii. December Session. 7 Chap. xii. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 143 pointed to open and amend the post-road from Havre de Grace to Bal- timore-town, and to erect a toll-bridge, for which they might pay by collecting money by private subscriptions, or by a lottery, or by pledg- ing the tolls to be collected. 1 That this legislation was not as suc- cessful as might have been hoped will appear hereafter. Very similar to the legislation for single roads and, therefore, appropriately included under the present heading, is that concerning bridges. These laws, of which it is unnecessary to give specific exam- ples, made provisions for bridges of varying kinds and importance. Some acts order the erection and repair of necessary bridges by the counties in which they are situated ; others confer charters for bridges upon private persons or upon corporations. The constant interference of the General Assembly in these pri- vate and often unimportant cases is to be explained by the limited powers of the County Courts. As the counties, one by one, obtained separate laws, the powers of their courts were greatly increased, and the burden of the legislature correspondingly lightened. This sub- ject will be more appropriately treated under a later head. LEGISLATION FOR GROUPS OF ROADS. The first movement towards the improvement of the material and bed of the roads in Maryland was expressed by legislative provision for the construction or repair of groups of important market roads. In 1774, " an improvement of the principal Market Roads in the Counties of Anne Arundel, Baltimore, and Frederick," would, it was thought, " render the Intercourse and Carriage between the Parts of the Province distant from Navigation, and the Places from whence the produce of those parts were and might be most conveniently ex- ported, much easier and cheaper, whereby Trade would be increased and the Settlement, Cultivation and Improvement of Lands would be encouraged and promoted." Part of the bills of credit to be issued in pursuance of a previous act was therefore appropriated for a loan to the inhabitants of Anne Arundel, Baltimore and Frederick coun- 1 Chap. xxix. Slight changes were made by acts of 1791, chap, xxxi, and 1796, chap. Iviii; and the act of 1800, chap. Ix, altered the course of the road between Bladensburg and Washington. 144 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND ties, in sums not exceeding $2,000, $10,666.66, and $8,000 for these counties, respectively, " towards opening, straightening, widening, repairing and putting in order the following roads, viz. : " The road leading from the mouth of Conococheague Creek to Frederick Town, crossing, the South Mountain at the Gap commonly called Turner's Gap, the road from Hagerstown to intersect the said road at or near the Western Side of the South Mountain. " The road from Frederick-Town leading by Dowdens to George-Town. " A road from the mouth of Watts Branch to George-Town aforesaid. " The road from Frederick-Town leading over Hues Ford on Monocasy and crossing Patuxent Eiver at Green's Bridge to Annapolis. " The road from Frederick-Town leading over the said Ford over Mo- nocasy, and crossing Patapsco at or near Hoods Mills to Baltimore-Town. " A road leading from the Catoctin Mountain through the Pipe Creek Set- tlement by Roysters (Eeisters-town) to Baltimore-Town aforesaid. " The road from Koysters to Hanover as far as the Province Line. " These roads are divided into eleven districts, for each of which three su- pervisors are appointed and the maximum amount thereon to be expended definitely fixed. The supervisors are to employ laborers or to contract with others to do the work, and draw their orders on the Commissioners for emitting Bills of Credit, for the money to be expended. For the repayment of the Bills of Credit, the Sheriffs of the respective Counties are to collect per annum In Anne Arundel 4 Ibs. of tobacco In Baltimore 12 Ibs. In Frederick 8 Ibs. from each taxable inhabitant, and are to sell the same in August of each year in open court. The supervisors are to have the roads well cleared, grubbed and stoned, 40 feet wide except the road leading to Annapolis, which is to be 30 feet wide and cause all necessary bridges and causeways to be made, and trenches and ditches to be cut for draining off the water. The roads when completed are to be public roads." A peculiar provision is that " in the middle of the Watts Branch George- Town road, until it intersects the Frederick-George-Town road, large posts shall be well set up in sight of and not exceeding 100 yards distance from each other. When this road is finished, no wagon or carriage of burthen with wTieels of a less tread than 5 inches, shall pass upon the part of this road that lies to the North of the posts erected, under a penalty of 20s. cur- rent money. The supervisors are empowered to call for a jury of condemnation to assess the value and damages of improved land through which, in their esti- mation, it is necessary for the road to pass." 1 A law of 1787 2 provided that several turnpike roads should be laid out in Baltimore county. One of these was to go toward Frederick 1 1774, chap. xxi. 2 Chap, xxiii. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XIII. Fro. 1. BREAKING STOKE BY HAND, WASHINGTON COUNTY, Tilt Friedenwald Co. FlO. 2. HAULING WITH TWO-WHEEL OX-CARTS, PORT TOBACCO, CHARLES COUNTY. SURVIVALS OF EARLY ROAD-METHODS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 145 Town; one to Reisterstown, branching there in one direction to Win- chester Town [Westminster ?], and in another to Hanover, Pennsyl- vania, and a third road was to go to York. For some time, however, little progress was made on these roads and, as they were really turn- pike roads, a detailed treatment of them may be left to a later section. In 1790 some of the principal market and post-roads in Cecil, Bal- timore, Montgomery, Frederick and Washington counties were thought to be " very indirect, much out of repair," and to require considerable improvement. Therefore, an act ' was passed to im- prove the following roads : (1) From Susquehanna Lower Ferry to the Ford at the Furnace, thence to Charlestown, thence to the bridge at the head of North East, and thence through Elk-town towards Christiana to the Delaware line [the Post Road]. (2) From the head of Elk to Rock Creek, to head of Bohemia, to War- wick, to head of Sassafras. (3) From Baltimore Town, westward of Randallstown through the " bar- rens " of Baltimore County towards Liberty-Town as far as the Frederick County Line, thence to Frederick, crossing the Monocacy at the Ferry next above the mouth of Israel's Creek. (4) From the end of Patrick Street, Frederick, crossing the Washington County Line by Peter Bainbridge's, to Elizabeth-Town [Hagerstown]. (5) From Middletown to Williams-port, by way of Turner's Gap. (6) From Williams-port to Elizabeth-Town. (7) From Elizabeth-Town through Charlton's Gap in the South Mountain, to Liberty-Town, nearly intersecting the road from Baltimore. (8) From Elizabeth-Town to Hancock-Town. (9) From Frederick over Rice's Ford on Monocacy by Hobbs, through Bal- timore County to the line of Anne Arundel, to meet the turnpike to Fred- erick provided for by the law of 1787. 2 (10) From Frederick to Harper's Ferry. (11) From Frederick to Georgetown. (12) From Georgetown to the mouth of Monocacy, thence to the Court House of the said County. (13) From Elizabeth-town to the Pennsylvania Line, in Nicholson's Gap. To cover the expense the Justices of Cecil, Frederick, and Washington Counties, were to levy not more than 3s. 9d. on every 100 of assessable property, and the Justices of Montgomery County, not more than 2s. 8 The next year, 1791, witnessed the enactment of several " group " laws, of which the most important was that " to strengthen and amend 1 Chap, xxxii. * Chap, xxiii. * See laws of 1791, chap. Ixxxii; 1793, chap, xl; 1795, chap, xxviii; 1797, chap. xxix; 1798, chaps, xxxii, xlix; 1799, chap, xxxii; 1800, chap, xxii, all of which- in some way modify this act. 146 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND the public roads in Harford county, and for other purposes." This act provided for the roads specified as follows: (1) From the Pennsylvania Line at the intersection of the road from Peach Bottom Ferry over the Susquehanna, to Thomas Underbill's mill on Deer Creek. (2) From Bald Friars Ferry to Belle Air, thence towards Baltimore, to the Baltimore County Line at the Little Falls of Gunpowder. (3) From Belle Air to Lower X Roads, thence to Smith's Ferry on the Sus- quehanna. 1 In 1793 five commissioners were appointed to lay out several roads from Denton, the seat of justice of Caroline county, to different parts of that county, 2 to be added, when completed, to the public roads. These " group " laws seem to mark a transitional stage in the high- way legislation of the state. As they anticipated the turnpike laws in requiring improvement of the road-beds, so they were in some cases closely allied to county laws. The two laws last cited exhibit this characteristic. In these cases the Legislature seems to have wished to give to the county a start by the construction of the more important roads, leaving the future care of them to the county. But with the establishment of complete county road-laws and the development of the turnpikes, the necessity for this class of legislation appears to have passed away, and few examples of " group " laws of any importance are to be found. LEGISLATION FOR SEPARATE COUNTIES After the French and Indian "War, the rapidity with which the settlements increased in northern Maryland soon made that section one of the most prosperous in the Province. As was indicated in the preceding division, the " principal market roads," for which special provision was first made by a " group " law, lay, to a large extent, in Baltimore county. So, eight years before, the need of an improve- ment of local transportation in Baltimore county led to the passage of the first county law. 1 Chap. Ixx. Other " group " laws passed in 1791 were, chap, xxx for cer- tain mill roads in Baltimore county; chap, liii for certain roads in Anne Arundel county. 2 1793, chap. liv. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL, SUKVEY 147 In 1766 * the inadequacy of the laws for the maintenance of high- ways in Baltimore county was recognized, and the justices were au- thorized to appoint as many overseers as they thought necessary, and these were empowered to hire a sufficient number of laborers for the repair of the roads. To cover the expense a tax of 10 Ibs. of tobacco per poll was laid upon all the taxable inhabitants of the county, be- sides the sheriff's salary of 6 per cent for collection. The overseers were to receive 6 Ibs. of tobacco per day and render accounts to the justices. Carts or wagons loaded with iron ore should not pass within five miles of the iron-works to which they belonged, except when starting upon or returning from a longer journey, unless the felloes of their wheels were five inches broad at the least. No new gates were to be erected on or over any public road where then there were none. This act, it will be observed, substitutes in Baltimore county the employment of hired labor paid for by a fixed tax for the compulsory attendance required by the earlier general law. It is notable, also, as the beginning of separate legislation for the different counties; since its enactment a permanent general system has not prevailed. The counties of Anne Arundel and Frederick were provided with separate laws by one section of the act of 1774 2 mentioned above. The overseers and taxables in these counties were made chargeable to labor upon the highways, generally for not more than six months in each year. It was made permissible, however, for any one personally chargeable, or responsible for others, to employ substitutes, and such substitution was made imperative in the case of " every female negro for whom he [the master] shall be chargeable." It is curious that special provision was made for eight-hour labor. When, after the Revolution, the state returned with vigor to the development of its natural resources, the necessity for the improve- ment of local communication became urgent. Consequently the ten- dency to separate legislation heralded by the acts to which reference has been made becomes more and more apparent. In 1791* the Jus- 1 Chap, xxxii. An Act for Amending and Repairing the Public Roads in Baltimore County. * 1774, chap. xxi. * Chap. Ixvi. 148 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND tices of Cecil county were empowered to " streighten and amend " the public roads, to appoint commissioners to inspect them, and to levy not more than 2s. 6d. current money for the first year, and not more than Is. 6d. for succeeding years, on every 100 of assessable property in the county. They were to pay the proceeds thereof to the commis- sioners, who should, within four months, lay out, etc., the roads for which they were appointed, and return plats of the same, receiving for their service a reasonable compensation. The Court is to agree for necessary land at a rate not exceeding 3 per acre; if such agreement is impossible, there shall be issued a warrant to the sheriff to summon a jury of condemnation, of 12 freeholders. The Com- missioners are given power to appropriate funds, and if expedient, to accept the substitution of labor for the payment of the tax. The Justices are em- powered to appoint one or more supervisors to superintend, direct and con- tract for the making of the roads. Every supervisor has to bond for at least double the amount for which he is responsible, and is to render an account to the Justices yearly, receiving 9s. 6d. per diem of actual em- ployment. The Commissioners are given power to contract in writing with any per- son or persons for the necessary bridge or road-building. The provisions of the " group " law of 1790 * are repealed so far as they relate to Cecil county. The complications of this method of highway administration may account for its modification two years later. In 1T93 2 the annual tax for Cecil county was raised to 3s. 9d. on every 100, the commis- sioners were dispensed with, and their powers were transferred to the supervisors appointed by the court. Meanwhile similar laws were enacted for Harford 8 and Queen Anne's counties. Attempts at Uniformity. The next year, 1794, witnessed an important attempt to satisfy the various wants of the counties in one law by prescribing uniform methods of administration, with different rates of taxation/ The existing laws regarding road management were characterized as " inadequate, partial and unjust," and the Justices of Peace in the respective counties were authorized to levy on each 100 of property, as follows : 1 Chap, xxxii. Chap. Ixxiii. 8 1791, chap. Ixx; 1793, chap. Ixv. * 1794, chap. lii. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 149 In Baltimore county, not more than Is. 3d. annually. " Talbot " " 3 s. 6 d. " "Somerset " " 1 s. 6 d. " " Cecil 1 " " 3s. " '< Prince George's county " 3s. 9 d." " " Queen Anne's " '" 3s. " "Frederick " " 3s. 9 d. " " Harford " " 3s. 9 d. " "Caroline " " 2s. 6 d. " " Montgomerj- " " 2s. 6 d. " ".Allegany " " 3 s. 9 d. " " Kent " " 2 s. 6 d. " The Justices may permit the substitution of labor at the regular rate for payment of the tax. They shall make out lists of taxables in each hundred of the county, and shall furnish the Collector with copies thereof. Upon the application of two-thirds of the inhabitants of the hundred through which any road passes, the Justices shall appoint as Commission- ers three disinterested persons, to alter or straighten the roads not more than 40 feet wide clear of ditches. In case of disagreement as to the value the Sheriff shall by warrant summon the usual jury of 12 men to assess damages. The Justices shall appoint supervisors who shall give bond for the performance of their duties. The laws of 1704 and 1753 are repealed, as regards these counties. The acts of 1791 for Cecil county and 1793 for Queen Anne's county are repealed; but so much of the acts of 1787 and 1790 as relates to Baltimore county is not repealed. This act of 1794, though professedly an attempt at uniformity, admitted an exception to the general law by superimposing, in Alle- gany county, the old plan of compulsory labor upon the new methods of a fixed county tax. Any person summoned might, however, com- pound at the rate of 3s. 9d. per diem, and complete exemption from labor might be obtained by the annual payment of 15s. current money. The next year the provisions of this law were extended 2 to Anne Arundel and Washington counties, as they had " proved beneficial " in the others. The rates to be levied in certain counties were changed as follows: Baltimore 5s. Somerset 2s. Cecil 6s. Kent 3s. 6d. 1 Special provision is made that one-third of the money levied on the in- habitants on the east side of Elk Eun shall be expended on the same locality. * Chap, xliii. 10 150 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND The Justices of Baltimore, Cecil, Montgomery, Washington, Talbot, Prince George's, Kent, Somerset, Frederick and Anne Arundel were given full power to contract for roads, etc., and to appoint persons to review them when finished. The provision in the former act as to the distribution of the taxes is re- pealed as is also the " group " law of 1790 * authorizing the Justices of Mont- gomery county to levy a tax of 2s. on every & 100. This power is now trans- ferred to the Levy Court. Since a sufficient number of hands cannot be hired in Queen Anne's and Caroline counties, supervisors in these counties are authorized to require as many male slaves as may be necessary; but not more than one-half of the number of slaves belonging to one person are to be summoned the same day. Other unimportant particulars follow. Reaction towards Separate Legislation. By these two acts a degree of generality was given to the law, which now applied to all the then existing counties except St. Mary's, Charles, Calvert, Dorchester and Worcester. The chief characteristic of the law as now in effect was, as has been seen, the substitution of a regular property tax for compulsory labor on the highways. One would naturally expect to find the remaining counties adopting this method, but the exact opposite is the case, for in the following year Somerset county drops out, and, with Worcester, goes back to the law of 1704 with its supplements. 2 The system provided is more detailed but the principles are the same. Apparently the change was not im- mediately successful, as the law regarding Somerset county was modi- fied four times within the next five years. a The same year 4 some alterations were made also in the existing provisions for Cecil, Talbot and Kent counties. In Cecil additional provisions were made concerning the assessment of damages when new roads were opened. In Kent and Talbot it was found that a sufficient number of hands could not be hired at reason- able wages to repair the public roads, which, therefore, remained in bad condition, while the supervisors were subjected to a fine for neglect. The latter were consequently empowered to require of owners as many able-bodied slaves as might be necessary to work on the roads. 5 1 Chap, xxxii. 2 1796, chap. lix. 3 By the acts of 1797, chap. Ixxxiv; 1798, chap, xxxviii; 1799, chap, v; 1801, chap. Ixxxiii. * 1796, chap. Ix. 6 By the same act the power of contracting granted the courts in these three counties by the supplementary act of 1795 is extended to roads laid out prior to the passage of that act. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 151 A year later the law for Talbot county is again changed, 1 the present odes being " too expensive." The Justices of the Peace are to meet, and in a well-bound book set down what are the public "roads of Talbot county, and nominate overseers, not more than five in each hundred. A fine of $10 is provided for refusal to act as overseer, but no member of the legislature, magistrate, preacher or teacher, nor practicing attorney, nor physician, nor commissioner of the tax, shall be liable to such service, nor shall any one be liable to serve more than once in three years. Fines for non-performance of duty are provided, and after April 1st following, all former acts respecting Talbot county are repealed. In 1798 Caroline county 2 also returned to the labor system, by which every free male inhabitant over twenty-one years of age was made to serve in road-repairing. So Kent county, which, it has been shown, began in 1794 8 with the property tax system, changed the rate in 1795, 4 and in 1796 5 added compulsory slave labor, now, in 1799,' goes over entirely to the labor system. The overseers appointed yearly by the Justices are authorized to call upon all free male inhabitants between the ages of 20 and 50 and upon all male servants and slaves over 16 to labor upon the highways. The over- seers are given power to contract, etc., and the Justices, to turn old roads upon application. Not more than one-half of the males of any family are to be called on at one time, but all persons are to be summoned. The details of the provisions of this act, the fourth respecting Kent county in half a dozen years, might lead one to suppose that some progress had at last been made towards stability in road legislation; but the exact opposite was the case. The very next year, 1800,' the whole system was again modified. " The present law has been found to bear very unequally on the citizens." An assessment of 40 cents on every 100 of property is to be made, and the supervisors are to require of the owners of slaves as many as they deem necessary. For the payment of the tax, labor may be substituted. The various county laws have now been carried with some detail from 1766 to the end of the century, and an increasing tendency to diverge from the general law has been shown which is plainly due 1 1797, chap. Ixiii. * Chap. xvi. ' Chap. lii. * Chap, xliii. 5 Chap. Ix. Chap. Ixxxi. 1 Chap. Iviii. 152 UIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND to the difference in local conditions and needs. Occasional attempts at uniformity are apparent, but the instability of these attempts is equally clear. It is evident, however, that there are two main though conflicting ideas in the legislation of this period: (l) The plan of rais- ing money for road-repair by a general property tax, and the appro- priation of such funds to the hire of labor upon highways; (2) com- pulsory labor, whether of freemen or of slaves. It would be quite possible to discuss this county legislation to the present time, treating specifically each alteration and amendment of every law for every county. Such a treatment would, however, be extremely unprofitable, as it would deal chiefly with repeals and repe- titions of very similar laws. 1 But while the provisions for the care and repair of roads, the appointment of supervisors, the collection of funds, etc., are constantly changing, a certain progress towards gen- eralization is seen in the increased powers given to the various county commissioners in regard to the opening, changing, and closing of roads upon petition. That such powers should be granted was a matter of necessity. The legislation in regard to single, private roads, unimportant from a general standpoint, was extensive at an early period. As population increased the demand for new roads became greater; and the Assembly seemed in danger of being overburdened with the mass of road-legislation required. It was not long, therefore, before the powers of the county courts were enlarged, while efforts were made to check the demands upon the Assembly's time by regula- tions as to petitions for roads, compelling persons applying for roads of a personal or private nature to give notice thereof in the news- papers, or by advertisement on the Court-house door, for four weeks previous to such application. 2 The extension of the powers of the county commissioners was at first confined to particular counties. In 1796," for example, the levy courts of Somerset and Worcester counties were authorized to direct the surveyors of their respective counties to lay out new roads upon 1 With the exception, of course, of compulsory slave labor. 1 1813 Eesolve, No. 8. * 1796, chap. lix. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 153 the application of all the owners of the land through which the new road must pass. 1 The discussion of the general extension of the powers of the county commissioners must be deferred to the following chapter on General Legislation. Meanwhile, it should be borne in mind that the lack of uniformity to-day in provisions for the management of county roads is no new thing, but dates back to colonial times, and has resulted from the various causes described in the first part of this chapter. GENERAL LEGISLATION. The first road-law under the newly erected state government was passed in 1779,' while the Revolution was still in progress. This, an "Act relating to public roads," established new fines: for neglect of duty by overseers, 100; for refusal of laborers to work, 5; or refusal of masters to send servants when summoned, 5. It also re- pealed the exemptions to iron-workers granted by previous laws. This act, with the earlier act of 1704, 3 variously modified and ex- tended, remained for some time the general highway law of the state, and included provisions for all counties unprovided for by special enactment. There were also sundry attempts to harmonize the various needs of the counties in one law with special tax-rates; but these attempts, as has been indicated, were fruitless, because it was impossible to get all the counties to accept either the fixed road-tax, or the system of compulsory labor upon the highways. Extension of the Powers of the County Courts. Mention has been made of the extension of the powers of county courts relative to the opening and closing of roads, etc. It was along this line that general legislation again became practicable. Accord- ingly, the attempt to secure complete uniformity was relinquished, 1 The power of altering old roads, upon petition of two-thirds, of the in- habitants of a hundred, was conferred upon many of the county courts by 1794, chap, lii, which see. 2 Chap. xiv. 8 The law of 1704, as modified by 1723, 1753, etc. (which see) was fre- quently continued. See 1785, chap. Ixxvii; 1795, chap, xxxvii; 1789, chap. Ixv; 1798, chap. Ixxi. 154 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND and the counties were given as much special legislation for the care an$ repair of their roads as they desired, while the provisions con- cerning the powers of the county courts, or commissioners, in regard to opening new roads, etc., were eventually embraced in a general law. In 1818 1 the county courts, except in Worcester county, were empowered upon petition of any person interested in opening, straight- ening, or shutting up a public road, to issue a commission to three freeholders to examine whether the public convenience requires it. After giving 1 notice, these may decide, upon oath, for or against the road. The Court is to pass judgment if no objection is presented, and a trial by jury is authorized in cases where objection is made. The commissioners are to ascertain the damages, subject to the order of the Court, which is to determine whether they shall be paid by the petitioners, or by the county, or in proportion by both. The Levy Court is to levy money for the roads adjudged to be opened, etc., and for the damages, and is to cause the said road to be opened, etc. Such roads are to be thereafter public roads. In 1853 there was substituted for the law of 1818 a much more detailed act/ which, with an act of 185 6, 8 formed the basis of the code of I860, 4 and this, in turn, with the addition of laws of 1874 and 1888," constitutes the present law on this subject as contained in the Public General Laws. 7 Penal Legislation and the Roads. There remains a class of legislation for some time closely connected with that concerning highways. A penal statute of 1788 8 authorized the erection of a new Court of Oyer and Terminer and Gaol Delivery in Baltimore county. This Court was ordered to condemn any per- son convicted of the crime therein specified, and also any vagrants, to labor upon the roads in Baltimore county. The general court and the various county courts, also, were authorized to sentence persons convicted before them of the same crimes and misdemeanors to the same penalty of labor upon the roads in Baltimore county, the expense of their transportation to Baltimore being borne in the former case 1 Chap. Ixxxix. ' 1853, chap. ccxx. 1856, chap, cccviii. 4 Public General Laws (1860) art. 28. 1874, chap, cccxi. 8 1888, chap, cccclxvii. 7 Public General Laws, art. 25. " Chap. xi. MAE YL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 155 by the state, in the latter by the county so passing sentence. In addi- tion the county courts were authorized to sentence criminals to labor upon the roads of their own county, making such provision for their care and expenses as they might see fit. This, act seems to have been put into practice chiefly in Baltimore county, where the convicts were put to work on the main roads of the county. The turnpikes undertaken by Baltimore county were, to a large extent, constructed by their labor, as appears from the accounts published from time to time by the commissioners of the roads. By a resolution adopted at the session of 1807, 1 the Justices of the Levy Court were authorized to apply the whole, or the necessary part, of the dividend received by them from the Baltimore and Frederick, and the Baltimore and Reisterstown roads, to the support of the convicts work- ing upon the roads. Two years later * any male convict heretofore condemned to labor on the roads was allowed to pray the court to com- mute his sentence to confinement in the penitentiary. When the turnpikes were surrendered by the county to private corporations, the convicts were transferred to the principal county roads. In 1810, for example, they were divided into two lots, one- half to work on the Liberty road, and the other half on the Bel Air and the Philadelphia post-road. 3 Upon the further development of the penitentiary system this method of road-construction was aban- doned. Private Roads. The laws treated above referred exclusively to public roads, and for a long time private rights-of-way had apparently never been made the subject of legislation. In 1785, 4 however, an act was passed " To declare and ascertain the right of citizens of the State to private roads or ways." "Whereas," the preamble recites, " the citizens of this State ought to have a road or way from their farms and plantations to places of public worship, mills, market-towns, public ferries and Court-houses. And such benefit ought to be enjoyed and experienced with as little possible dam- 1 Resolution No. 1. 2 1809, chap, xxxviii. * 1810, chap. Ixxxviii. 4 Chap. xlix. 156 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND age or injury to the lands through which such private roads or ways shall pass." The county courts on application are authorized to direct the sur- 'veyor of their county to lay out such private road, etc., not exceeding 16 feet, clear of ditches, in breadth; upon objection of any person through whose land the road may run the court may order such change as they may think desirable, shall direct the application and return to be recorded, and shall decide on the compensation due to the owners of the land through which the road is to run, which compensation shall be paid by the person or persons applying for the road. Thereupon such road is to be considered a private way, to be kept open and repaired at the expense of such person as shall use the same, and no one shall change or stop up such road * under fine of 5, current money. In 1834 l was passed a new and more detailed law for private roads. This, together with certain provisions of laws of 1832, 1 1836," and 1839, 4 was embodied in the Code of I860, 8 whence it has been re-enacted into that of the present day. METHODS OF TRAVEL AT THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. The extracts and references in this and the preceding divisions are typical of the legislation regarding highways. To learn the results of this legislation, to discover the actual conditions of travel, other sources than the laws themselves must be consulted. After the Revolution the maps are much more detailed than in earlier years. Griffith's map of Maryland in particular, contains indi- cations of the more important roads, and would admit of interesting comparison with the knowledge derived from the laws, did space permit. The almanacs, which in earlier colonial days gave few facts as to the distances and routes from colony to colony, are later supplemented by detailed and exact road-maps giving every turn and twist in the road. Such a map is that of Christopher Colles, pub- lished in 1787, and entitled " A Survey of the Roads of the United States of America." Plates 51 to 62 give the roads from Philadelphia to Annapolis, the route being portrayed upon two or three plates to each page. Similar information is given by the " Traveller's Director or Pocket Companion," published at Philadelphia in 1804," which includes a detailed description of the route. 1 Chap, ccliii. Chap, ccxcii. 3 Chap. cclv. * Chap, xviii. "Public General Laws (1860), art. 28, sec. 29. 8 In the Map Department of the Congressional Library in Washington. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME III, PLATE XIV. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 157 At the time of the French and Indian War, Governor Sharpe's coach-and-four was out of place upon any other than the main road through the province. In fact, before the Revolution carriages were few in number, and rarely used except in the finest weather. First- rate saddle-horses were much in demand, as the newspapers of the time plainly show. Fox-hunting and horse-racing were among the principal diversions, and the raising and importing of blooded horses received much attention. Members of the Assembly, lawyers, actors, and parsons, and indeed all to" whom time was important and speed a necessity, preferred the activity of a thoroughbred to the lumbering " chariot " of these early times. In Annapolis the use of coaches grew apace. The family coach, with its trappings and outriders, was a matter of pride in which the society of Annapolis turned out to every horse-race, or drove to Marl- boro to see the latest company of players. " They have light and elegant carriages which are drawn by fine horses," is the comment of the Abbe Robin * on this phase of Annapolitan life, while Eddis writes just before the Revolution : " Our races, just concluded, con- tinued four days, . . . and surprising as it may appear, I assure you there are few meetings in England better attended or where more capital horses are exhibited." STAGE-LINES AND STAGES. A glimpse at the methods of transportation in Maryland towards the beginning of this century, before the turnpikes had been com- pleted, might go far to dispel any illusions as to the " good old times," of which so much is often heard. Stage-lines indeed there were, and had been, since 1765, in which year the first line of stage-vessels and wagons was set up to go once a week from Philadelphia to Baltimore by way of Christiana and French-town on Elk river." In 1785 the Maryland Legislature granted G. P. Van Home an exclusive right to keep stage-carriages 1 Robin. Nouveau Voyage dans 1'Amerique Septentrionale, p. 104 (Phila- delphia, 1782). 'Eddis. Letters from America, p. 106 (London, 1792). * Watson's Annals of Philadelphia, vol. i, p. 219. 158 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND " on the publick road from the river Susquehannah to the river Pa- towmack," * and five years later Koberfr Hodgson and James Thomp- son 2 were granted the sole and exclusive permission to set up a stage- line from the Delaware boundary, via Chestertown, to Gresham College on the bayside in Kent county by the great public road on the Eastern Shore, and were also given a right, not exclusive, to run stages from North Point to Baltimore Town. This route seems to have been popular, though stress of weather often made delay in crossing the Bay unavoidable. These stages started regularly from Mr. Grant's tavern in Baltimore every Monday, "Wednesday, and Friday morning and at six o'clock on the same days from Mr. James Thompson's at the Indian Queen, Fourth Street, Philadelphia." Another favorite route was by packet up the Chesapeake and Dela- ware bays, using land transportation only across the peninsula. This was a very old and popular route, perhaps because it took less time. It was not long before rival companies sprang up, one between French- town and Newcastle, and the other from Cecil Court House to New- castle. 4 Very many other stage-lines were afterwards opened. In 1790 one was advertised between Baltimore and Annapolis. The trip was made three times a week, the price being 10s. during the summer season including fourteen pounds of baggage. 5 There were also many stage-lines from the western country. The vehicle in which one ventured upon such a journey has been minutely described. The coach " was a sort of wagon on springs, an open carriage, with a top to it made of boards; and on each side, and at the ends, curtains, to be let down, baize on the inside, and a sort of canvas on the outside, tied with leather ties to the supporters of the top, on the sides and at the bottom, catching on a sort of stud like that of a single-horse chaise apron. The coach has three seats within the carriage and one the coachman sits on before. Thus it carries twelve people, three on each seat, as two passengers ride by the side of -the 1 Chap. xiv. 2 Chap, xxviii. 3 See the newspapers of the period: e. g., The Maryland Journal and Bal- timore Advertiser, July 22, 1791. * Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser, March 22, 1791. 5 Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser, April, 1790. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 159 coachman; but the mail-coach carries only nine passengers, the mail lying in the inside of the coach." THE PAINS AND PLEASURES OF TRAVEL. One advantage certainly was afforded by the vehicles of the last century time for observation. In such a conveyance as has been described, one might travel at the rate of 4 or 5 miles in fine summer weather, but in winter often not more than one mile an hour could be made. Yet time spent in this manner was certainly not disagreeably employed, for many picturesque scenes would present themselves to the traveler. Seated in such a conveyance, he might be entertained as was one gentleman in his journey through Maryland, on a Sunday morning a century ago, at the sight of girls riding to the parish church nearby, escorted by a negro boy perched behind one of the fair eques- triennes, for whom he jumped down every few minutes to open the numerous gates that barred the road, and then nimbly resumed his seat without any detention of the party. 2 On a working day one might meet a long procession of horses, mules, or, more probably, oxen, drag- ging hogsheads of tobacco by pivots driven into each end and shafts attached. 3 - At another turn in the road one might barely escape collison with a monstrous family coach, escorted by gorgeously-liveried outriders, and proceeding on its journey with more style than comfort to its occupants. Again, there is need to pull up sharply in order to yield the road to the more rapid wagon or " coachee " which has overtaken the coach, lumbers of carts are passing along, and farm-wagons, with high-ribbed bows covered with canvas, to shield the farmer from the sun by day and the dews by night. Nearer Baltimore Town one meets large gangs of " wheelbarrow men," those convicts who, before the institution of the penitentiary system, were condemned to labor upon the highways. Accompanying each group is an overseer, wear- 1 Parkinson, K. A Tour in America in 1798, 1799 and 1800, vol. i, pp. 252-3. (London, 1805.) * SutclifP, K. Travels in some parts of North America in the Years 1804, 1805 and 1806, p. 48. (Philadelphia, 1812.) 3 Sutcliff. Travels, p. 99. 160 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND ing side-arms and often carrying a musket. Here and there are cabins in which the convicts at night are lodged or imprisoned. 1 The driver is a steady man with a wonderful knack of avoiding the many stumps and large trunks of trees that fill the road. He guides his horses, usually named after the prominent politicians of the day, more by the different noises he makes than by the use of the reins. Stopping over night at one of the wayside inns one may get a bed for a quarter of a dollar the night. 2 It will not do to appear too anxious about accommodations, for the host, in an injured tone, in- forms one gentleman that he need give himself no trouble on that score, because no less than eleven beds may be found in one of his rooms." For breakfast or supper one pays half a dollar; for dinner, one dollar. On the bill-of-fare may be found tea, coffee, fish, beef- steak, mutton-chops, sausages, eggs, several kinds of bread and butter, " cakes of buckwheat, &c." Danger, as well as discomfort, attends the passage of the many ferries which are found on the line of the main road. If the wind is high the trip is perilous as well as uncomfortable. If the water is low we may have to mount upon the backs of sturdy watermen and so be " toted " out, with possibilities of descent into the mud/' But even on land the journey may be filled with discomfort. One traveler has left a particularly dolorous account of his misfortunes, experi- enced, strange to say, upon the main road from Philadelphia via Bal- timore to Washington. His own words must recount his adventures: " But the best cultivated parts of the country are not seen from the road, which passes chiefly over barren and hilly tracts, called ' ridges.' The reason for carrying the road over these is, because it is found to be longer than if carried over the flat part of the country, where the soil is deep, a circumstance which the people of Maryland always take into consideration; for after a road is once cut, they never take pains to keep it in good repair. The roads in this state are worse 1 Tyson, M. E. A Brief Account of the Settlement of Ellicott's Mills, p. 18. 2 Parkinson's Tour, vol. i, pp. 253-4. 8 Weld, I., Jr. Travels through the States of North America during the years 1795, 1796 and 1797, p. 16, note. 4 Parkinson's Tour, vol. i, p. 255. 5 Sutcliff. Travels, p. 59. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 161 than in any one in the Union; indeed, so very bad are they, that in going from Elkton to the Susquehannah ferry the driver frequently had to call to the passengers in the stage to lean out of the carriage first at one side, then at the other, to prevent it from oversetting in the deep ruts with which the road abounds : ' Now, gentlemen, to the right,' upon which the passengers all stretched their bodies half-way out of the carriage to balance it on that side : ' Now, gentlemen, to the left,' and so on. This was found absolutely necessary at least a dozen times in half the number of miles." His comments on the road-construction of the times are interesting : " Wherever they attempt to mend these roads, it is always by filling the ruts with saplings or bushes, and covering them over with earth. This, however, is done only when there are fields on each side of the road. If the road runs contiguous to a wood, then, instead of mending it where it is bad, they open a new passage through the trees, which they call making a road. It is very common in Maryland to see six or seven different roads branching out from one, which all lead to the same place. A stranger, before he is acquainted with the circum- stance, is frequently puzzled to know which he ought to take. The dexterity with which the drivers of the stages guide their horses along these new roads, which are full of stumps of trees, is astonishing." Speaking of the travel between Baltimore and Washington, he recites: " The roads passing over these bottoms are worse than any I ever met with elsewhere. In driving over one of them, near the headwaters of a branch of Patuxent river, a few days after a heavy fall of rain, the wheels of a sulky which I was in sank up to the very boxes. For a moment I despaired of being able to get out without assistance, when my horse, which was very powerful, finding himself impeded, threw himself upon his haunches, and disengaging his forefeet, made a vigorous plunge forward, which luckily disengaged both himself and the sulky and freed me from my embarrassment. I was afterwards informed that General Washington, as he was going to meet Congress a short time before, was stopped in the very same place, his carriage sinking so deep in the mud that it was found neces- sary to send to a neighboring house for ropes and poles to extricate it. 162 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND Over some of these bottoms, which were absolutely impassable in their natural state, causeways have been thrown which are made with large trees laid side by side across the road. For a time these causeways afford a commodious passage; but they do not last long, as many of the trees sinking into the soft soil, and others exposed to the continual attrition of the wagon-wheels in a particular part, break asunder. In this state, full of unseen obstacles, it is absolutely a matter of danger for a person unacquainted with the road to attempt to run a carriage along it. The bridges over the creeks, covered with loose boards, are as bad as the causeways and totter as a carriage passes over. That the Legislature of Maryland can be so inactive and not take some steps to repair this, which is one of the principal roads in the state, the great road from north to south and the high road to the city of Washington, is most wonderful ! " THE DEVELOPMENT or TURNPIKES IN MARYLAND. The development of the turnpike system in Maryland and its influ- ence upon the commercial welfare of the state is a subject to which little attention has been paid, but which would afford material for a separate volume. A complete discussion is forbidden, however, by the extent of the foregoing matter; and while the rise of the turnpikes will be traced with some detail, their history, after the period of their greatest importance, must be discussed only in the most general terms. A " turnpike " or turnpike road is generally understood to have three characteristics: 1. An improved surface or road-bed. 2. A system of toll-gates placed at certain intervals. 3. An incorporated company with shares of stock, etc., furnishing the capital for the construction of the road. The first road in the United States fulfilling all three conditions is said to have been that between Philadelphia and Lancaster, con- structed by a company incorporated in 1791, for the stock of which frequent advertisements 2 appear in the Philadelphia papers of that and the next year. This turnpike was finished in 1795. 1 Weld, I., Jr. Travels; etc., pp. 22ff. 2 Watson. Annals of Philadelphia, vol. iii, p. 152. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 163 BALTIMORE COUNTY TURNPIKES. Four years later, in 1787, 1 the Legislature of Maryland made pro- vision for the construction of several roads called turnpike roads in Baltimore county. The language used in the preamble of the act then passed shows how strongly the need of improved road-beds was felt: " The public roads leading from Baltimore town to the western part of the state, by reason of the great number of wagons that use the same, are rendered almost impassable during the winter season, and the ordinary method of repairing the said roads is not only insufficient but exceedingly burthensome; and the establishment of several turnpike roads in the said county would greatly reduce the price of land-carriage of produce and mer- chandize, and raise the value of the land in the said county and considerably increase the commerce of the state." Commissioners were appointed " to examine, survey, lay out and rqark a public road from Baltimore-town towards Frederick-town in Frederick County to the line of Baltimore County, sixty-six feet wide, and on as streight a line as the nature of the country will permit; " in so doing they should " consider not only the distance but the good- ness of the ground on which the said road is to pass." Similarly, other commissioners were to lay out " roads from Baltimore-town to Reisterstown," " from Reisterstown to Winchester-town [West- minster ?] ; " " from Reisterstown to Hanover-town, to the line of Baltimore County," and a road " from Baltimore-town towards York to the line of Baltimore County." These highways possessed two. of the three usual characteristics of a " turnpike road; " special provision was made for the improvement of the road-beds, and the erection of toll-gates was ordered. The con- struction and subsequent management of these roads was entrusted, however, not to a private company incorporated for that purpose, but to numerous officials to be appointed by the court of Baltimore county. The roads were to be cleared sixty-six feet wide, with beds forty feet wide, raised in the middle eighteen inches above the sides. " When neces- sary," the beds were to be " covered or crowned with small stones or coarse gravel." Milestones and guide-posts were to be set up. To cover the expenses of construction and management, two means were provided: First, officers known as the Commissioners of Keview were to set up toll-gates and collect tolls of specified rates. Secondly, a property 1 April Session, chap, xxiii. 164 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND tax of 3s. 9 d. per 100 for the first year, and of 2s. 6d. for succeeding years, was to be levied in Baltimore county. Besides the " Commissioners of the Boads " and the " Commissioners of Review," there were to be a Surveyor and a Collector. At least twice a year accounts were to be published in the Baltimore papers. This unique plan of turnpiking under county authority was upon the whole unsuccessful. Within fourteen years the act of 1787 was amended no less than ten times. Many of these changes were unim- portant; in 1790, however, the influence of the legislation for counties led to a law * empowering the Commissioners of Review to appoint one or more supervisors for the roads in question and permitting the substitution of personal labor for the payment of the tax authorized in 1787. This merely increased the division of authority that already existed; and finally, in 1801, 2 provision was made " for better guard- ing the executive part of the said law" [of 1787]. It was now decided to dispense with the numerous officials of the earlier law, and the management of the turnpike roads was given to a superintendent who should be appointed by the court of Baltimore county, give bond for $5,000, appoint supervisors, clear the roads, etc. The books and property of the former commissioners and supervisors, and also the convicts at work upon the roads, were to be transferred to the new officials. That some progress was made in the construction of these roads we may learn from the accounts published from time to time by the Commissioners of Beview, two of which it may be worth while to give. BALTIMORE, MARCH 18, 1791. BALTIMORE COUNTY, FOR TURNPIKE ROADS, IN ACCOUNT WITH SAMUEL OWINGS, TREASURER. DR. . a. d. To cash paid for Sundries from the 5th of July, 1788, to to the 14th of Feb., 1791, as follows: For Centinels and Laborourers, Wagons and Cart hire 467 8 10% For Lands taken from the road to Reisters-Town, Survey- ing and laying out roads, carpenters work, physicians' attendance, medicine and commissioners' attendance 770 8 8 For clothing and victualling the criminals during that time, and for Carts, Horses, Waggons, and Sundry Tradesmen's Bills 3,332 3 9 4,570 1 3y 2 To balance due the Treasurer per Contra 102 17 4% 1 1790, chap, xxxii. 2 1801, chap. Ixxvii. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 165 CK. . s. d. By Cash received of Philip Graybell, Esq 2,428 6 4 By ditto received of Thomas Rutter, Esq 2,038 17 7% By balance due the Treasurer 102 17 4 l / 2 4,570 1 31/3 (Errors excepted.) Baltimore, Feb. 14, 1791. Samuel Owings, Treasurer. Baltimore, March 14, 1791. Compared with the vouchers, and passed. O. H. Williams, ~} Commmissoners Daniel Bowley, of Charles Ridgely of Wm. j Review. BALTIMORE COUNTY, FOR TURNPIKE ROADS, IN ACCOUNT WITH THE TREASURER OF SAID ROADS. DR. . s. d. 1801. To balance, per account filed last year 2,700 4 9% Paid overseers, centry, gate-keepers, Medicine and attend- ance, per vouchers up to October 1st, 1801 812 19 8 Paid for timber, fire-wood, building stone for bridges, masons, lime surveyors, commissioners, provisions and clothing for criminals, iron, steel, blacksmiths' tools, carts and horses, wagon hire, &c., per vouchers to Oc- tober, 1801 4,341 10 9% 7,863 14 6 CR. . s. d. By C. H. Gist, Esq., since October, 1800 1,096 14 4 By J. Wilson, Esq., to October, 1801 1,398 17 4 By H. Stevenson 791 5 By Middle Gate 912 13 1 By York Gate 420 2 5y 2 By Frederick Gate 278 11 5 By Sundry small credits 43 19 3 Balance due sundry creditors 2,921 11 4% 7,863 14 6 Samuel Owings, Treasurer. Baltimore, October, 1801. Examined, compared with the vouchers, and past. (Signed) James Ogleby, J. Nathan Ellicott, William Owings, David McMechen, Charles Ridgely of Hampton. 11 166 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND The latter account shows a marked deficit. The next year, 1801, by an act to which reference was made above, 1 an additional tax of 50 cents per 100 was laid in Baltimore county and new rates of toll were specified. The Levy Court was empowered to borrow $1,600 to finish the roads. This was insufficient, and a further tax of 15 cents per 100 was levied the same year. 2 In 1802, fifteen years after the original act, it was ordered that the Reisterstown turnpike should be recorded as completed.' INCORPORATION OF PRIVATE TURNPIKE COMPANIES. When the failure of the experiment of turnpiking under county authority became apparent, efforts were made to attract private capital to investment in the construction of turnpike roads. For some time these attempts were equally fruitless. The first turnpike company in Maryland, incorporated in 1796, to build a turnpike road between Baltimore and Washington, 4 apparently accomplished nothing, and those immediately following seem to have been no more fortunate. 3 THE TURNPIKES OF 1804-5. It was not until the session of 1804-5 that legislation was enacted which had a permanent result. In that year there were passed two acts, which may be said to have laid the basis of the turnpike system in Maryland. The fifty-first chapter of this year's legislation is en- titled " An Act to Incorporate Companies to make Several Turnpike Roads through Baltimore County, and for other purposes." The pre- amble recites that " it is represented to this General Assembly, that by the several laws heretofore passed on this subject the desirable object 1 1801, chap. Ixxvii. * 1801, chap. Ixxxvii. s 1802, chap. Ixxx. 4 Chap. Ixix. Capital, $160,000.00. The provisions for tolls include this: For every single horse, camel, ass or mule, $0.01. 8 Other companies apparently unsuccessful were: the Elizebeth Turnpike Company, incorporated 1797 (chap. Ixv); the Reisterstown turnpike roads (1797, chap. Ixx), intended to connect with the county turnpike of the law of 1787; the Alleghany Turnpike Road (1801, chap, xlv) ; and the Cumber- land and Union Road (1801, chap. lii). These incorporations make evident the desire to improve the conditions of intercourse with the western country. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 167 contemplated by the Legislature has not been obtained and the public expectation almost entirely frustrated." Three companies were accordingly incorporated to make roads as follows: 1. From Baltimore through New Market, Frederick and Middle- town to Boonsborough. 1 2. From Baltimore through Reisterstown towards Hanover and through "Westminster to the Pennsylvania line, towards Petersburgh, as shall be agreed upon by a majority of the stockholders.' 3. From Baltimore toward York to the Pennsylvania line.* Various extensions of these roads were subsequently authorized (a) from Boonsborough to Hagerstown, (&) from Boonsborough to Williamsport,* (c) from Frederick to Harper's Ferry," afterwards, in 1815," put under a separate company, and (d) from Boonsborough to the beginning of the Cumberland Turnpike Company's road. 7 By an act of 1805," the second road might be extended from Westminster to Taneytown, Emmitsburg, and thence to Pennsylvania line. The titles of the three companies were to be respectively The President and Managers and Company of the Baltimore and Frederick Town Turnpike Road, " " Reisterstown " " " York Town and the companies were given full corporate powers. The text of this act is very lengthy, containing thirty-nine sections. Some of the most important provisions are as follows: The roads are to be made over, and upon the beds of the present roads, as laid out and confirmed by the Commissioners of Review [of 1787]. Baltimore county having expended considerable sums in turnpiking these roads, is to be reimbursed by the payment to the county of shares of turn- pike stock to an amount equal in value to the old roads. This value is to be ascertained by the arbitration of nine commissioners for each road, three of whom are to be chosen by the Levy Court; three by each company, and the remaining three by the former six. The Levy Court, upon receiving the stock awarded by the commission, shall then have all the privilege of 'Capital Stock, $220,000. 2 Capital Stock, $160,000. ' Capital Stock, $100,000. 4 1804, chap. ci. ' Xovembor, 1809, chap, cxxiv. Chap, clxvi, sec. 17. ' See 1815, chap. cxxv. ' Chap. Ixvii. 168 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND voting, &c., of an individual holding the same number of shares. 1 Anne Arundel and Frederick counties are also to be reimbursed for their expense in laying out such parts of the roads as lie within their limits. Twenty feet in breadth, at least, is to be made an artificial road, which shall be bedded with wood, stone or gravel, or any other hard substance well compounded together a sufficient depth to secure a solid foundation; and the road is to be faced with gravel or stone pounded, or some other hard substance, in such manner as to secure a firm and, as near as possible, an even surface. The road is in no place to rise or fall more than will form an angle of 4 with a horizontal line, except over the Catoctin and South Mountains, where an angle of 6 will be tolerated. " The companies shall forever hereafter, during the continuance of said incorporation or incorporations maintain and keep the same in good and perfect order and repair." Upon finishing the first and every subsequent ten miles of road the com- panies may notify the Governor of the state, who shall then nominate and appoint three persons to review the same. If they report favorably upon the completed work, the Governor shall, by license, permit the erection of so many gates as will be necessary. 2 The Treasurer of the Western Shore is constituted a Court of Inspection, to whom the companies shall report annually as to their receipts and ex- penses. The Stockholders are not to receive more than 10% net profit on their investment. The companies shall keep accounts, an abstract of which is to be laid before the General Assembly by the Court of Inspection every third year until two years after the roads are completed. The Court of Inspection is to employ the surplus above 10% profits to purchasing out the stock of the respective roads. The General Assembly may purchase the road at any time by paying the respective companies the cost of the roads with interest equivalent to 10% on their investment. If the road is considered to be out of repair, a jury of inquisition is to be summoned. If they find the road imperfect as alleged, the collection of tolls shall cease at the nearest gate on each side of the defective spot. Fines are provided for evading the tolls. The companies are to erect posts and index hands and mile-stones, and the distance between gates is to be marked on the gates. The destruction or defacing of such posts, etc., is punishable by a fine. Drivers are to be kept to the right. Persons living on or adjacent to the roads and within three miles of a toll-gate are to pay toll but once in 1 The Levy Court of Baltimore County shall continue the present turn- pike gates on the turnpike, and appoint toll-gatherers to receive the pres- ent tolls until the companies have finished their respective roads ten miles from Baltimore City. 1 Rates of toll are established by section 20 for any person riding, leading or driving horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, sulkey, chair, chaise, phaeton, coach, coachee, cart, wagon, sleigh, sled or other carriage of pleasure or burden. Two oxen are charged the same as one horse. Limits are set to the weight of loads upon wagons of specified tire width. The companies may erect scales and compel the weighing of teams. MARY], AM) GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 169 twenty-four hours. The tolls may be farmed out. The laws relating to convict labor on the roads are to be in force until the turnpikes are fin- ished. Provision is made as to the time of commencement and completion of the roads; and the construction of the York and Reisterstown roads is suspended until Jan. 1st, 1808. This provision was however modified. 1 *3e~. \ EVERY (SCORE OF SHEEP. Hi Cwls per Mita.' 1 HOGS. V. ' CATTLE.^ " " " %*(jCi.pef.Mile. C HAIR OR CHAISE. With one HORSE. Two WHEELS. I 1 1 Certs -per. Mile 3 EVERY ICHARIOTT, COACH. S' r AGE, WAGON,! &PHAETON e charged according tcthe tiin.iber 1 of Wheels a id HORSES dfrwiflf the same. .'l FOREVER^ CART 01 WAGON -;s do not exceecr the brc I tofhes. Foir each HORSE drawine-- n . 1 * '.ent p^ .FOR.iVEflY CART or WAG ON whose? Rfheffls sh all exceed in weadtr foiif Jj,a;id not exceeding seven inches for . .HORSE .drbaing the same. ^"atSCi FIG. 4. Old sign-board giving the rates of toll on animals and vehicles. The Falls Turnpike Company was incorporated in the same year, 1804. 2 This was to rim from the cross-roads near Richard Caton's lime-kiln in Baltimore county, nearly along the line of Jones' Falls to the City of Baltimore. Special provision was made against the York road trade being diminished by the Falls turnpike. 1 In 1805, the requisite stock having been subscribed, the Reisterstown Company was authorized to proceed at once [chap, xv], and similar permis- sion was granted the York Company in 1807 [chap, cxliv]. 3 Chap. xci. 170 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND GALLATIN'S REPORT ON TURNPIKES. In accordance with a resolution of the Senate adopted March 2, 1807, the Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, prepared a list of questions to acquire information concerning turnpikes, and copies of this list were distributed in the states through various Federal officers. From the answers to these queries much 'may be learned concerning the exact status, in 1807, of the turnpikes authorized by the acts of 1804 of the Maryland Legislature. Falls Turnpike. " The Falls Turnpike," reports Richard Caton, " is ex- pected to unite the trade of the North with Baltimore. It is in a direct line to Hanover and Carlisle." The $38,000 requisite to complete the road " will be eagerly subscribed when the company can get permission from the Legis- lature to make a good road from the end of the Falls Turnpike to a road which leads to the State-line of Pennsylvania," at a distance of nine miles. He thinks the Legislature has refused this permission from an over-scrupu- lous regard for the interests of the Reisterstown Road. " The application must, however, prevail, as it is founded on justice and public utility." "The road is not yet completed; the cost is estimated at $7,500 per mile, including bridges, and the whole length is somewhat over nine miles." Reisterstown Roads. The Secretary of the Reisterstown Turnpike Road Companies reports: (1) Baltimore and a point on the Pennsylvania line towards Hanover are united; distance about thirty-five miles; and Baltimore and a point on the Pennsylvania line towards Petersburg are united; distance about forty-five miles. The road forks at Reisterstown, sixteen miles from Baltimore. (2) The greatest elevation of the hills is 24 feet perpendicular from the bed of the road. The greatest angle of ascent which has been allowed is 3y 2 . (3) Describes the breadth of the road and continues: " The form con- vex, twenty-four feet in width along the middle of the road, and one foot in depth is bedded with stone broken small enough to pass through a ring of three inches diameter. The rest is clay." (4) Details of bridges all of which are of stone. (5) Cutting through hills and filling up valleys are particular difficulties surmounted and to be encountered. (6) Expenses for construction, $10,000 per mile. (7) Capital already expended is about $200,000; that vested is $120,000. Ten miles of road have been completed, and the work is progressing. (8 and 9) Information as to tolls and charters. Frederick Road. Jonathan Ellicott of the Baltimore and Fredericktown Turnpike Road reports at greater length: The distance from Baltimore to Boonsborough is about sixty-two miles. The contract for the first twenty miles of the road was made July 4th, 1805, and the cost was $9,000 a mile on the average. The gates were up and toll being received by April 24, 1807. Seventeen miles farther are contracted for at about $7,000 per mile, and of these, only ten are completed. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 171 " It may be observed," he continues, " that from Boonsborough to Cum- berland, a distance of seventy-four and a-half miles, as the road now runs, is as yet without any provision by laws for its improvement, further than as common county roads in other parts of the State. ... To bring into full operation the benefits contemplated by the general government by the road leading from Fort Cumberland to the Ohio, 1 it becomes necessary that the State of Maryland should either take this matter upon her own account or put it in the power of Congress to promote a design which it is to the interest of the Union to carry into effect. 3 THE BANKS AND THE TURNPIKE TO CUMBERLAND. The years of 1812 and 1813 witnessed an important step in the turnpike-construction of Maryland. 8 The president and directors of the several incorporate banks in the City of Baltimore, the president and directors of the Hagerstown Bank, of the Conococheague Bank, and of the Cumberland Bank of Alleghany, were incorporated by the name of " The President, Managers and Company of the Cumberland Turnpike Road," for the purpose of surveying, locating and making a turnpike road from some point on the west bank of Big Conoco- cheague through Hancock to Cumberland. This company is invested with all the rights of those incorporated in 1804 with the same provisions as to tolls, etc. The charters of the banks in- cluded in the statute are extended to January 1, 1835, upon condition of the several banks subscribing in proportion to their respective paid-in capitals for as much stock as will cover the expense of completing the road. In case any one of these banks augments its capital, its President and Directors are required to subscribe for an additional amount of stock in proportion. The President and Directors of each bank subscribing are to choose one manager for every twenty-five thousand dollars of road stock subscribed by them, but every bank is to have the choice of one manager. The man- agers so chosen shall elect from among themselves a President and Treas- urer. The road is to be made, stoned, etc., in the same manner as the Frederick Turnpike, except in parts where stoning is thought unnecessary. 4 1 The National Road. 2 American State Papers, Miscellaneous, vol. i, pp. 900-909. 3 1812, chap. Ixxix; 1813, chap, cxxii. The latter act was a substitute for the former. * After Jan. 1st, 1815, all the incorporated banks in the state shall pay annually to the Treasurer of the Western Shore a tax of 20 cents on every $100 of their capital stock, as a further condition of the extension of their charters. The proceeds of this tax are to be invested in stock of the Com- mercial and Farmers' Bank of Baltimore and the Mechanics' Bank of Bal- 172 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND INCREASE OF TURNPIKE COMPANIES. Meanwhile the incorporation of turnpike companies went on un- ceasingly. Many schemes that had previously failed were taken up again. For example, the unsuccessful Baltimore and Washington Turnpike Company of 1796 was succeeded in 1812 * by a new com- pany formed to make a turnpike road from Baltimore to Norwood's Ferry on the Patapsco, and thence by McCoy's Tavern, Vansville, the White House, Boss's Tavern and Bladensburg to Washington. In 1813 ' the Newcastle and French-town turnpike, which had not succeeded when first incorporated in 1809," was revived, and the Balti- more and Strasburg, 4 Baltimore and Havre de Grace, 6 and the West- minster, Taneytown and Emmitsburg 6 Turnpike Companies were incorporated. Two years later, in 1815, the Baltimore and Frederick Turnpike Company was authorized to open subscriptions for addi- tional stock to the amount of $160,000, to construct a road from Boonsborough to that point on the west bank of the Conococheague, at which the Cumberland Turnpike road began. 7 At the same time the control of the Harper's Ferry road was taken from them. 8 GOVERNOR GOLDSBOROUGH'S REPORT. Three years later is found an interesting executive communication from Governor Charles Goldsborough to the Assembly on the sub- ject of turnpike roads. This was prepared in accordance with a reso- lution of the House adopted the previous session, calling for informa- tion on this point. A list of queries was sent to the various turnpike timore, to be a fund for the establishment of Free Schools, kept separated from the rest of the funds of the State of Maryland. The Treasurer is to report thereon annually to the General Assembly. The banks may escape the payment of the annual tax by paying to the state before January 1, 1816, the sum of $200,000. If the banks agree to these propositions, the faith of the state is pledged to impose no new tax on them and to incorpo- rate no new banks in Baltimore before January 1, 1835. Thus by this act two great ends were had in view. The connection of the Cumberland or National Koad with Baltimore and the establishment of the public school system of Maryland. 1 1812, chap. Ixxviii. 2 1813, chap. Ixxxii. December Session. 3 1809, chap. Ixiv. 4 1813, chap, cxxvi. December Session. 6 1813, chap, clxvii. December Session. 1813, chap, clxxiii. December Session. 7 Chap. cxxv. 8 Chap, clxvi. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 173 companies, and a summary of the answers was given in the Governor's report. The report commences with some general remarks upon the subject. The aggregate capital invested in turnpike roads is valued at $2,100,000, the greater part of which is owned in Baltimore. The stock owned by the state is $10,000 in the Frederick Road and $5,000 in the York Road. 1 Concerning the difficulties of the turnpike companies in the existing situ- ation, it is reported that each company sustains a great loss from parallel roads, which are neither turnpiked nor shut up, and in fine weather are patronized by all but the heaviest teams in order to avoid paying the tolls. Another mistake was made in fixing the tolls arbitrarily at so much per horse according to the kind of carriage, whereby an empty wagon pays as much as one with the heaviest load if the number of horses is the same. It is suggested that the tolls be regulated according to the weight, and also according to the season, light in fine weather and heavy in winter. A most pernicious practice is that of locking the wheel of a heavily loaded wagon descending a hill, thereby tearing up the road, when frost and wet weather have made the foundation soft. This is especially true of moun- tain roads. The substitution of the " shoe " is earnestly recommended, that is, " a piece of iron, or even wood, 18 inches or 2 feet long and 4, 6 or 8 inches broad, fastened to the cross-bar or bolster of the wagon by a chain which is just of such a length that when the shoe is slipped under the hinder wheel, the chain prevents it falling farther back, and the wagon being in motion, the shoe is dragged on bearing the wheel up on it." But the great scourge to a turnpike road is the narrow wheel, which should be made the subject of legislation. As to the condition of the various roads, the report notes that the Fred- erick Road " was originally intended to be made eleven miles further to Williamsport on the Potomac, but failed, however, in consequence, it is be- lieved, of the expenditure of the sum of $56,000 upon the bridge over the Monocacy, which the Company was not obliged by law to make, but as- sumed it voluntarily, in the belief that the Legislature would grant them a special toll to meet the special expense. In consequence, however, of the refusal of the Legislature to do so, their capital was exhausted and them- selves discouraged from the prosecution of the road." The Bank Road to meet the National Road at Cumberland appears to be peculiarly the object of legislative care. The importance of the retention and development of the connection with the Ohio country to the commercial interests of Baltimore is dilated upon at length. The Frederick Road is complete to Boonsborough, sixty miles from Baltimore. The Reisterstown Road is completed to the town of Westminster, whence the road proceeds northerly in the direct route to Chambersburg in Pennsylvania. The under- 1 A resolution of 1808 extended the financial aid of the state to the turn- pike companies by authorizing the Treasurer of the Western Shore to sub- scribe for 250 shares in the Baltimore and Frederick Turnpike Company's stock and 250 shares in the York Turnpike stock. An additional subscrip- tion was authorized the next year. 174 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND taking of another company to make a road from the Reisterstown Road near Westminster to Hagerstown through Harman's Gap in the Blue Ridge, is believed to be at a stand for want of funds. A return was made to the executive on Dec. 28th, 1816, that 6y 2 miles were completed, and license to erect a toll-gate was granted. The distance from Westminster to Hagers- town is estimated at forty miles. From Conococheague Creek to Cumber- land, fifty-eight miles, the road undertaken by the banks, will be com- pleted by December, 1820. It appears, then, that there is a gap in the communication to Cumberland not provided for. This it is proposed to fill up in one of three ways: 1st. By finishing the road from Westminster through Harman's Gap to Hagers- town; 2d, by turn piking from Boonsborough to Hagerstown; and 3d, by turn- piking from Boonsborough through Williamsport to intersect the Bank Road somewhere at the seventh or eighth mile-stone of that road west of the Conococheague. The executive does not undertake to decide which of these is preferable, but leaves that to the Legislature, whose attention he moreover directs to the Bank Road, recommending its purchase by the state, and the reduction of tolls. The creation of a board of Commissioners of Public Works, to be elected by the Legislature, and to serve without salaries, is recommended. The report is supplemented bj r statistical infor- mation from the various turnpike companies. From these it is plain that the dividends declared by the Reisterstown, Frederick and York turnpikes show upon the whole a steady increase down to 1817, the last year reported. The immediate outcome of this communication was a resolution author- izing the Governor and Council to ascertain the best terms upon which the possession of the road might be obtained from the state, also upon what terms the banks would consent to release from toll all wagons having tires of certain width. FURTHER BANK AID. In 1818 there was published a pamphlet of some thirty pages en- titled " Remarks on the Intercourse of Baltimore with the Western Country," with an accompanying map, showing the contemporary status of the turnpike connection. The pamphlet emphasized the necessity of the undertaking to the commercial well-being of Maryland and also its unifying effect politically. This and similar presentations of the case seem to have had due influence upon the Assembly, which, in the session of 1821, 1 extended the charters of the banks ten years longer, to 1845, upon condition of their forming a company to make a turnpike from Boonsborough to Hagerstown. The new company is invested with all the rights of the previous company and like that is subject to an annual tax of 20 cents on every $100 of their - capital stock, the proceeds of the tax to be invested for the benefit of the 1 Chap, cxxxi. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 175 free schools. Work is to begin within two years, and the road is to be com- pleted within four years thereafter. It is to be constructed like the Fred- erick Turnpike. The assistance rendered to turnpike construction by investments compulsory or voluntary on the part of the banks was not limited to the cases mentioned above. The Frederick and Harper's Ferry, Wil- liamsport and Hagerstown, Baltimore and Havre de Grace and other turnpikes received similar pecuniary aid. Dr. Bryan 1 states that the liabilities thus assumed were unprofitable to the banks, and his view is corroborated by the Executive Report of 1817, to which reference has been made above. The directors of the Bank Road, when asked to mention any particular grievances with which they were afflicted, reply: " The Company have but one grievance to complain of, and that is being compelled to make this road. It is a severe and oppres- sive tax upon the banks, and one which, under present circumstances, their business does not enable them to meet without great embar- rassment." THE TURNPIKES AND BALTIMORE CITY. With the completion of the connection between Cumberland and the East, by the construction of this road, the importance of the turn- pikes reaches its height. The further westward they extended the wider was the territory they " tapped.'" The National Road, whose historic relation to the State of Maryland will presently be considered more specifically, was now completed from Cumberland to the Ohio river; and from Cumberland to Baltimore was an easy descent. By these channels a stream of wealth rolled down to Baltimore to be- shipped to Europe, South America, or the "West Indies. We owe to Jared Sparks, the biographer of Washington, a most pleasing description of Baltimore's prosperity in the third decade of this cen- tury. " Within the last thirty years," he says, " the population of Philadelphia has increased to a number three times as great as it was at the beginning of that period; New York to a number four times as great, and Baltimore to a number five times as great. Among all the cities of America, or of the Old World, there is no record of any one 1 Bryan, A., State Banking- in Maryland, pp. 60-61. 176 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION ( IN MARYLAND which has sprang up so quickly or to so high a degree of importance as Baltimore. At the commencement of the Revolution it was a vil- lage of five thousand inhabitants, and at the close of the war it had increased to more than eight thousand. In magnitude it is now the third city in the Union, and has held that rank for nearly twenty years." In ascribing causes for this rapid development he gives first place to its situation, ..." presenting the nearest market to the western country," adding, as other reasons, the fast-sailing vessels, the almost exclusive intercourse with San Domingo for a long period, the two great staples, flour and tobacco, and lastly, and, it is to be hoped, the most enduring element of all, the energetic spirit of the people. In a more detailed manner he refers to seven turnpikes then entering Baltimore city the Reisterstown, York, Frederick, Washington, Bel Air and Havre de Grace. " Now," he continues, " the line of communication is complete between Baltimore and Wheeling over one of the best roads in the world, on which it is now in contemplation to set up a line of transport-wagons to run day and night." From this and other sources it is possible to gather interesting details of the commercial activity of the time. " Large droves of live stock," Sparks tells us, " especially hogs, are now driven every year from the banks of the Ohio, in Kentucky, to Baltimore, in preference to being packed on the spot and sent down the river by a more speedy convey- ance to the New Orleans market." " In 1827," another record relates, " a gentleman traveling thirty-five miles on the road between Baltimore and Frederick met or passed 235 wagons in his journey, nearly seven for every mile. These wagons were generally of the largest size and very heavily loaded." The capacious courtyards of the old inns and hotels in Baltimore city, which have one by one disappeared before the advance of modern civilization, long served to remind one of these old Conestoga wagons that came down to Baltimore drawn by five and six horses oftentimes with a sturdy bull-dog chained behind. These wagons carried enor- mous loads. Upon one occasion an ordinary five-horse farmer's wagon brought from Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, to Baltimore, ten barrels of '"Baltimore," in North American Review (1825), vol. xx, pp. 99ff. - Ibid., p. 133. 3 Niles' Register, 1827, n. s., vol. viii, p. 34. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 177 whiskey and fifteen barrels of flour, besides a few kegs of butter, weighing in all over three tons and a half. 1 THE RISE OF THE CANAL AND THE RAILROAD. Hardly had the turnpike system been perfected, however, when its adequacy began to be threatened by another, beyond which the present day has not definitely advanced. The course of events is summarized by Pitkin as follows: " The enterprising citizens of Baltimore in 1826, perceiving that, in consequence of steam navigation on the western waters and the exertions of other states, they were losing the trade of the West, began seriously to consider some mode of recovering it." The successful application of steam to water transportation preceded by some years its use upon land. As early as 1823 no less than sev- enty-eight steamboats were plying the waters of the Mississippi and the Ohio. 3 Upon land the use of iron rails had been urged in Mary- land in 1816; * but it was about ten years later before such a tramway was actually constructed in America, and twelve before Maryland built the first railroad in the United States, expressly intended for the transport of freight and passengers. Almost contemporaneous with the agitation for railroads was that for canals, and in this also Maryland was not behind, for the Chesa- peake and Ohio Canal was incorporated in 1823, 5 three years before the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, in 1826." In these two organizations have been reached the latest developments of the idea which began in the century before with the labors of Gist, Nemacolin and Washington. Into the further history of such internal improvement in Maryland, interesting as the subject may be, it will be impossible here to go; but it must be noted that the turnpikes of the early part of this century performed a greater service for subsequent years than the mere transportation of goods; them- selves constructed upon earlier lines, they pointed out in almost every instance the general direction for the railroads which succeeded them. 1 Niles' Register, 1826, n. s., vol. vii, p. 91. 2 Pitkin, Statistics of the U. S. 1 Niles' Register, 1823, n. s., vol. i, pp. 94-5. 4 Niles' Register, vol. ix, sup. p. 151. 5 Chap. cxl. 6 1826, chap, cxxiii. ITS HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND SUBSEQUENT TURNPIKE LEGISLATION. The statement that the completion of the turnpike connection be- tween the East and West marked the zenith of the development of the turnpike system in Maryland, must not be misunderstood as indicating that the era of turnpikes was thereby terminated. On the contrary, very many turnpikes were afterwards constructed. But with the introduction of the railroad system their character was changed, and instead of being leading lines of communication, they became feeders to the railroads, radiating to them from the various towns and thus served to build them up as they had built up Baltimore. In some instances, moreover, on beds of the turnpikes, railroads were later constructed. 1 All turnpikes were incorporated by special acts of Assembly until the year 1868, when a general incorporation law was provided. This was modified by the act of 1882, chap, cccc, and in this form represents the present law as found in The Public General Laws (art. xxiii, 233). It remains only to note that in the course of time many of the turnpikes have become unprofitable. The companies have allowed them to lapse into the hands of the various counties in which such roads or parts of roads lie. This had commenced as early as 1850, according to a publication entitled " History and Statistics of Maryland," based upon the census of that year. There were then 263 miles of turnpikes in use as such. A map has been prepared indicating which of the turnpikes are now kept up, and which are in the hands of the counties. MARYLAND'S RELATION TO THE NATIONAL ROAD. To conclude this study of the development of highways in Mary- land, perhaps no more fitting theme can be selected than a brief sketch of that highway, which, above all others, historically connects I\Iary- land with the United States, the state with the Nation. WASHINGTON AND THE OHIO COUNTRY. The colony of Maryland formed the gateway through which the English settlei*s of America entered into the Ohio country before 1 Acts of 1827, chap, ccvii; 1825, chap, cxcviii; 1829, chap. Ixiv. MARYLAND GE6LOGICAL SURVEY 179 and during the French and Indian "War. It was under the leader- ship of George Washington that the western wilderness was first really pierced and a claim for the English colonies established. It was fitting therefore that the further development of the Ohio country both economically and politically, and especially the idea of connect- ing it with the seaboard by improved means of transportation, should be thenceforth his constant care. In the interval between the French and Indian War and the Revo- lution, Washington in various ways secured possession of large tracts of land in the Ohio country, having regard, however, for " an exten- sive public benefit, as well as private advantage." He began nego- tiations for the introduction of German settlers from the Palatinate, of whose thrift and success in the cultivation of new country the German colonizers of western Maryland had doubtless afforded him ample proof. He next turned to the consideration of a plan for opening communication between the western country and the coast. The first means which offered itself was naturally the Potomac river, . which, as far back as 1754, 2 had attracted his attention. On July 20, 1770, he writes to Thomas Johnson, afterwards Governor of Mary- land, urging that public attention be invited to a scheme for opening up the communication of the Potomac " upon a more enlarged plan, as a means of becoming the channel of conveyance of the extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire." At the close of the Revolutionary War Washington again turned his attention to this project, and the result was the formation and incorporation of the Potomac Company in 1784. The history of this organization was unfortunate. Washington seems never to have doubted its success; and in his will he made the profits accruing from his share in it the basis of a fund for another of his favorite schemes, a National University. 4 But the company undertook more than its 1 Sparks. Writings of Washington, ii, pp. 375-7. On the whole subject see Adams, H. B. Maryland's Influence in Founding: a National Common- wealth. Maryland Historical Society, Fund Publication No. 11. * Report of Mr. Andrew Stewart. Reports of Committees, 19th Congress, 1st Session. Report No. 228, pp. 1-2. * Stewart's Report, p. 29. * See Washington's will in Sparks' Writings of Washington, vol. i, pp. 569-80. 180 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND finances would bear; and it was finally superseded by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. But the realization of Washington's idea was not confined to the Potomac Company, for the National Road succeeded where the other had failed. The National Road, like the present magnificent system of public education in the western states, grew out of the public lands of the American Union. Maryland's firm refusal to agree to the Articles of Confederation until the larger states had yielded their claims to the territory west of the Alleghanies won the control over that country for the Congress of the United States, and thereby exerted a powerful influence towards unity, at a time when discord ran high and the prospects of the United States becoming a nation were at the lowest ebb 1 . For the government of the territory thus subjected to National control provision was made by the ordinances of 1784, 1785, and 1787. The second of these provided for the reservation to the United States of certain sections in each township for future sale/ The last, the celebrated ordinance of 1787, provided that " the navi- gable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying-places between the same, shall be common highways, and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the United States and those of any other states that may be admitted into the Confederacy, without any tax, impost or duty therefor." The sections of public land reserved for sale by the former of these ordinances later furnished the pecuniary basis for the National Road, while the phraseology of the latter anticipated the large national character of that highway. ALEXANDER HAMILTON AND THE NATIONAL IMPROVEMENT OF HIGHWAYS. Before the beginning of the present century there had been sug- gested plans for an improvement of the main routes of travel by the 1 For an elaborate discussion of this see H. B. Adams' work referred to above. 2 Journals of Congress, 1785, May 20, vol. x, p. 171. 3 Journals of Congress, 1787, July 13, vol. xii, p. 91. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 181 \ National Government. Perhaps the most comprehensive of these early schemes was that of the great financier and statesman, Alexander Hamilton, who emphasized the value and necessity of the extension and the " improvement of the great communications, as well internal as coastwise, by turnpike roads," which " would be a measure univer- sally popular. None can be more so. For this purpose," he con- tinued, " a regular plan should be adopted, coextensive with the Union, to be successively executed, and a fund should be appropriated sufficient for the basis of a loan of a million of dollars. The revenue of the post office naturally offers itself. The future revenue from tolls would more than reimburse the expense, and public utility would be promoted in every direction. 1 ALBERT GALLATIN AND THE INCEPTION OF THE NATIONAL ROAD. Hamilton's suggestion and others of a like nature prepared the way for the policy later supported by Gallatin, Calhoun, and Clay. To Albert Gallatin, who was Secretary of the Treasury under Jef- ferson, is due the peculiar character of the " enabling act " for the admission of Ohio into the Union as a state. This act contained a provision that " one-twentieth part of the net proceeds of the lands lying within the said state sold by Congress, from and after the 30th of June next, after deducting all expenses incident to the same, shall be applied to laying out and making public roads leading from navi- gable waters emptying into the Atlantic to the Ohio, to the state and through the same, such roads to be laid out under the authority of Congress, with the consent of the several states through which the road shall pass." An attempt to devote one-tenth, instead of one- twentieth of the proceeds of land sales to this purpose failed in the Senate/ Gallatin recommended the construction of these roads in the highest terms. They " will be," he said, " as beneficial to the parts of the Atlantic States through which they are to pass, and nearly as much "Hamilton to Dayton (1799) in Lodge, Hamilton's Works, pp. 517-19. ' Act of April 30, 1802. * Provisions similar to the above were contained in the acts for the admis- sion of Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. 12 182 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND to a considerable portion of the Union, as to the Northwestern Terri- tory itself." l A year later Congress appropriated three-fifths of the one-twentieth, or five per cent. ; i. e., three per cent, of the whole, to " laying out and making roads from the navigable waters emptying into the At- lantic to the river Ohio, to the said State." In the next Congress an attempt was made to pass a law author- izing the President to provide for the exploration of suitable routes, but this was frustrated by the Senate. In 1805, however, a report was presented by Mr. Tracy of Massachusetts, showing that the net proceeds of the sales of lands in the state of Ohio from July 1, 1802, to September 30, 1805, amounted to $632,604.27, 2 per cent, of which, or $12,652, was then subject to the uses directed by the law of 1802. This report also discussed the best location for the proposed road or roads, treating especially of the relative distances of the cities of the Atlantic coast to the Ohio river. A route was recommended as follows: " The State of Maryland, with no less spirit and perseverance [than Pennsylvania] , are engaged in making roads from Baltimore and from the western boundary of the District of Columbia, through Fred- erick-town to Williarnsport. Were the Government of the United States to direct the expenditure of the fund in contemplation upon either of these routes, for the present, in Pennsylvania or Maryland, it would, probably, so far interfere with the operations of the respec- tive States, as to produce mischief instead of benefit; especially as the sum to be laid out by the United States is too inconsiderable, alone, to effect objects of such magnitude. But as the State of Maryland have no particular interest to extend their road across the mountains (and if they had it would be impossible, because the State does not extend so far), the Committee have thought it expedient to recom- mend the laying out and making a road from Cumberland, on the northerly bank of the Potomac, and within the State of Maryland, to the river Ohio, at the most convenient place between a point on the easterly bank of said river, opposite to Steubenville, and the mouth of 1 Letter of Feb. 13, 1802. 2 Act of March 3, 1803. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 183 Grove Creek, which empties into said river Ohio, a little below "Wheeling in Virginia. This route will meet and accommodate the roads leading from Baltimore and the District of Columbia; it will cross the Monongahela river, at or near Brownsville, sometimes called Redstone, where the advantage of boating can be taken; and from the point where it will probably intersect the river Ohio, there are now roads, or they can easily be made over feasible and proper ground, to and through the principal population of the State of Ohio. "... To enlarge upon the highly important consideration of cement- ing the union of our citizens located on the Western Waters with those of the Atlantic States, would be an indelicacy offered to the understanding of the body to whom this report is addressed, as it might seem to distrust them. But from the interesting nature of the subject the Committee are induced to ask the indulgence of a single observation. Politicians have generally agreed that rivers unite the interests and promote the friendship of those who inhabit their banks, while mountains, on the contrary, tend to the disunion and estrangement of those who are separated by their intervention. In the present case, to make the crooked ways smooth, will, in effect, remove the intervening mountains, and by facilitating the intercourse of the western brethren with those of the Atlantic, substantially unite them in interests, which the Committee believe, is the most effectual cement of union applicable to the human race." THE MARYLAND ROUTE SELECTED. In accordance with these recommendations, a law was finally passed by Congress in March, 1806, 2 authorizing the President to appoint " three discreet and disinterested persons to lay out a road from Cum- berland or a point on the northern bank of the river Potomac, in the State of Maryland, between Cumberland and the place where the main road leading from Gwynn's to Winchester, in Virginia, crosses the river, to the State of Ohio." They were to examine the route, and make a report to the President. Also, by this act, the first appro- 1 Senate Reports. 9th Cong-., 1st Sess., Rep. No. 195. 3 An Act to Regulate the Laying out and Making a Road from Cumber- land, in the State of Maryland, to the State of Ohio. Approved Mar. 29, 1806. 184 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND priation of $30,000 was made to defray the expense of laying out and making the road. The President was authorized, if he accepted the report of the Commissioners, to pursue such measures as he thought proper and to obtain the consent of the necessary states for the construction of the road through their territory. The Commissioners appointed by President Jefferson Eli Wil- liams, Thomas Moore, and Joseph Kerr presented one report De- cember 30, 1806, and a second January 15, 1808. The latter was transmitted to Congress by President Jefferson with his approval on February 19, 1808.* CONSENT OF THE STATES AND FEDERAL APPROPRIATIONS. In the meanwhile Maryland, 2 Pennsylvania, and Virginia had by statute granted permission to the Federal Government to construct the road through their territory. In 1810 accordingly, there was begun a series of appropriations for the Cumberland Road which finally aggregated about $7,000,000. 3 The contract for the first ten miles was given in 1811 and the road was thrown open 'to the public in 1818. 4 From that time " until the coming of the railroad west of the Alleghany Mountains, in 1852, the National Road was the one great highway over which passed the bulk of trade and travel and the mails between the East and West." The details of the construction of the National Road and its very interesting historical associations must be omitted here, with the exception of a brief resume of the important events of its subsequent history. In 1817, John C. Calhoun introduced into the House of Repre- sentatives a bill to set aside for roads and canals the bonds and divi- dends received by the United States from its newly-chartered National 1 Exec. Commun., 10th Cong., 1st Sess. 2 See Message of President Jefferson, Feb. 19th, 1808. Maryland expressed her consent by 1806, chap. Ixx, " An Act vesting certain powers in the Presi- dent of the United States." 3 The appropriations are to be found in Searight. The Old Pike, pp. 100-6. Searight. The Old Pike, p. 16. See below. 11 Searight. The Old Pike, 16. A work containing many interesting de- scriptions and anecdotes brought together in a colloquial manner. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 185 Bank. Henry Clay supported the bill; but as amended and passed, it was vetoed by President Madison upon the ground that it was beyond the constitutional powers of Congress. 1 Five years later President Monroe vetoed another bill which, besides making a regular appropriation for the preservation and repair of the road, provided for the erection of turnpikes and the collection of tolls and for the protection of the road from malicious injuries. 2 NATIONAL ROAD UNDER STATE CONTROL. Regular appropriations, however, were permitted to go on and the road was continued farther west from time to time. The eastern part fell into bad repair; and in 1831 the Legislature of Pennsylvania passed an act, appointing commissioners to build toll-houses and erect gates on so much of the road as lay within the State of Pennsylvania. The act was to be effective only upon the condition that Congress should have the road put in good repair and make an appropriation for the erection of toll-houses by the Pennsylvania Commissioners." A similar act had been passed by the Legislature of Ohio a short time before. In 1832 4 Maryland proposed her acceptance of the road upon the same terms as Pennsylvania; and Virginia did likewise. Congress assented to this proposition the same year/ and commis- sioners were appointed by the states. The road, as repaired by the Federal Government, was finally accepted by the states at slightly different times. Maryland signified her acceptance in 1834," and the next year made provision for its preservation under state control by the establishment of rates of toll and the appointment of officials. 1 The road then remained the subject of frequent legislation until 1878, when it was put under the control of Allegany and Garrett counties. 8 Other roads were constructed by the Federal Government at vari- ous times and in different parts of the Union ; but the road from Cum- berland has borne the lasting title of " The National Road." Attempts 'Richardson. [Ed]. Messages and Papers of the Presidents, vol. i, p. 584. (Mar. 3, 1817.) 'Ibid., vol. ii, p. 142. (May 4, 1822.) * Laws of Pennsylvania, 1831, approved April 4. * Chap. Iv. 5 22nd Cong., Sess. 1, chap, cliii, approved July 3, 1832. Chap, cciii. 1 Chap. cccv. * Chap, clviii. 186 HIGHWAY LEGISLATION IN MARYLAND were made to provide for the construction of other national roads passing through the state of Maryland, but they were entirely unsuc- cessful. 1 The National Road, however, was a success, and for many years was, indeed, the " channel of conveyance of the extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire." The National Road was described in 1879 as follows: " It was excellently macadamized ; the rivers and creeks were spanned by stone bridges; the distances were indexed by iron mile- posts, and the toll-houses supplied with strong iron gates. Its pro- jector* and chief supporter was Henry Clay, whose services in its behalf are commemorated by a monument near Wheeling. There were sometimes twenty gaily-painted four-horse coaches each way daily. The cattle and sheep were never out of sight. The canvas- covered wagons were drawn by six or twelve horses. Within a mile of the road the country was a wilderness, but on the highway the traffic was as dense as in the main street of a large town. Ten miles an hour is said to have been the usual speed for coaches; but between Hagerstown and Frederick they were claimed to have made twenty- six miles in two hours. These coaches finally ceased running in 1853. There were also through freight-wagons from Baltimore to Wheeling, which carried ten tons. They were drawn by twelve horses, and their rear wheels were ten feet high. 3 Though its glories have long since departed, and coach and wagon no more throng its way, the National Road, rich in its associations of historic interest, still constitutes one of the most enduring monuments of Maryland's past, while the idea to which it owes its existence the welding of the West and the East in commercial and national unity has found other and more lasting expression. 1 E. g., 1. A turnpike road along the Atlantic coast, from Maine to Georgia. 2. A national road from Washington to Buffalo. - An error. 8 Quoted in an article by Richard Stone, " Historical Sketch of National Road Building," in Journal of the Massachusetts Highway Association, vol. i, No. 3. PART IV THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS BY ARTHUR NEWHALL JOHNSON THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS. BY ARTHUR NEWHALL JOHNSON. INTRODUCTION. A knowledge of the present condition of Maryland highways is of value to all who are interested in their improvement, and any satisfac- tory study of the subject must give information which w r ill lead to the betterment of the roads of the state without any marked increase in the expenditures upon them. The present investigation, which is based upon all of the available official information concerning the highways and upon a personal study of the greater portion of the roads, is intended to give facts regarding their present condition and the methods of road-repair now in vogue. A complete statement regarding the roads must include an account of the mileage, kinds of roads, and their state of repair. The figures introduced in this report are believed to be as accurate as it is possible to obtain at the present time. They are based upon the figures obtained from the offices of the County Commissioners in the several counties and from nearly nine hundred replies to inquiries sent to farmers in almost every neighborhood in the state. The statements regarding the state of repair, the amount, distance, and cost of hauling are based upon a personal inspection of over 2,500 miles of road representing every county of the state and upon the information fur- nished by the farmers in answer to the circulars distributed among them. Additional facts concerning the general scope of road-repairs, methods, machinery, and expenditures, were obtained from the offices of the County Commissioners. The methods of applying the funds appropriated for highway- 190 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS construction fall into two classes. In the case of bridges, and, mani- festly necessary improvements at local points, it has been customary in almost all of the counties to allot relatively large sums for special -cases. In the matter of repairing the road-bed it seems to be the custom in nearly every county to so apportion the money that its expenditure will be uniformly distributed over the mileage of the county with little regard to the needs of any particular portion of a given road. In this way it often happens that a sum is assigned to a road to be applied at a uniform rate, mile by mile, instead of locally, in the reduction of a heavy grade or the betterment of the worst por- tions of the road. The present method leaves very much to be de- .sired, as the thin veneering of improvement upon the roads is soon lost and the roads return to their former condition. With the appli- cation of the money for specific improvements the result is far dif- ferent, since in a few years there is a marked advance in the average -condition of the highway. The few cases in which this method has been employed emphasize most strongly the general lack of benefit received from the larger portion of the money spent annually on the roads. MILEAGE. The total mileage of the highways in Maryland, as shown by the records in the County Commissioners' offices and the best maps pub- lished, amounts to 14,483 miles exclusive of city streets. This is an average of 1.47 miles per square mile of area. The roads embraced in this estimate may be classified in various ways. According to the nature of the surfacing, they include stone, gravel, shell, and dirt roads, the last including all which have had no surfacing other than that of the earth composing the original road-bed. The grouping of the highways in this manner brings out the fact that there are 890 miles of stone road, including the turnpikes or toll-roads, 225 miles of gravel road, and 250 miles of shell road, leaving 13,118 miles of dirt or unimproved roads. If another classification is made dividing the highways into main thoroughfares and by-roads there are found to be 2,021 miles of main roads or 14 per cent, of the total mileage. The general location of these roads for the whole state is given in Plate XV, while on the MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY THE MAIN HIGHWAYS MARYLAND INCLUDING DELAWARE AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA S 10 SCAJL:E 1:1,250,000. 20^files-lln.cli MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WM. BULLOCK CLARK, STATE OEOLOOI3T 1899 LEGEND MAIN COUNTY ROADS TOLL ROADS ABANDONED TOLL ROADS NOTE. See individual county maps for the identification of the different roads. VOLUME III, PLATE XV. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 191 individual county maps, Plates XX to XXVIII, the towns along the routes have been shown so that a more complete conception may be gained of their location. Nearly all the turnpikes are included in this list, as they still constitute some of the principal routes. Since the building of many of the turnpikes the section of country opened by them has been traversed by railroads. This has reduced to almost zero the hauling over some sections of the turnpikes, so that there is no longer revenue enough derived to maintain the road. When this has happened the particular section of a turnpike has been abandoned and turned over to the care of the counties. These aban- doned portions of turnpike, where the old road-bed has been left, are shown on the map by dotted red lines. This leaves at present 497 miles of road on which toll is collected, or about 25 per cent, of the main roads of the state. The following table gives the mileage by counties for each type of road enumerated above: TABLE SHOWING THE MILEAGE OF MARYLAND ROADS BY COUNTIES AND TYPES. County. Allegany Total Mileage, Including turnpikes. . 550 Miles of road per sq. mile of area. 1 15 Dirt roads. 490 Stone Gravel roads, roads. 60 Shell road?. Anne Amndel . . Baltimore . 521 . 1,060 1.31 1.72 470 640 1 25 310 .... 25 110 Calvert 265 1 21 265 Caroline 547 1 74 537 10 Carroll . 800 1 88 758 42 Cecil 700 1 87 688 5 10 2 Charles . 465 1 00 365 100 Dorchester . 600 0.99 580 20 Frederick. . . . 1 280 2 02 1 150 130 Garrett . 650 96 628 22 .... Harf ord . 800 1 90 680 100 15 5 Howard 448 1 79 400 48 ... Kent 435 1 37 430 5 Montgomery.. . . . 835 1 64 790 45 ... Prince George's. Queen Anne's . . . 530 . 563 1.10 1 60 480 555 50 8 St. Mary's 535 1 49 505 25 5 Somerset . 495 1 36 465 80 Talbot . 400 1 40 380 20 Washington .... 799 1 84 672 127 Wicomico 605 1 64 595 10 Worcester . 600 1 26 600 Miles Percentage of Main of Main Toll- roads, roads, roads. 107 19 96 18 170 16 154 58 22 60 11 68 9 30 91 13 100 22 109 18 172 13 129 80 12 96 12 8 60 13 35 63 14 .... 120 14 37 73 15 70 12 85 16 50 10 .... 44 11 137 17 104 54 9 .... 58 10 .... State 14,483 1.47 13,118 890 225 250 2,021 14 497 192 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS GENERAL OUTLINE OF HIGHWAY CONDITIONS. THE SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY TRAVERSED. The discussion of this subject falls into three major divisions corre- sponding to the physiographic provinces of the state, in each of which, as earlier described by Professor Clark, characteristic highway con- ditions prevail. These differences modify the construction of the roads relative to location, grade, and material of the road-bed. APPALACHIAN REGION. The steepest, most nigged, and wildest portions of the state are found in the western part of the Appalachian district, where the amount of travel is sometimes so small that the roads are little better than well-cleared wood-roads. The difficulties have also been so great that little effort has been made to locate and construct the roads to advantage. That the diffi- culties are surmountable was shown by the construction of the Na- tional Road, which begins at Cumberland and traverses the many mountainous ridges in the northwestern portion of the state. In the building of this road the location was so carefully planned that there are no grades over eight per cent. The Williams Road, situated east of Cumberland, also shows the result of considerable skill employed in its location. A second feature of the roads in this area is their location either in the valleys or on the level tops of the ridges. The former are serviceable for short hauls, as many of the farms are located in the valleys. The main lines of travel, however, include the roads on the top of the ridges, such as the Hoop Pole Ridge Road in Garrett county. These ridges trend across the state in a northeasterly-south- westerly direction. The connection between the valley and ridge, portions of the road involves steep grades, which invariably are much higher than is suitable for a good highway. Grades as high as twenty-two per cent, were measured, while those of twelve to fifteen per cent, were of frequent occurrence. Such steepness in the roads, MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 193 together with the roughness of their surface, precludes economic hauling. CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN MARYLAND. In the counties of central and southern Maryland the general level is more uniform, but steep grades are always encountered at the stream-crossings. The length of these grades varies from one-eighth to one-half of a mile, depending upon the depth to which the stream has cut below the general level of the surface. The grades at these points generally average 10 feet in 100 and are seldom less than 8 per cent. The part of the Coastal Plain on the Western Shore, which in- cludes southern Maryland, presents typical characteristics of topog- raphy and soil which give to this section conditions producing espec- ially bad roads. The general level of St. Mary's, Calvert, and por- tions of Anne Arundel, Prince George's and Charles counties, is about 100 feet, while farther inland, adjacent to the Piedmont Plateau, it increases to more than 200 feet. Since the soil consists mostly of flays, often overlain with sands and gravels with no underlying rocks to withstand the erosive action of the streams, the latter have been cut down to very nearly tide-water level, while their banks have been carved by the rains into deep gullies which extend in every direction. All the streams in reaching tide-water level have cut through the soil from 100 to 180 feet, leaving slopes of this height which it is necessary to descend and ascend in crossing from one side of a stream to the other. In some instances a road crosses the gully diagonally and so avoids excessive grade, but most of the crossings are at right angles with the course of the stream. Owing to the hilly character and the great depth of soil the roadways in this section have suffered nrnch from washouts. Frequently the side ditches are gullied to a depth of five or six feet below the surface of the road, which itself is a number of feet below the general level of the ground. This has caused, in consequence, many narrow and dangerous roads. Some- times the entire roadway becomes so cut down that its identity is lost and it is impossible for vehicles to pass. Then a new roadway is started. 194 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS In the endeavor to save the road stakes are driven along the sides of the ditches nearest the road and brush is interwoven with them. Small trees are also thrown into the ditches to check the force of the water. The roads suffer least when a thick growth of trees and bushes has grown between the roadway and the ditch, for the dense mass of roots holds the bank in place and prevents a further encroach- ment upon the road itself. But only a few favorably situated roads are thus protected, as the conditions are not such as would warrant any attempt toward starting such a growth. Wherever the roads are over a hilly or rolling country it may be noticed that there are many sections in which the road-bed is much below the level of the adjacent surface of the land. Moreover, it is evident that a large quantity of earth has been removed which has not been used towards filling the hollows, for embankments are formed on only a few of the roads. When first opened the roads follow the irregularities of the surface, the road-bed being practically at the same elevation. The travel over these roads soon forms ruts and hollows in which the storm-water is collected and carried from the tops of the hills along the roadway to the bottom. Wherever there' is clay or loose soil to be easily washed away the ditches are eroded and increased in size with every rain. The water carries the earthy material to the valleys where it is deposited at the sides, to be further removed through some natural drainage channel, scarcely any being deposited in the roadway. On the tops of the knolls the water has very little erosive action, but as the volume and velocity increase in its course down hill, greater energy is .developed and a greater quantity of earth is cut away. This accounts for the fact that the deepest cuts on country roads are so often found part way up the grades, while at the top there has been little cutting, perhaps only a foot or two. Eeference to Fig. 5 will perhaps make this point clear and bring out, in addition, an im- portant feature which has not been generally commented upon. This figure shows a longitudinal section or profile of a road on a hill. The light line represents the natural surface of the ground which was orig- inally the road-bed; the heavy line shows the relative elevations of the MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 195- road-bed at present. As before mentioned, there is very little cutting at the tops of the hills, while the dirt washed from the road does not materially raise the road in the hollows. Though the hill remains about the same in height, the beginning of the ascent is nearer the top, as the sides have been washed away, thus decreasing the distance in which to climb the hill. The grade of road is thus increased. Another point which will be observed on hilly roads which have been gullied out by the storm-water is that the grade is steeper towards the top, which is just the reverse of what it should be. It is better to begin the ascent on a steeper grade and gradually dimmish it towards the top, thereby making it easier for the horse as he becomes - fatigued. FIG. 5. Showing effect of storm-water on a steep grade. (Vertical scale exaggerated.) The broken line in Fig. 5 shows what the grade of the road should be. The deepest cut is made at the top, the earth being removed to the bottom of the hill to make an embankment. The vertical dis- tance to be overcome, instead of being H, is reduced to h, while the grades are less than on any portion of the original road-bed instead of steeper. THE EASTERN SHORE. There is a marked contrast in the condition of roads on the western and eastern portions of the Coastal Plain, due to the difference in the topography of these sections. On the Eastern Shore there are no long grades, although at the stream-crossings grades of 6 to 10 per cent, are common, which, however, seldom extend over 100 yards. The present elevation of the bridges at these points is about 30 feet, below the level of the surrounding land. 196 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS The Eastern Shore presents conditions well suited to excellent dry-weather roads, as the land is nearly level, few areas being over 50 feet above tide-water, and the soil for the most part is composed of a mixture of clay and sand. The proportion of sand and clay varies in different localities, there being extensive stretches of nearly pure sand, which makes some of the poorest roads on the Eastern Shore. There is a very interesting phenomenon connected with the occur- rence of the sandy sections of road, which has probably been noticed by all familiar with them. On the southeastern banks of the rivers there regularly occurs a surface covering of loose sand frequently extending a mile or so back from the river, while on the other bank there is found a clay soil. Thus the roads near the rivers on the westerly banks are over a hard clay soil, while those on the eastern banks are very sandy. In addition to these sandy sections, other limited areas covered with a loose sand occur more or less irregularly. The roads through these sandy sections are practically poor through- out the year, being in poorest condition when dry. If too wet they are also bad, and there seldom is just the right proportion of moisture to render the road at all firm. A small amount of clay mixed with sand on the other hand makes a very good dry-weather road, although in very wet weather this renders it much worse than a pure sand road. INSTRUCTIONS TO SUPERVISORS. Most of the counties issue to the Road Supervisors instructions which are more or less detailed in character. Those issued to the Supervisors of Washington county are perhaps the most explicit and are here given in full. Read Instructions. INSTRUCTIONS. It shall be the duty of the Supervisor, as early in the Spring as it is at all practicable, to open drains on the hills of his road and repair the breakers. AH breakers must be made with well broken stone, covered with suffi- cient dirt to keep them in place, and must be made as near square across the road as possible; also must be well extended so as not to be so abrupt. All open drains across the road must be not less than six or eight feet wide. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XVI. FIG. 1. DIRT ROAD, HARFORD COUNTY. The FrieUeuwald Co. FIG. 2. LIMESTONE ROAD, WASHINGTON COUNTY. TYPES OF ROADS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 197 In localities where stone can be had without entailing too much expense three-fourths of the appropriation must be expended in macadamizing. Filling up holes with dirt is especially prohibited. Where stone cannot be obtained the road should be well graded up in the center and the side drains kept well open. Ten cents per perch shall be allowed for stone delivered on the road, the furnishing of which must be by and under the supervision of the Super- visor, and must be paid for out of the appropriation made for such road. In all instances stone must be well broken, not only the top ones but all that are put on the road. When an appropriation of more than ten dollars is made the Supervisor shall employ three good hands. At least three-fourths of the appropriation must be worked out before July 1st, and the remainder before November 15th. If Supervisors expend more than the appropriation without first gaining consent of the Board of Commissioners, the excess will not be paid. The above instructions must be fully complied with, and upon satisfactory information of their not being, the above commission will be revoked and another person appointed to succeed such Supervisor. By order, DIRT ROADS. A considerable variety in the method of treatment of dirt roads is found in different parts of the state, according to their character and location. Thus, the roads in a clay soil are susceptible to dif- ferent treatment from those of a sandy or stony ground, and roads on the hillsides require different treatment for their preservation from those traversing level country. The usual method of working a dirt road when composed of soil free from large stones, is to run a plough along either side to form a ditch, and if there is no more money to carry the work through, it ends here, leaving the road with a mound of earth on either side, which prevents the water from leaving the road-bed. There are many roads in various sections left in this manner. Another step toward working the road is to throw the loose material from the ditch into the center. Where the road-machines are used the work of shaping the road is much facilitated and for a time the road presents a much neater appearance. On level tracts, especially where there is a hard, compact soil, a considerable improvement can be made very cheaply with the road-machine, but generally too much is expected of it and its work is not supplemented, as it should be, by proper grading and 13 198 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS subsequent rolling of the road-bed. It oftentimes happens that instead of the road being improved, time and money are spent pro- ducing results absolutely harmful. In very stony soil road-machines and scrapers cannot be used at all, so that whatever work is done upon such roads must be with pick and shovel. Occasionally projecting outcrops of rock are broken off with hammers. The steeper portions of the roads have " water-breaks " or '' breakers " constructed at intervals more or less frequent according to the amount of money at hand for the purpose. They are made in various ways and often show considerable individuality of treatment. Usually they consist of a mound of earth or broken stone covered with dirt extending square across the road. Plate XXXIII shows a road liberally provided with these breakers. The object is to turn to one side the storm-water, preventing the gullying of the roadway. At the same time they form ugly obstructions to travel and increase the work of a horse hauling over them. They are often 2 feet above the road. An instance was noticed where the supervisor had made a breaker of small logs 4 to 6 inches in diameter, placed across the road and covered with stone and dirt, the whole making a formidable obstruction. A method frequently seen employed on dirt roads is to plough the entire roadway and then shape with the scraper or some form of road- machine. This leaves a mass of loose dirt in the roadway, in which ruts are soon formed ready to collect the rain-water. This readily finds it way to the subsoil, and so softens it that the wheels cut yet deeper into the soft mud which forms after a protracted period of wet weather. It is a great mistake to loosen the firmly compacted earth road-bed, as bad effects are sure to follow. It is only where the road- bed has become worn very uneven that ploughing should be done. The better way is to build up with new materials from the sides of the road, then shape and roll as firmly as possible. The dirt roads receive far too much scraping and digging. They are shaped up at the expense of material in the roadway and not by the addition of material to it. There is much material washed away by the rains which is not replaced, and the roadway as a result gradually becomes worn more and more below the general level of the surrounding .land. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 199 STONE ROADS. The state and character of the stone roads vary according to the authorities that built or at present operate them. Of the 890 miles of this class nearly 500 miles are toll-road, operated and maintained by the different turnpike companies. About 130 miles of former turnpike have been abandoned by the owners, who have left the old road-beds, which are still used. This leaves about 260 miles of stone roads which have been constructed by the counties. In almost all instances the roads constructed by the companies are better than those built bv the counties, although manv of the methods / o t/ employed are the same. The turnpikes have generally been con- structed with a heavy foundation course of large stones over which has been spread a course of more finely-broken material. The method of breaking the stone for the roads has usually been by hand, although crushers have been used in a few instances. It is customary to see the road-maker equipped with a long-handled hammer, breaking, one by one, the large pieces of rock which have been thrown over the road in piles. Each piece of stone is broken and rebroken until the desired size is reached. When thus broken by hand the pieces are invariably too large, many of the loose pieces of rock which are on the surface having faces measuring six or more inches across. When the material is obtained from a crusher it is but little better, as it is usually unscreened so that there is a wide range in the size of the pieces. Such material is almost certain to give unsatisfactory results. The manner in which the stone is placed upon the surface of the road is equally at fault. It is usually spread upon the surface with little attempt at shaping and almost none at compacting the material. It is usually expected that the stone will be consolidated by the traffic passing over it. In order to gain this result more readily & thin cov- ering of dirt is thrown over the stone which renders the surface some- what smoother until rains come and soften the dirt between the stones, allowing the wheels to cut into the loose surface. Without constant attention, ruts are almost sure to be formed on stone roads which are compacted by wagon-wheels. On Plate XVII, 200 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS Fig. 2, showing a recently stoned portion of Edmondson avenue in Baltimore near the city limits, it may be noticed that the ruts have already been started. While it costs a comparatively small sum to throw loose stone upon a road, and while by this ill-adapted method good roads can be made in time, if proper care is given, a heavy tax is imposed upon all vehicles until the roadway has become hard and smooth enough for traffic. This tax is far in excess of what it would cost to construct a road by modern methods. The loose crushed stone, placed commonly upon the highways for the wagons to compact, and the roughness of the surface of these roads due to the working through of the large stones in the well-worn crown of the roadway, lead the teamsters and the drivers of lighter vehicles to seek the more comfortable lines of travel found in the dirt roads along most of the turnpikes. In dry weather these are traveled much more than the stone road, especially if the latter has been recently repaired. The dirt roads wear more readily and are soon at a lower level than the stone road. In fact, these dirt roads are frequently worn so deeply below the grade of the main road as to form a dangerous bank. On the Baltimore and Reisterstown turnpike guard-rails have been erected where there is any danger of vehicles driving over the embankment. This is the only road in the state which is thus protected throughout its entire length. The view of a portion of the old turnpike between Rockville and Washington, as it was previous to the recent improvement, is given in Plate XXXIV, Fig. 2, which shows the depth to which the dirt side-roads are sometimes worn. The best stone roads which have resulted from this somewhat anti- quated method of road-construction are the turnpikes. These vary among themselves according to the character of the stone employed in their construction which is determined in great measure by the country rock over which they pass. The best of these are found in the vicinity of Hagerstown and Frederick where, taken as a whole, the roads ,are better than in other parts of the state. The turnpikes in these valleys are made of the softer varieties of limestone, which are easily compacted by a moderate amount of traffic. While the soft- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XVII. FIG. l.-TRAP ROAD, BALTIMORE COUNTY. STONE SPREAD IN LAYERS AND ROLLED. TheFrie.ienwulii Co. FlO. 2.- GNEISS ROAD, BALTIMORE CITY. STONE SPREAD WITHOUT ROLLING. TYPES OF ROADS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 201 ness of the limestone is of great advantage in this respect, it is the cause of frequent repair. Yet where there is a good traffic the revenue derived from tolls is found to be sufficient to maintain these roads in good condition and still leave a fair profit for the operators. This is especially the case with the turnpikes mentioned, which are located in broad level valleys with few heavy grades. One of these roads at its best is shown in Plate XVI, Fig. 2. The sections of the state where there is no limestone are at a greater disadvantage to keep up a smooth roadway. The harder varieties of stone do not form themselves so readily into a compact mass, and it is only where there is a heavy traffic over the road that a smooth sur- face can be obtained. The turnpikes in the vicinity of Baltimore use several varieties of the harder rocks, usually such as can be found in the immediate vicinity of the road. On the portions of these turn- pikes where the repairs are made with fine broken stone the traffic is sufficient to form a hard and comparatively smooth surface. If, before attempting to construct a stone road its fundamental requirements were observed, better results would be obtained and money saved. The most important of all, and on which too much stress cannot be laid, is that of previously grading the road-bed before surfacing. This has been mentioned elsewhere, but is such an im- portant consideration and a part of road-construction which has been so much neglected that repetition is not amiss. In fact, the surfacing of steep grades is an absolute waste of money and material. After a road has received a layer of stone it is very difficult to have further improvements made, which necessitate the removal of the stone sur- facing, as there always exists a prejudice against improving what is already considered an improved road. The surfacing of an un- graded road simply preserves it in a bad condition, making it more expensive to reconstruct it as it should be. No greater improve- ment of the highways of Maryland can be suggested than a reduction of the excessive grades now found in nearly every county. It is an improvement which does not need to be and cannot be made upon all the roads at once, but it is one toward which much of the money now spent on useless so-called repairs can be applied with real and last- ing benefit to the roads. 202 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS GRAVEL ROADS. The beds of gravel employed in road-construction occur in several bands, extending northeast-southwest across the more westerly por- tions of the Coastal Plain. They usually occur in beds composed of pebbles nearly uniform in size, so that screening is not, as a rule, necessary. With such excellent road-building material at hand in many of the counties of the state, it seems strange that so few miles of road have been improved with this material. Even where gravel has been applied, owing to its method of appli- cation, the roads do not always maintain their form as they should in wet weather. This fault is usually due not to the material employed so much as to an entire lack of proper grading and under-draining. Merely to throw some gravel over a wet or spongy place without rais- ing the level of the road-bed or making any provision for the drawing off of the water can never make a road which will not cut through and become muddy whenever the frost comes out of the ground. The water sinks through the gravel-covering into the clayey foundation and renders the latter yielding to the overlying load which pushes the wheels through the gravel into the clay, or, if the covering is thin, causes the clay to be pushed up between the pebbles. With proper attention towards grading, under-draining, and the shaping of the road before the gravel is placed upon it, considerable improvement may be made on almost any of the roads where gravel is obtainable, as it makes an even, hard and firm road-bed when sup- ported by proper foundations. An example of the better constructed gravel roads is that extending from Marlboro to Washington, which was built originally as a toll-road. Plate XVIII, Fig. 1. An economical form of construction is to use the gravel as a sup- port for a macadam surface where the travel over any particular thoroughfare would warrant such an improvement. Many of the roads in Prince George's county, in the neighborhood of Washington, might be treated in this way, as gravel is abundant and the stone for surfacing could be brought by rail at a reasonable cost. SHELL ROADS. The only road-metal of importance in the sandy country along the lower Eastern Shore of the Bay consists of the oyster-shells con- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 203 stantly accumulating at the large oyster-packing establishments near the water-front. The roads surfaced with this material aggregate 250 miles, and are found most fully developed about the head and on the Eastern Shore of the Bay. One of the longest pieces of shell road in the state extends from Princess Anne to Crisfield, which has been shelled nearly its entire length, a distance of about twenty-two miles. This, however, has not been kept in good repair in many sections, so that now the shell covering is almost entirely worn away in spots. The roads at present are shelled for sections two or three miles in length, although now and then a continuous stretch of ten or more miles is encountered. In the main, these shell roads are satisfactory and supply this portion of the state with highways more serviceable than many in those counties which are richer in road- building materials. Plate XVIII, Fig. 2, shows the shell road be- tween Baltimore and Chase's station in Baltimore county. The manner of applying the shells is to spread them loosely over the surface, where they are left to be compacted by the traffic. Where this is heavy, as in the shell road along Eastern avenue, ex- tending from Baltimore into the lower part of Baltimore county, the shells are thoroughly broken up and compacted by a week's wear. On the Eastern Shore, where the travel is less, it takes a much longer time. The shells are usually either thrown upon the road without first shaping the road-bed in the proper manner, or they are used to fill in muddy places on clay roads. The result is that the shells are easily pushed into the soft bottom, leaving a depression in the surface of the road-bed where water collects. The water tends to dissolve and percolate through the shells, destroying the coherence of the compacted mass, or the mud works up between the shells and forms a mud-hole which must in turn be filled with new material to main- tain the surface of the road. Such failures in construction could be avoided by first removing all the loose mud and earth and then refilling with a sandy soil, which should be rolled over or tamped until firm. When shells are spread over such foundations they main- tain their surface. A sandy soil is better than one of clay, as it does not work up as readily into the shells. 204 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS A still greater difficulty experienced with shell roads is the rapid formation of horse-tracks on those portions of the highway which receive only a small amount of travel. If the hollows in the center of the road are not filled they hold the water which in turn softens the road, causing it to wear through very rapidly. This difficulty is sometimes remedied by spreading loose shells in the ruts and holes as soon as they are formed. The horses, in avoiding the rough coating, bring the wheels over the shells which have been spread in the center of the road, and in this manner, by crushing and compacting, restore the crown of the road. At the same time the traffic is diverted from the center of the road to either side, so that the wear is more evenly distributed over the entire surface. The shells in the center are compacted before a second horse-track has been formed. When the travel is once distributed over the entire width of the road the horses do not again follow a single track so closely. The use of shells as a pavement in the streets of the larger towns on the Eastern Shore is not wholly satisfactory, since the material, although well adapted to lightly-traveled country roads, is not suit- able for the surfacing of much-used thoroughfares. Moreover, owing to their rapid wear, dust is formed in large quantities, to be blown about by every breeze. The color and adhesion of the dust render it a great inconvenience to householders and a positive injury to store- keepers along the roads where shells are used. The cost of constructing and maintaining a shell road 18 feet wide and 18 inches thick in the center, reducing to 9 inches at the side, may be based upon the following estimates: Such a road requires about 8 bushels of shells per linear foot, or approximately 58,000 bushels of shells per mile, the cost of which is about 2 cents per bushel for the material and 1 cent per bushel for the hauling, making a total of $1,740. For the maintenance of shell roads in the vicinity of Salisbury, from 2,000 to 3,000 bushels per mile are required each year, which, at the rate of 3 cents per bushel, annually cost about $75 a mile. If, instead of shells for a wearing surface, there should be used ma- terial which offers ten to fifteen times as great resistance to wear, MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XVIII. FIG. 1. GRAVEL ROAD, PRINCE GEORGE'S COUNTY. TheFriedenwaMCc. FlG. 2. SHELL ROAD, BALTIMORE COUNTY. TYPES OF ROADS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 205 repairs would necessarily be much lighter and less frequent. Refer- ence to the tables, pp. 327-9, giving the relative wearing qualities of the different road-materials, shows that the relative value of shells as compared with the average limestone is as 9 to 1 ; compared to granite as 11 to 1; compared with trap-rock as 16 to 1. Thus, under similar conditions, a stone road would last about 12 times as long as one built of shells. The cost of shell roads is estimated to be from $1,000 to $2,000 per mile according to the width and thickness of the shell covering. It would then be a saving if a surface could be constructed of ma- terial, for example, which had ten times the wearing qualities of shells, and costing, perhaps, five times as much. There is scarcely an important center on the Eastern Shore not in the immediate neighborhood of a wharf. Thus to all parts of this section of the state there could be sent by water broken stone from some of the numerous points at the head of the Bay, where there is abundant material. The estimated cost of broken stone per cubic yard, delivered at the wharf, in places on the Eastern Shore varies from $1.50 to $2. Shipped by rail, the cost would be about 25 per cent. more. BRIDGES. The total amount spent upon bridges during the past ten years can only be approximated, as the exact figures could not be obtained at the offices of the various boards of County Commissioners. The amount is estimated at $820,000, or about 18 per cent, of the total spent upon roads and bridges. Under the head of bridges is included not only bridges proper, but also culverts and smaller drains. No detailed examination of the many bridges was attempted, though note was made of their general character and condition. They may be divided into three classes wooden, iron, and stone. The majority of the small bridges, with spans up to 30 feet, culverts and drains are of wood. The shortest spans are a simple beam to which is nailed the flooring and rails. For spans from 10 to 30 feet, a simple triangular frame with a central tension rod or post forms the supporting truss. They are in various stages of repair varying 206 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS from some newly-built to those over which it is unsafe to ride. There are still to be seen across the larger streams a number of the long, old-style, wooden, bow-truss bridges with a heavy curved upper chord built up from planks bolted together. To protect these bridges from the weather a covering of light boarding completely encloses the whole structure. Iron bridges are, however, fast replacing the longer wooden spans. Plate XIX, Fig. 1, gives a view of the Dover bridge recently erected FIG. 6. Cross-section of I-beam bridge. across the Choptank river betwen Talbot and Caroline counties. The three new steel spans replace a part of the old wooden bridge. The portion so far erected is on the Caroline county side. There are also many short iron bridges, some of which are of a flimsy con- struction. There are comparatively few I-beam bridges, one of the cheapest and best forms for spans less than 25 or 30 feet. Xo method of construction is more durable than the combination of masonry and I-beams, between which are transverse arches of brick, the whole covered with concrete, over which is laid the roadway. Fig. 6 shows a cross-section of such a bridge. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 207 In the early part of the century, when a number of the turnpikes were built, massive stone arches were constructed over all the streams. Substantial as they were, to-day there are plain traces of weakness and disintegration, which have been caused by the weather and in part by willful destruction. Moisture has in some instances gradually penetrated through the joints and crevices, causing, with the frost, a perceptible bulging and cracking of the walls. One instance noted, in particular, is that of the bridge on the Baltimore and Cumberland road, where the Monocacy river is crossed. This bridge consists of four arches, each with a span of 65 feet. The side walls are here bulged to a very noticeable extent. At the easterly end of this bridge is a rather curious monument, on which, among others, may be found the inscription " Built in the years 1808 and 1809. Jona en Elliott first produced a bold plan of this bridge." On this same road heavy masonry arches were built across Antietam Creek and the Conococheague river. The bridge over the latter is shown in Plate XIX, Tig. 2. The longest masonry arch in the world and next to the longest ever constructed is that of the bridge on the Conduit Road, across Cabin John Creek in Montgomery county, a few miles west of the District of Columbia. The length of this arch is 220 feet. The longest one, destroyed in 1427, was built in Trezzo, Italy, and had a span of 251 feet. The Cabin John bridge was built and is maintained by the Xational Government. Across Castleman's river, in Garrett county, on the National Turnpike is a noted arch, a view of which is shown in Plate I. This is one of the longest highway arches in Maryland. The parapet \valls have suffered much from neglect and wanton injury, though the arch is apparently as sound as ever. One of the items of cost, and often a large one in the construction of any bridge, is that of the abutments upon which the stability of the whole structure depends. It is therefore important that they be properly located. This can only be done after a careful study has been made of the proposed bridge site, and especial care must be exercised that the waterway is not so constricted as to endanger the bridge during high water. The foundation for the abutments should be unyielding. To secure this it is oftentimes necessary to drive piles 208 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS and rest the masonry work upon them. Iron tubes rilled with concrete are employed when there is a deep layer of loose soil overlying the firm substratum. Such a construction was adopted for the piers to the Dover bridge on the Choptank river, to which reference has been made. See Caroline county and Plate XIX, Fig. 1. HAULING DISTANCES. The distances which farm products are hauled in different sections of the state have an important bearing on the cost of hauling, the value of the roads, and also in determining what lengths of road are most used. The conditions governing the length of haul in different districts depend upon the proximity of shipping-points or large markets. In the vicinity of large cities, where there is always a demand for garden products, truck-farmers prefer to haul a considerable distance rather than pay the cost of loading and unloading when shipping by rail. Moreover, the perishable nature of such produce requires that it be handled as little as possible. On this account garden truck is hauled considerably longer distances than is usually the case with other kinds of produce. Thus, around large cities, it will usually be found that the limit of the practical hauling distance is considerably greater than in sections remote from urban influences. The following table shows the average hauling distance for each county in Maryland: AVERAGE HAULING DISTANCE IN THE COUNTIES. County. Miles. County. Miles. Allegany 9 Howard 12 Anne Arundel 10 Kent 4 Baltimore 11 Prince George's 13 Calvert 5 Montgomery 13 Caroline 3 Queen Anne's 5 Carroll 5 St. Mary's 5 Cecil 5 Somerset 6 Charles 6 Talbot 4 Dorchester 5 Washington 4 Frederick 5 Wicomico 5 Garrett 8 Worcester 5 Harford 7 Av. for state 677 A study of the foregoing table brings out the interesting point that the farmers are accustomed to haul considerably longer distances in MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XIX. Fia. l.-IRON BRIDGE OVER CHOPTANK RIVER, CAROLINE COUNTY. The FriedHiwuld Co. FlO. 2. STONE BRIDGE OVER CONOCOCHEAGUE RIVER, WASHINGTON COUNTY. TYPES OF BRIDGES. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 209 Anne Anmdel, Baltimore, Howard, Prince George's, and Mont- gomery counties than in any other parts of the state. The average for the first three is about 11 miles, and for the last two, 13 miles; while the average for the whole state is only 6.7 miles. The relative positions of these counties, with reference to Baltimore and "Wash- ington, shown by a glance at the map, account for the high average found. Subsequent tables show that the practical limit of the haul- ing distances is greatest in the neighborhood of the various cities of the state. ' It will be further noticed that the hauling distances of the Eastern Shore counties, which are so well provided with shipping facilities by water, are small. In Caroline county, for example, it is seen to be but 3 miles; in Kent and Talbot, 4 miles each. In Somerset county the distance is somewhat greater, being 6 miles. In those counties that are well provided with railroad facilities, such as Wash- ington, Frederick, Carroll and Cecil, none of which are in the neigh- borhood of large markets, the hauling distance averages about 5 miles. Harford county is exceptional, since the influence of the long hauls to the Baltimore markets raises the average to 7 miles. The com- paratively high values found for Allegany and Garrett counties are accounted for by a lack of shipping facilities. The following table shows the average limit to which it is found practicable to haul in the neighborhood of the larger markets and shipping points of the state: AVERAGE MAXIMUM HAULING DISTANCE. Miles. [" Anne Arundel county 15 To Baltimore from Howard " 17 Baltimore " 14 [ Harford " 18 ii Washington from / Prince Ge r &e's county 15 I Montgomery " 17 Cumberland 10 Cambridge 6 Centreville 6 Elkton 5 Frederick 5 Hagerstown 5 Easton 4 Salisbury 4 210 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS These figures do not indicate the average distance over which the produce is carried into these places, but each is an average of the longer hauls and shows the practical limit to which wagon-carriage is usually done. Thus in the instance of Washington and Baltimore many farmers haul a distance of twenty miles, though few exceed this limit. In no other section of the state is it customary to make such long hauls. The effect of Baltimore and Washington upon the average hauling distance in the adjacent counties has already been noticed. On the Eastern Shore there are occasionally 10 and 12-mile hauls, but they are not frequent enough to affect the general average, as the smaller shipping centers have little or no effect upon the average hauling distance of the county in which they are situated. AMOUNT HAULED. In connection with the distance products are hauled, it is of con- siderable interest and importance to note the loads usually carried. The following table, showing in tons of 2,000 pounds per horse, the loads hauled over the roads in winter, spring, summer and fall, was compiled from a large number of replies obtained in every county from those who go over the roads at all times of the year, and know by experience the difference made in the hauling capacity of their teams by the condition of the roads at different seasons of the year. The figures clearly show that about one-third more can be hauled in summer and fall, when the roads are at their best, than in winter and spring. There are so manv factors which affect the figures in this table */ o that it is difficult to assign in each instance the reason for the par- ticular differences found between the counties: AMOUNT IN TONS PER HORSE HAULED OVER THE ROADS. Average for Counties. Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. year. Allegany 45 .40 .63 .61 .52 Anne Arundel 57 .59 .67 .65 .62 Baltimore 55 .56 .70 .68 .62 Calvert 35 .38 .51 .50 .44 Caroline 58 .56 .64 .64 .61 Carroll 58 .56 .64 .64 .61 Counties. Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. Cecil 47 .51 .78 .72 Charles 41 .46 .66 .65 Dorchester 65 .78 .82 .79 Frederick .57 .! .82 .82 Garrett 41 .36 .56 .51 Harford 46 .45 .58 .59 Howard 50 .55 .66 .65 Kent 44 .52 .65 .67 Montgomery , 48 .59 .68 .68 Prince George's 55 .56 -.72 .74 Queen Anne's 42 .50 .61 .61 St. Mary's 27 .35 .50 .50 Somerset 41 .50 .81 .81 Talbot 44 .53 .72 .69 Washington 58 .57 .68 .71 Wicomico 44 .44 .44 .46 Worcester 42 .54 .71 .71 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 211 Average for year. .61 .55 .76 .71 .46 .52 .59 .57 .61 .64 .54 .41 .63 .60 .63 .45 .60 Average for state 48 .52 .66 .65 .58 The average weight hauled per horse for the state per year is .58 of a ton. The difference between this average and the lowest and highest found in a single county is only 350 pounds. If steep grades do not preclude heavy loads, it often happens that the condition of the road will. For example, in certain sections of the Eastern Shore, the deep sands are always a barrier to large loads. On the other hand there is no very large area in which the roads have been improved to such an extent as to make an extraordinary difference in the amount hauled. Of course there are short pieces of road in many localities which are adapted for heavy hauling; but it is too often the case that the roads have been surfaced while the steep grades remain. For a discussion of the amount hauled in other places, see a succeed- ing chapter by Professor Reid. COST OF HAULING. The average cost of hauling one ton one mile in Maryland is esti- mated at 26 cents. The average for the United States has been esti- mated by General Stone to be 25 cents. Further account of the cost of hauling in different countries will be found in a subsequent chapter on road-administration in Europe. 212 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS GUIDE-BOARDS. Few features connected with highways and their construction more greatly facilitate the travel of people unfamiliar with a given road than the guide-boards; and few additions of equal expense add more to the pleasure of the traveler. While the laws of nearly all of the counties require the erection and maintenance of guide-posts at all the intersections of the roads, there is little evidence of their enforce- ment, as guide-posts on the county roads are almost unknown through- out the entire state. One or two neighborhoods, however, in Har- ford and Baltimore counties have local farmers' clubs or road leagues, which have put up and maintained guide-boards at all the cross roads. With the turnpikes it is different, as the law requiring them to estab- lish posts every mile has been enforced. Each post shows the distance of its location from either end of the turnpike. Most of them are made of stone in which the lettering has been cut, others are of wood. On the National Road three-sided iron pillars were erected, set with two faces toward the road on which were indicated the distances from Cumberland and Wheeling respectively. These posts were cast hollow, the iron being from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in thickness. At the present time either through wanton injury or accidents, few of them remain intact. SURVEYS. Many of the roads in Maryland have been in use for so long a time that it is impossible to gain any facts regarding the care with which they were constructed, the surveys made, and the grades established, beyond the evidence given by the road itself at the present time. It is probable that they gradually developed from trails and by-paths to well-established thoroughfares. In the case of later roads there is little more to indicate the care with which they were laid out. The usual record consists of a description of the bearings and distances run, which may or may not be accompanied by a sketch. No profiles have been made for establishing grades, and there seldom exist any records by which the locations of a majority of the roads can be iden- tified upon the ground. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 213 Since many deeds introduced the center of a given road as the initial point for bounding adjacent lands, it is of importance that the position of the roads be clearly defined. If no other trace remains to indicate the center of a highway, the middle of the traveled portion of the road must be taken to define the boundary. This, unfortu- nately, changes, and so may be a number of feet away from the point considered at the time the deed was written. It frequently happens that the encroachments upon the roadway are made by the movement of the fences on either side. This may occur where the land is less favorable for cultivation on one side than on the other, or where there is a personal interest in the gradual shifting of the boundary. After many years it is difficult to locate the original line of the fence. Where the land is cheap this is not of great moment, but with the increase in value of the land as the area becomes more settled, it is of the first importance that the lines of the roads be well defined and fixed by permanent marks upon the ground. HIGHWAY CONDITIONS IN THE COUNTIES. In the foregoing discussion the present condition of the roads has been reviewed from the standpoint of the entire state. The follow- ing pages present much more detailed information regarding the roads and their problems in the individual counties. In order that these facts may be readily available, a general uniformity of treatment has been adopted. The discussion under each county includes statis- tical information regarding the total mileage of the highways and its distribution among the different types of road; succeeded by a general description of the topography, or natural surroundings, and the problems in road-construction which these features present. When the conditions warrant, special descriptions are given of the more important roads, their location, construction, and state of improvement. Information is also given concerning the general con- dition of the turnpikes which form so important a part of the road- system in many of the counties. As the figures for the cost of. main- tenance of the present road-system would be incomplete without in- 14 214 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS eluding the .amounts paid in tolls an estimate of these has been made for each county. The facts concerning the methods of construction and repair of the roads include data relative to the administration of road-affairs, the number of supervisors and men employed, together with their wages, the machinery utilized in the road-work, and the methods in vogue at the present time. The individual accounts are closed with facts regarding the material available for construction of roads found in the county and the figures showing the expendi- tures during the last ten years. Many of the facts upon which the succeeding pages are based were obtained from the County Com- missioners' offices in the several counties. ALLEGA^STT COUNTY. In Allegany county there are 550 miles of public roads or 1.15 miles of highway to each square mile of area. Of these roads 60 miles are surfaced with stone while the remainder are of dirt. The main thoroughfares amount to 107 miles or 19 per cent of the total mileage of the county. The location of these roads is given on Plate XX. All of them are free as there are no toll-roads in the county. The surface of the country is so rough and mountainoiis that it renders the location and maintenance of the roads very difficult. Several of them, however, have been located so successfully that although they traverse some of the roughest portions of the state they do not have excessive grades. The required width between fences on new roads is 33 feet. Most of the culverts and drains are constructed of wood, but a few hundred feet of tile drain have been laid. The roads in Allegany county include some of the most important con- structed within the limits of the state, embracing the National Road, and the old Baltimore and Cumberland turnpike. The National Road, which begins at Cumberland and runs westerly towards the Ohio, was first laid out about two miles to the south of its present location and passed over Wills Mountain which was gained by a long steep grade. The present route, which takes advantage of the gap in Wills Mountain known as The Nar- rows, practically avoids this grade and affords a good example of the ad- vantage to be gained through reconnaissance surveys before the final loca- tion of a route is chosen. The portion of the National Road for two or three miles west of Cumberland has been well maintained as this is the principal driving road out of the city. In addition to the large amount of lighter travel, the road sustains all the heavy traffic from the region to the west and north of Cumberland. At present also, part of the road-bed is occupied by the tracks of an electric car line so that at several points the road-way is too narrow for the large number of vehicles. An especially dangerous point is at The Narrows, where the whole available width for the road, the railroads and the electric line is not over 25 feet. About one-fourth of a mile of the National Road within the limits of MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 215 Frostburg has recently been resurfaced with limestone, over which was spread a large quantity of cinders. The latter proved an utter failure as they form a mass of black mud in wet weather and are a greater nuisance in dry weather owing to the large amount of black dust which is constantly forming. The old Baltimore and Cumberland turnpike, although having somewhat higher grades than were permitted in the construction of the National Road, is not excessively steep when the nature of the country is taken into consideration, the maximum grade being 8.5 feet in a hundred. This road was formerly a turnpike but at present no toll is collected west of the Cono- cocheague river in Washington county, as this portion of the highway is under the care of Allegany and Washington counties. It is now in very bad shape since almost all of the top stone has been worn and washed away leaving the large foundation stones exposed. Sometimes dirt is thrown upon the road to secure a smoother surface. Broken stone has also been put upon some sections for a width of 8 or 9 feet. The old road-bed is about 20 feet wide, much wider than the traffic now requires, so that no attempt is made to maintain the full width excepting along a portion of the road near Cumberland where fine broken shale has been used for surfacing. This makes a very smooth and comfortable road for travel but it cannot, how- ever, withstand any considerable wear. Many portions of the Williams road running from Cumberland through Twiggtown to Hush are carefully located and well graded. In Cumberland a number of streets were macadamized a few years ago in a substantial and thorough manner and they are now among the best macadam roads in Western Maryland. One hundred and sixty supervisors have charge of the roads, and receive $1.50 per day when superintending five or more laborers, and $1.25 when superintending less. About two hundred and sixty laborers are employed, who receive $1.25 per day. An average of forty days in each year is spent in working on the roads. The road machinery owned by the county consists of four road-machines which cost $940.00. There is in addition one stone-crusher which has been abandoned. It costs about $40.00 a year to keep this machinery in repair. There are to be found very few wagons with tires as wide as three and a half inches not over 5 per cent. This applies to old and new wagons alike. The rocks available for road materials consist, for the most part, of lime- stones, sandstones and shales. The limestones are the most valuable and occur widely distributed. Many of these limestones having a large per- centage of sand and siliceous materials are shown by actual tests to have a wearing power considerably above that of the average limestones. Es- pecially good varieties are found exposed along the railroad near Barrell- ville. The purer sandstones have very little cementing material and as a consequence do not readily compact but form very dusty roads. The shales have little durability and do not make a satisfactory road-metal. The map on Plate XX shows the general distribution of the different rocks in the county. The following table shows the expenditure for roads during the last ten years. The figures were obtained from the office of the County Commis- 216 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS ALLEGANY COUNTY. Year. Total amount levied for roads and bridges. Amount spent for bridges. Amount spent for new roads. Amount spent for stone roads. Amount spent for road repairs. 1889. .. $13,204.00 $ 5,904. 00 > 1890. . . 24,090.00 16,790.00 1891... 20,860.00 About About About 13,560.00 1892... 28,500.00 $6,000.00 $800.00 $500.00 21,200.00 1893. . . 36,000.00 per year per year per year 28,700.00 1894. . . 36,365.00 on the on the on the 29,065.00 1895... 18,524.00 average. average. average. 11,224.00 1896... 32,015.00 24,715.00 1897. . . 27,000.00 19,700.00 1898 32,484.00 25,184.00 $269,042.00 $60,000.00 $8,000.00 $5,000.00 $196,042.00 Cumberland, Frostburg, Lonaconing and Westernport are the only in- corporated towns in the county, and they have been paid the sum of $6200.00 for years, divided as follows: Cumberland, $3500.00; Frostburg, $1100.00; Lonaconing, $900.00; Westernport, $700.00. ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY. There are 521 miles of road, or an average of 1.31 miles of highway to each square mile of area in Anne Arundel county. Of these about 50 miles are gravel and shell roads, the remainder being of dirt. There are 96 miles of main traveled roads, or 18 per cent of the total mileage. They are shown on the county map in Plate XX. There are no toll-roads in the county. The Road Commissioners have divided the roads into three classes, known as High Eoads, First-class, and Second-class Roads; there are 212 miles of the first, 162 miles of the second, and 147 miles of the last. The surface has been much cut by deep ravines eroded by the action of the streams, and the roads when obliged to cross them invariably have steep grades, frequently reaching 15 to 20 per cent. The more level stretches of road are very sandy, but on the grades the sand has been washed away, leaving a road-bed which is frequently not more than 7 or 8 feet wide, cut a number of feet below the general level of the land, with nearly vertical banks at the sides. On many of the hills there is not room for teams to pass one another. The required width between the fences on the new roads is 30 feet. Road-machines are used to shape up the road-beds of the dirt roads. Ditches are dug at the sides in some instances, but it is found that these roads are so washed on the hills that it soon becoms necessary to adopt other methods to protect the roadway from destruction. On some of the hills, shells have been placed as a protection to the road-bed, on others cor- duroy construction has been used for the same purpose but the results ob- tained have been only partially successful. A few miles of shell road have been built in the northern portion of the county where it has been found that a road 8 feet wide with shell 6 inches 1 Approximate. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME III. PLATE XX THE LIMESTONES NIAGARA. SALINA ANO HELDERBERG GREENBRIEM THE SANDSTONES JUN I T A-TUSCAROH A ORISKANV POCONO POTT8VILLE THE SHALES SHALES (INCLUDING MARTINSBURG, CLINTON, ROMNEV JENNINGS. HAMPSHIRE, ALLEGHENY. CONEMAUGH, MONON C-AHCLA ANO OUNKARD FORMATIONS) GRAVELS, SANDS AND CLAYS GRAVELS ANO IRON BEARING SANDS CLAYS AND UNCONSOLIOATEO SANDS MARLS OCCUR AS BEDS AND LEDGES AT 008 AND TERTIARY FORMATIONS. NOT REP- RESENTED ON THE MAP. MAIN COUNTY ROAD TOLL-ROADS ABANDONED TOLL- ROADS ROADS AND ROAD MATERIALS. A.tloen.ri,.I.itl MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 217 deep requires from 15,000 to 20,000 bushels of shells per mile. An experi- ment has been made in the construction of stone roads with limestone brought from Frederick county. About one mile of road was covered with the stone which was left loose and unrolled. This cost, including some repairs to the road, was about $6000.00, but it was not considered a success. Many of the small wooden drains have been replaced by tile drain pipes or brick culverts. About $1500.00 have been expended on the former and $2500.00 on the latter during the last three years. Repairs on the roads are generally made under the contract system. In case any portion is not let by contract it is done by day labor, the over- seers receiving $1.50 and the laborers $1.00 per day. The road-machinery owned by the county consists of 7 new road-machines which cost $150.00 each. Wide tires are practically unknown on farm wagons, the usual width being about 2 l / 2 inches. Considerable quantities of furnace slag are found on the sites of the old iron furnaces. Some of the slag is very brittle and glossy in appearance and does not make a good road-metal. Other portions are less brittle and will easily compact to form a smooth road-surface, though one that will not withstand heavy traffic, as was shown by the tests made on slag from the Ellicott Furnace at Elkridge, the wearing quality of which is considerably below the average limestones. This can also be seen by reference to the table on page 330. Roads in the vicinity of Muirkirk have been surfaced with slag from the furnace at that place. Gravel is the principal road- metal, as there are no rocks in the county with the exception of a small area near Elkridge Landing. The following table shows the total amount levied for roads and bridges during the last ten years. At the office of the County Commissioners there could be obtained onlj- the amounts for the years 1892 to 1898 and it is practically impossible to find the amount for bridges, new roads, etc. The county makes no appropriation for the towns towards the maintenance of their streets, but all towns are exempt from road taxes: ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY. Total amount levied for Total amount levied for roads and bridges. roads and bridges. 1889 $28,000.00 ' 1894 $34,006.02 1890 28,000.00' 1895 35,636.92 1891 28,000.00' 1896 33,395.45 1892 28,837.68 1897 29,770.30 1893 33,790.41 1898 * . 31,684.45 $311,121.23 BALTIMORE COUNTY. In Baltimore county there are 1060 miles of road, or 1.72 miles per square mile of area. This total includes 640 miles of dirt road, 310 miles of stone road, and 110 miles of shell road. The main roads which are shown on the county map on Tlate XXI measure 170 miles or 10 per cent of the total; 1 Estimated. 218 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS included in the above figures are 154 miles of turnpikes or toll-roads, whose location is also shown upon the map. The following list gives the names and locations of the various turnpikes operated within the county: Tolls Collected. Baltimore to Howard county line. Baltimore to Franklin. Name. Baltimore and Frederick Turnpike. Franklin and Baltimore Turnpike. Baltimore and Liberty Turnpike. Baltimore and Reisters- town Turnpike. Falls Turnpike. Western Run Turnpike. Baltimore and York- town Turnpike. Dulaney's Valley and Towsontown Turn- pike. Jarrettsville Turnpike. Dulaney's Valley and ^ Sweet Air Turnpike. Baltimore and Harford Turnpike. Bel Air Turnpike. Philadelphia Turnpike. Back River Neck Turn- pike. Howard "Piked." Baltimore to county line. Baltimore to Franklin. Baltimore to Carroll county line. Baltimore to Reisters- town two branches to Carroll county line. Baltimore to Brook- landville. Marble Hill to Butler P. O. Baltimore to Pennsyl- vania line. Towson to Meredith's Ford. Meredith's Ford to Tay- lor P. O. ' Meredith's Ford to Knoebel. Baltimore to Harford county line. Baltimore to Harford county line. Baltimore to near Cow- anton. From Middle River, 3 miles toward Balti- more. Baltimore to Carroll county line. Baltimore to Reisters- town two branches to Carroll county line. Baltimore to Brook- landville. Marble Hill to Butler P. O. Baltimore to Pennsyl- vania line. Towson to Meredith's Ford. Meredith's Ford to Tay- lor P. O. Meredith's Ford to Knoebel. Baltimore to Harford county line. Baltimore to Gunpowder river. No tolls collected. From Middle River, 8 miles toward Balti- more. The wide range of soil and topography gives rise to a variety of conditions from that of the hilly, steep portions in the northern part of the county to the level sections in the southern part. Between these extremes are broad areas of slightly rolling country. With such a wide range in conditions nearly all of the different problems in road-making are encountered. The surface in the upper part of the county is so hilly and broken that steep grades are almost unavoidable except by a heavy amount of cutting and filling. Up to the present little of this has been done to reduce the natural grades. It is not alone on the side-roads that these steep grades are found, for there are many on the turnpikes which, like those in other counties, were built with too little attention towards securing a proper reduction oi the grades before surfacing. While the road-beds of the turnpikes are solid enough their surfaces leave much to be desired. In the vicinity of Baltimore all the roads are well- traveled and the turnpikes, as a consequence, are here in better condition than at a distance where the traffic is lighter. They are repaired in the usual manner by throwing on broken stone which is left to be consoli- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 219 dated by the wagons. This has resulted in an uneven road-surface, mak- ing an uncomfortable road on which to travel. In addition to the turn- pikes there are many miles of road that have been macadamized by the county, particularly in the southern part. This work has been much facilitated by the use of the steam-rollers owned by the county, and more finished roads have been built than is the case in other counties. One of the best of these roads is that between Fork and Kingsville near the latter place. Here is a stretch of macadam road 12 feet wide and about one-half mile long which is now in excellent condition, having stood about 15 months' use with little sign of wear save that a horse-path is beginning to show in places. This piece of road was built of an excellent quality of trap-rock found in abundance at the roadside. The foundation was first shaped and rolled, then covered with a layer of 2%-inch stone, which in turn was thoroughly rolled. The second layer of stone was then spread and rolled. A thin " binder " course was then added making the total thickness of the macadam about 6 inches. The cost of this piece of road was $2268.00. At the beginning of the work Mr. E. G. Harrison, Koad Ex- pert of the National Road Inquiry Office at Washington, had charge and completed a section about 200 yards long showing in detail the exact meth- od to be followed. The remainder of the road was completed by the county supervisors according to the directions given by Mr. Harrison and a thor- oughly good road has resulted. A view of this road is shown on Plate XVH, Fig. 1. Immediately west of this piece of road is a stretch which is covered with broken stone to a depth of 10 or 12 inches. The stone was not well spread but simply dumped in cart-loads upon the road. The roller then went over the stones compacting them into a firm mass but was not able to efface the trace of each pile of stone which at present can be readily noticed by the slight swells on the surface that have become more and more pro- nounced with subsequent wear. Many miles of road have also been surfaced with oyster-shells. One of the finest shell roads in the state is that between Baltimore and Chase, a portion of which is shown in Plate XVIII, Fig. 2. An exceptionally large amount of travel of all descriptions goes over this road, a portion of which -west of Middle River is a toll-road, so that repairs are constantly needed to preserve the road smooth and even. The worn-out shells form a large amount of dust which greatly detracts in dry weather from what is other- wise a good road-surface. The general work done upon the county roads consists in opening the side-ditches, shaping up the dirt roads, and filling in the soft places with broken stone. It often happens that much useless and mud-making ma- terial finds its way into the middle of the road rendering it rather worse than better. Much of the broken stone used for patching the bad plrices in a dirt road becomes useless owing to the soft foundation. Before broken stone is put upon such places the roadway should first be drained and raised to insure an even and hard surface. Shells have been used as a " binder " course on some of the macadam roads. This has smoothed the surface temporarily but the shells soon become fine dust which is a great detriment and accomplish no lasting good. 220 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS The maintenance of the roads is under the immediate charge of 15 super- visors who are paid an annual salary varying from $250.00 to $1200.00. Ad- ditional men are employed by the supervisors, the number varying accord- ing to the amount of work on hand. They receive $1.25 per day. No esti- mate could be obtained of their average number. Supervisors and men average about 200 days per year upon the roads. The road-machinery owned by the county consists of two 10-ton steam- rollers, three crushers, and five road-machines, the total cost of which was $11,500.00 and it costs about $200.00 annually for repairs. Baltimore is the only county owning steam-rollers. About one-half of the wagons used for heavy hauling have wide tires and nearly all the new ones are equipped with them. The southern central portion of the county is especially well provided with good road-material. The large area of trap or " nigger head " rock to the north and west of Baltimore has furnished the surfacing for many roads in that vicinity. The gneisses from their wide occurrence form one of the important road-materials. The quality, however, even in the same quarry varies greatly. The marbles do not prove very satisfactory as they are too friable to withstand any considerable traffic. In addition to the rocks there are available within the county quantities of oyster-shells and slag. The slag obtained from the furnaces at Sparrow's Point has excep- tional cementing qualities and roads made from this material soon harden and form a surface which is practically a monolith. The following table shows the amount expended for roads and bridges for the past ten years. These figures were obtained from the office of the County Commissioners: BALTIMORE COUNTY. Total amount levied for Total amount levied for Tear. roads and bridges. Year. roads and bridges. 1889 $ 69,857.00 1894 $146,689.85 1890 75,056.00 1895 161,691.19 1891 51,074.26 1896 143,367.90 1892 134,793.00 1897 143,000.00 1893 143,936.34 1898 157,215.82 1, 226, 681. 36 As there are no incorporated towns in the county and all the village streets are maintained out of the general road and bridge fund, the above figures show more than is actually expended upon the county highways proper; but is was impossible to obtain any estimate of the proportion spent in this way so no division of the total amount has been made. .Each year due appropriation is made for roads and bridges and there is no separate account kept of the costs of each material used, but all is charged against the appropriation to the district in which the road or bridge is located, and the whole appropriation is spent. In addition to the amount shown in the above table it is estimated that $521,000.00 have been paid in tolls during the past ten years, making the total cost to the people of maintenance of the public roads and turnpikes approxi- mately $1,747,700.00, exclusive of private contributions. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME III, PLATE XXI MAIN COUNTY ROADS TOLL-ROADS ABANDONED TOLL- ROADS THE TRAP ROCKS GABBRO [ Tg | PERIDOTITE AND PYROXENITE | Tp | DIABASE | Ja | THE GRANITIC AND QUARTZITIC ROCKS GNEISS AND QUARTZ-SCHIST [ Q n ] GRANITE TRIASSIC SANDSTONE THE CALCAREOUS HOCKS MARBLE CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONE THE SLATE ROCKS PHYLUTE I Ap | THE VOLCANIC ROCKS BASIC VOLCANICS ^Su3 SZ f /^GRAVELS, SANDS AND ^-^FA / f> ./ jjL/ GRAVELS AND IRON BEARING SAN ^. ^ r\ AVQ AMO i]*jf"nNirti lOAYFrt SA OLAYS .ND8 (] CLAYS AND UNCONSOLIOATED SANDS | HS I ROADS AND ROAD MATERIALS. A.H...-1. x (. l.iil,.ll.-il:iu MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 221 CALVERT COUNTY. The total mileage of roads in Calvert county is 265 miles, or an average of 1.21 miles of road for every square mile of area within the county. There is but little gravel and only occasional patches of shell road near the landings. Aside from these all the roads are of dirt. The main county routes are shown upon the map on Plate XX. The length of the main roads is about 58 miles which is 22 per cent of the total mileage. There are no toll-roads in the county.. The eastern part of the county drains into the Chesapeake Bay while the streams of the western portion flow into the Patuxent river. On the divide separating these drainage areas extending nearly the entire length of the county is located the main road of the district, which encounters com- paratively few steep grades. The soil is mostly clay mixed with a varied proportion of sand. The average width of the traveled portion of the road is about 11 feet, except in the sandy portion, where it is but a single track. The required width between fences on the new roads is 30 feet. There has been very little surfacing of any sort put upon the roads and practically no grading has been undertaken. The road from Sunderland to Hill's Bridge is the direct route from Prince Fredericktown to Upper Marlboro. It crosses many streams, on the banks of which will invariably be found steep grades. At these points the roads are often worn down 10 to 12 feet. The repairs to the roads are of the simplest character. Three super- visors, one in each district, have charge of repairs, the salary being $35.00 per month. Five laborers are employed by each supervisor and receive $1.00 per day. Supervisors and men work about 150 days every year upon the roads, the work being done between April 1st and October 15th. With the excepti6n of some smaller tools, ploughs, shovels, etc., there is.no road- machinery owned in the county and there are few or no wide-tired vehicles. Gravel is the only road material at hand. As much of this is overlain by a covering of soil, sand and clay of varying thickness it is available only on the hillsides when the top soil has been worn away. The general dis- tribution is shown on the map on Plate XX. The following table shows the expenditure for roads for the last ten years. The amount for bridges, new roads, etc., cannot be separated from the total. These figures were obtained from the office of the County Com- missioners: CALVERT COUNTY. Total amount levied for Total amount levied for roads and bridges. roads and bridges. 1889 $4,000.00 1894 $4,500.00 1890 4,600.00 1895 4,700.00 1891 4,350.00 1896 5,500.00 1892 4,400.00 1897 4,800.00 1893 4,800.00 1898 4,000.00 $45,650.00 CAROLINE COUiNTY. There are 547 miles of road in Caroline county, or 1.74 miles of highway per square mile of area. Ten miles have been surfaced with either marl or 222 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS shells. Of the remaining 537 miles, 413 are on clay soil and 124 miles are on sandy soil. The main roads are shown on the map on Plate XXII. Their length is 60 miles, or 11 per cent of the total mileage. There are no toll- roads in the county. The surface is exceptionally flat. The grades are less steep than in any other county on the Eastern Shore, but great difficulty has been experi- enced with sandy roads. Where the depth of sand is not too great, the road- way has been ploughed and this mixes the subsoil with the sand. The road is then reshaped with a road-machine and compacted with a roller. This has been found a great improvement. Where there is a stiff soil the road- machines are used to shape up the road. A number of short sections have been surfaced with shells which the farmers often haul free. The road leading from .Denton to the Choptank river is much traveled and requires re-shelling nearly every year. The road is on a grade of 6 or 8 per cent over a heavy clay soil. W T ith the exception of a few tile drains which have been laid recently, all the subdrains are made of wood. There are 53 road-districts and 85 supervisors who receive $1.00 per day. "They hire on an average 5 men each, who receive 85 cents per day. The county has 5 road-machines and one road-plough, the total cost of which was about $1230.00. There is spent annually on repairs to this machinery be- tween $50.00 and $60.00. The county has recently rebuilt a portion of the bridge across the Chop- tank river known as the Dover bridge. The westerly portion of this bridge will be built by Talbot county. As seen from the view on Plate XIX, Fig. 1, the bridge consists of three through trusses. The spans are each 130 feet long and 18 feet wide. The piers are iron cylinders about 5 feet in diameter, filled with concrete. The shore piers are driven 25 feet, the next pair 45 feet, and the two remaining 65 feet. The floor of the bridge is about 3 feet higher than that of the one replaced. The center span will be a draw-span. ROAD MAPS. In the office of the County Commissioners there are maps made in 1896 by the late M. L. Saulsbury, C. E. One is drawn on a scale of three inches to the mile, and the other on the scale of two inches to the mile. The larger scale map shows all the roads in the county, indicating whether each is a clay, sand or shell road; it also gives the length and width of all bridges and drains and the distances between intersections of the roads. Such a map is extremely useful, for as changes are made from time to time they can be entered upon the map thus furnishing a record which will show at a glance the general progress and condition of the highways. The smaller scale map shows the roads and other features but is more es- pecially an assessors' map. showing the different property owners. In addition to the mileage of the roads as given above there are shown on the map 9525 feet of bridges and 323 box drains. Since the time it was made the map has not been posted and brought up to date so that the figures for the roads, bridges, etc., would be somewhat larger at the present time. Atari and shells are the only materials which have been used upon the (roads. Between Denton and Greensboro, marl has been used which was MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 223 obtained from the dredging of the bed of the Choptank river. The amount thus obtained has been practically exhausted and owing to the depth to which the marl lies there is no other way of procuring it. The following shows the amounts spent upon the roads for the past ten years. No subdivisions of the cost could be obtained at the office of the County Commissioners: CAROLINE COUNTY. Total amount levied for Amount spent for Tear. roads and bridges. new roads. 1889 $9,000.00 1890 7,000.00 $1,000.00 1891 8,000.00 1892 8,000.00 1893 7,000.00 1894 7,000.00 1895 5,000.00 1896 5,000.00 1897 6,000.00 1898. . 6,000.00 $68,000.00 $1,000.00 CARROLL COUNTY. In Carroll county there are about 800 miles of road or 1.88 miles to the square mile. Of these 42 miles were built by turnpike companies who now collect on only 30 miles, as 12 miles have been abandoned and are now maintained by the county. With the exception of a few short patches of stone road the county roads are of dirt, generally made over a clayey soil. The main highways of the county are shown on the map, Plate XXI, and are 68 miles in length, or about 9 per cent of the total mileage. The soil varies from fine-grained compact clay to one with a larger pro- portion of sand. Occasionally there are found a number of small fragments of quartz intermixed but the proportion of rock fragments is small. The general character of the surface is that of a rolling country, the streams having worn for themselves broad channels which have been cut below the general level to depths varying from 30 to 200 feet. Wherever the roads cross the streams there are steep grades on either bank. The divides between many of the water courses are comparatively high level tracts on which, so far as possible, the main highways of the county have been located. Such portions of the road have, as a rule, grades rarely exceeding six feet in a hundred. Descending from the higher ground, in order to pass the streams, the grades average 10 per cent with occasional short stretches as steep as 12 per cent. The course of a large number of the county roads is at right angles to the general trend of the divides which they cross one after the other. These roads are in consequence very hilly and the most tedious to travel. The required width between fences on new roads is 30 feet. The Hanover turnpike which runs north from Manchester is not at pres- ent much traveled and has been abandoned. The full red lines on the map 224 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS show the portions of turnpikes on which tolls are now collected, the dotted lines showing the portions on which tolls were formerly collected but which are now free roads under the control of the county. The following list gives the names of the four turnpikes actively oper- ated within the county: Name. "Piked." Tolls collected. Liberty and New Wind- New Windsor to one New Windsor to one sor Turnpike. mile north of Union- mile north of Union- ville. ville. Liberty and Pipe Creek Liberty to Union Bridge. Liberty to Union Bridge. Turnpike. Westtninster and Mea- Westminster to Meadow Westminster to Meadow dow Branch Turnpike. Branch (Smiles). Branch (2 miles). Baltimore and Reisters- Uniontown to Westmin- Uniontown to 2% miles town Tiirnpike. ster. S. E. of Uniontown. Penn. line through Un- Penn. line through Un- ion Mills to Westmin- ion Mills to Westmin- ster, ster. Westminster to Reis- Westminster to ReiS- terstown. terstown. (There is also 1 mile Gambert to Finksburg. Gambert to Finksburg. of the Baltimore and Penn. line through Man- Fredericktown Turn- Chester to Balto. Co. pike in this County.) line. The Washington road from Dorsey's Corner to Westminster is probably the most traveled of any in the county, excepting portions of the Balti- more " Pike." Along this road there is very little fencing of any descrip- tion. The fields have been ploughed on each side leaving 16 to 20 feet for the roadway which has been worn so as to form a broad shallow trench. The width of the traveled portion of the road varies from 15 feet in the vicinity of Westminster to 8 feet on the lesser traveled part. Owing to the lack of grading, pools of water collect after every rain causing deep mud- holes. There are a few 10 per cent grades, the average hill on this road being about 7 per cent. The Manchester road is another important county road. It is a clay road, hilly and rough, most of the grades being from 8 to 10 per cent. In a few places it has been covered with stone which unfortunately was not broken small enough so that the surface is very rough. On the hills the road has been much washed by the rain. The fences are from 20 to 30 feet apart. The traveled way averages about 10 feet in width being narrower on the steep grades and wider on the more level portions. There is more traffic over the Baltimore turnpike than over any of the covinty roads. This is a toll-road and receives much attention. The fences are about 15 feet apart and the traveled portion of the road is 10 to 15 feet wide, and still wider near Reisterstown. In places at the side of the turn- pike there is a dirt road which has worn down below the grade of the stone road sometimes from 4 to 5 feet. Whenever this occurs or the road is built on an embankment, guard-rails have been erected to prevent teams from accidentally driving over the edge. This is the only road in the state as well protected in this respect. The grades are not over 6 feet in a hun- dred. The road-surface is formed principally of quartzitic rocks though MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY P VOLUME III, PLATE XXII MAIN COUNTY ROADS TOLL-ROADS ABANDONED TOLL- ROADS THE TRAP ROCKS GABBRO PERIDOTITE AND PYROXENITE : T P I THE GRANITIC AND QUARTZITIC ROCKS GNEISS AND QUARTZ-SCHIST GRANITE QUARTZITE 10 I THE SLATE ROCKS PHYLLITE I *P I GRAVELS, SANDS AND CLAYS GRAVELS AND IRON BEARING SANDS | Ng | CLAVS AND UNCON80LI DATED SANDS | Ns I MARLS OCCUR AS BEDS AND LEDGES AT VARIOUS PLACES IN THE CRETACEOUS ANDTERTIARV FORMATIONS. NOT RIP- RESENTED ON THE MAP. ROADS AND ROAD MATERIALS. A. Hoe" * Co. I4tl>. Biilti MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY 225 crystalline limestone and hard shale have also been used. The stone for repairs, which are made frequently, is broken to about one inch and a half in size, and this together with the heavy traffic has produced a hard road- surface with few or no rough places. Perhaps the worst piece of toll-road in the state is that running from Gambert to Finksburg, connecting with the Baltimore turnpike. Its con- dition is in great contrast to that of the latter. Not graded, covered with loose rock, and with little heavy traffic, there only remains a very rough and uneven surface and the toll-gates. The work done upon the county roads consists of ploughing and opening ditches at the sides, the loose materials being scraped into the center of the road. On the hills breakers are constructed so that the water flowing down the center of the road will be turned to one side when it meets them. With the exception of some of the turnpikes there has been very little grading done xipon any of the roads. Small patches of stone road have been con- structed here and there but the stone is seldom broken small enough to insure the formation of a smooth surface. Nearly all the small culverts are made of wood, very little tile drain having been used. The repairs to the roads are under the charge of 37 commissioners, corre- sponding to supervisors in other counties, who receive $2.50 per day while employed on the road. In addition there are hired some five hundred labor- ers receiving $1.25 per day. About twenty days in each year are spent in working on the roads. The road-machinery owned by the county includes 15 road-machines, costing in all $3375.00, and one stone-crusher which cost $400.00. There is also a steam road-roller owned by Westminster. Over 75 per cent of the wagons used for heavy hauling have 3 % -inch or wider tires. The best of the road material, which is the trap-rock, is not widely dis- tributed in the county but is confined to limited areas to the south and west of Westminster. It is, however, of excellent quality. The marbles are not suitable for macadamizing as they form dusty roads and their color is very trying. In the northern portion of the county are found quantities of sandstone. Gneiss is distributed throughout the eastern portion. The map on Plate XXI shows the location of these rocks in the county. The following table gives the amount spent upon the roads and bridges during the last ten years. These figures were obtained from the office of the County Commissioners: CARROLL COUNTY. Year. 1889 1890 Total amount levied for roads and bridges. $14,179.31 17,201.94 Amount spent Amount spent for road for large bridges, repairs and small bridges. $1,476. 00 $12,703.31 1,081.00 16.120.94 14.653.22 1891 14,653.22 1892 20,542.73 5,718.00 206.00 1,560.00 3,853.00 1,464.00 1,041.00 2,039.00 14,824.73 14,341.11 13,238.88 16,982.00 16,759.85 16,433.20 17,593.25 1893 , 14,547.11 1894 14,798.88 1895 20,835.00 1896 18,223.85 1897 , , 17,474.20 1898 19,632.25 $172,088.49 $18,438.00 $153,650.49 226 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS Amounts appropriated to the towns for road repairs are: Westminster, $800.00 per annum since 1894; Manchester, $105.00 per annum since 1896; New Windsor, $96.00 per annum since 1896; Taneytown, $123.00 per anmim since 1896. In addition to the amount shown in the above table it is estimated that $75,000.00 have been paid in tolls during the last ten years, making the total cost to the people of the maintenance of both public roads and turnpikes approximately $247,100.00, exclusive of private contributions. CECIL COUNTY. In Cecil county there are about 700 miles of road, or 1.87 miles to each square mile of area. There are about 5 miles of stone road, 10 miles of gravel road, 2 miles of shell road, and 683 miles of dirt road. The main county roads are shown on the map on Plate XXII and measure 91 miles, or 13 per cent of the total mileage. There are no toll-roads in the county. Cecil county presents a greater variety of topography than is usually the case, since the boundary-line separating the Coastal Plain from the Pied- mont Plateau passes across the center of the county while its western bor- der is formed by the deep gorge of the Susquehanna. In the Rising Sun and Port Deposit districts the roads for the greater part are rough and hilly, in some places the grades being over 15 feet in the hundred, while grades of 12 feet in the hundred are of frequent occurrence. On the steeper grades the roads have gradually been cut deeper and deeper by the rains until the sides have become steep and the width of the roadway about 8 feet. On the more level sections of traveled way a width has been maintained varying from 12 to 14 feet, averaging about 12 feet. Many of these level portions present a very neat appearance, being lined with rows of carefully trimmed hedges and closely cut turf -banks at the sides. Clay, gravel, and occasionally sand form the natural road-bed of these districts. The portion of the county south of Chesapeake City is flat, the roads in consequence having but few heavy grades which are found on approaching streams whose channels are some 10 to 20 feet below the general level of the surrounding land. Sandy roads predominate. Clay forms the material of the lesser portion. The road from Elkton to Chesapeake City is one of the most traveled routes and is the main road leading into Elkton from the southern portion of the county. The grades for the most part are not excessive, 8 feet in a hundred being the maximum. Where the grades occur the roadway has gradually been worn down by the action of the water and narrowed, but on the average the traveled portion of the road is about 14 feet, varying from 10 to 15 feet. The width between the fences or hedges is from 30 to 35 feet. In some parts the road-scrapers have been used for shaping up the roadway, the turf and dirt at the sides being put upon the middle of the road. The ditches are about 3 feet from the fence line. Clay and sand either separate, or mixed, form the soil of the road-bed. A portion of the road from Chesapeake City has been made into a good shell road. Perhaps no better example of a clay road can be found than the one from Elkton to Northeast. During the winter months and wet weather this road is practically impassable. Some attempt has been made to raise the roadway by throwing clay from the sides to the center, but the rains soon wash it back into the ditches. To put this piece of road into passable con- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 227 dition would require the construction of deep side-ditches, thorough under- drainage, and a filling in of the roadway with good gravel. The only long stretch of stone road in the county is between Elkton and Providence. The larger part of the cost of its construction was borne by the late Wm. L. Singerly, the owner of paper mills at Providence and a pulp mill at Elkton, who found it imperative to have a good connecting road. This road was built between 1880 and 1897, during which time the county appropriated from $600.00 to $800.00 annually towards the cost of construction. The total cost of the road is reported to have reached $60,000.00. The bed of this road consists of two layers of stone, the first coarsely and the second finely broken, covered with a rather thick layer of cinders. The cinders aided in smoothing up the road in the beginning, but now have been ground to a fine dust that is very disagreeable in either wet or dry weather. In the spring and summer the roads are shaped and the ditches opened. When the character of the soil will permit the shaping is usually done with the road-machine. It is not uncommon to see as the result of repairs, mounds of sod along the center of the road. Broken stone has been used to a very limited extent. It is spread and left loose to be compacted by the traffic. Dirt is oftentimes thrown over the stones to smooth up the surface, but in no instance has a smooth road resulted. The stone is not broken small enough and the traffic is insuffi- cient to compact it. The repairs are made under the direction of 90 supervisors, 10 being as- signed to each district. The pay of the supervisors is $1.25 per day. Each employs from 2 to 10 men according to the circumstances, who receive $1.12 per day. The road-machinery owned by the county consists of 12 road-machines and a stone-crusher, the total cost of which was $3500.00. About $150.00 is spent annually on repairs to this machinery. There are very few farm wagons provided with wide tires and it does not seem to be the custom to order them for new wagons. The northern section of the county is well provided with a variety of good road materials. Between Conowingo and Rising Sun is a large area of gab- bro or trap, while south of Port Deposit, near Elkton and at numerous other places there are ledges of trap that rank with the best road-metals in the state. At Port Deposit also, granite is quarried extensively and the smaller pieces are crushed to a size suitable for use on the roads. In the southern portion of the county, gravel and oyster-shells form the local road-metals. The following table shows the amount that has been expended upon the roads during the last 10 years. No division of the cost has been made, so that only totals for the different years can be given. The figures were ob- tained from the office of the County Commissioners: CECIL COUNTY. Total amount levied for Total amount levied for Year. roads and bridges. Year. roads and bridges. 1889 $15,000.00 1894 $20,000.00 1890 22,000.00 1895 17,777.00 1891.. 13,212.09 1896 20,000.00 1892 20,000.00 1897 20,000.00 1893 25,000.00 1898 20,000.00. $192,989.09 228 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS The total amount received by Cecilton, Chesapeake City, Elkton, North- east, Charlestown, Perryville, Port Deposit and Rising Sun for road-repairs in 1898, was $1575.00. CHARLES COUNTY. In Charles county there are 465 miles of road, or 1 mile of highway to each square mile of area. 365 miles are of dirt, and about 100 miles are of gravel. The main roads shown on the map on Plate XXII are about 100 miles in length, or 22 per cent of the total mileage. There are no toll-roads in the county. The general surface features are those of the Coastal Plain west of the Chesapeake. There is, however, a considerably larger proportion of level area than is found in adjacent counties. Wherever the roads cross the streams, they invariably have steep grades, of from 10 to 15 per cent. At these points the roadway has been much worn away by storm-water and is generally too narrow. The change of the county seat from Port Tobacco to La Plata necessi- tated opening new roads, making more direct routes to the new county-seat. Among these was the new road between La Plata and Lothair which shortened the distance to La Plata for all travel from the neighborhood of Cox's Station. The route followed runs parallel to and a few hundred yards to the west of the railroad line. By adopting this location it was necessary to cross the headings of a number of small ravines, thus making a hilly road which could have been avoided if the location had been on the easterly side instead of the westerly side of the railroad. The road as opened has not been graded and is merely a surface road. The roadway has been cleared for a width of 30 feet, with a width between ditches of about 25 feet. There are a number of short grades as steep as 15 per cent. It is intended ultimately to gravel the whole of the roadway, and a part of it has already been surfaced, but this road in its present location cannot be made a good one without a very large amount of grading. The length is about 2 miles and the cost $2500.00. The road from La Plata to Bryantown has been surfaced with gravel and is one of the best in the county. The repairs of the county roads are in the charge of 9 supervisors who employ 27 laborers. The supervisors are paid $1.50 per day, and the labor- ers $1.00 per day. The laborers are divided into 9 corps each in charge of a supervisor. They work on the roads about 125 days in each year. At one time the county owned one road-machine, but its use has been discon- tinued. Aside from this the county owns no road-machinery. Wide tires on the farm wagons are the exception, and it is not generally the practice to have them on new wagons. .The required width between the fences on new roads is 40 feet. It has been found that roads surfaced with gravel to a width of 9 feet and about 5 inches thick using 750 cubic yards of gravel have cost approximately $225.00 per mile. This merely covers the cost of throwing the gravel upon the road, the grading and draining being additional. Only wooden drains have been used for draining as no tile drains have been laid for this pur- pose. Those portions of roads which have been repeatedly graveled and MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 229 are now well-seasoned and compacted, remain firm and hard in all kinds of weather. As is seen by a glance at the map, Plate XXII, the gravel beds are well distributed over all portions of the county. The character of the gravel varies, one section containing- different proportions of clay and sand from that of another. The gravel used upon the roads in most instances was that which was closest at hand and showed considerable variability. On some roads the gravel has compacted, making a firm and solid road-bed, while on others, owing to the sandy nature of the gravel it has not com- pacted as well. To obtain the best results it would be necessary to make a careful selection of the material used. The following table shows the amounts expended for roads and bridges during the last ten years as obtained from the office of the County Com- missioners: CHARLES COUNTY. Total amount levied for Amount spent for Amount spent for Tear. roads and bridges. bridges. new roads. 1889 $8,000.00 1890 8,000.00 1891 8,000.00 1892 8,000.00 1893 7,000.00 1894 7,000.00 1895 7,000.00 1896 7,000.00 $750.00 1897 7,000.00 900.00 1898 9,500.00 $2,500.00 $76,500.00 The amounts levied for road and bridge purposes in years indicated have generally been spent without separating most of the bridge repairs and work having been done under the direction of the supervisors and the regular road force. The two amounts in column for bridge expenses were for two iron bridges built under contract, and represent the only iron bridges in the county. DORCHESTER COUNTY. In Dorchester county there are 600 miles of road or 0.99 miles per square mile. There are about 20 miles of shell road, the remainder being of dirt. The main county roads shown upon the map are 109 miles in length, or 18 per cent of the total mileage. There are no toll-roads. About the flattest portion of the Eastern Shore is found in Dorchester county, the southern part of which is but a few feet above tide-water. The road-beds are practically without grade and in many portions it is very difficult to obtain sufficient slope for the side-drains to carry off surface- water. Where the areas are marshy the roads have frequently been cor- duro3 r ed and covered with earth while the sandy roads have become deeply rutted by the teams following each other in the same tracks. From Cambridge to Church Creek, which is one of the principal lines of 15 230 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS travel of the county, a shell road has been constructed. In the vicinity of Cambridge the shelled portion is from 15 to 20 feet wide, narrowing down to 10 feet farther away. From Cambridge to East Newmarket the road has been shelled an average width of 12 feet for three or four miles out of Cambridge. There is also a shell road fully 15 feet wide from East New- market to Secretary over which there is a considerable amount of hauling. Most of the other roads in the immediate vicinity of Cambridge have like- wise been shelled. A mile of road covered 10 feet wide and 8 inches thick requires about 40,000 bushels of shell, which cost % of a cent a bushel. The average cost for hauling and spreading is about 1% cents to 3 cents per bushel, making a total cost of shells placed upon a road about 3 cents per bushel. A man can spread in the neighborhood of 2000 bushels per day. The required width between fences on new roads is 30 feet. Repairs on the roads are in charge of 53 supervisors who receive, when engaged upon general work, $1.25 per day, which work is usually done be- fore July 1st; during the remainder of the year, for such work as may be necessary, they are paid $1.00 per day. On general work the supervisors employ from 4 to 8 laborers, and on other work, 1 to 8, according to the necessity. Laborers are paid 75 cents per day. On an average there is annually paid to the supervisors, $1500.00 and the yearly amount paid for other labor during the last three years has been $5000.00. The attempt has been made to let out the work by contract, Taut there were no bidders within reasonable limits and this system was abandoned. There was formerly one road-machine. The county at present has no machinery, the results not being satisfactory. Wide tires are used but little, the majority being 2 to 2% inches in width. There is neither stone nor gravel in the county, the only road material at hand being oyster-shells. The following table shows the amount expended for roads and bridges during the last ten years. These figures were obtained from the office of the County Commissioners. I>ORCHESTER COUNTY. Amount spent Total amount levied for for roads and bridges. Year. 188ft $10,723.00 1890 10,717.00 1891 12,709.00 1892 11,125.00 1893 9,782.00 1894 8,979.00 1895 8,810.00 1896 11,387.00 1897 12,902.00 1898 10,000.00 bridges. Amount spent for new roads. Amount spent for shell roads. Amount spent for road-repairs. $2,000.00 2,000.00 2,000.00 297.00 61.00 348.00 $1,200.00 1,900.00 3,500.00 $7,890.00 8,941.00 4,152.00 Total $107,134.00 The amounts in bridge expense column are average amounts for the last three years. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 231 Amounts for shell roads are given in round numbers, being within a few dollars of amounts found by actual search of the records. Cambridge received $700.00 per annum previous to 1898 and for that year, $1200.00; East Newmarket, $20.00 per annum. FREDERICK COUNTY. The total mileage of roads in Frederick county is 1280 miles, or 2.02 miles to the square mile. This is the largest mileage of any county in the state. There are 1150 miles of dirt road and about 130 miles of stone road. Toll is collected over 129 miles of stone roads, leaving only short patches built and maintained by the county. The main roads, including the turnpikes, are shown on the map, Plate XXIII. Their mileage is 172 miles or 13 per cent of the total mileage. It is a noticeable feature that nearly all of the main thoroughfares in the county are turnpikes. This is especially true about Frederick from which radiate nine turnpikes that are very well traveled within three to five miles of the city. The portion of the Frederick and Woodsboro turnpike from Frederick to Ceresville bridge is more traveled than any of the others. The amount of travel on the majority of the county roads is secondary in consideration to that which follows the turnpikes, as they are usually feeders to the latter. The most traveled county roads are those from Knox- ville to Brunswick, and from Woodsboro to Libertytown. Much of the heavy hauling that now goes over the Liberty and Woodsboro road formerly went over the turnpike through Johnsville and Uniontown, and thence to Baltimore, or else by the way of the old Liberty road to Baltimore. Much of the produce of the lower portions of Middletown valley is now hauled over the Knoxville and Brunswick road. Nearly all of the turnpikes in the vicinity of Frederick cross the gently rolling country forming the Frederick valley which is shut off from the Middletown valley and the western portion of the county by the Catoctin mountain. The northern portion of the county is more broken and the roads as a consequence rougher. The " pike " west of Frederick where the grades are light crosses the Catoctin mountain to Middletown with nearly an 8 per cent grade. Across the Middletown valley the " pike " follows the undulations of the country resulting in many short grades of 8 to 9 per cent. Part of the road in the Frederick valley is surfaced with limestone for the first two miles from Frederick and is worn down comparatively smooth. The width of the traveled way on this section is about 15 feet. On the portion over the Ca- toctin mountain and across the Middletown valley the surface is for the most part of " flint " or quartzitic sandstone, and paralleled in many places by a dirt roadway. As the sections having the " flint " rock are rough, dirt and soft shale have been thrown over the stone to render the surface smoother. The surfaced portion of the roadway through Middletown valley does not average over 9 feet in width, although the road-bed is about 30 feet wide. The fences along this road are from 50 to 55 feet apart. The turnpike leading to Yellow Springs, except for the first mile or so from Frederick, is generally rough, with many loose stones on the surface. There is not enough hauling over it to compact the quartz rock with which 232 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS the greater portion of the road is surfaced. On the part near Frederick limestone has been used and this has compacted better. The width of the traveled portions of the road is about 11 feet; fences are from 35 to 40 feet apart. The Woodsboro turnpike from Frederick to the Monocacy river, is the best piece of road in the county and one of the best in the state. The following turnpikes are operated in Frederick county: Name. Adamstown Turnpike. Buckeystown Turnpike. Frederick and Ballinger Creek Turnpike. Frederick and Emmits- burg. Frederick and Jefferson. Frederick and Monoc- acy. Liberty and New Wind- sor. Liberty and Pipe Creek. Frederick and Woods- boro. Liberty and Frederick. Monocacy and Urbana. Woodsboro and Creag- erstown. Woodsboro and Freder- ick. Woodsboro and Double Pipe Creek. Baltimore and Freder- icktown. Frederick and Catoctin Mountain. Frederick and Opos- sum. Frederick and Washing- ton (or Georgetown). "Piked." Adamstown to Doubs, and to intersection of Noland's Ferry Road. Frederick to one mile beyond Buckeystown. Jefferson Turnpike to Ballinger Creek. Worman's Mill to Em- mitsburg. Frederick to Jefferson. Frederick to Monocacy river. New Windsor to one mile north of Union- ville. Liberty to Union B'dge. Frederick to Monocacy river. Monocacy river to Lib- erty. Araby to three miles beyond Urbana. Woodsboro to Creagers- town. Liberty "Pike" to Woodsboro. Woodsboro to Double Pipe Creek. Blue Ridge to Ridge- ville. Frederick to Catoctin mountain. Frederick to Forks of County Rd. (3 miles.) Frederick to Arabv. Tolls Collected. Adamstown to Doubs, &c. Frederick to one mile beyond Buckeystown. Jefferson Turnpike to Ballinger Creek. W T orman's Mill to Em- mitsburg. Frederick to Jefferson. Frederick to Mouocacy river. New Windsor to one mile north of Union- ville. Liberty to Union B'dge. Frederick to Monocacy river. Monocacy river to Lib- erty. Araby to three miles beyond Urbana. Woodsboro to Creagers- town. Liberty "Pike" to Woodsboro. Woodsboro to Double Pipe Creek. Blue Ridge to Ridge- 'ville. Frederick to Catoctin mountain. Frederick to Forks of County Rd. (3 miles.) Frederick to Arabv. The cost of putting stone on the roads for a width of 14 feet and a depth of 9 inches was given as from $1750.00 to $2000.00 per mile, 3500 perches of broken stone being used. In the last three years there have been laid from 1000 to 2000 feet of tile drains for draining the roads. There are 346 road supervisors in Frederick county who receive $1.25 per day, or when superintending six or more laborers $1.50 per day. In addi- tion to these supervisors there are employed for a short time about 1000 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME III, PLATE XXIII ROADS AND ROAD MATERIALS. A.Hoi-l. fc C,,. l.ilh li.illiimin- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 233 laborers, who are paid $1.25 per day. The supervisors and men average from six to ten days' work per year. The road-machinery owned by the county includes four rock-crushers, 15 road-machines or scrapers, a few hand scoops and picks, hammers, sledges and shovels. The rock-crushers cost about $700.00 each, and the road-ma- chines about $200.00 each. There are $300.00 worth of small tools, making in all about $6100.00 worth of road-machinery. From $300.00 to $400.00 are spent annually for repairs. Over three-fourths of the wagons used for heavy hauling have tires 3% or more inches in width. Nearly all of the new wagons are provided with wide tires. The required width between fences on new roads is 30 feet. The road-materials consist of trap-rock, limestone, quartzite and sand- stone. The best of these is the trap-rock which is popularly known as " nigger-head " rock. This occurs in massive bands or dikes extending southward from Emmitsburg to the Potomac. About Emmitsburg this rock has a coarse granular structure and is known commercially as Gettysburg granite. This coarse-grained variety is not of so great value for a road- metal as the compact fine-grained rock found elsewhere in this dike. This stone can be conveniently shipped by rail. The limestone is confined to a limited area about Frederick and is generally rather soft. The harder varieties are found to have a considerable percentage of silicious material and made a better road-metal than those with less silica. The western portion of the county is furnished with sandstone and quartzitic rocks which present a very great variability of structure. The shales in the eastern portion are not of especial value as a road-metal. The map on Plate XXIII shows the location of the different rocks in the county. The following table shows the amount expended for roads and bridges during the past ten years. These figures were obtained from the office of the County Commissioners: FKEDEKICK COUNTY. Total amonnt levied for Tear.^^ roads and bridges. 1889 $47,964.64 1890 21,227.80 1891 21,543.65 1892 26,031.77 1893 27,649.07 1894 31,634.50 1895 37,309. 71* 1896 29,106.46 1897 39,545.05 1-898 26,814.75 Amount spent for bridges. Amount spent for new roads. Amount spent for stone roads. Amount spent for road-repairs. $25,065.58 $1,515.91 $21,383.15 2,500.001 190.98 .... 18,536.82 2,500.00' 374.50 18,669.15 2,500.00' 1,184.11 22,347.66 2,500.00' 1,439.07 23,710.00 5,000.00' 424.50 26,200.00 2,500.001 2,069.01 32,740. 70 3,758.54 504.87 $500.00' 24,843.05 13,495.81 3,919.24 2,000.00' 20,130.00 3,000.001 1,814.75 500.00' 21,500.00 $308,817.40 $62,819.93 $13,436.94 $3,000.00 $229,560.53 1 Estimated. Previous to 1896 there was little or nothing spent for stone roads as far as the books show, and since then only a rough estimate can be made. 1 Includes $9000 for snow drifts. 234 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS Walkersville and Unionville receive $25.00 each; and all the roads (except turnpikes of incorporated companies), in towns, except in Frederick City, Thurmont and Emmitsburg, are allowed the regular appropriation of $12.00 per mile. In addition to the amount shown in the above table it is estimated that $395,000.00 have been paid in tolls during the past ten years, making the total cost to the people of the maintenance of the public roads and turn- pikes approximately $603,800.00, exclusive of private contributions. GARRETT COUNTY. The total mileage of roads in Garrett county is 650 miles, or 0.96 miles per square mile of area. In the disputed strip of land along the western boun- dary of the county there are about 50 miles of road, but as these have never been under the care of Garrett county, they are not included in these sta- tistics. No stone roads have been constructed by the county. The 22 miles of the National Koad within the county is the only stretch of stone road. The main roads are shown on the map on Plate XXIV, and have a mileage of 80 miles, or 12 per cent of the total mileage. There are at present no toll-roads in the county as toll has not been collected on the National Road since 1878. The roughest and wildest country to be found in the state is in Garrett county. The mountainous character of the whole area imposes some of the hardest conditions upon road-construction. Many of the roads on a side- hill location are oftentimes so narrow in places that teams cannot pass. Some of the roads when first opened were simply lumber roads, and were scarcely more than clearings. As the timber from a particular area was exhausted, a large number of these roads became disused. Some of them, however, have been kept open and they are the roughest in the state. A good example of a narrow side-hill road is to be found near Friends- ville on the road to Accident where the entire roadway is not over 12 feet wide and extends for about three-fourths of a mile on a 10 per cent grade. The mountain slope is very steep, and no form of guard-rail is provided to prevent a frightened animal dashing down the mountain side. In the location of the Hoop Pole Ridge Road advantage was taken of the narrow level strip found on the top of the Hoop Pole Ridge, which portion of the road has comparatively easy grades. This thoroughfare continues on through McHenry and Hoye's to Friendsville, on the westerly slope of the divide between the area draining into the Potomac river and the area draining into the Youghiogheny river. On this slope are very steep grades. On a hill near Hoye's they are as high as 20 per cent. The road running south from Oakland to Gormania has many steep grades. One in particular near Gormania measured twenty-two per cent. In the summer of 1898 the County Commissioners had surveys made for a relocation of a portion of the road so as to avoid this excessive grade. Around Oakland and Deer Park, where the road-beds are comparatively free from rock, road-machines have been used to shape the roadway. As most of the soil is clay with some sand, very good dry-weather roads can be made, but with much travel they become deep with dust in dry weather or with mud in wet weather. The portion of the National Road within Garrett county is in bad condi- tion. In many places it has been worn down to the large foundation stones, MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY while on the hills it is gullied into a very rough and uneven roadway. Sec- tions have been covered with broken stone, which was put on in such large pieces that travel invariably turned to one side. The width of the old road- bed is about 20 feet, which is far wider than the present small amount of travel requires. An appropriation of $600.00 per year is made by the county for this road. On the hilly portions of the roads breakers are constructed to turn aside the rain-water, and some of them, judging from their size, have received too much attention. Broken stone has only been used to fill up mud holes, a method of repair which has oftentimes resulted in forming two new de- pressions on either side of the first, for the dirt soon wears away from the stone, making new places for the water to collect. It is the common cus- tom to throw everything from the ditches into the middle of the road. The steep grades on most of the county roads which resulted from inatten- tion to their proper location when the roads were tirst laid out can only be remedied by relocations. The required width between fences is 30 feet. The width of the traveled way varies from 15 feet on level stretches to 7 or 8 feet on the hilly portions. Lumber is used for constructing the drains. Repairs to the roads are under the immediate control of 167 supervisors, who are paid $1.50 per day. The supervisors have under them five men each, who receive $1.25 per day. Supervisors and men average one week per year on the road. The county owns five road-machines which cost about $800.00 in all. $50.00 a year is spent in repairs to this machinery. Wide tires are seldom found on the farm wagons. The rocks available for road purposes shown by the map on Plate XXIV are widely distributed and consist of successive bands of sandstones, lime- stones, and shales. While these rocks do not make the best road-metals, yet it is possible to obtain very satisfactory results from many of the harder sandstones and limestones. The shales compact easily but are not durable and roads made of them become very dusty in dry weather and muddy in wet. Good exposures of limestone occur at Sang Run, on the road between Accident and Friendsville, and at many other points, especially along the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Sandstone has been used in and about Oak- land, but not always of the hardest and most durable varieties. The following table shows in detail the expenditure for the last ten years on different portions of the road-work. These figures were obtained from the office of the County Commissioners: GABBETT COUNTY. Total amount levied Amount spent Amount spent Amount spent Year. for roads and :or bridges. for new roads. for road repairs. 1889 $8,999.46 $1,804.96 $131.50 $7,063.00 1890 9,112.98 554.02 63.75 8,495.21 1891 8,649.14 1,318.12 160.92 .7,170.10 1892 9,677. ',37 1,289.46 194.50 8,193.31 1893 9,703.38 1,004.53 288.00 8,410.85 1894 13,990.82 1,805.53 2,020.32 10,164.97 1895 12,153.86 1,575.04 185.50 10,393.32 1896 15,772.43 1,797.97 3,400.00 10,574.46 1897 11,707.11 1,616.59 10,090.52 1898 13,647.60 3,398.10 64.50 10,190.00 $113,414.05 $16,199.32 $6,508.99 $90,745.74 236 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS Amounts levied Amounts" levied Tear. for towns. Year. for towns. 1890 $430. 00 1895 $630. 00 1891 430.00 1896 630.00 1892 430.00 1897 630.00 1893 580.00 1898 630.00 1894 580.00 HARFORD COUNTY. There are 800 miles of road in Harford county, or 1.90 miles per square mile. 680 miles are dirt road, 100 miles stone road, 15 miles gravel road, and 5 miles shell road. The main roads are shown on the map, Plate XXIV. They have a mileage of 96 miles, which is 12 per cent of the total mileage. Included in the mileage of stone roads are 8 miles over which toll is col- lected. The location of Harford county gives a great variety of roads, due to the varying surface conditions. In the northern portion, the land is much broken and there is an abundance of rock. This rough and hilly area merges by degrees into the low and level section on Gunpowder Neck. Although considerable attention has been given to the building of stone roads, many being built of trap-rock, the stone has generally not been broken small enough to be compacted readily by the traffic. Consequently the surface of these roads is invariably rough, although a firm road-bed has been obtained which is far better in winter and spring than the former dirt roads. The road from Bel Air to Hickory has been surfaced with trap-rock but ruts have formed over nearly the whole distance. In many places there are two or three sets of such ruts, the second set being formed in avoiding the first set, and so on. The width of the stone covering varies from 15 feet in some places to not over 7 feet in others. Where the macadam is narrow there is generally a dirt road at the side. Such a road as this could be made hard and smooth by surfacing it with a two-inch layer of broken stone well rolled down. Near Dublin there has recently been constructed a few hundred yards of stone road furnishing an excellent example of how not to construct a road. A layer of boulders ranging in size from one to two feet was laid on an ungraded road-bed to a depth varying from 10 to 24 inches. These large stones or boulders were placed in a loose and unskillful fashion leaving larg spaces between them. Over this layer of large rocks was spread a layer of stone from 3 inches to 6 inches in size. The road when seen had been left in this condition for over six months. Wherever possible the travel has turned into the neighboring fields to avoid going over this mass of loose stones. Such a piece of work is a waste of both time and material. On the roads in the hilly portions of the county the roadway is generally narrow and the repairs consist in making water-breakers. The dirt roads on less rocky soil are rounded up with road-machines. The roads in the southern section on the Gunpowder Neck have no heavy grades. The soil is a clay mixed with more or less sand which forms a MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME III, PLATE XXIV / THE GRANITIC AND QUARTZITIC GNEISS AND QUARTZ-SCHIST GRANITE QUARTZ I TE THE CALCAREOUS ROCKS / MARBLE THE SLATE ROCKS PHYLLITE THE LIMESTONES GREENBRIER THE SANDSTONES POCONO POTTBVILLE THE SHALES SHALES (INCLUDING MARTINSBURG. CLINTON, ROMNEV. JENNINGS. HAMPSHIRE. ALLEGHENY. CONEMAUGH. MONON- GAHELA AND OUNKARO FORMATIONS) GRAVELS, SANDS AND CLAYS \ GRAVELS AND IRON BEARING SANDS. I N S I CLAYS AND UNCONSOLIDATED SANDS. C MAIN COUNTY ROADS TOLL-ROADS ABANDONED TOLL-ROADS BMBMt* ROADS AND ROAD MATERIALS. A.Hoi*.<'u. Lith.Ballin MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 237 hard road in summer, but one which becomes very dusty with any con- siderable travel. Near Churchville there is a piece of road that was improved under the di- rection of Mr. Harrison, Highway Expert of the Office of Road Inquiry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. A small amount was macadamized, but for the larger portion of the distance the money was sufficient to provide only a system of underdrainage. About 175 yards of road 12 feet wide was sur- faced and the underdrainage was extended 400 yards further. The whole work cost $608.39. The following turnpikes are operated in Harford county: Name.. "Piked." Tolls Collected. Harford Turnpike. From Baltimore County From Baltimore County line to within 2J miles line to within 2 miles of Bel Air. of Bel Air. Bel Air Turnpike. From end of Harford From end of Harford Turnpike to Bel Air. Turnpike to Bel Air. There are 10 general supervisors, who appoint sub-supervisors; the former receive $2.00 per day, the latter $1.25 per day. The repairs in the neigh- borhood of Darlington, Churchville and Bel Air, have been under the super- vision of local Road Leagues. The first of these Road Leagues, and the first of its kind in the United States, was the one formed at Darlington in 1887 by residents in the vicinity of that place. The League has now in charge the maintenance of about 15 miles of road. The work is in the hands of an overseer, the same one being employed from year to year. He, in turn, hires what men are necessary. Formerly the League raised a portion of the funds by subscription, the county also making an appropriation. At present, however, the only money spent by the League is the amount granted by the County Commissioners, which is from $400.00 to $500.00 per year. The machinery owned by the League consists of a road-machine, a stone-crusher, and an equipment of smaller tools. The Bel Air and Church- ville Leagues are modeled after the one at Darlington. It has been found that while the enthusiasm is great in the beginning it soon abates and leaves the carrying on of the work to a very few. The Bel Air and Church- ville Leagues were both organized in the fall of 1894. The road-machinery owned by the county includes 11 road-machines, 1 stone crusher, and 1 horse-roller, which cost in all about $3000.00. The repairs to this machinery cost $200.00 a year. It is estimated that only 1 per cent of the farm wagons have tires 3y z inches or more in width, and it is not the general custom to have new wagons provided with wide tires. Good road material is found more widely distributed in Harford county than in any other. Broad areas of trap-rock extend in a northeasterly di- rection across the entire county and, save in the extreme northern and southern portions, there is no section which cannot be readily supplied with this rock. Near the mouth of the Susquehanna the trap-rock is most favorably situated for shipment by water to any point to which it may be desired to send it, especially to the southern and eastern parts of the state which are entirely devoid of good road-material. In addition to the trap- 238 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS rock there are found quantities of gneiss and quartzitic rocks which lend themselves fairly well for road-purposes. The map on Plate XXIV shows the general distribution of the various rocks throughout the county. The following table shows the amount expended upon the roads and bridges for the past ten years. These figures were obtained from the office of the County Commissioners: HARFOBD COUNTY. Total amount levied for Amount spent Amount spent Year. roads and bridges. for bridges. for road-repairs. 1889 $19,000.00 $19,000.00 1890 40,000.00 $1,000.00 39,000.00 1891 37,496.00 1,000.00 36*496.00 1892 57,554.00 1,000.00 56,554.00 1893 29,000.00 800.00 28,200.00 1894 37,000.00 900.00 36,100.00 1895 25,000.00 700.00 24,300.00 1896 23,000.00 600.00 22,400.00 1897 20,000.00 500.00 19,500.00 1898 21,000.00 700.00 20,300.00 $309,050.00 $7,200.00 $301,850.00 In addition to the amount shown in the above table it is estimated that $20,000.00 have been paid in tolls during the last ten years, making the total cost to the people of the maintenance of the public roads and turnpikes approximately $329,050.00, exclusive of private contributions. HOWARD COUNTY. In Howard county there are 448 miles of road, or 1.79 miles per square mile. There are 400 miles of dirt road and 48 miles of stone road, which in- cludes 35 miles of toll-road. There are 13 miles of stone road built and maintained by the county. The main county roads shown on the map on Plate XXIV, aggregate 60 miles, or 13 per cent of the total mileage. Howard county occupies a portion of the Piedmont Plateau and has a general level rising from 500 feet on the east to 750 feet on the west. The main topographical feature is the continuous stretch of comparatively level land which forms the divide between the Patapsco and Patuxent drainage basins, and which extends easterly and westerly the entire length of the county. The Old Frederick Eoad follows this divide very closely, but the location of the more direct New Frederick Road takes it near the southern edge, necessitating somewhat heavier grading than on the earlier location. The streams have cut deeply into the surface making many rough and steep hillsides. The soil is for the most part a mixture of clay and sand, some places being a very heavy stiff clay. There is much hauling over the roads which lead to the different sta- tions on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, so that the portion of the Balti- more and Frederick turnpike between Lisbon and St. Charles College has little through teaming. A particularly good example is here afforded of the effect upon the direction of travel produced by the building of a rail- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 239 road. Formerly all the heavy hauling was along the turnpike, whereas now the turnpike is followed only to the nearest cross-road which leads to a railroad station. For 6 or 8 miles west of Ellicott City there is more travel of all descriptions over the Baltimore and Frederick turnpike than over any other piece of road in the county. This turnpike is the principal road of the county which it traverses from east to west. Repairs are made frequently, and it is, as a whole, in good condition. It was noticed that the better traveled portions were smoother than the lesser traveled ones. Considerable trap or " nigger-head " rock, taken from the diabase dike near Pine Orchard, has been used for sur- facing. This rock is broken by hand and left in piles at the side of the road to be used as occasion requires. Many of the county roads have been improved by widening and in some instances by stoning them. The method of placing the stone on the road does not produce a smooth surface, as it is spread upon it in coarsely-broken pieces forming a layer 6 to 15 inches deep and 10 to 15 feet in width. The cost of such a road w!th a covering of stone 12 feet wide and 6 inches deep is given as $1000.00 per mile, 1056 perches of stone being used. The turnpikes operated in Howard county are: Name. "Piked." Tolls Collected. Baltimore and Frederick Ellicott City to Ridge- Ellicott City to Ridge- Turnpike, ville. ville. Ellicott City and Clarks- Ellicott City to Clarks- Ellicott City to Clarks- ville Turnpike. ville. ville. Triadelphia Turnpike. Glenelg to Balto.- Glenelg to Balto.- Fredk. Turnpike. Fredk. Turnpike. The roads are under the immediate charge of 13 supervisors who employ in addition 118 men. The pay per day of the men is $1.00. The total amount paid to the supervisors is $360.00 per year. There are 13 road-machines and one stone-crusher, with a capacity of about 40 perches per day, owned by the county. The road-machines cost $200.00 each, and the stone-crusher $740.00, making a total of $3340.00. It costs about $100.00 per year for repairs to the crusher and about $15.00 each for repairs on the road-machines. It is safe to say that one-half of the farm wagons have tires 3% inches wide and wider. In those localities near the turnpikes it is the general practice to have wide tires put on new wagons. In sections more remote this practice is not so general. The re- quired width between fences for new roads is 30 feet. The road-materials include some excellent rock. That found in the trap or diabase dike crossing the county in a northerly and southerly direction is the best road-metal in the county. Near Pine Orchard this rock has been used upon the turnpike. In the eastern portion is another area of trap-rock. There are also granites and gneisses widely distributed but these are inferior to the trap-rock. The map on Plate XXIV outlines the general location of the different rocks in the county. The following table shows the amount that has been spent on roads and bridges during the last ten years. These figures were obtained from the office of the County Commissioners: 240 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS HOWARD COUNTY. Year. 1889 Total amount levied for roads and bridges. $14,000.00' Amount spent for bridges. Amount spent for new roads. Amount spent for road-repairs. 1890 ... 16,403.00 $10,803.00 $5,600.00 1891 11,704.00 6,198.00 $506.00 5,000.00 1892 12,281.00 4,248.00 1,233.00 6,800.00 1893 .... 15,196.00 8,000.00 396.00 6,800.00 1894 16,750.00 9,233.00 717.00 6,800.00 1895 9,925.00 3,000.00 125.00 6,800.00 1896 10,978.00 3,260.00 918.00 6,800.00 1897 11,667.00 2,888.00 2,067.00 6,712.00 1898 15,997.00 4,890.00 1,657.00 9,450.00 $134,901.00 $52,520.00 $7,619.00 $55,762.00 In addition to the amount shown in the above table it is estimated that $100,000.00 have been paid in tolls during the last ten years, making the total cost to the people of the maintenance of the public roads and turnpikes approximately $234,900.00, exclusive of private contributions. KENT COUNTY. There are 435 miles of road in Kent county, or an average of 1.37 miles of road for each square mile of area. There are 5 miles of shell road; the remainder are of dirt. The main roads are shown upon the map on Plate XXV and have a mileage of 63 miles, or 14 per cent of the total mileage. All of the roads are free. The soil, which is generally hard clay with some sand, is about the best that can be obtained for dirt roads and this, together with the flat char- acter of the country, makes it possible to have fairly good roads for a con- siderable portion of the year with comparatively little work. During wet weather, especially in the hollows, the clay soil becomes soft and sticky, rendering a passage through it very difficult. Many of the roads in Kent county are considerably wider than the aver- age county road. For example, on the roads leading into Chestertown the fences and hedges are from 50 to 60 feet apart. On the road near Tolchester the fences are 60 feet apart. The traveled portion of these roads is cor- respondingly wide, and is oftentimes 25 to 30 feet broad. Much attention has also been paid to building substantial culverts in all parts of the county. They are made of tile drains with ends well protected by neat brick walls generally carried two or three feet above the level of the road- way. The amount of tile drains laid cannot be ascertained, but there is probably more in proportion to the number of miles of road than in any other county of the state. A great improvement has also been made on some roads by grading. Near Galena, on the road towards Still Pond, a section has recently been relocated and graded by filling to a depth of 10 feet in places. The width of the top of the embankment is about 25 feet. This is one of the few in- Estimated. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - VOLUME III, PLATE XXV MAIN COUNTY ROADS ' TOLL-ROADS ABANDONED TOLL- ROADS I phi. THE TRAP ROCKS GABBBO PERIOOTITE AND PYROXENITE OIORITC DIABASE THE GRANITIC AND QUARTZITIC -*OCKS GNEISS AND QUARTZ-SCHIST I Gfl | GRANITE | Gr I QUARTZITE | Q | TRIASSIC SANDSTONE I Gt | THE SLATE ROCKS PHY1.LITE | Ap | THE VOLCANIC ROCKS BASIC VOLCANICS I Vb I GRAVELS. SANDS AND CLAYS GRAVELS AND IRON BEARING SANOS | N] Allegany ! tal amount levied for roads and ridges in the last 10 years. I 269,042.00 311,121.23' 1,226,681.36 45,650.00 172,088.49 68,000.00 192,989.09 76,500.00 107,134.00 308,817.40 113,414.05 309,050.00 134,901.00' 198,205.60 232,917.78' 190,000.001 153,500.00 52,500.00 89,736.00 146,770.00 189,428.50 27,750.001 18,500.001 Amount spent for bridges. $ 60,000.00 Amount spent Amount spent for stone, for gravel or new roads. shell roads. $ 8,000.00 $ 5,000.00 Amount spent for repairs. $196,042.00 Anne Arundel. . Baltimore Calvert . Carroll 18,438.00 125,837.51 Caroline Cecil Charles Dorchester .... Frederick Garrett 62,819.93 16,159.32 7,200.00 52,520.00 13,075.19 13,436.94 3,000.00 6,508.99 229,560.53 90,745.74 301,850.00 74,762.00 172,263.13 Harford Howard 7,619.00 Kent 12,867.28 Montgomery . . . Prince George's. Queen Anne's. . St. Mary's Somerset 46,824.03 6,111.00 18,940.38 81,624.59 19,450.00 33,939.08 53,409.88 2,775.00 20,362.00 13,986.34 14,011.96 3, 904 . 31 47,149.00 84,832.62 132,114.31 Talbot Washington . . . Wicomico Worcester Total for state .$4,634,696.50 1 Estimated total. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 259 It is seen that there are but four steam-rollers in the state, and only two of these, those owned by Baltimore county, have been used to any extent upon the county roads. As the modern macadam road cannot be properly constructed without the use of heavy rollers, one of the first acts for road-improvement is the purchase of such ma- chinery. A good illustration of the close connection between the improvement of the roads and the use of road-rollers is found in the rapid increase in the number of steam-rollers during the past five years in the state of Massachusetts. In 1894, about the time the State Highway Commission first began work there, there were 25 rollers in the state, while at present, 1899, there are 152, representing an investment of more than half a million of dollars. TABLE SHOWING ANNUAL COST OF PRESENT ROAD-SYSTEM FOR THE TEN YEARS FROM 1889 TO 1898 INCLUSIVE. Total amount paid In taxes lor public roads and bridges. Year. Public roads, 18,986 miles. 1889 $394,772.96 1890 406,838.64 1891 355,413.64 1892 497,267.38 1893 501,856.84 1894 ; 510,081.63 1895 492,315.57 1896 486,689.49 1897 476,010.65 1898 513,449.70 Total amount paid In tolls to Turnpike Companies. Toll-roads, 497 miles. Annual average estimated from tolls paid 1895-1898, $140,000.00. Combined total paid in taxes and tolls for the present road-system. Average for ten years about $600,000.00 annually. Totals $4,634,696.50 $1,400,000.00 $6,034,696.50' The table given on page 261 includes a list . of the turn- pikes in the state in actual operation at the present time, together with the mileage, counties traversed, and principal office. The mile- age controlled by those turnpike companies who made no returns was scaled from the best maps available and the result in each case sent to the turnpike company in question for verification. An asterisk is placed opposite the figures remaining unverified. 1 In addition to this amount considerable sums are raised by private con- tributions which cannot be reliably estimated. 260 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF MARYLAND HIGHWAYS g -S OQ02 O ooooo OOOOO 1803 OOOOO ooo-*o 8J3HOH sijSnojd pun sdooog gpuoj am no auop HJOA 8Ap JO -OJ JBP a io *o cs o *o 10*01000 o oooooo 00 OS i-l O t- CQCSCaOO i-l OOCiOOO *. . . . . . . . ~" x ~ x uatn jo -ox tuuopippv iffl Q o * OOlOOiOOOlOO O .-OiOOOOOOOJOOlO 1O O OOOOOOJO '-ioOino'-io '8JOSJA -aadne pwu jo *ojs o CO g+a O CO 5 t- O OS CO O V r-l 00 CO OS 1C CO t- O W O O ift CO r-l r-l N t- CO -* CO r-l CO r- 1 CO CO I- CO 05 t- r-< 08,0 o "I9ABJS JO 05 liatjs 'auo!g ojs O CO r-l CO O 0* t- O O r-l 5 C^l CO 1ft 00 O 1-1 0* r-l rH 1 r-l 00 O O O CO O CO CO CS (N r-l O OttO txt; o c8 O ^*S 'UlfT = gS o CR o om t-oocooo t- ^CO COOOOCDOO O 00 O O O O O r-l 10 ic o o . '. ';} xXV'T^einhcKdtT v>'-i.'" .'; *."'* .'' -'-: ;;'.; ~~, "(,""- FIG. 26. Portable form of combined crusher, elevator and screen. another section is crushed. As a general thing, however,, the supply of stone will be found more readily available at some particular place, so that it would be necessary to haul stone a somewhat longer distance than would otherwise be the case. Figure 25 shows a type of portable MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 305 crusher whose capacity varies from seventy-five tons per day of ten hours to two hundred and ninety-five tons, requiring five to fifteen horse-power respectively. Prices are from $450 to $1,050. Other forms of crusher include not only the crusher, but an elevator for carrying the crushed stone from the crusher to the automatic screen from which it falls into the bins and thence to the carts. Such an arrangement is shown in Figure 26. FIG. 27. Rotary stone-crusher. Each of the crushers shown in Figures 25-26 is of the jaw pat- tern, as are all the forms of crushers manufactured with the exception of the Gates crusher. This crusher is shown in Fig. 27, and is provided with a conical opening within which is a movable center steel core, which revolves eccentrically with respect to the outer shell. As the center core revolves it approaches and recedes from the sides of the outer shell, and the stone coming between the moving surfaces is crushed. The automatic screens for sorting the crushed stone into the various 306 CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR OF ROADS sizes are shown in Figure 28. The different screens upon the market are of the same general design, differing only in material used in their construction and minor details of arrangement. Prices vary according to the size, from $275 for a 10 ft. 6 in. screen in three sections, to $950 for a 15 ft. 6 in. screen, corresponding diameters being 24 inches and 54 inches. The usual arrangement for conveying stone as it comes from the crusher to the screen consists of a number of steel buckets mounted upon a flexible belt. The difference in prices depends upon the length and size of the buckets. For a distance between centers of thirty feet the prices of elevators range from $455, with a capacity of 12 tons per day, to $1,000 for 15 tons capacity. FIG. 28. Automatic screen for assorting crushed stone into different sizes. The efficiency of stone-crushing plants depends greatly upon the " set-up," the detailed arrangement of the engine, crusher, screen, bins, etc., depending upon the nature of the location, whether the rock is gathered from the side of a hill or from the level ground. Figures 29 and 30 show in outline the general arrangement for side- hill and level locations respectively. COST OF CRUSHING STONE. The following account of the cost of crushing stone, taken from the report for 1891 of the City Engineer of Newton, Mass.', shows in detail the part of the total cost each item bears. The prices for labor are seen to be about 75 per cent more than is paid in A, aryland, allowing for the difference between a nine- and ten-hour day. As about 75 per cent of the cost for breaking stone is for labor, the cost of crushing MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 307 stone in Maryland would therefore be about one-third less than the cost as given in the following table. It will be noticed that the cost of breaking field stone is about two-fifths that of crushing stone from a ledge. Thus three-fifths of the cost of crushing stone is for quarrying. FIG. 29. General arrangement of a crushing plant on sidehill location. FIG. 30. General arrangement of crushing plant on level ground. " The stone-breaking plant consists of one stationary and one portable Farrel, Marsdon 9 x 15 stone-breaker, operated respectively by one Atlas en- gine with horizontal boiler, and one portable Lidgerwood double cylinder engine with vertical boiler. The stationary plant is placed near a ledge of hard green trap stone. The stone is drilled with a Rand Steam Drill and blasted with forcite powder. " The drill is operated by steam from a separate boiler; the stone is broken to a size to go in the breaker by hand-drilling or with sledge ham- -308 CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR OF ROADS mers, and taken by horse and cart to the breaker a distance of 500 feet, and delivered on a platform level with the top of the hopper. " It is fed into the hopper by two laborers. From the breaker the stone is delivered in four sizes into bins through revolving cylinders with casing of perforated boiler iron. The first is what is known as dust; second, one inch; third, two and a half -inch stone; fourth, tailings that have passed by the meshes and out at the end of the cylinder. " The following is a record in detail of the cost of the various items of labor and material which go to make up the total cost of breaking the stone of the different classes." Tailings. No. 3. No. 2. Dust. Greenish Trap-Rock 91.0 Ibs. 88>^ 84% 95% Conglomerate.. 94.4 " 87.7 101 CobbleStoue 99.6 " 98 102% QUANTITY OF STONE BROKEN. Hours run Hard green trap-rock resembling Hudson trap in hardness. 412 Conglom- erate ledge stone. 144 Cobble- stone, largely trap-rock. 101 Cobble- stone largely granite. 198 Cubic yards broken ... 3, 155 1,288 1,178 1,785 Long ton, 2,240 Ibs., broken ... 3,998 1,446 1,417 2,142 Short ton, 2,000 Ibs., broken ... 3,805 1,620 1,587 2,399 Cubic vfirds broken per hour . 7.7 8.9 11.8 9.0 Long ton broken per hour. . . 8.2 10 14.0 10.8 Short ton broken per hour 9.0 11 2 15.7 '12.1 Number cubic yards of tailings .... 1,004 378 205 365 Per cent yards of tailing's 31 8 29 3 17 5 20.5 Number Cubic yards 2%-inch stone 1,618 688 672 994 Per cent yards 2}^-inch stone 51 . 3 51 9 57 55.1 Number cubic yards 1-iiich stone 323 Per cent yards 1-inch stone 10.2 Number cubic yards %-inch or dust 210 242 300 .427 Per cent yards %-inch or dust 6.7 18.8 25.5 23.4 Average number of hours worked per day . . 9 9 9 9 PRICE PAID FOR LABOR PER DAY AND MATERIALS USED. Foreman Hard green trap-rock resembling Hudson trap in hardness. . $3.00 Conglom- erate ledge stone. $3.00 Cobble- stone, largely trap-rock. $3.00 Cobble- stone, largely granite. $3.00 Operator of stone drill j 3.00 3.00 Ledgeman . ' ( 1.7o 1.75 1.75 1.50 Engineer of the boiler operating stone drill . . . 2 25 Engineer of the boiler operating stone-breaker. Blacksmith . 2.00 2.50 2.25 2.25 2.00 2.50 Watchman 1.75 1.75 1.75 Common laborer. . 1.75 1 .50 1.50 1.75 Water boy 1.00 1.25 Two one-horse carts and one driver 5 . 00 5.00 Coal per ton, 2,000 Ibs 5 25 5.25 5 . 25 5.50 Oil per gallon J '?? .65 .65 .65 Powder per box, 50 Ibs. . ( .15 11.34 .15 11.34 . 15 11.34 . 15 Waste per pound 4 9-J 9$ 9^ 9-J Cost per cubic yard, stone in bin or crusher 898 1.113 .445 .447 Cost per long ton ; -834 .991 .37 .372 Cost per short ton 745 .885 .33 .332 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 309 COST AND PER CENT OF WHOLE COST OF UNITS OF LABOR AND MATERIAL. Labor, steam drilling Hard green trap-rock Conglom- resembllng erate Hudson trap ledge in hardness. stone. cost per cu. yd. .092 .... Cobble- Cobble- stone, none, largely largely trap-rock, granite. ti K per cent of cost 10.3 Coal, oil, waste, powder and re- pairs cost per cu. yd. .084 .018 .... Coal, oil, waste, powder and re- pairs per cent of cost 9.4 1.6 Labor, hand-drilling cost per cu. yd. .249 It U per cent of cost 22.3 Sharpening drills and tools cost per cu. yd. .069 .023 it U per cent of cost 7.7 2.1 Breaking stone for crusher cost per cu. yd. .279 .42 U It per cent of cost 31 37.8 Total cost of preparing stone for . crusher cost per cu. yd. .525 .681 Total cost of preparing stone for crusher per cent of cost 58.4 61.9 .... Filling carts cost per cu. yd. .098 .127 Wheel- .144 14 il per cent of cost 11 11.4 barrows. 32.4 Carting to crusher cost per cu. yd. .072 .062 .314 .098 U U per cent of cost 8 5.6 70.6 22 Feeding crusher ' cost per cu. yd. . 053 .053 .033 .065 " " per cent of cost 5.9 4.7 7.4 14.5 Engineer of crusher cost per cu. yd. .031 .038 .029 .086 U 14 per cent of cost 3.4 3.5 6.5 8 Coal, oil and waste cost per cu. yd. .079 .05 .047 .044 (I U (1 per cent of cost 8.8 4.5 10.1 9.9 Repairs cost per cu. yd. .041 .011 U per cent of cost 4.5 2.4 Moving and setting up cost per cu. yd. .023 .019 " " per cent of cost 2.1 4.2 Portable crusher, watchman 4.4 5.4 6.6 ROLLERS. The importance of rolling roads of all descriptions has been pre- viously discussed. For light rolling, such as is required in preparing the road-bed, dirt roads and macadam made of softer materials, good results are obtained with the horse-roller. A convenient pattern of this type is shown in Figure 31. This has a counterbalanced, swinging tongue, so that it is not necessary to turn about the roller itself in order to retraverse a portion of the work. No roller should be employed that must be turned about. The market offers rollers of different styles and of weights varying from 4 to 8 tons, which cost about $100 per ton. Except on a very level road, so many horses are required to pull the heavier rollers that the cost of rolling is much more than steam- 20 310 CONSTRUCTION AND EEPAIE OF ROADS FIG. 31. Keversible horse-roller. FIG. 32. Steam road-roller. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 311 rolling 1 . Besides, for most macadam work the heavier roller would be required and better results can be obtained with a steam-roller. For all road-work a 12-ton roller will be found the most convenient. The weights range from 10 to 20 tons, but the ones in most general use are of the lighter kind. The pressure for each inch of breadth of a 10-ton roller is 450 pounds and of the 12-ton roller about 550 pounds. The extreme widths of the different makes vary somewhat, the average being about 85 inches for a 12-ton roller. Figure 32 shows one of those machines. Prices of different makes of steam-rollers vary considerably, rang- ing from $3,000 to $5,000. If more than one machine is ordered at a time substantial discounts can be obtained. HIGHWAY LITERATURE. For the benefit of engineers and those wishing reference to standard works on highways and their construction, the following list has been compiled. It makes no pretence to completeness : HISTORICAL. Bloodgood, S. A. Treatise on Roads. Albany, 1838. Macadam, John London. Remarks on the present System of Road Making. London, 1822. Parnell, Sir Henry. Treatise on Roads. London, 1833. Searight, t. B. The Old Pike, Uniontown, Pa., 1894. CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE. Bernard, H. Etudes des Differents Gervies de Pavages. Gerardin & Nicolle. Nancy, 1898. Byrne, A. T. A Treatise on Highway Construction. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1897. Codrington, Thos. Maintenance of Macadamized Roads. E. & F. N. Spon, London, 2nd Edit., 1892. Durand-Claye, C. L. Cours de Routes. Baudry et Cie., Paris, 1895. Gillmore, Q. A. Roads, Streets and Pavements. D. Van Nostrand & Co., New York, 1876. Gillespie, W. M. Roads and Railroads. New York, 1847. Grant, W. H. The Roads of Central Park. [Gravel Roads] Jour. Franklin Inst., vols. Ixxxiii-lxxxiv, Philadelphia. Herschel, C. Science of Road Making. Wright & Potter, Boston, 1870. Reprinted by Engineering News & Publishing Co., 1877. Law, Henry, and Clark, D. K. Roads and Streets. Crosby, Lockwood & Co., London, 1877. 312 CONSTRUCTION AND KEPAIK OF ROADS Love, E. G. [comp.] Pavements and Roads. The Engin. & Bldg. Record Co., New York, 1890. Meyer, Gustav, and v. Willmann, L. [edit.]. Handbuch der Ingenieur- wissenschaften. 4 vols. Vol. I, in two parts, treats of road-construction. Engelmann, Leipsig, 1897-98. North, E. P. Construction and Maintenance of Roads. Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng., 1879. Owen, James. The Controverted Question in Road Construction. Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng., 1892. Rockwell, A. P. Road and Pavements in France. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1896. Shaler, N. S. American Highways. The Century Co., New York, 1896. [A general discussion of American highways.] Spalding, F. P. Roads and Pavements. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1898. ADMINISTRATION. Angell, J. K., and Durfee, T. A Treatise on the Law of Highways. Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 3rd Edit., 1896. Bavier, S. Die Strassen der Schweiz. Ordell Fiissli & Co., Zurich, 1878. Elliott, B. K. and W. F. The Laws of Roads and Streets. The Bowen- Merrill Co., Indianapolis, 1890. Henry, Ernest. Traite des Chemins Vicinaux. Baudry et Cie., Paris, 1897. Jenks, J. W. Road Legislation for the American State. Amer. Economic Assoc., Publ., Baltimore, 1889. Neff, F. H. French Roads, their Administration, Construction and Main- tenance. Jour, of Assoc. of Eng. Soc., 1892. Potter, B. W. The Road and the Roadside. Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 1886. Sax, Emil. Die Verkerstnittel in Volks- und Staatswirthschaft. 2 vols. Vol. I. Land- und Wasserweger. Vienna, 1878-9. Sax, Emil. Nausport und Communicationswesen. Handbuch der Poli- tischen Oekonomie. Tiibingen, 1882. Stone, Roy. New Roads and Road Laws. D. Van Nostrand & Co., New York, 1894. Williams, Henry W., Chairman. Report of the Committee of the Maryland Road League, 1893. Bulletin No. 1 of the Office of Road Inquiry., Dept. of Agri., Washington, 1894. OFFICIAL. REPORTS. California. Department of Highways. Bulletins and Reports. Connecticut. Reports of the Highway Commissioner. New Haven. Massachusetts. Reports of the Highway Commission. Boston. Ministere des Travaux Publics. Annales des Ponts et Chausees. Paris, 1831- . Ministere des Travaux Publics. Determination Directe de la Qualite des Materiaux d'Entretien. Paris, 1880. Ministere des Travaux Publics. Etat Itineraires des Routes Nationales. Paris, 1889. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 1513 New Jersey. Reports of the Commissioner of Public Roads. Trenton. New York. Good Roads, Report of Special Committee to the Legislature. Albany, 1896. New York. Highway Manual of the State of New York. Albany, 1898. New York, State Engineer and Surveyor, Bulletins -of the office of. Albany. New York State Museum, Bulletin of. Vol. iv, No. 17. Road-Materials and Road-building in New York. Albany, 1897. North Carolina Geol. Surv. Economic Papers. No. 2. Some Road Legis- lation in North Carolina, J. A. Holmes. Raleigh, 1899. Rhode Island. Reports of the Commissioner of Highways. Providence. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Office of Road Inquirj'. Bulletins and cir- culars. Washington. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Year Books. Washington. U. S. Dept. of State. Special Consular Reports. Streets and Highways in Foreign Countries. Washington, 1891. Reissued with supplements, 1897. U. S. Geol. Survey. 15th Ann. Kept. 1893-4. Preliminary report on the Geology of the Common Roads of the United States, N. S. Shaler. Wash- ington, 1895. U. S. Geol. Survey. 16th Ann. Rept. 1894-5. Part II. Geology of the Road-building stones of Massachusetts with some Considerations of similar Materials from other parts of the United States, N. S. Shaler. Washington, 1895. JOURNALS. American Society of Civil Engineers, Transactions of. New York. Association of Civil Engineers, Journal of. London. Engineering and Building Record. New York. Engineering News. New York. Franklin Institute, Journal of. Philadelphia. Good Roads. League of American Wheelmen. Boston. Massachusetts Highway Association, Journal of (discontinued). Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors of Great Britain, Pro- ceedings of. London. Paving and Municipal Engineering. Indianapolis. Van Nostrand's Magazine. New York. PART VI QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS AND THE METHODS OF TESTING THEM BY HARRY FIELDING REID QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS AND THE METHODS OF TESTING THEM. BY HARRY FIELDING REID INTRODUCTION. The essential qualities of a good road-surface are hardness and smoothness at all times; its first cost should not be too great, and the annual expense of maintenance should be as small as possible. These qualities are obtained by two methods: first, by proper construction; second, by the selection of a good road-metal; and it is a matter of very great importance to determine before making the road what is the best available material to use on its surface. The methods of con- struction have already been given and the means of selecting the right material will now engage our attention. FORCES TO BE WITHSTOOD BY A ROAD-METAL. The forces at work tending to destroy roads must first be considered in order to see what qualities the stone must have to resist them. 1 These forces may be divided into two groups: I, the wear and tear of travel; II, the forces of nature. I. The travel on a road tends to wear it out in several ways: (1) by the blows of the horses' feet; (2) by the blows of the wheels, for no road is so smooth that the wheels do not at times strike against, and at times fall from, slight projections and thus produce blows against the road; (3) by the action of the horses' feet in pulling or holding 1 An interesting article on this subject has been written by Mr. C. L. Whittle in Circ. 29, of the Office of Road Inquiry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. 318 QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS back, tending to pull the stones out of place; (4) by friction of the wheels, especially when brakes are used; and (5) by the pressure on the road due to the weight of the vehicle and of the horses. It is evident that some of these causes (3, 4) tend to destroy the general cohesion of the road and to loosen the stones; others (1, 2, 4) tend to break up the pieces of stone themselves into smaller particles and to grind them into dust; the effect of pressure (5) is probably beneficial to a well-made stone road as it tends to consolidate it; but a soft road, or one with too thin a stone covering, is terribly cut up by the pressure of the wheels. II. Natural forces are extremely important causes of the destruc- tion of roads. They are: (1) Heavy rains, which tend to wash the road; (2) Winds, which tend to sweep away all the fine material ground up by the travel instead of allowing it to become consolidated again with the mass of the road; they are especially effective during long droughts when the roads become very dry. 1 (3) In addition to the washing effects of heavy rains, which can be largely obviated by the proper shaping of the road to allow the water to run rapidly off, there is the solution of the rock, and also the general chemical decomposi- tion. 2 But it is probable that the wear of the road-metal by travel is so much greater than the action of decomposition or solution that we may neglect these agents. (4) Great changes of temperature. They produce contractions and expansions of the rock, which in extreme cases must break the bonds holding together the broken stone, and thus unravel the road. The last three agents (3, 4), however, have not been thoroughly investigated by observation, and we may leave them until our knowledge is greater. (5) Frost. The destruction of a road-bed by the heaving action of frost and the subsequent break- ing up when the thaw comes on are too familiar to every one in the state to require special description. It is one of the greatest de- stroyers of roads without dry foundations. In order to resist these various agents of destruction the stone of the road-surface must be so hard and tough that it will not be readily *A discussion of the climate of Maryland and its relations to the roads will be found in the first part of this volume. 2 Mr. Whittle has carefully considered these two actions. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 319 broken or ground into small particles; the separate stones must be so firmly held together that they cannot be easily knocked out of place; and they must become so consolidated that all water will run off the surface of the road, and the foundation be kept perfectly dry. More- over, the greater the specific gravity of the rock and of its constituent minerals, the less readily will the smaller particles into which more or less of the surface-rock is always broken by travel, be blown or washed away. It sometimes happens that so much of this finer ma- terial is carried off that the road's surface becomes a mass of loose stones. METHODS OF TESTING ROAD-METALS. The large amounts of money spent on the maintenance of roads make it a matter of very great importance to select a material that will wear well; a great saving can be effected if we can know before building our road what is the best material to use. Undoubtedly, experience is the best test of road-materials; and if we could build a mile or two of roads of various materials and in different parts of the state and open them for travel for a period of years, and if at the end of that time we could make a careful examination of the wearing down of the road-surface and other disruptions of the road-bed, this would undoubtedly be the best means of determining the relative merits of the various materials. But as the number of available ma- terials is very large and the wear on the road is very uneven, it would be necessary to make a very large number of measurements at dif- ferent parts of the various roads in order to determine the average wear for each, and also to keep a careful record of the repairs that had been made in order to allow for them ; and as it would require between five and ten years' time to get results of any value, this method is evidently not at all a practical one for Maryland at the present time. One must therefore turn to laboratory methods to determine the wear- ing qualities of a road-metal and its resistance to the weather, and the results are of great value even where they are not as accurate as might be desired. MICROSCOPIC TEST. If thin sections of rock are made and examined with the micro- scope the structure of the rock itself can be distinctly seen. Exam- 320 QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS inations of this kind show a great variety of structure in the different rocks; and crystalline rocks show not only a great difference in the size of the crystals of which they are formed, but also a difference in the crystals themselves and the manner in which they are united. A glance at Plates VII-XI will show these differences. It will be seen that the diorites, the diabases and the related rocks are made up of minerals which are very much intertwined, and this accounts in a great degree for the toughness of these rocks and the difficulty in breaking them. The minerals of the granites and gneisses, on the other hand, are not well intertwined and these rocks crumble more readily. The quartzites, which are made up of particles of quartz cemented together but not intertwined, may be more or less easily disrupted according to the strength of the cement; and the same may be said of the sandstones. In marbles not only do the crystals themselves break very readily, but they are not strongly cemented together. The limestones, made up originally of small particles of fairly hard material, which are cemented together by a cement practically as strong as the particles themselves, form very compact rocks which do not crumble, but they are often not very strong. This method does not give the relative wearing powers of rocks, and cannot be looked upon as a satisfactory test; but it is valuable in making clear the causes of the differences in strength', and, therefore, in suggesting among what classes of rocks good road-making materials w T ill probably be found. ABRASION TEST. In France, where the most careful work has been carried on for the greater part of this century, they have now adopted an experimental test of the resistance of rock to wear. The machine which they use for this purpose was invented by a French engineer, Deval, and is called by his name. It was first exhibited at the French Exposition in 1878, and was immediately adopted as. the best method of deter- mining beforehand the relative wearing powers of rocks. 1 By its use a large number of tests have been made of the various rocks used on 1 Determination Directe de la Qualite des Materiaux d'Entretien. Minis- tere des Travaux Publics. Paris, 1880. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XXIX. TlieFriedenwaWOo. TESTING LABORATORY OF THE MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SHOWING DEVAL ABRASION MACHINE AND REVOLVING CYLINDRICAL SIEVE FOR DETERMINING VALUES OF ROAD MATERIALS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 321 the French roads, and the results are in very satisfactory accordance with results obtained by many years' study of the roads themselves. The engineers in charge of the roads send samples of the various available materials to the testing laboratory in Paris, and their selec- tion is governed by the result of the test. A machine of this kind has been used for some years by the Massachusetts Highway Commis- sion, and one has been installed in the Maryland Survey laboratory, and has been at work for the past year testing the values of rocks from all sections of the state. The machine is shown in Plate XXIX. It consists essentially of an iron cylinder 20 centimeters (8 inches) in diameter and 34 centimeters (13 inches) deep, mounted diagonally on a rotating axle. The stone to be tested is broken into pieces that will just pass through a 2^-inch ring and 5 kilograms (11 Ibs.) of this broken stone are placed in the cylinder, which is then firmly closed and rotated at the rate of about 30 turns to the minute for 5 hours, making altogether 10,000 revolutions; a counter shows when the proper number of revolutions has been made. At each turn the stone rolls over from one end of the cylinder to the other and the edges are gradually broken oft' and the small particles thus formed are ground to fine dust. Before being placed in the cylinder the stone is carefully cleaned and weighed ; after the experiment it is again cleaned and weighed together with all particles larger than tV of an inch. The difference between these weighings gives the amount of dust formed and is the test of the wearing quality of the stone. The French engineers have adopted a coefficient of wear to indicate the quality of the stone. They find that very few rocks when subjected to this test form less dust than 20 grams to each kilogram of rock (equal to about 2 per cent), and they adopt the number 20 as the coefficient of the best rocks. The coefficient of other rocks is obtained by multi- plying this number by 20 divided by the amount of dust formed per kilogram of rock, namely: 20 X 20 * = "IT where q = the coefficient of w r ear, u = quantity of dust formed per kilogram. 322 QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS It will be readily seen that the rock which produces 40 grams of dust to the kilogram will have a coefficient of wear 10; and, in gen- eral, the coefficient is inversely proportional to the amount of dust, formed in the test. The machine installed in the Survey laboratory was made for us in, Paris and has two cylinders so that two tests can be carried on at the same time. The time necessary to weigh the rock before and after the test and the time of the test itself rarely allows tests of more than two rocks to be made daily with our machine. Objection has been made to this method of determining the wear- ing qualities of rocks on the ground that it does not exactly resemble the wear to which the rock is subjected on the road, and that it does not measure the resistance of the rock to the natural agents of de- struction. This is perfectly true, but the experience of the French engineers for the last twenty years shows that the test is very valuable ;. and by supplementing it with other tests, a very accurate idea of the relative values of road-metals can be formed. CRUSHING TEST. The resistance to the crushing action of blows can be measured by determining the force of the blow necessary to fracture a piece of the rock of a given size. This test can be carried out by the machine de- scribed in the next paragraph, but up to the present there has not been any opportunity for applying it. CEMENTATION TEST. After resistance to wear the most important quality in a road-mak- ing material is the power of consolidating into a solid mass, which will shed water from the road-bed, and keep the foundation dry. This consolidation also holds the stones in their places, and prevents them from being kicked out by the horses. After the broken stone is laid the road should be thoroughly watered and rolled so as to bring the stones into as close contact as possible. But even when this is done it is found that the empty spaces amount to about 25 per cent of the- total space occupied by the road itself. Screenings of the road mater- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XXX. The Frledeowald Co. TESTING LABORATORY OF THE MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SHOWING MACHINE FOR MAKING BRIQUETTES AND PAGE MACHINE FOR DETERMINING CEMENTATION-POWER OF STONE-DUST. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 323 ial are usually put on the top of the road, watered and rolled in, for the purpose of filling up these spaces as far as possible and thus con- solidating the road. Any fine material will do to fill the space, but it is important that this should be a material which will not only fill the space, but which will cement the stones together, as this makes a much more solid structure. The screenings made during the crushing of the stone are very suitable for this purpose, and the travel of the road, which will in time, by slight movement of the stones them- selves, produce a small quantity of dust, also helps to fill the voids. If this dust and the screenings have a good cementing power they will hold together the larger pieces of stone and make a solid road-bed prac- tically impervious to water. Therefore the determination of the cementing power of the dust formed by the grinding of the rock is a test of great value. For this purpose the dust produced in the Deval machine is passed through a rotating screen, having 100 meshes to the inch and all the dust that will go through is collected and formed into a briquette. If sufficient dust has not been produced by the regular test a heavy piece of iron is put into the cylinder with the stone and fn a comparatively short time sufficient rock is ground up for the purpose. The dust, mixed with a definite quantity of water, is put into a small steel die and compressed by a machine under a pressure of 500 kilo- grams (1100 Ibs.). The briquette thus formed is 25 millimeters (.98 inch) in diameter and 25 millimeters high. It is easy after the first briquette is made to determine the quantity of dust for that par- ticular stone necessary to make a briquette of the proper size within a very small fraction. These briquettes are laid aside for two weeks to dry, and are then subjected to the test to determine the cementing power. This consists of striking the briquette a number of light blows with a hammer weighing one kilogram (2.2 Ibs.) and the number of blows necessary to break the briquette is the measure of the cementa- tion value. The machine by which this test is made was developed by the Massachusetts Highway Commission; so far there are but three of them in use, one in Massachusetts, one in New York and one in Maryland. It consists essentially of a hammer weighing one kilo- gram, which is raised a certain distance and allowed to fall upon the 324 QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS briquette. The hammer is connected with a screw which is continu- ally rotating and is so arranged that it will be raised automatically and dropped through a distance which can be definitely fixed. The dis- tance adopted on our tests was one centimeter (f inch), and a slight adjustment of the scale enables us accurately to obtain this value even when the briquettes are of slightly different heights. A small drum carrying a paper on which a pointer marks, indicates the number of blows before the briquette is broken. It is found in the beginning that there is a certain rebound of the hammer marked on the drum, but when the elastic limit of the briquette is passed these rebounds no longer occur, although the briquette may not have been entirely destroyed; this point is taken as the breaking down of the briquette. The machine is a most excellent one and was made for us through the courtesy of Mr. L. W. Page of the Massachusetts Highway Commis- sion, who designed and superintended its construction. Its general form will be seen in Plate XXX. A large number of these tests have been made with this machine of rocks taken from all parts of the state, and the results have proved very instructive. They show in general that quartzites, sandstones,- granites, gneisses,, and marble possess very little cementing power; some of them, indeed, breaking down with two or three blows; whereas limestones and some trap-rocks show a high power of cementation and stand thirty or forty blows before giving way. Other trap-rocks have not proved so good. The cementation power of the dust is due in general to the oxide of iron or the lime which it contains. Mr. Whittle ' has shown that the small amount of clay formed by the disintegration of the feldspar of igneous rocks is also an important agent of cementation. VALUE OF THE TESTS. The great importance of the experiments makes itself evident from the fact that rocks, which might be looked upon as practically equal in value as road-metals, show a very remarkable difference when subjected to the tests; thus enabling us to effect a material saving by selecting the better kind. An example of this occurred last spring 1 Op. cit., p. 11. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XXXI. FIG. 1. MARBLE, BALTIMORE COUNTY. FIG. 2. LIMESTONE, WASHINGTON COUNTY. The Frledenwald Co. FlG. 3. TRAP ROCK, DIABASE, FREDERICK COUNTY. I VIEW OF ROCK FRAGMENTS BEFORE AND AFTER THE ABRASION TEST. (TWO-THIRDS NATURAL SIZE) MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 325 when samples of rock were submitted to us for examination by the City Commissioner of Baltimore. The rocks were to be used in build- ing roads in some of the outer portions of the city. Our results showed that the best of the rocks would give nearly twice the wear of the worst, and the engineers decided to use it. The costs of the rocks were about equal. RESULTS OF TESTS MADE BY THE MARYLAND SURVEY. The Highway Division has made tests of about a hundred and sixty rocks, gathered from different parts of the state; the results are col- lected in the table, and summarized as follows: Coefficient Cementation ot Wear. Test. Trap-rocks 5.7-26.1 1-16 Serpentine 5.8-21.2 10-300 Granitic and qnartzitic rocks 2.6-16.3 1-13 Limestones 4.8-16. 8 1-73 Sandstones 5 -IB 0-28 In this and the subsequent tables the figures signify : Wear. Cemen Wea ement. 1-7 1-4 bad. 12-17 10-20 good. 7-12 4-10 fair. 17- 20- excellent. An examination of the table shows great differences existing not only between rocks of different kinds but between rocks of the same kind. Some rocks will have splendid qualities of wear, and poor qualities of cementation, and vice versa. They vary also in their specific gravity. The conclusion is therefore drawn that although in general the traps and limestones make the best roads, still this is merely a general statement, and it is always of great advantage to make a test of each rock before using it in order to find its individual value. It is hoped that the opportunities for doing this work pro- vided by the Highway Division of the Maryland Geological Survey will be made use of by the people of the state as largely as possible. The time has been so short since this work was organized that it has been impossible to do more than adopt methods already in use, but it is expected that careful experiments will be made in the future with the hope of increasing the accuracy and reliability of the tests. 21 326 QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS The selection of the road-metal for a given road is not always a perfectly simple matter. The problem consists in selecting the rock which will make a hard and smooth road-surface at the lowest cost for first construction and subsequent maintenance. To do this it is necessary to take into consideration the special conditions applying to the road/ namely: (1) The amount and nature of travel. For a road subjected to a great amount of heavy traffic, wearing power is more important than cementation power, as the travel packs the stone down, whereas a lightly-traveled road does not require so hard a mate- rial, but it should consolidate easily. (2) The climate. In regions like parts of England and France, where there are neither heavy rains nor great droughts and no extremes of temperature, the binding power is of less value than in parts of our own country where opposite climatic conditions prevail, and we must even consider the differences of climate in different sections of our state. (3) The relative costs of different materials. This depends on the relative location of the materials with respect to the road and the different costs of preparing them. A careful balancing of all these factors will enable the engi- neer to choose the material which will be the most economical on the whole, but evidently great care and skill will have to be exercised to prevent considerable waste of money. LABORATORY OF THE HIGHWAY DIVISION. The laboratory in which the machines are placed is a small brick building erected for the purpose on the south side of the Johns Hop- kins University. Besides the regular testing-machines which have been described, there are in the building a lathe, apparatus for grind- ing thin sections of rock, and a rock-saw. The machinery is run by one of two small electric motors, one wound to 110 volts, the power for which is furnished gratuitously by the University for about eight and one-half months of the year. During the time when the University power-house is not running, power is obtained from tEe United Electric Light and Power Company, and as their voltage is 220, it was necessary to have a second motor wound to its voltage. These motors are both C. & C. and have given excellent satisfaction. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. VOLUME III, PLATE XXXII. FIG. 1. MARBLE, BALTIMORE COUNTY. FIG. 2. LIMESTONE, WASHINGTON COUNTY. FIG. 3.-LIMESTONE, WASHINGTON COUNTY. The Frtedenwald Co. FIG. 4. TRAP ROCK, GABBRO, BALTIMORE COUNTY. VIEW OF BRIQUETTES BEFORE AND AFTER THE CEMENTATION TEST. (SLIGHTLY REDUCED IN SIZE.) MABYLAND GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY 327 RESULTS OF TESTS OF ROAD-METALS Obtained by the Highway Division, Maryland Geological Survey. 1 TRAP ROCKS. Common Name. Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Serpentine Serpentine Serpentine Serpentine Trap (or Nigger-head) Gettysburg Granite Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Chlorite schist Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Trap (or Nigger-head) Serpentine Serpentine Trap Granite No. of Test. County. Scientific Name. 86 Baltimore City Gabbro 66 Baltimore City Gabbro-schist 75 Baltimore City Gabbro- schist 71 Baltimore City Diorite 73 Baltimore Gabbro 79 Baltimore Gabbro 80 Baltimore Gabbro 84 Baltimore Gabbro 129 Baltimore Gabbro 161 Baltimore Gabbro-diorite 163 Baltimore Gabbro-diorite 95 Baltimore Gabbro-schist 131 Baltimore Gabbro-schist 147 Baltimore Gabbro-schist 150 Baltimore Gabbro-schist 154 Baltimore Gabbro-schist 157 Baltimore Gabbro-schist 10 Baltimore Serpentine 78 Baltimore Serpentine 142 Baltimore Serpentine 156 Baltimore Peridotite 98 Frederick Diabase 100 Frederick Diabase 121 Frederick Diabase 124 Frederick Diabase 182 Frederick Diabase 138 Frederick Diabase 126 Frederick Catoctin schist 21 Harford Gabbro-diorite 22 Harford Gabbro-diorite 152 Harford Gabbro-schist 122 Howard Gabbro 85 Howard Gabbro-diorite 137 Howard Gabbro-schist 88 Howard Diabase 113 Montgomery Peridotite 133 Montgomery Serpentine 120 Montgomery Diabase 134 Montgomery Diorite roeffl- ctent of Wear. Cemen- tation. 20.9 3 5.7 3 6.7 6 13.4 4 15.4 2 12.6 15.2 2 11.2 1 14.6 2 16.5 20.3 13.6 13 5.8 5 13.9 4 10.2 1 11.7 1 12.8 4 5.8 156 7.9 300 6.2 66 6.0 23.7 1 9.9 1 22.4 16 20.1 3 19.2 4 26.1 3 5.9 3 13.2 4 12.6 3 8.7 19.5 7 12.1 2 16.6 11 14.8 8 9.3 9 21.2 10 18.7 11.5 6 1 The methods of testing are described on pp. 320, 322. 328 QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS GRANITIC AND QUARTZITIC HOCKS. No. of Test. County. Scientific Name. Common Name. Coeffi- cient of Wear. Cemen- tation. 83 Baltimore City Gneiss Gneiss 16.1 1 87 Baltimore City Gneiss Gneiss 11.8 2 82 Baltimore Gneiss Gneiss 15.5 12 93 Baltimore Gneiss Elkridge Granite 16.3 1 148 Baltimore Gneiss Gneiss 9.4 1 149 Baltimore Gneiss Gneiss 5.7 3 92 Baltimore Granite Granite 9.2 2 112 Baltimore Gneiss Granite 6.3 63 Baltimore Microcline Feldspar 5.6 2 143 Baltimore Quartz-schist Sandstone 6.4 1 153 Baltimore Quartz-schist Sandstone 3.4 81 Cecil Diorite Gmiite 13.3 1 128 Cecil Diorite Granite 10.0 1 96 Frederick Calcareous quartzite Sand-rock 16.1 13 135 Harford Gneiss Gneiss 14.7 1 144 Harford Quartz Flint or quartz 6.2 2 145 Harford Sericite schist Micaceoxis sand- stone 2.6 6 53 Howard Hornblende gneiss Gneiss 9.7 1 12 Howard Granite Granite 11.1 16 Howard Granite Granite 8.5 3 28 Howard Granite Granite 15.2 1 118 Howard Granite Granite 10.7 10 18 Montgomery Micaceous schist Gneiss 4.8 3 11 Washington Quartzite Quartzite 13.8 4 17 Washington Quartzite Sandstone 11.7 1 56 Washington Quartzite Sandstone 9.7 v't No. ot T County. LIMESTONES, Scientific Name. Common Name. Coeffi- cient of Wear. Cemen- tation. 36 Allegany Helderberg limestone Limestone 9.8 12 37 Allegany Helderberg limestone Limestone 9.0 72 38 Allegany Helderberg limestone Limestone 9.2 10 40 Allegany Helderberg limestone Limestone 7.4 7 46 Allegany Helderberg limestone Limestone 7.9 30 51 Allegany Helderberg limestone Limestone 6.7 32 52 Allegany Helderberg limestone Limestone 8.0 12 31 Allegany Greenbrier limestone Brown limestone 10.5 73 41 Allegany Greenbrier limestone Sandstone 11.8 7 42 Allegany Greenbrier limestone Limestone 9.7 24 43 Allegany Greenbrier limestone Limestone 11.9 26 48 Allegany Greenbrier limestone Limestone 9.5 15 54 Allegany Greenbrier limestone Sandstone 11.4 7 58 Allegany Greenbrier limestone Sandstone 9.3 155 Baltimore Marble Marble 6.0 104 Carroll Marble Marble 9.2 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 329 No. of Test. County. 119 Carroll 103 Frederick 106 Frederick 108 Frederick 110 Frederick 115 Frederick 140 Frederick 141 Frederick 109 Montgomery 5 Washington 6 Washington 8 Washington 13 Washington 14 Washington 27 Washington 30 Washington 70 Washington 50 [Harper's Ferry] 102 Washington No. of Test. County. 151 Calvert 97 85 Carroll Garrett 39 Garrett 68 Howard 9 Montgomery 23 Washington 25 Washington 19 Washington 20 Washington No. of Test. County. 114 Howard 146 Howard 158 [Chesapeake Scientific Name. Coeffi- cient of Wear. Cemen- tation- Crystalline limestone Crystalline lime- 4.8 1 stone Shenandoah limestone Shaly limestone 5.8 10 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 9.4 3 Shenandoah limestone ' Limestone 8.5 4 Shenandoah limestone Shaly limestone 7.3 15 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 8.8 6 Shenandoah limestone Marble 6.7 11 (crystalline) Shenandoah limestone Limestone 10.1 8 Triassic conglomerate Calico rock 11.7 23 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 16.0 18 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 9.0 17 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 16.8 7 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 14.9 6 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 8.3 7 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 10.0 10 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 7.5 14 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 9.7 13 Shenandoah limestone Limestone 6.9 Helderberg limestone Limestone 8.3 27 SANDSTONES. Scientific Name. Common Name. Coeffi- cient of Wear. Cemen- tation. Miocene sandstone Sandstone 5.0 Triassic sandstone Brown sandstone 7.0 28 Pottsville sandstone Sandstone 8.9 Pottsville sandstone Sandstone 6.7 10 Potomac sandstone Ironstone 6.4 2 Triassic sandstone Red sandstone 10.4 13 Oriskany sandstone Sandstone 6.5 1 Oriskany sandstone Sandstone 9.3 1 Catskill sandstone Brown sandstone 13.0 15 Catskill sandstone Brown sandstone 11.7 20 MISCELLANEOUS. Coeffi- Scientific Name. Common Name. cient of Wear. tation. Magnetite-schist Iron ore 6.8 Slag Slag 8.8 2 ly] Oyster-shells Oyster-shells 1.1 100 This table is valuable to show the great differences that exist be- tween various specimens of the same kind of rock, and to give infor- mation regarding the grade of road-metal which exists in a particular 330 QUALITIES OF GOOD ROAD-METALS locality. Although it would be necessary to test any stone offered for use on a road, the table would show whether it was the best road- metal of the region; and if not, where to look for a better one. The greater the number of rocks tested from all parts of the state, and even from adjoining states, the more useful does the table become. This study of the values of rocks in all parts of the state is to the road-builder what a geological survey is to the mining-engineer. The exact localities from which the specimens came have not been given in the table, but they are kept in the records of the Highway Division and can be obtained on application. PART VII THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS BY HARRY FIELDING REID THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS. BY HARRY FIELDING REID. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS IN MARYLAND. The method of administering the roads of Maryland is outlined in the laws of the state. These were codified in 1888, and since then amendments have been made and new laws added at every session of the General Assembly. They are divided into two groups: first, Public General Laws, applying to all the counties of the state; and second, Public Local Laws, applying to special counties or parts of counties. Some of the enactments relating to the subject of highways are of no general interest, .such as laws allowing the building of a private road or a bridge at a particular point; or laws permitting the County Commissioners to levy a special tax to meet a deficit, and they will not engage attention. But the general regulations regarding the administration of the roads within the state are of especial interest in the present connection. They will be discussed in the succeeding pages in their relation to the establishment of roads, the source and expenditure of revenue and the manner of preserving the records of work accomplished. THE OPENING AND CLOSING OF ROADS. It is sometimes necessary to open new roads or to alter or close roads in use. 1 For this purpose persons desiring the change must petition the County Commissioners, and general notice of this petition must be given the county in order that other persons opposing the change may have opportunity to offer counter-petitions. If the 1 Frederick and Wicomico counties have very full laws on this subject. THE ADMINISTRATION OF KOADS County Commissioners deem it expedient to make the change or to look further into the subject, they appoint three persons as exam- iners, who carefully consider the whole matter, and, if necessary, have a survey made of the road; they determine the amount of damages which shall be paid to some property owners and the benefits to be paid by others, and submit their report to the County Commissioners, who may make such changes in it as they think best, rejecting it altogether if they so decide. It is also within the powers of the County Com- missioners to decide whether the cost of a road shall be met by the county, by the petitioners, or by the two combined. 1 Any one to whom the decision of the County Commissioners is not satisfactory has the right of appeal to the Circuit Court. This is a general right, but it is especially mentioned in the laws of Baltimore, Frederick, and Wicomico counties. When roads are opened under this law they must be at least 30 feet wide, but there are exceptions to this rule in the case of several -counties. All persons owning land have a right-of-way from their land " to places of public worship and mills, market towns, public ferries and court houses; " and if no suitable road exists for these purposes they may apply to the County Commissioners to afford them a private road. The County Commissioners then appoint three commissioners, who determine where the private road shall be located, considering the interests of the petitioners and of the persons through whose lands the road is to pass, and determine what damages shall be paid; the petitioners also pay the cost of construction and maintain the road. Private roads are not to be more than 16 feet wide. Any person who is not satisfied with the decision of the County Commissioners in grant- ing or refusing to grant a private road may appeal to the Circuit Court of the county, and, if he so desires, may have the matter tried by a jury. 1 In Frederick county the County Commissioners may take the opening of new roads entirely into their own hands, and not appoint examiners if they can obtain the right-of-way by agreement with property-owners; but jf they fail to come to an agreement the examiners must be appointed. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 335 ROAD-TAXES. The expense of maintenance and of the occasional construction of a new road is met by a road-tax levied by the County Commissioners. The amount of this tax has varied during the past ten years in the different counties between $1,850 and $31,000 annually, with the exception of Baltimore county, where the average levy amounts to $122,680. Some counties divide this road-tax into a general and a special road- tax; the latter is expended in the district in which it is raised, and the former is for general use in the county. In addition to this some counties allow a special tax to be raised and expended in a special dis- trict or in a town on the petition of a number of the residents of the district or town. In some counties, from a half to a third of the whole tax must be spent on stoning the surface of the roads. Besides these taxes, special provision is made from time to time for special purposes; a good example of this is the law passed in 1898, allowing Montgomery county to bond itself for $25,000 to improve the road from Rockville to the District of Columbia. The sums raised by these taxes are not always directly expended by the County Commissioners, Road Commissioners or the Supervisors. Incorporated towns generally receive from the County Commissioners one-half of the road-tax collected within their limits, to be expended by the town officers on the streets of the town; and sometimes the County Commissioners turn over a certain amount of money to local improvement associations to be expended by them. Usually, though not always, the association increases the amount it receives from the County Commissioners by a contribution from its own treasury. ROAD-COMMISSIONERS, RoAD-SuPERVISORS AND LABORERS. The general control of roads and bridges in each county is vested in a board of County Commissioners, who are elected by the voters of the county. In many of the counties the territory is divided among the commissioners, each of whom takes special charge of the roads and bridges assigned to him. In some counties Road Commissioners are appointed, who relieve the County Commissioners of this duty. The 336 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS number of Road Commissioners varies in the different counties from one, in Allegany, where he is called General Supervisor of Roads, to thirty-seven in Carroll. Each of them is expected to examine monthly the roads in his district. A large number of Supervisors are appointed by the County Commissioners or by the Road Commissioners. This number also varies greatly in the different counties. They have immediate control of from 2 to 60 miles of road and keep them in order; they generally hire men and teams to help them in the work, which is done during the spring and summer. In Charles county there are nine supervisors, each of whom has a more or less permanent gang of men working on the roads under his direction. This is much better than in the majority of the counties, where the supervisors have to accept one or two days' work from any one in his district, who wishes to pay his road-tax in this way. In general, the position of supervisor is coveted, but the law in Howard county, requiring those who are appointed to serve, or to show why they should not have been appointed, suggests that at one time there was difficulty in getting proper men for these posi- tions. There was also a time in some of the other counties when it was difficult to obtain laborers to work on the roads, 1 and this con- dition is still reflected in the laws of Dorchester, Wicomico, and Caro- line counties, which require all able-bodied men either to work on the roads a certain number of days annually, provide a substitute, or pay a fine. A special law requires all male inhabitants of Snow Hill to work on its streets, or to pay a fine of 75 cents. 2 In Caroline county 1 In 1796 Kent and Talbot had a law compelling laborers to work on roads. See p. 150. The general law of 1704 also provided for compulsory labor. See p. 120. 2 That this is not a dead letter is proved by a case which occurred last year. A man refused to work or to pay his fine. A judgment was entered against him by a Justice of the Peace. He appealed, and the court sus- tained the magistrate's decision. " In its opinion the court, through Judge Charles F. Holland, said: ' The act of Legislature is a substantial re-enact- ment of a law which has been in operation for over a hundred and ninety years, and its constitutionality has never been questioned until recently. It is in perfect accord with the state constitution, and the amendments of the United States Constitution. It has been so construed by our Court of Appeals, and the court gives verdict for the appellees, the County Com- missioners of Worcester County.' " Baltimore American, Saturday, Octo- ber 29th, 1898. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 337 the law comes down from slavery days and reads: " All persons [when properly notified by the supervisor] shall furnish one-half of their able-bodied male hands," etc. It is curious that in spite of the great number of repeals which have been made in the local laws this should still remain. In many counties farmers are permitted to work out their road-tax by hauling stone or by working on the roads a certain number of days, and this may seem a wise provision, as it is equivalent to hiring local labor, but it usually results in very poor work. This has been long recognized, for as far back as 1766 we find a law for Baltimore county requiring that the road-tax shall be paid and shall not be worked out. 1 The more progressive states and counties are now requiring that the road-tax shall be paid in money. The employment of convicts for work on the public roads was in vogue in the last century, but fell into disuse. 2 At the present time, however, Talbot and. Queen Anne's counties authorize their use, but they have not actually been put to work on the roads, as there are so few convicts in jail at one time that the cost of caring for and guarding them would make their work too expensive to the county. The supervisors make monthly or semi-annual reports to the County Commissioners or Road Commissioners, and have their ac- counts settled. Elaborate laws exist in Cecil county (1884) and in Anne Arundel (1898) for keeping roads in repair by contract; but in Cecil the method has fallen entirely into disuse, as it was not found practical; and reports from Anne Arundel show that there has been no. better care of the roads under the contract-system than under the old system of supervisors. In many counties, where roads are being substantially improved at considerable expense, the work is done directly under the charge of the County Commissioners or by contract, as it is recog- nized that the supervisors are unable to do more than follow their 1 See p. 147. 2 In 1788 a law authorized the condemnation of convicts to work on public roads, and the turnpikes of Baltimore county, built by the county, were largely built by convict labor. See p. 154-155. 388 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS customary methods. This, however, only applies to certain special roads, and is manifestly not feasible for all the roads of the county. The general law allows the County Commissioners to appoint com- petent engineers to oversee the repairs of the roads, but it is ineffec- tive. Special laws have, however, been passed allowing engineers to be appointed in Anne Arundel and in Somerset counties to prepare plans for the improvements of the roads and to supervise the work on them. The ordinary police regulations with respect to the publie roads and bridges, such as the prohibition of fast driving, and of shooting on the roads, or obstructing the roads, naturally belong to the County Commissioners, but we find a number of special laws in individual counties with regard to them. Uniformity and generality of these laws would be very convenient. ROAD-REPAIRS AND DRAINAGE. The large sums of money spent annually in the maintenance of roads without showing any definite improvement have led, in the last few years, to the passage of laws defining the methods of repairing the roads. These laws require a certain proportion of the general or special road-tax to be employed for the " permanent improvement " of the roads, designating that the improvements shall be made by put- ting stone, gravel, or other hard substance on the surface of the road. In the present state of our highways such work can hardly be looked upon as permanent, for roads badly located, or badly graded, can never be satisfactory, and when the county decides to make a real change for the better, by changing the location or improving the grades, it will find that the money spent on surfacing has been wasted. This is the condition of affairs on the road from Rockville to the District of Columbia. This road, built many years ago, was very heavily stoned, but not properly graded. Hence at the present time, when Montgomery county wishes to remove the high grades on the road, in order to make a modern road and one economical to haul over, it finds the old road-bed of no use, except as a quarry from which to procure stone. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 339' In many cases great advantage would result from a better location or a possible straightening of a road, and it is wiser 'that these two- classes of improvements, re-location and grading, should be under- taken before the expensive work of surfacing should be done. A badly-graded road is always a serious tax, for heavy grades greatly increase the work of hauling. 1 The difficulty of properly draining the roads has led to special laws, requiring in Somerset county, and authorizing in Dorchester, the adoption of a scientific system of drainage, and permitting the ap- pointment of an engineer to devise plans and to supervise their execu- tion. The County Commissioners are also authorized to issue bonds to the amount of fifty thousand dollars in each of these counties for- the purpose of meeting the expense of these improvements. In Dor- chester this money must be used to develop the drainage system only, while in Somerset it may be applied to the general improvement of the roads. But the provisions of these laws have not been carried out. GATES, GUIDE-POSTS AND BRIDGES. In earlier times roads ran through the large estates which then existed, especially in the tidewater counties pf Maryland, and gates were erected across these roads, as it was, in general, easier to confine stock in this way than to build a fence on each side of the road. 2 But conditions have now changed, and the necessity of these gates is no longer very great. In fact, they are forbidden in Calvert, Carroll, Charles, and Queen Anne's counties, and are permitted only with the consent of the County Commissioners in St. Mary's county and in the first district of Cecil; or, as in Kent, upon the payment of an annual tax of one dollar. Before the time of railroads, when persons traveled a considerable distance over the highways, it was very important to mark the roads and to indicate whither they led; and so in the early colonial times roads were distinguished by notches on trees or by sign-boards put up- 1 See p. 269. 2 Forty years ago it was necessary to open forty gates across the main road in traveling from Marlboro to Washington. 340 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS as guides for travelers. 1 In a number of counties the laws still require sign-boards to be placed at cross-roads, but they are ineffective, for sign-boards are wantonly destroyed almost as quickly as they are put up. In the tidewater counties the necessity for large bridges, requiring a considerable expenditure of money, has resulted in special laws being passed enabling the County Commissioners to build special bridges at a specified cost, and appointing the means of obtaining the necessary money, which is done either by the levy of a special tax or by the issue of notes of indebtedness, or of bonds, which are later to be redeemed by funds laid aside from a special levy. Pro- vision is usually made, if necessary, for the construction of a draw to enable vessels to pass through the bridge. Many bridges connect two counties, and the expense of construction is then divided between them, but not always in equal amounts. As with the roads, the bridges are sometimes built and maintained by the County Commis- sioners (jointly in the case of two counties) and are sometimes built by contract. Important bridges are usually directly under the charge of the County or Road Commissioners, and if they have draws, keepers are appointed to care for them and attend to the draw ; but the smaller bridges are cared for by the supervisors. 2 With the exception of the bridge in Anne Arundel county over Curtis Creek and Cabin Branch, the county bridges are free; but on the bridge just mentioned the tolls are quite heavy. This bridge was built under a law of 1898, and the money received from tolls is applied to pay the interest on the bonds after meeting the expenses of the maintenance of the bridge. The bridges in Dorchester county do not seem to be built strongly enough for the traffic that goes over them, and to avoid large expense to the county by extensive repairs a special law was passed requiring that persons who injured bridges by hauling over them too heavy a load should repair the damage. 1 See p. 120, 121. - Baltimore county employs an engineer who designs and supervises the construction and repairs of the county bridges. He also measures the stone put upon the county roads, but has no other connection with these roads. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 341 In Charles county we find a law somewhat similar with respect to the roads, namely, that all persons engaged in hauling heavy timber, not cord wood, for commercial purposes during the winter, must pay a special license of not more than five dollars a month; and this money is applied to the improvement of the roads. This is of the nature of a toll and it would be much better if, instead of making this charge, the roads were put in condition to stand the travel. In Anne Arundel county an individual or corporation damaging the roads by unusual use, is required to repair them. A general law enacted in 1853 requires that all public roads opened in the state shall be at least thirty feet wide ; this must mean between fences. Some of the counties have enacted similar laws, but in a number the width of the road may be less if the County Commis- sioners decide that it should be. Provision is also made in the general law to allow passenger rail- way companies to lay tracks on the county roads with the consent of the County Commissioners; but for the sake of greater security, sev- eral companies have had this right secured by their charters or by laws passed especially granting it. These special laws rarely add anything of importance to the general law, and leave with the County Com- missioners the right of making any conditions with the companies they think for the public good; but one or two specify the position of the tracks on the road and the breadth of roadway which must be left available for vehicles. ROAD RECORDS. The records kept of the various roads are, in general, very meager. Some counties do not even keep a separate record of the amount of money spent on the repairs of individual roads, and Caroline alone has an accurate large scale map showing the location of the roads, the nature of the surface, and the position and size of the bridges. Roads are usually designated by the towns between which they run, though occasionally they have a specific name. In Anne Arundel county, however, a very careful designation of the roads has 22 342 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS existed since the last legislature. The election districts are divided into road districts and are lettered A, B, C, etc. The road districts are subdivided into sections which are numbered and the roads fre- quently have names. The roads are classified into (1) County High Roads, which are " the principal roads or public highways leading to or from any city or town or principal stations or landings/' or portions of such roads. (2) First-Class Roads, " leading to or from any city, town, public station or landing," or parts of such roads. (3) " Second- Class Roads .... those not frequently used ordinary roads of travel or cross-roads." The law requires that a map such as is made by the United States Geological Survey shall be adopted as official, and on this map the roads are to be clearly marked by different kinds of lines according to their classes; all the high roads, and the others as far as possible, are to have special names. In addition to this, a careful description of these roads shall be kept and recorded. This law has not been in effect very long and necessarily entails a great deal of labor, and, therefore, has not as yet been applied very generally to roads in the county. It was rare that accurate surveys and careful plats of the early roads of Maryland were ever made, nor was the location of roads marked in any permanent way. As the result of this, roads have naturally become somewhat displaced by the movement of fences or from other causes, and as the roads are frequently the boundary between the properties of different persons, we should expect that more trouble would arise from this cause than has actually occurred. There are only four counties Baltimore, Carroll, Harford, and Cecil for which laws have been passed allowing the County Commissioners to re-survey and determine the true location of a road. The difficulty of deciding as to where a road originally was has led to a law for Carroll county, according to which examiners appointed by the County Commissioners " are authorized to adopt the center of such road as the center thereof according to the true location." The im- portance of a general law requiring that the positions of roads should be accurately known and marked is manifest, as the titles of many properties recite that the line shall begin at a certain point in the MABYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 343 middle of a certain road and follow the middle of this road for a certain distance. CORPORATIONS. Corporations for making turnpikes, plank roads or passenger rail- ways may use the county roads by permission of the County Commis- sioners, under certain restrictions, and they may obtain right-of-way across private lands by agreement or by condemnation. Turnpike companies are required to report their progress in building before they are allowed to charge tolls and their rates may be revised by the County Commissioners (or the Governor of the State in the case of turnpikes passing through several counties) so as not to yield to the company profits of more than eight per cent per annum on the money actually expended in the construction of the road. The corporation is required to keep its road in order, upon penalty of being debarred the right of charging toll over the bad parts. If a turnpike company persists in keeping the road in bad order, tolls may be forbidden in the entire county, and if this is not sufficient to remedy the evil, the road shall be forfeited by the corporation to the County Commissioners. On the other hand, persons using the road are forbidden to evade pay- ment of the legal tolls. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS IN OTHER STATES. 1 ALABAMA. The Court of County Commissioners selects Apportioners for each precinct, and these appoint overseers, who attend to the general repairs of their sections of the roads. Every able-bodied man is liable to work ten days yearly on the roads; in some counties special acta allow the labor to be commuted in money. In addition to this, in a few counties, there is a road-tax, which 1 The information here given was extracted from the laws of the states, public addresses, letters from state officials and from private correspond- ence. See p. 43. 344 THE ADMINISTRATION OF KOADS must come out of the general levy, and some counties have also been permitted to issue bonds, which must be redeemed out of the general tax receipts. Every Legislature passes special acts for special counties and these are very varied in their provisions. Many miles of good macadam roads have been built in recent years, but they are largely confined to those counties which have borrowed money on bonds, or required the road-tax to be paid in money, and have given attention to the careful supervision of the work on the roads. The law requires the roads to be thirty feet wide. ARKANSAS. Road overseers are appointed by the County Judge; every able- bodied man may be required to work five to ten days a year on the roads, but so far very little improvement has resulted. The roads are very poor. CALIFORNIA. The counties are divided into road-districts by the Board of County Supervisors, and the electors of the district vote annually for a Road Trustee, who serves for three years. There are thus three trustees, the term of one expiring annually. They have entire charge of the roads of their district and employ the necessary labor or make the necessary contracts for the construction, repairs and maintenance of the roads. Each one of them is required to view every road of his district at least once a year. Three times a year there is an assembly of the qualified voters of the district to consult in regard to the general management of the roads, to determine what roads shall be permanently improved and how the improvements shall be made, the materials to be used and what action is to be taken with regard to any litigation about the roads. The amount of the road-tax is determined by the Board of Super- visors, which levies a property road-tax and also a poll-tax, the latter of which may be worked out on the roads. In addition to this the Board of Trustees may submit to the qualified voters of the district a proposition to raise an additional tax for the improvement of specific MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 345 roads. They may also submit to vote a proposition to issue road-district bonds in order to raise larger amounts for permanent improvements. The public highways are to be at least forty feet wide and a law has been passed requiring the tires of all wagons in the state to have a certain width dependent upon the size of the axle. This law is to become effective in 1900. This system of road-administration has not proven at all satisfactory. About two million dollars are expended annually on the roads and .the results are extremely poor. Considerable interest has been shown in favor of improving the roads, and in 1895 a law was passed creat- ing a Bureau of Highways, which consisted of three commissioners, appointed by the governor, who were required to investigate and report on the condition of the roads of the state and to recommend a practical road-law. An appropriation of $31,000 was made to meet the expense. The Bureau was only created for two years and pre- sented a very interesting and complete report. It recommended the classification of the roads into state, county, and district roads, the creation of a permanent Department of Highways to control the state roads, and a redistribution of the present highway-tax, so that a part should be available for these roads. These recommendations did not become laws, but a Department of Highways was created to continue the work of the former Bureau in the investigation of the roads and in giving advice to road-officers. It has published one biennial report and is doing excellent work for the state. A rock- crushing plant has been established at Folsom penitentiary, near which excellent road-material is to be found and also good water-power. This plant is worked by the convicts and the stone sold to the various counties in the state at a small advance over the cost in order to meet the expense of setting up the plant. The convicts also cut stones to prepare them for use in small bridges or culverts. This plan has proved very successful, broken stone being delivered at various parts of the state at prices ranging from twenty-five cents to ninety cents per ton. Such a low price could not be given save by the co-operation of the railways which only charge the actual cost for the transportation of the stone. 346 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS COLORADO. The County Commissioners divide the counties into road districts and annually appoint a road overseer for each who sees to the repairs, etc., of the roads. The County Commissioners levy a property road-tax, one-half of which must be spent in the district in which it is collected and the rest as directed by the County Commissioners. In addition, every able-bodied man pays $2 or works two days on the roads. CONNECTICUT. The roads are under the care of the Selectmen of the town, who are elected annually by the voters. The Selectmen employ laborers and supervise the work of road-improvement. There are no special taxes raised for roads but the necessary money comes out of the general town tax-fund. The town is not divided into districts but is treated as a whole. There is still a survival to a small degree of the practice of working out taxes on the roads, but it is fast disappearing. No bonds have been issued to raise funds for the improvement of the roads either in the towns or in the state. A wide-tire law has been passed which will become operative in 1901. The great desire for better roads has led to the matter being taken up by the state. Under a law passed in 1895, the Governor ap- pointed three Highway Commissioners, and the state legislature appro- priated $75,000 annually to be spent on the roads of the state. Every town voting to improve its roads under the act had a survey made, and specifications drawn up, and submitted them to the High- way Commission. If approved, the contract was let to the town or to private parties and the work supervised by the Selectmen of the town. The expense was met one-third by the town, one-third by the county, and one-third by the state. This law was repealed in 1897 and another one enacted, differing only in having one Highway Commissioner, who holds office for two years; in making the annual appropriation $100,000, and in dividing the cost equally between the town and the state. These laws have proved popular and successful and during the MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 347 four years of their existence one hundred and seventy miles of road have been built, and much grading has been done; in addition, about fifty miles of roadway have been straightened and widened; and many petitions for sharing in the benefits of the state appropriation have been received. The total cost of these improvements has been about $800,000. Telford, macadam and gravel roads have been built. The cost of the latter is very moderate, being in one or two cases as low as $1,000 I. '-'./ FIG. 33. Gravel road in southwestern Connecticut. a mile. One might suppose that the prospect for getting state aid would act as a deterrent to the general improvement of the roads, the towns holding back so that part of the expense might be shared by the state; but just the reverse has taken place; the great convenience and advantage of good roads when once experienced, have impressed themselves on the people, and towns have voted increased sums to improve roads more rapidly than could be done if they waited for the small sum annually available from the state. It is safe to say that four hundred miles of roadway have been improved, in the state in the last four years. 348 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS Four annual reports have so far been published, 'containing impor- tant details of the methods of construction and of the costs of the roads. DELAWARE. There are two road-systems in Delaware; one applicable to New Castle county and the other to the other two counties of the state. In New Castle county, Road Commissioners are elected to serve four years, one being elected biennially for each hundred. The Road Commissioners have general charge of the roads and bridges in their hundreds, and annually appoint overseers to keep them in repair. The Road Commissioners levy the tax which, in general, may be worked out, and any one has the right to do a certain amount of work on the roads in the payment of taxes. Persons appointed as Road Commissioners or Overseers are required to serve. In Brandywine hundred, New Castle county, five supervisors are elected annually, and each has charge of one of the five districts into which the hundred is divided. They take the place of the Road Commissioners, fix the amount of the tax, and report to the County Court. Certain bridges in New Castle county are maintained by the county as a whole. In Kent and Sussex counties the Levy Court has general charge of the roads and appoints supervisors to see to the repairs. The Levy Court fixes the amount of road-tax, which may be worked out. There are a number of acts applying to special hundreds which need not be mentioned, except an act in Mill Creek hundred in New Castle county, where sections of a road may be farmed out to various persons to be kept in order. On petition for the establishing, altering or vacating of a road, the Court of General Session appoints five viewers to report on the pro- ject, and the Court decides the question; but the decision must be approved by the Levy Court of the county. The public roads must be between 15 and 40 feet wide and guide- posts are to be. put at places where they are needed. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 349 FLORIDA. The roads are in charge of county officers. The road-tax is paid largely in money, but some of it is worked out on the road. The nature of the soil is such as to make fairly good roads at little cost and the people are moving for their improvement. GEORGIA. The country is divided into road districts, in each of which there are three Road Commissioners. The commissioners divide the district into sections and appoint an overseer in each. All able-bodied men are subject to fifteen days' work annually on the roads, which must be done under the direction of the overseer. Counties are also per- mitted to levy a road-fund, organize road forces or make the repairs of the roads by contract. First-class roads must be 30 feet wide, and second-class roads 20 feet. The roads are being substantially improved, many miles having been macadamized or graveled. Much of the work has been done by misdemeanor convicts, and the experiment of employing them on the roads is considered successful. IDAHO. The roads are in charge of the County Commissioners who appoint road-supervisors to see to the repairs. The road-tax, which consists of a property-tax and a poll-tax, is levied by the county and is spent in the district where it is raised. It may be worked out in labor on the roads. In certain regions where the expense of building roads is too great for the locality, the cost is met by the state by legislative enactment. ILLINOIS. In this state the township system is in general use and to some extent the county system, and what follows applies as well to the county as to the township system. One Commissioner of Highways is elected annually, there being three altogether, who have com- plete charge of the roads and bridges in the township. They may 350 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS employ a general superintendent of roads or appoint overseers and employ laborers, or they may let the work by contract; the practice varies in different townships. They levy a road-tax, which consists of a property-tax and a poll-tax. The poll-tax may be paid either in money or in labor; but the tax itself may be abolished by vote of the township, as has been done in some cases. The road-tax may be worked out if the township so votes, each man doing his share of the work, or furnishing a substitute, or paying his tax. In that case the Commissioners of Highways appoint an overseer for each road-district of the town, and they attend to the work and report to the Commissioners of Highways. Where large expenses are incurred in building bridges, the County Board may help the township. The Commissioners of Highways report semi-annually to the Board of Town Auditors, particularly in regard to their finances, and in regard to any other matters about the roads that they may think im- portant. Upon petition roads may be opened, altered or vacated by the Com- missioners of Highways. They settle the damages by agreement, if possible, and if not, by recourse to a Justice of the Peace and a jury. Appeals may be taken to three County Supervisors. An attempt has been made to improve the roads in Illinois by macadamizing or graveling them, and by vote of the township a : special tax may be raised for this purpose. Some townships have taken advantage of this privilege and have graveled or macadamized .-all their important roads; others have not. In some instances engi- neers have been employed to superintend the improvement of the roads, though this is not the usual practice. A public road must be 60 feet wide unless the Commissioners of Highways, on petition, decide to make it less; but it must never be less than 40 feet. In some townships sign-boards are usually found -at the cross-roads; in others they are seldom seen. Wide tires are generally used in some parts of the state, and not at all in other parts. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 351 INDIANA. The counties are divided into townships and these again into road districts, over each of which a supervisor is elected who takes charge of the roads and keeps them in order under the direction of the Town- ship Trustee; or, if the latter thinks it advisable, the w r ork may be partly done by contract. The Township Trustee, with the concur- rence of the Board of County Commissioners, fixes the amount of road-tax to be paid. Some of this must be worked out on the roads under the supervisor, or a fine paid. When the ordinary levy does not produce enough funds for the roads an extra levy may be made. In addition to these township roads there are a series of gravel or turnpike roads bought or built by the County Commissioners on peti- tion or by vote of the electors. These have been paid for either by a special tax or by the issuance of county bonds. They are cared for by the township supervisor, under the direction of the County Com- missioners. A special law forbids the hauling of heavy loads over the gravel roads during the season of the year when they are thawing. The county roads shall not be less than thirty feet wide nor the town- ship roads less than twenty-five feet wide. Upon the petition for the opening of a new road the County Com- missioners appoint viewers who decide upon the location of the road and the damages to be paid. An appeal may be taken and re-viewers appointed to consider the matter, and the decision of the County Commissioners on their report is final. The County Commissioners report their decision to the Trustees of the townships through which the road passes, and the latter order the supervisors to do the work. IOWA. The Board of County Supervisors has general jurisdiction over the roads of the county, but the counties are divided into townships and the Township Trustees have special charge of the roads of their town- ship. They may divide the township into several road-districts or may treat it as one. They determine the amount of the road-tax to be levied and how much of this is to be paid in money and how much 352 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS in labor; there is also a poll-tax. The immediate care of the roads is in the hands of supervisors. In the case of the township which is treated as a whole the Trus- tees may let some or all of the work by contract, or they may appoint a Township Superintendent of Roads. In the case of the township being divided into road-districts a portion of the road-fund is used for purchasing tools, sign-boards, and so on, for the township in gen- eral. The remainder is spent in the district where it is raised. The road-tax may be worked out to some extent, and all able-bodied men, if called upon, are required to give two days' labor for their poll-tax or pay a fine of $3.00 for each day that they do not work. A county road-fund may also be levied by the Board of County Supervisors and be expended as they may direct on roads in the county. The work may be done by contract, or otherwise, as they decide. The opening, altering or vacating of a road is accomplished by peti- tion to the Board of Supervisors filed in the County Auditor's office. The Auditor appoints a commissioner to report on the matter, and if this report is not objected to the Auditor orders the work done. If claims for damages are filed, the Auditor appoints three appraisers, and the Board of Supervisors decides, on their report, whether or not the change shall be made, and fixes the damages. If the damages are not satisfactory, appeal may be taken to the District Court of the county. The public roads must be sixty-six feet wide unless otherwise determined upon by the Board of County Supervisors, but they may never be less than forty feet wide; and the County Auditor is required to keep a plat of all the public roads in each township of his county on a scale of not less than four inches to the mile. KANSAS. The roads are in charge of overseers who are elected for each town- ship by popular vote. Some important bridges are in the hands of the County Commissioner. The road-tax, which consists of a prop- erty-tax and a poll-tax, is levied by the county officials, but expended in the different townships where it is raised. It may be partly worked out in labor. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY 353 There has been no special effort to improve the public roads, which are merely dirt roads without a hardened surface, and are extremely bad in wet weather. KENTUCKY. The Fiscal Court of each county has general charge of roads and bridges and levies annually a road-tax and poll-tax, which may be worked out at the discretion of the court. Able-bodied men must work on the roads or furnish a substitute ; they are paid for this work. The County Judge divides the county into road precincts and appoints an overseer for each, who has charge of roads and keeps them in order, and has charge of all persons working on them. In some counties a supervisor (a competent engineer) is appointed by the Fiscal Court, and he takes general charge of the roads of the county and lets out the work of repair by contract, and reports to the court. Some counties have issued bonds and borrowed money, the bonds generally being taken in the county. Convicts may be worked on the roads. Over one thousand miles of excellent stone roads have been built in Kentucky, as toll, county, 'or state roads, under skilled supervision, and it is expected that the present S3 7 stem, adopted in 1894, will result in the permanent improvement of the dirt roads, which are often impassable. Thirty thousand miles of dirt roads are expected to be improved by the new law, especially in counties where the road-tax is paid and a competent engineer is in charge. LOUISIANA. The Parish Police Jury appoints road-overseers to look after the roads. There is no special money-tax levied for the roads, the expense being met from the general parish tax-fund; but all able- bodied, men are subject to twelve days' work annually on the roads. This, however, does not appear to be rigorously enforced. A few parishes keep their roads in repair by contract. Road-machines are being adopted with good results. Oyster- 354 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS shells and brush covered with dirt seem to be the only surfacing mate- rials in use. There is some agitation in favor of good roads, but it has not been very vigorous, and so far no great improvement has resulted. MAINE. The roads are controlled by township officers called Road Commis- sioners elected annually by the town, except in the thinly-populated parts of the state known as " plantations," where the County Com- missioners control the roads. In some of the smaller towns a special road-tax is levied and arrangements are sometimes made to allow it to be worked out in labor in whole or in part, but the usual method is to meet the road- expenses from the general tax-fund of the town and this cannot be worked out on the roads. Occasionally the state legislature makes an appropriation for a special bridge or road and the work is then done under the direction of a special agent appointed by the Land- agent. Road-machinery is coming into more general use with good results; stone roads are being built by some of the larger towns and are proving very satisfactory. MASSACHUSETTS. This state is made up of incorporated' cities and towns. The coun- try roads, outside of the cities, are administered by the Selectmen or Road Commissioners elected by the people. When the Selectmen have the jurisdiction, they usually appoint a Superintendent of Streets to carry out their orders. When the roads are in the care of Road Commissioners, the members of the board, usually three or more persons, supervise the construction and repair of the highways themselves. No special road-tax is raised, the money for road pur- poses being obtained from the general tax-levy, and taxes may not be worked out on the roads. Some towns have issued bonds to obtain money for improving their roads, but this has not happened often. This system has not proved satisfactory and efforts were made to change it. As a result of the agitation, the governor, in 1892, ap- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 355- pointed three persons to make an investigation of the roads of the state and to report to the legislature. They found the roads very bad indeed, and the following year a bill was passed permanently creating the Massachusetts Highway Commission. According to it the Governor was required to appoint three Highway Commissioners to serve three years, one being appointed annually. They were to- collect information regarding the roads and road-materials of the- FIG. 34. Macadam road in eastern Massachusetts. state, advise as to construction, and so on; to hold public meetings for- discussion, and to report annually to the legislature. When the County Commissioners or Selectmen of two or more towns petitioned the Highway Commission to have a road improved and maintained by the state, if the plans were satisfactory to the High- way Commission, they were submitted to the legislature and a special bill and appropriation asked for. If this was forthcoming the im- provement was made at the expense of the state. This led to many delays, and later a fixed appropriation was made to the Highway Com- 356 THE ADMINISTRATION OF EOADS mission which they were to use for the improvement of roads without referring to the legislature, and the right to petition was broadened so that it might be taken advantage of by the Selectmen of a town, the Mayor and Aldermen of a city, or by the County Commissioners. This has proved very satisfactory, and the amount of money annually appropriated has grown from $300,000 in 1894 to $800,000 in 1897. Since then, on account of the war with Spain, the amount has been diminished ($400,000 in 1898 and $500,000 in 1899). When the Highway Commission decides, in answer to a petition, to build a state road, they make careful plans and specifications and estimate the cost. The town in which the road is to be built may then contract to build the road at this estimated cost, or if it does not wish to do so, the work is done by contract with private parties. Both of these methods have proved fairly satisfactory, though it is generally found that it costs the towns more to build a road than it does private contractors, because the towns are very apt to pay higher wages and also to employ less competent workmen. The law requires that laborers should be citizens of the state, whether the work is done by the town or by private contractors. The Highway Commission has an office in Boston, in a building owned by the commonwealth, and employs a staff of engineers and also appoints a resident engineer to supervise the work of construction of each road that it builds, and to see that all is done according to specifications. The total cost of the work is paid by the Highway Commission, but one-fourth of the amount, with interest at 3 per cent, is repaid in installments within six years by the county in which the work is done. This sum goes into the general treasury of the state. In order to meet the large appropriations for the Highway Commis- sion, a highway loan has been made amounting to $2,700,000; 3^ per cent thirty-year bonds being issued to raise the money. Roads built by the Highway Commission are state roads and are maintained by the state under the direction of the Highway Com- mission. In addition to engineering and construction work the Highway Commission has undertaken a very careful study of the distribution of MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 357 road-materials in the state, and lias also introduced into this country the laboratory methods of determining the value of road-making ma- terials. It has developed an important machine to determine the power with which rock on the road will consolidate into a solid mass, and this is one of the most important properties that a good road- metal can possess. 1 Up to the end of 1898, it had built about 206 miles of roads and had received 452 petitions to build roads. The people are gradually becoming convinced of the convenience and economy of good roads, and petitions are steadily coming in for a much greater amount of roadway than can be built even under the large appropriation made by the state. Seven valuable annual reports have so far appeared, which discuss the working of the system and give in great detail the different items of expense, such as cost of rock, cost of crushing, hauling, spreading, and so on, for the various roads that have been made ; also descriptions of the different rocks and of the experiments made to test their relative values as road-metals. Too much cannot be said in commendation of the work of the Mas- sachusetts Highway Commission. No state or commission in the country has done so much to improve the methods of road-construc- tion, and to make clear the advantage of a proper selection of road- material, in order that the road should be both satisfactory and economical. The high average cost of the roads built in Massachusetts, about $10,000 a mile, results from the policy of the commission to improve the worst and most difficult parts of a road before undertaking the better parts, and from the great cost of some of the roads in the mountainous parts of the state. They have not only built substan- tially, but have made many stone culverts and have put strong guard- rails wherever they were needed. Many of their roads are, however, built at less than one-half the above cost. MICHIGAN. The counties are divided into townships and the townships into road districts. The roads are under the control of the Eoad Com- 1 For a description of this machine see p. 323. 23 358 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS missioners of the townships and are actually kept in order by the overseers. The Road Commissioners and the overseers are elected annually by the electors. All state roads are under the charge of the township overseers. The amount of road-tax is voted annually at the township meeting and the electors decide what proportion of the road-tax shall be paid in labor and what proportion in money. Any one may send a sub- stitute to perform his labor tax. There is also a poll road-tax. In the case where the expense on one part of a road or on a bridge is greater than $50 the work is done by contract. If the expense amounts to more than $100 the Road Commissioners must have the concurrence of the Township Board. In the case of special ex- penses on bridges not exceeding $1,000 the Township Board must decide on the advisability of the expense. If the expense is greater than this sum it can only be made by a vote of the electors. In some cases the county may appropriate a sum to be divided among the town- ships for the repairs of their bridges. j^ew roads may be opened, or old ones altered and closed, by the Road Commissioners, but there is always a right of appeal from their decision to the Township Board. The public roads must be at least sixty-six feet wide. In 1893 a law was passed allowing counties to pass from the town- ship to the county system of road administration on vote of the electors, and a number of counties have taken advantage of it. In this system all the roads of the county are under the direction of County Road Commissioners, and the office of Township Road Com- missioner is abolished. . MINNESOTA. The roads are under the care of overseers elected by the voters of the townships. A poll-tax and a property-tax are levied, which may be paid in money or be worked out at the option of the taxpayer. A law passed in 1895 permitted townships, by vote, to abolish over- seers and the poll-tax, and to put the roads under the control of the Township Supervisors, who were to appoint superintendents to look after the construction and repairs of roads; and the road-tax must be MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 359 paid in money. Only two townships took advantage of this law, and their roads have greatly improved. In addition to the township system the County Commissioners may construct new roads and issue bonds to meet the expense, if voted for by the electors of the county. The county provides a special road fund out of the county levy to be used by the County Commissioners wher- ever they think advisable. These county roads are to be at least 66 feet wide. In 1897 an amendment was passed to the state constitution, per- mitting the state to aid in the construction of highways, and this amendment was adopted by the voters the following year. In con- tinuance of the same idea, a bill was introduced in 1899 to establish a State Highway Commission to investigate the roads and road ma- terials of the state, and also to establish a State Highway Fund to meet one-third of the cost of making or improving important high- ways in the state, under the direction of this commission; the amend- ment to the constitution had not yet become sufficiently familiar to permit the passage of this bill, but there is considerable agitation at present on the subject, and it is expected that a similar bill will be passed before long. The interest in the object of good roads is growing and has already resulted in some marked improvement. MISSISSIPPI. The County Supervisor has control of roads and appoints overseers, who attend to repairs. The law requires able-bodied men to work ten days a year on the roads; but they rarely work more than two. Little interest is shown in the improvement of the roads. MISSOURI. New road-laws have recently been passed which go into effect in January, 1900. According to these the County Court divides the counties into districts and appoints three County Commissioners in each district to serve for a term of three years without salary. The commissioners have entire control of the public roads and may employ laborers to do the necessary work or may let the work by contract. 360 THE ADMINISTRATION OF KOADS There is a property and poll-tax; the latter may be paid directly to the County Commissioners or may be worked out on the roads. These road-taxes must be spent or worked out in the district where they are raised. In addition to these taxes there is a special tax of 15 cents on the hundred dollars assessed valuation of real and personal property to be spent on the roads of the county. This raises an annual fund of about $1,500,000. Some counties have been using the liquor license tax for road-purposes and have made with it many miles of macadam roads. Some of these roads have been well made but are being neg- lected and are deteriorating. The use of a portion of the liquor license and also of three-fourths of the fines from violation of the beer-inspection law has been made general in all the counties of the state; the sums thus realized together with the special tax mentioned above will largely increase the amount available for road-purposes, which has heretofore been more than $3,000,000. The Interstate and State Good Road and Public Improvement Association has its headquarters in St. Louis, and is doing much to awaken interest in the subject of roads. Seventy-three conventions were held in various counties of the state last year. The new laws were largely due to this association. MONTANA. The County Commissioners divide the counties into road districts and one supervisor is annually elected for each district, to serve for one year. The Road Supervisors take charge of the roads under the direction of the County Commissioners and keep them in order and employ labor to help them in the work. There is a property- and a poll-tax levied by the County Commissioners and applied to the roads . in the district where raised. Provision is made to allow persons to pay their tax in work on the public roads. The public highways must be at least sixty feet wide. Tolls on roads and bridges have been abolished. In 1897 the roads were taken out of the hands of the Road Super- visors and the County Commissioners and put entirely in the charge MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 361 of the County Surveyors. For some reason this plan does not seem to have worked well, for in 1899 the law was abolished and a return was ma V to the former method of supervisors. It does not appear that the work may be done by contract. NEBRASKA. The townships when organized, and otherwise the counties, are divided into road-districts and overseers supervise the repairs of the roads in the territory under their charge. A labor- and money-tax are levied for the maintenance of the roads. Three-quarters of the latter may be worked out in labor, but the other quarter must be paid in money. A part of this tax is kept as a general county or township road-fund; the remainder is spent in the district where raised. The soil of Nebraska is of such a nature that it packs easily and naturally makes good roads. In the country regions it has not been found necessary to undertake any special construction, the roads re- maining fairly good the whole year; all that is necessary is to provide proper drainage. NEVADA. The roads are under the charge of the County Commissioners, who have full control in their respective counties. There are no roads built or controlled by the state. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Each town consists of one highway district, and annually at the town meeting one to three Highway Agents are elected, who have charge of the construction and repairs of all highways and bridges, and may employ the necessary men, teams, etc., to help in the work. These agents report monthly to the Selectmen of the town, with regard to their expenditures and -the repairs of the roads. They hold office for one year. At the annual election of the town the road-taxes are fixed as a certain proportion of the polls and of the general taxes levied. In 362 THE ADMINISTRATION OF KOADS 1899 an act was passed which became effective in such towns as decided by vote to adopt it, as follows: Each town is divided into as many highway districts as the Select- men think expedient, and the Selectmen appoint a Surveyor of High- ways in each district who has entire charge of the roads under the direction of the Selectmen. The taxes are raised as in the former method, and are, in general, expended in the district in which they are collected ; but if the funds of a district are more than necessary for its wants, they may, by order of the Selectmen, be transferred to a district where they are more needed. These taxes must all be paid in money. About one-quarter of the towns of the state have voted to adopt this law of 1899. The roads and bridges of the state are, in general, in charge of the towns, but the state government annually appropriates money for the repairs of highways in the summer resort regions of the state, this being done under agents appointed by the Governor and Council. The last Legislature, at the suggestion of Governor Rollins, provided for the construction of two boulevards, one running along the seacoast from Salisbury to Newcastle and the other from Nashua to Man- chester. As there is no general standard or system of construction in the state, the highways vary in condition in the different towns. The state board of agriculture is about to take up as a part of its institute work the task of informing the people of the advantages of good roads and the manner of constructing them. JERSEY. The improvement of the roads in New Jersey is being carried on under three different systems. Formerly overseers were elected annually in each township, but this office has been entirely abolished, and the roads are now in charge of either the Township Committee, or the Board of Chosen Freeholders of the county. Excepting those which are controlled by the county, as described below, the public highways are, in general, under the direction of the Township Com- mittee, which appoints supervisors to oversee the repairs to the roads. MAKYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 363 The road-tax is levied by the Township Committee and must always be paid in money; it is spent in the township. If certain persons desire to improve a road and will contribute towards this end, the township, on the vote of the electors, may then add an equal or less amount to that already contributed, and improve the road. Further, if one-third of the tax-payers of the township, rep- resenting at least two-thirds of the property, petition for the issue of bonds for the improvement of the roads, the question is submitted to the voters, and if they vote in favor of it, the bonds are issued by the Township Committee. There is a limit to the amount of bonds which may be issued. According to the county system, the Board of Chosen Freeholders may take full control of any road in the county to improve and maintain it. The work of improving the road must be done by contract, and the money is raised by a special levy, or by the issue of county road bonds, these bonds being voted for by the electors. One-third of the cost is paid by cities, townships, or towns, and two- thirds by the county at large. The Board of Chosen Freeholders employs an engineer to make all the plans and specifications for the improvement of the roads, and then employs a County Supervisor to inspect the roads and to see to proper repairs when needed. A State Aid Law was passed in 1891 for the purpose of encour- aging the improvement of the roads throughout the state and has received several amendments since then; its action at present is as follows: The state now appropriates annually $150,000, and the Governor appoints a Commissioner of Public Roads to see that the provisions of the law are carried out. 1 The appropriation must be distributed among the counties in a way which seems equitable to the Commissioner of Roads. If the Board of Chosen Freeholders thinks that a road should be improved under this act, or if the property owners on the road petition for its improvement, then specifications must be drawn up and preliminary bids obtained to ascertain the approximate cost, and these must be 1 In 1891, the first year of the law, the state appropriated $20,000; the fol- lowing three years, $75,000, and since then until 1898, $100,000 annually. 364 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS submitted to the Commissioner of Public Roads. If they meet his approval and he thinks the road of sufficient importance, and there is enough money remaining from the state appropriation, the improve- ment is made, the work being done by contract. The Commissioner of Public Roads appoints a supervisor to oversee the construction, and to see that the specifications are carefully observed. If the road has been petitioned for, the property owners nominate a supervisor; but this provision has not proved useful, as different supervisors have been nominated even by the same property owners. The roads built or improved under this act are paid for as follows: One-third by the state, and two-thirds by the county; or, if petitioned for, one-third by the state, 10 per cent by the property owners, and the remainder by the county. Upon vote of the electors, the county may issue bonds for the payment of its share of the work. These laws have proved of great value to the state, and have resulted in the building of many miles of most excellent hard roads by town- ships and by the counties. At first there was great opposition to the State Aid Law, so great, indeed, that none of the appropriation for 1891 was called for, and less than one-third of that for 1892; but it has rapidly grown in popular favor, and during the present year, 1899, about 120 miles of road are being built at a total cost of about $500,000. The amount of bounty applied for is many times as much as the increased appropriation, and the applications come more especi- ally from counties which have already taken advantage of the law. Fourteen counties of the twenty-one belong to this category, and about 325 miles of road were built under the law between 1892 and 1898. At this year's session of the Legislature the State Aid Law was extended so that a township or other municipality might obtain the state bounty for the improvement of their roads, if the authorities were petitioned by abutting property owners, who agreed to meet 10 per cent of the cost. The roads so improved remain under the care of the town, or municipality, and do not become county roads. If certain individuals desire to improve a particular road and are willing to meet the whole expense of doing so, they apply to the MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 365 County Supervisor, who must then draw up the proper plans and specifications, and the road is improved by contract, and then becomes a county road or a township road, according to the decision of the Board of Chosen Freeholders. A law has been passed permitting townships to offer a rebate in the road-tax to those using wide tires, and a few townships have done so, but the expense of changing to wide tires has been an obstacle to their use. Efforts have been made to make wide tires- FIG. 35. Sandy road with improved gravel road in foreground, New Jersey. compulsory, but have not succeeded on account of the opposition of the Governor. The Commissioner of Public Roads publishes an annual report of the work done under the State Aid Law, and so far there have appeared five of these reports, which give very valuable information as to the best methods of road construction and the cost. The road materials of New Jersey are very much like those of eastern Maryland, and the problems in the two states have many points of similarity. The excellent trap rock which occurs in the 366 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS northern part of the state is extensively used, being sometimes trans- ported half the length of the state. In the eastern and southern parts of the state gravels, very much like those of Maryland, furnish the materials for very good and cheap roads. The widths adopted are eight, ten, and twelve feet, according to the amount of travel; the cost of macadam roads is between three and five thousand dollars a mile; and one long piece of gravel road was built at a cost of $1,400 a mile. The new roads have been of great benefit to the state in the increase in the value of real property, and in bringing to the state many persons who might otherwise live elsewhere. The excellent quality of the roads seems to be due to two causes: (1) That the roads are made by contract; and (2) That they are made under the supervision of trained engineers, and moreover, the im- provement of the roads is stimulated by state aid. NEW YORK. The counties are divided into towns, and in each town there is an elected Highway Commission of one to three persons who have charge of all the roads and bridges of the town. They divide the town into highway districts, and appoint an overseer of highways for each dis- trict. An early law, which still holds, requires all able-bodied men to work at least one day annually on the roads of the district in which they reside; but the work may be commuted at the rate of $1.00. per day of 8 hours, except in Queen's county, where there is a special system. Towns may change by vote from this labor system to the money system of taxation. In towns which have adopted the money system, the Highway Commissioners are not required to designate highway districts, nor to appoint overseers, and they, may let the work by contract, or have it done subject to such supervision as they think best. When overseers are appointed they take charge of the roads, keep them in order, and supervise the work of the men working out their tax, and also collect the commuted road-tax. They report to the Highway Commissioners. These latter report twice a year to the town board. The Supervisors of a county may authorize a town to borrow money for the improvement of special highways or MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 367 bridges, upon vote of the electors, or upon petition of the Highway Commissioners and the Town Board. The system of each township taking entire charge of its own roads has not proved perfectly satisfactory, and a law was passed in 1895 allowing the County Supervisors to take charge of all important roads in the county, to manage them, and if necessary to improve them. Very large sums of money were necessary for this, and the super- visors were authorized to issue bonds for the purpose. Every town- ship in which a county road exists is required to adopt the money system of taxation and to abolish the labor system. County roads are under the charge of a county engineer appointed by the Board of Supervisors. A number of counties have taken advantage of this law and are improving their roads. Following the example of New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Con- necticut, the New York Legislature passed a law in 1898 providing for state aid to important roads. According to this law the County Supervisors of their own motion, or on petition of property holders with their approval, may request the state engineer, who is elected by the people, to improve certain roads of the county with state aid. If the engineer approves, surveys ^and plans are made and specifica- tions drawn up, and the work is done by contract. The contract may be given to the towns through which the road passes, if their bid does not exceed the estimate of cost. In counties having a county engineer, he assumes supervision over the construction, under direc- tion of the state engineer, and in other counties the state engineer employs a competent engineer as supervisor. The cost of making these roads is paid, one-half by the state, 35 per cent by the county, and 1'5 per cent by the town; but if the road is built as the result of petition, the last 15 per cent is paid by the persons owning property benefited by the improvement, and not by the town. On completion of the road it is turned over to the County Supervisors for main- tenance, but this does not seem very satisfactory, for a bulletin issued by the state engineer in 1899 suggests that the control of these roads he put under the state department. Persons owning property abutting on a state road must, after its 368 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS construction, pay their road-taxes in money. The state engineer may require counties to complete small lengths of roads under this act for the purpose of connecting pieces of state road already built. The state engineer is expected to compile statistics regarding the roads of the state, to inspect the lengths of road under construction and to give advice to county and town officers. There have been seventy-nine petitions for 450 miles of roads to be built with state aid under this law in the first year of its operation ; and as the state appropriation is but $50,000, only a small number of these petitions could be complied with. Up to April, 1899, con- tracts had been made for about 15 miles of road, distributed in five counties. The Highway Commissioners of their own motion, or on petition, may open, alter or vacate a road, provided no objection is made to their plans, but if any one interested is not satisfied he may appeal to the County Court, which then appoints three commissioners to report to them on the advisability of the change. Their decision is final unless an appeal is made to the County Court. The commis- sioners assess the damages. All new roads made in the state of New York must be at least three rods, or 59| feet wide, and for the sake of encouraging wide tires, persons using tires at least three inches wide on two-horse wagons receive a rebate of one-half their road- taxes, within certain limits. There is great improvement of roads in New York, and many miles of excellent roads have been constructed. A Manual of High- ways has been published under the direction of the state, which gives all the laws, with a careful explanation of them, and also gives the best methods of road construction, and other subjects relating to roads. The State Museum has undertaken the study of road ma- terials, and a very interesting bulletin showing the location of quar- ries and kindred facts, has been issued. NORTH CAROLINA. The system of road administration varies very greatly in the different counties, but, in general, we may say that the counties are MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 369 divided into townships, and these again into road districts. In some counties a road superintendent is elected by the people or by the County Commissioners, and he appoints supervisors of townships. In counties where no superintendent exists, the supervisors are elected by the County Commissioners. Under the supervisors come the over- seers of the districts, who are usually elected by the Board of Magis- trates, and who take charge of the actual work on roads. Many counties levy both a property- and a poll-tax, and in some cases these may be worked out. The tax is spent on the roads in the district where it is raised. The Legislature has at various times passed special acts permitting certain counties, on vote of the people, to raise money by the issue of bonds. Some counties have done this, and they are making many miles of fine macadam and shell roads. The Mecklenburg Law, passed in 1879, which was originally in- tended to apply to the counties and state as a whole, but which was limited to Mecklenburg county, has resulted in many excellent roads in the county. This law put the control of the roads under the Town- ship Trustees, who divided the township into road districts and ap- pointed a supervisor for each. Every able-bodied man was required to work four days a year on the roads or commute in money. There was in addition a money-tax, which might be worked out. Convicts were worked on the roads and their expenses met by the money road- tax. In Charlotte township a general superintendent of roads was employed, and the money-tax might not be worked out. The recent law of 1899, modeled after the Mecklenburg Law and applying to quite a number of counties seems to be popular and will probably gradually be extended to the whole state. According to this the County Superintendent of Koads, or the Township Supervisors, are elected by the County Commissioners, and they direct the repairs to the roads. Some counties levy a regular tax for the improvement of the roads, and, in addition to this, each able-bodied man must labor four days annually or pay $2. This method of working out the road- tax is to be gradually abolished, the County Commissioners having the right to reduce the number of days of labor and increase the money-tax, so that in a few years the working out of road-taxes will 370 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS he entirely abolished. In addition to these county taxes, the town- ships raise a special tax for its roads. Convicts have been very generally employed on the roads with highly satisfactory results. The present law provides for their employment under the general direc- tion of the County Superintendent of roads. Roads built under this law must be at least twenty feet wide, except under exceptional cir- cumstances, and old roads may be relocated in order to avoid heavy grading. In order to encourage the use of wide tires, a law authorizes the County Commissioners to make a rebate amounting at most to one- half his road-tax to any one using wide tires on his wagons. The width of tire required in order to obtain the rebate depends upon the capacity of the wagon. The great improvement of the roads is largely due to the interest taken by the people of the state in the matter. A State Good-Road League, with several branches, works to increase public sentiment, and excellent work is being done by the State Geological Survey under its energetic director, in the study of the distribution and quality of available road materials, as well as in advocating the im- provement of the roads. NORTH DAKOTA. The roads are under the charge of the township officers. The amount of road-tax is annually voted at the town meeting; and on petition the question of the maintenance of the roads by con- tract may be submitted to vote. In addition, in counties of 5,000 or more inhabitants, there may be levied a county road-fund, which shall be expended under the direc- tion of the County Commissioners for the improvement of important roads. OHIO. The system of road administration in Ohio is very confused. The laws are very numerous and different in different parts of the state. The roads may be divided into (1) state roads, which run between two counties, (2) county roads, and (3) township roads. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 371 The first two groups are under the charge of the County Commis- sioners. The township roads are under the charge of the Township Trustees, who appoint supervisors to see to the repairs. Township roads may be substantially improved if so decided by the Trustees, but they must employ a competent engineer to oversee the work, and they may issue township bonds to meet the expense. A somewhat similar rule applies to the improvement of county roads. There are also special laws allowing the building of free turnpike roads, one-mile turnpikes and two-mile turnpikes, with many provisions looking towards possible contingencies. The county and state roads must be between thirty and sixty feet wide and must be marked by the County Commissioners with suitable stone monuments. The township roads must be between 16 and 60 feet wide. Sign-boards must be placed where needed. The road-tax is levied by the County Commissioners for the county roads and by the Township Trustees for the township roads, and may be worked out. OREGON. The County Court has general charge of the roads, though in some counties, a " road-master " is appointed by the Court for their more immediate supervision. The Court divided the county into road-districts over each of which the voters biennially elect a road-supervisor, who is required to serve or to pay a fine of $25.00. The road-tax is levied in labor, and con- sists of a property-tax of one day's work for each $1000 assessed valuation, and a poll-tax of two days' work for all able-bodied men. These taxes may generally be commuted in money, and the County Court may require the property-tax to be paid in money. No other road-tax may be imposed, but the County Court may order bridges built or repaired, and roads constructed from the general tax-fund, within certain limits. The supervisor has charge of all details and carries out the provisions of the law. He superintends the labor, collects the taxes and expends them, reporting to the County Court. A certain proportion of the receipts from the sale of the public lands of the state, and the direct tax collected by the National Gov- 372 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS eminent in 1861 and afterwards returned to the state, is to be divided among the various counties for the improvement of roads and bridges. In order to encourage the use of wide tires a law has been passed which will become effective in 1900 to give a rebate of $1.00 per wheel on all wagons having tires three or more inches wide and an additional rebate of $2.00 per wagon if the tires are four or more inches wide, provided the front and back wheels do not track. In February, 1899, a bill was passed authorizing the employment of convicts to work on county roads under the control of the road-super- visor, but it is too soon to draw conclusions as to the success of the plan. Roads are opened, altered or vacated by order of the County Court on petition, after receiving the report of three viewers who are appointed by the court. Public roads are to be sixty feet wide unless the County Court decides otherwise, but they must not be narrower than forty feet nor wider than eighty feet. Guide-boards must be placed where needed, and mile-posts or stones are to be placed along the public roads. PENNSYLVANIA. The counties of Pennsylvania are divided into townships, and each township maintains its own roads. Supervisors are appointed, three for each township, who hire laborers to keep roads and bridges in repair. The supervisors themselves do not work on the roads, but correspond more to the Road Commissioners of some counties of Maryland. Three-fourths of the road-tax may be worked out on the road, but the Road Supervisors may collect some or all of the other fourth in money in order to buy road machinery or to meet other expenses requiring money. Roads are opened, altered or closed by order of the Court of Quarter Sessions, from whose decision an appeal may be taken to the Court of Common Pleas. Persons using tires at least 4 inches wide on wagons carrying 2,000 pounds or over, are allowed a rebate of one-quarter of their road-tax. Guard-rails and bridges, too expensive for the township to build, may be built by the county. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SI KVEY 373 In 1S95 a law was passed for the special purpose of allowing an improvement of the roads around Pittsburg, but it was made a general law of the state. The control of the roads of the county was vested in the County Commissioners, who :were to decide on the improve- ments to be made. Their plans must be approved by a Grand Jury and by the Court, and then the work is to be done by contract, the FIG. 36. Macadam road at Bryn Mawr, Pa. expense being met by the county. Roads built under this act are county roads and are under the care of the County Commissioners. The law provides for the awarding of damages, appeals, etc. The above represents in general the state of the laws in Pennsyl- vania, but there are so many and such a variety of special laws for individual townships that it is impossible even to indicate them all in a short outline. 24 374 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS In 1896 the Department of Agriculture of Pennsylvania, under the supervision of Deputy Secretary of Agriculture John Hamilton, collected and published all the road-laws of the state. They consisted of a mass of special acts, so confused and cumbersome, that the fol- lowing year Mr. Hamilton introduced into the Legislature a simple and comprehensive law, providing for township control of roads under three supervisors elected to serve three years, one supervisor being elected annually. Between one-fourth and one-half of the road-tax must be paid in money and the rest may be worked out. Road-masters are appointed by the supervisors to work on not less than five miles of road and to employ laborers to work with them. This law was passed ; but it was not to go into effect until, the Legislature appropriated one million dollars to be distributed among the townships in proportion to their road mileage, but no mpre to go to any township than is raised for road purposes in that township. Although the legislators were pledged to appropriate this sum at the last Legislature, 1898, the difficulty of electing a United States Senator prevented the consideration of the subject. Some wealthy townships, such as Bryn Mawr and Haverford, have built most excellent roads, but the roads in the state generally are not good. RHODE ISLAND. The roads are in charge of the Highway Commissioners of the town, who are elected annually at the town meeting. They appoint super- visors to attend to the repairs of the roads. There is no special road- tax, but at the annual town meeting a certain sum is appropriated from the general tax-fund for the building and maintenance of the roads, and this of course may not be worked out in labor. A law has been passed to become effective in 1902 according to which the tires of all wagons must have a certain breadth depend- ent upon the size of the axle and new wheels added to wagons after April 1, 1898 were required to comply with the law. In order to educate the people to the benefits of good roads, a State Highway Commissioner has been appointed and authorized to build MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 375 sample half-miles of roads in townships applying for them, three- quarters of the cost being met by the state and one-quarter by the township in which the road lies. A number of sample pieces have been built. This law has been repealed and at present Khode Island is doing nothing as a state to improve its highways. SOUTH CAROLINA. Very little progress has been made and the roads are very bad. The Township Board appoints road overseers, who supervise the work on the roads ; convicts have been used. SOUTH DAKOTA. In some counties of this state the roads are in the hands of the County Commissioners, who appoint supervisors to keep the roads in order; in counties where townships have been organized the Township Trustees administer the roads, and the road-supervisors are elected. The County Commissioners levy the road-tax, which consists of both a property- and a poll-tax. It must be expended in the district where raised and may be worked out in labor. In the eastern part of the state where the country is level the roads are good, but in the mountainous region to the west they are very bad, and no special movement has been inaugurated to improve them. Public highways are required by law to be 60 feet wide. TENNESSEE. Until the present year the counties were divided up into road dis- tricts, with a Road Commissioner over each, who appointed overseers to have charge of small sections of the roads, but the present law requires the County Court to elect a Road Commissioner biennially, who has charge of all the highways of the county. The office of overseer has been abolished and all the work on the roads is done by contract. The County Court levies a property road-tax, and also requires every able-bodied man to work a certain number of days on the roads, but he may commute this by a small payment. The road-tax is spent 376 THE ADMINISTRATION OF BO ADS in the district where it is raised, the contractors having the right to call on all persons liable to work who have not commuted their tax. The opening, changing, or vacating of highways is done by petition to the Road Commissioner, who then reports to the County Court, which decides the question, with the right of aggrieved persons to appeal. There are many miles of toll roads in Tennessee, for which the people pay annually a very large sum in tolls. Some counties are doing good work in improving their roads. Hamilton county in par- ticular has made great progress. The convicts under punishment for small misdemeanors have been organized into a force to work on the public roads, and many miles of good telford roads have been built by them. TEXAS. Roads are under the control of the County Court, which appoints supervisors to oversee repairs to roads ; there is a poll-tax of five days' work annually, but it is not strictly enforced. The roads in general are very bad, but there has been some interest aroused in the subject, resulting in the state convention of 1895, and some good roads have been built. Convicts have been employed to some extent on the roads. UTAH. The County Court has general supervision of the roads of the county, which it divides up into districts; the court appoints a super- visor biennially for each. The supervisors take charge of the repairs of roads in their districts and see that everything is kept in order. They report annually to the County Court. The roads are kept up by poll-taxes, which may be paid either by two days' labor or in money. The opening, altering or vacating of roads is in the hands of the County Court. VERMONT. Road Commissioners are elected annually by each town and have charge of all the highways of the town. The Town Selectmen levy MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 377 a road-tax which must be paid in money and may not be worked out; this is applied to the roads of the town. The larger bridges are under the control of the Selectmen and are repaired out of the general town taxes. County Road Commissioners are appointed by the County Court, whose duty it is to see that the Selectmen of the town keep in order the roads under their charge; but they do not themselves have charge of any roads. At the last Legislature a bill was passed authorizing the Governor to appoint a State Highway Commissioner. This office is largely advisory. The State Highway Commissioner meets the Town Com- missioners of each county and discusses with them the advisability of the improvements, and the best methods of improving the important highways in their county. A state road-tax, which was formerly divided between the towns, according to mileage, is now used to pay one-half the expense of im- proving the main thoroughfares, subject to the approval of the State Highway Commissioner, who decides which roads shall be improved and makes the specifications; the other half is paid by the towns through which the thoroughfares pass. If the Selectmen are petitioned to open, alter, or vacate a highway, they examine the premises and decide the matter; any one interested in lands through which the road passes may appeal to the County Court, which then appoints three commissioners to report on the project, and the court decides on their report. Much interest is felt in Vermont in the improvement of the roads and already much work has been done. The adoption of wide tires is also becoming more general, though there is no law requiring them. VIRGINIA. There is no general system of road administration in Virginia, but the various counties have special methods of their own. In some cases the laws are administered by the counties or by the township officers, who are sometimes elected and sometimes appointed. These officers appoint Road Supervisors to attend to the actual repairs. 378 THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS A property road-tax is, in general, levied, and to this a poll-tax is added in some counties, and in some cases it may be worked out in labor. There is great interest in the subject of the improvement of the roads, and many meetings are held where the matter is discussed. The use of road-machines is becoming more general, but so far there has not been any marked improvement in the general condition of the roads. WASHINGTON. The counties are divided into road districts, for each of which a supervisor is annually elected by the voters. At the same time the voters decide on the amount of the road-tax to be paid for the year. This tax is to be expended in the district where it is raised, the people, however, being permitted to work out this tax on the roads. In addi- tion to this there is a road-tax to be paid in money. On petition to the County Commissioners new county roads may be laid out in width between thirty and one hundred feet. The County Commissioners appoint viewers to examine the feasibility of the plan and decide on damages to be paid. WEST VIRGINIA. The election districts in each county are divided by the County Court into a number of road precincts, over each of which it bien- nially appoints a surveyor of roads, who is obliged to serve or pay a fine. He has charge of the. roads and bridges, keeps them in order and repairs them, and may hire such hands, wagons, and so on as he may require for the work; and he reports the work done and his accounts to the County Court. The work must be done during the summer and sign-posts are to be put up at cross-roads The County Court determines the amount of the road-tax and it is expended in the district where collected. This tax may be worked out on the roads in person or by substitute, but the court may require not more than .one-third of the tax to be paid in money. When large bridges are to be built the work is done under the MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL 8UBVEY 379 order of the County Court, who may let the work by contract and pay for it out of the county treasury, by special levy, upon the vote of the people, or by issue of bonds. When special work is done for the construction and improvement of the roads, the court appoints three commissioners, one of them being an engineer, to superintend the work. Upon petition, roads, bridges or landings may be opened, altered or closed, the County Court appointing viewers to consider and report to them on the project, and they decide whether or not to undertake it. If damages cannot be settled by agreement then condemnation proceedings are resorted to. Although nearly $700,000 are spent annually on the roads, very little improvement has resulted, but interest is aroused in the subject and improvements may be expected. WISCONSIN. The roads are under the direction of the Town Supervisors, who are elected by the people, and they appoint superintendents to care for the roads. Formerly a " path-master " was in charge of the roads of each school district, but this office has been abolished. The Town Supervisors levy a property-tax and in some towns also a poll-tax, which may be worked out in labor on the roads. A town may also vote to levy a special tax to improve its roads, but there appears to be no provision for borrowing money on bonds for this purpose. Public roads must be 4 rods, 66 feet, wide unless the Supervisors decide that 3 rods would be wide enough. Wagons with tires three inches wide are exempt from taxation. There are some agitation and interest throughout the state in the improvement of the roads and some roads have been graded and macadamized. The Geological and Natural History Survey of Wis- consin is engaged in the study of the road-making materials of the state. WYOMING. The County Commissioners have general charge of all public roads in the county. The care of the roads is in the hands of a County 380 THE ADMINISTRATION OF EOADS Supervisor, elected biennially; or the County Commissioners may divide the county into road districts, with a Supervisor elected for each; these Supervisors are under the direction of the County Com- missioners. The County Commissioners annually levy a property-tax for main- tenance of roads, and in counties divided into districts may also levy a poll-tax, which may be worked out on roads. Opening, altering or vacating a road is by petition to the County Commissioners, who appoint a viewer to examine and report on the matter. If damages cannot be easily adjusted, appraisers are ap- pointed; and the County Commissioners come to a decision after they report. Appeals may be taken to the Circuit Court, Roads, in general, must be between 60 and 100 feet in width, and sign-boards are placed where the County Commissioners think they are needed. THE EMPLOYMENT OF CONVICTS IN Ro AD-BUILDING. l The employment of convicts for work on roads is a question that has been much discussed, arguments being used both for and against it. In some parts of the South they have been employed for a num- ber of years, and so far with success. In 1895, Professor J. A. Holmes, State Geologist of North Carolina and Secretary of the State Road Association, wrote as follows: " The use of convicts on public roads has been so intimately connected with the growth of the road movement in North Carolina that it deserves some special mention in this connection. Even prior to the first adoption of the Mecklenburg road law, the General Assembly of the State had made provisions (1867, 1873, 1875, 1877, 1879, and later, in 1889) for the use of convicts in case any county should desire it. But little was done in this direction, however, until the work was begun in Mecklenburg County. From that day down to the present the use of convicts has been an essen- tial feature in Mecklenburg and in the majority of the counties of North Carolina which have joined in the movement. Indeed, this use of convicts has in the majority of cases been the most important factor in deciding these counties to vote a tax for the improvement of the public roads, and the result of the experiment in this State has been altogether favorable to the system, both in point of efficiency and economy and in the health of the convicts. 1 See U. S. Dept. of Agric., Office of Ed. Inquiry, Bulls. 11, 16 and 19. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY " The returns from eighty counties in the State show that the average cost of convicts when they are confined in the county jail is a little more than 30 cents per day; whereas the average cost per day per convict, includ- ing feeding, clothing, medical attention, and guarding, when they are em- ployed on the public roads, is as follows in several of the more promi- nent counties: Mecklenburg, using 80 convicts, 20 to 22 cents per day; Wake, 57 convicts, 20% cents per day; Durham, 40 to 50 convicts, 17 to 20 cents per day; Cabarrus, 20 convicts, 42 to 45 cents per day; Buncombe, 65 convicts, 73, 74. Baltimore, population of (1825), 175, 176. Baltimore county, 45, 52, 55, 85, 217. Baltimore County Agricultural So- ciety, 44, 45. Baltimore county, convict labor in, 154. Baltimore county, cost of roads and bridges in, 220. Baltimore county, cost of turnpikes of, in 1791, 164, 165. Baltimore county, County Commis- sioners of, 220. Baltimore county, early highway laws of, 147. Baltimore county, early records of roads in, 116. Baltimore county, early road-tax of, 149. Baltimore county, early turnpikes, 164. Baltimore county, gravels of, 101. Baltimore county, highway condi- tions of, 217. Baltimore county, laws regarding roads, 334. Baltimore county, marbles in, 92. Baltimore county, precipitation in, 69. Baltimore county, turnpikes of, 163, 218. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 133, 177, 238. Baltimore and Bel Air Turnpike, 176. Baltimore and Cumberland turn- pike, 207, 214, 215, 252. Baltimore and Frederick Turnpike Road, 155, 167, 170, 172, 173, 176, 238. Baltimore and Havre de Grace Turnpike, 175, 176. Baltimore and Reisterstown turn- pike, 155, 167, 200. Baltimore and Strasburg Turnpike Company, 172. Baltimore and Washington Turn- pike Company, 172, 176. Baltimore and York Town Turnpike Road, 167, 173, 176. Banks, connection of with turn- pikes, 171, 174. Bare Hills, 85. Bank Road, see Cumberland Turn- pike Road. Bauer, L. A., 7. Bavier, cited, 391. Beaver Dam Marble Company, 45. Beginnings of highways in Mary- land, 109. Bel Air, 237. Bel Air and Philadelphia Post- Road, 155. Bel Air Road, 83. Bel Air Road League, 237. Belgium, value of good roads in, 399. Benefits, indirect, due to good roads, 412. Betterton, improved road near, 241. Bibliography of highway literature, 311. Bicycles, 412. Bladensburg, 246. " Blind " side-drains, 275. Blome, R., cited, 125. Blue Ridge mountain, 58, 69, 95. Bohemia Manor, grant of, 117. Bonsteel, J. A., 32. Boonsboro, 252. Boston, good roads of, 412. Braddock's Expedition, 135. Braddock's Orderly Book, quota- tion from, 135. " Braddock's Road," 134. INDEX 443 Breakers, 198. Breaking stone, 199. Bridges, 85, 205, 206, 207, 208, 222, 292, 339. Bridges, cost of in Allegany county, 216. Bridges, cost of in Anne Arundel county, 217. Bridges, cost of in Baltimore county, 220. Bridges, cost of in Calvert county, 221. Bridges, cost of in Caroline county, 223. Bridges, cost of in Carroll county, 225. Bridges, cost of in Cecil county, 227. Bridges, cost of in Charles county, 229. Bridges, cost of Dorchester county, 230. Bridges, cost of in Frederick county, 233. Bridges, cost of in Garrett county, 236. Bridges, cost of in Harford county, 238. Bridges, cost of in Howard county, 240. Bridges, cost of in Kent county, 241. Bridges, cost of in Montgomery county, 244. Bridges, cost of in Prince George's county, 245. Bridges, cost of in Queen Anne's county, 247. Bridges, cost of in St. Mary's county, 248. Bridges, cost of in Somerset county, 249. Bridges, cost of in Talbot county, 251. Bridges, cost of in Washington county, 254. Bridges, law regarding, in Dor- chester county, 340. Bridges, necessity for, 340. Bridges, ordered to be constructed, 1694, 117. Briquettes, 323. Broad Branch, gravels at, 86. Broad tires on wagons, 297, 434. Broken stone, thickness of, 282. Bryan, A., cited, 175. Bryantown, 228. Building of towns, 125. Burroughs, Edward, cited, 400. Burnt clay, preparation of, 295. Burnt clay, use of on roads, 105, 277, 295. Byrne, A. J., cited, 268, 269, 270, 404. O. Cabin John Creek, bridge across, 85, 207. Calcareous rocks, as road-materials, 91. Calhoun, and the National Road, 181, 184. California, administration of roads in, 344. California, convict labor in, 382. Calvert county, 52, 221. Calvert county, cost of roads and bridges in, 221. Calvert county, County Commis- sioners of, 221. Calvert county, early records of roads in, 115. Calvert county, elevations in, 53, 193. Calvert county, highway conditions in, 221. Calvert county, marls of, 103. Calverton, 125. Cambrian limestones, 97. Cambridge, 229, 230, 231. Canada, Governor of, 133. Canal between Chesapeake and Del- aware bays, proposed, 139. Canal and Railroad, rise of, 177. Canal, Chesapeake and Ohio, 177. Canal schemes, 139. Canandaigua county, N. Y., increase of land-values in, 402. Carboniferous limestones, 97, 99. Carlisle, first wagon at, 132. Carnan, John, 130. Carolinas, drainage of, 53. Caroline county, 51, 206, 221. Caroline county, cost of roads and bridges in, 223. Caroline county, establishment of roads in, 146. Caroline county, highway conditions in, 221. 444 INDEX Caroline county, laws of, regarding working on roads, 336. Caroline county, precipitation in, 69. Caroline county, road maps of, 222, 341. Carroll county, 55, 223. Carroll county, cost of roads and bridges in, 225. Carroll county, County Commis- sioners of, 225. Carroll county, crystalline lime- stone in, 92. Carroll county diabase in, 86. Carroll county, highway conditions in, 223. Carroll county, sandstone in, 91. Carroll county, turnpikes in, 224. Castleman river, 60. Castleman river, arch over, 207. Catoctin Creek, 6. Catoctin Mountain, 54, 56, 57, 58, 95, 231. Catoctin schist, 95. Caton, Richard, report of, 170. Catonsville, elevation at, 55. Cecil county, 51, 226. Cecil county, cost of roads and bridges in, 227. Cecil county, County Commission- ers of, 227. Cecil county, early road-tax in, 149. Cecil county, elevations in, 52. Cecil county, gravels of, 101. Cecil county, highway conditions in, 226. Cecil county, laws for early high- ways of, 148. Cecil county, peridotite of, 85. Cecil county, roads " ascertained " (1710), 123. Cecil county roads, early history of, 118. Cecilton, 228. Central Maryland, surface of, 193. Central and Western Appalachian District, rocks of, as road-ma- terials, 96. Centreville, 246. Cementation test, description of, 323. Cementation test of road-metals, 322. Cementation test, Page Machine for, 323. Character of investigations, 30. Charles county, 52, 228. Charles county, cost of roads and bridges in, 229. Charles county, County Commis- sioners of, 229. Charles County Court, records of, cited, 120. Charles county, early records of roads of, 115. Charles county, elevation in, 53. Charles county, gravels of, 102. Charles county, highway conditions in, 228. Charles county, marls of, 103. Charles county, precipitation in, 69. Charles county, roads " ascertain- ed " in (1697), 122. Charles county, supervisors of, 336. Charlestown, 228 Chase, shell road at, 203, 219. Chesapeake Bay, 51, 52, 63, 102, 109. Chesapeake Bay, influence on cli- mate of, 63. Chesapeake City, 226, 228. Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 133, 177. Chester river, 52. Chestertown, 241. Chestertown, roads leading to, 240. Chevalier, , quoted, 139. Choptank river, 52. Choptank river, bridge across, 206, 222. Church Creek, road near, 229. Church Hill, road at, 246. Churchville, improved road near, 237. Churchville Road-League, 237. Circuit Court, right of appeal to, 334. City Commissioners of Baltimore, 325. Clark, Wm. Bullock, 7, 9, 23, 24, 27, 29, 30, 31, 47, 49, 192. Classification of roads, 216, 289, 342, 384, 389, 392, 420. Clay, Henry, and the National Road, 181, 186. Clay as road-material, 103. Clifton, Wm., 130. INDEX 445 Climate, general effect of, on roads, 76. Climate and highway construction In Maryland, 63. Coal measures, 100. Coastal Plain, 50, 51. Coastal Plain deposits as road-ma- terials, 101. Coastal Plain Division, 32. Coastal Plain, eastern division of, 51. Coastal Plain, gravels of, 102, 202. Coastal Plain, western division of, 52.. Cockeysville, 89. Collis, Christopher, road-map of, 156. Colonization of Maryland, 179. Colorado, administration of roads in, 346. Columbia gravels as road-materials, 102. Commercial growth and the " West- ward Movement," 125. Commission, 5. Commission, State Highway, ad- vantages of, 426. Condition of Maryland highways, 187, 189. Conduit Road, bridge on, 85, 207. Conglomerate (Triassic), as road- material, 93. Connecticut, Highway Commission of, 31. Connecticut, administration of roads in, 346. Conowingo, gabbro near, 83. Conococheague river, 207. Constitution, amendment to, nec- essary, 46. Construction and repair of roads, 263, 265. Construction of roads, use of oil in, 296, 297. Contents, 11. Convict labor on roads, 154, 155, 337, 349, 372, 376, 380, 381, 382. Corporations, rights-of-way of, 343. Correspondence, 33. Cost of hauling, 211, 408. Cost of roads, 419. County Commissioners, 189. County Commissioners, letter to, 34. County Commissioners of Allegany county, 215, 216. County Commissioners of Anne Arundel county, 217. County Commissioners of Baltimore county, 220. County Commissioners of Calvert county, 221. County Commissioners of Caroline county, 223. County Commissioners of Carroll County, 225. County Commissioners of Cecil county, 227. County Commissioners of Charles county, 229. County Commissioners of Dor- chester county, 230. County Commissioners of Frederick county, 233. County Commissioners of Garrett county, 235. County Commissioners of Harford county, 238. County Commissioners of Howard county, 239. County Commissioners of Montgom- ery county, 243. County Commissioners of Prince George's county, 245. County Commissioners of Queen Anne's county, 246. County Commissioners of St. Mary's county, 248. County Commissioners of Somerset county, 249. County Commissioners of Talbot county, 251. County Commissioners of Washing- ton county, 254. County Commissioners of Wicomico county, 255. County Commissioners of Worces- ter county, 256. County Commissioners, powers given to, 271 County Courts, extension of the powers of, 153. County legislation, 150, 151, 152. Cove Point, 53. Cox's Station, road near, 228. Cresap, Thomas, 133. Cretaceous marls as road-material, 103. 446 INDEX Crude petroleum as road-material, 105. Crystalline limestone, as road- material, 92. Crisfleld, road to, 203. Crown, description of, 284. Cross-drains, description of, 273. Crushing test of road-metals, 322. Crushing-plant, 307. Crushing stone, cost of, 306. Culvert, pipe, 274. Culvert, stone, 274. Cumberland, 59, 98, 99, 192, 216, 258. Cumberland Road, appropriation for, 184. Cumberland Turnpike Road, con- struction of, 171, 172. Cumberland Road, President of, cited, 438. D. Dan's Mountain, 60. Darlington, road near, 237. Darlington, Road-League of, 237. Davis, Meredith, 126. Dawsonville, grades at, 242. Decomposition, chemical, of road- metals, 318. Delaware, 51, 52, 69. Delaware, administration of roads in, 348. Delaware, precipitation in, 69. Deval Machine, description of, 320, 321. Denton, shell road at, 222. Development of Northern Maryland, 131. Development of turnpikes in Mary- land, 162. Devonian limestones, 99. Deer Creek, quartzite, 90. Deer Park, 234. Denston's Dams, road to, 140. Diabase, as road-material, 86, 233, 327. Dickinson, Jonathan, cited, 128. Dinwiddie, Governor, 134. Diorite, as a road-material, 85, 327. Dirt roads, 197. Dirt roads, grading of, 268. Ditches, 272, 275. Ditches, sod in, 272. Dorchester county, 51, 229. Dorchester county bridges, law re- garding, 340. Dorchester county, cost of roads and bridges in, 230. Dorchester county, County Commis- sioners of, 230. Dorchester county, highway condi- tions in, 229 Dorchester county, law in, regarding drainage, 339. Dorchester county, precipitation in, 69. Dorsey's Corner, 224. Dover Bridge, 206. Dover Bridge, construction of, 208, 222. Drainage, 271. Drainage in Dorchester county, law regarding, 339. Drainage in Somerset county, law regarding, 339. Drainage and road-repairs, 338. Droughts, effect on roads, 77. Dublin, road near, 236. Dulany, Daniel, 128. Dulaney's Valley, 55. Dunbar, Col., 135, 136. Durand-Claye, cited, 385, 410, 419. Dust, cementing power of, 323. E. Early Mail-Route, 118. Early roads, 110. Early road-laws, 140." Early " Rolling Roads," 123. Early turnpikes, 162. East Newmarket, 230. Eastern Appalachian District, rocks of, as road-materials, 94. Eastern avenue, shell road on, 203. Eastern Shore, 51, 202. Eastern Shore, condition of roads of, 195. Eastern Shore, gravels of, 102. Eastern Shore, characteristic topog- raphy of, 250. Eastern Shore, hauls on, 210. Eastern Shore, sands of, 211. Easton, roads near, 250. Economies effected by good roads, 404. Eddis, - , cited, 157. Edmondson avenue, 200. Electric roads, 436. INDEX 447 Ellicott City, quarry at, 89. Elkridge, iron-furnaces located at, 294. Elkridge Landing, 217. Elkridge, " rolling road " at, 124. Elk Ridge Mountains, 58, 196. Elkton, 226, 227, 228. Elliott, Jonathan, 170, 207. Ely, Richard T., cited, 399, 406. Embankments, settlement of, 279. Emmitsburg, 234. Emmitsburg, diabase near, 86. Engineers, skilled, needed, 415, 418, 421. England, administration of roads in, 393. England, load per horse in, 405. England, road-legislation of, 111. England, toll-roads of, 437. England, value of good roads in, 399. Eocene marls as road-material, 103. Europe, road-administration, 211, 383. Evans, map of, 129. Evitt's Creek, 59. Exemption from highway service, 124. Expert assistance, 33. Extension of the powers of the County Courts, 153. P. Falls Turnpike Company, 169, 170. Falls turnpike, report on, in 1807, 170. Farmers of Maryland, letter to, 37. Farm-lands, acreage of, 409. Ferries " ascertained," 123. Ferries, distances to, 130, 131. Ferries, early laws regarding, 111, 116. Ferries, establishment of, 111, 128. Fines for altering roads, 120. Finksburg, road near, 225. Fisher, Father Philip, quoted, 110. Florida, administration of roads in 349. Florida East Coast Railroad, first to use oil on roads, 296. Forces to be withstood by a road- metal, 317. Fork, road at, 44, 219. Forest Hill, 85. Forest, effect of on roads, 79. Fort Cumberland, road to, 137. Fort Du Quesne, capture of, 137. Fort Frederick, road from, 137. Foundation, preparation of, 276. Fox, George, cited, 113. France, administration of roads in, 384, 417. France, investigation of roads in, 432. France, load per horse in, 405. Franklin, B., aid of, to Washing- ton, 136. Free School, road from, 140. Frederick, elevation at, 56. Frederick and Harper's Ferry Turnpike, 175. Frederick and Woodsboro turnpike, 231. Frederick city, 56, 200, 231, 232, 234. Frederick county, 55, 57, 58, 231. Frederick county, cost of roads and bridges in, 233. Frederick county, County Commis- sioners of, 233. Frederick county, crystalline lime- stone in, 92. Frederick county, diabase in, 86. Frederick county, establishment of, 126. Frederick county, highway condi- tions in, 231. Frederick county, laws for early highways of, 147. Frederick county, road-laws in, 334. Frederick county, sandstone in, 91. Frederick county, turnpikes in, 232. Frederick Road, report on, in 1807, 170. Frederick, turnpikes near, 231. Frederick Valley, 55, 93. French and Indian War, 133. French roads, table of, 385. Friendsville, side-hill road at, 234. Frost, effect on roads, 77, 318.. Frostburg, appropriation for, 216. Fry, Joshua, 134. Fry and Jefferson, map of, 129. Furnace-slag as road-material, 105. G. Gabbro, as road-material, 83, 327. Gabbro-diorite, as a road-material, 83, 327. 448 INDEX Gabbro-schist, 83, 327. Galena, improved roads of, 240. Gallatin, Albert, and the National Road, 181. Gallatin's report on turnpikes, 170. Gambert, road from, 225. Garrett county, 57, 60, 192, 207, 234. Garrett county, cost of roads in, 236. Garrett county, County Commis- sioners of, 235. Garrett county, highway conditions in, 234. Garrett county, sandstone in, 100. Garrett county, temperature in, 65. Gates, Guide-boards and Bridges, 339. General Assembly, petition to, 114. General Assembly, report to, 45. General considerations regarding the importance of state high- ways, 413. General legislation, 153. General outline of highway condi- tions, 192. Gettysburg granite, 233. Germany, administration of roads in, 389. Germany, load per horse- in, 405. Geology, Maryland, in relation to highway-construction, 80. Geological Survey Commission, 29. George's Creek Valley, 60. Georgia, administration of roads in, 349. Georgia, convict labor in, 349, 382. Georgetown, 85. Gibson (ed.), cited, 127, 131, 132. Gilman, Daniel C., 5. Gist, Christopher, 133, 177. Gneiss as road-material, 87, 328. Goldsborough, Governor Charles, report of, 172, 173, 438. Goldsborough, Phillips Lee, 5. Good roads, 395, 397, 399, 402 404 412. Gormania, road near, 234. Governors of other states, letter to, 43. Grades, reduction of, 201, 268. Grading, 268. Graham, Robert P., 26. Granitic rocks as road-materials, 87, 95. Granite as road-material, 88, 328. Granite, quarries at, 89. Gravels as road-materials, 86, 101, 102. Gravel roads, 202, 291. Greater Appalachian Valley, 58. Great Britain, administration of roads in, 417. Greatest and least monthly and an- nual rainfalls, 73. Great Valley, 58, 97, 98. Greenbrier limestone, 97. Greenbrier limestone as road-ma- terial, 98. Green Ridge, 59. Greensboro, road to, 222. Green Spring Valley, 55, 90. Griffith's map of Maryland, 156. Guard-rails, 434. Gulf of Mexico, 60. Guide-boards, 212, 339. Guilford, quarry at, 89. " Gunpowder Hundred," overseers of, presented, 116. Gunpowder Neck, 236. Gunpowder river, 53, 55. H. Hagerstown, 58, 200, 252. Hagerstown, elevation at, 58. Hagerstown Valley, 58, 59, 252. Halkett, Sir Peter, 135. Hall's station, 244. Hamilton, Alexander, 180, 181. Hamburg, John, 133. Hancock, 98. Hanover turnpike, abandoned, 223. Hardships of travel, 113. Harford county, 52, 55, 236. Harford county, cost of roads and bridges in, 238. Harford county, County Commis- sioners of, 238. Harford county, highway conditions in, 236. Harford county, improvement in early roads in, 146. Harford county, peridotite and py- roxenite of, 85. Harford county, quartzite in, 90. Harford county, Road-Leagues of, 237. Harford county, " rolling roads " of, 124. INDEX 449 Harford county, turnpikes in, 237. Harford county, Woolsey bequest, 428. Harford Furnace, iron-furnace lo- cated at, 294. Harper's Ferry, 96. Harrison, E. G., 44, 219, 237, 403. Harvy-Town, 125. Hauling, cost of, 211, 408. Hauling distances, 208, 209, 210. Hauling distance in counties, aver- age (table), 208. Hauling distance, average maxi- mum (table), 209. Hazard, , cited, 113, 117. Helderberg limestone, 97. Helderberg limestone as road-ma- terial, 98, 327. Hening's Statutes, 111, 128. Herrington, 125. Herrman, Augustine, 109, 113, 139. Herrman and the roads of Cecil county, 117. Hermen [Herrman], Casparus, 118. Highest recorded temperatures, 67. Highway commissions, 31, 43, 259, 282, 286, 298, 312, 321, 323, 324, 345, 346-348, 354-357, 359, 362, 365, 366-368, 369-370, 374-375, 377, 408, 417, 426, 431, 434. Highway commission, appointment of, 422. Highway conditions in the counties, 213. Highway conditions in the counties, summary, 25t5. Highway conditions in Allegany county, 214. Highway conditions in Anne Arun- del county, 216. Highway conditions in Baltimore county, 217. Highway conditions in Calvert county, 221. Highway conditions in Caroline county, 221. Highway conditions in Carroll county, 223. Highway conditions in Cecil county, 226. Highway conditions in Charles county, 228. Highway conditions in Dorchester county, 220. Highway conditions in Frederick county, 231. Highway conditions in Garrett county, 234. Highway conditions in Harford county, 236. Highway conditions in Howard county, 238. Highway conditions in Kent county, 240. Highway conditions in Montgomery county, 241. Highway conditions in Prince George's county, 244. Highway conditions in Queen Anne's county, 246. Highway conditions in St. Mary's county, 247. Highway conditions in Somerset county, 249. Highway conditions in Talbot county, 250. Highway conditions in Washington county, 251. Highway conditions in Wicomico county, 254. Highway conditions in Worcester county, 255. Highway conditions, general out- line of, 192. Highway construction of early days, 112. Highway construction, Maryland climate in relation to, 63. Highway construction, Maryland geology in relation to, 80. Highway construction, relations of Maryland topography, climate and geology to, 47, 49. Highway construction, Maryland topography in relation to, 49. Highway correspondence, 33. Highway Division of Maryland Geo- logical Survey, establishment of, 29. Highway Division, description of laboratory of, 326. Highway investigations, organiza- tion and conduct of, 28, 29. Highway legislation, 29, 46, 111, 124, 138, 140, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 156, 167, 168, 178, 333, 334, 336, 337, 339, 340, 343. 450 IXDEX Highway legislation of early days, 111. Highway officers, letter to, 43. Highway service, exemption from, 124. Highways, specifications for, 45. Hodgson, Robert, stage-line cf, 158. Holland, Chas. F., decision of, re- garding working on roads, 336. Holmes, J. A., cited, 380. Hoop Pole Ridge Road, 192, 224. Horses, number of in proportion to population, 404. Horses, saving of, by good roads, 404. Howard county, 55, 69, 85, 238. Howard county, County Commis- sioners of, 239. Howard county, cost of roads and bridges in, 240. Howard county, highway conditions of, 238. Howard county, land-values in, 403. Howard county, supervisor of, 336. Howard county, turnpikes in, 239. Hunting Creek, road from, to Dover, 140. Hunting Hill, road-material at, 243. Hyattsville, appropriation for, 246. I. Idaho, administration of roads in, 349. Illinois, administration of roads in, 349. Illinois, use of burnt clay on roads in, 295. Improvement, some suggestions re- garding road-, 432. Incorporation law, general, of 1868, 178. Indiana, administration of roads in, 351. Indiana, increase in land-values in, 402. Indirect benefits, due to good roads, 412. Instructions to supervisors, 196. Internal Improvement and Later Highway Legislation, 138. Investigations in Maryland, char- acter of, 30. Iowa, administration of roads in, 351. Ireland, administration of roads in, 394, 417. Italy, load per horse in, 405. J. Jamaica, N. Y., strength of roads in, 286. Jefferson, Thos., message of, cited, 184. Jenks, J. W., cited, 389. Johnson, Arthur Newhall, 7, 24, 31, 44, 105, 106, 187, 189, 263, 265. Johnson, Geo., cited, 117, 118. Juniata sandstone as road-material, 99. K. Kansas, administration of roads in, 352. Kent county, 51, 240. Kent county, cost of roads and bridges in, 241. Kent county, highway conditions in, 240. Kent county, early road-tax in, 149. Kent county, marls in, 103. Kerr, Joseph, 184. Kingsville, road near, 219. Knoxville and Brunswick road, 231. L. Labor and material, table showing cost of, 309. Labor, table of price paid per day and material used, 308. Laborers, on roads, 335. Laboratory of the Highway Divi- sion, description of, 326. Lafayette gravels as road-materials, 102. Land-values, increase in, 400, 402, 403. La Plata, road to, 228. Latta, W. C., cited, 401. Laurel, 83, 246. Laurel Hill, 60. Law of 1704 and its supplements, 119. Laws regarding bridges, 340. Laws regarding construction of early roads, 141. Laws regarding early turnpikes, 167, 168. INDKX 451 Laws regarding opening and clos- ing of roads, 333. Laws regarding single roads, 140. Laws regarding turnpike companies, 343. League of American Wheelmen, 30. Legislation, early highway, 111, 140. Legislation for groups of roads, 143. Legislation, general, 153. Legislation, penal, and the roads, 154. Legislation proposed, 46. Legislation, reaction toward sepa- rate, 150. Legislation, results of, 156. Legislation for separate counties, 146. Legislation, turnpike, 178. Lee, Richard Henry, 139. Lee, Thomas, 133. Letter to Boards of County Com- missioners, 34. Letter to the farmers of Maryland, 37. Letter to the governors of other states, 43. Letter to highway officers, 43. Letter to the newspapers of Mary- land, 36. Letter to the presidents of turnpike companies, 40. Leonard, A. G., work of, 32. Levy of counties, table showing, 257. Liberty road, convict labor on, 155. Liberty and Woodsboro turnpike, 231. Limestones of Appalachian Region, 97. Limestone as road-material, 92, 93, 97, 98, 99, 328. Load, grade and surface, table showing relations between, 269. Load per horse, 210, 405. Location of roads, 265. Logan, James, letter of, 131. Lonaconing, 216. Losses due to bad roads, 411. Lothair, new road near, 228. Louisiana, administration of roads in, 353. Lowdermilk, W. H., cited, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137. Lowest recorded temperatures, 68. Lowndes, Lloyd, 5, 7, 29. M. Macadam, thickness of, 284. Madison, President, 185. Machinery for road-construction, prices of, 301. Machinery, road-making, 32, 425. Mail-Route, early, 118. Maine, administration of roads in, 354. Maintenance of roads, 289, 290, 420, 426. Maintenance of roads, saving in, 270. Makemy, Rev. Francis, quoted, 109. Manchester, 223, 226. Manchester, road-repairs of, 226. Manchester turnpike, 224. Manufactured products, as road- material, 106. Maps of roads, described, 300. Marble, as road-material, 92, 94. Marlboro, 202, 244. Marls, as road-material, 102, 103. Market roads, improvement of, 143, 145. Martin's Ridge, elevation of, 59. Maryland, administration of roads in, 333. Maryland climate in relation to highway construction, 63. Maryland, colonization of, 102, 179. Maryland, development of turnpikes in, 162. Maryland Geological Survey, 28, 29. Maryland Geological Survey, re- sults of tests made by, 325. Maryland Geological Survey, topo- graphic maps of, 62. Maryland geology in relation to highway construction, 80. Maryland gneiss, 87. Maryland highways, mileage of, 189. Maryland highways, present condi- tion of, 188, 189. Maryland's relation to the National Road, 178. Maryland Steel Company, 45. Maryland topography in relation to highway-construction, 49. Maryland towned and " untowned," 125. Maryland Weather Service, 63, 75. 452 INDEX Massachusetts, administration of roads in, 354. Massachusetts, Highway Commis- sion, 31, 258. Massachusetts, Highway Commis- sion, breadth adopted by, 434. Massachusetts Highway Commis- sion, rules of, as to rolling, 282, 283. Massachusetts, steam-rollers in, 258, 431. Mathews, E. B., 7, 31, 32, 129. Mattern, Frederick W., cited, 296. McBride, Charles C., cited, 400. McGregory, Hugh, 118. McLaughlin, J. J., cited, 286. McMahon, '-, cited, 118, 119, 126. Meadow Mountain, 60. Mechanicstown (see Thurmont), 247. Meredith's Bridge, 89. Methods of travel at end of 18th century, 156. Michigan, administration of roads in, 357. Microscopic test of road-metals, 319. Middletown, 95, 231. Middletown, elevation at, 58. Middletown Valley, 58, 96. Middle River, 219. Mileage of counties, 191, 257. Mileage of Maryland highways, 190. Mine Branch valley, 90. Minerals in road-building rocks, 320. Minnesota, administration of roads in, 358. " Minocasy " (see Monocacy), 135. Miscellaneous material for road- building, 104. Mississippi, administration of roads in, 359. Mississippi, convict-labor in, 382. Mississippi river, 60. Missouri, administration of roads in, 359. Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, cited, 298. Moll, map of, 128, 129. Monocacy river, 56, 57. Monocacy river, stone arch over, 207. Monocacy valley, 90. " Monocasy " Road, description of, 27. Monongahela river, 60. Monroe, President, 185. Money, outlay of, 419. Montgomery county, 55, 56, 85, 207, 241. Montgomery county, bonding of, for road improvement, 335, 430. Montgomery county, cost of roads and bridges in, 244. Montgomery county, County Com- missioners of, 243. Montgomery county, highway con- ditions in, 241. Montgomery county, turnpikes in, 243. Montana, administration of roads in, 360. Moore, Thomas, 184. Morse, J., cited, 132. Muirkirk, iron-furnaces located at, 294. Muirkirk, roads near, 217. Muirkirk, slag at, 245. N. Napoleon I., road-building under, 414. Narrows (The), 137, 214. National Road, 60, 133, 171, 172, 173, 175, 178, 180, 184, 185, 186, 192, 214, 234, 436. National Road, guide-posts of, 212. National Road, history of, 185. National Road in 1879, 186. National Road, Maryland's relation to, 178. National Road, proposed route of, 182. National Road, repair of, 185. National Road under state control, 185. National University, Washington's plan for, 179. Neff, F. H., cited, 385. Neill, : , quoted, 110. Nemacolin, , 133, 177. Neocene marls as road-material, 103. Nevada, administration of roads in, 361. Newcastle and French-town Turn- pike, 172. New England roads, 61. New Frederick Road, 238. INDEX 453 New Hampshire, administration of roads in, 361. New Jersey, administration of roads in, 362. New Jersey, convict-labor in, 382. New Jersey, Highway Commission of, 31. Newspapers of Maryland, letter to, 36. Newton, Mass., report of city engi- neer of, 307. Newark formation, 91. New Windsor, road repairs of, 226. New York, administration of roads in, 366. New York, Chamber of Commerce of, cited, 425. New York, convict-labor in, 381, 382. Niagara limestone as road-material, 97, 98. " Nigger-head " rock as road-ma- terial, 83. Niles, - , cited, 176, 177. Normal precipitation for the several districts (diagram), 71. North Branch of. the Potomac, 98. North Carolina, administration of roads in, 368. North Carolina, convict-labor on roads in, 380, 381, 382. North Dakota, administration of roads in, 370. Northeast, 226, 228. Northern Maryland, development of, 131. North Mountain, 59, 99. Northwest Territory, 180. " Notch Roads," 120, 121, 339. 0. Oakland, 234, 235. Office of Road Inquiry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 44, 237, 272, 400, 401, 405, 408, 424. Ohio, administration of roads in, 370. Ohio basin, 60. Ohio Company, charter of, 133. Ohio country, exploration of, 133. Ohio country, Washington and the, 178. Ohio river, 60. Oil on roads, use of, 296. Old Choptank Road, 118. 29 Old Frederick Road, 238. Oregon, administration of roads in. 371. Oregon, convict-labor in, 372, 382. Oriskany sandstone as road-mate- rial, 100. Overseers, appointed by County Courts, 121. Oyster-shells for road-material, 104, 202, 203, 204, 205, 222, 226, 230, 241, 246, 249, 250, 254, 255, 276, 292, 293, 294, 329. P. Page, L. W., 324. Page cementation machine, descrip- tion of, 323, 357. Packhorse vs. wagon, 132. Parkinson, R., cited, 159, 160. Parr's Ridge, 55, 56, 57, 69. Pascal, cited, 109. Passenger railways, 434. Passenger railway companies, taxa- tion of, 435. Passenger railways, laws regarding, 341. Patapsco river, 53, 55. Patapsco Road, 131. Patuxent river, 53, 54. 55. Pavements of shells, 204. Peddicord Company, 45. Penal legislation and the roads, 154. Pennsylvania, administration of roads in, 372. Peridotite, as road-material, 84, 327. Permanent tenure of office and per- sonal responsibility, 419. Perry, John, " the post," salary of, 119. Perryville, 228. Philadelphia Post-road, convict labor on, 155. Phyllite as road-material, 93. Physical tests of road-materials, 32, 320, 322, 324, 325, 327-329. Piedmont Plateau, 31, 50, 51, 54, 82, 86, 90, 193. Piedmont Plateau, eastern division of, 55. Piedmont Plateau, granites of, 88. Pine Orchard, diabase dike near, 239. Pinkerton, cited, 110. Pitt, Wm., cited, 139. 454 INDEX -, cited, 177. Pitkin, - Pittsburg, 133. Plats and estimates, 45. Plats and records, 434. Ploughing roadway, 198. Pocono sandstone as road-material, 100. Point Lookout, 247. Point of Rocks, 58. Port Deposit, 50, 228. Port Deposit, gabbro near, 227. Port Deposit, quarry at, 89. Port Tobacco, 228. Post-road, early, 129. Post-roads, legislation on, 142. Potomac Company, incorporation of, 179. Potomac gravels as road-materials, 101. Potomac, North Branch of, 60. Pocomoke river, 52, 53, 54, 57, 59, 60, 86, 234. Potter, Isaac B., cited, 401. Pottsville conglomerate as road- material, 100. Practical physical tests, 32. Precipitation, 66, 69, 73, 74. Precipitation, normal for the several districts (diagram), 71. Preface, 23. Present condition of Maryland high- ways, 187, 189. Present condition of highways in counties, summary of, 256. Pressure areas, 64. Prevailing winds, 75. Prices affected by the roads, 411. Princess Anne, 203. Prince George's county, 52, 244. Prince George's county, establish- ment of, 126. Prince George's county, cost of roads and bridges in, 245. Prince George's county, County Commissioners of, 245. Prince George's county, gravels in, 101, 102. Prince George's county, highway conditions in, 244. Prince George's county, level of, 193. Prince George's county, precipita- tion in, 69. Prince George's county, roads of, 202. Private roads, 334. Private roads, laws relating to, 155. Private roads, width of, 334. Private turnpike companies, incor- poration of, 166. Proposed legislation, 46. Prosser, Chas. S., 7, 31, 32. Providence, road to, 227. Prussia, administration of roads in, 389. Pyroxenite as road-material, 84, 328. Q. Quartzite, as road-material, 90, 95, 328. Quartz-schist, as road-material, 90, 328. Queen Anne's county, 51, 246. Queen Anne's county, cost of roads and bridges in, 247. Queen Anne's county, highway con- ditions in, 246. Queen Anne's county, marls of, 163. B. Rains, effect of, on roads, 76, 80, 318. Rainfall in Allegany county, 69. Rainfall in Washington county, 69. Rainfalls, greatest and least total monthly, 73. Railroads, 398, 416. Railroad, first in United States, 177. Railroad, Baltimore and Ohio, in- corporated, 177. Railroad and canal, rise of, 177. Records of early Baltimore county roads, 116. Records of early Calvert county roads, 115. Records of early Charles county roads, 115. Records of early St. Mary's county roads, 115. Reduction of grades, 201. Reid, Harry Fielding, 7, 25, 30, 31, 32, 43, 211, 315, 317, 331, 333, 395, 397. Relation between length of haul and grade, 270. Relations between road, grade, and surface, table showing, 260. INDKX 455 Reisterstown, 224. Reisterstown Turnpike Road, 166, 169, 170, 173, 174, 176, 439. Reisterstown Road, report on in 1807, 170. Relay, 55. Relation of Maryland topography, climate and geology to highway- construcMon 47 49 Repairs, annual cost of, to wagons, 406. Repairs of roads, best methods of, 289. Reports on roads, 399. Rhode Island, administration of roads in, 374. Richardson (Ed.), cited, 185. Rights-of-way, 334. Rising Sun, 228. Roads, constant care of, 420. Road, crown of, 284. Road, depressions in, 278. Roads, administration of, in Europe, 383. Roads, administration of, in Mary- land, 331, 333. Roads, administration of, in other states, 343. Roads, advantages of good, 395, 397. Roads, " ascertained," 122. Roads, bad, special losses due to, 411. Roads, best method of repair, 289. Roads, burnt clay used on surface of, 277, 295. Roads, classification of, 342, 420. Roads, construction and repair of, 263, 265. Roads, construction of sample, 44. Roads, construction of shell, 292. Roads, cost of in Allegany county, 216. Roads, cost of in Anne Arundel county, 217. Roads, cost of in Baltimore county, 220. Roads, cost of in Calvert county, 221. Roads, cost of in Caroline county, 223. Roads, cost of in Carroll county, 225. Roads, cost of in Cecil county, 227. Roads, cost of in Charles county, 229. Roads, cost of in Dorchester county, 230. Roads, cost of in Frederick county, 233. Roads, cost of in Garrett county, 235. Roads, cost of in Harford county, 238. Roads, cost of in Howard county, 240. Roads, cost of in Kent county, 241. Roads, cost of in Montgomery county, 244. Roads, cost of in Prince George's county, 245. Roads, cost of in Queen Anne's county, 247. Roads, cost of in St. Mary's county, 248. Roads, cost of in Somerset county, 249. Roads, cost of in Talbot county, 251. Roads, cost of in Washington county, 254. Roads, cost of in Wicomico county, 255. Roads, cost of in Worcester county, 256. Roads, described by early traveler, 160, 161. Roads, description of construction of stone, 279. Roads, designation of, 342. Roads, dirt, 197. Roads, drainage of, 271. Roads, general effect of the climate on, 76. Roads, grading of, 268. Roads, gravel, 202. Roads, gravel, construction of, 291, 292. Roads, indirect benefits due to good, 412. Roads, laws relating to private, 155. Roads, location of, 265. Roads, maintenance of, 289. Roads, management of, 416. Roads in Maryland, annual cost of, 429. Roads in Maryland, prospective cost of, 427. 456 INDEX Roads, opening and closing of, laws regarding, 333. Roads, oyster-shells as surfacing for, 276. Roads, preparation of foundation, 276. Roads, relation of good, to civiliza- tion, 398. Roads, relocation of, 266, 432. Roads, rolling of, 282. Roads, saving due to good, 410. Roads, saving in maintenance of, 270. Roads, shell, 104, 191, 202-206, 219, 222, 230, 241, 246, 249, 250, 254. Roads, slag used as surfacing of, 276. Roads, stone, 199. Roads in United States, manage- ment of, 417. Roads, use of oil on, 296. Roads, value of good, in foreign countries, 399. Roads, wear of, 317. Roads,' width of, 334, 341, 433. Road-bed, 80. Road-bed, below level, 194. Road-bed, rolling of, 278. Road Commissioners, 335. Road-construction, tools and ma- chines for, 301. Road-graders, use of, 302. Road-improvement, cost of, 428. Road-improvement, some sugges- tions regarding, 432. Road-law, first of Maryland, 112. Road-law, first under state govern- ment, 153. Road-laws of early days, 140. Road-League, 30. Road-League of Bel Air, 237. Road League of Churchville, 237. Road-Leagues of Harford county, 237. Road-machines, use of, 302. Road-machinery, 258. Road-maps, description of, 222, 300, 341. Road-maps, early, 156. Road-material, 82. Road-materials, information regard- ing, 426. Road-materials, location of, 294. Road-materials, location of roads near good, 267. Road-materials, platting of, 31. Road-metals, abrasion test of, 320. Road-metals, cementation of, 322. Road-metals, chemical decomposi- tion of, 318. Road-metals, crushing test of, 322. Road-metals, forces to be withstood by, 317. Road-metals, methods of testing, 319. Road-metals, microscopic test of, 319. Road-metal, natural forces to be withstood by, 318. Road-metals, proper choice of, 427. Road-metals, qualities of good, and the methods of testing them, 315, 317. Road-metals, selection of, 326. Road-metals, table of tests of, 325, 327, 328, 329. Road-records, 341. Road-repairs and drainage, 338. Road-rollers, described, 309. Road-supervisors, 335, 336. Road-system, annual cost of present, 428. Road-system of the state, table of, 260. Road-tax, reduction in, 429. Road-taxes, 335. Robin, Abbe, quoted, 157. Rockville, 200. Rockville, rebuilding of turnpike at, 242. Rogers, W. D., quoted, 59. Roman roads, thickness of stone of, 284. Rollers, road, described, 258, 309, 431. Rolling broken stone, object of, 280, 282, 283. " Rolling Roads," 123. Rolling road-bed, 278, 282. Rush, 215. S. St. George's river [St. Mary's], 111. St. Mary's county, 52, 247. St. Mary's county, early records of roads in, 115. INDEX 457 St. Mary's county, elevation in, 53, 193. St. Mary's county, highway condi- tions in, 247. St. Mary's county, marls in, 103. St. Mary's county, precipitation in, 69. St. Mary's county, cost of roads and bridges in, 248. St. Mary's county, County Commis- sioners of, 248. St. Michael's, 250. Salina limestone as road-material, 97, 98. Salisbury, roads near, 204, 254. Sample road construction, 44. Sams, Con way "W., 30. Sands as road-materials, 103. Sandstones, 99, 329. Sang Run, limestone at, 235. Saulsbury, M. L., map by, 222. Savage Mountain, 60. Savage River, 61. " Saxifrax " River," 114. Saxony, administration of roads in, 384. Saxony, toll-roads abolished in, 437. Schloer, F. H., 7. Scientific Staff, 7 Schulz, , 127, 132. Scotland, value of good roads in, 399. Screens, automatic, 306. Searight, T. B., 184. Separate legislation, reaction to- ward, 150. Serpentine, 84, 327. Setter's Ridge, 90. Shaler, N. S., cited, 26, 76, 82. Shales, as road-material, 100. Shattuck, G. B., 7, 31, 32. Sharpe, Governor, 135, 136, 137. Sharpsburg, 252. Shawanese Old Town, 133. Shell roads, 104, 191, 202-206, 219, 222, 230, 241, 246, 249, 250, 254. Shell roads, construction of, 292. Shell road at Chase, 219. Shell road at Denton, 222. Shells as pavement, 204. Shells, wearing quality of, 205, 329. Shenandoah limestone, as road- material, 93, 97, 329. Sign-boards, 434. Sign-boards, destruction of, 340. Side-ditches, grading of, 275. Side-drains, " blind," 275. Side-drain, description of, 272, 274. Sideling Hill, 59. Silver Hill, 244. Silvester, R. W., 5. Singerly, Wm. L., road made by, 227. Sioussat, St. George Leakin, 7, 24, 107, 109. Skipton, 250. Slag, as a road-material, 105, 329. Slag-roads, construction of, 294. Slag from Sparrow's Point, 220. Slag, use of for surfacing of roads, 276. Slate rocks, as road-materials, 93. Smith, Adam, cited, 397, 437. Smith, John, cited, 110. Snow, average depth of, in inches, 74. Soldier's Delight, 85. Somerset county, 51, 249. Somerset county, cost of roads and bridges in, 249. Somerset county, County Commis- sioners of, 24y. Somerset county, early road-tax of, 149. Somerset county, highway condi- tions in, 249. Somerset county, law regarding drainage, 339. South Carolina, administration of roads in, 375. South Dakota, administration of roads in, 375. South Mountain, 58. Southern Maryland, surface of, 193. Sparks, Jared, cited, 175, 179. Sparrow's Point, slag road at, 295. Sparrow's Point, slag from, 220. Special losses due to bad roads, 411. Specific estimate, 408. Specifications for highways, 45. Specifications and plans, 33. Spendelow, Lieut., road of, 137. " Spesutie Hundred," overseers of, presented, 116. Stage, description of early, 158. Stage-lines and stages, 157. Stamp Act, 138. Standard of excellence, 419, 421, 427. 458 INDEX State aid in road-construction, 345, 346, 354, 362, 363, 367, 422, 423, 428. State aid, objections to, 423. State Highway Commission, advan- tages of, 426. State highways, general considera- tions regarding the importance of, 413. State roads, advantages of, 440. State Road Convention, 30. Steam-rollers in Massachusetts, 431. Stewart, Andrew, cited, 179. Stone broken, table of quantity of, 308. Stone, cost of crushing, 306. Stone-crusher, portable, 304. Stone-crusher, rotary, 305. Stone-crushers, use of, 303. Stone roads, 191, 199, 279. Stone, Richard, cited, 186. Stone, Roy, cited, 211, 408, 424. Stony Forest, 83. Stuyvesant, Peter, 113. Sugar Loaf Mountain, 56, 57, 90. Summary of present condition of highways in Maryland, 256. Supervisors, instructions to, 196. Surface of the country traversed by highways, 192. Surfacing, 276. Surfacing, burnt clay for, 277, 295. Surfacing, oyster-shells for, 276. Surfacing, slag used for, 276. Summary of highway conditions in the counties, 256. Sunnyside, 68. Surveys, 212. Susquehanna river, 53, 55, 83, 226. Sutcliff, R., cited, 159, 160. Swiss government, post-routes of, 412. Switzerland, administration of roads in, 391. Switzerland, load per horse, 405. Switzerland, roads of, 244. T. Table of French roads, 385. Table of distances (1729), 130. Table of distances (1733), 131. Table showing average depth of road in inches, 74. Table showing average hauling dis- tance in the counties, 208. Table showing the average maxi- mum hauling distance, 209. Table showing average monthly, daily, and hourly wind move- ment at Baltimore, 75. Table showing the amounts levied by the counties for roads and bridges for the ten years 1889- 1898 inclusive, 259. Tables showing amounts spent on roads and bridges, see each county. Table showing amounts in tons per horse hauled over the roads, 210. Table showing cost and per cent, of whole cost of units of labor and material, 309. Table showing greatest and least total monthly and annual rain- falls, 73. Table showing highest recorded temperatures, 67. Table showing levy of 1794, 149. Table showing lowest recorded tem- peratures, 68. Table showing the mileage of Mary- land roads by counties and types, 191. Table showing normal precipitation for the several districts, 70-71. Table showing prevailing winds, 75. Table showing price paid for labor per day, 308. Table showing public road-system of state, 260. Table showing quantity of stone broken, 308. Table showing relation between length of haul and grade, 270. Table showing relation between road, grade and surface, 269. Table showing result of tests made by Maryland Geological Survey, 325. Table showing results of tests made on road-metals, 327. Takoma Park, 246. Talbot county, 51, 206, 250. Talbot county, cost of roads and bridges in, 250. IKDEX 459 Talbot county, County Commis- sioners of, 251. Talbot county, highway conditions in, 250. Talbot county, marls of, 103. Talbot county, precipitation in, 69. Taneytown, road repairs of, 226. Taxes levied in several counties, 149. Taxes, road, 335. Telford construction, 285. Temperature, 65. Temperature changes, agent of de- struction of roads, 318. Temperatures, highest recorded, 67. Temperatures, lowest recorded, 68. Tenure of office, 419, 421. Tennessee, administration of roads in, 375. Tertiary marl as road-material, 102. Test, abrasion, of road-metals, 320. Test, cementation, of road-metals, 322. Test, crushing, of road-metals, 322. Tests by Maryland Geological Sur- vey, results of, 325. Test, microscopic, of road-metal, 319. Tests, practical physical, 32. Tests on road-metals, table of, 325, 327. Tests, value of, 324, 427. Testing, methods of, good road- metals, 315, 317. Texas, administration of roads in, 376. Texas, convict-labor in, 382. Three Notch Road, 121, 247. Thompson, James, stage-line of, 158. Thurmont, 234, 247. Tile-drain, 273. Timonium Fair, sample road at, 45. Tires, use of wide, in Maryland, 299. Tobacco trade, 131. Tolchester, road near, 240. Toll-bridge, 143. Tolls on bridge in Anne Arundel county, 340. Toll-gates could be removed, 429. Toll-roads, 257, 436, 437. Tonnage hauled annually in Mary- land, 409. Tonoloway Hill, 59. Tools and machinery for road-con- struction, 301. Topography, its relation to road location, 266. Topographic maps, 62. Topography, Maryland, in relation to highway construction, 49. Town Hill, 59. Tracy, Mr., Report of, 182. Transmittal, letter of, 9. Transportation by water, 109. Trap rocks as road-materials, 82. Trappe, marl on road at, 250. Travel, description of early, 159. Travel, methods of, at end of 18th century, 156. Travel, North and South, 128. Travel, pains and pleasures of, 159. Trezzo, Italy, bridge at, 207. Triassic sandstones, 86. Triassic sandstone as road-material, 91. Triassic conglomerate as road-mate- rial, 93. Turnpikes, 118, 155, 162, 167, 169-176, 178, 181, 184, 200, 207, 214, 215, 218, 224, 225, 231, 232, 237, 238, 239, 284, 436, 438, 439. Turnpikes and Baltimore city, 175. Turnpike companies, incorporation of private, 166. Turnpike companies, increase of, 172. Turnpike companies, laws regard- ing, 346. Turnpike companies, in Maryland, 440. Turnpike companies of Maryland, letter to, 40. Turnpikes, cost of hauling on, 438. Turnpikes, cost of in Baltimore county in 1791, 164, 165. Turnpikes, development of, in Mary- land, 162. Turnpikes established, 166, 167. Turnpike, first in United States, 162. Turnpikes, Gallatin's report on, 170. Turnpikes, Governor Goldsborough's report on, 1818, 172, 173. Turnpikes in Baltimore county, 218. Turnpikes in Baltimore county (1787), 163. Turnpikes in Carroll county, 224. Turnpikes in Frederick county, 232. 460 INDEX Turnpikes in Harford county, 237. Turnpikes in Howard county, 239. Turnpikes in Maryland, list of, 261. Turnpikes in Montgomery county, 243. Turnpikes in Washington county, 251. Turnpikes, law to establish, 144. Turnpike legislation, 178. Turnpikes near Frederick, 231. Turnpikes of 1804-5, 166. Turnpikes, regarding bank aid to, 1818, 174. Turnpikes, thickness of stone of, 284. Tuscarora sandstone as road-ma- terial, 99. Twiggtown, 215. Tyler, , quoted, 139. Tyson, M. B., cited, 124, 160. IT. Under-draining, 202. Under-drains, cross-section of, 288. Uniformity, attempts at, 148. Unionville, 234. United Electric Light and Power Company, 326. United Kingdom, administration of roads in, 393. United States Department of Agri- culture, Office of Road Inquiry, 44, 237, 272, 400, 401, 405, 408, 424. United States Geological Survey, 62, 300. Upper Cretaceous marl as road-ma- terial, 102. Upper Marlboro, 246. Utah, administration of roads in, 376. Utie, Col., 113. V. Value of good roads in foreign coun- tries, 399. Van Home, G. P., 157. Vegetation, effect of, on roads, 76, 78. Vermont, administration of roads in, 376. Virginia, 84. Virginia, administration of roads in, 377. Virginia, convict-labor in, 382. Virginia, Governor of, 134. Virgina, road-legislation of, 111. Volcanic rocks as road-materials, 94. W, Wagons, broad tires on, 297. Wagons, early, 132. Waldron, Resolved, 113. Walkersville, 234. Walz, F. J., cited, 63, 75. Warrior Ridge, 59. Washington, administration of roads in state of, 378. Washington, Augustine, 133. Washington and Baltimore road, 244. Washington (city), 50, 85, 102, 200, 202, 244. Washington (city), elevation at, 53. Washington county, 57, 58, 251. Washington county, cost of roads and bridges in, 254. Washington county, County Com- missioners of, 254. Washington county, early road-tax of, 149. Washington county, highway condi- tions in, 251. Washington county, marble in, 97. Washington county, rainfall in, 69. Washington county, sandstone in, 100. Washington county, supervisors of, 196. Washington county, tolls in, 430. Washington county, turnpikes in, 251. Washington, George, 133, 177. Washington's, George, Journal, quoted, 134. Washington, George, and the Ohio country, 178. Washington, Lawrence, 133. Washington Road, 224. Watson's Annals of Phila., cited, 119, 128, 132, 157, 162. Wearing quality of shells, 205, 329. Weld, I., Jr., cited, 160, 161, 162. Westernport, 216. Western Shore, 51. Westminster. 224, 226, 258. Westminster road, repairs of, 226. INDEX 461 Westminster, Taneytown and Em- mitsburg Turnpike Company, 172. " Westward Movement," 125, 126. West Virginia, administration of roads in, 378. Weverton, 58. " Wheelbarrow men," 159. Whittle, C. L., cited, 317. " Wiccocomico River," 112. Wicomico county, 51, 254. Wicomico county, cost of roads and bridges in, 255. Wicomico county, County Commis- sioners of, 255. Wicomico county, highway condi- tions in, 254. Wicomico county, laws regarding the opening and closing of roads in, 334. Wicomico county, precipitation in, 69. Wide tires, 297, 434. Wilhelm, , cited, 126. Wills Creek, the " narrows " of, 61. Wills Mountain, 99, 214. Williams, Eli, 184. Williams, Henry W., chairman, cited, 418. Williams Road, 192, 215. Williamsport turnpike, 253. Williamsport and Hagerstown Turnpike, 175. Winding Ridge, 60. Winds, 74. Winds as agents of destruction of roads, 78, 318. Wind movement, average monthly, daily, and hourly at Baltimore, 75. Winds, prevailing, 75. Wisconsin, administration of roads in, 378. Woodstock, quarry at, 89. Woolsey, Wm., 428. Worcester county, 51, 52, 255. Worcester county, cost of roads and bridges in, 256. Worcester county, County Commis- sioners of, 256. Worcester county, highway condi- tions in, 255. Wye Mills, 246. Wyoming, administration of roads in, 379. Y. Youghiogheny river, 60. 30 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $I.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. JAN 3 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY